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CULTURAL ATTUNEMENT 0F

PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION:

INDIVIDUALIZED-GROUP AND
EXPOSITORY - DISCOVERY DIMENSIONS

Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D.
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
LGIS MCKINNEY
1973

 

            

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ABSTRACT

CULTURAL ATTUNEMENT OF PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION:
INDIVIDUALIZED-GROUP AND EXPOSITORY-
DISCOVERY DIMENSIONS

BY

Lois McKinney

The research explored a series of questions arising
from attempts to attune programmed instruction (PI) to a
Brazilian milieu: (1) whether or not learning occurs
through PI; (2) whether or not increases in cultural
attunement of PI along individualied-group and expository-
discovery dimensions facilitate learning; (3) whether or
not the nature of the learners affects the degree to which
PI facilitates learning; and (4) whether or not certain
dominant characteristics of the learners affect the degree
to which cultural attunements of PI facilitate learning.

The research subjects were 145 youths and adults
(ages 14-75) who reside in the metropolitan area of Sao
Paulo, Brzail. They were voluntary participants in a three-
session course on nutrition. The mean years of schooling
for these subjects was 3.7 years. Eighty-three per cent
of them were employed in manual occupations with low social

status.

Lois McKinney

Two versions of a programmed instruction unit on
basic principles of nutrition were developed for this
research. The versions were varied systematically along
three dimensions of expository-discovery teaching: (1) the
degree of guidance provided, (2) the ruleg or egrule
sequencing of instruction, and (3) the didactic or
Socratic style of instruction.

In addition, instruments were adopted, adapted, or
developed to provide measures of learner characteristics
and measures of learning. Learner characteristics
(independent variables) examined in this research included
literacy skills, modernity, and motivation to learn.
Measures of learning (dependent variables) included content
acquisition, transfer of training, retention of learning,
strategies employed in learning, and affective responses to
instruction.

The research plan called for a 2 x 2 factorial
design with variations of instructional interaction (indi-
vidualized and group conditions) on one dimension, and
variations of program style (expository and discovery
conditions) on the other dimension.

Data were gathered through observation and experi-
mentation at sixteen test sites in the Greater Sao Paulo
area, and examined through analyses of variance and simple
and partial correlational procedures.

Six conclusions were drawn from the findings:

Lois McKinney

PI provides a promising tool for development

education.

While adaptations of PI in the direction of group
methods are not contraindicated, such adaptations
appear to be relatively more productive for less

modern and more motivated learners.

Adaptations of PI in the direction of discovery

methods appear to be beneficial.

Highly literate, highly motivated learners achieve
more through PI than less literate, less motivated
learners, irrespective of cultural adaptations of

the method.

Adaptations of PI in the direction of group and
discovery teaching methods are relatively more
productive for traditional learners than for modern

learners.

Investigations of cultural attunement of instruction
should (a) distinguish between attunement as a
process and attunement as a product; (b) account

for the complexity of factors involved in attuning
teaching to culture; and (c) consider differences

in learners' pedagogical expectations and prefer-
ences growing out of experiences within school and

non-school environments.

CULTURAL ATTUNEMENT OF PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION:
INDIVIDUALIZED-GROUP AND EXPOSITORY-

DISCOVERY DIMENSIONS

BY

Lois McKinney

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

College of Education

1973

To extension students
in Latin America,
with whom and for whom

this research was undertaken.

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AC KNOWLE DGMENT S

The author is grateful to the persons and insti-
tutions who made this research possible.

The chairman of her guidance committee and director
of her dissertation, Ted W. Ward, provided unwavering
support and insightful counselling at every stage of the
research. The other members of her guidance committee,
Cole S. Brembeck, Charles A. Blackman, and William A.
Herzog, Jr., also offered encouragement and helpful
suggestions as the study progressed.

The research was recommended for funding by the
Institute for International Studies in Education and by the
Office of the Dean of International Studies and Programs at
Michigan State University, and financed through a project
award from the Midwest Universities Consortium for Inter-
national Activities (MUCIA). The field sponsorship of the
project was assumed by the Associacao Evangélica Teolégica
para Treinamento por Extensao. In addition, the cooperation
of other institutions in the Sao Paulo area facilitated the
research: the Faculdade Teolégica Batista de Sao Paulo,

the Instituto Biblico Batista de Sao Paulo, the Instituto

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Metodista de Sao Paulo, and the Escola de Alfabetizacao de
Santo Amaro. A sabbatical leave granted by the Conservative
Baptist Foreign Mission Society freed the author to devote
her time to this project.

Richard Sturz assisted the author in establishing
contacts and linkages in the Sao Paulo area, and provided
counsel on a variety of problems encountered during the
field phase of the research. Eleanor D. Schlenker checked
the accuracy of the nutrition information included in the
programmed instruction units. Astrogilda Andrade, Paulo
de Melo, Dina Rizzi and Ana Lauletto helped the author in
the linguistic and cultural adaptation of programmed
instruction units, questionnaires, and tests. Helena A.
Rosa, Artemes M. Fernandes, Waldemur Corréa, Hitoshi
Watanabi, and Carlos Osvaldo Cardoso provided teaching and
research assistance throughout the field phase of the
investigation. J. N. Paternostro directed the adminis-
tration, scoring, and interpretation of intelligence tests.
James D. Maas provided counsel on statistical techniques,
computer programming, and the interpretation of experimental
findings. Ruth Sturz, Fayann Lippincott, and Paula DuChene
assisted in the preparation and production of programmed
instruction units, research instruments, statistical tables,
and the dissertation manuscript. Staff members from the
Institute for International Studies in Education at

Michigan State University-~Wilma Hahn, Margaret Waddell,

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Ruth Hefflebower, and Betty White--helped with adminis-
trative details connected with the research.

In addition, fourteen informants provided cultural
information used in preparing instruments and instructional
materials for second culture use, sixteen coordinators
cared for arrangements at test sites, and 145 students,
through their participation in nutrition classes, provided
the data upon which the findings reported in this disser-
tation are based.

To all these persons and institutions the author
expresses her heartfelt thanks.

Lois McKinney

May 1973

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . .
LIST OF FIGURES. . . . . . . .
Chapter

I. INTRODUCTION . . . .

The Research Problem . . .
The Research Plan . . . .

Applications of Research Findings.

Definitions of Terms . . .

Terminology Related to Culture

Terminology Related to Teaching.

Terminology Related to Research

Personnel . . . . .
Overview of the Dissertation

II. RELEVANT LITERATURE . . . .

Literature Related to Cross-Cultural

Teaching . . . . . .

Burger's Contribution: Ethnopedagogy.

Taba and Elkin's Contribution:

Teaching Strategies . .

Literature Related to Expository

Discovery Teaching . . .

Theoretical Framework . .
Reviews of Literature . .
Methodological Suggestions
Methodological Models . .

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xiii

xvii

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12

13
14

15

15
16

18

20

20
22
24
25

Chapter Page

Literature Related to Instructional

Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Reviews of Literature. . . . . . . 29
Contributions to the Present Research . . 31

The Contribution of Dick . . . . . . 31
The Contribution of Hartley . . . . . 32
Cross-Cultural Contributions. . . . . 34

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
III. THE RESEARCH PLAN . . . . . . . . . . 38
Assumptions Regarding Programmed Instruction. 38
Research Biases . . . . . . . . . . 39

subjects. 0 O O I O O 0 O O O O O 41
Test Sites 0 O O O O O O O O O O O 42

Location of Sites . . . . . . . . . 42
Selection of Sites. . . . . . . . . 44
Arrangements at Sites. . . . . . . . 45
Research Personnel . . . . . . . . . 46
Teacher-Assistants. . . . . . . . . 46
Selection . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Remuneration . . . . . . . . . . 47
Training 0 O O O O O O O O O O 47
Assignment to Sites. . . . . . . . 47
Responsibilities at Sites. . . . . . 48
Supervision at Test Sites. . . . . . 48
Coordinators. . . . . . . . . . . 48
Instruments. . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Questionnaire A. . . . . . . . . . 49
sex I O O O O O O O O O O O O 50

Age 0 O O O I O O I O O O O 50
Years of Schooling . . . . . . . . 50
Type of School Experience. . . . . . 50
Occupation. . . . . . . . . . . 51
Previous Residence . . . . . . . 53

Stability of Residence in Sao Paulo . . 54
Religion and Church Attendance . . . . 54

vii

Chapter Page
Questionnaire B . . . . . . . . . 54
Questionnaire C . . . . . . . . . 55
Otis Mental Ability Test (Beta Level,

Short Form). . . . . . . . . . 56
Exercise 1. . . . . . . . . . . 57
Exercise 2. . . . . . . . . . . 58
Planejando Uma Dieta: Written Pretest-

Posttest-Delayed Posttest . . . . . 58
Oral Pretest-Posttest-Delayed Posttest . 59
Programmed Instruction Manuals . . . . 60
Attendance Form . . . . . . . . . 6O
Instrument for Choosing PI or a Story

Method . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Session Observation Form . . . . . . 61

The Nutrition Unit. . . . . . . . . 62
Selection of a Programmed Instruction

unit 0 O O O O O O O I I I O 62
Characteristics of the Two Versions of

the Programmed Instruction Unit . . . 64

The Degree of Guidance . . . . . . 64

The Sequence of Instruction . . . . 64

The Didactic-Socratic Dimension . . . 64
Procedures in Writing the Programmed

Instruction Unit . . . . . . . . 66
Cooperation in Writing the PI Unit. . . 68
Empirical Testing of Programmed Lessons . 68

Individual Testing . . . . . . . 68

Group Testing . . . . . . . . . 69
Production of the PI Unit. . . . . . 69

Measures of Learner Characteristics
(Independent Variables) . . . . . . 69
Literacy Skills . . . . . . . . . 7O
Modernity . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Motivation to Learn. . . . . . . . 71
Measures of Learning (Dependent Variables). 71
Measures of Achievement of Information
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . 71

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Chapter Page

Acquisition of Content . . . . . . 72
Transfer of Training. . . . . . . 72
Retention of Learning . . . . . . 73

Measures of Strategies Employed in

Learning. . . . . . . . . . . 73
Measures of Affective Responses Toward
Instruction. . . . . . . . . . 75
The Research Design . . . . . . . . 75
Program Style . . . . . . . . . 76
Instructional Interaction . . . . . 77
Treatments 0 O O O O O O O O O 78
Questions and Hypotheses. . . . . . . 78
The Questions. . . . . . . . . . 78
The Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . 79
Rationale for Hypotheses . . . . . . 83
Randomization Procedures. . . . . . . 89
Data Gathering Procedures . . . . . . 90
First Session. . . . . . . . . . 90
Second Session . . . . . . . . . 92
Third Session. . . . . . . . . . 93
Precautions . . . . . . . . . . 94
Procedures for Data Analysis . . . . . 96
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
31". ANALYSES OF DATA . . . . . . . . . . 101
Decisions. . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Statistical Techniques. . . . . . . 101
Level of Significance . . . . . . . 102
Data to be Reported. . . . . . . . 103
Findings 0 O O O O O I O O O O O 108
Hypothesis 1 . . . . . . . . . . 108
Hypothesis 2 . . . . . . . . . . 109
Hypothesis 2a . . . . . . . . . 109
Hypothesis 2b . . . . . . . . . 115

ix

Chapter Page

Hypothesis 3 . . . . . . . . 120
Hypothesis 4 . . . . . . . . . . 125
Hypothesis 5 . . . . . . . 132
Hypothesis 6 . . . . . . . 138
Hypothesis 6a . . . . . . . . . 138
Hypothesis 6b . . . . . . . . . 145
Hypothesis 7 . . . . . . . . . . 152
Hypothesis 7a . . . . . . . . . 152
Hypothesis 7b . . . . . . . . . 158
Hypothesis 8 . . . . . . . . . . 163
Hypothesis 8a . . . . . . . . . 164
Hypothesis 8b . . . . . . . . . 170
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
'V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. . . . . . . . 193
Summary of the Investigation . . . . . 193
Discussion: Experimental Findings . . . 197
Hypothesis 1 . . . . . . . . . . 197
Hypothesis 2a. . . . . . . . . . 198
Hypothesis 2b. . . . . . . . . 199
HypotheSiS 3 O O O O O O O O O 200
Hypothesis 4 . . . . . . . . . . 201
Hypothesis 5 . . . . . . . . . . 203
Hypothesis 6a. . . . . . . . . . 204
HypotheSis 6b 0 O O O O O O O O O 204
Hypothesis 7a. . . . . . . . . . 205
Hypothesis 7b. . . . . . . . . . 205
Hypothesis 8a. . . . . . . . . . 206
Hypothesis 8b. . . . . . . . . . 207
Discussion: Participant Observation. . . 209
Observations of Settings . . . 209
Observations on Composition of Intact
Groups . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Observation on Time. . . . . . . . 211
Observations of Student Responses to
Nutrition Information . . . . . . 211
Observations of Cognitive Behaviors . . 212
Observations of Affective Responses . . 213

 

 

 

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Observations of Psychomotor Skills . . . 214
Observations of Student Adaptations
to PI I O I O I O O O O I O O 214

Observations of Responses to
Individualized-Group Methods . . . . 215

Observations of Responses to Expository-
Discovery Methods . . . . . . . . 217

Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . 218
Implications for Further Research . . . . 223
Replications . . . . . . . . . . 223
Studies of Cognitive Processes . . . . 224
Development of Appropriate Statistical
Techniques . . . . . 225

Studies of Modernity and the Effects
of Schooling. . . . . . . . . . 225

Implications for Teaching. . . . . . . 226
Implications for Programmed Instruction . 226
Implications for Discovery Teaching. . . 227
Implications for Group Interaction in PI . 227
Implications for Cross-Cultural
TeaChing O O O O O O O O O I O 228
LIST OF REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . 23o
APPENDICES
Appendix
.Zk. Description of Test Sites. . . . . . . . 236

353» Publicity and Information Used in Arranging
Test Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

Student Record Book. . . . . . . . . . 242

(Z:

13’ Exercises and Tests. . . . . . . . . . 265

15:«- Session Observation Form . . . . . . . . 268
15'

-’ The Programmed Nutrition Unit: Expository
Version . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274

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Chapter Page

G. The Programmed Nutrition Unit: Discovery
verSion O O O O O O O O O O 0 O 0 276

H. A Comparison of Teaching Methods in the Two
Programmed Nutrition Units. . . . . . . 278

I. A Comparison of the Reading Difficulty of
Two Programmed Nutrition Units . . . . . 282

J. Certificate Granted for Completion
of Course . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

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Thable

1.

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Description of Subjects (Based on 145

Complete Cases) . . . . . . . . . . 43
Analyses of Variance of Over—A11 Means on

Selected Pretest-Posttest-Delayed

Posttest Measures . . . . . . . . . 109
Analyses of Variance of Group Means on Scores

on Measures of Content Acquisition, Transfer

of Training, and Retention of Learning for

Individualized (Ind) and Group (Grp)

Treatments. . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Analyses of Variance of Group Means on Scores

on Measures of Strategies Employed for

Individualized (Ind) and Group (Grp)

Treatments. . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Analyses of Variance of Group Means on Scores

on Measures of Affective Responses for

Individualized (Ind) and Group (Grp)

Treatments. 0 O O O O O O O O O O 112
Analyses of Variance of Group Means on Scores

on Measures of Content Acquisition, Transfer

of Training, and Retention of Learning for

Expository (Exp) and Discovery (Dis)

Treatments. . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Analyses of Variance of Group Means on Scores

on Measures of Strategies Employed for

Expository (Exp) and Discovery (Dis)

Treatments. 0 I O O O O O I O O O 117
Analyses of Variance of Group Means on Scores

on Measures of Affective Responses for

Expository (Exp) and Discovery (Dis)

Treatments. . . . . . . . . . . . 118

xiii

Table Page

9. Simple Correlations of Literacy Skills With
Measures of Acquisition of Content, Transfer
of Training, and Retention of Learning, From
Individual Case Data . . . . . . . . 121

10. Simple Correlations of Literacy Skills With
Strategies Employed in Learning, From
Individual Case Data . . . . . . . . 122

.11” Simple Correlations of Literacy Skills With
Affective Measures, From Individual Case
Data 0 O O O O O O O I O O O O 123

1.2. Zero-Order and First-Order Partial Correlations
of Modernity Measures With Measures of
Acquisition of Content, Transfer of Training,
and Retention of Learning, From Individual
Case Data. . . . . . . . . . . . 127

1.23. Zero-Order and First-Order Partial Correlations
of Modernity Measures With Strategies
Employed in Learning, From Individual Case
Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

31.4. Zero-Order and First-Order Partial Correlations
of Modernity Measures With Affective
Measures, From Individual Case Data . . . 130

. Zero-Order and First-Order Partial Correlations
of Motivational Factors With Measures of
Acquisition of Content, Transfer of Training,
and Retention of Learning, From Individual
Case Data. . . . . . . . . . . . 133

16. Zero-Order and First-Order Partial Correlations
of Motivational Factors With Strategies
Employed in Learning, From Individual Case
Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

. Zero-Order and First-Order Partial Correlations
of Motivational Factors With Affective
Measures, From Individual Case Data . . . 135

JL‘E3'- Analyses of Interactions Between Literacy
Skills and Individualized (Ind) and Group
(Grp) Treatments for Group Means on Measures
of Acquisition of Content, Transfer of
Training, and Retention of Learning . . . 139

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Table

19.

20.

221.

25

Page

Analyses of Interactions Between Literacy
Skills and Individualized (Ind) and Group
(Grp) Treatments for Group Means on
Measures of Strategies Employed in Learning . 140

Analyses of Interactions Between Literacy
Skills and Individualized (Ind) and Group
(Grp) Treatments for Group Means on
Measures of Affective Responses to
Instruction. . . . . . . . . . . . 141

Analyses of Interactions Between Literacy
Skills and Expository (Exp) and Discovery
(Dis) Treatments for Group Means on
Measures of Acquisition of Content, Transfer
of Training, and Retention of Learning. . . 146

Analyses of Interactions Between Literacy
Skills and Expository (Exp) and Discovery
(Dis) Treatments for Group Means on
Measures of Strategies Employed in Learning . 147

Analyses of Interactions Between Literacy
Skills and Expository (Exp) and Discovery
(Dis) Treatments for Group Means on
Measures of Affective Responses to
Instruction. . . . . . . . . . . . 148

Analyses of Interactions Between Modernity and
Individualized (Ind) and Group (Grp)
Treatments for Group Means on Measures of
Acquisition of Content, Transfer of Training,
and Retention of Learning . . . . . . . 153

Analyses of Interactions Between Modernity and
Individualized (Ind) and Group (Grp)
Treatments for Group Means on Measures of
Strategies Employed in Learning . . . . . 154

Analyses of Interactions Between Modernity and
Individualized (Ind) and Group (Grp)
Treatments for Group Means on Measures of
Affective Responses to Instruction . . . . 155

Analyses of Interactions Between Modernity and
Expository (Exp) and Discovery (Dis)
Treatments for Group Means on Measures of
Acqusition of Content, Transfer of Training,
and Retention of Learning . . . . . . . 159

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'Table Page

28. Analyses of Interactions Between Modernity and
Expository (Exp) and Discovery (Dis)
Treatments for Group Means on Measures of
Strategies Employed in Learning . . . . 160

29. Analyses of Interactions Between Modernity and
Expository (Exp) and Discovery (Dis)
Treatments for Group Means on Measures of
Affective Responses to Instruction . . . 161

.30. Analyses of Interactions Between Motivation
and Individualized (Ind) and Group (Grp)
Treatments for Group Means on Measures of
Acquisition of Content, Transfer of
Training, and Retention of Learning. . . 165

£321. Analyses of Interactions Between Motivation
and Individualized (Ind) and Group (Grp)
Treatments for Group Means on Measures of
Strategies Employed in Learning . . . . 166

32. Analyses of Interactions Between Motivation
and Individualized (Ind) and Group (Grp)
Treatments for Group Means on Measures of
Affective Responses to Instruction . . . 167

23:3. Analyses of Interactions Between Motivation
and Expository (Exp) and Discovery (Dis)
Treatments for Group Means on Measures of
Acquisition of Content, Transfer of
Training, and Retention of Learning. . . 171

:344. Analyses of Interactions Between Motivation
and Expository (Exp) and Discovery (Dis)
Treatments for Group Means on Measures of
Strategies Employed in Learning . . . . 172

:3nES. Analyses of Interactions Between Motivation
Expository (Exp) and Discovery (Dis)
Treatments for Group Means on Measures of
Affective Responses to Instruction . . . 173

xvi

Fiigure

1.

LIST OF FIGURES

A Summary of Data Gathering Activities . .

"Assembly Line" Cards Used in Treatment
Sessions (Translation of First Four Cards
From Session 1) . . . . . . . . .

Summary of Variables . . . . . . . .

Measures of Independent Variables. . .

Measures of Dependent Variables

Summary
Summary
Summary
Summary
Summary
Summary
Summary
Summary
Summary
Summary
Summary

Summary

of
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Findings
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Findings
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Findings
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Findings

Related
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Related

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Hypothesis
Hypothesis
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189

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

The diffusion of educational technology during the
past decade has carried programmed instruction (PI) across
national boundaries. "The rapidity of its spread may well
have made P.I. the most swiftly disseminated innovation in
the history of education" (Komoski 1965:l). Educational
journals have reported the use of PI in such diverse areas
of the world as Western Europe, the Soviet bloc, Israel,
the Arab states, West and Central Africa, Japan, India,
Brazil, and the Virgin Islands. Spaulding (1967:1v), in
an introduction to UNESCO's directory of PI activities in
65 countries, calls the international expression of inter-
est in programmed instruction "explosive." Similarly,
Stolurow (1969:1020) comments that

. . . while PI began in the United States, it is

probably enjoying a more flourishing development in
other countries at the present time. They seem to
have taken the results of early work more seriously
than has the United States and have moved more rapidly

toward the institutionalization of instructional

technology within their educational and training
establishments.

Interest in programmed instruction appears to be

esb£>ecially keen in development education. Educators see

 

 

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in PI potential help in solving educational problems
ranging from improving the quantity and quality of
instruction in the face of teacher shortages to providing
busy farmers non-formal instruction in basic skills
(e.g., Thiagarajan 1968). Pilot studies of the feasibility
of programmed instruction are being carried on in India by
AID (Lange and Wedberg 1970). UNESCO has been involved in
a variety of PI projects in Africa, the Middle East, Asia,
and Latin America. The Commission on International
Development (1969:201) has recommended " . . . greater
resources for . . . research and experimentation with new
techniques, including television and programmed learning."
The introduction of a teaching innovation--such as
PI--into the development education arena is an international
effort linking modern teachers and traditional learners.
The modern educator brings his own educational experiences
and expectations to bear upon developmental tasks. In the
process of implementing educational programs, he introduces
educational innovations from modern societies to learners
in more traditional cultures. The innovations thus
introduced are components of the modern instructional
sYstem in which they have evolved. As such, the innovations
are usually attuned to their original milieu. They are
likely to be less attuned to teachers and learners in a
taI'Qet culture. Adaptations of novel methods to the
rece:iving culture will probably be necessary if effective

learrding is to occur.

 

 

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The Research Problem

To date, little has been done to determine the
nature and extent of attunement necessary for effective
learning to take place when a teaching method crosses
cultures. The present research will explore certain
dimensions of the problem of attuning teaching to culture.
Programmed instruction will be both the vehicle for and
the principal area of application of this research.

The research forms a link in a series of investi-
gations being conducted by Ward and others associated with
the learning effectiveness sector of the Non-Formal Edu-
cation Project at Michigan State University. These
inquiries into learning effectiveness seek to gather more
precise information about culture-based variables in
instructional systems which demand modifications of
teaching procedures and transformations of instructional
materials.

This series of investigations is conducted within
a conceptual framework which Burger (1971) has called
"ethnopedagogy." The essence of ethnopedagogical theory
is that demonstrated cultural differences among learners
demand attunements of teaching. These cultural attunements
Of teaching which are likely to contribute to effective
learning must be identified, implemented, and evaluated.

EthHOpedagogical investigations methodically gather data

regalrding learners in target cultures and the milieux in

which these learners function. From these data, incon-
gruities between cultures and teaching are identified, and
suggested modifications in instructional systems are
extrapolated. Hypothetical improvements in instruction
are submitted to empirical testing to determine whether or
not the suggested adaptations of teaching do indeed
increase the effectiveness of learning within the target
culture.

The present research focuses upon two dimensions
of the problem of attuning P1 to learners in a specific
Brazilian milieu: (l) the dimension of instructional
interaction--whether or not group conditions (in contrast
with individualized conditions) of instruction will
facilitate learning through PI; and (2) the dimension of
program style--whether or not the use of a discovery
program style (in contrast with the more common expository
program style) will facilitate learning through PI.

The above dimensions were chosen because (1) they
focus on instructional variables which appear to be
important when cultures are crossed, and (2) the literature
indicates that manipulating these variables may create more
favorable conditions for learning.

In discussing the first of the above dimensions
(the attunement of instructional interaction to cultures)

Burxaer (197l:98,l41) sees individually prescribed in-

Strllction as possibly inappropriate in non-Anglo cultures:

We do not say that it [individually prescribed
instruction] is good or bad for Yankees, but merely
that it does not necessarily fit the far more sociable
patterns that are normal in non-Anglo cultures. . . .
It is Anglo culture that spins off the already asocial
Yankee into a lonely pupil sitting at an isolated
carrel and talking to the lifeless computer. I find
it entirely feasible that the same cybernetic system
could be designed for more communal activity.

Kress (1967:4) concludes from six North American studies of
social interaction and PI that "individual pacing and
privacy may not be essential for effective programmed
learning . . . the results . . . lead to speculations that
social interaction may actually facilitate programmed
learning." Summarizing research carried on in England,
Amaria (1969:103) came to a less guarded conclusion:

. . . The notion of programmed learning as an
exclusively individual process may be abandoned.
Cooperative work has been shown to be fully as effec-
tive as individual work and to take no longer. What-
ever the additional benefits of social interaction may
be, they need not be eschewed if programmed learning is
adopted as a teaching method.

It may well be that the "additional benefits of social
interaction" in non—Anglo cultures are even greater than
those already observed in the United States and England.
At any rate, an investigation of the question of facili-
tating PI in non-Anglo cultures through group interaction
appears to be warranted.

In the area of concern defined by the second

<iimension of the research problem, expository versus
diScovery teaching, anthropologists have noted varying

cultzural patterns. As early as 1938, Fortes (1938:30)

observed that the Tallensi rarely ask questions looking

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for reasons. They demonstrate much more curiosity about
methods than about underlying principles. Hall (1959:53)
considers the extent to which rote learning is used as an
important educational variable among cultures. Bruner
(1971:19) recognizes that discovery methods of teaching
take for granted "middle-class hidden curricula" through
which children learn motivation toward subject matter
expertise and thinking skills necessary to use the mind in
intellectual ways. He admits that these assumptions about
motivation and cognitive skills are questionnable within
certain American sub-cultures. Discovery teaching
assumptions may be even more out of harmony with the
"hidden curricula" of learners in cultures where expository
methods are the teaching norm. An investigation of the
relative effectiveness of cultural adaptations of PI in
expository and discovery directions seems to be both timely

and relevant.

The Research Plan
The present research explores a series of questions

arising from attempts to attune PI to a Brazilian milieu:
(1) whether or not learning occurs through PI; (2)

whether or not increases in the cultural attunement of

PI along two dimensions (instructional interaction and
Program style) facilitate learning; (3) whether or not the
nattnre of Brazilian learners affects the degree to which

PI fascilitates learning; and (4) whether or not certain

 

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dominant characteristics of Brazilian learners affect the
degree to which certain cultural attunements of PI facili-
tate learning.

Eight hypotheses are examined:

H1 Learning occurs through PI in a Brazilian

milieu.

2 PI treatment conditions differ (along dimensions of
cultural attunement) in their relative effective-

ness as facilitators of learning.

H The literacy skills of learners affect the degree
to which PI (under all treatment conditions)

facilitates learning.

H4 The modernity of learners affects the degree to
which PI (under all treatment conditions) facili-

tates learning.

H Motivation to learn affects the degree to which
PI (under all treatment conditions) facilitates

learning.

H Cultural attunements of PI are relatively more
productive for learners with lower literacy skills

than for those with higher literacy skills.

H7 Cultural attunements of PI are relatively more
productive for traditional learners within a given

society than for modern learners.

H8 Cultural attunements of PI are relatively more

productive for less motivated learners than for

more motivated learners.

The design for the research calls for a four-cell
participant-observer demonstration with repeated measures

and four replications. It can be represented symbolically

as follows:

where 0 represents pretesting, posttesting, and delayed
posttesting, X represents treatments, 3 and b represent
treatment conditions along a program style dimension, and
lland 3 represent treatment conditions along an in-
structional interaction dimension. The symbols 31, 32,

El, and bz_indicate combinations of conditions to be
employed in treatments in a 2 x 2 factorial design. Dotted
lines separating treatments indicate that intact groups are

involved. Treatments will be replicated four times, so

that a total of sixteen intact groups will be included in

the study.

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The subjects in the present research are 145 youths
and adults (ages 14-75) who reside in the metropolitan area
of Sao Paulo, Brazil. They are voluntary participants in a
three-session programmed course on nutrition given at
sixteen testing sites throughout Greater Sao Paulo. The
mean years of formal schooling for these subjects is 3.7.
Eighty-three percent of them are employed in manual
occupations with low social status.

Two versions of a programmed nutrition unit have
been developed for this research. The versions are varied
systematically along three dimensions of expository-
discovery teaching described by Shulman (1970): (1) the
degree of guidance provided, (2) the ruleg or egrule
sequencing of instruction, and (3) the didactic or Socratic
Style of instruction.

In addition, instruments have been adopted, adapted,
and developed to provide measures of learner character-
istics (literacy skills, modernity, and motivation to
learn) and to provide measures of learning (acquisition of
content, transfer of training, retention of learning,
strategies employed in learning, and affective responses

toward instruction).
Data are gathered through three visits to each of

sixteen test sites. Analysis procedures call for analyses

CK variance and simple and partial correlations.

 

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10

Applications of Research Findings

This research asks and answers practical questions:
Does PI teach in Brazil? Do cultural attunements of PI
facilitate learning? What learner characteristics seem
most related to effective learning through PI?

Information gleaned through these questions will be
valuable to development educators who teach in milieux
similar to that described in this study. Adaptations of
PI in the direction of cultural attunements should improve
the teaching effectiveness of PI in development efforts
such as extension education and literacy education. The
study also has cost-benefit implications; negative findings
would indicate that current efforts to attune instruction
to cultures may not be worth the time and money.

Another value of this resarch lies in its appli-
cation to American sub-cultures. A macroscopic study
across cultures may enlarge to observable dimensions some
of the specific constants and variables in instruction
which are difficult to see in their microscopic dimensions

within sub-cultures.

The study will hopefully make a contribution to
teaching theory (1) as a cross-cultural validation of
earlier findings in PI research, and (2) as a pilot

cmntribution to ethnopedagogical research on PI.

11

End-products of the research which are potentially
useful in future inquiries include (1) several data-
gathering instruments which have been adopted, adapted, or
developed through field work; (2) a programmed nutrition
unit which has been systematically varied along expository
and discovery dimensions of teaching; and (3) extensive
data which lend themselves to analyses beyond those pro—

jected for the present research.1

Definitions of Terms

Terminology which is used in specialized ways in
this dissertation is defined below.
Terminology Related
to Culture

Ethnopedagogy is the study of teaching in relation
to cultural expectations and needs; it is concerned with
the cross-cultural application of principles of teaching.
Receiving culture, second culture, and target culture are
synonymous terms. They are used in a general sense to
refer to any culture in which instructional procedures or
materials from another culture are introduced. These terms
are also used in a particular sense to refer to the region
of Brazil in which the research field work is conducted.

letural attunement of instruction is the adaptation of

1These data will be made available to subsequent
researchers. through the Institute for International
Studies in Education at Michigan State University.

12

teaching and/or instructional materials to characteristics
of learners within a given culture.
Terminolognyelated
to TeaChing

An instructional system is a network of inter-
related socio-cultural, psychological, value, and communi-
cation factors which interact in the teaching and learning
process; the principle components of an instructional
system are learners, teachers, subject matter, media, and
the milieu. Instructional interaction refers to the
dynamic relationships and actions which are observed among

the components of an instructional system. Bilateral or

 

individualized interaction is a condition in which the
primary learning occurs as the result of an individual
student's interaction with an instructional program.
Multilateral or_group interaction is a teaching condition
in which the primary learning occurs in a milieu which
includes, in addition to the interaction of the student
with the program, significant interaction among peers.
Programmed instruction (PI) broadly defined, is a complex
instructional sub-system involving interaction among
learners, live teachers, the subject matter, the programmed
materials, the presentation devices, and the cultural
ndlieu. Narrowly defined, it is a method of teaching in
vmich information or tasks are presented in sequential
steps requiring active response by the student, and for

‘fluch the student is given immediate feedback adequate for

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13

him to evaluate his own responses. A program or $27
structional program is a unit of study in which PI methods
have been employed. Ruleg instruction proceeds deductively
from rules to examples. Egrule instruction is inductive;
the student is given examples and encouraged to find the
rules himself. Didactic instruction is teaching in which
the student makes smooth progress toward predetermined
objectives through small, carefully sequenced instructional
steps. Socratic instruction creates successive states of
equilibrium and disequilibrium as problems are raised,
tensions created, solutions formed, out of which new

problems are raised. Expository teaching is guided,

deductive, and didactic. Discovery teaching is less
guided, inductive, and Socratic.
Terminolo Related to
Research ersonnel

Teacher-assistants (or teachers) are Brazilian
personnel who share data gathering responsibilities at test
sites with the investigator. Coordinators are leaders in
local community settings who are responsible for matricu-
lating students and caring for physical arrangements at
test sites. Students are the research subjects of this
study. They are voluntary participants in a three-session
course on nutrition. Informants are representative members

cm the target culture who provide one of the sources of

mfltural data used in adapting instruments and programs to

the thinking processes of the learners.

14

Overview of the Dissertation

 

In this chapter, a research problem has been
identified, and a plan for inquiry into the problem has
been introduced. In the remaining chapters, the development
and execution of the research are reported. Literature
which is the most closely related to the present investi-
gation is discussed in Chapter II. The research plan is
outlined in Chapter III. Analyses of data and summaries
of findings are reported in Chapter IV. In the final
chapter, findings are discussed, a summary of the investi-
gation is provided, conclusions are drawn, and implications

for teaching and further research are suggested.

CHAPTER II
RELEVANT LITERATURE

A search for literature related to the cross-
cultural adaptation of programmed instruction (PI) along
expository-discovery and individualized-group dimensions
converges upon three concentrations of research concern:
(1) cross-cultural teaching, (2) expository and discovery
teaching through PI, and (3) instructional interaction in
PI.

Literature Related to Cross-
Cultural Teaching

Literature on cross-cultural teaching is diffused
throughout the behavioral sciences. Implied or eXplicit
principles for adapting teaching to cultures are scattered
across disciplines such as educational anthropology, edu-
cational sociology, educational psychology, social psycho-
logy, cross-cultural communication, and comparative
education. To date, this diverse literature on cross-
cultural teaching has not been collated into a meaningful
whole, nor have specific suggestions for teaching across

cultures been synthesized into principles which would

15

16

apply to a wide range of cross—cultural teaching situations.
Important efforts in the direction of such syntheses and
generalizations have been made by Burger (1971) and Taba
and Elkins (1966). Their conceptual contributions to the
present research are described below.

Burger's Contribution:

Ethnopedagggy_

Burger's contributions to the present research
include (1) the concept of ethnopedagogy, and (2) a method
for adapting teaching to culture. "Ethno-pedagogy," as
Burger (1971:12) defines it, is "the activity of cross-
cultural teaching," or, more specifically, "teaching
techniques when applied across cultures, as from dominant
cultures, such as the Anglo, toward a minority culture,
such as Hispanics in the United States."

Burger has developed a three-step methodology for
adapting teaching to culture: (1) identifying ethnic
variables, (2) recognizing specific problems which are
likely to occur in cross-cultural encounter because of
cultural differences, and (3) adapting components of
instruction cross-culturally to bring conflicting ethnic
patterns into harmony.

The first step in Burger's method is accomplished
through a careful examination of anthropological literature
as a means of identifying ethnic variables. As examples of
cross-cultural variables identified in ethnological liter-

ature, Burger cites Promethianism (environmental control),

I)

In

17

timing, spacing, sociality (social organization, family and
kinship structures), transitivity (communication), and
ethics.1

Through a second step in adapting teaching to
culture, ethnic variables are analyzed to reveal problems
which are likely to occur when two cultures meet. Burger
gives examples of problems growing out of cultural differ-
ences between teachers and students, between schools and
communities, between interacting ethnic groups, and between
individuals within a culture. He also mentions cultural
differences in individual cognitive development, age roles,
sex roles, and institutional roles.

The final step in Burger's method for adapting
teaching to culture is a three stage operation which
includes (1) deciding what cultural attunements of pedagogy
are needed, (2) implementing these adaptations in laboratory
classrooms, and (3) sharing observations and insights with
educators in the field.

Two examples of the many suggestions and guidelines
Burger (1968:lll,113) has provided will make his approach

clear:

Example 1. Because of strong kinship bonds among

Hispanic children, Burger suggests that the

1Burger has adapted this list of variables from
Inuckhohn and Strodtbeck' s (1961) cross- cultural study of
value orientations.

l8

Anglo teacher allow them to determine their
own seating arrangement in classes and not
expect them to develop age-grade friend-
ships to the same extent that their Anglo

counterparts do.

Example 2. Since the dichotomy of fact and feeling is
not appropriate in Hispanic culture, he
suggests that Anglo instructors combine
cognitive and affective materials in their
teaching. He cites an example in which
Mexican-American students improved their

English by writing poetry.

Burger's work is exploratory and limited in its
scope. A comprehensive taxonomy of ethnopedagogical
variables, as well as instruments for controlled measure-
ments of variables, are lacking. The data are based
largely on within culture observations. Empirical and
comparative studies of cross-cultural teaching are needed.
However, even in its infant stage, and in spite of its
delimited framework, Burger's approach provides a useful

model for cross-cultural research on teaching.

Taba and_§lkins' Contribution:
Teaching Strategies

Taba and Elkins (1966) describe teaching strategies
designed to reach students who are culturally different

from their teachers. Such strategies grow out of a

l9

continual diagnosis of the teaching-learning process. They
are designed to teach cognitive processes (such as how to
abstract and how to categorize) and durable concepts and
ideas (rather than a multiplicity of facts and information).
Diversity among learners is provided for through open-ended
tasks which encourage contributions of differing depth and
content. Motivational devices emphasize tangible, overt,
and immediate rewards.

Taba and Elkins suggest specific methods useful to
cross-cultural teachers, such as play-making, role playing,
interviewing, open-ended discussions, and the use of
literature. They believe that methods such as these are
especially appropriate for students with deficits in skills
such as reading, observation, and empathy.

Taba and Elkins bring a theory of curriculum
development to bear upon problems encountered in a cross-
cultural classroom. Their contributions, and those of
Burger (1971), discussed above, are complementary: Burger
applies ethnology to teaching; Taba and Elkins apply
teaching to culture. Together, their insights provide a
conceptual framework for the attempt made in the present
research to relate knowledge from ethnology and pedagogy
to problems in adapting programmed instruction across

cultures.

20

Literature Related to Expository
and Discovery Teaching

The choice of literature to be reviewed in this
section reflects beliefs that research examining expository-
discovery teaching variables should (1) build upon a
knowledge of current issues in teaching and learning theory
(Shulman 1970), (2) demonstrate an awareness of previous
experimental studies in the field (Wittrock 1966; Tanner
1969b; Hermann 1969), (3) consider methodological sug-
gestions by earlier reviewers and researchers (Cronbach
1966), and (4) build upon specific methodological models
which are likely to be productive (Worthen 1968; Gagné and

Brown 1961).

Theoretical Framework

Shulman (1970) identifies four key theoretical
issues which distinguish educators who advocate discovery
teaching (Bruner 1961) from those who are proponents of
expository teaching (Gagné 1965; Ausubel 1968): (l) the
nature of instructional objectives, (2) the nature of
readiness for instruction, (3) the nature of effective
teaching, and (4) the direction and scope of transfer of
training.

Instructional objectives, for advocates of dis—
covery teaching, emphasize thinking skills, cognitive
strategies, learning styles, and other processes. In

contrast, objectives of instruction formulated by

21

proponents of expository teaching stress either oper—
ationalized terminal behaviors (Gagné) or mastery of
subject matter (Ausubel).

Readiness for instruction, for Bruner, is a stage
of development both within the learner and within the
subject matter. Readiness occurs when the development of
the learner (in terms of Piagetian stages) and the develop-
ment of the subject matter (in terms of enactive-ikonic—
symbolic stages) correspond. Thus Bruner (1960:33) states
that "any subject can be taught in some intellectually
honest form to any child at any stage of development."
Neither Gagné nor Ausubel explain readiness in such onto-
genetic terms. For them, readiness is the presence of
skills or knowledge which are prerequisite to the skills or
subject matter to be learned.

Contrasting teaching methods flow logically from
discovery and expository theories. Shulman (1970:53)
compares discovery teaching to "a roller-coaster ride of
successive disequilibria and equilibria terminating in the
attainment or discovery of a desired cognitive state."
Conversely, expository teaching is described as "a smoothly
guided tour up a carefully constructed hierarchy of
learning tasks" (Shulman 1970:53). In terms of specific
attributes, expository teaching is described as guided,
ruleg, and didactic, whereas discovery teaching is charac-

terized as less guided, egrule, and Socratic.

22

Finally, Shulman compares conceptions of transfer

 

of training in expository and discovery teaching. For
Gagné, transfer is primarily vertical, in an ascending
hierarchy. Elements which are transferred are specifically
similar to those acquired through prior experience. For
Ausubel, transfer of training involves a progressive
differentiation of subject matter. For Bruner (1957),
transfer of training is "to go beyond the information
given" in a broad, lateral application of fundamental

principles and strategies.

Reviews of Literature

Wittrock (1966), Tanner (1969b), and Hermann (1969)
have reviewed research on expository-discovery variables.
Wittrock (1966) evaluates research in which discovery has
been treated as (1) an intervening variable, (2) an inde—
pendent variable, and (3) a dependent variable. He finds
the concept of discovery of little use to researchers who
are studying intervening variables (processes within the
learner, such as unverbalized awareness, motivation, or
verbal mediation). He believes that behavioristic
approaches to this kind of reseach are more effective.
When discovery is treated as an independent variable,
Wittrock considers the research to be somewhat better
controlled, and the possibilities for future investigations
to be more promising; at the present state of knowledge,

any conclusions that can be made about discovery as an

23

independent variable are highly tenuous. Wittrock notes

that little research has been done in which dependent

 

variables--multidimensional measures of learning outcomes,
such as transfer, motivation, and problem solving-—have been
clearly identified, analyzed, and held constant from one
study to another. He considers such research to be sorely
needed.

Tanner (1969b) provides a description of twenty
studies in which teaching has been varied along expository-
discovery dimensions. He summarizes the results of
expository-discovery research as being equivocal or
inconclusive. He suggests several factors which may have
contributed to equivocal findings: (1) poor research
design, (2) lack of agreement on the conceptualization of
discovery and expository variables, and (3) poor control
over crucial design factors, such as the activity or
passivity of students and the duration of treatments. He
proposes (1) that future studies attempt a broader, more
spontaneous, and natural conceptualization of discovery;

(2) that future studies focus more attention on differences
among learners in relation to the effectiveness of dis-
covery approaches; and (3) that such studies be conducted
for longer durations of time to avoid the problems of
unfamiliarity and novelty of discovery methods which often

contaminate short-term experiments.

24

Hermann (1969) attempts a critical analysis of
eighteen recent discovery-expository experiments. The
studies are shown to have produced inconclusive, con-
flicting and often insignificant findings. Hermann
suggests that the uninterpretable results of expository
research are due to (l) poorly defined experimental vari-
ables, (2) weak experimental designs and analyses, and (3)
interaction among treatments and other factors such as age,
intelligence, prior knowledge of subject matter, difficulty
of learning tasks, categories of learning (concepts,
principles, problem solving), subject matter taught,
organization of subject matter, amount and kind of verbal-
ization of principles required, amount and type of guidance,
duration of instruction, and activity or passivity of

students during instruction.

Methodological Suggestions

Predictably, inconclusive findings have served as
a catalyst for suggested improvements in discovery-
expository research methodology. Cronbach (1966) has
offered a series of methodological suggestions. He urges
those who inquire into discovery problems to employ (1)
tasks which are a part of a system of subject matter, (2)
teaching which gives each method an equal opportunity to
demonstrate its effectiveness, (3) time spans long enough
to overcome novelty and/or nonfamiliarity effects, (4)

multidimensional measures of learning outcomes, and (5)

25

analyses which account for individual differences in

response to teaching methods.

Methodological Models

Worthen (1968) is cited by Shulman (1970) as a model
for the kind of research which Cronbach proposes. In the
Worthen study, 538 fifth and sixth graders received
mathematics instruction over a six-week period under normal
classroom conditions. Teachers were trained over a twenty-
week period (1) in the use of text—like instructional
programs which varied in ruleg-egrule sequence character-
istics, and (2) in demonstrating teaching behaviors
associated with discovery and expository methods.2 Each
teacher taught classes under each of the two conditions.
The design included controls of the total teaching time,
the amount of time spent in verbalizing generalizations,
and the degree of teacher compliance with the prescribed
methods. Measures were provided for initial learning,
retention, attitude, transfer of concepts, and transfer of
heuristics. Significant findings favored the discovery
method on measures of retention, measures of transfer of
concepts, and measures of transfer of heuristics. Subjects

taught by the expository method showed higher initial

 

2For example, in the expository method the teacher
acts as if he is the source of knowledge, and in the dis-
covery method he acts as if he expects the student to help
him solve problems.

26

learning scores. There was no significant difference on
attitude measures.

In Spite of its many exemplary qualities, certain
weaknesses are apparent in the Worthen study. One such
weakness, teacher variability, was confirmed through
statistical analyses of interaction effects. Another major
weakness was variability in the rate of instruction; groups
spent unequal amounts of time on individual units of
instruction.

As a means of controlling teaching and content
variability in research on expository-discovery variables,
several investigators have employed programmed instruction
as a teaching medium.3 Gagné and Brown (1961) used PI as
a vehicle for research on the relative effectiveness of
expository and discovery teaching in developing problem
solving ability. The subjects were thirty-three ninth and
tenth grade boys. Three programs were developed to teach
students to state and use formulas for the sums of numbers
in a series. The programs were systematically varied along

ruleg, step-size, and guidance dimensions. One program

(Gagné and Brown called it a "rule and example" program,
though ruleg sequencing was enriched by small step-size and
emphasis on guidance-type instruction) stated the formula

and gave examples of the use of the formula. A "discovery"

 

3Investigations which have used PI in research on
expository-discovery teaching include Gagné and Brown
(1961), Wolfe (1963), Krumboltz and Yabroff (1965), Tanner
(1969a), Koran (1971), and Hermann (1971).

27

program showed examples of uses of the formula, and then
asked the student to tell the instructor what the rule was,
or to look on the next card if he needed another hint. The
third program, called "guided discovery," led the student
through a series of examples to the guided discovery of
principles. When problem solving performance based on con-
ceptual learning was measured, the "guided discovery"
program was found to be most effective, the "rule and
example" program least effective, and the "discovery"
program in between. The differences were significant at
the .05 level.

The Gagné and Brown (1961) research is distinguished
from other research on discovery using PI as a medium in at
least one important respect: expository and discovery
teaching are defined in broader terms. Programmed in-
struction studies of discovery have generally varied
instruction only along a ruleg-egrule dimension; Gagné and
Brown varied ruleg-egrule sequencing, step size, and the
amount of guidance given. The net effect is a program which
reflects an adequate conceptualization of "discovery" and
"expository" teaching, and allows the multiple factors
inherent in such teaching to interact in natural ways.
Gagné and Brown's definition of discovery along multiple
dimensions rather than a single dimension might well
explain why this research is the only research on discovery
using PI as the medium which has resulted in significant

differences on criterion measures.

28

The design of the present research-~along its
discovery-expository dimension--is a mélange of the Worthen
(1968) and Gagné and Brown (1961) models. Like the Worthen
study, the present research (1) takes place in a natural
teaching environment, (2) employes school subject matter as
the content, (3) carefully trains teacher-assistants, and
(4) provides for multiple measures of learning. Like the
Gagné and Brown study, the present research (1) uses PI as
the medium of instruction; (2) defines programmed discovery
and exposition in multidimensional terms; and (3) employs a
mastery model in which problem solving is based on pre-
requisite concepts, and in which time (rather than content)
is varied.

Literature Related to
Instructional Interaction

When programmed instruction (PI) began to make an
impact on the educational world more than a decade ago,
self-pacing and individualization were considered to be
essential and advantageous components of the method.
Skinner (1961:387, 388), for example, believed that

Holding students together for instructional purposes

in a class is probably the greatest source of inef—
ficiency in education. . . . In trying to teach more
than one student at once we harm both fast and slow
learners . . . machine teaching is unusually efficient
because (the student) is free to move at his natural
rate.

Interestingly (and somewhat surprisingly to pro-

Ponents of self-paced PI) empirical investigations failed

totsupport Skinner's claims. One of the earliest and

29

clearest generalizations to grow out of research on PI was
that ” . . . the experimental literature has not been able
to demonstrate as much advantage for individual pacing as
might be expected" (Schramm 1964:11).

These negative findings were augmented (l) by
reports that some students found PI to be boring (e.g.,
Gagné and Dick 1962), and (2) by a growing body of empirical
evidence that work in small groups offers certain benefits

not available to individuals working alone.4

Reviews of Literature

The possibility of wedding the benefits of PI to
the benefits of social interaction has generated research
interest in both the United States and England. Literature
on social factors in PI has been reviewed by Kress (1967)
and Hartley (1968). Kress (1967) concludes from six
investigations in which programmed instruction has been
administered to interacting groups (1) that individual
pacing and privacy may not be essential to PI; (2) that

social interaction may facilitate learning through PI;

 

4Research findings summarized by Hare (1962:363)
and by Argyle (1969:253-260) show problem-solving groups to
be more effective than individuals (1) in reaching accurate
solutions to problems, (2) in producing new ideas, (3) in
heightening motivation, (4) in encouraging risk taking, and
(5) in inhancing recall of information. Negatively, group
activity (1) takes longer, (2) is not equally effective
with all individuals, and (3) is often hindered by in-
hibiting factors such as status hierarchies or pressures
toward conformity.

30

and (3) that group pacing and group interaction may provide
an answer to complaints that individualized PI is boring,
difficult to administer, and encourages poor work habits
(such as c0pying answers and hurrying).

A comprehensive review of the literature on social
factors in PI has been provided by Hartley (1968). Although
his focus is primarily upon research in Great Britain, most
of the relevant American studies (e.g., Dick 1963a, 1963b:
Crist 1967; Frye 1963) are also included in his report.
Three groups of studies are analyzed: (1) studies which
compare the effectiveness of PI of individuals and of
interacting pairs, (2) studies which compare individually-
paced and group-paced PI, and (3) studies which compare
externally-paced and self-paced PI.

The first group of studies in Hartley's (1968)
review (those comparing PI for individuals and interacting
pairs) are especially relevant to the present research
because (1) the individualized-paired interaction variable
in the above studies is similar to the instructional
interaction variable included in the present study; and
(2) the findings of this precedent research reported by
Hartley provide conclusive evidence that the paired use of
PI does not hinder learning, and may even help students to
learn.

Consistently with the above findings, current

investigations in England (e.g., Amaria et 31. 1969;

31

Hartley and Hogarth 1971) assume the effectiveness of using
PI in pairs, and are exploring means of augmenting the
efficacy of the method through variations such as pairing
by homogeneous or heterogeneous ability.
Contributions to the
Present ResearCh

Dick (l963a,l963b), Hartley (1968), Burger (1971),
Cocoran (1970), and Parry (1965) have made specific con-
tributions to the instructional interaction dimension of
the present research. Dick has provided a methodological
model for studies of interaction in PI. Hartley has
created an awareness of the present state of research on
social factors in PI, and of directions future research
might take. Burger, Corcoran, and Parry have added a cross-
cultural perspective to the study of instructional inter-

action in PI. This literature is discussed below.

The contribution of Dick.--Dick (l963a,l963b) has
investigated the relative effectiveness of individualized
and paired conditions of PI in terms of initial learning
(l963a) and long-term retention (l963b). The subjects were
seventy university students randomly assigned to individual
or paired conditions for a twenty-eight unit (3,500 frame)
programmed course in algebra. A comparison of the indi-
vidual or paired conditions on initial learning measures
revealed no significant difference between the two

treatments. On a retest administered one-year later to

32

80 percent of the subjects, the students who had studied in
pairs achieved retention scores significantly higher than
those of students who had worked alone.

Dick's study has been criticized by others (e.g.,
Hartley and Cook 1967) on several grounds: (1) the
research employs a questionably low (p = .07) level of
significance, (2) the paired students spent significantly
longer on the lessons than students who worked alone, and
(3) 20 percent of the subjects were lost between the
initial test and the retention test. Even those who are
critical of Dick's investigation, however, are quick to
acknowledge its influence on their own research efforts.
Hartley and Cook (1967:168), for example, recognize Dick‘s
study as a prototype which has "a wide influence on English
thought."

Dick's research has contributed to the present
investigation in two important ways: (1) the present
research has adOpted his peer interaction procedures in
which the subjects (a) respond to programmed items inde-
pendently, and (b) check and discuss their work on each
frame with peers before proceeding with the lesson; and
(2) this study has also followed Dick's example in in-

cluding a retention test as a measure of learning.

The contribution of Hartley.--Hartley's (1968)
review of literature on social factors in PI has been

discussed earlier in this chapter. The investigations he

33

reports were conducted with a variety of students studying
different subject matter in varied settings. With no
exceptions, the studies found peer interaction in PI to be
either (1) as effective as, or (2) more effective than
individualized PI. These relatively conclusive findings
have contributed to the decision to extend the present
research on instructional interaction in PI into a natural
setting in which certain features of interaction, such as
group size and group composition, will be allowed to
fluctuate normally. Earlier research has controlled the
size of interacting groups; the present research allows
from two to five peers to work together in the group
condition. Earlier research assigns subjects to pairs
either randomly or by characteristics such as ability; the
present research encourages natural groupings determined

5 (2) order of arrival at

by (1) physical facilities,
treatment sessions, and (3) friendship preferences. The
present state of the art, as Hartley reports it, seems
to warrant extend1ng research on social factors in PI to
the conditions and settings proposed in the present
research. Hopefully, the degree of risk-taking involved

in conducting research under natural rather than laboratory

conditions will be justified through positive findings

 

5The size of the groups varies with (a) the size,
number, and shape of tables available; (b) the size,
number, and shape of rooms available; and (c) the sur-
rounding noise level.

34

generalizable to more situations than similar findings

growing out of controlled experiments.

Cross-cultural contributions.--Burger (1971),
Corcoran (1970), and Parry (1965) have added a cross-
cultural perspective to the study of social factors in PI.

Burger's (1971) conceptual contributions to this
research have been discussed earlier in this chapter. One
of the specific pedagogical prOposals which he offers is
that PI for Latins and Indians be used communally rather
than individually. Burger's intriguing suggestion that
the cultural attunement of PI along an individual-group
dimension may facilitate learning has influenced the
decision to select instructional interaction as one of the
variables to be examined in the present research.

The probable value of attuning PI along an
individualized-group dimension has been corroborated by
Corcoran's (1970) observations of the use of PI in an
elementary school on the Rocky Bay (Montana) Indian
Reservation. Corcoran describes experiences in imple-
menting individualized programmed instruction in this
setting. He considers Indians to be less communally
oriented than Burger does, and finds individualzied PI to
be effective. In the midst of his strong defense of
individualized instruction, however, he makes two obser-
vations which would argue Egg the use of PI in group

settings. First, Corcoran notes that spontaneous

35

"peer-tutor" relationships develop among students when
individualized PI is used. Secondly, Corcoran observes
that the use of individualized PI augments rather than
diminishes the need for supplementary teacher-controlled
group interaction.

The questions which Burger and Corcoran have
raised concerning the possible merits of attuning inter-
action in PI cross-culturally can be answered only through
experimentation. To date, only one empirical investigation
(Parry 1965) has been reported in which instructional
interaction in PI has been studied in a non-Western setting.
Parry's research was conducted in Nigeria. He developed a
flip-chart presentation of a geometry lesson in which PI
was group paced. All students finished a frame before
feedback was given. A control group completed the same
programmed lesson as individualized instruction in book
form. The experiment was repeated in four regions of
Nigeria. Results on learning measures clearly favored the
flip-chart groups.

Parry's investigation is reported informally. Many
of the pertinent details--such as the number of students
involved, the number of schools and classrooms included,
and the results of statistical analyses of data--are not
reported. In spite of inadequate reporting, however, the
study offers some tentative empirical evidence that the

group use of PI may facilitate learning in a non-Western

36

setting. Hopefully, the present research will provide a

useful augmentation of Parry's earlier findings.

Summary

Literature which has made specific contributions to
the present research focuses upon (1) cross-cultural
teaching, (2) expository and discovery teaching through PI,
and (3) instructional interaction in PI.

The diverse literature on cross-cultural teaching
has not been collated into a meaningful whole. Many
reports of studies and development projects relating to
ethnic and cultural problems of teaching are available;
these tend to be case-specific, problem-centered and
largely disarticulate with any larger body of theory.
Important efforts in the direction of syntheses and
generalizations have been made by Burger (197l) and Taba
and Elkins (1966). Burger applies ethnology to teaching;
Taba and Elkins apply teaching to culture. Together, their
efforts provide a rudimentary conceptual framework for the
present research.

Literature related to expository and discovery
teaching contributes to the present research by (1)
identifying key theoretical issues in the expository-
discovery teaching debate (Shulman, 1970), (2) reviewing
research on discovery and expository learning (Wittrock
1966; Tanner 1969b; Hermann 1969), (3) offering methodo-

locial suggestions for this kind of research (Cronbach

37

1966), and (4) providing specific methodological models
for the design of the present research (Worthen, 1968;
Gagné and Brown 1961).

Contributions are also made to the present research
by literature on instructional interaction in PI. Reviews
of this literature have been provided by Kress (1967) and
Hartley (1968). Dick (l963a,l963b) offers a methodological
model for the study of interaction in PI. Burger (1971),
Corcoran (1970), and Parry (1965) add a cross-cultural
perspective to the problems involved in adapting PI along

the individualized-group dimension.

CHAPTER III
THE RESEARCH PLAN

Several assumptions about programmed instruction
(PI) and biases about research on teaching are reflected in
the present research. These assumptions and biases, and
the research plan which has evolved from them, are described

below.
Assumptions Regarding Programmed Instruction

Several assumptions regarding programmed instruction
(PI) are basic to this research: (1) PI, as one of the
more rigorously defined and empirically examined in-
structional methods, is a vehicle for research with broad
implications for teaching and learning; (2) characteristics
of PI, such as its auto-instruction and its use of step-by-
step presentation of content to be mastered, make the
method one of the more promising of the proposed solutions
to certain educational problems in developing countries;
(3) PI, as empirically defined and tested with Western
academic models reflects learning styles observed or

fantasized by technologically advanced, modern societies;

38

39

and (4) though developed within the behaviorist research
tradition, PI is compatible with other theories of learning

such as cybernetics or cognitive development.1

Research Biases

 

The present study reflects certain biases about
research on teaching. One bias is that such research
should be conducted in the field rather than in a controlled
experimental environment. A field-based demonstration is
more vulnerable to rival hypotheses than a similar study
conducted under more controlled conditions. But a reality
setting, allowing as it does for both observations of
unexpected effects and immediate and direct applications of
research findings, provides a better laboratory for
research on teaching than does a laboratory.

A second bias is that research on teaching should

seek a conciliation between holistic and particularistic

 

1The key theoretical issue here is the degree and
kind of learning activity involved in the learning process.
To the behaviorist, PI shapes the learners' behavior in
terms of predetermined objectives as reSponses to the
environmental stimuli (the program) are reinforced through
feedback (e.g., Skinner 1961). To the cybernetician, PI
enables self-monitoring activity as the learner selects and
plans the next steps in his learning on the basis of pro-
grammed feedback from his previous responses (e.g., Smith
and Smith 1966). To the co nitive theorist, the learner
accommodates environmental information from PI into existing
cognitive structures (e.g., Ausubel 1968). In this study
any one of these theoretical positions is assumed to be a
reasonable explanation of learning through PI.

4O

inquiry. Precise data should be searched for through a
focus on specific problems, and interpretable data should
be sought by maintaining a global perspective (Shulman and
Keislar 1966:195-198).

A further bias of the present research is that an
investigator of teaching processes can be efficient as an
experimenter in a participant-observer role. As an experi-
menter, he manipulates independent variables and introduces
careful treatments into the milieu. Through quasi-
experimental techniques more data (and better controls)
result than would come from a purely observational study.
As a participant-observer, the investigator conducts his
research from within the system under study so that some of
his data come from his own interactions with persons under
conditions which he has created. Thus the investigator
leaves room for subjective observation and reporting that
often determines the generalizability of the research. The
investigator's own sensitivities and experiences contribute
to the clarity of the findings and the validity of the
conclusions of the research.2

Another bias of this study is that research on
teaching should be conducted within an intermediate time
frame, long enough to gather several samples of students'

behaviors under varying circumstances, and yet short

 

2Bruyn (1966) describes research through
participant-observation. The above comments reflect his
viewpoint.

41

enough to conform to realistic time and cost limitations.
Research on teaching should provide for repeated and
multiple measures wherever possible, so that strategies,
affective responses, and longer term effects of teaching
can be considered along side the more usual measures of
immediate learnings and content acquisition.

A final bias of the research is that when variations
among learners and settings are largely uncontrolled,
treatments should be replicated in a variety of settings.
Such replications are needed both to disconform rival
hypotheses growing out of individual and group differences

and to inhance the external validity of the study.
Subjects

The subjects in the present study are youths and
adults who reside in the metropolitan area of Sao Paulo,
Brazil. They are voluntary participants in a three-session
course on nutrition given at sixteen testing sites through—
out Greater Sao Paulo.

A total of 191 students matriculated in the course.
Forty-two of these cases are not reported here because they
lack one or more essential parts of the treatment3 (through

absenteeism, failure to complete or turn in home assignments,

 

3The essential aspects of the treatment include two
criterion measures (Exercises 1 and 2), a pretest, an
immediate posttest, a delayed posttest, and four lessons
(a nutrition unit) completed through programmed instruction.

42

late arrival at a session, or inability to keep pace with
the group). Four more cases have been dropped because late
arrival at the first session precluded random assignment of
these individuals to a treatment group. Thus a total of
145 complete cases are reported here.

Table 1 provides a description of the subjects
included in this study. Their ages range from 14 to 75
years. Seventy percent are women. Only 15 percent have
studied beyond primary school. At least half report very
traditional school experiences (such as standing for
recitations). Eighty-three percent are employed in manual
occupations or are from homes where the chief breadwinner
is employed in a manual occupation. Three-fourths of the
subjects resided in urban centers of 10,000 or more when
they were ten years old. Fifty-five percent lived in
states other than Sao Paulo. Forty-two percent of the
subjects have migrated to Sao Paulo within the last nine
years. Seventy-two percent attend church at least once a

week.

Test Sites

 

This research was conducted with intact groups at

sixteen test sites.

Location of Sites
All of the test sites are located within Greater

Sao Paulo. Eight are in the south zone of the city, four

43

Table l.--Description of Subjects (Based on 145 Complete Cases).

 

SEX

AGE

YEARS
OF

SCHOOL

KIND OF
SCHOOLING

OCCUPATION

Men

Women

Minimum

Maximum

Mean

More than

4 Years

Four Years

Less Than

4 Years

Traditional

Transitional

Modern

Non-Manual

Manual

29.7%

70.3%

14 Yrs.

75 Yrs.

31.7 Yrs.

14.5%

44.1%

41.4%

51.0%

12.8%

36.2%

16.6%

83.4%

RESIDENCE WHEN Rural

10 YEARS OLD

STABILITY OF
RESIDENCE IN
sio PAULO

COMMUNITY
PARTICIPATION
(Church

Attendance)

Urban

Sao Paulo
State

Other
States

9 Years
or More

Less Than
9 Years

More Than
Once a Week

Once a Week

Less Than
Once a Week

23.4%

76.6%

45.5%

54.5%

57.6%

42.4%

45.1%

27.1%

27.8%

 

44

are in the west, three are in the north, and one is in the
east. Twelve of the groups are church-related, and four
are in a state-sponsored literacy school. Of the church-
related groups, half are intact, on-going women's organi-
zations which are accustomed to meeting regularly, and
half are ad Egg groups created with volunteers enlisted

through publicity in the local community.4

Selection of Sites

The selection of test sites attempts to avoid both
choosing groups on the basis of maximum convenience, and
choosing groups where linkages are so poor that a dispro—
portionate amount of time, expense, and researcher fatigue
would be involved in achieving the high level of cooperation
necessary for successful data gathering.

An attempt is made, within the context of existing
linkages, to select groups which are as diverse as possible
from each other in terms of geographical area of the city,
SES, religious affiliation, and motives for participation
in the course. The selection of test sites is also
influenced by practical considerations such as the interest
of local leaders, the availability of subjects and co-
ordinators at the locale under consideration, the possi-

bility of coordinating the schedules of teacher—assistants

 

4Appendix A provides additional information on test
sites including dates course was held, location of site,
kind of group involved, treatment given, and teacher-
assistants participating.

45

with the time preferences of the local groups, reasonable
travel time to the sites, and safety of travel for women

investigators and teacher-assistants.

Arrangements at Sites

This phase of the project depends heavily upon good
human relations and the credibility of the investigator with
persons contacted at the test sites. Key persons at each
site need to become sufficiently convinced of the value of
the project to become active recruiters of students for the
cursinho.5 These persons must then be prepared to serve as
coordinators of local arrangements. Often the investigator
or one of the teachers is asked to attend community meetings

to present and publicize plans for the cursinho. Follow-up

 

contacts are usually necessary to verify that arrangements
have been made. An average of five contacts by the in-
vestigator or by a teacher-assistant is necessary at each
of the sixteen sites to complete these initial arrange-

ments.6

 

sCursinho is a diminuative Portuguese form meaning
. fl .
"l1ttle course, and connot1ng both warm acceptance and
short duration.

6Appendix B includes several publicity and infor-
mation pieces which are used in arranging test sites: an
article explaining the purposes and scope of the study to
local leaders ("Respondendo As Suas Perguntas Sdbre O
Estudo Pedagégico Inter-Cultural"), a description of co-
ordinators' responsibilities, and a letter and instruction
sheet for local teachers at a literacy school.

46

Research Personnel

The complexity of the present study requires the
participation of personnel in addition to the principal
investigator. Two categories of personnel, teacher-

assistants and coordinators, are described below.

Teacher-Assistants

The obtrusive effect of a foreign investigator's
presence at test sites is lessened when the leadership is
shared by the investigator and national teachers. Findings
are enriched by the contributions, insights, and awareness
of cultural nuances of these competent national persons.
Their enlightenment of the investigator throughout the
planning, execution and evaluation stages of the research

is a significant part of the investigative process.

Selection.--The three teacher-assistants partici—
pating in this research are students at the Faculdade
Teolégica Batista de Sao Paulo. They have been recommended
by faculty members at this institution as being persons
qualified for a research-assistant role. Each is in the
fourth year of university—level work. Two are men and one
is a woman. Two are education majors; the third is a
theology major who has had three courses in education. Two
have had course work in the scientific method and proba—
bility theory. All are experienced teachers of adults in

non-formal settings.

47

Remuneration.--These teacher-assistants receive
both financial remuneration and course credit in return
for their participation in classroom training sessions and

data gathering activities at test sites.

Training.-—Teacher assistants are trained through
weekly three-hour training sessions, beginning five weeks
before the first data is gathered, and continuing to the
end of field work. Activities during these sessions
include: (1) discussion of relevant research, educational,
and sociological theory; (2) a detailed study of the design
of the research in which they are participating (including
the research problem, hypotheses, assumptions, variables,
instruments, procedures, and analyses of data); (3) practice
in interviewing, administering tests, and other data
gathering procedures; (4) coordination of schedules and
arrangements being made at test sites; (5) evaluation of
field work at test sites; (6) discussion of preliminary
findings and their implications; and (7) discussion of

research problems and decisions.

Assignment to sites.--To avoid systematic variation
of teachers with treatments, assignment of teachers to test
sites is made in such a way that all teachers participate
equally in all treatment conditions. Such assignment is
randomized as far as is practicable. Compromises in the
random assignment of teachers to sites are necessary to

coordinate teacher time schedules with available time

48

schedules at test sites, and to minimize cost and fatigue
factors by assigning teachers to their own area of the city

as often as possible.

Respgnsibilities at sites.-—At least one teacher-
assistant and the investigator share data gathering
activities at each test site. These activities include
distributing and collecting materials, giving initial
instructions in using PI, leading students from one activity
to another, giving oral pretests and posttests, and inter-

viewing.

Supervision at test sites.--The investigator is
present in all sessions at all sites as both a participant
and an observer. Her presence enables certain teacher-
generated errors and fluctuations in procedures to be
observed and corrected, and provides for an on-the-job

extension of classroom training.

Coordinators

The successful execution of the present research
requires a high level of c00peration from leaders in local
community settings. Local coordinators are enlisted at
each test site. The responsibilities of these persons
include: (1) propagandizing the usefulness of the research
to other local leaders; (2) publicizing the nutrition course
to be offered among prospective students; (3) preenrolling

qualified and interested students; (4) caring for physical

49

arrangements at test sites (buildings unlocked, equipment
provided); and (5) helping during the sessions with routine
activities, such as marking attendance and distributing
materials.

One or more meetings are arranged with each
coordinator before the actual data gathering at test sites
in order to explain their responsibilities and to follow-up
arrangements being made. In addition, each coordinator is

supplied with a written list of his responsibilities.7

Instruments

 

The instruments used in this research are reproduced
in this dissertation as Appendices C, D, and E. Prior to
data gathering, the instruments have been field—tested with
sixteen informants similar to the research subjects in age,
school experience, and social status. Modifications have
been made as a result of the preliminary field work. The
final, field—tested versions of the instruments are

described and discussed below.

Questionnaire A
Questionnaire A (Appendix C-3) is designed to
gather data on certain demographic, sociological, and

personal characteristics of learners. It is administered

 

7This description of coordinator responsibilities
appears as Appendix B-2.

50

orally and individually during the second treatment session
by the investigator or a teacher—assistant.

Some of the items in Questionnaire A have been used
in previous investigations in a Brazilian milieu by Herzog
(1970) and Kahl (1968). Other items are developed

specifically for the present research.

Sex.-—Item C-l3 provides a record of the sex of

the interviewee.

Age.-—In Item C-l4, 15 the interviewer record the

interviewee's response to the question, "What is your age?"

Years of schooling.--In Item C—l6, the interviewee's

 

response to the question, "When you quit going to school,

what year were you in?" is recorded.

Type of school experience.--An attempt is made to
determine the type of schooling the interviewee has experi-
enced, along a traditional-modern dimension. Three
questions (Items C-17, C-18, and C-l9) are used: (1) "In
your school(s), did the students sit in rows or circles?"
(2) "Did the students remain seated to answer the teacher's
questions, or did they have to stand up?" (3) "Could the
students move around in the classroom without asking

permission, or did they have to remain seated and quiet?"

51

Occupation.—-Descriptive information regarding the
interviewee's occupation is gathered through the following
questions:

"What is your work?"

"Who is your employer?"

"What do you do in your job?"

"Do you always do this, or do you sometimes do

other things?"

In instances where the subject is unemployed (a
housewife or student, for example), he is asked to name the
principal wage-earner in his household,8 and to describe
the occupation of this person.

The descriptive information gleaned by answers to
the above questions is classified in two ways: (1)
according to major occupational groups, such as pro-
fessional and clerical; and (2) according to the social
grading of occupations within the culture. Both classifi-
cations are used because they yield somewhat different
information. The former categorization separates
occupations into broad fields of employment, such as
services, sales, and production, while the latter classifi—
cation assigns social status to the employment. Both
kinds of information are useful in evaluating differences

among learners on measures of learning.

 

8The question used is, "Quem sustenta a casa?"
("Who sustains the house?").

52

The first classification appears as Item C-20 of
Questionnaire A. Occupations are assigned to one of the
following eight International Standard Classification of
Occupations (International Labour Office 1969) categories:

Professional, Technical, and Related Workers

Administrative and Managerial Workers

Clerical and Related Workers

Sales Workers

Service Workers

Agricultural, Animal Husbandry, and Forestry
Workers, Fishermen and Hunters

Production and Related Workers, Transport Equipment
Operators, and Labourers

Workers not Classifiable by Occupation.

The second classification, appearing as Item C-21
of Questionnaire A, assigns occupations to one of six social
statuses:

Professional and high administrative
Managerial and executive
Higher grade inspectional, supervisory, and other
non-manual
Lower grade inspectional, supervisory and other non-
manual
Skilled manual and routine grades of non-manual
Semi-skilled and unskilled manual
Not classified
The latter classification is based on Hutchinson's (1957)
social grading of thirty common Brazilian occupations.
Many of the occupations reported by subjects in this
research appear in Hutchinson's list, and are graded
accordingly. Occupations not appearing in Hutchinson's
list are assigned by Brazilian raters to the group which

includes the most similar occupations. Inter—rater

reliability is .90.

 

a.-

‘5

‘~

53

Previous residence.——The procedures for gathering

 

and classifying information on previous residence combine
methods used in earlier Brazilian studies by Herzog (1970)

and Kahl (1968). Subjects are asked three questions:

1. "What state did you live in when you were ten
years old?"

2. "Did you live in the interior,9 or in a city?"

3. "What was the name of the place (or city)?"

The urbanity or rurality of the previous residence
(Item C-22) is verified through population statistics for
1971 published by the Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e
Estatistica. The criterion for urbanity is living in a
community of 10,000 or more persons.

The state of previous residence (Item C-23) is coded
by geographical region, according to a classification
system described by Azevedo (1967). The regional classifi-
cation of previous residence enables comparisons of
learners from more developed areas with those from less
developed areas. Since Item C-23 lists the regions of
Brazil in order of their distance from Sao Paulo, a
classification of previous residence in terms of gggf
graphical proximity to Brazil's major metropolis is also

provided.

 

9The "interior" includes largely rural areas which
are geographically remote from major urban centers.

 

..A

u..-

‘I

....

a,_

9C.

‘
§.‘ ‘

‘-

'A
‘4

I.‘
o“:

,
a»

‘II
I-l
I

'v
ID
.

54

Stability of residence in Sao Paulo.--In Item C-26,
the interviewee is asked "How long have you lived here (in
Sao Paulo)?" This information provides a stability of

residence measure.

Religion and church attendance.--The last two items
in Questionnaire A provide information on religion and
church attendance. In Item C-28, the interviewee is asked
how often he attends church. In Item C-29, he is asked to

name his religion .

91—98 t ionnaire B

Questionnaire B (Appendix C-4) attempts to measure
modernity, or a composite of attitudes, beliefs, and
bel'laxriors characteristic of persons in highly urbanized,

industrialized, and literate societies (Smith and Inkeles

1966) ,

After considerable deliberation, an adaptation10 of

the Smith-Inkeles (1966) Minimum Scale of Individual

\

10Three adaptations of the Smith-Inkeles instrument

are made. One item (PS-3), asking for the subject's
Cpl“ion on family planning, is politically and religiously
exPlosive, and cannot be used. It is substituted by a less
controversial item (FS-l) from the long form of the Smith-
Inkeles scale: "What is the ideal number of children for a
man like yourself?" Another substitution is made: Item
RE‘Q-Z ("Do you think a man can be good without having any
rEligion at all?") is substituted by long form item RE-ll
( What is most important in caring for a sick person,
praYer or medical care?"). The latter item is considered
etter attuned to a religiously—oriented society than the
former. A third adjustment of the 'instrument involves
dropping one of the behavior information items (AC-1,2)

9

$1.;

‘3. (1

ll

.-

U]

55

Modernity, Short Forms 5 and 6 has been selected as a
modernity measure in the present research. The primary
reason for the choice is the broad application and good
validation of the instrument.11 Another reason for
selecting the scale is a forced-choice format which

minimizes an acquiescense response set and susceptability

t0 rote response.

Questionnaire C

Questionnaire C (Appendix C—8) is administered
during the last treatment session. The instrument has
three functions: (1) to explore the possibility that
certain rival hypotheses explain a part of the variance on
dependent variable measures, (2) to provide a measure of
mass-media exposure, and (3) to supply a measure of the
student's home study pattern (working alone or with others).

Five items (C-50 to C-54) explore the student's
history of exposure to nutrition information from other
sources during the time period of the study. He is asked
whether or not he heard anything on the radio, saw anything
on television, or read anything in magazines, newspapers,
or books which reminded him of the course. He is also

asked whether or not he conversed with other persons about

 

because similar information has already been provided
through Questionnaire A (Item 28).

11Detailed validity and reliability information for
this instrument is available (Smith and Inkeles 1966).

56

the course, and whether or not he attended other meetings
in which nutrition was discussed. Although the primary
function of items C-SO to C-54 is inquiring into history,
during the study, they also have two secondary functions:
(1) providing a measure of mass-media exposure (to radio,
television, and literature); and (2) providing measure of
affective response to the instruction (the degree of
conversation about the course reported).

Items C-55 and C-56 inquire into the means of
transportation to the class sessions, and the length of
travel time required. Item C-57 explores the possibility
of previous exposure to programmed instruction methodology
on the part of the student. The last item, C-58, is a
dependent variable measure. The student is asked, "When
you did the home assignments, did you work alone or with

other persons?"

Otis Mental Abilit Test
(Beta LevelLSHort Form)
A score on a group intelligence test is one of the

literacy-related measures used in this research.

The Otis test utilized is an equivalent form of
(the Northamerican Beta level test). The test was
validated by the criterion of school success, and
(shows) a high correlation with other tests of general
intelligence. It was chosen (for the present research)
because of (facility of) application (in group settings)
and facility of manual correction. In Brazil, various

'6:

‘U

'35

On

P!-

on

k!‘

'.

I!

I"

1 I,
.‘s‘

II

I

57

forms of the test have been used in educational . . .

and industrial sectors.12
Although the Otis instrument is less precise than most of
the complex and individually administered tests, it affords
a "satisfactory rough classification . . . (which) can be
used with advantage . . . to segregate pupils into rela-
tively homogeneous groups for . . . research purposes"
(Yates 1959:499). For subjects in the present research,
the correlation of the Otis test with years of schooling is
.555; correlations with measures of content acquisition,
transfer of training and retention of learning are in the

.400 range.

Exercise 1

Exercise 1 (Appendix D-2) is a criterion measure
based on the instructional objectives of Lesson 1 in the
nutrition unit. The exercise includes eight sentences,
each of which is completed with the food group to which a
given food belongs. Two examples of sentences from this
exercise are: "Chicken belongs to the group of foods
which bpild." "Pudding belongs to the group of foods with
milk." The student's score is based on the number of

correct answers to the eight items.

 

12Paraphrased from an unpublished report (in
Portuguese) on the intelligence testing phase of this
investigation (Paternostro 1972).

I-
.‘I‘
'1.-

fl 0‘
..L

58

Exercise 2

 

This exercise (Appendix D—3) is a criterion measure,
based on the instructional objectives of Lesson 2 of the
nutrition unit. Students are asked to supply correct

numbers in the following sentence:

"Every day,
adults need to eat:
foods with milk __ times;
foods that build _____ times;
foods that protect _____ times;

foods that give energy times."

The score for this exercise is based on the number of
correct answers to the items.
Planejando Uma Dieta:
written Pretest-Posttest-
DelgyedfPosttest
This problem-solving task, Planning A Diet
(Appendix D-l), is a repeated measure from which several
transfer, retention, and strategy scores are derived.
Students are given a sheet of paper on which is printed a
list of 38 foods and the following instructions:
Here is a list of foods. If you want to have an ade-
quate diet, what foods will you eat tomorrow? You may
make 13 choices from these foods. Write them one by

one in the blank spaces in the order (you choose
them).13 Remember that you want good nutrition.

 

13Portuguese, g3 escolha (of the choice).

sued..-

~«

59

Don't rush. Plan your diet well. When you finish,
take your list to the teacher.14

Qral Pregest-Posttest-
Delayed Posttest

 

Immediately after planning his diet (above) the
student is asked to give reasons for one of his choices.
He is questioned in a private setting. The schedule used
by the interviewer for this oral test is reproduced as
Appendices C-2, C-5, and C-6. The interviewer first
selects a frequently-chosen food which appears on the
interviewee's list. The interviewer then records (in

writing) the interviewee's responses to three questions:

"Can you show me where you wrote (food), please, so

that I can check your choice on this paper?"
"Why did you choose (food)?"
"Are there other reasons why you chose (food)?"

The student's responses to the above questions are classi-
fied into six categories of reasons: pleasure, utility,
habit, common sense, general knowledge, and course
instruction. This classification allows measures of (1)
transfer and retention (through course-based reasons given
on posttests); (2) strategies employed in learning (through
an analysis of tendency to add course—based reasons to

earlier reasons, rather than drOpping older reasons in

 

14Translated from the Portuguese instrument

6O

favor of newer ones), and (3) affective response to
instruction (through pleasure reasons given). The inter-

rater reliability of oral test scores is .82.

Programmed Instruction Manuals

The content, selection, development, and production
of variations of a programmed nutrition unit are described
later in this chapter. An analysis of student responses to
programmed items from these units yields several dependent
variable measures: (1) accuracy of responses; (2) tendency
to copy feedback; (3) stability of responses; (4) complete-
ness of responses; and (5) time required to complete the
lessons. These measures reflect both strategies employed

in learning and affective response to instruction.

Attendance Form

Attendance at three voluntary treatment sessions
provides a measure of affective response to the instruction
and setting. Appendix C-l shows the form used in recording
attendance. Space is provided for marking the student's
presence at sessions, or giving reasons for his absence.
Instrument for Choosing PI or
a StoryfiMethod

Appendix C-7 reproduces the instrument used in
offering the student a choice between PI and a story. In

a private interview setting, the student is shown two

 

61

booklets with identical covers, formats, color, and size.

The interviewer says,
We would like to give you a copy of Lesson 4 so that
you can teach a friend. You may choose between two
styles. One is programmed instruction, just like you
studied in this course. The other says the same
things, but is written like a story. Both of the
books have the same teachings. The only difference
is that one is a story (shows book) and the other is
programmed instruction (shows book) like you just
finished studying. Which of the two would you think
it best to take, the programmed instruction or the
story?

The students' choice of a teaching method is expected to

provide a measure of affective response to the PI

methodology.

Session Observation Form

The Session Observation Form (reproduced as
Appendix E) is completed at each treatment session at each
testing site. The form provides a systematic record of
setting variables: place, date, day of week, time of day,
week of treatment, total attendance, presence of outside
persons, illumination, ventilation, temperature, weather,
physical appearance of classroom, size of classroom,
furnishings available, improvisations necessary, inter-
ruptions, noise, confusion, cooperation of local leaders,
responsibilities of personnel at the site (investigators,
teachers, coordinators), fluctuations in treatment pro-

cedures, and fluctuations in human instrumentation. This

 

15

Translated from the Portuguese instrument.

 

 

62

form is also used for recording other observations,
anecdotes, and critical incidents during treatment
sessions. The insights and understandings gained through
the systematic observations described here contribute to
the interpretation of research findings and to the
examination of certain rival hypotheses which might

explain the variance on dependent variable measures.
The Nutrition Unit

Two variations of a programmed nutrition unit have
been developed for this research. The content and
methodology of the two versions of the unit are outlined
in Appendix H.16 Procedures and processes involved in
preparing the programmed unit are described below.
Selection of a Programmed
Instruction Unit

A programmed instruction unit is needed for this
research which (1) is on a basic level, requiring no more
than second-grade reading skills; (2) is adult in writing
style, physical presentation, and content; (3) has
objectives which are relevant to the cultures of the
subjects; (4) has clearly ordered, logically developed
content; (5) has immediate community and personal utility;

(6) is useful to a wide diversity of persons of both sexes;

 

16The programmed instruction units are available
(in Portuguese) through the Institute for International
Studies in Education, Michigan State University.

 

63

(‘7) comprises a meaningful unit of study three to five

itjxsurs long; and (8) requires no mechanical presentation

<£1<evices.

A search for programmed instruction which meets

‘tzlnese criteria has taken the investigator to the Entelek
(21968) and Hendershot (1964) programmed instruction guides,
‘tzo basic adult education literature and bibliographies of
Immaterials, to literature on PI in developing countries, and

‘t:o interviews with specialists in instructional technology,

iEadult education, and international education. The search

lblas failed to uncover a program which meets most or all of

1t:he above criteria. The two alternatives which seem to be

ialvailable are (l) to choose a programmed unit which is not
ialppropriate to the target groups, and adapt the content

iaLnd objectives; or (2) to choose a course of study which is
leappropriate to the culture, and program it. The second

allternative is followed in this research. A nutrition unit

<ieveloped in Brazil as a cooperative effort involving the

Cruzada ABC, SUDENE, and AID has been selected (Cruzada

ABC 1967).17 This unit has been developed specifically

for literacy efforts, and meets all the criteria above

except the implicit requirement of being programmed.

 

17The Cruzada is a literacy/adult education program
with headquarters in Recife. SUDENE is a federal govern-
ment agency which coordinates a variety of regional
development programs in Northeast Brazil.

 

 

 

64

Characteristics of the Two
‘Ufersions of the Programmed
Instruction Unit

Two programmed versions of a basic nutrition unit
.eare varied systematically along three dimensions of
eexpository-discovery teaching described by Shulman (1970):
(1) the degree of guidance provided, (2) the ruleg or
«egrule sequencing of instruction, and (3) the didactic or

Socratic style of instruction.

The degree of guidance.-—In the expository con-
cdition, the learners' behavior is more controlled, and

(convergent responses are reinforced. In the discovery

(:ondition, the student is given more freedom. Divergent

aresponses are encouraged.

The sequence of instruction.--The expository
Iprogram is more often ruleg, proceeding deductively from
rules to examples. The discovery program is more often

egrule; the student is given examples and encouraged to

find the rules himself.

The didactic-Socratic dimension.--In the discovery
program, a Socratic teaching style creates successive
states of equilibrium and disequilibrium as problems are
raised, tensions created, solutions formed, out of which
new problems are raised. This style is contrasted with
didactic teaching in which the student makes smooth progress

through carefully planned, small instructional steps.

 

 

 

65

At the same time the programs are being varied
.allong the above dimensions, an attempt is made to control

.ELnd equate (1) the content, (2) the meaningfulness, and

(13) the reading difficulty of the two versions.

The content is controlled on all dimensions except

t:he thinking or cognitive behaviors required of the

astudents (the latter vary systematically as the teaching

:styles are varied). The same instructional objectives,

facts, concepts, principles, and illustrations are used in

both versions of the program.

Equal meaningfulness is sought for both versions

(of the unit. Teaching methods which encourage rote learning

iare avoided. Every effort is made to contrast meaningful

(expository teaching with meaningful discovery teaching.
Eqpivalence of reading difficulty between the two

‘versions of the unit is estimated by an analysis of 100-

\Nord passages selected from the beginning, middle, and end

of each programmed lesson. For each passage selected, the

number of sentences and the number of unfamiliar words18

are counted. The results of this analysis for the final

versions of the nutrition unit is shown in Appendix I. In

the twenty-eight passages analyzed (fourteen from each

version), the average number of sentences per 100 words is

 

18Unfamiliar words are defined as those not in-
cluded among the 2,500 most frequently used words in the
Portuguese language. The source for word frequency
information is Brown, Carr, and Shane (1945).

 

66

12.5 for the expository version and 12.8 for the discovery
'xrersion. The overall frequency of unfamiliar words is
]_.6 per 100 words in the expository unit, and 2.5 per
Imumdred words in the discovery unit. Since Portuguese
Jreading difficulty scales are not available, absolute
{grade levels or difficulty levels cannot be determined from
‘this data. On an English-language scale (Spache 1953) the
reading level of the expository program is second grade,
first month, and for the discovery program second grade,
second month. On a Spanish reading difficulty scale
(Spaulding 1956) the expository unit has an overall score
«of 49 and the discovery unit an overall score of 51.
IReadings falling between 40 and 60 on the Spaulding scale
dare considered "very easy, offering maximum comprehension

:for the new reader" (Cruzada ABC 1965: XIe).

Procedures in Writing the
iProgrammed’Instruction Unit

The following methodology has been developed for
writing the expository and discovery versions of the
nutrition unit: (1) using a Gagné-type task analysis
(Gagné 1965:150), behavioral objectives are determined for
the unit, and for each lesson within the unit; (2) from
these objectives, the basic concepts and principles to be
taught are derived; (3) a rough draft of a "free-style"
program is developed, representing a direct route to the
objectives by way of PI, and giving little attention to the

expository or discovery nature of the sequences. (The

 

67

eemphasis here is on capturing a natural teaching style.
‘dPhe stylistic components of instruction tend to become
sstilted in attempts to write on the two extremes); (4) two
r10n-programmed lesson plans are outlined as models of
eexpository and discovery teaching. The question at this
ipoint is, "How would an experienced teacher reach these
goals via the two methods?"; (5) using the expository
lesson plan in [4] as a base, the free-style program is
adjusted in an expository direction [since PI units
developed from task analyses tend to be quite expository
in nature, the adjustment in this direction is minimal];
(6) the teaching methods from the discovery lesson plan
[4, above] are used to adjust the program in a discovery
direction; (7) a systematic analysis of the two versions
of the program is made (a) to determine whether or not the
teaching methods in the two versions do indeed differ in
their degrees of guidance, ruleg or egrule sequencing, and
didactic or Socractic style, and (b) to determine whether
or not the same instructional objectives, principles,
concepts, facts, and illustrations are included in both
programs. The two versions of the unit are cross-
references frame by frame so that subtle similarities
and differences between them can be compared and controlled.
This cross-referencing method of comparison enables
rather precise assessments of the content included and the

pedagogy employed in each version of the unit.

 

68

Cooperation in Writing the
PI Unit

Cooperation is sought in writing the PI unit to
‘xrerify the accuracy of the nutrition information offered,
eand to assist in attunements of the materials to the
ILanguage and culture of the target group. To establish
‘the accuracy of the nutrition information in the unit,

standard current nutrition texts and a professional

nutritionist are consulted. A Brazilian professor of adult

education is helping to maximize the linguistic and
cultural attunement of the materials.

Empirical Testing of
Programmed Lessons

The field testing of the programmed lessons in-

volves two distinct steps: (1) individual testing, and

(2) group testing.

Individual testing.--During the individual phase
of the testing of materials, each programmed lesson is
taught to three or four different informants, one at a
time, in a private, across-the-table setting. The infor—
mants read frames aloud and make overt responses. In-
sights into the thinking processes of the students are
provided through verbal and non-verbal behavioral cues.
The investigator augments the information he gleans by
asking probing questions (such as, "What are you
thinking?"). He makes on-the-spot improvements in the

program while the student is responding by adding written

69

lprompts to the frames, or breaking down the instruction
:into smaller steps. Observations and impressions are both
laand and tape recorded. The resulting information furnishes

‘the basis for the first revision of the lessons.

Group testing.--The revised lessons are tested a
second time under group conditions which simulate as
closely as possible the actual field setting in which they
will be used. Groups of four or five students work alone
or in teams, completing the lessons without teacher help.
An item analysis of each student's response to each frame

supplies the basis for the final revision of the PI

lessons.

Production of the PI Unit

The final version of the programmed unit is
mimeographed, one frame to a page. Large type, ample
spacing, and a careful layout of frames are employed to
maximize readability. Each lesson is collated as a
separate booklet. The format and appearance of the
expository and discovery versions of the lessons are
identical except for the color of the covers.

Measures of Learner Characteristics
(Independent Variables)
Differences among learners in literacy skills,

modernity, and motivation to learn are considered

independent variables in this research. The measures which

are used for each of these variables are described below.

 

 

70

Literacy Skills

Two indicators of probable levels of functional
Zliteracy are employed, years of schooling and scores on a
garoup-form intelligence test.19 The former measure is
toased on student response to a questionnaire item. The
latter is derived from student responses to a Brazilian

adaptation of the Otis Mental Ability Test, Beta Level,

Short Form.

Modernity

Measures of modernity are provided through learners'
responses to items from three questionnaires. Question-
naire A includes items to determine (1) kind of school
experience (along the modern-traditional dimension); (2)
urbanity of previous residence; (3) geographical proximity
of previous residence to Sao Paulo; (4) stability of present
residence; and (5) social status and non-manual or manual
classification of present occupation. Questionnaire B is
an adaptation of the Smith-Inkeles (1966) scale of atti-
tudinal modernity. Although Qnestionnaire C is designed
primarily to disconfirm rival hypotheses growing out of
intra-treatment histories of subjects and settings, three
items from this questionnaire also provide an indication

of differences among learners in mass media exposure.

 

19"Literacy skills" refers, of course, to ability
to read and write. In the present research the term is
operationally defined as years of schooling and intelligence
test scores. This somewhat arbitrary definition is

 

71

.bdotivation to Learn
For reasons discussed earlier in this chapter,
(Sifferences among learners in age, sex, and community
Eparticipation are expected to influence motivation to
ILearn, and, consequently, to affect gain scores on
(dependent variable measures. Measures of these variables
are provided through items in Questionnaires A and C.
Measures of Learning
(Dependent Variables)
The present research makes use of multiple measures
of learning in three domains: (1) achievement of infor-
mational objectives, (2) strategies employed in achieving

objectives, and (3) affective responses toward instruction.

Measures of Achievement of
Infbrmation Objectives

Informational objectives for which achievement
measures are provided include (1) content acquisition, (2)
transfer of training, and (3) retention of learning.
Because proponents of discovery teaching base the case for
the superiority of their method (when compared with
expository methods) on transfer and retention variables
(Cronbach 1966), measures of these latter outcomes have
been included along with the more usual measures of

content acquisition.

 

justified by correlations between intelligence test scores
and years of schooling (.55 in the present research), and
between intelligence test scores and reading achievement

(correlations in the .40 to .60 range are reported by Gray
[1960]).

72

Acquisition of content.--The operational definition

of content acquisition is scores on two criterion measures,

In Exercise 1, the student,

Exercise 1 and Exercise 2.

when given a list of eight foods, writes opposite each
food the food group to which it belongs. In Exercise 2,

the student completes sentences by supplying the number of

S ervings from a given food group which are required in an

adequate daily diet. The two behaviors tested through

Exercises 1 and 2 are prerequisite to the mastery of the

transfer of training tasks discussed in the paragraph which

150 llows.

Transfer of training.—-Ability to use information

i n a problem solving situation is demonstrated in a

t ransfer task. The students are required to select an

adequate diet from a list of foods, and to give oral

reasons for food choices which reflect an understanding of
nutritional principles taught in the cursinho. Three

pJE‘etest-posttest gain scores are derived from the students'
two of the

feed choices and the reasons given for choices:

3 cores (evaluating the balance and variety of the diet the
S tudent plans) are derived from written tests. The third

8 core (based on unprompted recall of principles taught in

the cursinho) is derived from students' oral reasons for

‘80 od choices .

 

 

 

 

73

Retention of learning.--The transfer of training
tasks described in the preceding paragraph are repeated one
week later as a delayed posttest. A repeated measures
design enables comparisons of immediate gain scores on
measures of learning with short-term retention scores on
the same measures.
Measures of Strategies
Employed in Learning
This reseach attempts to observe not only the
products of learning (measured through gain scores), but
certain processes or strategies which the student employs
while learning. An effort is made to distinguish re-
f lective, thoughtful, and integrative strategies from rote,
mechanical, impulsive strategies. In completing the PI
Ifialnuals, possible indicators of effective (reflective,
thoughtful, integrative) strategies include: (1) accurate
r esponses to items, (2) no evidence of copying feedback;
( 3) stability of answers as evidenced through few erasures
and changes; and (4) a relatively longer period of time
spent on the lessons. In completing the written pretest-
Rosttest possible indicators of effective strategies are
( l ) choosing popular, well-liked food items; (2) shifting
chus of attention from one food group to another fewer

t imes on posttests than on pretests;20

\

(3) showing less

- 20An efficient strategy for planning a diet would
b. “volve selecting foods by groups or by meals rather than
¥ shifting from group to group impulsively.

 

 

 

 

74

tendency toward unplanned choices on posttests than on

pretests; 1 (4) showing less tendency toward a mechanical

pattern of choices on posttests than on pretests; 2 (5)
making fewer wild choices on posttests than on pretests;23

( 6) on posttests, adding new, course-based reasons for food

choices to earlier (pretest) reasons, rather than dropping

original reasons in favor of newer ones. Since

 

21This observation is made possible by a constraint
in the pretest—posttest problem solving task: only 13 food
choices are permitted. If the student does not plan
carefully, he tends to choose too many foods from the first
tWO groups and too few foods from the last two groups,
because he runs out of

- blank spaces in which to write. The
lmalanced pattern of choices resulting from this kind of
b ehavior is called the HI—HI-LO-LO pattern.

Mechanical behavior in making food choices is
c‘leservecl through a distracter in the pretest-posttest
~3.— nstrment: blank spaces are arranged below lists of foods
33—1—1 such a way that the student who performs mechanically
(Without recalling principles) can easily and erroneously
assume that the blanks must be filled only with foods from
the printed column directly above them. When this mechani-
cal behavior occurs, 1-2/3-4 pattern, with foods from Groups
1 and 2 written in the first column, and foods from Groups
3 and 4 in the second column, emerges.

- 23A thoughtful, balanced distribution of 13 foods
113- four groups requires choosing three or four foods from
eaxzh group. If course instruction is recalled, two would
an— so be a thoughtful number (two foods from the milk group
aJE‘e included in an adequate daily diet). Choosing only one
good in a group, or more than five foods in a group, is

c>1'lsidered wild or illogical behavior.

t 24"Blending new reasons with the old may indicate
t: hat the

new reasons have become a part of the student's
i— nght and habit structures.
r1

favor of the new
’1 t) t '

fl

When old reasons are dropped
it is possible that the student has

established relationships between previous and newly
ired knowledge.

75

instruments used in gathering data’ on strategies (the
pretest-immediate posttest-delayed posttest, and four PI
manuals) allow repeated measures, changes

in strategies
over a given time period may be observed.

Measures of Affective Responses
Toward Igtruction

In this study, an attempt is made to observe

positive responses toward the instruction and setting.
S ix measures of positive responses are utilized: (1) a
higher rate of voluntary attendance at treatment sessions;

( 2 ) choosing a lesson in PI form rather than story form,

when offered a choice between the two methods; (3)
r eporting extensive conversations with friends about the
course; (4) completing PI lesson booklets rather than

leaving frames blank; and (5) cooperating in a prescribed
pattern of class interaction and home study (working alone

or with others); and (6) giving affectively oriented

reasons for food choices on posttests.

The Research Design

The design for this study calls for a four-cell

participant-observer demonstration with repeated measures

and four replications. It can be represented symbolically
as follows:

 

 

 

Where 0 represents pretesting, posttesting, and delayed
posttesting, X represents treatments, 2 and 2 represent
treatment conditions along a program style dimension, and
i and _2_ represent treatment conditions along an in-

s tructional interaction dimension. Cells a1, a2, b1, and

 

b 2 indicate combinations of conditions to be employed in

treatments in a 2 x 2 factorial design. Dotted lines

S eparating treatments indicate that intact groups are

i nvolved. Treatments will be replicated four times, so

that a total of sixteen intact groups are involved.

Program style.--One treatment condition in this

r esearch is the style of PI used. Two versions of a basic

nutrition unit have been prepared, one an expository

version, and the other a guided discovery version.25

The
c‘Dntent, reading level, and meaningfulness of both versions
0 f the unit are carefully controlled. They vary in the
a‘~"~""~<>unt of guidance given the student, in the inductive or
deductive quality of the logic employed, and in the

didactic or Socratic nature of the presentation. The
\

1'. 25The two versions of the program are contrasted
r:— Appendices H and I.

‘

 

77

expository program employs more guidance, more deductive
.logic, and a more didactic presentation, whereas the guided
ciiscovery program uses less guidance, more inductive logic,
éa.nd a more Socratic presentation. Subjects in Cells a1 and
£51 2 will be treated through the expository program condition,
‘mna'lnereas subjects in Cells b1 and b2 will be treated through

the guided discovery program condition.

Instructional interaction.--Conditions of inter—
EEI‘CZtion created in this research are individualized or
i1:>;i_lateral interaction (in which a two-way interaction of
‘tzfilje student with the programmed manual is primary) and
<EEI’Itroup or multilateral interaction (in which students
«ji.ir1teract both with the program and among each other). In
"Zzltle individualized condition, students are instructed to
‘0'"<)rk alone as they read a page (frame), do what the book
ESL asks, turn the page, check their answers, and go on with
it: lie lesson. In the group condition, students are in-
=5:‘-“I:Jructed to work together as members of the group take
‘tZVlJrns reading a page; all do what is asked, all turn the
];>WEage together, all check and discuss their answers, and
then go on with the lesson. Cells a1 and b1 will be
i2132763ated under a bilateral (individualized) condition of
interaction, and Cells a_2. and b._2_ will be treated under a

multilateral (group) condition of interaction.

 

;

‘7 —

78

Treatments.--In Treatment a1, an expository (more
guided, more deductive, more didactic) programmed unit is
used. Students study alone. The interaction is of the

student with the programmed manual.

 

In Treatment a2, the expository programmed unit
described above is also used, but the instructional inter—
action is multilateral, with members of the group inter—
acting both with the program and among each other.

In Treatment b1 the discovery (less guided, more
inductive, more Socratic) programmed unit is combined with
bilateral (individualized) interaction.

In Treatment 23, the discovery program is combined

with multilateral interaction involving both student-

Student and student—program relationships.

Questions and Hypotheses

The present study explores four primary questions
and eight major hypotheses generated by these questions.
These questions and hypotheses will be presented here.

A rationale will then be provided for each hypothesis.

..The Questions
Four primary questions are explored in this
research: (1) whether or not in a Brazilian milieu
‘1 earning occurs through PI; (2) whether or not increased

Q ultural attunement of PI along two dimensions (in-

s tructional interaction and program style) facilitates

   

79

learning; (3) whether or not the nature of learners within
a given society affects the degree to which PI facilitates
J_earning; and (4) whether or not the nature of learners
taruithin a given society effects the degree to which certain
<::‘ultural attunements of PI facilitate learning.

A given condition is considered a facilitator of
:l_.<earning if subjects treated by it, when compared with
SEB‘IijeCtS treated under other conditions demonstrate higher
zatuczhievement of content objectives, more effective strate-
sgj‘jies in achieving content objectives, and more positive
a ffective responses to the instructional conditions.
Characteristics of learners which are examined in

relation to PI (and cultural attunement of PI) focus upon

33L.:i.teracy, modernity, and motivational factors.

The Hypotheses

Specific hypotheses, growing out of the above
Questions are to be tested.

H1 Learning occurs through PI in a Brazilian milieu.

H PI treatment conditions differ (along dimensions of
cultural attunement) in their relative effective—

ness as facilitators of learning.

HZa Instructional interaction. The group inter-

action condition (more culturally attuned) is
more effective than the individualized inter—

action condition (less culturally attuned).

 

80

HZb Program style. The expository program con-
dition (more culturally attuned) is more
effective than the guided discovery program

condition (less culturally attuned).

H3 The literacy skills of learners affect the degree
to which PI (under all treatment conditions)

facilitates learning.

H3a Schooling. Learners with more school experi-
ence learn more through PI than those with

less school experience.

H3b Intelligence. Learners with higher scores on
an intelligence measure learn more through

PI than those with lower scores.

4 The modernity of learners affects the degree to
which PI (under all treatment conditions) facili-

tates learning.

H4a Kind of school experience. Learners who have

experienced more modern schooling learn more
through PI than those who have experienced

less modern schooling.

4b Urbanity of previous residence. Learners who
have resided in urban areas learn more
through PI than those who have resided in

rural areas.

 

 

 

4c

4d

4e

4f

49

81

Geographical proximity of previous residence.
Learners who have resided near Sao Paulo learn
more through PI than those who have resided

farther from Sao Paulo.

Stability_of residence. Learners who are
long-term residents of Sao Paulo learn more
through PI than those who are recent arrivals

in Sao Paulo.

Attitudinal modernity. Learners with higher
scores on an attitudinal modernity scale learn
more through PI than those with lower scores

on the scale.

Media exposure. Learners with higher media
exposure learn more through PI than those with

lower media exposure.

Occupation. Learners with higher social
status jobs learn more through PI than those

with lower social status jobs.

Motivation to learn affects the degree to which PI

(under all treatment conditions) facilitates

learning.

5a

Age. Older learners (more motivated) learn
more through PI than younger learners (less

motivated).

 

82
HSb Sex. Women learn more through PI than men.

H5c Community participation. Learners who are
more active participants in a given community
organization learn more through PI than those
who are less active in the community organi-

zation.

6 Cultural attunements of PI are relatively more
productive for learners with lower literacy skills

than for those with higher literacy skills.

H6a The group interaction condition (more
culturally attuned) is relatively more
productive for learners with lower literacy
skills than for those with higher literacy

skills.

H6b The expository program condition (more
culturally attuned) is relatively more
productive for learners with lower literacy
skills than for those with higher literacy
skills.

H Cultural attunements of PI are relatively more

7
productive for traditional learners within a given

society than for modern learners.

 

 

83

H7a The group interaction condition (more cultur-
ally attuned) is relatively more productive
for traditional learners than for modern

learners.

H7b The expository program condition (more cultur-
ally attuned) is relatively more productive
for traditional learners than for modern

learners.

8 Cultural attunements of PI are relatively more
productive for less motivated learners than for

more motivated learners.

H8a The group interaction condition (more cultur-
ally attuned) is relatively more productive
for less motivated learners than for more

motivated learners.

H8b The expository program condition (more cultur-
ally attuned) is relatively more productive
for less motivated learners than for more

motivated learners.

Rationale for Hypotheses
The first hypothesis, that learning occurs through
programmed instruction, has been overwhelmingly supported

by previous research. Students do learn from PI:

 

84

. . . They learn from linear programs, from
branching programs built on the Skinnerian model, from
scrambled books of the Crowder type, from Pressey
review tests with immediate knowledge of results, from
prOgrams on machines or programs in texts. Many kinds
of students learn--college, high school, secondary,
primary, preschool, adult, professional, skilled labor,
clerical employees, military, deaf, retarded, imprisoned
--every kind of student that programs have been tried
on. Using programs, these students are able to learn
mathematics and science at different levels, foreign
languages, English language correctness, the details of
the 0.8. Constitution, spelling, electronics, computer
science, psychology, statistics, business skills,
reading skills, instrument flying rules, and many
other subjects. The limits of the topics which can be
studied efficiently by means of programs are not yet
known (Schramm 1964:3,4).

It seems reasonable that learning through PI will also
occur in a Brazilian milieu. Hypotheses 1 will be tested
to discover whether or not learning does indeed take place.

The second hypothesis, that treatment conditions

differ along dimensions of cultural attunement in their
relative effectiveness as facilitators of learning, grows
out of ethnopedagogical theory. A basic assumption of
ethnopedagogy is that adjusting educational practice in
the direction of cultural attunement will increase learning.
Students of culture have observed the group-oriented
nature of Latin societies (e.g., Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck
1961). They have also observed the prevalence of guided,
deductive, didactic teaching with Latin cultures (e.g.,
Hall 1959). Since the cultural variables under consider-
ation, individualized-group interaction and expository-
discovery teaching styles, are also considered to be

important teaching variables, adjustments of programmed

85

instruction along such dimensions in the direction of
cultural attunements should facilitate learning. Hypothe-
sis 2 will be tested to determine whether or not such a
phenomenon does indeed occur.

Hyppthesis 3 suggests that literacy skills are
expected to affect achievement through PI. The literacy
skills of students, operationalized in terms of years of
schooling and scores on an intelligence measure are
expected to be related to learning outcomes. North-
american studies have shown high correlations between
scores on IQ measures and achievement through PI (e.g.,
Woodruff, Faltz and Wagner 1966). It seems reasonable to
suggest that similar relationships will be found in the
Brazilian milieu. Hypothesis 3 will be tested to determine
to what degree such relationships exist.

Hypothesis 4 states that differences among learners
within a culture on modernity variables such as type of
schooling, social status, urbanity, attitudinal modernity
and media exposure are also expected to relate to effective
learning through PI. Three lines of reasoning undergird
this prediction. The first is based on what could be
called a principle of learner similarity: when a teaching
method developed in one culture is introduced to another
culture, it is most likely to be effective with learners
who have characteristics similar to those in the first

culture, and least likely to be effective with learners

86

who differ from those in the first culture in some impor-
tant way. If this premise is correct, it would logically
follow that PI, which has developed in a modern, techno-
logical milieu, would be most effective with learners in
other milieu who are similar to learners for whom and with
whom the method was developed (i.e., modern learners).

The hypothesis that modernity is related to the
effectiveness of PI may also be deduced through a second
line of reasoning based on a principle of pedagogical
familiarity: the degree to which the method employed fits
the previous experience and expectation patterns of the
learner will influence the response of the learner to the
teaching method. A method which includes familiar com-
ponents should elicit a more favorable response than a
method which contains novel components. The components of
PI methodology are modern in their origin. Thus they are
likely to be better received, at least initially, by modern
learners, for whom they are more familiar, than they would
be to traditional learners, for whom the components of PI
are less familiar.

A third line of reasoning also leads to the
hypothesis that modern persons will learn more through PI
than traditional persons. When PI is introduced into a
culture, it constitutes an innovation, a new idea.
Innovators and early adopters of innovations have shown

higher scores on certain modernity measures than those who

87

are slower to adopt innovations (Rogers l969:297,298). It
follows that modern (more innovative) learners will accept
a teaching innovation (PI) more readily than will tra-
ditional (less innovative) learners. Carrying this kind of
logic another step, it seems reasonable to suggest that
modern learners, who are more likely to accept PI, are also
more likely to learn through the method than are those
traditional learners who resist it. Hypothesis 4 will be
tested to explore relationships between the modernity of
learners and the effectiveness of PI as a facilitator of
learning.

Hypothesis 5 suggests that variables of age, sex,
and community participation, though quite independent of
each other, are linked by a common factor, motivation to
learn. It suggests further that motivation to learn will
be related to effective learning through PI. The di-
rectional hypotheses are derived from two bases: (1) the
intrinsic interest the subject matter is expected to hold
for certain classes of learners; and (2) the extrinsic
interest in group activities expected on the part of
certain learners with habits of active community partici-
pation. Interest in the subject matter (nutrition) is
expected to be greater on the part of women‘than of men,
for the obvious reasons that women more often plan and
Prepare meals and are concerned for the health and well

being of their husbands and children. Older people are

88

expected to be more interested in the subject matter than
younger people for similar reasons involving family
responsibility and concern about personal health which
tends to increase with aging. Community participation on
the part of learners is expected to relate to achievement
through PI, particularly when, as is the case in several
instances in the present research, PI takes place within a
cohesive community structure. When a strong esprit g2
gpgpg exists, the effectiveness of PI as a facilitator of
learning should be inhanced. Hypothesis 5 will explore
the extent to which motivation to learn is related to the
effectiveness of learning through PI.

The essence of Hypotheses 6, 7, and 8 is that the
cultural attunement of PI is more essential to learning for
some learners than it is for others. The hypotheses state
that cultural attunements of PI are relatively more pro-
ductive for learners who are lower in literacy skills, less
modern, and less motivated to learn. Highly literate,
modern and motivated learners learn in spite of materials
and methods which are poorly attuned to their culture.
Their ability, interest, and exposure to modern ways help
them to bridge the gap between the pedagogy and the
culture. Less literate, less modern and less motivated
learners cannot bridge the cultural gaps as well. Hence
the cultural attunement of PI can be expected to be
relatively more productive for this latter group of

learners than for the former.

89
Randomization Procedures

The present research requires coordination of the
activities of several teachers with diverse groups of
students in varied settings over a period of months. In
Spite of problems with randomization inherent in this kind
of research plan, an effort has been made to give each
group an equal chance to participate in each treatment, and
to avoid systematic variations of treatments with setting
variables which are likely to bias the findings. Initially,
teachers are assigned to sites and to treatments through a
table of random numbers. Adjustments in assignments of
teachers and treatments have become necessary at several
points during the field work to vary settings in which a
given treatment is administered (avoiding more than one
all-female group in each treatment, for example), and to
deal with emergency situations such as a teacher missing an
assignment because of a death in the family.

Four of the groups in this research have been
formed in a literacy school setting where it has been
possible to assign individuals to treatments through a
two-step randomized procedure: (1) before the first
session, a list of random student numbers is matched with
random treatment numbers; and (2) as students arrive at
the first session, they draw one of the previously-matched
student numbers to determine their assignment to a

treatment.

90

Data Gathering Procedures

Three visits are made to each test site for data
gathering purposes. An outline of activities at test
sites is provided in Figure l. A more detailed description

of data gathering procedures follows here.

First Session

 

As the student arrives for the first session, his
name is recorded on the cover of his individual data
record book,26 and his presence is marked on an attendance
form. A brief explanation of the purpose of the project is
made,2.7 and the student is introduced to participating
teachers and coordinators.

The student is then administered the written
pretest, followed by the oral pretest. All oral tests
and interviews are administered in as private a setting as
possible.

When all students have arrived, the class is

divided into small teams (for the group treatment), or

told to work alone (in the individualized treatment).

 

26The individual data record book mentioned here
includes: (1) an attendance form; (2) oral pretest-
posttest forms; (3) Questionnaires A, B, and C; and (4)
form for choosing a PI or story booklet. It is reproduced
as Appendix C.

27All subjects in all treatments are told that they
are participating in a research project in which a new
method (PI) is being field tested.

91

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92

Lesson 1 booklets are distributed, and the teacher-
assistant gives instructions for using PI.28

The teacher-assistant helps all students in all
treatments until the end of the first sequence (Lesson 1,
Frame 8 in the expository version; or Lesson 1, Frame 15
in the discovery version).29 Beyond this point, students
work without further teacher help.

As soon as Lesson 1 is completed, the student is
given Exercise 1. Upon completing this Exercise, he is
assigned Lesson 2 for homework, with instructions to study

alone (in the individualized treatment) or to work with

colleagues (in the group treatment).

Second Session

As the student arrives for the second session,
attendance is marked and his home assignment (Lesson 2) is
turned in. He is given Exercise 2 to complete.

As soon as individual students (in the individu-

alized treatment) or small teams of students (in the group

 

8Instructions for the individualized treatment
are: (1) read the page, (2) do what the book says, (3)
turn the page, (4) check your work, and (5) go on with the
lesson. Instructions for the group treatment are: (1)
one student reads the page, (2) all do what the book says,
(3) all turn the page together, (4) all check and discuss
their work, (5) another student reads the next page, etc.
These instructions are explained by the teacher and dis-
played on classroom posters.

9More initial help is given with the discovery
lesson (1) to cover the same informational content as the
expository sequence, and (2) to compensate for the greater
novelty of discovery methods and procedures.

93

treatment) finish Exercise 2, they begin Lesson 3. During
Lesson 3, students are interviewed by a teacher-assistant
or the investigator.30 Questionnaires A and B are used for
this interview.

Upon completing Lesson 3, the student is given the
written and oral posttest.31 He takes Lesson 4 home with

him to study alone (in the individualized treatment) or

with colleagues (in the group treatment).

Third Session

During this final treatment session, attendance is
marked, Lesson 4 (homework) is collected, and students are
given the delayed written and oral posttests as retention

32

measures.

Following the oral posttest, in the same private
setting, the student chooses a lesson booklet in PI or

story form, and is interviewed with the schedule provided

by Questionnaire C.

 

30Students in all groups under all treatment
conditions are interrupted from their work on Lesson 3,
one at a time or a team at a time, for ten-minute inter-
views. This procedure is necessary because of time
limitations.

3

1The oral posttest for each student is adminis-
tered by the same teacher-assistant or investigator who
gave the oral pretest.

32Lesson 4 provides instruction which is unrelated
to the written posttest task, so that the sequence of
instruction will allow a retention test during this last
class session.

94

When all students have completed the retention tests
and interviews (above), a group intelligence measure (Otis,
Beta Level) is administered. The cursinho culminates with
a short ceremony in which certificates are distributed to
those who attended all treatment sessions and completed

all home assignments.

Precautions

Several means of minimizing fluctuations and lapses
in treatment procedures are employed in this research.
First, a check list of artifacts and pre-treatment prepa-
rations is verified carefully before each session.
Secondly, instruments, forms, and tests are kept in
individual notebooks for each student to allow a continuous
and readily available record of the student's progress
through the treatment. Finally, "assembly line" cards,
based on a task analysis of data gathering activities, are
used during all sessions to organize materials, to
standardize procedures, and to monitor and check data
while it is being gathered. As an example of this system,
the first four "assembly line cards" are translated and

displayed in Figure 2.

33 . . . . . .
This certificate is reproduced in Appendix J.

95

 

Stack l. BLANK NOTEBOOKS
1. Write Name of Student

2. Mark Attendance

3. Put in Stack 3

 

 

 

Stack 2. WRITTEN PRETEST

1. Give to Student
2.

Explain Instructions

3. Tell Him to Work Alone

 

 

 

Stack 3. NOTEBOOKS
OF STUDENTS COMPLETING

WRITTEN PRETEST

 

 

 

 

Stack 4. NOTEBOOKS
WITH WRITTEN PRETESTS
COMPLETE

(waiting for oral test)

Check!

1. Name on written test?
2. Exactly 13 food choices

made?

 

Figure 2.

"Assembly Line" Cards Used in Treatment Sessions

(translation of first four cards from Session 1).

 

 

96

Procedures for Data Analysis

 

To test Hypothesis l--that learning occurs through
PI in a Brazilian milieu--analyses of variance of the means
of selected pretest and posttest measured are examined.

To test Hypothesis 2--that PI treatment conditions
differ (along dimensions of cultural attunement) in their
relative effectiveness as facilitators of learning--analyses
of variance are performed on all dependent variable
measures in a two-way factorial design with individualized-
group treatments on one dimension, and expository-
discovery program style on a second dimension.

To test Hypotheses 3, 4, and 5--that the literacy
skills, modernity, and motivation of learners affect the
degree to which PI (under all treatment conditions)
facilitates learning--simple and partial correlations among
independent and dependent variables are ascertained.

To test Hypotheses 6, 7, and 8--that cultural
attunements of PI are relatively more productive for
learners who are less literate, less modern, and less
motivated--two-way analyses of variance are computed for
all dependent variables with levels of cultural attunement
(expository-discovery or individualized-group treatments)
on one dimension, and levels of literacy, modernity, and
motivation (as measured through selected independent

variables) on a second dimension.

97

Summary

The research plan assumes that programmed in-
struction (PI) provides both a promising means of studying
teaching and learning in developing countries and a useful
vehicle for instruction. The plan calls for research
conducted in the field (rather than inaalaboratory), with
the investigator functioning as both an experimenter and
a participant-observer. Repeated observations of student
behaviors are provided through (1) treatments extending
over a three-week period, (2) multiple measures of learning
outcomes, and (3) replications of treatments at geo-
graphically separated test sites.

The subjects in the present research are 145 youths
and adults (ages 14-75) who reside in the metropolitan area
of Sao Paulo, Brazil. They are voluntary participants in
a three-session programmed course on nutrition given at
sixteen testing sites throughout Greater Sao Paulo. The
mean years of schooling for these subjects is 3.7. Eighty-
three percent of them are employed in manual occupations
with low social status.

Two versions of a programmed nutrition unit have
been developed for this research. The versions are varied
systematically along three dimensions of expository-
discovery teaching described by Shulman (1970): (l) the

degree of guidance provided, (2) the ruleg or egrule

98

sequencing of instruction, and (3) the didactic or Socratic
style of instruction.

In addition, instruments have been adopted,
adapted, and deve10ped to provide measures of learner
characteristics and measures of learning. Learner charac-
teristics (independent variables) examined in this research
include literacy skills, modernity, and motivation to
learn. Dependent variables include content acquisition,
transfer of training, retention of learning, strategies
employed in learning, and affective response to instruction.

The research plan calls for a 2 x 2 factorial
design with two variations of instructional interaction
(individualized and group conditions) on one dimension, and
variations of program style (expository and discovery
conditions) on the other dimension.

Eight hypotheses are examined:
Hl Learning occurs in a Brazilian milieu through PI.

2 PI treatment conditions differ (along dimensions
of cultural attunement)34 in their relative

effectiveness as facilitators of learning.

 

34Expository and group methods of instruction are
considered to be more attuned to a Brazilian milieu than
are discovery and individualized methods.

99

H3 The literacy skills of learners affect the degree
to which PI (under all treatment conditions)

facilitate learning.

H4 The modernity of learners affects the degree to
which PI (under all treatment conditions) facili-

tates learning.

HS Motivation to learn affects the degree to‘nhich PI
(under all treatment conditions) facilitates

learning.

H6 Cultural attunements of PI are relatively more
productive for learners with lower literacy skills

than for those with higher literacy skills.

H7 Cultural attunements of PI are relatively more
productive for less modern learners than for more

modern learners.

H8 Cultural attunements of PI are relatively more
productive for less motivated learners than for

more motivated learners.

Data are gathered through three visits to each of
the sixteen test sites. During the first session, the
students are given a pretest, instruction on how to use
programmed texts, Lesson 1, Exercise 1 (a criterion

measure), and Lesson 2 for homework. During the second

100

session, the students complete Exercise 2 (criterion
measure), Lesson 3, and the first posttest. They are
given Lesson 4 for homework. Data on demographic and
personal characteristics of the students are also gathered
during the second session. During the third session,
students are given a one-week retention test, an opportunity
to choose between a programmed text and a lesson in story
form, a post-treatment questionnaire, and an intelligence
measure. Certificates for completion of the course are
distributed.

Data analysis procedures call for analyses of
variance and simple and partial correlations.

Findings resulting from analyses of data, and
conclusions which may be drawn from these findings are

discussed in the remaining chapters of the dissertation.

CHAPTER IV

ANALYSES OF DATA

This chapter is divided into three sections. In
the first section, decisions regarding analyses of data are
described. In the section which follows, findings re-
sulting from statistical analyses are presented. The final

section of the chapter provides a summary of findings.

Decisions

 

The findings discussed in this chapter grow out of
decisions regarding (l) statistical techniques to be
employed in this research, (2) the level of significance

to be adopted, and (3) the data to be reported.

Statistical Techniques

Analysis of variance is the primary statistical
technique employed in the present research.1 Analysis of
variance is considered an appropriate technique because (1)

it reduces the number of calculations required in a

 

1In addition, simple and partial correlations are
used to study relationships between independent and
dependent variables.

101

102

multidimensional, multivariate, factorially designed study,
and (2) it enables an estimation of interaction effects.
Intact groups at geographically separated testing
sites have been selected as the unit of analysis. Analyses
of variance will be based upon sixteen cases (intact
groups) distributed equally (4,4,4,4,) or unequally (3,5,
5,3) in four-cell designs. The small number of cases is
problematic, reducing the likelihood of statistically
significant findings. Since considerable interaction among
subjects took place at each testing site, such a risk is
an unavoidable alternative to serious violations of
assumptions of independence of variances inherent in less

conservative procedures.

Level of Significance

Findings reported in the present research reflect
a belief that in a descriptive study loss of useful
information is at least as serious as loss of statistical
precision. In other words, criteria derived from principles
of logical consistency and the applicability of findings
should be combined with purely mathematical criteria in
determining what shall be reported. Thus an effort is made
to avoid either confirming hypotheses which should be
disconfirmed or disconfirming hypotheses which should be
confirmed. Care in reporting significance is combined with
freedom in discussing trends. Significance of findings is

reported at the .05 level of probability. Trends are

103

reported when they are consistent with theory, highly
applicable to teaching, indicate useful directions for
future research, and have an alpha level of at least .25.
Pretest findings (based on data gathered before treatments
were administered) are discussed only when they relate to

trends reflected in posttests.

Data to be Reported

Figure 3 summarizes independent, dependent, and
treatment variables considered in this research. Inde-
pendent variables include literacy skills, modernity, and
motivation. Dependent variables include content acqui-
sition, transfer of training, retention of learning,
strategies employed in learning, and affective responses
to instruction. Treatment variables include individualized-
group and expository-discovery dimensions of programmed
instruction (PI) in a 2 x 2 factorial design.

This basically simple design is complicated through
the use of multiple and/or repeated measures of variables.
These measures are listed in Figure 3, and described in
more detail in Figures 4 and 5. If each analysis performed
on each measure of each variable were to be considered
separately, more than 1,500 statistical findings would be

reported and discussed in this research. Clearly a decision

2Complete data are available through the Institute
tint International Studies in Education, Michigan State
University .

 

1()4

.moanmfluw> no mumfifismlu.n gunman

 

anaeumom us oucoocouud
muonuo nus: no ocoH< mcwxuoz

«Gounod ooEEdumoum uo mmocouoameoo
onusoo uponn weanedom chwuumuo>coo

huoum a no pmoumca Hm mnemoono
nooaosu poem new acomoom ousmmmam

mmmzommmm m>HBUmhh¢

Amoco uo3oc no uo>uu :«

mcomoou uoaaumo mcwmdouo cunu nonunuv
mconoom unwauou ou acomomm omusoo coped

.uoucomnuu .omoaunosonu .Eoocnuv
nonwonu paw:
Amoucomuou Hoowccsooev
cuouunm vumxmua
noswccnam uoomv
cumuuom oanQnHmuHm
masouu poom uc05< msoom mowuuwnm
AmOOOM uuHSQOQ mnemoonov
«monono .aoa.

suave cmwuaoouunouumomuunououm an

lowscaucooe omsoamzm mmHomeamem

confisqom mafia
noncoamom mo >uwafinoum
xounpoom mcaadoo
noncommom mo >oousoo¢

"accumoq poEEdumoum cH

omwoqmzm mmHomsdem
cOMucEMONCH onusou no

Hauomm pwudeoumco

.m yuan mo suoaua>

poem no oocmHmm

oszmqu mo onazmamm
sceuoEMOMGH omusou uo

Hamumm toadeoudco

uowo mo avowuc>

pose no oocoaom

DZHZHde m0 mmhmz<m8

N omwoumxm
H unsouoxu

.v BZMBZOU m0 ZOHBHmHDOU<

 

mmddem¢> BZHDmemQ

.m

cofiuomfiuwuuum huwcsesou
xom
00¢

ZOHB¢>HBO£ .m

ouonomxm capo:
suacuoooz Hmcaosuauua
msuoum Hosowuudsooo
AoHsom own new
mucuvauwm acmnoua no suaaannum
Acasmm 0mm Eouu oocmunapv
oocmcammm m50a>oum uo cosmom
oucopemom m90w>oum uo xuwconuo
oocwauomxm Hoocom no one:

wfiHzmmDOZ .N

mafiaoonom mo annoy
wuoom unoa oocomwaauucH

qume NU‘flNBHA .H

 

mmqmaHm<> ezmozmamamm

Edmoomm Nmm>oumHolwm08Hmomxu .N

ZOHBU¢mMBZH maomwlomNHA¢DDH>HDZH .H

 

mmddem<> BZHZB¢N¢B

105

.QOAncaud> unaccomopcu no nousndoxnu.v ensue»

 

Auo>oce 0 cu
“£093 a 00:0 :dzu ouoav m vouoom

povuooou Acme Hasuuuv ouoou 31m
cadauuulo

oaqalua

ocnuo

oo>I0N

mm .ouoou Canauaom

lancoauauauue H ou .cuouoae n vouoon roam
nevus as

Izod. w ou Insane a oouoom

Akaoa a cosy anode o 0»
fiasco» one: no onus. a nouoom

Acasum 0mm uuoudoc. a o»
Rosana can ease uaonuusu. a nouoom

.305 no 08.3 no auwgfiuoOchnug
acuaulua
cunuaunw

vacununa
vooun museuQEOo .vouuou mosauvaOQIIN
pounce voraasoutum

Aaunox adv wonasz

Baud uoouuou nun. non usual a
nouoou 31m

cauoum can coo

swnuuszo 0» 09 30> op couuo 30::
"mNIO alum .c ouausco«ua¢=o o» oncommum

..tuomou a . anon—sun
.ma.¢anu undue .c nun-:eoauuoao

.uuomou u.uo3ow>uouca
unanu noun .4 ou«a¢co«uuoso

:womusoo uso we so» vochaou noun: cowau>o~ou so vcanuosou
com com pap .noonnao «0 exam: «can» cocoa unease:
”amnu scum .U onusCCOMuaoso ou uncommon

.o can m nauOh uuonm .auasuooo:
Haavw>wpcu «0 cacom asaacwz .omoav noauxcmunuwam
"a chachOAunoao

.¢:0uuamsooo caaawndun cofisoo muuazu no mustang
Heaven Aeneas n.:ouc«£oua: co conch noduauwuauunau
”anuo Baum .< endoscOMuuoso

:onqum 0mm nae anon oo>wa so» o>nn good 30:.
"ouuu noun .1 ouwcccOHuuoso ou oncomuox

.oao nu¢0> sou no:
on can: oocopwuou was no uuoaou n.uconauu co vouch
.nnno suuu .e ouaqecoauuoao

.uHo and.» so» an: on
can: occupamuu «a: we phonon n.ucousuu co vouch
“Nuno auuH .¢ ouaqccoauuoso

.ams was».
on o>on was» own no .ucoaunoav n.uonuaou as» hushed
ou vouuou season uucousun on» was «Hoonoo use» one:

"menu Eoun .4 cheesecaumoao ou announce

case so» own:

new» use) .H0020u ou unwou uwsv 50> sons:
noHnO EouH .4 ouwocco«uuoao ou noncoaoom
anon uuonm .~o>oq soon

uuoa xuaaand flayed! uuuo

scauM«uouoo

coauamauauuna suanaaaou

not

Now

anaconxm «woo:

suacuocoz aaaacauauue

usuqum annuauumsouo
oaaaa 0mm as
oocovaunm uo auaaanaum

oocouuocm uso«>oum
no nodal:

OUGOUdIQK l90d>0hh
no anacunuo

ocaaoonom no ones

ocwuoocum no and.»

ouoom an

 

unanaa ca can: quiz

106

..sosu- as nun-fins.

an nooaonu uncuoun no mean» so canon. uncanny.

and an keys-agony anal concede. avoou :couuanu cnu
ocean on: nous) yucca». >n noun-Hoe cocoa no henna:

“counsel ca. anon. clah

Aaooooa ecu veauav
voocanu won 0-0:». cocoon-cu can-u. uo unouuoa

xoanvoOu ocammoo no con-vapo canto
xooQUOOu wouhuou no oucovu>onla

COO..." 30.0 NON IOQCOQION OUQEUU NO UCCONOQ

cannon ed unmadu coda-auouc« vac
ocamuocuua uuooHuou sows) coedou good new uc«oa a

cane-non nucaoa ma
uuouuuoa so wooed. no: use
uanu u-ouuoom vo>caoo so coca sod. new venom «
uuuouuuon och-Moo
u-ououn so ascend uoc
can nuns: vegan-om co coon sou. uou ucaoa a
5.338 nuns—v2!“

canaunoa nucaom o
vouOan- nvOOu no nonssc
ouusgoua 204:: now macho wean zone now eunuom N

cease-om sudden m
uncommon uoouuoo coco uou nucaoa n
sauna v

cane-non nucwoa o
uncommon uuouuou zoo. uOu ucaoa H
ufiouw o

mewuoom use mcwoou

.quOu
voxaauaaoa .udasdon cocoono acouaun .uowo addendum an

.uooao ca nuanced coaldquua ouonsDo on vouwavOu ease

.Eaumoum ou concomaou Cancun no oucova>o Iron. undosum

.xuanvoou ocaauoo uo oosovu>o Irons ucovaum

.uolaauOOua an vovw>ouu xounvoou cud:
conga usiuu noduoshuuca aislauoOua ou ceased-cu o.uclvsum

.uoau acaccaam as
0.050 on vOOu oco onwuoonu ecu «canoes Hana nibuu unouaum

.umouuuom coinage ou uuouuuom souu on: u-ouuoom ou uaououa
ficuu quOu no nooaozo neuun> uneasy. .uowv weanedflu an

.mpOOu uo uuaa o spun unfit voucducn ouuoaou ucovsum

.nanoua coca uSOu we con. noun vouwnuou coca>hoa
agent uo Lanes: unw>adm9¢ an neocoucou uouoameoo unocsum

Jonson uw 50.3) on mocha coca 05 000... nus.
ouuuomao oouuut .mUOOu unoao uo noun a so>au can) .ucousum

nodumauoooo

annoy-om cos-eon
Iuoouunomluoououa

.uousuuo: nausea-m.
unguaonu mom:

.n can a neon-ca
”condone: 039V
can .149

S o5 .m .u .H .833
“condone: ~50»
noncomuou uo Nusannaum

 

Av UGO .n .N .A Incl-Id
. "nous-do: nacho

xoanwooh unexmoo

Av pea .n .n .A acouooq
«nous-dot unchv
nowmmmmqu no Mmduaoo¢

 

 

lacuna-ca vosaaoa
nuuouuuomnu-ououa
”convene: vouooaoav
sauces oowmmammmm

 

.u-ouuuom .
cease-ouuuouuuoa
”nouanaox oounoaomv

uoao no am-auap

.u-ouuuoa cease-o
-uuouuaoauuaououm
"consume: vouoomomv
uoaa no oocaaom

sausage: sowuouauuv
u oouuuoxu

ions-ac: ceauouauu.
A unwouoxn

agenda as can: aoaaz

107

.ooanoauo> unopcoaoo no nous-oolla.m ouso«h

 

oouaoo oouoamsoo
or) macaw uoouna coco ca oueovsuo uo ucoouoa

occao nonnatlno
ocean ooaauoaoo .ouonuo cue) ooaauoaoonua
ouonuo saw) voxuorluu
.uuoauauuaom
ouonuo Add) ocuxu03 no oocopw>o 0c ozononlo
ouonuo nu“) msaxuor no oocova>o ozonocua
"osoooiu

acoooa nuoo now osoua ouoaqaoo uo ucoouom
ocuao

Oduuwa Glad

you anun

>uouoona
conosuuocw voguoouatum

vouoc coaoou ousoooam sooo uou wagon a

coco notoc no uo>ou cu ocoooou nowauoo pommouvnua
ocoooou uoaauoo 0» ocoooou onusou oopponnn

ooowonu Assam cozy ones so oco
>Acov pad: nu“: m50um vOOu nooo sou venom a

vo>uonao uoc auouuum eun\~-H--~
oopuoano annoy.» vunxuuau-~

vw>uouno no: auouuam equoquH=.H=uuo
vo>uouno cuouuam oa-oq-~=.~=.na

asoou as none. sync uou unaom a

 

ocwuoom poo oaavoo

.ouuooou oocopcouuo mocha c0 vooon

.uuomounuaoo use ocooooa cofiaouOOun ou oooaomoou canons»
vo>uoono muonuo can: so occao asexuoz uou oocouououm o.u:oosum

.xsoan son» o>ooa 0» can»
hogan» .osoua voaaouooum ouoaaaoo 0a >ucovaou o.u:ousum

:mcofluauus: usono accouom nonuo
sue: xaou 50> can .nooooao no oxoo: oounu ooonu unease:
.nmno noun .4 oug¢¢¢0auooso ou oncomooz

.muonuos mcanooou 03a cooiuon noooono
o: .vcoauu o nuoou 0» v ¢0mooq uo >aoo o vououuo o4 acousum

A:.u« oxdd
H omsooon xaufi ooonu H: ..o.ov voucowuo >ao>uu00muo
one goes: ooowono poem now ocoooou also oobao acousum

.ooeo noxoc uo Nooou
an ocOnoou uowauoo ocaamouv con» nonuou .oooqonu coon no»
ncoaoou nuoououmv nowauoo ou accooou vooonoOousoo ovpo unocsum

.uo«>ozon
lgosasze nuoaunoaogu saucesucoo as manna a noun «coon neon
coca ones so esouo o aouu vOOu oco >Hc0 no ouaonu o.ucopsum

.sonu o>0no >Huoouwo casaoo

on» ad tonedum opOOu nu“: oxcoan oaaau Aooamuoc«um onwaaouou
unonuare >Haouwcosuos expo: on: acousuo on» uonu >o3 o noso 04
excoan noocouuo unusauuosa uoouuoom vo>oaovuuoouuoomnuoououm ona

.oezouo

03» and" sown o000u rou 00» one .omsoum 0)» vouau noun nv00u
>cda 00a oooono ou oocou on .>Hanuouoo noun no: coop unopsuo
uH .oouuasuoa ouo condone coca ma >aco .uowv ocdecoam an

.osdu u an nacho 0:0 noun ovaou
ocduuoaoo >aaooauoaouo>o eon» nonuou .uozuoso 0» msoum coca
oco scum noducouuo mo o=u0u ouuwso usocsuo .uoao undecoan on

 

cadumauuolo

 

 

occaooom uo oummvcouu‘

.uuooqanuaom
8‘ ~' on o“ dd 88.3
"nousoooz o>ahv

 

muonuo can: no cause «Hague:

3 v:- .n .n :— Boon-3
"nousooo: nacho unconoq
vosaoumoum no ooosoumwmsou

 

 

 

onusoo usono occauoouo>coo

Nmoum o no
voouocw Hm canoogu

 

Augean-om oo>¢~oaauuouuuon
IUIOUOum ”00390!
vouaoa.a. mmmmmmmummmm
NON 20:3 saldm

Auoouuoom vo>oaoa
Iuoouuoomauoououa
”nounnooz oouoomoxv
oconoom oouaoo vovud

 

.u-cuuooa cease-a
Iuoouuoomuuoouonm
nooksooo: pouoonouv
ooouonu was:

xuuouuaom vo>¢uoa
nuuouqumuuoououm
”monsooo: vouooaoxv

:uouuum vnnumua

.uoouuoom vo>oaoa
nuoouuoomuuoououm
"nous-oox pouoomoxv
fluouuom 0.70.72.02—

 

.uuouuuoa nomad-o
5833.73.92...

nooksooo: nmwoommm~
canon cwuuuau

ooanda :« coop oaoz

108

must be made either to delimit the study or to report
findings holistically.

Since the design of this research is theoretically
cohesive and the variables and measures employed are
mutually ancillary, a decision has been made to report
findings holistically. Significant findings and recurring
trends are collated and combined into generalized obser-
vations. Such an emphasis on breadth and scope is

consistent with the exploratory nature of the research.

Findings
Statistical analyses performed to test hypotheses
considered in this research, and findings resulting from

these analyses, are described below.

Hypothesis 1

To test Hypothesis l--that learning occurs through
PI in a Brazilian milieu--analyses of variance of the means
of selected pretest and posttest measures were performed.
The results of these analyses are shown in Table 2. Post-
test gains in ability to recall course information were
significant at the .001 level. Tendencies to make fewer
shifts in focus among food groups and to make fewer random,
thoughtless responses (wild choices) on posttests were also
significant at the .001 level. Posttest gains in ability
to plan a balanced diet were significant at the .005 level.
The data indicate that Hypothesis 1 is supported. Learning

does occur through PI in a Brazilian milieu.

109

Table 2.--Analyses of Variance of Over-All Means on
Selected Pretest-Posttest-Delayed Posttest Measures.

 

 

Delayed
Measure Pretest Posttest Posttest F-ratio
Balance of Diet 1.87 3.62 3.28 13.96*
Unprompted Recall .037 .531 .475 25.82**
Shifting Focus 6.57 5.16 5.13 21.35**
Wild Choices 1.46 .86 .89 15.09**

 

*Significant at the .005 level.

**Significant at the .001 level.
Hypothesis 2

To test Hypothesis 2--that PI treatment conditions
differ (along dimensions of cultural attunement) in their
relative effectiveness as facilitators of learning--analyses
of variance of group means were performed on dependent
variable measures in a two-way factorial design with
individualized-group interaction on one dimension, and
expository-discovery program style on a second dimension.
F-ratios were calculated for repeated measures of the main
effects of the treatments (IG and ED) and for interactions

of measures with treatments (M-IG and M-ED).

Hypothesis 2a.--Data related to Hypothesis 2a--that
the group interaction condition (more culturally attuned)
is more effective than the individualized interaction
condition (less culturally attuned)--are shown in Tables

3, 4, and 5.

110

.cmHm Loumommu cw oopsaocfl uoc madmmmzm

.ucmoHMHcowm >Hamoflumwpmum uos .ocouea

 

mo. mm. em. mm. mm. 00. m0. mm. mo. . mo. Hamoom woumsoumca
as. n.q v.v mm. H.« m.m m.m m.v m m none 00 >umnum>
mo. m.~ o.m as. m.m m.m m.m m.m m.H m.H umno mo muemamm

COflflCQUflNm GEM HmmeMHB

oo. h.0 0.0 «0o.m m.0 5.0 o.h 0.0 N 0:0 H mmmwouoxm

usoucou mo sowuflmflogod

 

 

 

 

 

duo ecH duo ecH duo ucH duo ucH
UH coflpomuousH
oflumuum monomooz oHuz m ousmmoz N whomooz H whommoz
mo coo: owumuum

 

.mucofiuooue Amuov msouu 0cm AUGHV pouwaospw>flocH you deadwood mo soflucouom 0:0 .msfigflmua mo
umwmcoue .cofiuwmwswom ucoucou mo monommoz so mouoom co mono: moouw mo mocmwum> mo mom>ams<lu.m oaooe

111

.con souoooou cw poosaosq uoc oHSooozo

.ucaOAuacmau seenoauaauuuu uoc .ccoue.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

as. a.~ m.H oo.H a a m.H h.a m.H m.a a.a a.a acoanom cannon cocoa
ow. No.H ~H.H so. a a ma. mm. mm. om. mm.H em.a mooaono use:
aH.H as. as. .ce.a a a om. mu. mu. NH. ma. we. nuouuum vunxuua
.mn.n we. we. so. u u as. as. be. ac. as. mo. :uouuumuoquoquumuum
on. e.m h.m so. a u H.m ~.m H.m ~.m m.e o.o uaoom ucauuanm
om.a «.5 a.” «H.H u a ..s m.> N.~ o.p m.n e.n mooaono .moa.
ummuauom wufimfilumouuaOhlunvuflum
onu ou oouoaom oowwououum
.mm.a m.hm ..me em.a u a H.mm q.m¢ o a a.sw a.pv oauasgmm uses
co~.~ o.om «.oa an. o.ma m.ma a.pm m.hm m.pa o.ma m.ea v.aa momcomuom no suaaanuum
.mm.~ on. as. NH.H mm. ms. we. as. me. mN. v~. as. xoaavoom measaoo
.mm.~ o.~a m.am .mm.H m.sa ¢.oa H.oa H.~m o.mm 0.5a m.sa o.am noncomuoa uo >ouu=oo¢
osoouoq onEoummmn
ou oouoaom ooamououum
new ucH duo ocH one ecu one can one use
UH cowuoouousH
Owuoulh oouooooz 0H1: v ouomoo: m oMSmooz m oucooo: H ouooooz
no coo: Oauounm

 

630533 3.60

macho oco “psav nonwaospw>wocH now po>onEu «osmououum uo monsoooz co mouoom c0 memo: macaw no oocowuo> uo ooo>aocdll.v oanoa

112

.son nouoooou on» 0H ooooHocH no: no: ousoooe nausea 4

n

.con nouoomou ocu cH ooooHosH uo: ouo: nonpoooa oouoomoxo

.Ho>oH no. on» um acuoauacoamc.

.ucuoHuHcon >HHooHuuHuuuu uoc .ucoua.

 

 

 

 

 

ea. c o a a a a a o a H.oo ~.>h acoauuom an oocuccmuua
..NH.m u a a a m a o a o HH.H OH.H uuoaumuuHom
.e can .m .n .H.nconumae
.Hm.~ mm. mo. .om.~ 0H. so. SN. so. ma. so. we. mo. um>uouno
ouosuo squ .o> ocoH¢ mcquoz
G 93 .m .N .H 2823.:
am. H.5a m.mm om. a.po a.em o.sa n.na «.mm ..om m..a n.4m acommoa uosauumoum uo nuucouoaasoo
nH. o o o o o o o o o m~.H mH.H oouooo uoond ocoHuoouo>cou
em. a a a a a o m a a oe.H mv.H spasm no ououucH Hm mcaaoonu
Humouuoom po>oHooluoouunomnuoououm.
me. mm. no. He. a n mm. om. ov. me. no. as. nooaonu coon sou accuoum ousuaoHa
one use one can one was mum ocH use ucH
UH GOHuoououcH
OHuouuh nonsmooz UHIZ v ousmooz m ouomooz N ouSmooz H ousmoot
no snot oauouum

 

moouu 0:0 Hpcuv ocuHHoaoH>HccH How noncomnom o>Huuouu¢ mo monsoooz co mouoom so memo:

.oucoeuooue Hone.
esouo uo oocoHuo> mo noo>Ho0<II.m oHooa

113

Table 3 shows analyses of variance of means on
measures of content acquisition, retention of learning,
and transfer of training for individualized and group
treatments. An interactive trend was noted toward higher
scores in the group treatment on Exercise 1 (based on
classwork) than on Exercise 2 (based on homework).

Table 4 shows analyses of variance of means on
measures of strategies employed in individualized and group
treatments. In performance on programmed lessons, trends
were noted toward greater accuracy, more copying, less
stable responses, and spending more time on programmed
lessons in the group treatment. Interactive trends showed
differences between individualized and group treatments on
measures of accuracy to be more pronounced on Lessons 1 and
3 (completed in class) than on Lessons 2 and 4 (completed
at home). In performance on the pretest-posttest-delayed
posttest, a trend was noted toward poorer planning (more
tendency toward a HI-HI-LO-LO Pattern of responses) on the
part of subjects in the group treatment. An interactive
trend was noted toward more mechanical responses (a 1-2/
3-4 Pattern) on the immediate posttest and less mechanical
responses on the delayed posttest on the part of subjects
in the group treatment.

Table 5 shows analyses of variance of means on
measures of affective responses to instruction in indivi—
dualized and group treatments. An expected trend toward

more work in groups on the part of students in the group

114

treatment was observed. An interactive trend was noted in
which students showed a greater tendency to work together
in class (Lessons 1 and 3) than at home (Lessons 2 and 4).
Students in the group treatment--when compared with those
in the individualized treatment--also reported working with
others significantly more (p < .05).

In summary, the above data revealed trends in which
learners in the group treatment--when compared with those
in the individualized treatment-~achieved relatively higher
scores on Exercise 1 (based on a class assignment) than on
Exercise 2 (based on a home assignment), responded more
accurately to programmed items, COpied more feedback, made
less stable responses, and spent more time on lessons. In
addition, subjects in the group treatment--when compared
with those in the individualized treatment--showed tendencies
toward poorer planning and more mechanical responses on the
posttest and less mechanical responses on the delayed post-
test. Students in the group treatment also worked together
more than students in the individualized treatment. These
findings are not statistically significant,3 and are some-
what contradictory. Hypothesis 2a--that the group inter-
action condition is more effective than the individualized
condition-~is not supported.

3The only statistically significant finding noted
has little practical significance: students in the group
treatment worked together more than students in the
individualized treatment!

115

Hypothesis 2b.--Data related to Hypothesis 2b--that
the expository program condition (more culturally attuned)
is more effective than the discovery program condition (less
culturally attuned) are shown in Tables 6, 7, and 8.

Table 6 shows analyses of variance of means on
measures of content acquisition, retention of learning, and
transfer of training for expository and discovery treat-
ments. Students in expository treatments achieved signifi-
cantly higher (p < .05) scores on measures of content
acquisition. On one measure of transfer and retention
(planning a balanced diet) an over-all trend was noted
toward greater achievement in the expository treatment, as
well as an interactive trend in which balance scores in the
expository treatment showed losses on a one-week retention
measure while discovery treatment scores showed gains.

Table 7 shows analyses of variance on measures of
strategies employed in expository and discovery treatments.
On programmed lessons, students in expository treatments
worked significantly (p < .01) more accurately, copied
significantly (p < .05) more feedback, and spent signifi-
cantly (p < .01) less time on lessons than students in
discovery treatments. Significant interactions (p < .01 or
p < .05) were noted between treatments and measures of
strategies related to programmed lessons. The tendency for
learners in the discovery treatment to work less accurately
than those in the expository treatment was greater on

lessons completed in class (Lessons 1 and 3). The tendency

116

.cmHm someones CH oopsHocH uoc onsmmwzm

.Hm>mH mo. may um unmosmflcmam..

.usmoHMHcmHm >HHmoHumHuoum nos .0sou9«

 

 

 

 

 

 

mo. mm. «m. mH. me. me. om. om. so. so. HHmomm emumeoumas
mm. n.v m.¢ mo. H.s m.m m.m m.v m m umHo mo sumHum>
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118

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119

to copy more feedback in the expository treatment than in
the discovery treatment was greater on Lessons 1 and 4. The
tendency to require more time to complete lessons in the
discovery treatment than in the expository treatment was
greater on Lesson 1 than on Lesson 3. On a posttest-
delayed posttest measure of a tendency toward poor planning
of responses (a HI-HI-LO-LO Pattern), a trend was noted
toward interaction between measures and expository-
discovery treatments. Learners in discovery treatments
showed a greater tendency toward poor planning on the
immediate posttest than on the delayed posttest, and
learners in the expository treatment showed a greater
tendency toward poor planning on the delayed posttest than
on the immediate posttest. A greater tendency was also
noted on the delayed posttest for students in the discovery
treatment--when compared with students in the expository
treatment--to add course-based reasons to earlier reasons
for food choices rather than to drop earlier reasons for
choices in favor of newer ones.

Table 8 shows analyses of variance of means on
measures of affective responses to expository and discovery
treatments. Programmed lessons of students in expository
treatments were significantly more (p < .01) complete than
those of students in discovery treatments. These differ-
ences in completeness were greater on in-class lessons

(Lessons 1 and 3) than on lessons completed at home

120

(Lessons 2 and 4). A trend was noted toward more choices
of PI instead of a story in the discovery treatment than
in the expository treatment.

To summarize, learners in expository treatments--
when compared with those in discovery treatments--achieved
significantly higher scores on measures of content
acquisition, accuracy of programmed lessons, completeness
of programmed lessons, and time required to complete
programmed lessons. However, opposite trends were also
noted in which learners in the discovery treatment--when
compared with those in the expository treatment--showed
relatively greater gains on measures of retention, a greater
tendency to choose PI instead of a story, and significantly
less tendency to copy feedback. The above data lend only
partial support to Hypothesis 2b (that the expository
treatment is more effective than the discovery treatment).
Conflicting evidence makes any conclusions which may be

drawn highly tenuous.

Hypothesis 3

To test Hypothesis 3--that the literacy skills of
learners affect the degree to which PI (under all treatment
conditions) facilitates learning--simple correlations among
independent variables (intelligence test score and years of
schooling) and dependent variables (all measures of
learning) were ascertained from individual case data. The

results of these analyses are shown in Tables 9, 10 and 11.

121

Table 9.--Simp1e Correlations of Literacy Skills With
Measures of Acquisition of Content, Transfer of Training,
and Retention of Learning, From Individual Case Data.

 

 

 

 

 

 

IQ Years of

Measures of Learning Score Schooling
Acquisition of Content

Exercise 1 .439** .269**

Exercise 2 .239** .236**
Transfer of Training

Balance of Diet .341** .229**

Variety of Diet -.158 -.l76*

Unprompted Recall .094 -.010
Retention of Learning

Balance of Diet .339** .195*

Variety of Diet -.278** -.l80*

Unprompted Recall .036 -.010

Critical Values: *p < .05 = .163

**p < .01 = .215

1J22

Table lO.--Simp1e Correlations of Literacy Skills With Strategies Employed in
Learning, From Individual Case Data.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

10 Years of

Measures of Learning Score Schooling
Accuracy of Responses

Lesson l .266“ .247

Lesson 2 .178' .102

Lesson 3 .247** .311"

Lesson 4 .278H .156
Copyinngeedback

Lesson 1 -.094 .044

Lesson 2 -.335N -.l70'

Lesson 3 -.010 -.084

Lesson 4 -.202‘ .027
Stability of Responses

Lesson 1 .207' .108

Lesson 2 .137 .057

Lesson 3 .096 .130

Lesson 4 .166' .116
Time Required

Lesson 1 -.29l" -.245'

Lesson 3 -.337“ -.263.1.
“Pop“ Choices

Pretest .169* .117

Posttest .292" .166'

Delayed Posttest .244“ .114
Shiftinngocus

Pretest -.111 .030

Posttest -.071 -.085

Delayed Posttest -.130 -.l69*
Hi-Hi-Lo-Lo Pattern

Pretest .017 -.068

Posttest -.184' -.125

Delayed Posttest -.094 -.128
1-2/3-4 Pattern

Pretest .096 -.026

Posttest -.l33 -.l39

Delayed Posttest -.159 -.l70'
Wild Choices

Pretest -.186‘ -.180*

Posttest -.374** -.l72*

Delayed Posttest -.249*' -.064
Added Course Reasons

Pretest to Posttest .070 -.029

Pretest to Delayed Posttest .185* .069

Posttest to Delayed Posttest .204' .078

 

Critical Values: ' p < .05 I .163

.. p < .01 - .215

123

Table ll.--Simple Correlations of Literacy Skills With

Affective Measures, From Individual Case Data.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

IQ Years of
Measures of Learning Score Schooling
Pleasure Reasons for Food Choices
Pretest .112 .153
Posttest .181* .090
Delayed Posttest .127 .135
ChoosinngI Instead of Stogy -.084 -.l74*
Conversations About.Course .144 .157
Completeness of Programmed Lessons
Lesson 1 .260** .218**
Lesson 2 _ .168* .027
Lesson 3 .166* .256**
Lesson 4 .198* .002
Working_Alone vs. With Others
Lesson 1 -.104 -.023
Lesson 2 (at home) -.l79* -.142
Lesson 3 -.007 .055
Lesson 4 (at home) -.205* -.152
Self-Report -.043 -.062

 

Critical Values: * p < .05 = .163

** p < .01 = .215

124

Correlations of literacy skills with measures of
content acquisition, transfer of training, and retention of
learning are shown in Table 9. Correlations4 were noted
between greater literacy skills and (1) higher scores on
measures of content acquistion, (2) higher scores on
transfer and retention measures of ability to plan a
balanced diet, and (3) lower scores on transfer and
retention measures of ability to plan a varied diet.

Correlations of literacy skills with measures of
strategies employed in learning are shown in Table 10.
Correlations were noted between greater literacy skills and
(l) more accurate responses to programmed lesson items, (2)
less tendency to copy feedback, (3) more stable responses
to programmed items, (4) less time spent on programmed
lessons, (5) more choices of popular foods on the posttest
and the delayed posttest, (6) less shifts in focus from one
food group to another on the delayed posttest, (7) fewer
unplanned (HI-HI-LO-LO Pattern) responses on the posttest,
(8) fewer mechanical (1-2/3-4 Pattern) responses on the
delayed posttest, (9) fewer thoughtless, random (wild)
choices of foods on the posttest and delayed posttest, and

(10) a tendency on posttests toward adding course-based

 

4Correlations reported here have coefficients of at
least .163. Assuming a bivariate normal population,
correlations of this magnitude would be significant at the
.05 level.

125

reasons for food choices to earlier reasons given, rather
than to drop earlier reasons in favor of newer ones.

Correlations of literacy skills with affective
responses to instruction are shown in Table 11. Corre-
lations were noted between greater literacy skills and (1)
giving more pleasure reasons for food choices, (2) choosing
a story instead of programmed instruction, (3) doing more
complete work on programmed lessons, and (4) preferring to
work alone rather than with others.

The above data support Hypothesis 3. Literacy
skills do affect the degree to which PI (under all treat-
ment conditions) facilitates learning. Persons with
greater literacy skills learn more through PI than those

with less literacy skills.5

Hypothesis 4

To test Hypothesis 4, that the modernity of
learners affects the degree to which PI (under all treat-
ment conditions) facilitates learning, zero-order and

partial correlations6 among modernity variables and

 

5Three exceptions to this generalization--negative
correlations of literacy skills with (1) ability to plan a
varied diet, (2) a tendency to choose PI instead of a
story, and (3) a tendency to work with others--are
discussed in Chapter V.

6Partial correlations (with intelligence test scores
partialled out) were included in the analysis of data in an
effort to avoid confounding the effects of intelligence
with effects attributable to modernity variables. Corre-
lations of intelligence with both modernity variables and
measures of learning made this procedure desirable.

126

dependent variables were ascertained from individual case
data. The results of these analyses are shown in Tables
12, 13, and 14.

Correlations of modernity variables with measures
of content acquisition, transfer of training, and retention
of learning are shown in Table 12. With intelligence test
scores partialled out, correlations were noted between
measures of modernity and measures of retention of
Jxearning: (1) higher occupational status was correlated

saith greater ability to plan a balanced diet; (2) urbanity
:veas correlated with greater ability to plan a varied diet;
arid (3) a greater distance of the region of previous
reasidence from Sao Paulo was correlated with higher scores
or: a measure of unprompted recall of course information.

Correlations of modernity variables with strategies

employed in learning are shown in Table 13. With in-
tfiilaligence test scores partialled out, correlations were
nOted between measures of modernity and measures of .
s"Zill‘a.tegies employed in learning: (1) copying of feedback
“3&3 negatively correlated with urbanity; (2) longer time
reqillired to complete programmed lessons was correlated with
uribiinity and higher media exposure; (3) choices of popular
fc“DWiS were negatively correlated with urbanity; (4) a
gr:ez-iter tendency toward an unplanned (HI-HI-LO-LO) pattern
(DE: choices was correlated with the distance of the region
of previous residence from Sao Paulo and with a lower

Qt2cupational status; (5) a tendency toward a mechanical

127

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128

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:ouuou :ouuou :ouuou :ouuoo :ouuoo :ouuou :ouuou :ouuoo :ouuoo :ouuou :ouuoo :ouuoo :ouuoo :ouuou
0n0uuam wovuo 0a0uuom noouo 0u0uuum uwcuo 0~0uuam uvvuo 0o0uuom novuo 0c0uunm novuo 000uuom uovuo 0:0:umoq
:ouoN :ouou :ouou :oumu :OuoN :ouoN :ouon mo
aquamao:
nus-oaxm >u0cuovox nauoum 00:10 0mm 000000000 000000000 ouco0uomx0
1000: 0ac0vau0uu¢ 0dc00uamaouo c0 00:000mum 0:00>oum nSO0>oum 000200
mo au000nuum 0o co0oum no >u0conu= uo ocwx

 

.uuao ouau

0o500>0000 EOuu .uouamoo: «>0uu0004 £u03 nousuuox >u0cuovo: no 00:00ua0ouuou 0amuuom uoUuO:uuu0h and Movuo:ouou::.v0 00nd?

131

(1-2/3-4) pattern of choices was negatively correlated with
urbanity, attitudinal modernity, and proximity of the
region of previous residence to Sao Paulo; and (6) adding
course-based reasons for food choices to earlier reasons
given was positively correlated with urbanity, proximity of
previous residence to Sao Paulo, length of previous
residence to Sao Paulo, stability of present residence in
Sao Paulo, and higher occupational status; adding course-
based reasons for food choices to earlier reasons given was
negatively correlated with modern school experience and
attitudinal modernity.

Correlations of modernity variables with affective
responses to instruction are shown in Table 14. With
intelligence test scores partialled out, correlations were
noted between measures of modernity and measures of
affective responses to instruction: (1) giving pleasure
reasons for food choices was correlated with higher
occupational status; (2) reporting conversations about the
course was correlated with the proximity of the region of
previous residence to Sao Paulo, with the stability of
residence in Sao Paulo, and with higher media exposure;

(3) completeness of programmed lessons was negatively
correlated with modern school experience and urbanity; and
(4) working with others was positively correlated with the
proximity of previous residence to Sao Paulo, with sta-
bility of residence in Sao Paulo, and with higher occu-

pational status; working with others was negatively

132

correlated with modern school experience and attitudinal
modernity.

The above correlations of modernity measures and
measures of learning are scattered and not always in the
direction hypothesized.‘7 Hypothesis 4 is only partially
supported. Evidence that the modernity of learners affects
the degree to which PI facilitates learning is not con-

clusive.

gypgthesis 5

To test Hypothesis 5--that motivation to learn
affects the degree to which PI (under all treatment
conditions) facilitates learning--zero-order and partial
correlations8 among motivational variables (sex, age, and
community participation) and dependent variables (measures
of learning) were ascertained from individual case data.
The results of these analyses are shown in Tables 15, 16,
and 17.

Correlations of motivational variables with
measures of content acquisition, transfer of training, and

retention of learning are shown in Table 15. With

 

7Correlations which fail to support the hypothesis
are discussed in Chapter V.

aPartial correlations (with intelligence test
scores partialled out) were included in the analysis of
data in an effort to avoid confounding the effects of
intelligence with effects attributable to motivational
variables. Correlations of intelligence with both moti-
vational variables and measures of learning made this
procedure desirable.

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mam.
moa.

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133

 

 

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mcficummg mo GOwucmumm

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mdwcflmue mo umumcmue

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cowumamuuou coflumamuuou coaumHmuuoo cowumHmuuoo cowumamuuoo cofiumamuuoo
Hmauumm umpuonouou Howuumm MonmououmN Hmwuumm uo©n0|ouoN

 

cowuumaowuunm mm¢ xwm
muflcdseoo

 

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mo mousmmmz nuws muouomm HmcoHum>wuoz mo mucowumHmuuou Hosanna “mononumuwm can HopMOIOMmNII.mH manna

134

Table 16.--Zero-Order and Pirst-Order Partial Correlationsa of Motivational Factors With Strategies

Employed in Learning, Pros Individual Case Data.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Community
Sex Age Participation
Measures Zero- Zero- Zero-
01 Order Partial Order Partial Order Partial
Learning Corre- Corre- Corre— Corre- Corre- Corre-
lation lation lation lation lation lation
Accuragygof Responses
Lesson 1 -.156 -.114 -.l45 -.177' .228“ .161
Lesson 2 -.052 -.021 .094 .079 .027 -.O28
Lesson 3 -.072 -.029 -.085 -.112 .201. .138
Lesson 4 -.021 .030 -.082 -.112 .176. .101
Copyinggreedback
Lesson 1 -.039 -.057 —.130 -.122 -.074 -.048
Lesson 2 .312“ .272" -.163' -.l4l -.302" -.224“
Lesson 3 .044 .043 -.060 -.059 -.041 -.040
Lesson 4 .173' .142 -.l38 -.122 -.068 -.008
Stability of Responses
Lesson 1 -.052 -.016 .140 .124 .012 -.053
Lesson 2 .018 .043 .063 .052 .045 .006
Lesson 3 -.138 -.123 -.174' -.184' -.126 -.163'
Lesson 4 -.081 -.062 .091 .081 -.040 -.079
Time Bgsuired
Lesson 1 .018 -.036 .072 .104 -.041 050
Lesson 3 .171. .119 .166' .210' -.153 -.058
"P92” Choices
Pretest -.202' -.177* .044 .029 .024 - 028
Posttest -.102 -.053 .076 .052 -.020 -.118
Delayed Posttest -.188' -.151 .098 .078 -.006 -.085
Shifting Focus
Pretest .119 .101 -.165‘ -.156 .047 .085
Posttest -.052 -.066 .054 .061 .016 .039
Delayed Posttest .067 .045 .175. .189. .002 .044
HI-HI-LO-LO Pattern
Pretest -.002 .001 .024 .023 -.070 -.079
Posttest .075 .044 .187. .208' .097 .162
Delayed Posttest .146 .132 -.025 -.016 -.001 .029
l-2z3-4 Pattern
Pretest -.064 -.048 .076 .068 -.040 -.072
Posttest .077 .055 -.095 -.084 -.124 -.089
Delayed Posttest .188. .164. -.115 -.102 .025 .077
wild Choices
Pretest .012 -.022 .004 .022 -.078 -.024
Posttest .300" .255" -.075 -.O44 -.339" -.257"
Delayed Posttest .174' .136 -.205' -.189' -.293" -.236“
Added Course Reasons
Pretest to Posttest .115 .130 .195' .190. .276H .268n
Pretest to Delayed Posttest -.102 -.071 .149 .135 .124 .073
Posttest to Delayed Posttest -.200' -.170‘ .031 .013 .336“ .294"

 

‘Hith intelligence test scores partialled out.
Critical Values: ' p < .05 - .163
9* p < .01 - .215

a
Table l7.-Zero-Order and First-Order Partial Correlations

Measures, Prom Individual Case Data.

135

of Motivational Factors With Affective

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Community
Sex Participation
Measures
of Zero- Zero- Zero-
Order Partial Order Partial Order Partial
Learning
Corre- Corre- Corre- Corre- Corre- Corre-
1ation lation lation lation lation lation
Pleasure Reasons for
Food Choices
Pretest -.125 -.107 -.056 -.067 -.102 -.143
Posttest -.054 .022 .085 .070 -.040 -.100
Delayed Posttest -.153 -.133 -.053 -.065 -.080 -.125
Choosing PI Instead
of Stogy .174. .162 .147 .156 -.008 .018
Conversations About Course -.263*' -.244“ .215" .205' .117 .078
Completeness of Programmed
Lessons
Lesson 1 -.182' -.143 -.098 -.127 .203' .136
Lesson 2 -.071 -.042 .085 .071 .058 .008
Lesson 3 -.060 - 031 -.024 -.040 .186' .145
Lesson 4 .043 .081 -.065 -.085 .182. .133
Workiog Alone vs.
With Others
Lesson 1 -.121 -.143 -.014 -.004 .226“ .271“
Lesson 2 -.008 -.041 .237“ .259" .121 .186'
Lesson 3 -.085 -.088 -.051 -.051 .038 .042
Lesson 4 -.045 -.085 .065 .086 .040 .109
Self-Report -.177’ -.188' .220" .225" .179. .201'

 

aWith intelligence test scores partialled out.
Critical Values: ' p < .05 - .163

" p < .01 I .215

136

intelligence test scores partialled out, a correlation was
noted between female sex and higher scores on a transfer of
training task (balance of diet). A correlation was also
noted between age and higher scores on two transfer of
training tasks (the variety of food choices made, and the
unprompted oral recall of course information). In addition,
correlations were noted between community participation and
higher scores on both measures of content acquisition.
Correlations of motivational variables with
measures of strategies employed in learning are shown in
Table 16. With intelligence test scores partialled out,
correlations were noted between female sex and less copying
of feedback on Lesson 2 (completed at home), less tendency
toward a mechanical (1-2/3-4) pattern of responses on the
delayed posttest, less tendency toward thoughtless (wild)
choices of foods on the posttest, and (on one measure) a
greater tendency to add course-based reasons to earlier
reasons given for food choices rather than to drop earlier
reasons in favor of newer ones. Correlations were noted
between age and more errors on the first programmed lesson,
less stable answers on the third programmed lesson, longer
time spent on the third programmed lesson, poorer planning
(a HI-HI-LO-LO pattern) of responses on the immediate
posttest, more thoughtful responses (fewer wild choices)
on the delayed posttest, and (on the immediate posttest) a
greater tendency to add course-based reasons to earlier

reasons for food choices rather than to drop earlier

137

reasons in favor of newer ones. Correlations were noted
between community participation and less copying of feed-
back on Lesson 2, more stable responses on Lesson 3, fewer
thoughtless (wild) choices of foods on the posttest and the
delayed posttest, and (on two measures) a greater tendency
to add course-based reasons to earlier reasons for food
choices, rather than to drop earlier reasons in favor of
newer ones.

Correlations of motivational variables with
measures of affective responses to instruction are shown
in Table 17. With intelligence test scores partialled out,
correlations were noted between female sex and (1) self-
reports of working with others on home assignments, and
(2) more self-reports of conversations about the course.
Correlations were noted between age and (l) more self-
reports of conversations about PI, and (2) more working
with others on home assignments (observed in Lesson 2, and
reported by students). Correlations were noted between
community participation and a greater tendency to work with
others (observed in the first two programmed lessons, and
reported by the students).

The above data provide limited but consistent
support for Hypothesis 5--that motivation to learn affects
the degree to which PI (under all treatment conditions)
facilitates learning-—on two measures (sex and community
participation). Mixed and inconclusive findings fail to

support the hypothesis on a measure of age. Thus

138

Hypothesis 5 is partially supported. When motivation is
operationally defined in terms of sex and community par-
ticipation, more motivated learners appear to achieve more

through PI than do less motivated learners.

Hypothesis 6

To test Hypothesis 6--that cultural attunements of
PI are relatively more productive for learners with lower
literacy skills than for those with higher literacy skills
--two-way analyses of variance were computed for all
dependent variables with levels of cultural attunement of
PI (expository-discovery or individualized-group treatments)
on one dimension and levels of literacy (determined by
ranking intact groups according to means on an intelligence

test measure) on a second dimension.9

Hypothesis 6a.--Data related to Hypothesis 6a--that
the group treatment (more culturally attuned) is relatively
more productive for learners with lower literacy skills
than for those with higher literacy skills--are shown in

Tables 18, 19, and 20.

 

9Groups were categorized as either "high literacy"
or "low literacy" groups. High literacy groups were those
whose mean scores on an intelligence test (Otis Mental
Ability Test, Beta level, short form) were higher than the
over-all mean. Low literacy groups were those whose mean
scores on the intelligence test were lower than the over-
all mean. All groups were included in the analysis. Thus
a total of sixteen cases (means for intact groups) were
considered.

139

Table l8.--Analyses of Interactions Between Literacy Skills
and Individualized (Ind) and Group (Grp) Treatments for
Group Means on Measures of Acquisition of Content, Transfer
of Training, and Retention of Learning.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

High Low
Meazores Literacy Literacy F-ratio
Learning Ind Grp Ind Grp
Acquisition of Content
Exercise 1 7.50 7.80 5.75 6.25 .05
Exercise 2 7.18 6.43 6.13 6.15 .41
Transfer of Training
Balance of Diet 5.03 4.03 2.48 2.95 .84
Variety of Diet 4.75 5.15 5.08 5.33 .02
Unprompted Recall .60 .45 .55 .53 .11
Retention of Learning
Balance of Diet 4.03 3.18 2.53 3.38 4.98*
Variety of Diet 3.98 3.98 3.85 4.20 .34
Unprompted Recall .38 .53 .48 .53 .11

 

*Significant at the .05 level.

140

Table l9.--Ana1yses of Interactions Between Literacy Skills and Individualized
(Ind) and Group (Grp) Treatments for Group Means on Measures of Strategies

Employed in Learning.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

H
Meaggres Litigacy LitiZacy P-ratio
“um” Ind Grp Ind Grp

Accuracy of Responses

Lesson 1 94.8 98.0 84.5 85.5 .04

Lesson 2 98.0 98.5 96.0 97.5 .24

Lesson 3 92.3 92.0 72.0 88.3 1.69*

Lesson 4 93.3 93.8 87.5 89.3 .03
Copyinngeedback

Lesson 1 .23 .18 .15 .30 .70

Lesson 2 .12 .16 .38 .82 4.75**

Lesson 3 .07 .13 .15 .19 .01

Lesson 4 .09 .22 .21 .42 .05
Stabilityoof Responses

Lesson 1 99.5 99.0 99.3 98.3 .46

Lesson 2 98.3 97.5 97.8 97.5 .13

Lesson 3 97.3 98.0 98.5 97.8 6.00‘*

Lesson 4 98.5 98.5 98.5 97.5 .50
Time Required

Lesson 1 34.3 50.5 60.8 73.3 .02

Lesson 3 42.8 47.3 56.0 59.0 .01
”Pop" Choices

Pretest 7.68 7.73 7.76 7.78 .01

Posttest 7.68 7.38 7.48 7.03 .09

Delayed Posttest 7.78 7.60 7.73 7.18 .74
ShiftingoPocus

Pretest 6.38 6.55 6.83 6.53 .37

Posttest 5.25 4.93 5.13 5.33 .55

Delayed Posttest 5.30 4.83 5.03 5.35 1.39.
HI-HI-LO-LO Pattern

Pretest .04 .13 .08 .16 .00

Posttest .02 .19 .16 .16 1.08

Delayed Posttest .10 .20 .12 .14 .51
1-2/3-4 Pattern

Pretest .10 .14 .18 .16 .31

Posttest .08 .18 .16 .27 .00

Delayed Posttest .16 .14 .33 .26 .12
Wild Choices

Pretest 1.55 1.30 1.53 1.45 .28

Posttest .53 .63 1.28 1.03 .61

Delayed Posttest .30 .85 1.55 .85 12.10**‘
Added Couroe Regoons

Pretest to Posttest 1.95 1.88 1.75 1.88 1.63

Pretest to Delayed Posttest 1.88 1.83 1.75 1.68 .01

Posttest to Delayed Posttest 1.63 1.95 1.78 1.73 1.49

 

'Trend, not statistically significant.
**Significant at the .05 level.
H"Significant at the .01 level.

141

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 20.--Ana1yses of Interactions Between Literacy Skills and Indi-
vidualized (Ind) and Group (Grp) Treatments for Group Means on
Measures of Affective Responses to Instruction.
High Low
Meazores Literacy Literacy F-ratio
Learning Ind Grp Ind Grp
Pleasure Reasons for Food Choices
Pretest .85 .63 .53 .63 1.10
Posttest .68 .60 .58 .33 .37
Delayed Posttest .65 .63 .53 .48 .01
Choosing PI Instead of Story 1.35 1.60 1.50 1.38 5.32**
Conversations About Course 1.25 1.40 1.10 1.05 .67
Completeness of Programmed
Lessons
Lesson 1 97.8 99.3 90.8 90.3 .04
Lesson 2 99.3 99.5 99.5 98.3 4.91**
Lesson 3 97.5 97.5 89.0 96.5 2.04*
Lesson 4 96.8 99.0 97.0 96.8 .67
Working Alone vs. With Others
Lesson 1 .00 .55 .18 .38 1.18
Lesson 2 .00 .08 .18 .23 .01
Lesson 3 .00 .25 .13 .28 .15
Lesson 4 .00 .08 .13 .25 .03
Self-Report 1.05 2.00 1.15 1.43 3.09*
Attendance 73.5 81.1 80.9 79.2 .67

 

 

*Trend, not statistically significant.

**Significant at the .05 level.

142

Table 18 shows the results of analyses of inter-
acting between literacy skills and individualized-group
treatments on measures of acquisition of content, transfer
of training and retention of learning. A significant
interaction (p < .05) was noted on a retention measure
(planning a balanced diet). Learners with lower literacy
skills achieved relatively higher scores in the group
treatment, whereas learners with higher literacy skills
achieved relatively higher scores in the individualized
treatment.

Table 19 shows the results of analyses of interd
actions between literacy skills and individualized-group
treatments on measures of strategies employed in learning.
A trend toward interaction was noted on a measure of
accuracy of the programmed lessons (Lesson 3). Learners
with higher literacy skills made equally accurate responses
in both treatments, while learners with lower literacy
skills made relatively more accurate responses in the group
condition. A significant interaction (p < .05) was noted
between literacy skills and individualized-group treatments
on a measure of the tendency to copy feedback on the first
home assignment (Lesson 2). Learners with lower literacy
skills--when compared with learners with higher literacy
skills--revea1ed a relatively greater tendency to copy
feedback in the group treatment than in the individualized
treatment. 0n the second lesson completed in class

(Lesson 3) a significant interaction (p < .05) was noted

143

between the literacy skills of learners and individualized-
group treatments on a measure of stable responses. Learners
with higher literacy skills made more stable responses in
the group treatment than in the individualized treatment,
whereas learners with lower literacy skills made more stable
responses in the individualized treatment than in the group
treatment. An interactive trend was noted on the delayed
posttest measure of a tendency to shift focus of attention
among food groups. Learners with higher literacy skills
shifted focus of attention more often in the individualized
treatment than in the group treatment, while learners with
less literacy skills shifted focus of attention more often
in the group treatment than in the individualized treatment.
An interaction significant at the .01 level was noted
between the literacy skills of learners and individualized-
group treatments on a delayed posttest measure of thought-
less, random (wild) choices of foods. Learners with higher
literacy skills made fewer wild choices in the individu-
alized treatment, while learners with lower literacy skills
made fewer wild choices in the group treatment.

Table 20 shows the results of analyses of inter-
actions between literacy skills and individualized-group
treatments on measures of affective responses to in-
struction. A significant interaction (p < .05) was noted
between literacy skills and individualized-group treatments
on a measure of the tendency to choose PI instead of a

story. Learners with higher literacy skills chose PI more

144

often in the group treatment, whereas learners with lower
literacy skills chose PI more often in the individualized
treatment. Interactions were noted between literacy skills
and individualized-group treatments on two measures of
completeness of programmed lessons. 0n Lesson 2 (completed
at home) learners with lower literacy skills had signifi-
cantly (p < .05) more complete 1esSons in the individualized
treatment than in the group treatment. 0n Lesson 3 (com-
pleted in class) learners with lower literacy skills had
more complete lessons in the group treatment than in the
individualized treatment. An interactive trend was noted

on a self-report of working alone or with others on home
lessons. Learners with lower literacy skills, when compared
with those with higher literacy skills--reported relatively
less work with others in the group treatment and relatively
more work with others in the individualized treatment.

In summary, the group treatment appears to be
relatively more productive for learners with lower literacy
skills than for those with higher literacy skills on
measures of retention of course information, accurate
responses to instruction, and thoughtful responses on the
posttests. In contrast, the group treatment appears to be
relatively less productive for learners with lower literacy
skills than for those with higher literacy skills on
measures of tendencies to copy feedback, to make stable
responses to programmed items, to shift focus of attention

among food groups, to choose PI instead of a story, and to

145

cooperate in the prescribed pattern of interaction (working
alone or with others). Thus Hypothesis 6a is only partially
supported. Evidence that the group treatment is relatively
more productive for learners with lower literacy skills

than for those with higher literacy skills is contradictory

and inconclusive.

Hypothesis 6b.--Data related to Hypothesis 6b--that
the expository treatment (more culturally attuned) is
relatively more productive for learners with lower literacy
skills than for those with higher literacy skills--are
shown in Tables 21, 22, and 23.

Table 21 shows the results of analyses of inter-
actions between literacy skills and expository-discovery
treatments on measures of acquisition of content, transfer
of training, and retention of learning. An interactive
trend was noted on one measure of transfer of training
(unprompted recall of course information). Learners with
higher literacy skills showed a greater tendency to recall
course information in the expository treatment, while
learners with lower literacy skills showed a greater
tendency to recall course information in the discovery
treatment.

Table 22 shows the results of analyses of inter-
actions between literacy skills and expository-discovery
treatments on measures of strategies employed in learning.

Significant interactions (p < .05) were noted on measures

146

Table 21.--Analyses of Interactions Between Literacy Skills
and Expository (Exp) and Discovery (Dis) Treatments for
Group Means on Measures of Acquisition of Content, Transfer
of Training, and Retention of Learning.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

High Low
Measures . .
of Literacy Literacy F-ratio
Learning Exp Dis Exp Dis
Acquisition of Content
Exercise 1 7.80 7.40 6.53 5.68 .28
Exercise 2 7.50 5.63 6.73 5.78 .90
Transfer of Training
Balance of Diet 5.16 3.47 3.07 2.50 .52
Variety of Diet 4.84 5.13 4.83 5.42 .08
Unprompted Recall .58 .43 .37 .64 1.31*
Retention of Learnipg
Balance of Diet 3.76 3.33 2.97 2.94 .19
Variety of Diet 4.00 3.93 3.70 4.22 .95
Unprompted Recall .52 .33 .43 .54 .94

 

*Trend, not statistically significant.

147

Table 22.--Ana1yses of Interactions Between Literacy Skills and Expository
(Exp) and Discovery (Dis) Treatments for Group Means on Measures of Strategies

Employed in Learning.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

High Low
Meaggres Literacy Literacy P-ratio
Learning Exp Dis Exp Dis

Accurggy of Responses

Lesson 1 98.2 93.3 99.3 76.4 S.62**

Lesson 2 98.6 97.7 98.7 95.6 1.43*

Lesson 3 96.2 85.3 97.7 69.6 4.39"

Lesson 4 96.6 88.3 97.3 83.0 2.688
Copyingrreedback

Lesson 1 .33 .00 .56 .02 8.77***

Lesson 2 .14 .14 .81 .47 2.38'

Lesson 3 .04 .19 .17 .16 .90'

Lesson 4 .25 .00 .81 .02 l4.5*"
Stability of Responses

Lesson 1 99.0 99.7 98.3 99.0 .00

Lesson 2 98.4 97.0 97.3 97.8 1.90*

Lesson 3 97.2 98.3 98.0 98.2 2.30.

Lesson 4 98.6 98.3 97.0 98.6 1.869
Time Required

Lesson 1 31.6 60.3 42.7 81.6 .28

Lesson 3 40.6 52.3 47.0 63.8 .15
“Pop“ Choices

Pretest 7.52 8.00 7.67 7.84 .25

Posttest 7.38 7.77 7.43 7.14 1.61*

Delayed Posttest 7.52 7.97 7.20 7.60 .01
Shifting Focus

Pretest 6.38 6.60 6.43 6.82 .04

Posttest 5.10 5.07 5.27 5.20 .00

Delayed Posttest 5.14 4.93 5.13 5.22 .16
HI-HI-LO-LO Pattern

Pretest .14 .00 .06 .15 2.96

Posttest .05 .19 .06 .21 .00

Delayed Posttest .15 .14 .13 .12 .00
1:2/3-4 Pattern

Pretest .13 .10 .14 .19 .90

Posttest .12 .14 .23 .20 .11

Delayed Posttest .15 .14 .22 .34 1.35
Wild Choices

Pretest 1.30 1.63 1.57 1.44 1.94*

Posttest .40 .87 1.33 1.04 3.279

Delayed Posttest .38 .90 1.23 1.18 1.41*
Added Course Reason;

Pretest to Posttest 1.90 1.93 1.77 1.84 .06

Pretest to Delayed Posttest 1.92 1.73 1.57 1.80 5.20“

Posttest to Delayed Posttest 1.66 2.00 1.53 1.88 .00

 

*Trend, not statistically significant.

**Significant at the .05 level.
'**Significant at the .01 level.

148

Table 23.--Ana1yses of Interactions Between Literacy Skills and
Expository (Exp) and Discovery (Dis) Treatments for Group Means on
Measures of Affective Responses to Instruction.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Measures .High .Low .
of Literacy Literacy F-ratio
Learning Exp Dis Exp Dis
Pleasure Reasons for Food
Choices
Pretest .72 .77 .60 .56 .07
Posttest .58 .73 .40 .48 .06
Delayed Posttest .62 .67 .57 .46 .23
Choosing PI Instead of Stogy, 1.40 1.60 1.37 1.48 .23
Conversations About Course 1.32 1.33 1.07 1.08 .00
Completeness of Programmed
Lessons
Lesson 1 99.4 97.0 99.7 85.0 2.44*
Lesson 2 99.6 99.0 99.3 98.6 .03
Lesson 3 98.8 95.3 99.0 89.0 2.06*
Lesson 4 98.8 96.3 99.0 95.6 .11
Working Alone vs. With
Others
Lesson 1 .24 .33 .47 .16 1.04
Lesson 2 .00 .10 .23 .18 .48
Lesson 3 .08 .20 .27 .16 .62
Lesson 4 .00 .10 .33 .10 1.35*
Self-Report 1.26 1.97 1.37 1.24 2.83*

 

*Trend, not statistically significant.

149

of the accuracy of programmed lessons completed in class
(Lessons 1 and 3), and similar interactive trends were noted
on measures of the accuracy of programmed lessons completed
at home (Lessons 2 and 4). Learners with lower literacy
skills, when compared with those with higher literacy
skills, responded relatively more accurately in expository
lessons, and relatively less accurately in discovery
lessons. Significant interactions (p < .01) were noted on
two measures of a tendency to copy feedback (Lessons 1 and
4); similar interactive trends were noted on other measures
of this tendency (Lessons 2 and 3). Learners with lower
literacy skills--when compared with those with higher
literacy skills--showed a relatively greater tendency to
copy feedback in expository lessons. Interactive trends
were noted on three measures of the stability of responses
to programmed items. 0n Lessons 2 and 4 (completed at
home), the responses of learners with lower literacy skills
were more stable in discovery lessons, whereas the responses
of learners with higher litearcy skills were more stable in
expository lessons. 0n Lesson 3 (completed in class),
learners with lower literacy skills--when compared with
those with higher literacy skills-gave relatively more
stable responses to expository lessons. An interactive
trend was noted on a posttest measure of choices of popular
foods. Learners with lower literacy skills made more
choices of popular foods in the expository treatment, while

learners with higher literacy skills made more choices of

150

popular foods in the discovery treatment. Interactive
trends were noted on all measures of thoughtless (wild)
choices of foods. Learners with lower literacy skills made
fewer thoughtless choices in the discovery treatment,
whereas learners with higher literacy skills made fewer
thoughtless choices in the expository treatment. A signifi-
cant (p < .05) interaction was noted on a pretest to
delayed posttest measure of a tendency to add course-based
reasons for food choices to earlier reasons given, rather
than to drop earlier reasons in favor of newer ones.
Learners with lower literacy skills revealed a greater
tendency to add course-based reasons to earlier reasons

for food choices in the discovery treatment; learners with
higher literacy skills revealed a greater tendency to add
course-based reasons to earlier reasons for food choices

in the expository treatment.

Table 23 shows the results of analyses of inter-
actions between literacy skills and expository-discovery
treatments on measures of affective responses to instruction.
Trends toward interaction were noted on measures of
completeness of programmed lessons done in class (Lessons 1
and 3). Learners with lower literacy skills--when compared
with learners with higher literacy skills-—had relatively
less complete lessons in the discovery treatment. Inter-
active trends were noted on two measures of a tendency to
work alone or with others (Lesson 4 and a self-report).

Learners with higher literacy skills showed a greater

151

tendency to work with others in the discovery treatment,
whereas learners with lower literacy skills showed a
greater tendency to work with others in the expository
treatment.

The above data show the expository treatment to be
relatively more productive for learners with lower literacy
skills than for those with higher literacy skills on
measures of (l) completeness and accuracy of programmed
lessons, (2) a preference for working with others, and (3)
a tendency to choose popular foods on posttests. In
contrast, the data show the discovery treatment to be
relatively more productive for learners with lower literacy
skills than for those with higher literacy skills on
measures of (l) unprompted recall of course information,
(2) copying programmed feedback, (3) stability of responses
to programmed items, (4) thoughtful (rather than wild)
choices of foods, and (5) adding course-based reasons for
food choices to earlier reasons given, rather than dropping
earlier reasons in favor of newer ones. Thus the findings
are mixed and somewhat contradictory. Hypothesis 6b--that
the expository program condition (more culturally attuned)
is relatively more productive for learners with lower
literacy skills than for those with higher literacy skills

--is not supported.

152

Hypothesis 7

To test Hypothesis 7--that cultural attunements of
P1 are relatively more productive for traditional learners
than for modern learners-~two-way analyses of variance were
computed for each dependent variable with levels of cultural
attunement of PI (expository-discovery or individualized-
group treatments) on one dimension and levels of modernity
(determined by ranking intact groups according to means on

an attitudinal modernity measure) on a second dimension.10

Hypothesis 7a.--Data related to Hypothesis 7a--that
the group treatment (more culturally attuned) is relatively
more productive for traditional learners than for modern
learners--are shown in Tables 24, 25, and 26.

Table 24 shows the results of analyses of inter—
actions between modernity and individualized-group treat-
ments on measures of acquisition of content, transfer of
training, and retention of learning. An interactive trend
was noted on one measure of acquisition of content
(Exercise 1). Less modern learners achieved higher scores

in the group treatment, while more modern learners achieved

 

10Groups were categorized as either "high modernity"

or "low modernity" groups. High modernity groups were those
whose mean scores on a modernity measure (Smith-Inkeles
Minimum Scale of Individual Modernity, Short Forms 5 and 6)
were higher than the over-all mean. Low modernity groups
were those whose mean scores on the modernity measure were
lower than the over-all mean. All groups were included in
this analysis. Thus a total of sixteen cases (means for
intact groups) were considered.

153

Table 24.--Analyses of Interactions Between Modernity and
Individualized (Ind) and Group (Grp) Treatments for Group
Means on Measures of Acquisition of Content, Transfer of
Training, and Retention of Learning.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

High Low
Measures . .
of Modernity Modernity F-ratio
Learning Ind Grp Ind Grp
Acquisition of Content
Exercise 1 6.96 6.30 6.07 7.46 2.93*
Exercise 2 6.72 6.20 6.53 6.34 .06
Transfer of Training
Balance of Diet 4.42 2.67 2.63 3.98 2.91*
Variety of Diet 4.80 5.27 5.10 5.22 .11
Unprompted Recall .54 .30 .63 .60 .33
Retention of Learning
Balance of Diet 3.66 2.67 2.63 3.64 5.77**
Variety of Diet 4.00 4.27 3.77 3.98 .01
Unprompted Recall .36 .37 .53 .62 .08

 

*Trend, not statistically significant.

**Significant at the .05 level.

154

Table 25.--Analyses of Interactions Between Modernity and Individualized (Ind)
and Group (Grp) Treatments for Group Means on Measures of Strategies Employed
in Learning.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

High Low
Measgres Modernity Modernity P-ratio
Leagning Ind Grp Ind Grp

Accuracy of Responses

Lesson 1 91.8 85.3 86.0 95.6 1.518

Lesson 2 97.8 98.0 95.7 98.0 .99

Lesson 3 86.0 89.0 75.7 90.8 .64

Lesson 4 90.8 90.3 89.7 92.2 .13
Copyinqqreedback

Lesson 1 .18 .41 .19 .14 1.34*

Lesson 2 .16 .58 .40 .43 1.30‘

Lesson 3 .05 .14 .19 .17 .46

Lesson 4 .07 .41 .28 .26 1.06*
Stability of Responses

Lesson 1 99.4 98.0 99.3 99.0 2.18*

Lesson 2 97.8 97.3 98.3 97.6 .03

Lesson 3 97.6 97.7 98.3 98.0 .28

Lesson 4 98.8 98.0 98.0 98.0 .29
Time Required

Lesson 1 38.4 50.7 62.7 68.6 .05

Lesson 3 42.8 59.3 60.3 49.4 3.44'
"Pop" Choices

Pretest 7.76 7.70 7.67 7.78 .07

Posttest 7.66 6.83 7.43 7.42 2.788

Delayed Posttest 7.84 7.20 7.60 7.50 1.38'
Shifting Focus

Pretest 6.34 6.47 7.03 6.58 .55

Posttest 5.12 5.43 5.30 4.94 .88

Delayed Posttest 5.28 5.33 4.97 4.94 .01
HI-HI-LO-LO Pattern

Pretest .08 .20 .03 .11 .07

Posttest .04 .20 .17 .15 1.19‘

Delayed Posttest .10 .12 .12 .19 .20
1-2/3-4 Pattern

Pretest .13 .14 .17 .16 .05

Posttest .08 .26 .17 .21 1.22*

Delayed Posttest .17 .23 .37 .18 3.64'
Wild Choices

Pretest 1.46 1.47 1.67 1.32 1.12

Posttest .66 1.20 1.30 .60 7.17'*

Delayed Posttest .52 1.13 1.60 .68 12.58***
Added Course Reasons

Pretest to Posttest 1.90 1.93 1.77 1.84 .06

Pretest to Delayed Posttest 1.84 1.83 1.77 1.70 .07

Posttest to Delayed Posttest 1.64 1.77 1.80 1.88 .02

 

*Trend, not statistically significant.
**Significant at the .05 level.
'8‘Significant at the .01 level.

155

Table 26.--Ana1yses of Interactions Between Modernity and Individu-
alized (Ind) and Group (Grp) Treatments for Group Means on Measures
of Affective Responses to Instruction.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

High Low
Meazores Modernity Modernity F-ratio
Learning Ind Grp Ind Grp
Pleasure Reasons for Food
Choices
Pretest .76 .60 .57 .64 .47
Posttest .72 .36 .47 .52 1.88*
Delayed Posttest .70 .33 .40 .68 5.50**
Choosing PI Instead of Story, 1.36 1.47 1.53 1.50 .54
Conversations About Course 1.20 1.07 1.33 1.32 1.31*
Eoopleteness of Programmed
Lessons
Lesson 1 96.6 88.7 90.3 98.4 2.59*
Lesson 2 99.2 99.0 99.7 98.8 .60
Lesson 3 94.8 97.0 90.7 97.0 .43
Lesson 4 96.0 97.0 98.3 98.4 .09
Working Alone vs. With
Others
Lesson 1 .00 .27 .23 .58 .07
Lesson 2 .00 .00 .23 .24 .00
Lesson 3 .00 .17 .17 .32 .00
Lesson 4 .00 .00 .17 .26 .11
Self-Report 1.08 1.27 1.13 1.98 3.29*

 

*Trend, not statistically significant.

**Significant at the .05 level.

156

higher scores in the individualized treatment. Interactions
were noted on two measures of ability to plan a balanced
diet. On the immediate posttest (transfer) measure, the
interactive trend was not significant; on the delayed
posttest (retention) measure, the interaction was signifi-
cant at the .05 level. On both transfer and retention
measures of ability to plan a balanced diet, less modern
learners planned better balanced diets in the group
treatment, while more modern learners planned better
balanced diets in the individualized treatment.

Table 25 shows the results of analyses of inter-
actions between modernity and individualized-group treat-
ments on measures of strategies employed in learning.
Interactive trends were noted on one measure of accuracy of
responses to programmed items (Lesson 1), on three measures
of a tendency to copy feedback (Lessons 1, 2, and 4), on
one measure of stability of responses to programmed items
(Lesson 1), on one measure of time required to complete
programmed lessons (Lesson 3), on posttest and delayed
posttest measures of popular choices of foods, on a post-
test measure of unplanned (HI-HI-LO-LO Pattern) choices of
foods, and on posttest and delayed posttest measures of
mechanical (1-2/3-4 Pattern) choices of foods. Significant
interactions (p < .01 and p < .05) were noted on posttest
and delayed posttest measures of thoughtless (wild) choices
of foods. In all of the above interactions, less modern

learners achieved relatively more in the group treatment

157

and/or more modern learners achieved relatively more in the
individualized treatment.

Table 26 shows the results of analyses of inter-
actions between modernity and individualized-group treat-
ments on measures of affective responses to instruction.
Interactions were noted on two measures of pleasure reasons
given for food choices. (On an immediate posttest measure,
an interactive trend was noted; on a delayed posttest
measure, the interaction was significant at the .05 level.)
Less modern learners gave more pleasure reasons for food
choices in the group treatment, while more modern learners
gave more pleasure reasons for food choices in the indi-
vidualized treatment. An interactive trend was noted on a
measure of conversations about the course. More modern
learners--when compared with less modern learners--reported
relatively more conversations about the course in the
individualized treatment than in the group treatment. An
interactive trend was noted on one measure of completeness
of programmed lessons (Lesson 1). Less modern learners had
more complete lessons in the group treatment, while more
modern learners had more complete lessons in the individu-
alized treatment. An interactive trend was noted on a
measure of a tendency to work alone or with others; less
modern learners in the group treatment--when compared with
more modern learners in the group treatment--reported

working with others relatively more often.

158

The above data show the group treatment (more
culturally attuned) to be relatively more productive for
traditional learners than for modern learners. Hypothesis

7a is supported.

Hypothesis 7b.-—Data related to Hypothesis 7b--that
the expository program condition (more culturally attuned)
is relatively more productive for traditional learners than
for modern 1earners--are shown in Tables 27, 28, and 29.

Table 27 shows the results of analyses of inter-
actions between modernity and expository-discovery treat-
ments on measures of acquisition of content, transfer of
training, and retention of learning. Interactions were
noted on both measures of acquisition of content (Exercises
1 and 2). A significant interaction (p < .05) was noted
on scores for Exercise 1, and a similar though non-
significant trend was observed on scores for Exercise 2.
More modern learners--when compared with less modern
learners--achieved relatively higher scores in the
expository treatment and relatively lower scores in the
discovery treatment.

Table 28 shows the results of analyses of inter-
actions between modernity and expository-discovery
treatments on measures of strategies employed in learning.
Interactions were noted on two measures of accuracy of
responses to programmed items. On Lesson 1, an interactive

trend was noted; on Lesson 4, a significant (p < .01)

159

Table 27.--Analyses of Interactions Between Modernity and
Expository (Exp) and Discovery (Dis) Treatments for Group
Means on Measures of Acquisition of Content, Transfer of
Training, and Retention of Learning.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

High Low
Measores Modernity Modernity F-ratio
Leagning Exp Dis Exp Dis
Acquisition of Content
Exercise 1 7.60 5.23 6.87 6.98 6.84**
Exercise 2 7.38 5.10 6.93 6.10 2.53*
Transfer of Training
Balance of Diet 4.60 2.37 4.00 3.16 .61
Variety of Diet 4.70 5.43 5.07 5.24 .31
Unprompted Recall .46 .43 .57 .64 .07
Retention of Learning
Balance of Diet 3.44 3.03 3.50 3.12 .00
Variety of Diet 3.88 4.47 3.90 3.90 1.02
Unprompted Recall .42 .27 .60 .58 .23

 

*Trend, not statistically significant.

**Significant at the

.05 level.

160

Table 28.-~Analyses of Interactions Between Modernity and Expository (Exp) and
Discovery (Dis) Treatments for Group Means on Measures of Strategies Employed

in Learning.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

High Low
Meagores Modernity Modernity F-ratio
Learning Exp Dis Exp Dis

Accuracy of Regponses

Lesson 1 98.0 75.0 99.7 87.4 1.449

Lesson 2 98.8 96.3 98.3 96.4 .07

Lesson 3 96.2 72.0 97.7 77.6 .17

Lesson 4 97.0 80.0 96.7 88.0 8.81***
gopyingiFeedback

Lesson 1 .41 .03 .42 .00 .15

Lesson 2 .30 .35 .55 .34 .54

Lesson 3 .07 .ll .13 .21 .07

Lesson 4 .32 .00 .69 .02 2.44*
Stability of Responses

Lesson 1 98.6 99.3 99.0 99.2 .37

Lesson 2 97.6 97.7 98.7 97.4 .92

Lesson 3 97.4 98.0 97.7 98.4 .04

Lesson 4 98.0 99.3 98.0 98.0 .88
Time Required

Lesson 1 30.8 63.3 44.0 79.8 .03

Lesson 3 42.6 59.7 43.7 59.4 .01
”Pop” Choices

Pretest 7.62 7.93 7.50 7.88 .01

Posttest 7.32 7.40 7.53 7.36 .19

Delayed Posttest 7.50 7.77 7.23 7.72 .21
Shifting Focus

Pretest 6.42 6.33 6.37 6.98 .84

Posttest 5.34 5.07 4.87 5.20 .70

Delayed Posttest 5.34 5.23 4.80 5.04 .24
HI—HI-LO-LO Pattern

Pretest .07 .21 .17 .02 6.04“

Posttest .05 .17 .05 .22 .11

Delayed Posttest .13 .07 .15 .17 .40
1:2/3-4 Pattogn

Pretest .14 .11 .12 .19 1.08

Posttest .13 .18 .22 .18 .42

Delayed Posttest .14 .28 .24 .25 .80
Wild Choices

Pretest 1.44 1.50 1.33 1.52 .13

Posttest .62 1.27 .97 .80 2.45*

Delayed Posttest .54 1.10 .97 1.06 .65
Added Course Reasons

Pretest to Posttest 1.96 1.83 1.67 1.90 7.10**

Pretest to Delayed Posttest 1.86 1.80 1.67 1.76 .48

Posttest to Delayed Posttest 1.56 1.90 1.70 1.94 .12

 

*Trend, not statistically significant.
**Significant at the .05 level.
***Significant at the .01 level.

161

Table 29.--Analyses of Interactions Between Modernity and Expository
(Exp) and Discovery (Dis) Treatments for Group Means on Measures of

Affective Responses to Instruction.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

High Low
Meazgres Modernity Modernity F-ratio
Learning Exp Dis Exp Dis
Pleasure Reasons for Food
Choices
Pretest .70 .70 .63 .60 .01
Posttest .54 .67 .47 .52 .05
Delayed Posttest .54 .60 .70 .50 .65
Choosiog PI Instead of Story 1.38 1.43 1.40 1.58 .50
Conversations About Course 1.30 .90 1.10 1.34 8.06*
Completeness of Programmed
Lessons
Lesson 1 99.4 84.0 99.7 92.8 1.00
Lesson 2 99.4 98.7 99.7 98.8 .03
Lesson 3 99.0 90.0 98.7 92.2 .24
Lesson 4 99.0 92.0 98.7 98.2 27.5**
Working Alone vs. With
Others
Lesson 1 .16 .00 .60 .36 .06
Lesson 2 .00 .00 .23 .24 .00
Lesson 3 .04 .10 .33 .22 .42
Lesson 4 .00 .00 .33 .16 .38
Self-Report 1.16 1.13 1.53 1.74 .22
Attendance 77.7 81.4 78.3 78.2 .10

 

*Significant at the .05 level.
**Significant at the .01 level.

162

interaction was observed. Less modern learners--when
compared with more modern learners--made relatively more
accurate responses to programmed items in the discovery
treatment. An interactive trend was noted on a measure of
the tendency to copy feedback (Lesson 4). Less modern
learners--when compared with more modern learners--showed
a greater tendency to copy feedback in expository lessons.
An interactive trend was noted on a posttest measure of
thoughtless (wild) choices of food. Less modern learners
made fewer thoughtless choices of foods in the discovery
treatment, while more modern learners made fewer thoughtless
choices of foods in the expository treatment. A signifi-
cant (p < .05) interaction was noted on a pretest to post-
test measure of a tendency to add course-based reasons for
food choices to earlier reasons given, rather than to drop
earlier reasons in favor of newer ones. Less modern
learners showed a greater tendency to add course-based
reasons to earlier reasons given for food choices in the
discovery treatment; more modern learners showed a greater
tendency to add course-based reasons for food choices to
earlier reasons given for food choices in the expository
treatment.

Table 29 shows the results of analyses of inter-
actions between modernity and expository-discovery
treatments on measures of affective responses to instruction.
A significant (p < .05) interaction was noted on a self-

report of conversations about the course. Less modern

163

learners reported more conversations about the course in
the discovery treatment, while more modern learners
reported more conversations about the course in the
expository treatment. A significant (p < .01) interaction
was noted on a measure of the completeness of programmed
lessons (Lesson 4). Less modern learners--when compared
with more modern learners--had relatively more complete
lessons in the discovery treatment.

The above data do not support Hypothesis 7b, that
the expository treatment is relatively more productive for
traditional learners than for modern learners. To the
contrary, the data support the alternate hypothesis, that
the discovery treatment is relatively more productive for

traditional learners than for modern learners.

Hypothesis 8

To test Hypothesis 8--that cultural attunements of
PI are relatively more productive for learners who are less
motivated than for those who are more motivated--two-way
analyses of variance were computed for all dependent vari-
ables with levels of cultural attunement of PI (expository-
discovery or individualized-group treatments) on one
dimension and levels of motivation (determined by ranking
intact groups on a measure of community participation) on

a second dimension.11

 

l .
Church attendance was the measure of community
participation used. Each group was ranked according to the

164

Hypothesis 8a.--Data related to Hypothesis 8a--that

 

the group treatment (more culturally attuned) is relatively
more productive for less motivated learners than for more
motivated learners--are shown in Tables 30, 31, and 32.
Table 30 shows the results of analyses of inter-
actions between motivation and individualized-group
treatments on measures of acquisition of content, transfer
of training, and retention of learning. No significant
interactions or meaningful interactive trends were noted.
Table 31 shows the results of analyses of inter-
actions between motivation and individualized-group
treatments on measures of strategies employed in learning.
An interactive trend was noted on one measure of accuracy
of responses to programmed lessons (Lesson 1). More
motivated learners responded more accurately in the group
treatment, while less motivated learners responded more
accurately in the individualized treatment. A significant
interaction (p < .05) was noted on a tendency to copy
feedback on the first home assignment (Lesson 2). Less
motivated learners copied more feedback in the group

treatment, while more motivated learners copied more

 

mean of answers given to the question "How often do you
attend church?" Groups reporting a rate of church
attendance which was above the median for all groups were
ranked "high" in community participation; groups reporting
a rate of church attendance which was below the median for
all groups were ranked "low" in community participation.
All groups were included in this analysis. Thus a total
of sixteen cases (means for intact groups) were considered.

165

Table 30.--Analyses of Interactions Between Motivation and
Individualized (Ind) and Group (Grp) Treatments for Group
Means on Measures of Acquisition of Content, Transfer of
Training, and Retention of Learning.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

High Low
Meagores Motivation Motivation F-ratio
Learning Ind Grp Ind Grp
Acquisition of Content
Exercise 1 6.88 7.80 6.38 6.25 .84
Exercise 2 7.23 6.43 6.08 6.15 .54
Transfer of Training
Balance of Diet 4.23 4.03 3.28 2.95 .00
Variety of Diet 5.20 5.15 4.63 5.33 .59
Unprompted Recall .73 .45 .43 .53 1.15
Retention of Learning
Balance of Diet 3.60 3.18 2.95 3.38 .82
Variety of Diet 3.88 3.98 3.95 4.20 .06
Unprompted Recall .53 .53 .33 .53 .48

 

166

Table 31.--Analyses of Interactions Between Motivation and Individualized (Ind)
and Group (Grp) Treatments for Group Means on Measures of Strategies Employed

in Learning.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

High Low
Measures Motivation Motivation F-ratio
Leagiing Ind Grp Ind Grp

Accuracy of Responses

Lesson 1 88.0 98.0 91.3 85.5 1.61*

Lesson 2 96.5 98.5 97.5 97.5 .86

Lesson 3 80.0 92.0 84.3 88.3 .28

Lesson 4 91.5 93.8 89.3 89.3 .08
Copying Feedback

Lesson 1 .15 .18 .23 .30 .03

Lesson 2 .22 .16 .28 .82 8.05**

Lesson 3 .16 .13 .05 .19 1.07

Lesson 4 .11 .22 .19 .42 .13
Stability of Responses

Lesson 1 99.0 99.0 99.8 98.3 4.91**

Lesson 2 98.0 97.5 98.0 97.5 .00

Lesson 3 97.8 98.0 98.0 97.8 .40

Lesson 4 98.3 98.5 98.8 97.5 1.15*
Time Required

Lesson 1 51.3 50.5 43.8 73.3 1.22*

Lesson 3 52.8 47.3 46.0 59.0 1.43*
”Pop“ Choices

Pretest 7.48 7.73 7.98 7.78 .57

Posttest 7.48 7.38 7.68 7.03 1.17*

Delayed Posttest 7.58 7.60 7.93 7.18 3.53*
Shifting Focus

Pretest 7.15 6.56 6.05 6.53 2.60

Posttest 4.98 4.93 5.40 5.33 .00

Delayed Posttest 4.75 4.83 5.58 5.35 .25
HI-HI—LO-LO Pattern

Pretest .04 .13 .08 .16 .00

Posttest .13 .19 .05 .16 .08

Delayed Posttest .14 .20 .07 .14 .01
1-2/3-4 Pattepg

Pretest .21 .14 .08 .16 3.28

Posttest .11 .18 .12 .27 .33

Delayed Posttest .32 .14 .17 .26 4.80**
Wild Choices

Pretest 1.38 1.30 1.70 1.45 .33

Posttest .13 .65 1.08 1.03 .01

Delayed Posttest .83 .85 1.03 .85 .10
Added Course Reasons

Pretest to Posttest 1.95 1.88 1.75 1.88 1.63*

Pretest to Delayed Posttest 1.90 1.83 1.73 1.68 .01

Posttest to Delayed Posttest 1.85 1.95 1.55 1.73 .07

 

*Trend, not statistically significant.

**Significant at the .05 level.

167

Table 32.--Ana1yses of Interactions Between Motivation and Individu-
alized (Ind) and Group (Grp) Treatments for Group Means on Measures of
Affective Responses to Instruction.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

High Low
Measures Motivation Motivation F-ratio
of __
Learning Ind Grp Ind Grp
Pleasure Reasons for Food
Choices
Pretest .50 .63 .88 .63 1.56*
Posttest .35 .60 .90 .33 20.5**
Delayed Posttest .43 .63 .75 .48 2.73*
Choosing PI Instead of Story 1.48 1.60 1.38 1.38 .55
Conversations About Course 1.28 1.40 1.08 1.05 .39
Completeness of Programmed
Lessons
Lesson 1 92.5 99.3 96.0 90.3 1.59*
Lesson 2 99.5 99.5 99.3 98.3 2.18*
Lesson 3 92.5 97.5 94.0 96.5 .16
Lesson 4 98.3 99.0 95.5 96.8 .03
Working Alone vs. With
Others
Lesson 1 .13 .55 .05 .38 .09
Lesson 2 .18 .08 .00 .23 2.25*
Lesson 3 .13 .25 .00 .28 .34
Lesson 4 .13 .08 .00 .25 1.07
Self-Report 1.15 2.00 1.05 1.43 1.53*

 

*Trend, not statistically significant.

**Significant at the

.01 level.

168

feedback in the individualized treatment. Interactions
were noted on two measures of the stability of responses to
programmed items (Lesson 1 and Lesson 4). The interaction
observed in Lesson 1 was significant at the .05 level; the
interaction in Lesson 4 was a non-significant trend in the
same direction. Less motivated learners--when compared
with more motivated learners--gave relatively more stable
responses in the individualized treatment, and relatively
less stable responses in the group treatment. Interactive
trends were noted on both measures of time required to
complete programmed lessons (Lessons 1 and 3). Less
motivated learners required relatively more time to com-
plete the lessons in the group treatment, while more
motivated learners required relatively more time to
complete the lessons in the individualized treatment.
Interactive trends were noted on both posttest and delayed
posttest measures of choices of popular foods ("pop"
choices). On both measures, less motivated learners made
relatively more choices of popular foods in the individu-
alized treatment, and relatively fewer choices of popular
foods in the group treatment. A significant interaction
(p < .05) was noted on a delayed posttest measure of a
tendency to make mechanical (1-2/3-4 Pattern) responses.
Less motivated learners made fewer mechanical responses in
the individualized treatment, while more motivated learners
made fewer mechanical responses in the group treatment.

An interactive trend was noted on a pretest to posttest

169

measure of a tendency to add course-based reasons for food
choices to earlier reasons given, rather than to drop
earlier reasons in favor of newer ones. Less motivated
learners showed less tendency to add course-based reasons
to earlier reasons given in the individualized treatment;
more motivated learners showed a greater tendency to add
course-based reasons to earlier reasons given in the
individualized treatment.

Table 32 shows the results of analyses of inter—
actions between motivation and individualized-group
treatments on measures of affective responses to in-
struction. Interactions were noted on all three measures
of pleasure reasons given for food choices. On the
immediate posttest, the interaction was significant at the
.01 level. On the pretest and delayed posttest measures,
responses revealed interactive trends in the same direction.
Less motivated learners gave fewer pleasure reasons for
food choices in the group treatment, while more motivated
learners gave fewer pleasure reasons for food choices in
the individualized treatment. Interactive trends were noted
on two measures of completeness of programmed lessons
(Lessons 1 and 2). Less motivated learners had relatively
more complete lessons in the individualized treatment,
while more motivated learners had relatively more complete
lessons in the group treatment. Trends toward interaction
were noted on two measures of a tendency to work alone or

with others (Lesson 2 and a Self-Report). In the group

170

treatment, more motivated learners were observed to work
alone relatively more on home assignments, but at the same
time to report working together relatively more than less
motivated learners.

The above data fail to support Hypothesis 8a, that
the group treatment is relatively more productive for less
motivated learners. Several measures of strategies employed
in learning and affective responses to instruction tend to
support an alternate hypothesis that the group treatment is

relatively more productive for more motivated learners.

Hypothesis 8b.--Data related to Hypothesis 8b--that
the expository program condition (more culturally attuned)
is relatively more productive for less motivated learners
than for more motivated learners--are shown in Tables 33,
34, and 35.

Table 33 shows the results of analyses of inter-
actions between motivation and expository-discovery
treatments on measures of acquisition of content, transfer
of training, and retention of learning. Significant
interactions (p < .01 and p < .05) were noted on both
immediate posttest (transfer) and delayed posttest
(retention) measures of ability to plan a varied diet.
Less motivated learners planned more varied diets in the
discovery treatment, while more motivated learners planned
more varied diets in the expository treatment. An inter-

active trend was noted on a delayed posttest (retention)

171

Table 33.--Analyses of Interactions Between Motivation and
Expository (Exp) and Discovery (Dis) Treatments for Group
Means on Measures of Acquisition of Content, Transfer of

Training, and Retention of Learning.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

High Low
Measures Motivation Motivation F-ratio
Leagfiing Exp Dis Exp Dis
Acquisition of Content
Exercise 1 7.75 6.93 6.90 5.73 .12
Exercise 2 7.70 5.95 6.73 5.50 .36
Transfer of Training
Balance of Diet 5.13 3.13 3.63 2.60 .35
Variety of Diet 5.38 4.98 4.30 5.65 4.33**
Unprompted Recall .65 .53 .35 .60 1.13
Retention of Learning
Balance of Diet 3.88 2.90 3.05 3.28 1.85*
Variety of Diet 4.18 3.68 3.60 4.55 11.40***
Unprompted Diet .58 .48 .40 .45 .25

 

*Trend, not statistically significant.

**Significant at the .05 level.

***Significant at the

.01 level.

172

Table 34.--Ana1yses of Interactions Between Motivation and Expository (Exp)
and Discovery (Dis) Treatments for Group Means on Measures of Strategies
Employed in Learning.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

High Low
Measures Motivation Motivation P-ratio
Leagfiing Exp Dis Exp Dis

Accuracy of Responses

Lesson 1 98.0 88.0 99.3 77.5 1.71*

Lesson 2 98.5 96.5 98.8 96.3 .07

Lesson 3 95.5 76.5 98.0 74.5 .20

Lesson 4 96.5 88.8 97.3 81.3 8.S7***
Copyingiteedback

Lesson 1 .33 .00 .51 .03 2.86*

Lesson 2 .18 .20 .61 .49 .24

Lesson 3 .06 .23 .13 .11 1.62*

Lesson 4 .31 .02 .61 .00 1.90*
Stability of Responses

Lesson 1 98.8 99.3 98.8 99.3 .00

Lesson 2 98.3 97.3 97.8 97.8 .52

Lesson 3 97.3 98.5 97.8 98.0 2.67*

Lesson 4 99.0 97.8 97.0 99.3 10.90***
Time Required

Lesson 1 35.0 66.8 36.5 80.5 .37

Lesson 3 41.0 59.0 45.0 60.0 .05
"Pop" Choices

Pretest 7.40 7.80 7.75 8.00 .07

Posttest 7.30 7.55 7.50 7.20 .99

Delayed Posttest 7.33 7.85 7.48 7.63 .66
ShiftingiFocgg

Pretest 6.65 7.05 6.15 6.43 .03

Posttest 4.70 5.20 5.63 5.10 2.74'

Delayed Posttest 4.68 4.90 5.60 5.33 .71
HI:HI-LO-LO Pattern

Pretest .17 .00 .05 .18 8.24***

Posttest .06 .25 .05 .16 .30

Delayed Posttest .19 .15 .10 .ll .15
1-2/3-4 Pattern

Pretest .17 .18 .10 .14 .04

Posttest .15 .14 .17 .22 .17

Delayed Posttest .19 .26 .17 .27 .05
Wild Choices

Pretest 1.13 1.55 1.68 1.48 5.77**

Posttest .43 .93 1.08 1.03 1.29*

Delayed Posttest .40 1.28 1.00 .88 3.88*
Added Course Reasogg

Pretest to Posttest 1.88 1.95 1.83 1.80 .37

Pretest to Delayed Posttest 1.90 1.83 1.68 1.73 .37

Posttest to Delayed Posttest 1.83 1.98 1.40 1.88 2.18*

 

*Trend, not statistically significant.

**Significant at the .05 level.
***Significant at the .01 level.

173

Table 35.--Analyses of Interactions Between Motivation and Expository
(Exp) and Discovery (Dis) Treatments for Group Means on Measures of
Affective Responses to Instruction.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

High Low
Measures Motivation Motivation F-ratio
of
Learning Exp Dis Exp Dis
Pleasure Reasons for Food
Choices
Pretest .58 .55 .78 .73 .01
Posttest .40 .55 .63 .60 .32
Delayed Posttest .53 .53 .68 .55 .16
Choosing PI Instead of Story 1.43 1.65 1.35 1.40 1.37*
Conversations About Course 1.33 1.35 1.13 1.00 .39
Completeness of Programmed
Lessons
Lesson 1 99.5 92.3 99.5 86.8 .40
Lesson 2 99.8 99.3 99.3 98.3 .60
Lesson 3 98.5 91.5 99.3 91.3 .04
Lesson 4 98.5 98.8 99.3 93.0 22.50**
Working Alone vs. With
Others
Lesson 1 .30 .38 .35 .08 .86
Lesson 2 .00 .25 .18 .05 3.20*
Lesson 3 .10 .28 .20 .08 1.21*
Lesson 4 .00 .20 .25 .00 2.61*
Self-Report 1.33 1.83 1.28 1.20 1.33*

 

*Trend, not statistically significant.
**Significant at the .01 level.

174

measure of ability to plan a balanced diet. Less motivated
learners planned better balanced diets in the discovery
treatment, while more motivated learners planned better
balanced diets in the expository treatment.

Table 34 shows the results of analyses of inter-
actions between motivation and expository-discovery
treatments on measures of strategies employed in learning.
Interactions were noted on two measures of accuracy of
responses to programmed items. An interactive trend was
noted in Lesson 1; a significant (p < .01) interaction was
noted in Lesson 4. On both measures, less motivated
learners-~when compared with more motivated learners--made
relatively more accurate responses in the expository
treatment, and relatively less accurate responses in the
discovery treatment. Interactive trends were noted in
three measures of a tendency to copy feedback (Lessons 1,
3, and 4). Less motivated learners--when compared with
more motivated learners--showed a relatively greater
tendency to copy feedback in expository lessons. Inter-
actions were noted on two measures of stability of responses
to programmed items (Lesson 3 and Lesson 4). An inter-
active trend was noted in Lesson 3; a significant (p < .01)
interaction was noted in Lesson 4. In Lesson 3, completed
in class, moremotivated learners--when compared with less
motivated 1earners--showed relatively more stable answers
in the discovery treatment, and relatively less stable

answers in the expository treatment. In Lesson 4, completed

175

at home, less motivated learners made more stable responses
in the discovery treatment, while more motivated learners
made more stable responses in the expository treatment.
An interactive trend was noted on a posttest measure of a
tendency to shift focus of attention among food groups.
Less motivated learners shifted their focus of attention
more often in the expository treatment, while more motivated
learners shifted their focus of attention more often in the
discovery treatment. A significant interaction (p < .05)
was noted on a pretest measure of thoughtless (wild)
choices of foods; interactive trends in the same direction
were noted on posttest and delayed posttest measures of
thoughtless (wild) choices. Less motivated learners made
more thoughtful choices in the discovery treatment, while
more motivated learners made more thoughtful choices in the
expository treatment. An interactive trend was noted on a
posttest to delayed posttest measure of a tendency to add
course-based reasons for food choices to earlier reasons
given rather than to drop earlier reasons in favor of newer
ones. Less motivated learners--when compared with more
motivated learners—-showed relatively less tendency to add
course-based reasons to earlier reasons in the expository
treatment.

Table 35 shows the results of analyses of inter-
actions between motivation and expository-discovery

treatments on measures of affective responses to instruction.

176

An interactive trend was noted on a measure of a tendency
to chose PI instead of a story. More motivated learners--
when compared with less motivated learners--showed a
relatively greater tendency to chose PI in the discovery
treatment. A significant (p < .01) interaction was noted
on a measure of completeness of programmed lessons (Lesson
4). Less motivated 1earners—-when compared with more
motivated learners--had relatively more complete lessons in
the expository treatment, and relatively less complete
lessons in the discovery treatment. Interactive trends
were noted on four out of five measures of a tendency to
work alone or with others. Less motivated learners worked
alone more often in the discovery treatment, while more
motivated learners worked alone more often in the expository
treatment.

The above data reveal mixed findings. The exposi-
tory method was found to be more productive for less
motivated learners on measures of (1) accuracy and com-
pleteness of programmed lessons, (2) stability of responses
to programmed items (in class), (3) a tendency to choose PI
instead of a story, and (4) a tendency to work with others.
In contrast, the discovery method was found to be more
productive for less motivated learners on measures of (1)
ability to plan a balanced and varied diet; (2) a tendency
to copy less feedback; (3) a tendency to make more stable
responses (at home); and (4) a tendency to shift focus of

attention among food groups less often; (5) a tendency to

177

make fewer thoughtless (wild) choices of foods, and (6) a
tendency to add course-based reasons for food choices to
earlier reasons given, rather than to drop earlier reasons
in favor of newer ones. Hypothesis 8b--that the expository
program condition is relatively more productive for less
motivated learners than for more motivated learners—-is
only partially supported. Some data lend support to the
alternate hypothesis (that the discovery program condition

is relatively more productive for less motivated learners).

Summary

Findings which have been reported in this chapter
are summarized in Figures 6 through 17. A summary of
findings related to Hypothesis l--that learning occurs
through PI in a Brazilian milieu--is shown in Figure 6.
Analyses of selected measures supported the hypothesis.

A summary of findings related to Hypothesis 2a--
that the group interaction condition (more culturally
attuned) is more effective than the individualized inter-
action condition (less culturally attuned)--is shown in
Figure 7. The hypothesis was not supported. The findings
were contradictory, and not statistically significant.

A summary of findings related to Hypothesis 2b--
that the expository program condition (more culturally
attuned) is more effective than the discovery program
condition (less culturally attuned)--is shown in Figure 8.

The hypothesis was partially supported. Findings must be

178

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190

interpreted in the light of interactions and trends which
tend to support the alternate hypothesis.

A summary of findings related to Hypothesis 3--that
the literacy skills of learners affect the degree to which
PI (under all treatment conditions) facilitates learning--
is shown in Figure 9. The hypothesis was supported.

A summary of findings related to Hypothesis 4--that
the modernity of learners affects the degree to which PI
(under all treatment conditions) facilitates learning-~13
shown in Figure 10. The hypothesis was partially supported.
The evidence was scattered, and not always in the direction
hypothesized.

A summary of findings related to Hypothesis 5--that
motivation to learn affects the degree to which PI (under
all treatment conditions) facilitates learning--is shown
in Figure 11. The hypothesis had limited but consistent
support on measures of female sex and community partici-
pation. Mixed and inconclusive findings failed to support
the hypothesis on measures of age.

A summary of findings related to Hypothesis 6a--
that the group interaction condition (more culturally
attuned) is relatively more productive for learners with
lower literacy skills than for those with higher literacy
skills--is shown in Figure 12. The hypothesis was only
partially supported. The evidence was contradictory and

inconclusive.

191

A summary of findings relative to Hypothesis 6b--
that the expository program condition (more productive for
learners with lower literacy skills than for those with
higher literacy skills--is shown in Figure 13. The
hypothesis was not supported. The findings were mixed and
somewhat contradictory.

A summary of findings related to Hypothesis 7a--
that the group interaction condition (more culturally
attuned) is relatively more productive for traditional
learners than for modern learners--is shown in Figure 14.
The hypothesis was supported.

A summary of findings related to Hypothesis 7b--
that the expository program condition (more culturally
attuned) is relatively more productive for traditional
learners than for modern learners--is shown in Figure 15.
The hypothesis was not supported. Scattered but consistent
evidence supported the alternate hypothesis.

A summary of findings related to Hypothesis 8a--
that the group interaction condition (more culturally
attuned) is relatively more productive for less motivated
learners than for more motivated learners--is shown in
Figure 16. The hypothesis was not supported. Several
measures of strategies and affective responses supported
the alternate hypothesis.

A summary of findings related to Hypothesis 8b--
that the expository program condition (more culturally

attuned) is relatively more productive for less motivated

192

learners than for more motivated 1earners--is shown in
Figure 17. The hypothesis was partially supported, with

some of the evidence supporting the alternate hypothesis.

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

In this final chapter of the dissertation, a
summary of the investigation and a discussion of research
findings and observations are provided. From the dis-
cussion, conclusions are drawn and implications for

teaching and further research are suggested.

Summary of the Investigation

The present research has explored a series of
questions arising from attempts to attune programmed
instruction (PI) to a Brazilian milieu: (1) whether or
not learning occurs through PI; (2) whether or not increases
in cultural attunement of PI along two dimensions (in-
structional interaction and program style) facilitate
learning; (3) whether or not the nature of the learners
affects the degree to which PI facilitates learning; and
(4) whether or not certain dominant characteristics of the
learners affect the degree to which cultural attunments of

PI facilitate learning.

193

194

The research subjects were 145 youths and adults
(ages l4-75) who reside in the metropolitan area of Sao
Paulo, Brazil. They were voluntary participants in a
three-session programmed course on nutrition given at
sixteen testing sites throughout Greater Sao Paulo. The
mean years of schooling for these subjects was 3.7 years.
Eighty-three per cent of them were employed in manual
occupations with low social status.

Two versions of a programmed unit were developed
for this research. The versions were varied systematically
along three dimensions of expository-discovery teaching
described by Shulman (1970): (l) the degree of guidance
provided, (2) the ruleg or egrule sequencing of instruction,
and (3) the didactic or Socratic style of instruction.

In addition, instruments were adopted, adapted, or
developed to provide measures of learner characteristics
and measures of learning. Learner characteristics
(independent variables) examined in this research included
literacy skills, modernity, and motivation to learn.
Measures of learning (dependent variables) included content
acquisition, transfer of training, retention of learning,
strategies employed in learning, and affective responses
to instruction.

The research plan called for a 2 x 2 factorial
design with variations of instructional interaction

(individualized and group conditions) on one dimension,

195

and variations of program style (expository and discovery
conditions) on the other dimension.

Data were gathered through three visits to each of
sixteen test sites, and examined through analyses of
variance and simple and partial correlational procedures.

Tests of hypotheses resulted in the following
findings:

Hypothesis l--that learning occurs through PI in a
Brazilian milieu--was supported.

Hypothesis 2a--that the group interaction condition
(more culturally attuned) is more effective than the
individualized interaction condition (less culturally
attuned)--was not supported. The findings were contra-
dictory, and not statistically significant.

Hypothesis 2b--that the expository program con-
dition (more culturally attuned) is more effective than
the discovery program condition (less culturally attuned)--
was partially supported. The findings must be interpreted
in the light of interactions which tend to support the
alternate hypothesis that the discovery program condition
is more effective.

Hypothesis 3--that the literacy skills of learners
affect the degree to which PI (under all treatment con-
ditions) facilitates learning--was supported.

Hypothesis 4--that the modernity of learners

affects the degree to which PI (under all treatment

196

conditions) facilitates learning-~was partially supported.
The evidence was scattered, and not always in the direction
hypothesized.

Hypothesis S--that motivation to learn affects the
degree to which PI (under all treatment conditions)
facilitates learning--had limited but consistent support
on measures of sex and community participation. Mixed and
inconclusive findings failed to support the hypothesis on
measures of age.

Hypothesis 6a--that the group interaction condition
(more culturally attuned) is relatively more productive
for learners with lower literacy skills than for those with
higher literacy skills--was only partially supported. The
evidence was contradictory and inconclusive.

Hypothesis 6b--that the expository program con-
dition (more culturally attuned) was relatively more
productive for learners with lower literacy skills than
for those with higher literacy skills--was not supported.
The findings were mixed and somewhat contradictory.

Hypothesis 7a--that the group interaction con-
dition (more culturally attuned) is relatively more
productive for traditional learners than for modern
learners--was supported.

Hypothesis 7b--that the expository program con-
dition (more culturally attuned) is relatively more
(productive for traditional learners than for modern

1earners--was not supported. Scattered but consistent

197

evidence supported the alternate hypothesis that the
discovery program condition is relatively more productive.

Hypothesis 8a--that the group interaction condition
(more culturally attuned) is relatively more productive
for less motivated learners than for more motivated
learners--was not supported. Several measures of strategies
and affective responses to instruction supported the
alternate hypothesis that the individualized condition is
more productive.

Hypothesis 8b--that the expository program con-
dition (more culturally attuned) is relatively more
productive for less motivated learners than for more
motivated learners--was partially supported. Some evidence,
however, supported the alternate hypothesis that the

discovery program condition is relatively more productive.

Discussion: Experimental Findings.

 

In Chapter IV of this dissertation, results from
statistical analyses of research data were presented. The
discussion which follows here attempts to interpret these

findings.

Hypothesis 1

The data supported Hypothesis l--that learning
occurs through PI in a Brazilian milieu. Such findings
harmonize with Schramm's (l964:3,4) conclusion (based on
early investigations of PI) that many kinds of students

learn many kinds of subject matter through many kinds of

198

programmed instruction. The present research extends the
generalizability of earlier findings to another subject

area (nutrition) and to other students (adults in Brazil).

Hypothesis 2a

The data failed to support Hypothesis 2a--that the
group interaction condition (more culturally attuned) is
more effective than the individualized interaction con-
dition (less culturally attuned). The findings were
somewhat contradictory, and were not statistically signifi-
cant.

A probable explanation for the paucity of signifi-
cant findings related to this hypothesis is that the
contrast between the individualized and group treatment
conditions was not sharp enough. Students were strongly
urged to work alone in the individualized treatment, and
to work together in the group treatment. However--in order
to create a natural teaching environment (as well as to
maximize participant observation within the constraints of
treatments)--students were given considerable freedom to
interact in natural ways. The result was a tendency
(possibly growing out of formal school experiences) to
prefer working alone in both treatments. Thus, even
though students in the group treatment worked together
relatively more than students in the individualized
treatment, the "individualized" and "group" treatments

actually compare varying degrees of individualized

199

instruction rather than clearly contrasted individualized
or group conditions of instruction.1

Another possible reason for sparse findings
related to the above hypothesis is that the treatment
effects were overwhelmed by interactions with character-
istics of learners, such as modernity and motivation.
Findings related to other hypotheses considered in this
research (especially Hypotheses 7a and 8a, discussed later

in this chapter) would admit such an explanation.

Hypothesis 2b

 

The data lent partial support to Hypothesis 2b--
that the expository program condition (more culturally
attuned) is more effective than the discovery program
condition (less culturally attuned). Significant findings
on measures of acquisition of content (Exercises 1 and 2)
and strategies employed in learning (accuracy and com-
pleteness of programmed lessons, and time required to

complete lessons) support the hypothesis.

 

1The problem encountered here illustrates a re-
curring dilemma in curriculum research. A decision to
control the teaching environment increases the precision of
the treatment (and, consequently, the possibility of
statistically significant findings) but decreases the
applicability of findings to real settings in which
teaching variables can and do interact in a variety of
ways. On the other hand, a decision to create a less
controlled teaching environment increases the applicability
of research results to natural settings, but--through the
inherent risk of confounding variables and weakening
contrasts between treatments--decreases the possibility of
statistically significant findings.

200

These significant findings become less convincing
when interpreted in the light of trends and interactions
which tend to support an alternate hypothesis that the
discovery program condition is more effective. Analyses of
several measures (Balance of Diet, HI-HI-LO-LO Pattern, and
Added Course Reasons) revealed interactions in which
students in the discovery treatment showed learning gains
one week after instruction, while students in the exposi-
tory treatment showed no learning gains during this period
of time. Findings from analyses performed on other
measures (Copying Feedback and Choosing PI instead of a
Story) seem to indicate that students in the discovery
treatment were thinking more and were enjoying the in-
struction more.

Mixed findings lead to speculation that, while
initial achievement may be greater in the expository
treatment, more thinking and more permanent learning may
occur in the discovery treatment. Previous research
reviewed by Wittrock (1966), Tanner (1969), and Hermann
(1969), and discussed earlier in this dissertation, would

support such a conclusion.

Hypothesis 3

The data supported Hypothesis 3--that the literacy
skills of learners affect the degree to which PI (under all
treatment conditions) facilitates learning. The only

exceptions to otherwise consistent findings were negative

201

correlations between literacy skills and (l) ability to
plan a varied diet, (2) a tendency to choose PI instead of
a story, and (3) a tendency to work alone rather than with
others. Possible explanations for these inconsistencies
are not difficult to surmise. Learners with higher
literacy skills could have planned less varied diets
because they are better integrated into a traditional
system of schooling which rewards convergent, repeated
behaviors, rather than the divergent, flexible behaviors
required in varying food choices on repeated tests.
Learners with higher literacy skills could have chosen a
story rather than PI because they had already mastered the
programmed lessons (or perhaps were bored with the lessons,
finding them too easy). Learners with higher literacy
skills could have preferred working alone because they were
more competent and confident. They did not need help from

others, and become impatient with slower learners.

Hypothesis 4

The data partially supported Hypothesis 4--that the
modernity of learners affects the degree to which PI (under
all treatment conditions) facilitates learning. The
evidence was scattered, and not always in the direction
hypothesized.

Possible explanations for sparse and mixed findings
are: (1) that the population considered in this study

(semi-schooled youths and adults residing in Sao Paulo) was

202

relatively homogeneous on modernity variables so that
differential effects were too small to be observed; (2)
that modernity variables are relatively independent factors
which may be expected to relate to each other and to

dependent variables in different ways in differing

settings; (3) that modernity variables interact with

expository-discovery and individualized-group treatments

(findings related to Hypothesis 7 would admit such an
explanation); (4) that more modern learners show symptoms
of waning interest and motivation earlier than their more
traditional counterparts (more inconsistencies were
observed on the last lessons and delayed posttests); (5)
that attitudinally modern learners are more sophisticated
than traditional learners in their perceptions of course
expectations, deciding, for example, to drop pretest
reasons for food choices (which have a folkloric quality
about them) in favor of course-based (more intellectual)
reasons for choices; and (6) that on at least one measure
(kind of school experience) factors other than modernity

were being measured.

 

2In the present study, the students who reported
the most modern school experiences happened to be attending
an adult literacy school where relatively modern teaching
methods were being employed. Thus this measure could more
accurately be interpreted as a measure of the relative
effectiveness of adult remedial or childhood education.

203

Hypothesis 5

The data partially supported Hypothesis 5--that
motivation to learn affects the degree to which PI (under
all treatment conditions) facilitates 1earning--on measures
of sex and community participation. Mixed and inconclusive
findings failed to support the hypothesis on a measure of
age. Younger learners appeared to be faster and more
efficient than older learners (showing greater learning
gains on measures of accuracy and stability of responses
to programmed items, time required to complete programmed
lessons, shifts in focus, and unplanned, HI-HI-LO-LO
Pattern, responses). On the other hand, older learners
appeared to achieve more on gral measures of information
and cognitive gains (unprompted recall of course infor-
mation, and a tendency to add course-based reasons for food
choices to earlier reasons given). These findings may
indicate that older learners (when compared with younger
learners) have developed greater skills in taking oral
tests (perhaps through greater exposure to traditional
kinds of school experiences in which oral recitations and
examinations are practiced). The findings could also
indicate that, since oral measures are less dependent upon
literacy skills than are written measures, older learners,
who tend to have more difficulty in reading and writing,
have a better opportunity to demonstrate what they have

learned orally than in writing.

204

Hypothesis 6a

The data partially supported Hypothesis 6a--that
the group condition of interaction (more culturally attuned)
is relatively more productive for learners with lower
literacy skills than for those with higher literacy skills.
The findings were contradictory and inconsistent, possibly
because not all of the learning which occurs in groups is
desirable learning! Less literate learners--when compared
with more literate learners--are relatively more successful
in learning desirable behaviors through the group treatment
(such as planning a balanced diet, making thoughtful
choices of foods, and doing accurate and complete work on
programmed lessons). On the other hand, these less
literate learners are also relatively more prone to learn
undesirable behaviors through the group treatment (such as

copying feedback and shifting focus of attention).

Hypothesis 6b

The data revealed mixed findings which failed to
support Hypothesis 6b--that the expository program con-
dition (more culturally attuned) is relatively more
productive for learners with lower literacy skills than for
those with higher literacy skills. The expository method
was relatively more productive for learners with lower
literacy skills than for those with higher literacy skills
on several measures of learning (completeness and accuracy

of programmed lessons, working with others, and choosing

205

popular foods). At the same time, on other measures of
learning (Stability of Responses, Copying Feedback, Un-
prompted Recall, Added Course Reasons) more thinking appears
to be going on among less literate learners in the
discovery method. Here again, as in earlier findings
related to Hypothesis 2b, a pattern emerges which suggests
that, at least when thoughtful behaviors are criteria for
learning, discovery teaching may be more effective than
expository teaching. Less literate students (those who
have been less successful in coping with traditional
schooling) appear to achieve relatively more through the

discovery method on measures of thinking.

Hypothesis 7a

The data supported Hypothesis 7a--that the group
interaction condition (more culturally attuned) is
relatively more productive for traditional learners than
for modern learners. The fact that all significant
findings and trends were in a single direction (the
direction hypothesized) lends credence to an earlier
suggestion that individualized-group treatments interact
with characteristics of learners (in this case, with

modernity).

Hypothesis 7b
The data failed to support Hypothesis 7b--that the
expository program condition (more culturally attuned) is

relatively more productive for traditional learners than

206

for modern learners. On the contrary, the findings
provided scattered but consistent evidence to support an
alternate hypothesis that the discovery program condition
is relatively more productive for traditional learners.

A possible explanation for these unexpected
findings is that more modern learners (who are better
integrated into formal educational structures) have
successfully learned to learn through expository methods.
They employ "meaningful reception learning" (Ausubel
1968) in integrating new information into existing
cognitive structures. Because of their success in learning
through expository methods, they have little desire for
change. Discovery teaching, with its many novel features,
is perceived as a threat. On the other hand, less modern
learners (who are less integrated into existing edu-
cational structures) have been less successful in coping
with expository teaching methods; they resort to in-
effective, rote strategies of learning. Discovery methods
force these less modern learners to develop new (more
thoughtful, and hence more effective) strategies. Thus
less modern learners--when compared with more modern
learners--find the discovery method relatively more

productive.

Hypothesis 8a
The data failed to support Hypothesis 8a--that the

group condition of interaction (more culturally attuned)

207

is relatively more productive for less motivated learners
than for more motivated learners. Instead, the alternate
hypothesis--that the individualized treatment is relatively
more productive for less motivated learners--was supported
on several measures.

Once again, as in data related to Hypothesis 7a,
the findings provide evidence that individualized-group
treatments interact with characteristics of learners,
making certain conditions of instructional interaction more
effective for some learners than for others.

The direction of the above findings--pointing
toward relatively greater productivity of the individualized
treatment with less motivated learners-—is probably related
to the particular measure of motivation employed in the
analyses (community participation) rather than to a larger
"motivation" construct. Logically, persons who are more
active participants in a community activity would tend to
develop greater skills in working with groups than would

learners who are less active participants.

Hypothesis 8b

The data lent only partial support to Hypothesis
8b--that the expository program condition (more culturally
attuned) is relatively more productive for less motivated
learners than for more motivated learners. Some of the

evidence supported an alternate hypothesis that the

208

discovery program condition is relatively more productive
for less motivated learners.

From the above findings a profile emerges of less
motivated learners who are frustrated, anxious, and
uncomfortable in the discovery treatment (making relatively
more mistakes on programmed lessons, feeling relatively
more pressure from competition with peers and limitations
on time, responding less favorably to the method than to a
story method, and preferring to work alone). At the same
time, these less motivated learners--when compared with
their more motivated counterparts--are apparently thinking
more and achieving more through the discovery method
(gaining relatively higher scores on measures of balance
and variety in planning a diet, giving relatively more
stable answers to programmed items when time and peer
pressures were removed [at home], copying relatively less
feedback, showing relatively less tendency to shift focus
of attention among food groups, and showing relatively less
tendency to make thoughtless [wild] choices of foods).

The above findings are quite similar to findings
related to other hypotheses in which expository and
discovery treatments were compared (Hypotheses 2b, 6b, and
7b). The discovery treatment--when compared with the
expository treatment--appears to be relatively more
productive for less literate, less modern, and less
motivated learners on measures of thoughtful behaviors

and relatively permanent learning gains.

209
Discussion: Participant Observation

In the present research, an attempt was made to
combine experimentation with participant observation.
These activities were not always compatible. More
observations were made in smaller groups (where data
gathering activities were less demanding, and interaction
less complex) than in larger groups. Since full attention
could not be given to observation, selective perception of
environmental stimuli tended to sort out those occurrences
which lent support to hypotheses, or which made an impact
through their novelty.

In spite of the limitations imposed upon obser-
vation through an experimentally designed study, an effort
was made to provide a continuous record of experiences
during field work.3 A file of 364 observations resulted
from this effort. Observations considered most relevant
to the purposes of the present research are summarized

below.

Observations of Settings
At each site, the Session Observation Form
(Appendix E) provided a systematic record of environmental

variables such as distractions, improvisations, and

 

3Field experiences included 32 hours in testing
Inaterials with informants, 48 hours in teacher training,
80 hours of conversations with local leaders, and 108 hours
of interaction with students in class situations.

210

differences among local coordinators. Distractions from
street noise, children, and curious onlookers were con-
sistently present. Another frequent annoyance was lights
going out. Improvisations (such as using wood slabs for
tables and kitchen sinks as counters for materials) were
also common. At one site, the available furnishing were
nursery school tables and chairs, and one of the students
was six feet tall! The effectiveness of coordinators
(persons responsible for local arrangements) also varied
considerably from site to site.

Observations on Composition

'3f_THEEEE_§roups

Both homogeneity within groups and heterogeneity
among groups were observed. At most test sites, a self-
selection process resulted in homogeneity within groups.
Persons dissimilar from their peers in some important way
(extremely fast or extremely slow learners, for example)
tended to withdraw from the course.

Heterogeneity among groups on variables such as
age, sex, urbanity, social status, literacy skills,
motivation, and religion was also observed. Such obser-
vations often proved to be inaccurate. In one "middle
class" neighborhood, for example, the local coordinator
was certain that most residents had secondary schooling;
she was surprised to find that a relatively large number
of the residents had completed only primary school. In

contrast, a coordinator in a "poor" neighborhood assured

211

the investigator that no one had attended secondary school;
five persons with secondary schooling appeared for the

treatment!

Observation on Time

Several observations reflect conflicting perceptions
of time. Sao Paulo residents--caught in a rapid transition
from traditional to modern values——revealed a paradoxical
combination of weak time consciousness and acting as if
always in a hurry. Students arrived at treatment sessions
anywhere from twenty minutes early to two hours late. At
some sites everyone arrived at once; at others persons
straggled in, making it necessary to repeat instructions
and tests for late-comers.

Cross-national differences in perceptions of time
were noted. A Brazilian teacher-assistant was observed
marking time on programmed manuals by five-minute intervals,
and on intelligence tests by one-minute intervals. At the
same time, the American investigator was marking manuals
by one-minute intervals and intelligence tests by one-
second intervals!

Observations_gf Student Responses
to Nutrition Information

Nearly all of the groups showed a keen interest in
the subject matter related to nutrition. Recurring com-
ments provided evidence that learning was taking place:

"This course helps me do my grocery shopping"; "When I eat,

212

I think about which foods belong to which groups"; "We are
planning our menus at home around the four food groups";
and "I wish my daughter could take this course." At least
one student learned the lesson too well. Her comment in

an oral interview was, "I eat enough fruit now, something

I didn't do before." This same woman was given a low score
on the written posttest because the diet she planned was
badly overbalanced with fruits and vegetables!

The investigator and teacher assistants were
frequently called upon to serve as nutrition consultants,
and to accept the respect due to authority persons. They
were often asked questions such as "Is it harmful to drink
coffee?" or "How can I loose weight?" One lady pulled her
muscular l8-year-old son into the classroom by his coat
sleeve and demanded, "Would you tell my son he should eat
a meal in the evening, and not just bread and milk?"
Observations of Cognitive
Behaviors

Students had difficulty with cognitive processes,
such as generalizing, remembering, and linking reading with
active responding.

Lack of interest in or experience with making
generalizations was observed. One woman, for example,
insisted that papaya and oranges are not alike. A
colleague explained that they were both fruits. The retort

of the first woman was, "What good does it do to put things

213

together that way? When I go to the market, I've got to ask
for oranges."

High anxiety about forgetting or making mistakes
was noted. A typical comment was "It's so easy, and I
still forget." On the oral posttests, some students tried
to remember what they had said earlier so that they would
not repeat or contradict themselves.

Many learners found it hard to link reading with
active responding. They would read an instruction such as
"open the envelope inside the back cover," and ask, "Shall
I open the envelope now, or go on reading?"

Observations of Affective
Responses

 

Strong expressions of liking were dominant at all
test sites. Exclamations such as "This is fun!" "This is
neat!"4 "This course is too short," and "I'm going to miss
these little books" were heard repeatedly. The students
liked being interviewed. In addition, the certificate at
the end of the course provided strong extrinsic motivation.

Some expressions of negative affect were also
noted. Students were afraid of taking tests. At least at
first, they perceived the programmed manuals to be tests,
and were very concerned about careful handwriting and not
making errors. Enthusiasm began to wane as the novelty of

the course wore off. By the third week, attendance had

 

4Portuguese, bacana.

214

dropped by 25 per cent, many of the students were less
punctual, and some were completing homework assignments
after they arrived at the class sessions.
Observations of Psychomotor
Skills

At almost every site, some persons were weak in
reading and writing skills and had difficulty keeping pace
with the group. Many students found writing tiring. One
woman exclaimed that she had never written so much in her
life. Typically, some students forgot their glasses and
would go home to get them or borrow a pair from a colleague.

Sex differences in manual dexterity were noticed
in a card sorting task required in the first discovery
lesson. Women easily sorted the decks of food cards,
while men found the task much more difficult.
Observations of Student
Aggptations to PI

Students in all treatments adapted quickly to the
use of PI. Most comments, questions, and other observable
reactions to PI were made within the first half-hour after
the method was introduced. Beyond this initial period,
students were accepting and behaving appropriately to the
expectations of the method. An overheard conversation
during the second session was typical: "The course is
easier today." "That's because we've been practicing this

method."

215

A strong tendency to copy the feedback was
observed. In a typical incident, a student read a frame
which asked him to choose a fruit he liked and write it in
the blank. Instead, he carefully copied the feedback:
"Your choice." Happily, some of the students readily
grasped the purpose of feedback. One woman said, "I made
mistakes, but I didn't correct them. I wanted to check
where I erred in order to learn."

A generalized pattern of impulsiveness was observed
across all groups. Many students tried to guess what to do
next instead of letting the book tell them.

Students enjoyed doing the lessons at home.
Comments on how pleasant it was to work on the lessons
during leisure time were heard at several sites.

Observations of Responses to
Individualized-Group,Methods

 

 

The individualized treatment allowed few obser-
vations. Students showed a tendency to help colleagues
who were having difficulty with reading or comprehension,
but for the most part they worked quietly and alone.

At all sites where group treatments were employed,
an initial resistance to being required to work together
was noted. In more cohesive groups, the resistance broke
down rapidly. A strong esprit g3 ggrpg evolved in which
students helped each other, joked, and engaged in lively
discussions and arguments. In less cohesive groups, work

in teams was difficult to establish. Students became

216

impatient with each other. The group treatment was least
effective in a literacy school setting where students had
been told by local teachers not to converse in the class-
room. One younger woman at the literacy school asked,
incredulously, "You mean you really want us to talk 2&229
to each other?"

Ample time was a crucial factor in implementing
the group treatment effectively. The condition did not
function well when pressures were created by a late hour
on a week night, or by a fixed class period in a school
situation.

The group condition functioned best when teachers
and the investigator maintained a low profile. If teachers
were too readily available, there was a tendency to revert
to teacher-led discussions. The teacher-assistants in
this research became adept at refusing to give help with
comments such as "The book is your teacher," or "See if you
can solve this problem among yourselves."

Three roles developed within almost every group:
(1) surrogate teachers, who became task leaders, explaining
lessons and helping colleagues; (2) jokesters, the social
leaders of the groups whose constant jokes were rewarded
with laughter and appreciation from their colleagues; and,
(3) resistors, who wanted to work alone, sulked, argued,

and were generally impatient and disagreeable.

217

Observations of Responses to
Expository-Discovery,Methods

 

Qualitatively different classroom climates were
created by expository and discovery conditions of PI. The
expository treatment sessions were characterized by mildly
positive affective expressions. By comparison, the
discovery treatment sessions were much more charged with
emotion. The students in discovery treatments were
alternatively excited, enjoying themselves, nervous, tense,
anxious, arguing, and demonstrating feelings of frustration
and hostility toward the method.

The students in expository treatment found the
method easy to cope with. They did not need or want the
eight frames of teacher guidance which were provided to
introduce PI. They understood what was expected of them
immediately, and worked independently, efficiently, and
confidently. Students and teams competed among themselves
to see who could finish the lesson first. They made few
requests for teacher help.

In contrast, students in discovery treatments had
difficulty in coping with requirements such as reaching
generalizations inductively. They required more support
from both their colleagues and the teachers. Frequent
expressions of frustration at "Socratic" elements in the
lessons were noted. For example, the first lesson called
for organizing food cards into groups and preparing a food

chart. As soon as this task was accomplished, students

218

were asked to rescramble the cards. The reaction of one
student to this requirement is typical: "The book must be

joking. I'm going to rest a little first."
Conclusions

At least six conclusions may be drawn from the

findings reported in the present research:

1. PI provides a_promising tool for development
education. Subjects in the present research adapted
quickly to PI under all treatment conditions. The method
was effective in teaching elementary principles of
nutrition to semi-literate students in Brazil. Over-
whelming evidence that PI teaches (from both the present
investigation and earlier investigations) leaves little
room for doubt that similar efforts with similar students
in similar cultures will meet with equal success. The fear
that programmed instruction--a method developed in a
technological society--may be ineffective in a traditional

milieu seems to be poorly founded.

2. While adaptations of PI in the direction of
group methods are not contraindicated by findipgs from the
present researchj such adaptations are not equally bene-
ficial for all learners. Adaptations of PI in the
direction of group methods appear to be relatively more

productive for less modern and more motivated learners

219

than for more modern and less motivated learners.5 A
comparison of negative and inconclusive findings related
to Hypotheses 2a and 6a (that the group interaction
condition (1) is more effective than the individualized
condition, and (2) is relatively more productive for
learners with lower literacy skills) with quite consistent
findings related to Hypotheses 7a and 8a (that the group
interaction condition is relatively more productive for
less modern and less motivated learners) supports such a

conclusion.

3. Adaptations of PI in the direction of discovery
methods appear to be beneficial. Although initial learning
appears to be greater in the expository condition of PI,
more thinking and more permanent learning seem to occur in
the discovery condition. Findings related to hypotheses
comparing expository and discovery treatments (HZb' H6b’

H7b' and Heb) support such a conclusion.

4. Highly literate, highly motivated learners
achieve more through PI than less literate, less motivated

learnersy irrespective of cultural adaptations of the

 

5Hypothesis 8a stated that the group condition
would be relatively more productive for less motivated
learners. In most analyses related to this hypothesis,
the group condition of interaction was found to be rela-
tively more productive for more motivated learners. This
unexpected finding may be due to the particular measure
of motivation employed in the analysis (community partici-
pation) rather than to a relationship to a larger
"motivation" construct. ‘

220

method. Findings related to Hypotheses 3 and 5 supported
conclusions that literacy skills and motivation are related
to achievement through PI. Contradictory and inconclusive
findings failed to support Hypotheses 6 and 8, that
cultural attunements of PI are relatively more productive
for less literate, less motivated learners, than for more
literate, more motivated learners. A comparison of the
positive findings related to H3 andH5 with the negative
findings related to H6 and H8 would suggest that the
literacy skills and motivation of learners are relatively
more important than cultural attunements of PI in predicting
learning outcomes. More literate, more motivated learners
appear to achieve more through PI than less literate, less
motivated learners, regardless of efforts to adapt the

method to the culture of the learners.6

5. Adaptations of PI in the direction of group
and discovery teaching methods are relatively more
productive for traditional learners than for modern
learners. This conclusion is supported by a comparison
of relatively inconclusive findings related to Hypothesis
4--that the modernity of learners affects the degree to
which PI (under all treatment conditions) facilitates

learning-~with the consistent and quite conclusive findings

 

6It is conceivable, of course, that forms of
cultural attunement other than those assumed to be important
in the present research would produce different results and
different conclusions.

221

related to Hypotheses 7a and 7b in which less modern
learners--when compared with more modern learners-~achieved
relatively more through group and discovery treatments.
Interestingly, the interaction between modernity
and expository-discovery treatments was not in the direction
hypothesized. Hypothesis 7b stated that the expository
program condition (more culturally attuned) would be
relatively more productive for traditional learners than
for modern learners; instead, the discovery program
condition was found to be relatively more productive for
these learners. Implications of this unexpected finding

are discussed below.

6. The conception of "cultural attunement" embedded
in the rationale for hypotheses tested in the present
research (pages 83-88) must be reformulated (l) to dis-
tinguish between "attunement” as a process and "attunement"
as a product; and (2) to account for the complexity of
factors involved in attuning teaching to culture.

Within the context of the present research,
"attunement" has been treated as a process. An attempt has
been made to adapt teaching to culture along expository-
discovery and individualized-group dimensions. Clearly a
process is not the same as a product; attempting is not the
same as achieving. Mixed and unexpected findings in the
present investigation (for example, the discovery treatment,

by definition less culturally attuned, and the group

222

treatment, by definition megs culturally attuned, were both
more productive for less modern than for more modern
learners) indicate that efforts to attune teaching to
culture were not wholly successful. A true matching of
teaching and culture (attunement as a product) is probably
not attainable without an exhaustive awareness of complex
factors involved in adapting teaching to culture (attune-
ment as a process). An understanding of factors inherent
in individual differences among learners appears to be
especially crucial in adapting teaching to culture (cf.
Cronbach 1966). In other words, the present state of the
development of ethnopedagogical theory is not adequate as

a basis for highly reliable (predictable) attunement
processes. Efforts to attune teaching methods to the
cognitive characteristics, learning styles, pedagogical
expectations, and preferences of learners should be carried
out with due caution and humility!

The inadequacy of the present state of knowledge
does not mean that attempts to attune teaching to culture
are futile; on the contrary, such efforts provide indis-
pensible data for developing cross-cultural teaching
theory. Findings from the present research, for example,
contributed to ethnopedagogical theory by revealing certain
crucial factors along an "extent of schooling" dimension of
learner variables which was overlooked in the formulation
of hypotheses: (1) individual differences among learners

in their ability to respond to school and non-school

223

learning experiences; (2) the expectations of learners in
school and non-school environments; and (3) individual
preferences for teaching methods growing out of successful
learning experiences within school and non-school environ-
ments. Further investigations within an ethnopedagogical
framework may be expected to make similar contributions to
cross-cultural teaching. Hopefully, an accumulation of
such contributions will eventually make a true cultural

attunement of instruction possible.
Implications for Further Research

One of the purposes of an exploratory study, such
as the present one, is to generate suggestions for further
research. Some directions which future investigations

might take are suggested below.

Replications

The findings reported in this dissertation may well
be peculiar to the students (semi-literate adults in Sao
Paulo, Brazil), subject matter (nutrition) and time span
(three sessions) chosen for the study. Investigations
utilizing other subjects (such as university students),
other subject matter (such as literature) and a longer time
span (a month or more) could provide interesting com-

parisons of the effects of educational levels, subject

matter, and the length of instruction on learning outcomes

through adaptations of PI.

224

If replications of the present study were under-
taken, efforts should probably be made (1) to reduce the
number of dependent variable measures employed (perhaps
through factor analyses to select key measures of highly
related phenomena), and (2) to increase the control
exercised in the individualized-group treatments. Such
modifications should not be made, however, at the expense
of loss of information or naturalness of treatment con-

ditions.

Studies of Cogpitive Processes

One of the by-products of the present research has
been extensive data on the responses of students to
programmed items. A careful record has been kept of each
student's response to each item in each programmed lesson.
Verbatim reports of errors and divergent responses have
also been recorded. (All records have been kept by case
numbers, so that information is available for each subject
concerning his age, sex, schooling, intelligence, com-
munity participation, modernity, scores on dependent
variable measures, and the treatment to which he was
assigned.) To date, these data on responses to programmed
items have not been analyzed. Such analyses would provide
useful information on the cognitive processes of semi-
literate learners. Applications of such findings to
cross-cultural teaching would be helpful in development

education efforts.

225

Oevelopment 2f Appropriate
Statistical Technigues

Typically, an investigation which delights the
curriculum researcher becomes a statistician's nightmare.
The reason for this tension is not difficult to find:
statistical techniques which are appropriate in laboratory-
like settings are inadequate when applied to the real world
of teaching. In real settings, predicted effects usually
are not substantial enough to be sustained; confounding
variables and interactions inevitably weaken effects which
in laboratory settings might easily be statistically
significant.

The present study has been conducted in the field
within the curriculum research tradition; the problems
which have been encountered in analyzing and interpreting
data are typical of such research. The quite complete
documentation of this investigation provides the raw
material for a study of possible solutions to problems
created when field-based data are analyzed through
laboratory-based procedures.

Studies of Modernity and the
Effects of'Schooling
The modernity variables employed in this research

deserve a more thorough examination than they have been

given in the present context. Data from this study could

be useful, for example, in examining the validity of a

226

modernity construct; ways in which so-called "modernity"
variables are related to each other and to other inde-
pendent, dependent, and treatment variables could be
explored.

Similarly, data on the effects of schooling upon
learning outcomes have been handled only superficially in
the present research; they merit deeper analytic probings.
Examples of questions which could be explored through these
data are the effects of childhood versus adult remedial
education on learning outcomes, or the effects of learning
strategies employed (processes) on learning outcomes

(products).
Implications for Teaching

Because the present research has been conducted in
the field in a reality setting, the resultant findings
have immediate and direct implications for teaching. Some
of these implications are discussed below.

Implications for Programmed
Instruction

 

In the present research, PI was found to be an
effective method of teaching semi—literate adults in a
Brazilian milieu. Cross-cultural educators may introduce
PI to these learners or to similar learners with reasonable

confidence that learning will occur through the method.

Suggestions which should maximize the effectiveness of

227

learning through PI include: (1) developing or selecting
units of study which encourage thoughtful, constructed,

and divergent responses to programmed items; (2) minimizing
opportunities to copy feedback or to engage in other rote
learning and test-taking behaviors; (3) providing training
in linking reading with active responding; and (4) keeping
peer pressures and time pressures at a minimum.

Implications for Discovery
Teachipg

 

Findings from the present research do not justify
the hesitancy educators sometimes feel about introducing
"foreign" methods, such as discovery teaching, into a
culture. Discovery methods appear to be at least as
effective as expository methods for Brazilian learners
(they even surpass expository methods on some measures of
thoughtful behaviors and retention of learning). The
discovery method seems to be especially beneficial for
learners who are less integrated into the formal educational
system (less literate, less modern, and less motivated
learners).

Implications for Gropp
Interaction in PI

 

Findings from the present research do not contra-
indicate the use of PI in group modes. Group methods were
shown to be at least as effective as individualized methods;

they appear to be especially beneficial for less modern

228

learners. The group use of PI needs to be introduced
carefully, however. Initial resistance to the method can
be anticipated; group skills need to be taught. Un-
necessary time pressures and competitiveness should be
avoided. Efforts to introduce group conditions of
interaction will be most successful in cohesive groups
where a strong esprit 92 coEps is present or can be created.
Implications for Cross-
Cultural Teaching

In addition to the method-specific implications for
teaching discussed above, findings reported in the present
study have other, more generalized, applications to cross-
cultural teaching.

Cross-cultural teaching must be flexible. An over-
emphasis on one medium or one method should be avoided.
In this study, for example, older learners were shown to
achieve more on ggal measures while younger learners
achieved more on written measures. Such differences among
learners within and across cultures should be taken into
consideration in a comprehensive plan for teaching.

Cross-cultural teaching must include training in
thinking skills. Most of the semi-literate learners in
this study found cognitive requirements (e.g., inductive
reasoning) extremely difficult to cope with. Provision
must be made for teaching how to think (strategies and

processes) as well as what to think (content).

229

In teaching across cultures, the educator has at
least three options. His first option is to introduce new
methods all at once and with no modifications; students
must adapt to him. The second option available to the
educator is a wholesale adaptation of instructional
procedures to the expectations of the learners, carefully
avoiding "foreign" innovations. As a third option, the
educator may introduce planned change, initially accomo-
dating teaching to the students' style of learning, but
ultimately guiding the students toward optimal learning
practices. The findings of the present research would
encourage cross-cultural educators to opt for the third
strategy, introducing planned change.

Introducing innovations in teaching (such as
discovery and group methods) may be especially beneficial
to less integrated, less successful learners within a
society. Quite possibly, some of the school dropouts and
misfits in traditional societies are students who have
developed one set of learning habits through their non-
school environment, and have been unsuccessful in developing
a new set of habits to fit the requirements of the formal
educational structure. For these learners, adaptations of
instruction in the direction of cultural attunment to the
non-formal, non-school milieu may be essential if effective

learning is to occur.

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Hutchinson, Bertram. "The Social Grading of Occupations
in Brazil," British Journal of Sociology, 8:176-
189, June, 1937.

International Labour Office. International Standard
Classification of Occupations. Rev. ed., 1968,
Geneva: 1969.

Kahl, Joseph Alan. The Measurement of Modernism: A Stud
of Values in Brazil and Mexico. Austin: Institute
of’Latin American Studies, UniVersity of Texas,
1968.

 

Kluckhohn, Florence R., and Fred L. Strodtbeck. Variations
in Value Orientations. New York: Harper and Row,
1961.

Komoski, P. Kenneth. "April Forum: P.I. Around the World,"
Programed Instruction, 4:1-2, April, 1965.

Koran, Mary Lou. "Differential Response to Inductive and
Deductive Instructional Procedures," Journal of
Educational Psychology, 62:300-307, August, 1971.

Kress, Gerard C., Jr. A Study of Social Facilitation
During Programmed Instruction. Pittsburgh:
American Institutues for Research in Behavioral
Science, 1967.

Krumboltz, John D., and William W. Yabroff. "The Compara—
tive Effects of Inductive and Deductive Sequences
in Programed Instruction," American Educational
Research Journal, 2:223-235, 1965.

Lange, Phil C., and Desmond P. Wedberg. "The Feasibility
of Programed Learning for Developing Countries,"
Audiovisual Instruction, 15:65-67, April, 1970.

Parry, Scott B. "What the West Africans Taught Us About

P.I.," Programed Instruction, 4:7,10-11, April,
1965.

Paternostro, J. N. "Pesquisa do Nivel Mental em um Grupo de
169 Adultos da Cidade de Sao Paulo Através do Teste
Otis." Unpublished report, September 12, 1972.
Available through the Institute for International
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Rogers, Everett M. Modernization Among Peasants: The
Impact of Communication. New York: Holt, Rinehart
and Winston, Inc., 1969.

234

Schramm, Wilbur. The Research on Programmed Instruction:
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Office of Education, U.S. Department of Health,
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In Begle, Edward G. (ed.). Sixty-ninth Yearbook
of the National Society for the Study of Education,
Part I. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,

 

Shulman, Lee S., and Evan R. Keislar (eds.). Learning by
Discovery: A Critical Appraisal. Chicago: Rand
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Skinner, B. F. "Why We Need Teaching Machines," Harvard
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Smith, Karl U., and Margaret Foltz Smith. C bernetic
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Spache, George. "A New Readability Formula for Primary-
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Spaulding, Seth. "A Spanish Readability Formula," Modern
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235

Thiagarajan, S. "Programmed Instruction in India," Edu-
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Learning by_Discovery: A Critical Appraisal.
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July, 1963.

Woodruff, Arnold Bond, Charles Faltz, and Diane Wagner.
"Effects of Learner Characteristics on Programed
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Worthen, Blaine R. "Discovery and Expository Task
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Supplement, No. 1, Part 5, February, 1968.

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Measurements Yearbook. Edited-5y Oscar Kriesen
Buros. Highland Park, N.J.: The Gryphon Press,
1959, pp. 499-500.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

DESCRIPTION OF TEST SITES

.hao>«uuomuou .mn can 0 has» :0 acaccwoon annoyanns. sq vouaouac

.mcwuuou can measoa>uouca u0u acOAnuou Maccauqoon vououwouoooc aoouuoaao Hoauou u no ucoquHHuoou oflaaca

 

 

I. 333»: 333m C3309.» Ea?
susom no: on «com acoaom ouuad.mmm nacho .w~\a on
III.|I. >uo>oouwo
nuaom 00: on doom cacao: nonwoao> oonuaasow>wocw hu.on.na\o ma
Sunboo-«a
:uuoz case) «Adamant annouau uncauaosxnu asouu on.n~.au\a vH
huo>oouao
«as. can. hoccwxo: awed can. Queue 051. na
huo>oonwn
can. can. amuuoo usaooauz «as. oouaausou>wvcu case «A
can. can: «sundae: «snouwm 0E6: Shouwnomxn
nacho 06¢. Ha
auouuaomxu m.v.H\mnan.mN.oN
susOm H0050. hoauouaa doom acouom ouul<_mmm oouaacsow>aocn :a.m~.v~.>a.oa\o ca
>uo>ooaao
nuuoz c0503 doom Isaac: nonaauoso osouo om.nfl.o\a a
>uo>oouao m\a
use: 3080) anon cannon Haocwxnu vauwaosvw>wvcH ma.nu\h a
II ..I Douauomxn mu
v.08 00: on swuuou unsound: oozed Guano oeuuausoa>wocu oa.aa\h h
.l. ..l E0239.» 2.2
p.03 00: on «wuuou usaooHoz undouuaOh ozone c.m~.m\s o
auoueuomxu v\h
vane :86: “9333. 233.. 3.3 63333365 ZEN} m
auouwuomxu «\n
nuuoz c060: «mom cacao: cannondun asouo m~.oa\o v
auouaoomxm H\h
nusom c0803 auscuxox afioq wouaoao> oouwausowbwccn v~.ha\w M
II I. b.2633 2.3m
nuaom co: on owuuou unsuoauz cwaxooum macho om\m a
.II auo>oonwo oa.n\o
and: no: on «accouns “scene: unwouufiom oonaausoa>avcn h~\m H
canon 0mm Hoonom uo wean assumes Aouuaumv ucoauooua acoauooua uonEsz
no 0:0» cOMuuooq uo coax no cause moouo

 

mmBHm 8mm? ho ZOHBmHmUmflO

d xHDZNmmd

236

APPENDIX B

PUBLICITY AND INFORMATION USED IN

ARRANGING TEST SITES

APPENDIX B
PUBLICITY AND INFORMATION USED IN

ARRANGING TEST SITES

mrornsuno is suns practmus SOBRB

O ESTUDO PEDAGOPICO INTER-CULTURAL

l) 0 Que é o "Estudo Pedagdgico Inter-Qultural":

E uma pesquisa que quer descobrir algumas das adatacgss que
850 necessaries quando métodos pedagdgicos desenvolvidos nun ambi-

ente sstEo sendo utilizados em outro.

2) Por guem é promovidog
E promovido no Brasil pela AETTE (Associacgo Evangélica para

o Treino Teoldgico por Extensao). Nos Estados Unidos 5 promovido
pelo "Institute for International Studies in Education" Michigan
State University, e pelo "Midwestern Universities Consortium for
International Activities", que tambén tem sede em E. Lansing, Michi-
gan. Esta filtima entidade é uma Junta que represents cinco univer-
sidades do Meio-Oeste dos EE.UU.A. Recebe uma verba da Pundacgo
Ford. Tanto professores universitarios, como alunos dos cursos pds-
graduados avancados, concorrem para b5lsas de pesquisa pages deste
fundo. A diretora do estudo ganhou uma bdlsa deste fundo numa con-

corréncia feita entre alunos pds-graduados.

3) guem é a Diretora do Estudo9
O estudo é dirigido nor Miss Lois (Loide) McKinney, professora

de pedagogia, candidate so doutorado (Ph.D.) em educacgo, pela Uni-
versidade do Estado de Michigan. 0 estudo fornecera a base tanto
para a dissertacao (tése) que ela escreveri, como de artigos que
sergo publicados em revistas profissionais no Brasil 3 nos Estados
Unidos.

D. Loide 6 missionaria da Missgo Batista Oonservadora. Durante
seis anos lecionou no Seminario Teoldgioo Batista de Leiria, Portu-
gal (entre 1960-1965). Tambén lecionou de 1966-1969, no Seminario
Teoldgioo Batista do Nordeste em Floriano, Piauf, Brasil.

Antes de ser missionéria, D. Loide trabalhou como orientadora

2137

h)

S)

6)

7)

2238

2
educacionsl com a "Scripture Press", uma dss msiores casas publi-

csdoras svangélicss, dos EE.UU.A.

Em gue consiste o Egtudo?

0 estudo tem duas etspas. Na primeira etapa, que duraré
sproximadamente seis semsnas, as licaes dadas por meio de instrucso
progrsmada, serfio experimentsdas cuidadossmente num "programs pildto"
ns Congregacao Batista de Jardim Cidalis em Sao Paulo (afilisda é
Igreja Batista do Brooklin).

Na segunda etaps, D. Loide, Juntamente com estudantes da
Paculdsde Teoldgica Batista de Sic Paulo, dari cursinhos em virias
igrers e congregacSes. 0 estudo atingiré 120 alunos em 12 congre-
gacSes. 0 curso iniciar-se-é no dia 27 de msio e iré até 0 dia 16

de setembro. (21/5 - 16/9)

9391 o Cursinho Que Vai Ser LecionadO?
Trata-se de um cursinho de nutricao num nfvel bésico. Serso

dadas nocoes de uma diets adequada.

Quem Sao Os AlunOS?

Os alunos sac membros ou amigos das igrejas evangéiicas que
serao matriculados neste curso. Todos os alunos devem ter mais de
quinze anos de idade e precisam saber ler e escrever. Mas n50 podem

tsr nenhum curso slém do primério.
Qusis Os Resultados Esperados Do Estudo:

ESperamos ter um conhecimento mais profundo sabre a instrucso
programada e a sus splicscso, que a tornara num método mais eficsz
no ambiente brasileiro. Através dos dados recolhidos, poderemos
dizer com certs confianca, qusis ego alguns dos processos e m6-
todos de ensino que facilitarao a aprendizagem dos alunos, tsis

como os que estgo matriculados neste projeto.

0 parecer do Estudo Pedagdgico Inter-Cultural teri splicscgo
no treino teoldgico por extensio no Brasil, sendo Este treino um

esforco que depends em grands parts dos métodos suto-didéticos.
Para mais informsc5es, escreva d Diretora do Estudo:

Lois McKinney, Diretora

Estudo Pedagdgico Inter-Cultural
Caixs Postal 30.259

Sao Paulo, SP. Brasil

239

ssruoo PEDAGOGIco INTER-CULTURAL
CAIXA POSTAL 30.259
O1000 SAO PAULO. SP.

Telugu” 269-1191 LOiS MCKINNEY
WNSIBILID‘DES DO COODEN‘DOR D's-roan

1) Combine: com o pastor on ontidodo rospons‘vol pols oomgrogogio.

vantsgons no posquiss:
0 psrooor do estudo tor‘ opliosqio no treino toolégioo
pgr oxtonsso.
Una otiss oportunidsdo consider nio-orontos i igron.
0s onsinos sobro nutrig o to. valor om si.

2) Combinsr com a dirotors do ostudo, paro.quo ola posse falsr com o
pastor. on, so for possfvol. sprooontsr o posquiss dursnto um
culto ds igron.

3) Combinsr com 15 alunos pars virom.no dis ssrosdo.

Todos dovom
tor 15 once on Isis do idsdo
sgbor lor o osorovor
nso tor Isis do.quo prisirio oomploto
podor vir so tros sonsnss (use voz por sonsns)

IHPORTANTB;
Hinguos pods sstriouIIr-so dopois do 1. sossns.
So tones 15 v s.
Tonto inoluir o-ons.
Tonto inoluir nio creates.

Vsntsgons pars o sluno

Ajundondo nuns posquiso.quo ton valor no obrs do 8onhor
Aprondondo goisss utoio o intorososntos sabre nutrigio
Curse grstu to com oortificsdo no rim

Boa oonvtvonois

Hoio do ovsngolismo (trszondo possoss amigos)

h) Arrumar a sale antes do osds auls
Moses o osdoirss pars 15 possess

Duss mosinhss oxtrss pars mstorlss o ontrovistss
(on sols sopsrsda. so for possfvol)

5) AJudar oomo monitor dursnto s auls - distribuindo trsbslhos. oto.

prom0vldo pela AssoclaCAO Evangéllca Teoléglca para Trelnamento por Extensao
RICHARD STURZ. sscnstsmo-sxscuvwo

240

asruoo PEDAGOGICO INTER-CULTURAL
CAIXA POSTAL 30.259
O1000 SAO PAULO. SP.

LOIS MCKINNEY
DchYOIo

5 do sgosto do 1972
Prossdos soigos oooporsdoros.

luito obrigsdo polo suo prontidoo so oooporor no Estudo Podsgégioo
Intor-Cnltursl'

For virios sotivos, ostssos oortos quo o sonhors nio rioor‘
srropondido dosto suo oooporsg‘o.

II prinoiro lugor. otrgvos do uoo verbs do Fundsqio Ford. podooos
prosotor uso rosunoroqoo polo sus contribuigso no posquiso.

lo sogundo lugor. o sonhoro rooobor‘. grotis. os rosultodos dos
tostos do ‘lhxollsonois Otis o suites outros dsdos vsliosos sobro
os sous slunos.

Uso torooiro vontsgoo no suo oooporsqoo-dvooo too obor‘ 1nt°:!.i‘°
sobro s instrugoo progrssodo o outros osguntos toorioos o p oos
no podsgogio‘ Portioipor nuso posquiso o uso otividodo bostsnto
intorosssnto.

Podisos dosoulpss do onto-So polos p uonos interrupgfios o otrosos
no sou progroso quo o posquiso us . Porooos todo possfvol pots
quo isto soontogo o siniso poss vol.

Junto cos osto oortg. o sonhors onoontror‘ uoo dosorigso gorsl

do posquiso, o tosbos,uso dosoriqio do oooporoooo quo ostosos
podindo.

Asuordsndo suos porguntos o obsorvs93os (Toiofono 269-1191).
sou

Huito grsto,
#WWK

Lois (Loido) noxinnoy

promovldo pelo AssoclacAo Evangéllcs Teologlca para Treinamento por Extensdo
RICHARD STURZ. IlcllfAlDO-IIICUTIVO

241.

ssruoo PEDAGOGICO INTER-CULTURAL
CAIXA POSTAL 30.259
OIOOO SAO PAULO. SP.

LO|$ MCKINNEY
D'RITORA

5 do sgosto do 1972

is nauseous nmcirmss so some rmmdoxco Inn-cum.
hummus Lo ssnmo rsmsdsxooi

Aguordsndo ooo suito prosor tris sooonos do oonvivSnoio o trsbslho
can so sonhorss profossorss. podisos o suo oooporsgio nos soguintos
otividodos:

1) Entrogondo-nos o polsvro o o lidoronqo nos suos sulss.
porn onsino o tostos so grape. nos dotos soguintos:

”I, 16 do ogosto 10 oinutos
5‘. 17 do ogosto tospo intogrsi
5s, 2“ do sgosto toopo intogrsl
5|. 31 do sgosto 15 sinutos
3|. 5 do sotoobro 30 minutes

2) Pooilitsndo s portioipocio dos slunos so tostos o ontro-
vistas portionisros; dsndo lioonso pors quo o1os so
rotiros do sols do sulo, us do oodo vos. nos dios
soguintos:

us, 16 do ogosto
6O, 25 do sgosto
2s, 28 do sgosto
3s, 29 do ogosto
6!, 1 do sotoobro
2|, u do sotoobro

As ontrovistos o tostos too dursgio do 3 sinutos pogo
oodo sluno. Porooos do toi sonoiro.quo s :2torrup9so
son foito oo ordoo o ossio o sonhoro podo ioooionor

sos ditiouldodos nostos dios.

3) N30 dondo outrs instrugio ou loiturss sobro o slison 3o
ontro os dios 16 do osto o 5 do sotoobro. nos sand. o
as alunos ooo so sotorios do cursinho sobgo o nutrigoo.
(Isto porquo o posquiso quor dosoobrir oto quo ponto o
instrugio progrossdo onsino sos o ojudo duos prorossors.
o soo outros sotorisis did‘tioos.)

nuns OBBIGADA m an ooormclo:

promovldo pela Assoclocdo Evangéllca Teoléglco para Trelnamonto por Extensdo
RICHARD STURZ. sscsstosIo-ssscutwo

APPENDIX C

STUDENT RECORD BOOK

'1"!
I ‘

APPENDIX C

STUDENT RECORD BOOK

C A D E R N 0

D E D A D O S

1 N D I V I D U A I S

Nome do Aluno __

 

Numero do Aluno

Grupo

 

flritamento:
l- E.positivo - Individualizado

2- Exbositivo - Grupo
5- Descoberta - Individualizado

4- Descoberta - Grupo

242

2413

APPENDIX C-1 2
gfcR‘IIEKC-I ~11 Attendance Form
FREQUENCIA

13 Sessao

- Presente

- Ausénto-inevitavel, provavolmento nao devido a perda do interosso
- Ausonte-podo tor sido cu nao porda de intoresso

- Ausente-ovitavel, unica oxplicacao plausivol o falto do intoresse
- Ausente-razao desconhocida

CHAIM?

- A
Rszoes da ausencio

rolatadas por colega(s)

 

relatndas pelo estudante

 

 

26 Sessao

C-ll h - Presents

- Ausentooincvitnvel,provavolmento nao devido a porda do intorosso
- Auante-pode tor sido ou nao perda do interesso

. Anaente-evitavel. unica oxplicncao plausivei e falta de intorcsse
- Ausento-razao dosconhncida

CHNU

Razocs da auscncia

rolatadas por colega(s)y

 

rolatadas pelo estudanto

L 56835.0

- Presents .

- Aus§nte-evitavel, provavelmente nao dcvido a perda do interesso

- Ausente-podo tor sido ou nao perdo do interesso

- Auscnto-cvit.ave1, unica cxplicsgao plausiVol e falts do intorosso
- Auante-rnzao desconhecida

C-12

CI-‘NVJ:

Razaes da auancia

rclatadas por cologa(s)

 

 

relatadas pelo estudanto

 

244:

APPENDIX C-2

Pretest (Oral)

DECK 1

Pas. TESTE E PdS-TESTE
CARTIO 2 (Parts Escrita)
No mfnimo 2 alimentos do Grupo 1
No mfnimo 3 alimontos do Grupo 2
No mfnimo h alimnntos do Grupo 3
No minimo a alimontos do Grupo h

——— Alimento Vitamins C: Legumo vorde, o6r abébora

c-1o TOTAL DA PART? ESCRITA
c-3o
c-5o

PEE—TESTE E POS-TESTE
(Parts Oral)

 

.90-- l...”. ..-—.0--

| o NONE DO ALUNO EETI NO TRABALHO ESCRITO?!

—o—‘ A ....L .... .

 

 

 

FACA UM CIRCULO EH TORNO DUN ALIMENTO QUE
APABECE NA LISTA no ALUNO

 

 

1— leite
C-ll 2- galinha
0'31 3- laranja
C-Sl . h- batata

5- arroz

6- macarrao

7- outro

 

”Sara que vooo podoria mostrar ondc escreveu A. .
___;> por favor, para que eu possa verificar sua oscoIha nosto
papal?"
C-12 0— N50 pods mostrar a palavrs
0'2: 1- Pods mostrar a palavrs
c-

“€> "POI que voc3 escolhou ?"

> "Existem outras r825“ para vocé tor oscolhido 7"

 

 

I VIBE A PAGINA

 

1245

 

 

 

 

 

 

DECK.l__.
CAETAO 2 PRE-TESTE E PCS-TESTS (continuagao)
: ANOTE As RESPOSTAS ORAIS]
Nenhuma Resposta
a
Gosto
C-13
C-33
0'53
not 50- Pa t ula o 3' o
C-lh Faz parts d9 grupo que . . .
C-3h Preciso come-lo vozos . . .
c-5u

 

Instggcfio; Coral
C-15 Tom v tamina

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

c-35 E aconselhado pelo modico
C-SS

Raciocinio I
C-l6 Faz hem a saude
C-36 Alimnnta ‘_
C-56

Hébito .
C-l? Aprondi a coma-lo
C-37 Semprs o como -
C-57

Utilidado .

Pods cozinhar com ole

C-18
C-38 ___
C-58

Outgas fiespostss
C-19
0'39
0'59

- o i - 3
8_fio:fi} VIBE A PAGINA‘;

 

C-60.61 TOTAL DAS COLUNAS 13-19. 33-39. 53-59

DECK‘~ l
CARTAO 2

C-12
C-22
C-32

C-l)
C-Z}
C-33

C-lh
C-Zh
C-34

0-15
C-ZS
0-35

Privacidade -

3
2
1
O
Iluminagéo -
3
2
1
O

1&46

PRE-TESTE E POS-TESTE (Continuaqao)

Observaqoesggerais

Soninho com o entrevistador.

Outros presentos. observando tranquilamento.
Outros presentes, distraindo a atencao.
Nenhuma observaqao sobre 0 item.

Boa iluminacéo, permitindo facil loitura
Iluminagao fraca, embora permitindo a loitura
Ma iluminacao, leitura dificil

(ex: 15mpuda a querozene)

Nenhuma observaqao sabre 0 item.

Afinidade (Rapport) com o entrevistador durante a entrovista foi

 

 

 

iJulgamonto ioito pelo entrcvistador)
3 - Bom
2 - Neutro
l - Insuii01cnte
O - Nenhumn ubSorvacao sobrc 0 item
Julgamentp do cntrevistador sSbre a ansied.de do ontrovistado
durante n entrevista .
3 - Calmo
2 - Neutro
1 - Ansioso
U - Ncnhuma observnqao sobrc 0 item
Comentarios 3 obsorvrgoes :

 

 

TERMINE AQUI

 

Deck~ 1
Cartao 1

Sexo

O
1

24d?

APPENDIX C-3

QUESTIONLRIO A

- Feminino
- Masculino

Idade

C-14,15 a——§"Qua1 a sua idade?"

 

Tempo de Escolaridade

--—-—-§>"Quando voco deixou do ir a escola, em que ano estava?"

O
I
H
O"I
O‘WC’UNI—‘O
l

Tipo

“I

, o
Nunca fui a escola

1s
20
39
he
50
69

do

ano
3110
5100
8110
ano
ano

primario

primério

primario

primério (primario completo)
primério (admisséo)

primario

Experiéncia Escolar

"Na(s) sua(s) escola(s) os alunos sontavam em file on

em

circulos?"

- Nonhuma resyosta, n50 sabe
- Filns

- smbas as coisas

- Circulos

alunos ficavam sentndos para responder so perguntas do
professor ou tinham que so levantar?"

O - Nenhuma rcsposta

1 — Levantavam-se

2 - Ora sim, ora nao

3 - Permaneciam sentados

"Os alunos podiam so movimentar dentro da sala do aula sem pedir
licence on tinhsm que ficnr sentados e quietos?"

UNI-‘0

- Nenhuma resposta

- Sentados e quietos

- Ambus as coisws

- Movimentavam-so 5 vontnde

2&48

Deck_ 1
Cartao l
QUESTIONARIO A (Continuaqao)

Ocupagao

._;3>. "Qual é o seu trabalho?"

 

(Se nao esté trabalhando)"Quem sustenta a casa?"
.—> "O que ((316; faz?"
ou, o seahorTI’

.—~€} ."Quem o seu patrao?" (ou dele)

 

 

 

(o sonhor)
_._e> "Que é que(elq faz no seu trabalno?"

 

_ ’—

(D snnhor)
no) 'file) scmpre fun 1550 cu algumas Vezes faz outras coisas?"

 

 

i vire a pagina ,

 

CODIFICA§AO DEAOCUPAQAO

Padrio Internacional dc Classif10\§50 dc Ocupagoes (ISCO)

— Trabalhadorcs nao classificavcis

- Profissionais liberais e técnicos

- Administradores e gerontos

- Trabaino categorizado em escritorios

Vendedores

- Pessoal do sorv1co

- Agricultoros, lenhadoros e pescadores

- Operérios dc produqao, Operadores do equipamcnto, trabalhador
bracal

C-ZO

\JO‘U’I-PVNI-‘O
I

scala Social de Hutchinson

- N50 classificado

- Profissional liberal cu alts administracao
Gorcncia e execucao

- Alta inspecao, supervisao e similares

- Baixa inspcqao, supervisao c simil1ros

- Trabalho manual qualificado

- Trabalho manual semi-qualificado e n50 qualificado

O

I

N

...:
O‘UivPUNt-‘O Pf!)

I

2149

 

 

 

 

D Eng 1
CARTAO 1
QUESTIONLRIO A (continuaqao)
Residéncia Rural ou Urbano e Migragao
Resianciapénterior
u—Jfiy "Em qual cstado voco morou quando tinha dez once?"
I
._;>» "Vocé vivia no interior on no Cidade?"

 

-(se no interior) "Como era o nome do iugar?"

 

 

(se na cidudo) "Como era on nomc do Cidade?"

‘\

r

I
“(se nos arredoros do Sao Paulo) "Havin gents que morava 15
e trabalhava na cidade de Sao Paulo?"

 

 

L VIRE A PAGINA J

-—‘ ------------------------------- b ----------------------------------------------

coDIFIcAcfio DA RESIDENCIA ANTERIOR

Rural-Urbano_ (Cotejadns com o Anudrio Estatistico)

C-22 1 --Zona Rural _
2 ~ Zona Urbana (populnqao iguil ou superior a 10.000 habitantes)

Regiao
o - Pais Estrannuiro (Qual?) 1
1 - Estado de Sao Paulo - capital 0 suburbios
2 - Estado de Sao Paulo - outras cidides
3 - Estado do Sao Paulo - zona rural
4 - Regiao Sul (Parana, Santa Catarina, Rio Grande do Sul)
5 - Rogiao Leste (Bahia, Minas Gerais, Espirito Santo,Rio do J.,Guanab1ra)
6
7
8
9

 

q Regiio Contro-Oeste OMato Grosso, Goias, Distrito Federal)

- Regiao Nordeste (Gears, Rio Grande do Norte, Pernambuco, Alagoas,
Sorgipe, Fernando de Noronha)

- Meio Norte (Piaui, Maranhao) '

- Amazonia (Acre. Amazonas, Para, Amapa, Roraima, RondSnia)

DECK

CARTAU.1

\Om \JO‘U‘J-‘UNI-‘C

25¢)

oUESTIoNARIo A (continuaqao)
Residoncia Rural ou Urbana s Migragao (continuaqao)

Residéncia Atual

--€> "Onde vocé mora agora? Em que estado?"

 

.u—S’I '"Vocé vive no interior ou na Cidade?"

 

u-(se no interior) "Como o o noms do lugar?"

 

"(se na c1dade)"Como é o nomc da Cidade?"

 

 

—-(ss nos arredoros de Sao Paulo) "Ha gente que more 15 s traba1
lha no Cidade de Sao Paulo?"

- I _ -

 

 

LVIRE A PIGINA#;:

CODIFICAcAo DA RESIDENCIA ATUAL

. ' . f ¢
Urbano (cotegadas com o Anu1r1o Estat1stico )

- Zona Rural -
- Zona Urbana (populaqao igual ou superior a 10.000 habitantes)

- Pais ostrangeiro (Qual?)

- Estado de 850 Pan 0 - capital 0 subfirbios

- Estado do 850 Paulo - outrns cidadss

- Estado do Sao Paulo - zona rural

- Regiao do Sul (Parana, Santa Catarina, Rio Grande do Sul)

- Regiao Lests (Bahia, Minas Gorais, Espirito Santo, Rio do J.,Guanabar

- Regiao Centre-Oeste(Mato Grosso, Goias, Distrito Federal)

- Regiao Nordests (Csara, Rio Grande do Norte, Pernambuco, Alagoas,
Sergipe, Fernando ds Nnronha)

- Meio Norte (Piaui, Maranhao)

- Amazonia (Acre, Amazonas, Para, Amapa, Roraima, Rondonia)

 

2551

DECK. 1
CaRTAO 1

QUESTIONARIO A (continuaqao)

Estabilidade do Residsncia
4.1.5) "Ha quanto tempo 0 ssnhor mora aqui?"

- msnos ds um ano

- um ano o menos do dois

- dois anos o menos do trés

- trss anus o menos do quatro

- quatro anos o menos ds cinco
cinco anus o menos do seis

- seis anos o menos do sets

- sets once o menos do oito

- oito anos o menos do novs

- novs anos ou mais (Quanto tempo?)

\OWflantwmI-‘C
I

 

toontinuar em baixo I

 

coDIFIcAcAo DA DIRECKO DA MOBILIDADE
Dirsqao da Mobilidads

— Sempro vivcu na zona rural

- De uma zona rural para outra

-Ds zona urban para zona rural

- Do zona rural para 2ona urbana

- Dc uma zona urbana piro outra

- Scmprs viveu na zen: rubana (Cidade s suburbias)

O‘Ul-PVJNH

 

l continuar aqui I

 

Religiao
-—-€> "Vocs ( o senhor ) vai a Igreja?"

(so vai) "Quantas szcs?"

- Nao

- Algumas szes durante o ano

- Mais ou mon:)s uma voz por mCs

Duas on tree vozes por mCs

- Toda semana, aos d.Imingos

- Todos os domingos, e tambom durants a somana

C-28

\fldF’U‘NI-‘O
I

J.‘E> "Qual é a sua rsligiao?" (0U: "Qual a SUB 18r9337“)

Evangelica (Protestants)
- Catalica

Espirita

Outra Lgpal?)

Nonhuma

C-29

UltPVNH
I

2552

APPENDIX C-4

 

 

DECK 1
CARTAO 1
QUESTIUNARIO s
(Escola do Modsrnidade Smith-Inkeles)
"Per ventura voce ja iicou bastante preocupade a respoite do
—-f7 certe problems publice, tal come dessmproge, que so sontiu
movido a fazsr alge sobrs e mesme?"
c - 3o 5 - Frequentsmento
2 - Algumas vezes
1 - Nunca
U - Nenhuma rosposta
"So nae ha nada que impeca, per quantes ones 0 senher echo
*/ qus es sous Iilhes dsvsm ir a oscela?"
(eu, "... que criancas dsvsm ir a escola?)
C - 31 - Nivsl superior

- Nivol médie
hivol primario
Nenhuma rssposta

CI-‘NU

 

"Dois meninos trabalhavam, come cameles, e pararam o trabalho
para preeurar uma mansira do vendor mais em monos tempo (he-
ras) de trabalhe".

"0 psi do um dos menines disse: "E bem a gente psnsar sabre
isse. Cents come devsmes iazsr para vendor mais sm monos
horas do trabalho".

"0 psi do outre menino disss: "A mansira ds vendor s come
voce ssmprs vendeu: Precurar outra mansira e psrdsr tempo".

"Qual destss pais tinha razao?"

3 - Aqusls que disse, "E bem psnsar..."
C - 32 1 - Aquele qus disse,"Preeurar eutra mansira
o psrdsr tempo."
0 - Nsnhuma resposta

 

\ u . . .
-—j/ O que o que um homsm mais prsc1sa tor, pars alcanqar
um cargo importants?"

- Tor muite sstude s saber fazer e trabalhe
- Ser queride poles outros

- Rsspeitar es velhes costumes

- Ser do familia impertante

- Nonhtma rssposta

C - 33

CHI-'NV

 

-—€> "O que vocé acha que é mais importante para 0 future
do Brasil?"

5 - Planejamento do governo
C - 3W 2 - U pevo trabalhar muito

l - Boa sorts

O - Nsnhuma respesta

2553

 

DECK. 1
CARTAO l
QUESTIONARIO B (centinuaqao )
"Us cientistas, nas universidades, estae estudando
\ assuntes come o que determina so uma crianqa que
/ osto para nascsr sera "menino" ou "msnina" s tsmbsm
come o que uma semente pods ternar-so numa plants.
0 senher acha quo osses sstudes see:
5 - Tedes utsis '
C - 35 - Tom albums coisa do util

2

2 Tom algums coisa do prejudicial
l - Todos muite prsgudiciais
O - Nsnhuma rosposta

#o_ A.

__%> "Qual e numere ideal do filhes para uma posses come
0 senher?" (ou, ...para uma familis?"

3 - Nenhum. um. dois
C - )b 2 - Trss eu quatre

1 - Cinco ou mais

O - Nonhuma reoposta

A

——-- "Qual dos ssguintes tipes do neticias lhe intersssa

 

 

mais?"
3 - Acentoeimontes no ostrangeire
C — 37 2 - Acentecimontes no Brasil
1 - Acentscimon es na sua Cidade
O - Nsnhuma rosposta
.__€> "Se 0 senher conhocsr uma posses que vivo num paie
estrangsiro, muito distants, e senher ache que
sntendora a mansira do psnsar dossa posses?"
. 5-SE
C - 36 1 - Nae
O - Nsnhuma rosposta
““5 "O que o mais impertante para uma posses dosnte,
cuidados medicos, ou erasess?"
- Cuidades modices
C - 39 Ambas as ceisas

- OraqSos
Nonhuma rosposta

OHNU
I

2554

DECK 1
CAETAo 1

QUESTIONARIO B (continuaqao)

 

) "Quais 550 no one epiniao es maierss preblemas do
Brasil stualments?"

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

I CONTINUE EM BalXU I

 

- Citeu trCs ou mais problemas
- Citeu um ou deis problemas

- Nae citou nenhum problems

- Nsnhuma rosposta

C - 40

CHNV

 

 

I CONTINUE Aoui I

-——4? "Em que pais tics a cidads do Washington?"

3 - EEsUUs .-
C - #1 1 — Resposta srrada, nao sabo
O - Nenhums rosposta

 

"Quantas vézos veco costume lor o jernal?"

- Todes es dias

- Algumas vszes

- Nunca

- Nenhuma rosposta

C - 42

CI-‘NU

 

IFIM - QUESTIONARIO B I

 

 

TOTAL - ESCALA DE MODERNIDADE (Items 30 - 42)

c - 43,4a

 

 

1255

APPENDIX C-S

DECK .1... 22222222
PRE- TESTE E POSATESTE
CARTAO 2 (Parts Escrits)

Ne mfnime 2 alimentes do Grupo 1
Ne mfnime 3 alimontes do Grupo 2
Ne minime u alimentos do Grupo 3
No minimo b alimontes do Grupo h

——— Alimento Vitamins C: Legumo vordo, ear sb6bors

C-lO TOTAL DA PARTE ESCRITA
C-30
C-50

PRE-TESTE E POS-TESTE
(Parts Oral)

 

I o NONE DO ALUNO ESTA N0 TEABALHO ESCRITO?!

 

___.-_

 

' FACA UM CIRCULO EM TORNO DUN ALIMENTO QUE
APAsECE NA LISTA no ALUNO

 

1- leito
C-ll 2- galinhs
C-31 3- laranja
C-Sl h- batata
5- arroz ~
6- macarrae
7- outro

 

”Sara que vecé pedoria mestrar ondo escrevsu .
per favor. para que su pesss verifioar sue escolha nosfo

 

 

papal?"
C-lZ 0- N30 pods mestrar a palavrs
0'2: l- Pods mostrar a palavrs
c-
"€> "Por que voc$ escolheu 7"
-——%> "EXistsm outras razBos para vocé tor escolhido __________?"

 

I VIBE A PAGINA

 

DECK I
CARTKO__§__

c-13
c-33
C-53

C-lb
c-3u
c-su

c-15
c-35
C-SS

C-16
C-36
C-56

C-l?
C-37
C-S?

C-lB
C-38
C-SB

C-19
C-39
0'59

8=fi8zfii

C-_6 0, 61

1256

PRE-TESTE E POS-TESTE (continuagao)

 

...—......‘c <.—-—--]-

I ANOTE As RESPOSTAS ORAIS

_—__

 

 

enhuma s o

Gosto

 

 

Iggtgpgae; Peptigula; go 92231230

Faz parts d9 grupo que . . .
Precise come-Io vozes . . .

 

 

s 50- F a
Tom Vitamins .
E sconsolhade pole modioe

 

__4

Emission

Faz bom a safido
Alimenta

 

 

gébito .
Aprendi a come-lo
Ssmpre 0 come

 

Utilidado .
ode cozinhar com ole

 

 

Qgtgas Bespostas

 

 

I Via: A PAGINA }
TOTAL DAs COLUNAS 13-19, 33-39, 53-59

 

 

25Y7

 

 

 

 

DECK. l
CARTAO 2
PRE-TESTE E POS-TESTE (Continuacao)
Observaqaos gerais
Privacidade -

3 - Soz1nho com o entrevistador.
C-12 2 - Outros presentos, observando tranquilamente.
C-22 1 - Outros presentos1 distraindo a atenqao.
C-32 O - Nenhuma obsorvacao sobre 0 item.

Iluminagao -

3 - Boa iluminaqao, permitindo facil loiturs
C-l3 2 - Iluminacao grace, embers permitindo a loitura
C-23 l - Ma iluminacao, leitura dificil
c-33 (ox: lampada a qusrozono)

O - Nenhuma ob5orvacao sobrs 0 item.

Afinidade (Rapport) com o entrovistddor durants a ontrsvista foi
(Julgamcnto ILitO pelo entruvistador)

3 - Bom
C-lh 2 - Neutro
C-2# 1 - Insuiic1onto
C-3Q 0 - Ncnhuma observaqao sobrc 0 item

Julgamento do cntrovistador sobrs a ansied.ds do ontrevistado
durante a entrevista .
3 - Calmo

C-15 2 - Neutro
C-25 1 - an51oso ~
C-35 U - Nenhuma obsorvxcao sobrs 0 item

Comentarios

<30

bsorV'gfies :

 

 

TERMINE AQUI

 

1258

APPENDIX C-6

Delayed Posttest

DECK 1

pas- TESTE E POS-TESTE
CARTIO 2 (Parts Escrita)
No mfnime 2 alimontos do Grupo 1
No mfnimo 3 alimontes do Grupo 2
No minime h alimentes do Grupo 3
Ne mfnimo h alimpntes do Grupo h

———| Allmsnto Vitamins C: Lsgume vordo, c6r ab6bora

C-lO TOTAL DA PARTE ESCRITA
C-30
C-SO

PRE-TESTE E POS-TESTE
(Parts Oral)

 

"- ~ .-.-.4-

I o NONE DO ALUNO ESTA NO TEABALHO ESCRITO?I

 

 

 

FAcA UM CIRCULO EH TORNO DUE ALIMENTO QUE
APAsECE NA LISTA DO ALUNO

 

 

1— leite
Cbll 2- galinhs
C-31 3- laranja
C-Sl #- batata

5— arroz

6- macarrfio

7- outro

 

O o
”Sore que veco podoria mestrar ends escreveu .
_..;> per favor, para que eu posse verificar sua osceIha nosfé

 

 

pappl ? II
C-12 0- N50 pods mestrar a palavrs
0'32 1- Pods mestrar a palavrs
c-52
“‘€> "POI que voc$ escolhsu 7"
-—" "Existem outras raans para vecé tor escolhido 7"

 

 

I VIBE A PAGINA

 

259

 

 

 

 

 

 

DECK 1
CAsTAo 2 PRE-TESTE E POS-TESTE (continuaq's'e)
I ANOTE As RESPOSTAS osAIs
nhuma s e a
Gosto
C-13
C-33
0'53
Iggtzggfio; PagtIguIs; do gnzsinho
C-lh Faz parts d9 grupo que . . .
C-3h Precise come-10 vozes . . .
C-Sh

 

d
1822122221_22£21
C-15 Tom V tamins

 

 

 

 

 

c-35 I: see'nsolhado polo medico
C-SS
figgiocinio
C-16 Fez bsm a safide
C-36 Alimonta
C-56
flébite .
C-l? Aprendi a come-lo
C-37 Sempre 0 come 4_
C-5?

gti%;dadg .
ode cozinhar com ole

 

C-18
C-38

 

C-58

ngggg Bgspegtsg
C-19

C-39

 

0'59

 

gfigfi} I VIBE A PAGINA }
c-60,61 TOTAL DAS COLUNAS 13-19, 33-39, 53-59

 

 

2f”)

 

 

 

 

DECK. l
CARTAU 2
PRE-TBSTE E POS-TESTE (Continuaqao)
ObseranSos gerais
Privacidade -
3 - Sezinhe com o entrovistador.
C-12 2 - Outres presentos, observando tranquilaments.
C-22 l - Outres presentesl distraindo a atencao.
C-32 O - Nsnhuma obsorvaqao sobrs 0 item.
Iluminagae -
3 - Bea iluminacao, permitindo facil loitura
C-13 2 - Iluminaqao fraca, embers permitindo a loitura
C-23 1 - Ma iluminaqae. leitura dificil
C-33 (ex: lampada a querozone)
0 - Nenhuma observacae sSbro 0 item.
Afinidado (Rapport) com o ontrovistador durante a ontrsvista fei
(Julgamonto ltito pelo entrovistader)
3 - Bom
C-lh 2 - Neutre
C-2Q 1 - Insuiic1ento
C-34 O - Nonhuma choorvacao sebrc a item
Julgamento do cntrevistader sabre a ansisd.do do sntrsvistado
durante gpsntrovista .
3 - Calmo
C-15 2 - Neutro
C-ZS l - Ansiose _
C-35 U - Nenhuma ebsorvaqao sobrc 0 item
Cementaries o ebserv gees :

 

 

TERMINE AQUI

 

DECK 1

261.

APPENDIX C-7

Instrument for Choosing PI
or Story Method

CARTKO 1

0-45

ESCOLHA DA INSTRUCKO PROGRAMADA

"Gostariames do dar a vecé um exemplar da #9 Liege,
de mode que V005 posse ensinar um amigo. Vecé pods
oscelher entre deis estiles; um é em instrucEe
pregramada, do mesme Jeite que vecé estudou nests
curse. 0 outre diz as mesmas ceisas, s s escrite
come uma histdria. Todes deis tom es mesmes
onsinamentos. A dnica diferenca o que um 6 histdria
(nestra e livre) e e outre é instrucge pregramada
(mestra e livre) cone vecé acabou de estudar. Qual
dos deis vecé acharia melher lover? (Mostra es deis
livres) e de instrucge pregramada (mostra e livre)

eu a histdris (mestra e livre)?"

O - Nenhuma escolha eu escolha ambfgua
1 - Histdria
2 - Instruoae pregramada

1262

APPENDIX C-8

DECK 1
CARTKo 1
QUESTIONARIO c

Infermacaes sobgg a Nutrigge do Outrss Fontss

———:;> "Durante estas trés semanas do sulss, vocé
oscuteu algums coisa no radio quo lhs fez.
lsmbrar do nosse cursinho?"

0-50 0 - N50, n50 me lembre
2 - Sim
("O que sscuteu?")

 

-~3> "Durante estas trés semanas do aulas, vecé viu
algums coisa no televisao que lhs fez lsmbrar
do noose cursinhO?
C-Sl O - N50, n50 me lembre
2 - Sim

("O que viu?")

 

..__>, "Durante estas trés ssmanas de aulas, veeé lou
algums coisa em rovistss, Jernais, ou livres
que lhs fez lsmbrar do nesse cursinho?"

0-52 0 - N50, n50 ms lembre
2 - Sim
(”O que leu?")

\ "Durante estas trés semanas do aulas vocé
eenverseu~cem eutras possess sebre a
alimentscae?"

0-53 0 - Nge, n50 ms lembre
1 - Um peuco
2 - Muito

1263

DECK l
CARTKo 1
QUESTIONARIO c (continuagao)
"Durante estas trés semanas do aulas vecé
-———£> assistiu outros cursgs ou reuniees ends
discutiram alimentacao?"
0-54 0 - N50, n50 me lsmbre

2 - Sim
("O que assistiu?")

 

 

Lecemecge para as #1138

-—___;> "Quante tempo levavs para chegar na aula?

Nenhuma rosposta

15 minutes eu monos

Mais eu monos 30 minutes
Mais ou monos AS minutes
Uma hora eu mais

(3-55

bWIUI-JO
IIIII

\\
~———7? "Come V005 ehegava no aula?"

- Nenhuma rosposta

Endande a pe

De bicicleta

De enibus

Do taxi eu carre

Outres ("Quais?" )

0-56

Ulh'UIMI-‘O
I I I I I

Cenhecimentg g2 IP

\\ "Antes do assistir estas sulss, e senher
/' cenheceu esta mansira do ensinar, eu era
uma novidado?"

 

O - Nenhuma rosposta
C-57 1 - Era nevidade
2 - Js cenheceu?
("Ceme?")

 

 

 

264:

DECK 1
CARTKo 1

QUESTIONKRIO c (centinuacao)

Trsbalhe a $68 on em Grupo

"Quande vecé fez as licaes do case, fez
sozinhe, on com eutras possess?"

3 - Trabalheu com gutres
0-58 2 - Ora Sim, era nae

1 - Trsbalheu sdzinhe

O - Nenhuma rosposta

APPENDIX D

EXERCISES AND TESTS

Némero

Grupo

PLANEJAHEO UNA DIETA

APPENDIX D-l
Pretest-Posttest-Delayed Posttest (Written)

NO???

Aquf esté uma llsta dn alimnntos.

Sn vocS qupr tpr uma diata adnquada. nun conldas comnrla amanhfi?

Voc3 podn faznr 13 (trnzn) Pscolhas nntrn nssns alimentos.

a 0
Va escrnvnndo-os, um dbpols do outro, nos nsoaqos pm branco,

na ordem da nscolha.

anbra-sn qun voc3 qunr uma alimnntagéo boa. $50 corra.

Planejn ban a sua dlbta,

Quando tnrmlnar, 10vn a sua lista ao profnssor.

101th
quoijo
pudim
mingau
papa
coalhada

gallnha
oombo
pato

sarfllnha
pnscada
tainha
banalhau

hol
Dorco
carnnlro

ffgadg
coraqao

ovos~
fnljao

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

largnja
lingo
mamao

abébora
conoura
nspinafrn

banana
”8.95.
abacaxl
batata

macarréo

arroz

mllho

avnla

farlnha do trlgo
farlnha do mandloca

Rorduras
dOCnS

 

10,

 

11.

12.

 

13.

 

1265

1266

APPENDIX D-Z

Exercise 1

I
Numero Nome

 

Grupo
WXERCICIO 1
Escreva o grupo de alimentos, ao qual cada um Dertence.

Fme o: A ga;1nha pertence ao gruoo do alimentos que (9;;g1qggg.

1. O Qudlm portence ao gruno de alimentos com

 

2, O caggnLIO pertnnce eo qrupo do alimentos que

 

3. A laganja pertence ao zrupo do allmnntos que

 

h. Os doces Dertnncem ao gruoo dn alimentos que

 

5. A abéboga pnrtencn ao qrupo de alimentos qun _*7‘W
6. O gunijo bartence ao grupo do allmnntos cpm ._
7. Os ovos pnrtencnm a0 grupo do alimentos que __

8. O gaggxxég pertencn ao gruno de alimentos que

 

267'

APPENDIX D-3
Exercise 2

Nfimero Nome

 

Grupo

EXERCICIO 2

I
greencha os espacos om bzagco 90m 0 numego gerto.

 

Todos os dias,

os adultos precisam comer:

 

 

v$zes~
alimentos come leite ' '
A
alimentos que fortalecem vezesz
Q
alimnntos qun protegnm vezes-

 

alimentos que dfio energla vezes.

APPENDIX E

SESSION OBSERVATION FORM

APPENDIX E

SESSION OBSERVATION FORM

 

DECK 2
CARTKO 1
FORMULKRIO DE OBSERVAcKo DAS AULAS
Grugo
c-1,2 __
Lugar
Data
0-3,4 Dla
C-5,6 M55

Dia da Semana

1 - Domingo
2 - Segunda
C-7 3 - Terca
h - Quarta
5 - Quinta
6 - Sexta
7 - Sa‘bado
Turno
1 - Matutino
0-8 2 — Vespertino
3 - Noturno
Tratamento
1 - Erpositivo-Individualizado
C-9 2 - Expositivo-Grupo
3 - Descoberta-Individuallzado
a - Descoberta-Grupo

Relativo a
1 - Primeira semana

C-lO 2 - Segunda semana
3 - Terceira seuana

2658

.269

DECK 2
CARTXO 1
FORMULKRIO DE OBSERVACKO D13 AULAS (continuaqao)

Freguéncia

C-ll,12 Participando

 

N30 participando

 

 

0-13.14

Coordinadores
C-lS

Professores
C-16

 

W

Boa (fabil leitura)

Fraca (necessario ler com certo esforco)
M5 (ex - lampadag a querozene)

Nenhuma observacao quanto ao ftem

C-17

OHMU

vent11agao

Boa

Alguma

Nenhuma ~
Nenhuma observacao

0-18

OHMU

Temperatura

Agradavel

Quente

Fria ~
Nenhuma observacao

C-19

OHHU
Ill!

3 - Claro
0—20 1 - Ohuvoso ~
0 - Nenhuma observacao

.270

DECK 2
013130 1
FORMULKRIO DE OBSERVACKO DAS AULAS (continuaqao)

ASpeto dos arredores da classe

- AgradéVel e limpo

- Normal

Desagradével e 8230
- Nenhuma observagao

OHMU
I

Espago ffsico

Bastante amplo

Um pouco exfguo, ainda sem dificultar o trabalho
Insuficiente, preludicando o trabalho

Nenhuma observacao quanto ao ftem

OHIUKJJ

Mobiliirio disnonfvel

3 - Mesa e cadeiras apropriadas
2 - Foi feita alguna improvisao, sem prejudicar o
C-23 rendimento do trabalgo
1 - Foram feitos improvisoes que prejudicaram o
rendimento do tgabalho
O - Nenhuma observacao

Ambiente sem integrupcaes, sem barulho, sem confuséo
Algumas interrupgoes, algum barulho, alguma conggsao
Muitas interrupgges, muito barulho, muita confusao

InterrapgSes. barulho, confuséo
- Nenhuma observacao quanto ao item

Colaboragao de41ideran§as locais

3 - COOperativas
2 - Mais ou menos c00perativas
C-25 1 - Nao 000perativas ~
0 - Nenhuma observaoao quanto ao item

271.

DECK 2

01113130 1 ~ ~
FORMULA'RIO DE OBSERVACAO DAS 110L113 (continuaqao)

Reaponsibilidades dps Monitores
Distribuindo e Colecionando Matérias

Loide

Helena

Hitoshi

Waldemur

Lfder local

Outra pessoa (Quem?

0-26

@ml-‘UMH
Illlll

 

Encaminhando Os Alunos duma Atividade para a Outra

Loide

Helere

Hitoshi

Waldemur

Lfder local

Outra pessoa (Quem?

O‘WPUMH

 

Dando Pré-Peste ou Pds-Teste Oral

Loide

Helena

Hitoshi

Valdemar

Lfder local

Outra pessoa (Quem?

O\U'|J>\flf\)|-’
I'IOII

Er‘fevistando

Loide
Helena
Hitoshi
Waldemur
Lfder local

1
2
C-29 3
l:
5
6 Outra pessoa (Quem?

 

Instruooes sobre a I?

Loide

Helena

Hitoshi

Valdemur

Lfder local

Outra pessoa (Quem?

C-3O

O\U11>\NF\JH

 

Administrando Teste sobre a Inteligéncia

Loide

Velenq

Hitocfil

Waldemur

Lfder local

Outra pessoa (Quem?

C-3l

O\U1 l-‘UFUH

 

1272

DECK 2
CARTXO 1
FORMULKRIO DE OBSERVAch DAS AULAS (continuagao)

Outra Reaponsibilidade (Qual?)

 

Loide

Helena

Hitoshi

Waldemar

Lfder local

Outra pessoa (Quem?

C-32

OflflkkflfUH
IIIIII

 

Outra Responsibilidade (Qual?)

 

Loide

Helena

Hitoshi

Waldemur

Lfder local

Outra pessoa (Quem?

C-33

O\U1#\N|\)i-‘

OBSERVAC5ES SOBRE VARIAchs EM PROCEDIMENTOS, FATORES
HUMANOS, ETC. :

2273

DECK 2
CARTXO 1

FORMULARIC DE OBSERVACXO DAS AULAS (continuacao)

OBSERVACGES:

APPENDIX F

THE PROGRAMMED NUTRITION UNIT:

EXPOSITORY VERSION

 

 

A NOSSA COMIDA

Nu-ero C-l.2.3 L‘g Licao

Grupo _______ C - 4.5

 

Por Que N65 Comemos?

Ligio __ C ' 6.7

 

 

 

l
AntSnio, J036, J050, e r*rnando
eatavam falando sobre oa motivoe porque
comemos.
Cada um ios homena deu
~ numero
uma razao diferente. Todae as
- lnumero}
razoea eatavam certaa.
h-E
2
quatro "N63 comemos por uma raon importante,"
quatro diase Fernando.
"Sem alimento, eu morreria. Eu 0000
para n50 morrer."
"Eu como para ."
h-E

 

Note: This programmed unit is available (in Portuguese) through the Institute for
International Studies in Education, Hichigan State University

2174

viver

morreriam

viver

 

 

2775

3

Fernando diase que 31c come para

viver. Ele estava certo.

Todos os eeres vivos precisam de

comida para viver.

Se élee ficasaem sem alimento por

muito tempo, éles .

Sem alimento, as pessoas morreriam.

Blas precieam de alimento para

 

Para viver, as pessoas precisam

de ,

APPENDIX G

THE PROGRAMMED NUTRITION UNIT:

DISCOVERY VERSION

lone

 

 

NGnero
Grupo _.

Ligio _

quatro

C-1.2.J

C - 6.7

 

 

 

 

A NOSSA COMIDA
49 Licéo

Por Que N65 Comemos?

Para comecar eata licgo abra a

tolha que esté na filtima pagina.

Vocé encontra o Bxercfcio .

IYHAEHBIT),

Em cima do Exercfoio, vocé 16:

"RAZGES PORQUE nos "

Note: This programmed unit is available (in Portuguese) through the Institute
for International Studies in Education, Michigan State University.

276

comemos

Continue

a licao.

Continue

a lich.

 

 

 

2177

Por que vocé come?

Pense na melhor raon porque vocé

come.

Quando vocé pensar numa razao,

vire a pagina.

Olhe o Exercfcio k.

Eacreva aua razao para comer no

primeiro eapaco em branco.

Depoie, vire a pagina.

Pergunte a alguém porque éle come.

Escreva a raon déle aqui:

 

APPENDIX H

A COMPARISON OF TEACHING METHODS IN THE

TWO PROGRAMMED NUTRITION UNITS

 

APPENDIX H

A COMPARISON OF TEACHING METHODS IN THE

TWO PROGRAMMED NUTRITION UNITS

NUTRITION UNIT:

LESSON I

FOODS AND THEIR JOBS

A Description of the Two
Teaching Methods

Discovererrogram:

Introduction
Student examines the food cards
he will use in the lesson. He
is then introduced to the food
chart.

Sequent 1.
For each classification in the
food chart, student
1. finds food cards which
belong to the category (such
as meats, vegetables)

2. lists the foods on the
chart.

3. adds to the chart other foods
he can think of that are in
the same category

Sequence 2.

Summary and transition same
in both versions.

Sequence 3.
Student uses food cards for a self-

directed drill in assigning foods
to the right group.

278

Expository Program:

Introduction and
Sequence 1.

Student walked through food chart
systematically. Must refer to
chart in order to make responses.

Sequence 2.

Summary and transition. Same

in both versions.
Sequence 3.
In a closely guided drill, students

assign foods to food groups,
referring to chart as needed.

279

NUTRITION UNIT:

LESSON II

AN ADEQUATE DIET

A Description of the Two
Teaching Methods

Discovery Program:

Student compares an adequate and
inadequate diet:

1.

Globally (Sequence 1) 1.

Finding at least one way in which
the diets are alike.

Finding at least one way in which
the diets are different. 2.

Analytically (Sequence 2)

Finding what and how many foods
from each group were in each
diet.

Deciding which diet was the most
adequate (in servings of foods
from each group).

Completing statement of
principles (adding the number
of servings of foods from each
group which are needed in an
adequate daily diet).

Synthetically (Sequences 3,4)

Discovering that one diet was
varied more than the other.

Creating a rule:
our diet as much

We should vary
as possible.

Making generalized comparison of
the two diets.

Arriving at principle that: An
adequate daily diet includes enough
foods from each food group:
2 servings of milk
3 " " foods which build
foods which protect
foods which give
energy 5.

4 I N
4 N N

Expository Program:

General Principle Introduced
(Sequence 1)

An adequate daily diet includes
enough foods from each food group.

Positive Example (Sequence 2)

Student led through an analysis
of an adequate diet:

identifies food groups to which
foods belong; compares number of
servings of foods in example
with the number of foods
specified in the food chart

Recall Drill (Sequence 3)

Given lists of food groups in
scrambled order, student writes
number of servings of each food
which are needed in an adequate
diet.

Negative Example (Sequence 4)

Student finds difficiencies in
an inadequate diet by:

a. identifying and counting foods
from each group.

b. comparing totals with daily
requirement.

c. deciding how many more servings
needed for an adequate diet.

d. observing that the diet was not
as varied as it should be.

Summary (Sequence 5)

Review of principles of adequate
diet.

280

NUTRITION UNIT:

LESSON III

PLANNING A DIET

5_Description of the Two
Teaching Methods

DiscoveryiPrqgram:
Introduction

Same as expository.

Sequence 1.

Student plans an adequate diet
without guidance. Writes all the
foods he would like to eat in one
day in blanks on the food chart.

Sequence 2.

Student analyzes the diet he
planned above, making corrections
and additions where necessary.

Sequence 3.

Student double checks his work;
this time in a much more global
way.

Sequence 4. Transition.

Student can opt for more practice,
or can end the lesson here.

Sequences 5L 6.

 

Student plans and checks diet
again with more help than he
received above, but with less
help than the expository version
group.

Sequence 7.

Student chooses whether to end
the lesson, or to repeat
Sequences S, 6.

Expository Program:
Introduction

Student finds food chart with
blanks to fill in.
Sequence 1.

Student guided step-by-step
as he plans an adequate diet
for one day.

Review

Sequence 2.

Student looks at what he did in
Sequence 1.

Sequence 3. Recall

Student recalls

1. number of servings of food
he needs from each group.

2. specific foods he needs
from each group.

281

NUTRITION UNIT: LESSON IV

WHY DO WE EAT

Description of the Two
eaChing Methods

Discovery Program: Egpository Program:

 

Reasons We Eat

l.a Student writes his own reason
for eating.

Sequence 1. Completing a List of Sequences 1-4.

Sequences S, 6.

1.b Student asks three other

Exposition of four
reasons for eating
through explanations
and illustrations.

Practice and Review

persons their reasons for Student performs two tasks:
eating. Adds new reasons to
the list. When three reasons are given
(scrambled order), he
l.c Student compares the list he adds one.

has made with reasons given
in the lesson. Adds to his
list as necessary adds

l.d Student adds any other reasons Terminal
he can think of to the list,
and deletes any reasons he
doesn't like.

Sequence 2. Egrul Exercise

Given a series of concepts and
examples, the student decides
which rule (i.e., reason) fits
them best.

Sequence 3. Practice (to aid recall)

Student re-reads list of reasons:
thinks about them.

Tries to recall them orally.

Notes in writing the reasons he
had difficulty remembering.

Continues until he can recall
all of the reasons.

three.

Frame.

When one reason is given, he

Student writes all
the reasons he can
for eating food.

Repeats sequences
5 and 6 as necessary.

APPENDIX I

A COMPARISON OF THE READING DIFFICULTY

OF TWO PROGRAMMED NUTRITION UNITS

A COMPARISON

APPENDIX I

OF THE READING DIFFICULTY

OF TWO PROGRAMMED NUTRITION UNITS

 

Number of Unfamiliar

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

loo-Word Number of Sentences Words
Samples
Expository Discovery Expository Discovery

Lesson 1
Beginning 14 16 2 4
Middle 12 12 l 3
End 13 13 1 2
Lesson 2
Beginning 9 12 3 3
Early l3 l4 3 2
Middle 15 12 4 2
Late 12 12 1 4
End 12 14 1 4
Lesson 3
Beginning 13 10 3 3
Middle 13 10 3 0
End 15 13 0 3
Lesson 4
Beginning 14 14 0 0
Middle 10 14 1 3
End 10 13 O 2

Mean 12.5 12.8 1.6 2.5

 

282

APPENDIX J

CERTIFICATE GRANTED FOR

COMPLETION OF COURSE

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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