*— - _l— L _ . ‘ ""*w lllfl/lll/Ifillfll/Illlllfl/IIllllN/ll/II/Illll/l/l 27 6285 This is to certify that the thesis entitled A STUDY OF NONTRADITIONAL STUDENTS AT RIKKYO UNIVERSITY, TOKYO, JAPAN: BACKGROUNDS, PERCEPTIONS, MOTIVATION, AND BARRIERS presented by Kikuji Saito has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph. D degree in Educgtion }f 7 ajor professor Date December 28, 1983 0-7639 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution MSU RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to LJBRAfiJES remove this checkout from ”- your record. FINES win be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. ~_..— 1 it 3'?” '9’er ii A STUDY OF NONTRADITIONAL STUDENTS AT RIKKYO UNIVERSITY, TOKYO, JAPAN: BACKGROUNDS, PERCEPTIONS, MOTIVATION, AND BARRIERS By Kikuji Saito A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Curriculum 1983 @ Com'right by KIKUJI SAITO 1983 ABSTRACT A STUDY OF NONTRADITIONAL STUDENTS AT RIKKYO UNIVERSITY, TOKYO, JAPAN: BACKGROUNDS, PERCEPTIONS, MOTIVATION, AND BARRIERS BY Kikuji Saito Purpose The major purposes which directed this study were: 1. TO gather demographic data on nontraditional Students who participated in the first day baccalaureate program offered in Japan by the Department of Law and Politics, Rikkyo University, Tokyo. 2. To analyze personal data on nontraditional students with respect to motivating factors, concerns, barriers, and program satisfaction. Procedures A questionnaire was developed, piloted, and administered to 71 undergraduate students. The chi-square test was utilized to analyze the data. Findings The findings of the study were: 1. The mean age Of nontraditional students who participated in this study was 33.3 years, 31.7 for males and 33.8 for Kikuji SaitO females. More females (76.1 percent) than males (23.9 percent) participated. The major factors motivating students to enroll/return tO the university included: the desire for personal growth, intellectual stimulation, and fulfillment of some potential for the future. Utilitarian reasons for attending school were given low priority. The new admission system for nontraditional student applicants provided a better Opportu- nity for them to enter/return to the university. Nontraditional students perceived such factors as time to study and living and school expenses as great barriers to pursuing their education. Males more Often expressed difficulty with financial problems than females. Nearly two-thirds (63.3 percent) Of the nontraditional students were completely or moderately satisfied with the education they had received. Slightly over half of the students wished to Obtain a job after graduation. However, the majority thought this would be difficult because Of maximum age limits that most of the public as well as private agencies set in hiring personnel. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Greatest appreciation goes to Dr. Richard E. Gardner, the chairperson of my committee and my advisor throughout the years in graduate school. The continuous support, understanding, and warmth he has given to me have been immeasurable. His guidance and influ- ence have given me academic direction. I am forever in his debt. I also am extremely grateful for the assistance of: Dr. Howard W. Hickey, whose support and encouragement widened my world throughout my doctoral studies. Dr. Ben Bohnhorst, for serving as committee member and whose reinforcement and assistance have been of help through the years. Dr. James C. Stalker, for his willingness to serve as a com- mittee member and for his teaching, which brought me a great deal Of_ knowledge and confidence. Very sincere thanks are extended to Dr. Casmer Heilman, Dr. Gloria Kielbaso, Dr. John MacKenzie, and the staff of the Michigan Career Education and Vocational Education Resource Center for their consistent support, help, and friendship. Working with them has given me valuable experience and great pleasure. Also, I wish to express great thanks to Dr. Patricia D'Itri, for her editing my paper, her long-term friendship, and her assist- ance. ’ Drs. Richard Featherstone and Joseph Levine for their generous guidance, advice, and assistance. My deepest gratitude, respect, and appreciation are extended to Dr. Takao Sawaki, the Dean Of the College of Law and Politics, Rikkyo University. Dr. Sawaki's foresightedness and dedication to education were inspiring. Without his contribution and cooperation this study would not have been possible. Thanks also go to MS. Tsutae Yasuda and the staff of Rikkyo University for their willingness and assistance in taking extra work 'and time to assist me with this study. ii Most importantly, appreciation and admiration are expressed to the nontraditional students in the Department of Law and Politics, Rikkyo University, for their participation in this study and their courage and efforts in continuing learning. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x Chapter I. INTRODUCTION 1 Background of the Study . . . . . 2 Rationale for the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Statement of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Research Questions . 7 Limitations Of the Study 8 Importance of the Study . 9 Definition of Terms . 9 Organization . . . . 10 11. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 11 Japan's Development of the University System . . . . 11 Adult Motives for Returning to School . . . . . . . . 15 Social Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Life Stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Institutional Roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Needs and Problems Of Nontraditional Students . . . . 30 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 III. METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 The Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 The Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 IV. ANALYSIS OF DATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 SECTION I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Research Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 iv SECTION II . . . . . . . . . . . . . Demographic Variables . . . . . . . . Sex, Age Group, Marital Status Educational Background . . . Income Level of Nontraditional Students . Sources of Financial Support . . Employment Before Entering/Returning to the University . . . . . . . . . . . Current Working Hours . . Time for Commuting (One Way) . . SECTION III . . . . . . . . Concerns, Barriers, and Program Satisfaction . Degree Of Concern Experienced in Entering/Returning to the University . . . . . . . Difficulty in Making Decision to Enter/Return to the University . . . . . . . Reasons for Difficulty in Making the Decision . Those Consulted to Help Make the Decision . . Reasons for Entering/Returning to the University The Most Important Reason for Entering/ Returning to the University . Educational Barriers . Reasons for Choosing a University Over Another Type Of Educational Institution . Reasons for Choosing a University Day CourSe. Rather Than an Evening Course or a Correspondence Course . . . . . . . . . . Area of Study . . . . Area of Study That Would Have Been Chosen . Impact of Special Admission System Plans After Graduation Means of Finding a Job . . The Possibility of Finding a Job . . The Reasons for Difficulty in Finding a Job . . Degree Of Satisfaction . . . . . . . The Reasons for the Degree of Meeting Needs . . Preferred Additional Services . . . . . . . . . Implications of Changes . . . . . . V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND REFLECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary Of the Findings . Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . Implications . . . . . . . . . . Recommendations for Future Research . Reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 43 43 43 46 47 49 52 S4 56 S7 S7 S7 67 67 74 76 86 86 96 99 105 106 108 111 113 115 115 120 124 132 138 141 141 144 146 149 150 APPENDICES . . Appendix A. C-AHCEO'HITICOW 7S t" .3 O'UOZ Preferred Additional Services (by Sex, Marital Status, and Age) . . Information Request Letter (Translation from Japanese) Information Request Response (Translation) Letter sent to the students from the Dean (Translation). Letter sent to the students from the Dean (Japanese) Statement Of Research Purpose (Translation) Statement of Research Purpose (Japanese) Letter Attached to Questionnaire (Translation) Letter Attached to Questionnaire (Japanese) Letter sent from the Dean along with Questionnaire (Translation). Letter sent from the Dean along with Questionnaire (Japanese) . . . Letter sent from the Dean along with Questionnaire (Translation). Letter sent from the Dean along with QuestiOnnaire (Japanese) Return Postcard (Translation) Return Postcard (Japanese) . . Population Questionnaire (Translation) Population Questionnaire (Japanese) BIBLIOGRAPHY vi Page 152 154 156 159 161 163 165 167 169 172 175 177 179 181 183 185 187 197 205 LIST OF TABLES Page Number of Students Enrolled in Higher Education Institutions in Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Student Applicants to the Department Of Law and Politics . 37 Number of Participants in the Study . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Ages of the Participants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Marital Status of the Participants . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Level of Enrollment of Nontraditional Students Who Participated in the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Educational Background of the Nontraditional Students . . 47 Income Level of Nontraditional Students . . . . . . . . .' 48 Sources of Financial Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Employment Before Entering/Returning to the University . . 53 Current Working Hours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Time for One-Way Commute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Factors and Degree of "Great Concern" Experienced in Entering/Returning to the University . . . . . . . . . . 58 Chi-Square Test on Degree of Concern Experienced in Entering/Returning to the University (by Sex) . . . . . 59 Degree of Concern Experienced in Entering/Returning to the University (by Sex) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Chi- -Square Test on Degree of Concern Experienced in Entering/Returning to the University (by Marital Status) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Degree of Concern Experienced in Entering/Returning to the University (by Marital Status) . . . . . . . . . 64 vii .15 .16 .17 .18 .19 .20 .21 .22 .23 .24 .25 .26 .27 .28 .29 .30 .31 .32 .33 Degree of Concern Experienced in Entering/Returning to the University (by Age) . . . . . . . Difficulty in Making Decision to Enter/Return to the University . . . . . . . . . . . . . Degree of Difficulty and the Reasons in Making the Decision to Enter/Return to the University Reasons Of Difficulty in Making the Decision (by Sex) Reasons of Difficulty in Making the Decision (by ' Marital Status) . . . . . . . . . . . Reasons Of Difficulty in Making the Decision (by Age) Who Consulted to Make Decision to Enter/Return to the University . . . . . Reasons for Entering/Returning to the University The Order of Importance of "Quite Important" (by Sex) The Order of Importance Of "Quite Important" (by Marital Status) . . . . . . . . The Order of Importance of "Quite Important" (by Age) The Most Important Reasons for Entering/Returning to .the University Degree of Educational Barriers Educational Barriers (by Sex) . . . . . . . Chi-Square Test on Educational Barriers (by Marital Status) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Educational Barriers (by Marital Status) Educational Barriers (by Age) Reasons for Choosing a University Over Another Type Of Educational Institution . The Reasons for Choosing a University Day Course Rather Than an Evening Course or a Correspondence Course (by Sex) viii Page 66 67 68 71 73 75 77 78 80 82 85 87 89 90 91 93 94 97 100 .34 .35 .36 .37 .38 .39 .40 .41 .42 .43 .44 .45 .46 .47 .48 .49 .50 .51 .52 The Reasons for Choosing a University Day Course Rather Than an Evening Course or a Correspondence Course (by Marital Status) . . . . . . . . . The Reasons for Choosing a University Day Course Rather Than an Evening Course or a Correspondence Course (by Age) . . . . . Area Of Study . Area of Study That Would Have Been Chosen . Importance of Special Admission System in Making the Decision Plans After Graduation Means of Finding a Job Degree of Difficulty/Ease in Finding a Job Degree of Difficulty/Ease in Finding a Job The Reasons Why Finding a Job May be Difficult (by Sex) . . . . . . . . . . . . The Reasons Why Finding a Job May be Difficult (by Marital Status) . . . . . . . . . . . . The Reasons Why Finding a Job May be Difficult (by Age) Degree of Satisfaction (by Sex, Marital Status, Age, and Level of Enrollment) . . . . . . . . . . . The Reasons for the Degree of Meeting Needs . The Reasons for the Degree of Meeting Needs (by Sex) The Reasons for the Degree of Meeting Needs (by Marital Status) . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Reasons for the Degree of Meeting Needs (by Age) Preferred Additional Services . Indications of Changes ix Page 103 104 107 109 110 112 114 116 118 119 120 121 123 125 130 131 133 134 139 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 2.1 Interval Between Discovery and Application in Physical Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 3.1 Questionnaire DeveIOpment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The history of formal programs designed to meet the educa- tional needs of American adults has been traced back to the mid- nineteenth century. These programs took into consideration such factors as the economic, social, technical, and geographical situa- tions faced by adults. It was during the 19605 and71970$ that the needs and opportunities for lifelong learning accelerated. These same phenomena have been noted in other countries around the world. The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and other agencies, both public and private, have published reports on the significance and necessity for lifelong learning (UNESCO, 1960, 1977). Many institutions have supported and have provided lifelong learning opportunities, including universities, colleges, community colleges, public schools, industry, business, professional organizations, government, and community-based organiza- tions. Among them, American colleges and universities have assumed important roles in providing Opportunities for those adults who wish to continue formal learning. Correspondence courses, Extension Centers, night courses, topical workshops, and seminars of short duration have been augmented with counseling centers, support groups, resource centers, and modified entrance requirements in order to make lifelong learning a reality for more Americans. The result has been a Significant rise in the enrollment rate of nontraditional students in institutiOns Of higher education in the United States. The United States Bureau of the Census (1979) reported that more than one-third of all college students were age 25 or Older. Accompanying this surge of interest in lifelong learning has been a substantial increase in the amount of research on the learning needs and motivating factors that have influenced large numbers of Americans to return to the classroom. Cross has developed a profile of the adult learner. She (1981) stated that learning is more common among young white adults who are well-educated, rich, live in the western part of the United States, reside in the suburbs, and work long hours. Background of the Study The history of the development of lifelong education in the United States has been documented. In contrast, almost all Japanese institutions of higher education have primarily served students rang- ing from age 18 to 22 years. If one were to consider the college and university day program only, then this age group has been the only one served. At least five factors have accounted for this situation: 1. The great demand for university enrollment has been by this age group, and the number of applicants has far exceeded the established enrollment capacity for Japanese institutions Of higher education. This has resulted in stringent entrance standards and keen competition between applicants. Adults who have been out of school for a period of time believe that they would have difficulty in competing with younger students taking the same examination. 2. Lifelong employment has been a major factor in Japan. Within this system, salary and promotion have been determined by one's educational background. The year of graduation and the degree attained have been primary factors to advancement rather than special ability, skill, or competency. Therefore, the earlier the date of graduation, the greater the opportunity for long-term economic gain. 3. Age limits have been a factor in the hiring practices of many organizations, both private and governmental, as almost all insti- tutions have established maximum ages when hiring personnel. According to the Applicant's Guide for the Public Worker, 1983 (KokkakOmuin, Saiyo Shiken no Gaiyo), qualified applicants must be within the follow- ing ages to be eligible to take entry examinations: Ages Occupation 22-33 Government Office Worker (Upper Level) (Jyokyu Shoku) 19-27 Government Office Worker (Middle Level) (Chukyu Shoku) 21-27 National Tax Bureau Worker (Kokuzie Senmonkan) Another example is the public school teacher. Applicants for teach- ing positions must be under 34 years of age, according to the Appli- cant's Guide for Tokyo Metropolitan Government Public School Teachers, April 1983. 4. Japanese higher education institutions have not been capable of responding to the diverse situations of adults desiring formal educational experiences. Less than 15 percent of higher edu- cation institutions have provided degree programs in the evening, and students enrolled in evening courses are not allowed to take courses in the daytime program. Evening programs, administered totally sep- arately from day programs, have different entry examination require- ments. 5. The economic situation, in the past, has prohibited many adults from leaving their jobs to attend school for an extended period of time. Few companies have allowed employees to take leaves for advanced study except for the few companies that have provided job-related studies or training in Japan or overseas. Teachers do not have a sabbatical system. However, there have been strong indications that contemporary changes have been affecting education. The nuclear family has pre- dominantly characterized family life in Japan. Smaller families and changes in family-member responsibilities provided more Opportunity for free time. Dramatic changes in industry, technology, and economic progress have also given the people more free time to participate in a variety of activities of their own choosing. At the same time, managers in business and industry have been forced to change the traditional salary and promotion system and to revise their concept of employment for life because Of worldwide competition in business and industry and the tight economic situation. As a result, early retirement (in some cases at age 40) rather than lifelong employment or security and salary increases based on ability rather than seniority have been introduced in some business sectors. This change in the Japanese management system has forced employees to consider job changes regardless of their interests or aptitude. Consequently, people of both sexes and all ages who wish to acquire new skills are spending more time than ever on learning and self- development. Many private, commercial schools have been established to offer courses for adults, responding to the societal demands for learning. This type of educational business has been flourishing. Some of the institutions of higher education have also offered noncredit courses for the general public. There are indications that Japanese institutions of higher education have been influenced by the practice of continuing education in other countries as well as by the changing needs of Japanese citi- zens and organization. Some institutions have been considering Open- ing their doors to nontraditional students. However, most colleges and universities have not been ready to serve peOple who have been in the work force for some years. Aware of adult learner needs for formal educational experi— ences and concerned about the rigid entrance requirements, the Depart- ment of Law and Politics at Rikkyo (St. Paul's) University in Tokyo established a special admission system for an undergraduate day pro- gram for nontraditional student applicants in 1979. In the first SUCh program in Japan, the stated purpose of this innovation was "to pro~ vide learning Opportunities for those nontraditional students who have great enthusiasm for learning," A separate entrance examination was constructed, which included the areas of English and composition. Applicants were also required to stand for an interview. These requirements contrasted with the pre-existing requirements for other day program applicants, who were required to sit for examinations in English, Japanese, and history or mathematics. Rationale for the Study, The development and implementation of the innovative under- graduate, degree-granting day program within the Department of Law and Politics at Rikkyo University has stimulated positive responses from the general public and the media, primarily because the program has been viewed as meeting an existing need of the country and the adult pOpulation. These positive reactions have been gratifying; however, many questions go unanswered. Data have not been collected on participants with respect to the degree to which the program has met educational needs. -What has prompted these adults to return to the university, and what barriers have they faced and overcome? Accepting adult students in an undergraduate day program has not been practiced in Japanese universities. Therefore, basic demo- graphic and personal data have not been available on the nontradi- tional student who has returned to the campus. The changing nature of Japanese society has indicated that adults have needs and interests that may be most effectively met by institutions of higher education. Other colleges and universities have indicated an interest in the undergraduate program at Rikkyo University. However, insightful data regarding the participants in the program have been nonexistent. Statement of the Problem The central problem of this study was to analyze data col- lected from participants in the undergraduate, day prOgram at Rikkyo University, Tokyo, Japan, with respect to motivating factors, con- cerns, problems, and program satisfaction. The major dimensions of the study included: 1. The extraction of a series Of questions related to non- traditional students in the United States through a review of per- tinent literature. 2. Securing approval from the Department of Law and Politics to survey nontraditional students. 3. The construction and validation of a questionnaire to gain data on the population with respect to income, motivating factors, concerns, problems, and program satisfaction. 4. Administration of the questionnaire. 5. Analysis of the data to determine the most common responses. 6. Application of the chi-square test to determine whether significant differences on questions existed based upon sex, marital status, and age. 7. The development of implications to be considered by the government of Japan and universities as they consider the development Of other programs for adult learners. Research Questions A series of questions were develOped to provide direction for the research: I. What were some of the characteristics of nontraditional students enrolled in the Department of Law and Politics at Rikkyo University? 2. What were the motivating factors given by students for entering or returning to higher education? 3. What barriers were faced by nontraditional students? 4. How satisfied were the nontraditional students with the program? In addition, there was an interest in eXamining the data for significant response differences, using sex, marital status, and age as variables. Limitations of the Study The limitations inherent in this study were Of two major types: 1. Those that were established by studying the students of a single institution. All of the subjects were students enrolled in an undergraduate program in the Department of Law and Politics, Rikkyo University, Tokyo. The population represented those who agreed to release their names and addresses to the researcher. This was because the university has a regulation prohibiting the release of the names and addresses of the students to persons outside the university with- out securing advanced consent from the students. Therefore, before conducting the research, Dr. Takao Sawaki, the Dean of the College of Law and Politics, asked all nontraditional students whether they would release their names and addresses for this research. Hence one would only be able to generalize, in terms Of the findings, to that limited population. 2. The study was subject to those weaknesses inherent in the particular methodology described. Importance of the Study» The program at Rikkyo University represents a significant departure from past educational practice in Japanese institutions of higher education. First, there has been a recognition of the educa- tional needs of nontraditional students; second, an undergraduate program has been implemented that has modified entrance examination requirements. Although both issues are interwoven into the fabric of the Rikkyo University program, each may have implications for future program development or modification within the Japanese educa- tional system. Data are needed on the participants of this existing program in order to assist the government and universities in making informed decisions on possible new directions. Definition of Terms Nontraditional student--A person more than 22 years of age who elected to resume college education after an interrupted period of more than three years. For this study, the definition followed the applicant guidelines established by Rikkyo University as those persons who were over 22 years of age. Adult student--A synonym for a nontraditional student. Continuing education-~Learning opportunities throughout life. 10 Lifelong learningf-A synonym for continuing education. Undergraduate day program--Offered during the daytime; day programs and evening programs in Japanese universities were com- pletely separate systems. Students enroll in either program, but they are not interchangeable. Dispositional barriers--Refers to attitude about learning and perception based on self-image as a learner, including feeling of being too old to learn, lack of confidence, and boredom with school. Institutional barrierS--Refers to those apprehensions result- ing from institutional protocol, such as registration, lack of availa- bility of scholarships, and scheduling problems. Situational barriers--Refers to problems arising from one's situation in life at a particular time, such as lack of time, lack of child care, and lack of transportation. Organization This dissertation is organized into five chapters: Chapter I-- Background of the Study, Chapter II--Review of the Literature, Chapter III--Methodology, Chapter IV--Ana1ysis of Data, and Chapter V-- Conclusions, Implications, Recommendations, and Reflections of the Study. CHAPTER 11 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE There has been a paucity of data regarding the nontraditional student in Japanese universities. Therefore, the review of precedent literature has encompassed Japan's develOpment of the university sys- tem, adult motives for returning to school, social changes, life change, intelligence, motivation, institutional roles, and needs and problems of nontraditional students. Japan's Development (If the University System The first Japanese institution of higher education, Tokyo College, was established in 1877 with faculties in Law, Science, Letters, and Medicine but no graduate schools. This period was inaugurated as a result Of the Meiji Restoration of 1868, when the government replaced the feudal Tokugawa shogunate. This transforma- tion was in response to the overwhelming military and industrial threat of the Western powers and provided Japan an opportunity to restructure her political, social, and economic situation (Kobayashi, 1980). Japan's industries lacked technical expertise for development, as mass production was yet to be implemented. The Imperial University Ordinance created the Imperial Univer- sity system and specified that education should serve the purposes of 11 12 the state. The state became the focus of education and of all learn- ing within the Imperial University system (Kobayashi, 1980). There- fore, Japan's need tO gain in technology and to improve industrial methodologies was transmitted to the Tokyo Imperial University. Additionally, a faculty in agriculture was added to the university in 1897, and Tohoku Imperial University was established in 1907, followed by Kyushu Imperial University in 1910. Both institutions specialized in applied science and technology. The establishment of the Imperial Universities coincided with the first industrial revolution in Japan, which centered on the textile industry and other light industries. The Imperial Universities pro- duced scientists and engineers who, along with graduates in other Specialized fields, were employed by the government and by industry (Kobayashi, 1980). I Private colleges were not recognized as universities until 1918 and served two primary purposes. First, they possessed a strong liberal arts type orientation; second, they provided employees for the private sector. By 1930 Imperial Japanese universities numbered seven, and the content of their programs reflected the change in industry from light to heavy. Research efforts were developed in and outside of higher education, leading to increased knowledge and competence in chemical research and aeronautical engineering. The opportunity for graduate study was limited, and many adults found their way to western countries in order to gain advanced knowledge and to bring that 13 knowledge back to Japan. - August 1945, the end of World War II, led to the creation of a democratic education system based on the Fundamental Law of Education. The occupation of Japan in 1945 slowed industrial, economic, and trade develOpment as all of these activities were controlled by occupation ' authorities. Higher education underwent drastic reform from the domi- nant idea of elite principle toward the idea of opening educational opportunities for the masses. In 1952 Japan gained her autonomy, and her future became more clear. The new principle attached greater importance to vocational education, with a view of meeting the needs of society and industry. The Science and Technology Agency was instituted in 1956 and made additional recommendations in 1960 relative to manpower needs. Citing the need to improve the quality of the labor force, the Agency called for 170,000 university graduates in science and technology, 440,000 technical high school graduates, 1,600,000 technicians and skilled workers, and the retraining of 1,800,000 workers. "Large numbers of highly educated persons sent out by the new school system constituted a major factor which enabled Japan to achieve rapid economic growth from the latter half of the 19505. (A50 8 Amano, 1972). The "boom" in higher education occurred in the 19605 and has persisted through the years, with a university degree being considered a necessity and a mark of status. Universities have been flooded with applicants and, unable to handle the masses, instituted rigorous entrance requirements. Table 2.1 presents data on the number of 14 universities, the number of applicants, and the number of applicants accepted from 1965 through 1979. Table 2.l.-—Number of students enrolled in higher education institu- tions in Japan. ' Number Of Number of Number Year figsfi1tut10ns 9f Quota Applicants Enrolled g er Education 1965 317 179,000 1,209,000 255,000 1970 382 230,000 1,949,000 339,000 1975 420 270,000 2,757,000 424,000 1976 423 302,000 2,795,000 421,000 1977 431 307,000 2,958,000 428,000 1978 433 309,000 3,128,000 426,000 1979 443 315,000 2,796,000 408,000 Source: Ministry of Education, Gakko Kihon Chosa Hokokusho, cited in PHP, Suji de Miru Nihon no Ayumi (Tokyo, 1980), pp. 394-95. Correspondence programs, evening programs, and some special noncredit courses of universities have provided learning Opportuni- ties for more nontraditional students but fall short of meeting the demand and the persisting needs of the adult population. A review of critical and potentially pertinent documents has revealed data on university students between the ages of 18 and 27. Information on adults beyond the age of 27, who might be enrolled in higher education programs, does not exist. The dearth of information on Japanese nontraditional students led the researcher to existing data, predominantly American in author- ship, to establish a literature base for the research. 15 Adult Motives for Returning to School The trend to continuing education has been recognized in the American universities since the mid-nineteenth century. However, during the past two decades the Opportunities and demands have expanded significantly as continuing education has increasingly been perceived as a natural and necessary process for adults. Adults now return to college for various personal and professional reasons. New needs have resulted from societal changes, individual motives, and the changing role of institutions of higher learning. Some of the changes that have encouraged people to continue their education have included new knowledge areas, interpersonal rela- tionships, vocational skills, self-development and sense of indi- viduality, changing roles of women and men, shifts from rural to urban patterns of living, the diminishing of some careers and the emergence of new ones, and alternative lifestyles. The need for and importance of continuing education for the society as well as the individual has been justified by various researchers. Paul Leagans (1978) stressed that the late twentieth century was to be a time Of unprecedented economic, social, and political change. These factors have relegated education to obso- lescence more rapidly than ever before. At the same time, adults must participate in complex decision making, which demands the best possible capacities in the society. This notion was also emphasized in the Annual Report of the National Advisory Council on Adult Educa- tion (1972): 16 Our nation cannot afford an educational system that is solely child-centered. . . . Adults, not children, are making the decisions that affect all functions and actions of our govern- ment. Adults, not children, are responsible for our productive output. Adults, not children, are confronted with the problems of parenthood and family life. Adults, not children, are chal- lenged by environmental problems that threaten all future gen- erations. Adults, not children, are faced with increased cost of living. For these reasons adults, even more than children, need education now. Various studies have also been conducted to determine why large numbers of adults are reentering colleges and universities in the United States. Among these factors are beginning, changing, or improving their occupation. Others are the social acceptability of attending college, life enhancement, changes in life situation, society's premium on degrees, and university and college recruiting programs for older students. Usually adults have more than one reason for returning to school (App, 1981, p. 37). For example, among mature women undergraduate students enrolled in the Bachelor of Arts degree program at North Central College in Illinois, 80 percent cited an unfulfilled desire for knowledge as the main reason for returning to school (Doty, 1966). Other major reasons included dissatisfaction with social/community work (50 percent) and the need for financial preparation to retire (40 percent). Among re-entry women students age 28 and over at the Univer- sity of Wisconsin-Madison, both graduates and undergraduates, the predominant reasons for returning to school were academic or intel- lectual (41 percent). Vocational reasons were next, such as that their job required a degree or being without one trapped them in dead-end jobs (23 percent) (Geisler 8 Thrush, 1975). 17 The desire for personal enrichment can also be a strong motive. According to Letchworth (1970), college was perceived as a place for returning women to develop themselves when they faced an identity- ihtegrity crisis after 10 or 15 years of marriage and motherhood. Some women become bored after raising children because they lack contact with the "real world." Thus, among 475 women age 30 and over who returned to Skyline College, the primary goal was personal enrich- ment (43 percent) (Steel, 1974). Their secondary goals were prepar- ing for a new career (24 percent), trying to increase their skills for the present job (11 percent), and wishing to learn more abOut a specific interest unrelated to work (10 percent). Other reasons this group expressed for returning to school were: (1) always wanted to return (40 percent), (2) dissatisfaction or boredom at home (14 per- cent), (3) dissatisfaction or boredom at work (9 percent), and (4) anticipated economic necessity (6 percent). Students who already had had four years of college showed an even stronger personal-growth motivation. During the fall semester of 1976, Lourie (1977) studied the characteristics of older students at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte. Approximately 40 percent were 25 years old or older. The respondents were predomi- nantly white, under 30, married, and taking college work beyond the fourth year. A total of 79.6 percent said they had re-entered col- lege mainly to earn a degree for personal growth (male, 81 percent; female, 78.5 percent). Other reasons were: to grow as a person (male, 58.7 percent; female, 69.3 percent) and to train for a change in occupation (male, 43.4 percent; female, 43.6 percent). In another 18 study, personal satisfaction (20 percent), desire for achievement (18 percent), and career advancement (18 percent) were so closely related in percentage Of aspirations that they seem likely to have been per- ceived as correlates rather than separate issues (Galliano 6 Gildea, 1982). In other cases, preparation for employment was given a higher priority than personal growth. Among 245 women who were continuing their education at the Clifton and Raymond Waters campus of the Uni- versity of Cincinnati in 1973, 35.4 percent returned to prepare for employment, 30.3 percent indicated a need or desire for education or' achievement, and 25.3 percent wanted to facilitate personal growth (Durchholz 6 O'Conner, 1973). Similarly, at the University of Nebraska (1977), men and women with a mean age of 37 (N = 2,676) checked career improvement (44 percent) and personal satisfaction (38 percent) as important motives for returning to school. Certainly Older (36-57 years) undergraduates have different goals and attitudes than those of their younger counterparts (18-35 years). A study at the University of Maryland demonstrated some of the demographics and attitudinal variables (Kimball 8 Sedlacek, 1971). Among them, 22 percent of the older undergraduates (36-57 years old) had clearly defined vocational goals compared with 10 percent of their counterparts ages 18 to 35. Striving to achieve these goals may also reflect other changes in working lifestyles, such as (1) an increased life expectancy for women, many of whom also remain single longer; (2) fewer children; (3) a reduction in the time required for housework because of 19 technological advances; and (4) availability of more educational opportunities for women (Smallwood, 1978). These have been increasing because of changing institutional policies and easier financial and geographical accessibility. Some of the most influential reasons for continuing to learn also reflect changes and develOpment in science and technology that have also initiated numerous social changes. R. H. Dave (1976) observed that this age of rapid change brings shocks that people were shielded from in the past. Because these changes are occurring at such a rapid pace, the social environment has become unpredictable for many people. Hence, they no longer feel that they can rely on their past social roles, values, attitudes, or the usefulness of current vocational skills to persist throughout life. The importance Of lifelong learning is considered to be not only desirable but necessary because of the obsolescence of knowledge, the growth and emergence of new knowledge, the complexity of social problems, and the close relationship between the application of knowledge and social progress (Hesburgh, Miller, 6 Wharton, 1976). Overall, these studies show that adults return to colleges and universities for various reasons, depending on their life situation, needs at the time, developmental stage, and future goals. These reasons are also affected by changes occurring in the society, its value system, changes in technology, and influences of the information age, such as mass media and computers. 20 Social Changes Dramatic new developments in technology in the past few decades have greatly affected human life. Thus, Alvin Toffler's Future Shock (1970) addressed the effect of technological changes that have also compelled social and institutional alterations at an accel- erating rate. For instance, in 1950, 120,000 books were produced annually in Eur0pe. By the mid-19605, the total approached 365,000 books a year. This accelerative curve in book publication paralleled the rate at which new knowledge was discovered. Toffler defined a social lag as the period between an event in history and the adapta- tion of society to that event. Thus, educators should consider how public education can help reduce the social lag and implement changes accordingly. As Toffler recalled Francis Bacon's oft-quoted statement that "Knowledge . . . is power," he contended that it can be trans- lated into contemporary terms. In today's social setting, "Knowledge is change-~and accelerating knowledge acquisition, fueling the great engine of technology means accelerating change" (p. 31). Thus life- long education must be provided on what Toffler calls a plug-in/ plug-out basis. The 1972 UNESCO report, Learning to Be: The World of Education Today and Tomorrow, also described this rapid change, contending that science and technOlogy have never before demonstrated so strikingly the extent of their power and potential. During this second half of the twentieth century, knowledge is making a prodigious leap forward . . . change is boundless. . . . Man took 112 years to develop practical appli- cations of the discovery of the principles of photography. Only 21 two years separated the discovery from the production of solar batteries. (pp. 87-88) Figure 2.1 shows the rapid progress and increasingly shorter intervals between innovations. 195331955 2w: Solubettery I 1948§1951 3yre Trmeietor \ .8 1939§1945 Eyre Atomicbomb N 5N 1932 @1942 10 yrs Nuclear reactor {\N “s 1922 “\1934 12 yrs Television 1925 $1940 15yre Radar .\¥\\\\\ . :\\\“‘\\ 18955“ 1913 13 yr! X-ray tubes um4ggg_\ 18671":‘)"'(\\'\{\@1902 35 yrs Radio j\‘~.‘-E“"~‘;§\~-‘ \‘\ .‘ \\\ H .\ v‘ . \‘gx\:.\\\§.\.§ \\\\ \ ‘ ..~\ \\ ‘. S1876 56w: Telephone ‘\ 1915 33w: Vacuum tube 1886 65 yrs Electric motor \\ ~\\\‘ 1839 112 yr: Photography 1730 1850 who 2600 Figure 2.l.—-Interval between discovery and application in physical science (after E. H. Ginzberg, Technology and Social Change, Columbia University Press, 1964). Particularly after 1955, develOpments in technology altered the work and lives of people more rapidly and significantly. The emergence, rapid growth, and use of computers and high technology abolished some jobs and produced new ones. This new technology neces- sitates not only learning new skills but also changing ideas and activities that determine what constitutes work. As F. W. Jessup stated in Lifelong Learning: A Symposium on Continuing Education (1969): Sir Eric Ashby's suggestion a few years ago that university degrees in science should lapse after ten years unless refur- bished dramatically drew attention to the disconcerting accel- eration in the rate Of growth Of knowledge, at least in certain fields, and this is, indeed, the practice in some countries, as for example, France and the USSR, where certain licenses are not valid, without refreshment, beyond a specific period. The surgeon and the physician, the civil engineer and the accountant, the teacher and the librarian, as well as the fitter and turner, the machine-minder, and the chargehand, will all have to go back for periodical "retraining." (pp. 19-20) Whether beneficial or harmful, all of these changes require adaptations to change on an unprecedented scale. Thus, A. J. CrOpley (1977) believed that today's engineers face the prOSpect of possessing obsolete knowledge long before their professional life is over in the United States. In the future, in some disciplines, obsolescence Of skills may occur even within five years of completing their degree programs. Thus, changing vocational skills is a prospect that many adults face now, not just in the future. David Morris (1983) even proposed setting an expiration date on a college degree, like credit cards. In Change (1980), Shirley Hufstedler quoted Kenneth Boulding's notion that if the human species is to survive, "it will have to change its ways of thinking more in the next 25 years than it has in the last 25,000." Thus, not only have the passing decades of the last half of the twentieth century brought changes in technology and in people's lives, but the process is accelerating dramatically. 23 Life Stages Until recently, the popular concept of adulthood was that little further development occurred after physical maturation. How- ever, studies by Erikson, Levinson, Sheehy, and others have shown' that adults evolve through many life stages after age 21. In fact, adults continuously face changes, new experiences, and crises through- out their life span. Thus, adults pass through developmental stages related to each age and each individual's circumstances. Theorists who trace the life stages have employed various psychological and social progressions. For example, in Childhood and Society (1963), Erik Erikson identified the preadult psychological stages: Trust vs. Mistrust, Autonomy vs. Shame Doubt, Initiative vs. Guilt, Identity vs. Identity Confusion, and Intimacy vs. Isolation. Erikson contended that the ego continues to develop over the human life cycle as the person interacts with himself and his social environment. In this ongoing formative process, Erikson identified the three adult stages as generativity vs. stagnation (ages 18—30), ego integrity vs. despair (ages 30-65), and mature age (over 65). Levin (1978) traced similar stages in an orderly sequence of progres- sion experienced by American men. However, McCoy broke these stages down into smaller cate- gories that reflect external transitions as well. For instance, between ages 16 and 22, the young adult commonly leaves the family. In this period, youthful fantasies about adulthood slowly give way, and young people begin to perceive their peers as useful allies in an effort to break the hold of the family. The Second part of this 24 young-adult phase, ages 23-28, is identified as a period of reaching out. Gould and Levinson made this distinction following Erikson's conclusions in the 19205. All of the researchers agree that a crisis generally develops around age 30. Thus, in the next phase, ages 29-34, assur- ance wavers; life looks more difficult; and painful self-reflection churns up new questions, notably what is life all about? While Sheehey concluded that life crises are generally inter- spersed with periods of relative acceptance of life as it is, the researchers all found that the turbulent crisis of the early thirties is soon followed by a midlife explosion between ages 35 and 42. Whereas Erikson perceived a duality of ego integrity vs. despair between ages 30 and 65, subsequent researchers identified more phases within this period in which one is likely to be tossed from one end of this dichotomy to the other. For instance, some time during this middle period most people experience the emotional awareness that time is running out and death will inevitably come. Thus, the researchers see ages 35 to 42 as somewhat unstable, even explosive, a period resembling a second adolescence. Following this turbulence, generally between ages 44 and 50, most people experience a sense of settling down, what Sheehey identi- fied as the most satisfying time--the one after the major crisis. This is a stable period when most people assume that the die is cast and decisions that have been made already must be lived with. Thus, after age 50 is perceived as a time of growth toward wisdom, peak years of productive and creative endeavor. This research conflicts 25 with popular folklore that would have people feel that they are "over the hill" after age 30 and in a declining spiral of loss of creativity, learning skills, and adaptability. Despite this growth during the period after age 50, researchers saw that a new crisis looms at retirement and the likely loss of life- time mates. These recent identifications of life stages conflict somewhat with Erikson's earlier contention that mature age comes at 65 because that is exactly when most people are confronting the last set of major crises. Nonetheless, what is clear from all of these studies is that human beings keep changing and developing new needs that.can be met by education geared both to adjustment to life and the substantive challenges that arise. Thus, lifelong education has begun and will continue to develop in response to these needs. Intelligence The principles and relevance of lifelong learning for this prOcess can be examined not only from the practical standpoint such as skill acquisition or improved quality of life, but also from the more idealistic standpoint of intelligence and motivation. Although these studies have shown that peOple continue to develop throughout their lives, the data are by no means as clear regarding when the maximum learning capacity is attained and how much it deteriorates over time. In 1958 David Wechsler noted that most studies dealing with the age factor showed a decline of human abilities after reaching a peak between ages 18 and 25. S. L. Pressey and R. G. Kuhlen (1957) also concluded that "all types of growth go 26 forward relatively steadily and rapidly during the first 18 or 20 years then, rather quickly, all stop together" (p. 42). More recent evidence has tended to make more and finer distinctions in terms of learning and to indicate that some skills continue to improve. CrOpley (1977) concluded that overwhelming evidence demonstrates that some. abilities remain stable or even increase up to about age 60. He introduced Tyler's study that the vocabulary and arithmetic abilities do not substantially decline; "fall-off is most marked in the kind of ability tapped by tests of analogies, number series tasks, and reason- ing tasks" (p. 56), . Hebb (1967) identified two components of intelligence: (1) innate potential and (2) the estimated level of functioning at maturity. According to premise 1, what we actually know about an intelligence-test score is that it shows the estimated level of func- tioning at maturity rather than the individual's innate potential. Intelligence according to 2, the estimated level of mature function- ing, continues to grow throughout adulthood. This growth depends upon educational and environmental stimulations (PP. 249-50). Philip Vernon (1979) also emphasized the value of lifelong learning and intellectual growth in his statement that: Many contradictory claims have been made regarding the age to which intellectual growth continues or when decline sets in. The contradictions arise partly because continuing growth depends on continuing education and "use of the brains." (p. 82) Motivation Of course, motivation also affects learning. Along with intelligence, motivation is a complex construct composed of diverse 27 and often conflicting factors. In Motivation and Emotion (1964), E. M. Murry noted that "there is no single generally accepted theo- retical framework for motivation" (p. 3). Instead, a number of com- peting conceptions were inherited from phiIOSOphy or borrowed from biology. These theories are generally based on a preponderance of internal or external factors. For example, Maslow's (1954) hierarchy of needs prOposes that individuals must satisfy their needs at one level before they can be motivated to succeed at the next. Thus, these psychological stages are more important for individual progress than is chronological age. More recently, B. F. Skinner (1971) has taken the position that motivation is externally conditioned. Instead of citing inner goals or needs, Skinner's reinforcement theory reflects measurable and observable behavior. His model assumes that behavior is the result of externally reinforced. Adapting earlier work by R. G. Kuhlen (1963), CrOpley com- bined external and inner self-oriented goals in two motives for achievement and power. The first motive is self-fulfillment in the intra-personal domain. Although this pattern of motivation is strongest in early adulthood and begins to wane after about age 50, it is still visible in some pe0ple until age 60 or beyond. The second motive involves the selection of goals as a result of the motivating thrust of anxiety and insecurity. This includes the motivation to deal with self-perceived psychological inadequacies such as unhappi- ness, social inadequacy, lack df identity, and physical distress. 28 As the discrepancies in theories regarding motivation show, no definitive conclusions have as yet been shown about motivational differences for various ages. However, the research indicates that adults may be motivated by needs, expectations, and intrinsic as well as external rewards. Institutional Roles Both the future shock induced by technological changes that warrant human adaptation and the conclusion that people often have an ongoing motivation and capability to learn and adapt to change place a responsibility on institutions of higher education to share in the process. Thus, the need to learn to adjust and to acquire new knowl- edge in the process of continuing education necessitates asking how institutions of higher education can best play a part. Often colleges and universities have been reminded that they can serve an important function in the community, addressing timely issues as well as the more traditional disciplines. Indeed, the concept of the university as a part of society designed to reflect the needs of large numbers of the population, rather than the old idea of a disciplinary train- ing ground for small numbers of an elite cadre, has increasingly been given credence, not just in the United States, but abroad as well. This perspective was eloquently expounded by Msgr. H. J. Somers, presi- dent of St. Francis Xavier University: . The university must consider its duty to the community, to the great number of our population who have not received a university education and as well to the university graduates whose education should continue throughout life. In a democ- racy a university cannot adopt a cloistered attitude. All the citizens of our country must have the opportunity to develOp, 29 economically, socially, morally and spiritually. Knowledge knows no class nor race barrier. . . . We have our duty as uni- versities to do our part and our citizens have a right to expect our best effort in this field. (In Kidd, 1956, p. 10) J. R. Kidd also quoted from Oxford and Working-Class Education (1908), saying that the role Of a university is constantly changing. He believed that a living university is not a self-contained and independent unit but an organ of society, growing and nourished by its vitality and its policy. The concept of a populist university supported by and for all people of the state was known as "the Wisconsin idea" after Charles R. Van Hise advanced this proposal in a 1904 commencement speech: . A university supported by the state for all its people, for all its sons and daughters, with their tastes and aptitudes as varied as mankind, can place no bounds upon the lines of its endeavor, else the state is the irreparable loser. (In Smith, 1978) In predicting that the 19805 will witneSs a major expansion of the enrollment of colleges and universities, Donald Smith (1978) carried Van Hise's ideas into continuing education for adults. He predicted that the "learning society" sought by many educators will become a reality in the United States. The reasons why this will occur, Smith said, are that (l) more and more professions such as law and medicine require recurrent professional education; (2) more agencies, labor unions, business and industry, and government are initiating adult education and seeking connections with the academic world to conduct such activities; (3) more cause-oriented groups supporting purposes as diverse as protection of the environment, better health, women's and minority rights, or better television want access to the knowledge; 30 and (4) people living in a world dominated by expanding scientific and technological knowledge and accelerating social change seek sta- bility and a sense of fulfillment in their lives. While adult education must expand to meet the needs of workers who must update their skills, education is also perceived as an ongoing need among the growing numbers of peOple in retirement. Stephanie Clennel, in The University of the Third Age (1979), restated Pierre Vellas' view expressed in Les Chances du TroisiEme Age (1974) that education can contribute to the quality of life in the "third" age, after retirement, as well as during childhbod, the first age, and employment, the second age. Universities can assist the elderly by offering a whole range of activities that can maintain their health, keep them in touch with their cultural heritage, and help them to assume new activities in the service of the community. Thus HOUIG assured us in Universities in Adult Education (1953) that "the uni- versities should be pioneers. They should be daring experiment, will- ing to attempt the pilot study, the first survey. . . " Needs and Problems of Nontraditional Students Over the last 20 years, some relatively consistent patterns have emerged regarding barriers for nontraditional students. Most of the studies show that the longer students are away before they return to school, the more trepidation they are apt to experience (Lance, Lourie, 8 Mayo, 1979). Consequently, nontraditional students express the need for advice on admissions, scheduling, time manage- ment, and academic skills such as taking notes, writing papers, and using the library (Brandenburg, 1974). 31 Among the academic problems of adult undergraduate students enrolled in Michigan State University in 1965 were: courses given at times they could not attend, lack of time to study and read, fear of examinations, uninteresting courses, and competition from adolescents. Fear of examinations was greater in the Older groups, while younger adults experienced more difficulty with costs and lack of interest. The needs that adults reported were: special advisement and counsel- ing, an office or center for adults, scholarships and financial aid, assistance in learning about procedures, more information in the schedule book, and an opportunity for a testing program before read- . mission and enrollment (Erickson, 1965). Although these needs may be greater for reentering students, they were not perceived to be significantly different from those of traditional students at the University of Maryland-College Park. The students needed financial aid, advice concerning majors and course selection, educational/vocational counseling, credit by examination and credit for life experiences, and a campus information and referral service for returning students (Johnson, Wallace, 6 Sedlacek, 1979). The authors hypothesized, however, that they did not find significant differences between traditional and nontraditional students because the population in their study, particularly women, may have been able to arrange their lives suitably before they made the decision to return to school. This implies that many women who wished to return to college might have been unable to do so because their needs were not met by the existing university services. (II [\J Finding time to study (36 percent) and acquiring study habits (27 percent) were noted as problems of reentry mature women at Skyline College (Steel, 1974). They also experienced test-taking anxiety. The overt fear of failing may be tied to such underlying fears as not being intelligent enough, lacking the ability to study and learn, and having a dulled memory (Lance, Lourie, 6 Mayo, 1979). Often a lack of direction is also a major problem for women. Reentry women students age 28 and over at the University of Wisconsin-Madison com— plained of time pressure (82 percent), lack of self-confidence (53 percent), limited role definition (46 percent), and not enough sense of direction (42 percent) (Ceiler 8 Thrush, 1975). Mature women returning to Queen College of the City University of New York also cited uncertainty about their ability and being unsure Of their goals (Brandenburg, 1974). . Women generally expressed more concern than men did regarding housekeeping responsibilities and having less time for the family. Many women also experienced resistance to their return to school from husband, family, and friends (Brandenburg, 1974). When Smallwood (1978) studied the problems of adult students older than age 25 years at community colleges in Fort Worth, Texas, she found that the primary problems that adult women encountered were coordinating studies with child care and coordinating jobs with studies. These two problems were their primary concern and had to be resolved before they could concentrate on what they saw as a secondary issue--academics. Simi- larly, in 1982, Galliano and Gildea noted that returning women 33 students gave the highest priority tO concern for accomplishing house- hold chores (54 percent) and providing adequate child care (32 percent). Financial concerns ranked a near third (31 percent) in Galliano and Gildea's study. Although all of the studies reported that students expressed concern over finances and a need for financial aid, men Often gave this a higher priority than housework and child care. Forty-one percent noted financial problems, compared with 29 percent concerned with household work in Brandenburg's (1974) study. Summary This chapter presented an overview of selected literature concerning the motives and barriers of nontraditional students in continuing their education at institutions of higher education, the intelligence and motivation as well as social changes of adults, and Japan's development of a university system. It is recognized that adults need continuing education for various reasons, such as: technological changes in a society that necessitate acquiring new knowledge or brushing up their skills, and developmental life stages that demand coping with various problems. Theories that deal with the motivation and intelligence of adults indicated that no conclusions have been reached to deny that adults continue to maintain motivation and intelligence throughout their lives. Rather, the research has demonstrated that some abilities of human beings develOp throughout their life span, and motivation depends largely on individual differences. Therefore, institutions 34 Of higher education (uni be eXpected to have roles that respond to the needs of people and the overall society in offering educational opportunities for adults. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY The Department of Law and Politics at Rikkyo University in .Japan has initiated a program designed for nontraditional students. Created in 1979, the Department altered entrance requirements and encouraged applications from adults to an undergraduate, baccalaureate, day program--the first of its kind in Japan. The establishment of this new program has stimulated interest from other institutions of higher education. Recognizing adult learn- ing needs through program develOpment and modifying entrance require- ments to university programs has been considered a significant departure from traditional practice. The reactions of those adult students participating in the program has provided motivation for this research. The methodology encompassed securing permission from the university to conduct research on the population, Constructing and administering a question- naire, and analyzing data with respect to the characteristics, moti- vating factors, barriers,zuulsatisfaction levels of those enrolled in the program at Rikkyo University. The Setting Law and Politics is a department within Rikkyo University which has been concerned, as many others have, with the strict 35 36 entrance requirements and screening processes that have been employed to select students. The faculty also recognized the difficulty many adults perceived or experienced in attempting to enter or return to higher education. The undergraduate program in the department has been more liberal arts than vocational in orientation. In the past, most stu- dents have selected this program for reasons other than becoming involved in the professional fields of law and/or politics. Population The unique program was advertised, and the first group of applicants were accepted for admittance in the spring of 1979. Data relative to the applicants are presented in Table 3.1. The Department selected from 27 to 34 applicants for each of the years, 1979 through 1982. Applicants participated in a modified examination program and were also interviewed before admittance. The total population numbered 102 in the summer of 1982. In June 1982, the Dean of the College of Law and Politics, Dr. Takao Sawaki, sent a letter to each of the nontraditional students enrolled in the program, soliciting their support of the research effort. University policy has required student permission before the release of their names to researchers outside of the university. Nine stu- dents declined tO participate. Four letters were returned because Of changes in address, 62 agreed to participate, and 27 failed to respond to the Dean's letter. The Dean of the College of Law and Politics determined that questionnaires should be dispatched to the 27 students 37 OHGEGB H l mam: u 2 “>62 m :oEOpaswop mm ma w mm ma Ha mm QH OH em mm AH oocmpucoupommmm .oz 36H>no ca mm em Hfi mm om ma mm mm NH ow om ea How womwmm «or cod mcasmxo :6 an: on he mm NcH mm me mm mm mm mm mm mm .How.ooumooowunoz me we Hm 425 Ne mm was me mm emN woe mes meeeeeeeee do .02 :33. m 2 H38. "— 2 133. m 2 ~36... ”— z Nmmfi awmfi owmfi mum” .mOMuMMOQ pew 3mg mo u:OEuummoo ozu ou mucmoflfimam eeeeeem--.e.m eeeee who failed to respond, along with a letter soliciting their partici- pation. for a return rate of 78 percent. In all, 71 adult students returned completed questionnaires Seventeen of the respondents were males (23.9 percent) and 54 (76.1 percent) were females. (See Table 3.2.) Table 3.2.--Number of participants in the study. Reply to the letter No of No. of sent from the Dean Questionnaire ' . . Populat1on Respondents asking release of Sent Partici ants names and addresses p 62 Consented as Of Questionnaire sent 62 August 12 from the researcher 27 Had not responded Questionnaires sent 27 as of August 31 from the Dean 4 Returned because of an address change 9 Did not agree Questionnaires sent 3 from the Dean 102 Total Total 92 The Questionnaire A comprehensive review of the literature relative to nontradi- tional students returning or entering programs in higher education was accomplished. The research of Erickson (1965), Hunt (1966), Ramsey (1981), Rawlins (1980), and Solomon (1981) was especially helpful. Modifications were made to reflect the differences inherent in the Japanese culture. Other questions were added, which required the 39 respondents to reflect and respond to their reasons for selecting the day program over correspondence and evening programs. Additional items were generated, which addressed the effect of the special admission system for nontraditional students and satisfaction with the quality of the education provided. A draft of the questionnaire in English was submitted to and examined by a panel of experts. Based on their recommendations, five items were added, two items were deleted, and ten items were modified. The revised questionnaire was resubmitted to the panel of experts, which included faculty members from Michigan State University and Japanese citizens. After acceptance by all members of the panel, the questionnaire was piloted with a group of Japanese graduate stu- dents enrolled at Michigan State University. They were asked to provide suggestions relative to content and wording. Rewording and rephrasing was accomplished, as per their suggestions. The final draft, in Japanese, was again reviewed by Japanese educators; and minor changes were incorporated, based on their recommendations. The questionnaire can be found in Appendix P. The process of developing the questionnaire is depicted in Figure 3.1. A cover letter, explaining the nature of the research, was drafted. Encouragement for participation was also tendered. The letter was attached to the questionnaire and dispatched via mail to the pOpulation. An addressed and stamped envelOpe was included, along with a postcard that could be used by the participants if they desired a e0py of the results of the research. The cover letters and postcard are presented in Appendix H-O. Follow-up telephone calls 40 were made to recipients of the questionnaire who did not respond initially. Development of a draft of questionnaire (in English) Critique by a panel of experts (in English) 4, Revision I .1, Critique by a panel of experts (in English) 1 Revision l \1 Translation of the questionnaire into Japanese dz Pilot study with eight Japanese nontraditional students enrolled at Michigan State University (1n Japanese) sir Revision of wording and phrasing (in Japanese) Critique by the panel of experts (in Japanese) Development of final questionnaire (in Japanese) Figure 3.l.--Questionnaire development. 41 Data Analysis As the questionnaires were returned, the responses were trans- lated into English. The responses to the Open-ended questions were tabulated and categorized and classified manually for coding. All of the data were coded and keypunched for analysis using the Statis- tical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). There was an interest in determining whether certain response dispersions existed and whether age, marital status, and sex were related to possible differences in responses. The chi-square test was employed to evaluate the independence of various demographic char- acteristics in relation to questionnaire items. Crosstabs were used to determine references between the variables identified. The .05 level of statistical significance, which has been employed in most social science research (Blalock, 1979), was used to determine whether a particular value was significant. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF DATA SECTION I Introduction The central problem of this study was to analyze data col- lected from nontraditional students in the undergraduate day program at Rikkyo University, Tokyo, Japan, with respect to motivating fac- tors, concerns, problems, and program satisfaction. The major dimen- sions of the study included: 1. The extraction of a series of questions related to non- traditional students in the United States through a review of pertinent literature. 2. Securing approval from the Department of Law and Politics, Rikkyo University, to survey nontraditional students. 3. The construction and validation of a questionnaire to gain data on the population. 4. Administration of the questionnaire. 5. Analysis of the data to determine the most common responses. 6. Application of the chi-square test to determine whether significantly different responses existed based upon sex, marital status, and age. 42 43 7. Formulation of implications to be considered by the government of Japan and universities as they consider the develOpment of other programs for adult learners. Research Questions A series of questions were developed to provide direction for the research: 1. What were some of the characteristics of nontraditional students enrolled in the Department of Law and Politics at Rikkyo University? 2. What were the motivating factors given by students for entering or returning to higher education? 3. What barriers were faced by nontraditional students? 4. How satisfied were the nontraditional students with the program? In addition, there was an interest in examining the data for . significant response differences using sex, marital status, and age as variables. SECTION II Demogygphic Variables Sex, Age Group, Marital Status Seventy-one nontraditional students responded to a question- naire. Seventeen of the participants were male (23.9 percent) and 54 were female (76.1 percent). (See Table 4.1.) 44 Table 4.l.--Ages of the participants. Age Male Female Total Group N Percentage N Percentage N Percentage (of 17) (of 54) (of 71) 22-26 3 (17.6) 6 (11.1) 9 (12.7) 27-31 8 (47.1) 13 (24.1) 21 (29.6) 32-36 3 (17.6) 22 (40.7) 25 (35.2) 37-41 2 (11.8) 6 (11.1) 8 (11.3) 42+ 1 ( 5.9) 7 (13.0) 8 (11.3) Total 17 (23.9) '54 (76.1) 71 (100.1)a aDoes not equal 100 percent due to rounding. The respondents ranged in age from 22 to 57 years. The mean age was 33.3 years (31.7 for the males and 33.8 for the females). Table 4.1 presents the age distribution of the nontraditional under- graduate students. Their ages were classified in five groups: 22-26, 27-31, 32-36, 37-41, and 42 or older. Of the students, 42.3 percent were under 31 years old, 46.5 percent were in the 32-41 age category, and 11.3 percent were older than 42 years. Most of the nontraditional students (77.5 percent) were under age 36. The majority of the males were between 27 and 31 (47.1 percent), while the majority of the females were between 32 and 36 years old (40.7 percent). Overall, the females were significantly Older, with 64.8 percent over age 32 years compared with 35.3 percent over age 32 for the males. Differences in the ages of male and female nontraditional students might reflect variations in their life roles and possible 45 difficulties in obtaining jobs. As males have greater responsibility to support the family in Japanese society, middle-aged females may have more free time when their children are in school. Table 4.2 shows that 38.0 percent of the nontraditional stu- ' dents were married. Over half of the students (53.5 percent) were single. In terms of sex, 50.0 percent of the females were single, whereas 64.7 percent of the males were single. The married group consisted of 38.9 percent females and 35.3 percent males. Eleven percent (11.1 percent) of the female participants had lost their spouse or were divorced. Table 4.2.--Marital status of the participants. . Male Female Total Marital Status _ N (%) N (%) N (%) Married 6 (35.3) 21 (38.9) 27 (38.0) Single 11 (64.7) 27 (50.0) 38 (53.5) Other (divorced, ' widowed) 0 6 (11.1) 6 ( 8.5) As shown in Table 4.3, freshmen comprised 21.1 percent; sophomores, 28.2 percent; juniors, 22.5 percent; and seniors, 26.4 percent. One student left the university after the summer of 1982. 46 Table 4.3.--Leve1 of enrollment of nontraditional students who participated in the study. Male Female Total Enrollment N=l7 N=54 N=7l Level '-————--- N (9a) N (9.) N co Freshman 3 (17.6) 12 (22.2) 15 (21.1) Sophomore 7 (41.2) 13 (24.1) 20 (28.2) Junior 2 (11.8) 14 (25.9) 16 (22.5) Senior 5 (29.4) 14 (25.9) 19 (26.8) Other (left school) 1 ( 1.9) l ( 1.4) Educational Background Table 4.4 shows that approximately one-fifth of the partici- pants (22.6 percent) had completed either two- or four-year colleges before enrollment in the program, while 8.4 percent of the students had not finished either two- or four-year colleges. Two-thirds (66.2 percent--63.4 percent + 2.8 percent) of the students had a high school diploma but no previous collegiate experience. Slightly more male students had completed two- or four-year colleges before enrollment in the program (29.5 percent) than female students (20.4 percent). More males had completed four-year col- leges (17.7 percent) than female students (5.6 percent). In contrast, more females had completed two-year colleges (14.8 percent) than males (11.8 percent). 47 Table 4.4.--Educationa1 background of the nontraditional students. Male Female Total Educational Back round 0 o , g N (e) N (e) N (’6) High school diploma 10 (58.8) 35 (64.8) 45 (63.4) Did not finish junior college 0 1 ( 1.9) l ( 1.4) Completed junior college (two years) 2 (11.8) 8 (14.8) 10 (14.1) Did not finish college (four years) 2 (11.8) 3 ( 5.6) 5 ( 7.0) Completed college (four years) 3 (17.7) 3 ( 5.6) 6 ( 8.5) Completed technical college 0 2 ( 3.7) 2 ( 2.8) Other ‘ 0 2 ( 3.7) 2 ( 2.8) Total 17 (23.9) 54 (76.1) 71 (100.0) Income Level of Nontraditional Students In Table 4.5, family incomes were divided into six levels: less than 1 million yen ($4,000, $1 = 250 yen); 1 million-2 million yen ($8,000, $1 = 250 yen); 2 million-3 million yen ($12,000, $1 a 250 yen); 3 million-4 million yen ($16,000, $1 = 250 yen); 4 million-S million yen ($20,000, $1 = 250 yen); and over 5 million yen. All males (100.0 percent) and 92.6 percent of the females reported incomes. More males earned 2-3 million yen (29.4 percent). Next was less than 1 million yen (23.5 percent), and then more than 5 million yen (23.5 percent). Half of the females (50.0 percent) had a family income of more than 5 million yen; next were 2-3 million yen (14.0 percent) and 4-5 million yen (14.0 percent). ‘48 Am.~ov Av.NnN Ao.anv Ao.omv an.oc~ no.ch av.NMV Am.mmu Am.meg Ao.cmv Am.mmw Aacc.cmn cozy ouozv N N a v o N NN eN NN NN e eeN eoNNNNe N cage use: NN eNN No NNN Ne NNN NN NNN Ne NNN NN eNN Na NNN Na NNN NN N N Nccc.oNN-NcN.NNN N N N N N o e e N N N eeN eoNNNNa N-=eNNNNa 4 Na NNN No oNN Ne NNN Ne N N NN NNN NN.N N No N N NN NNN Nocc.eNN-ecc.NNNN o o N N o N N N N N N . eeN eeNNNNa e-eeNNNNa N NN NNN No NNN Ne NNN No NNN NN NNN NN N N Na NNN No eNN Ne NNN Ncco.NNN-Ncc.NNN N N N N N N N N NN N N eeN eeNNNNe N-eoNNNNa N NN N N No NNN NN NNN Ne NNN NN N N NN N N No N N Na N N Noco.NN-ooo.eNN c o N N N c v N m v N :0» :oNNNNI N-=oNNNN: N 2%va Am.v: ao.m—v Ao.m V A~.-v A15: CLN w flag: ac.m v Am.MNv 256.?» can.» ance: N N N N N N e N N e e eeN eeNNNNa N ease mmeN NNN NNN NNN NNN NNN NNN NNN NNN NNN N». NNN an Nuz NNuz cNuz . an Nuz mmuz NNuz Neuz cmuz NNuz +Ne Ne-NN 8N-NN NN-NN eN-NN Nessa eNN=NN NSNNNN: NNNeN oNNaoN oNez NNNNN u NNN NesoN oaoeeN ow< mauuum NNNNNaz xom .musoazum choNqumNuco: mo No>oN oaoocN--.m.v oNnmh 49 Over half of the married group (59.3 percent) had income of more than 5 million yen. The same was indicated by nearly one-third of the single group (31.4 percent) and 40.0 percent of the other group‘ Although only 14.8 percent of the married group indicated an income of less than 3 million yen, over half of the single group (54.2 percent) and 40.0 percent of the other group had less than 3 million yen as their family income. The average family income with a salaried "breadwinner" in Japan was $17,856 in 1981, as reported in Japan's White Paper Report, 1983 (Nihon, 1983). With regard to age groups, more than two-thirds of the respond- ents in age group 21-26, and over 37, indicated incomes of more than 5 million yen. The same was true for 20.0 percent of those aged between 27-31 and 30.0 percent of those 32-36. Over half (55.5 per- cent) of those aged between 27-31 indicated that income was less than 3 million yen. . Factors to be considered in interpreting those figures are (l) the females' average age (33.8 years old) was higher than males' (31.7 years old); (2) while attending the university, more males had temporary jobs (41.2 percent), as shown in Table 4.10; and (3) more females may have support from their spouses (Table 4.6), Sources of Financial Support Table 4.6 indicates the financial resources Of the nontradi- tional students. They could indicate more than one response. More than half (53.5 percent) reported that they relied on personal assets 5t) NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN meeeeee N N N N o N NN o 4N NN e NN.NNN No.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.eNN NN.eNN NN.NNN NNNMNSNNN: one Q N n v m o h n a: m N 303% can» MON—HO «Smhmzuzum NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN Ne.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NNNNNeseea use aoNN NNNNNNNoNeN N N N e N N NN N «N oN 4 No.4 N NN.e N Ne.N N NN.N N NN.N N NN.N N eeoN NeeN o c N N c a N N N N o NN.NNN No.NNN No.eNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN Ne.NNN NNNNNNNNNN eeeN N N .4 N N N e e NN NN N Nc.cNN NN.NNN No.44N NN.eoN NN.NNN No.oNN NN.NNN No.NNN NN.NeN NN.oeN No.9NN NaeaNeNese NeeoNNee e N NN NN N N NN NN 4N NN NN NN.NNN NN.NNN No.8NN NN.NNN Ne.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN eaoeeN N.oN=eeN N e e N c c o NN NN NN N No.cNN NN.NNN No.oeN NN.NNN Ne.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.oeN NN.NNN Ne.NNN NN.NeN NNNNNN Neeemeea e N NN NN N N eN NN NN oN N Na. NNN NNN N». Na. NNN NNN NNN NNN NNN NNN NN-NN Ne-NN eN-NN NN-NN NN-NN Negeo eNNeNN ueNeeez Neeee oNNaoN «Ne: Neoeezm NNNeeNNNN Ne eeezem om< mzuaum NNNNNNZ xom IAIIL-IIIIIN. III Fri!“ 10' '13l .uNoamam NaNocchu we moONzom--.o.v oNnmh 51 (savings, etc.). Slightly less than half (47.9 percent) cited per- sonal employment income as their source. Approximately 20 percent indicated parents, loans, and/or a spouse's income. Scholarships were primary sources for 33.8 percent of the students, and nearly one-fifth (19.7 percent) of them received scholarships from the uni- versity. Half or more of the single (55.3 percent) and the other (50.0 percent) groups relied on their personal employment, while it was 37 percent for the married group. For more than half (55.6 percent) of the married group, the spouse's income was a source of support. The married group had no support from their parents, whereas approxi- mately one-third (31.6 percent) of the single and the other (33.3 percent) groups indicated some aid from parents. Nearly half (44.7 percent) of the single students marked scholarships, both from the university and other, while it was 22.2 percent for the married and 16.7 percent for the other groups. From one-third to two-thirds (37.5 to 66.7 percent) of the students over age 27 indicated personal employment as their financial source, while only 22 percent of the youngest age group (22-26 years old) depended on this source. The youngest groups relied heavily on their parents (66.7 percent), while less than 14.3 percent of the age groups 27 and ever had support from parents. Spouse's income was the highest in the 37-41 age group (50 percent). The youngest age group (22-26 years old) indicated government loans the highest (33.3 percent), while the other age groups marked this source as 12.5 to 25 percent. 52 These data show that almost all of the students depended on two or more sources of financial support. Employment Before Entering/ Returning to the University Table 4.7 shows that two-thirds (66.2 percent), the largest percentage, of the nontraditional students had full-time jobs before they returned to the university. The second group, substantially smaller, were home full time (12.7 percent), followed by the self- employed (8.5 percent). More males (82.4 percent) had full-time jobs than females (61.1 percent). Only females were home full time (16.7 percent). In regard to marital status, the single group most frequently had full-time jobs (89.5 percent) compared with 50 percent of the other and 37.0 percent of the married groups. Among the various age groups, those under 36 years Old more often held full-time jobs (71.4 to 88.9 percent), while only 25 percent over age 37 did so. One-third (33.3 percent) of the married students were home full time, whereas none of the others were. More were home full time between ages 27 and 41, with the highest percentage in the group aged 37-41 (37.5 percent). Among the self-employed, more were in the other group (33.3 percent) than in the single (2.6 percent) or the married (11.1 percent) group. Free-lance workers was 25 percent for over 42 years old. 553 NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.N N NN.N N NN.N N Neeeo N N N o o N N N N N c o o o o c o o o o o o non N New NNNNooN Neummnauav N.uuo o o o c c c c c o o o .ucNNouzu ..w.oN NNNNOQEOF NN.e N NN.N N Nv.N N NN.N N oaNe NNNN o o o N N N N N N N N NN.NNN No.4 N NN.NNN NN.N N NN.N N NN.e N NN.N N eoN oz N N N c N o N N N N N NN.NNN NN.NNN Ne.N N NeNN N NN.N N NN.N N NN.N N oueeN eeNN N N o o N o N N N N N No.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN Ne.N N NN.NNN NN.N N NN.N N NN.NNN eeNoNNae-NNeN N N c N N N N N e N N Am.nnN No.6NN Am.m N NN.NNN NN.NNN an.oNN oeN» NNsu one: o N e N o o N N . m N o No.NNN No.NNN NN.NNN Ne.NNN NN.NNN No.oNN NN.NNN No.NNN NN.eeN NN.NNN Ne.NNN oaNN NN:N N N NN NN N N «N NN Ne NN eN NNN NNN NNN NNN NNN NNN NNN NNN. NNN NNN NNN an Nuz NNuz NNuz muz euz NNuz NNuz _ NNuz «Nu: NNuz +Ne N4-NN eN-NN NN-NN eN-NN NeNNo eNNeNN NeNNNNx Neeoe «Nazca «Ne: eeNNNeeeeo NzeNseNN om< magnum NNNNNaz xom It; OI 1 .NNNNNo>N:: as» o» ch=N:NON\m:NN0u:o ouomon acoaonaeu--.N.v oNaae 54 Current WorkingHours Table 4.8 reports the nontraditional students' current employment. Approximately 40 percent, the highest percentage, were not working outside the home. Nearly one-fourth (23.9 percent) had temporary employment (arubaito), such as tutoring. Full-time jobs were held by 9.9 percent. Almost twice as many females (46.3 percent) as males (23.5 percent) were not working. Substantially more married individuals (63 percent) indicated that they were not working, compared with 28.9 percent of the single group and 16.7 percent of the other group. Broken down by age, the data showed that approximately half of the students between 32 and 41 (SO-52 percent) were not working, whereas 25?38 percent of the other age groups were not working. Nearly two-thirds (64.7 percent) of the males had either full-time (23.5 percent) or temporary jobs (41.2 percent), whereas only 5.6 percent of the females had full-time jobs and 18.5 percent had temporary jobs. More than one-third (36.8 percent) of the single group had temporary jobs (arubaito), whereas only 7.4 percent of the married group did so. More than half of the 22-26 year olds had temporary jobs (arubaito). Self-employment was reported by the other group (33.3 percent) and the married group (3.7 percent). 55 NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.N N NN.N N NN.N N NN.N N NoNNN N N N N N N v N N N N NN.NNN NN.N N NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.N N NN.N N NN.N N NNNNN oNNN N N N N N N N N e N N NN.NNN NN.N N NN.NNN NN.N N NN.N N NN.N N NNNNNNEN-NNNN N N N N N N N N N N N NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.N N NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.N N NN.N N NN.NNN NaNN NNNN N N v N N N v N N N e NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.N N NN.NNN NN.N N NN.N N oaNN NNNN N N _N N N N N N N N N NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.N N NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NNNNNNNNNN NNNNNNNNN N N N N N N NN N NN NN N NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NvN NN.NNN NN.NNN oz N v NN N N N NN NN NN NN e NNN NNN NNN NNN NNN NNN NNN NNN NNN NNN NNN Nuz Nuz Nan NNuz Nuz Nuz Nan NNuz NNuz «Nuz Nan cho: NNNNNoz .Nv NN-NN NN-NN NN-NN NN-NN NNNNN oNNNNN NNNNNaz NNNoN onsoN NNaz . . om< Nsumum NNNNNNZ xom I’VI.IID“ Nh.‘ .I.‘ ..lllu| II ll-.'u I Ocllllll be-..“ ‘1. I..,‘|hl ‘vl'lilll’fl Ult!‘ - InlII‘l. tli .lni' .muzo; mzwxuoz acoucsu--.m.v oanb 56 Time for Commuting (One Way) Table 4.9 shows that approximately half (49.3 percent) of the students spent less than an hour to commute one way. The rest (50.7 percent) spent more than an hour. Over one-fifth (21.7 percent) of them needed more than 1.5 hours, and 2.9 percent spent more than two hours just to commute one way. Whether or not commuting time influenced their decision to attend the university could not really be assessed because students did not have the opportunity to choose from more than one school, so they could not weigh relative distances as a factor. Table 4.9.--Time for one-way commute. Male Female Total Commuting Time __§:l§___. __§:§3___. N=69 N (%) N (%) N (%) Less than 30 minutes 3 (18.8) 2 (13.2) 10 (14.5) 30 minutes to less than » 1 hour - 5 (31.3) 19 (35.8) 24 (34.8) 1 hour to less than 1.5 hours 5 (31.3) 15 (28.3) 20 (29.0) 1.5 hours to less than 3 (18.8) 10 (18.9) 13 (18.8) 2 hours More than 2 hours 0 2 ( 3.8) 2 ( 2.9) 57 SECTION III Concerns, Barriers, and Program Satisfaction Degree of Concern Experienced in Entering/Returning to the University This question attempted to find out the concerns and diffi- culties that nontraditional students experienced in entering/returning to the university. The degrees of concerns were reported by par- ticipants by responding to one of four categories: "great concern," "moderate concern," "somewhat of a concern," or "no concern." Those responses that fell into the "great concern" category are presented in Table 4.10. Concerns listed in the category of "other" were indicated as follows: 1. Many of his/her friends who had college educations told him/her that they did not get enough from a college education to become prepared for the future. This comment created anxiety about getting a college education. 2. Had problems with health. 3. Finding a job at a new place because he/she needed to move. 4. Concerned about child care. 5. Negative influence on a child enrolling in an elementary school because of being a college-student as a mother. 6. Doing household work and going to school at the same time. 7. Wished to have a strategies course for taking the judicial examination. 58 Table 4.10.--Factors and degree of "great concern" experienced in entering/returning to the university. Great Concern Concern N % of 71) 1. Living expenses 22 (31.0) 2. School expenses 21 (29.6) 3. Being able to work and go to school simultaneously 14 (19.7) 4. Being able to obtain employment after graduation 14 (19.7) Getting what expected from school 11 (15.7) 6. Uncertainty about being able to continue studies until graduation 10 (14.1) Physical stamina 9 (12.7) Confidence in ability 8 (11.3) 9. Academic difficulty 7 ( 9.9) 10. Adjusting to life as a student 6 ( 8.5) 11. Foreign—language requirement 6 ( 8.5) 12. Adjustment in family life 6 ( 8.5) 13. Competing with younger students 5 ( 7.0) 14. Commuting time S ( 7.0) 15. Being able to make friends 3 ( 4.2) 16. Finding an apartment in Tokyo 3 ( 4.2) 17. Supporting a family and going to school at the same time 2 ( 2.8) 18. Agreement from the spouse 1 ( 1.4) Degree of concern experienced in entering/returning to the university (by sex).--As shown in Table 4.11, the chi-square test indicated that there were differences in concerns between males and females on such factors as (1) financial (living and school expenses), 59 (2) supporting a family and going to school at the same time, (3) adjusting to life as a student on campus, and (4) being able to make friends on campus. Table 4.ll.--Chi-square test on degree of concern experienced in entering/returning to the university (by sex). x2 Concern p Living expenses 11.87254 .0078* School expenses 8.14221 .4320 Being able to work and go to school simultaneously 4.20938 .2397 Being able to obtain employment after graduation 1.20928 .7508 Getting what expected from school 3.56302 .3127 Uncertainty about being able to continue studies until graduation .56147 .9052 Physical stamina 3.81619 .2820 Confidence in ability 1.20042 .7529 Academic difficulty 3.91530 .2708 Adjusting to life as a student 11.09923 .0112* Foreign language requirement 1.95162 .5825 Adjustment in family life 4.67965 .1968 Competing with younger students 1.97977 .5766 Commuting time 2.05000 .5621 Being able to make friends 10.42983 .0152* Finding an apartment in Tokyo .24601 .9698 Supporting family and going to school at the same time 11.23801 .0105* Agreement from the spouse 3.36131 .1863 *Significant at .05. 60 Twice as many males indicated "great concern" over living expenses (58.8 percent) than did females (22.2 percent). School expenses were reported as concerns of 47.1 percent of the males and 24.1 percent of the females. 0n working and going to school simul- taneously, great concern was expressed by 35.3 percent of the males and 18.5 percent of the females. On these three factors, males showed nearly twice as great concern as females in the total sum of per- centages of "great concern" and "moderate concern." Although males tended to show a higher concern rate on most of the factors listed, the differences in degree of concern for financial factors might have stemmed from the relative responsibili- ties assumed by males and females with regard to financial matters. While females indicated no "great concern" in supporting a family and going to school at the same time, this category was checked by 11.8 percent of the males. Adjusting to student life on campus was also a greater concern for males (23.5 percent) than females (11.1 percent). While no females indicated making friends as a "great concern," it was expressed by 17.6 percent of the males. (See Table 4.12.) Degree of concern experienced in entering/returningto the university (by marital status).--The chi-square test, in Table 4.13, showed a significant difference in marital-status groups on the factor of adjustment in family life. Approximately half (51.8 per- cent) of the married group indicated this as either a "great concern" or a "moderate concern." 61 Table 4.12.--Degree of concern experienced in entering/returning to the university (by sex). Male (N=17) Female (N=54) % of % of Concern "Great Concern "Great Concern" Concern" 1. Living expenses 58.8 School expenses 24.1 2. School expenses 47.1 Living expenses 22.2 3. Work and go to 35.3 Employment after 18.5 school graduation 4. Employment after 23.5 Work and go to 14.8 graduation school 5. Getting what is 23 5 Getting what is 13 2 expected from school ' expected from school ° 6. Adjusting to student 23.5 Physical stamina 13.0 life 7. Academic difficulty 17.6 Continuing education 13.0 8. Continuing education 17 . 6 Adjustment in family life 11.1 9. Confidence in ability 17.6 Confidence in ability 9.3 10. Making friends 17.6 Commuting time 9.3 11. Supporting family and 11.8 Foreign language 9.3 going to school 12. Competing with younger 11.8 Academic difficulty 7.4 students 13. Physical stamina 11.8 Finding apartment 14. Finding apartment 9.1 Competing with younger 5.6 students 15. Agreement from spouse 5.9 Adjusting to student life 3.7 16. Foreign language Supporting family and 0 going to school 17. Adjustment in family life 0 Agreement from spouse 0 18. Commuting time Making friends 0 62 Table 4.13.--Chi-square test on degree of concern experienced in entering/returning to the university (by marital status). x2 Concern p Living expenses 10.99984 .0884 School expenses 8.28515 .2179 Being able to work and go to school simultaneously 2.33515 .8864 Being able to obtain employment after graduation 7.53147 .2745 Getting what is expected from school 5.90676 .4337 Uncertainty about being able to continue studies until graduation 3.02313 .8059 Physical stamina 4.34877 .6296 Confidence in ability 10.31174 .1121 Academic difficulty 1.86471 .9317 Adjusting to life as a student 6.17905 .4034 Foreign language requirement 10.57982 .1023 Adjustment in family life 20.42422 .0023* Competing with younger students 2.25582 .8947 Commuting time 4.20071 .6495 Being able to make friends 3.17125 .7871 Finding an apartment in Tokyo 11.83929 .0657 Supporting family and going to school at the same time 5.25775 .5112 Agreement from the spouse 6.68282 .1536 *Significant at .05. While living expenses were indicated as being of "great concern" by only 18.5 percent of the married group, 39.5 percent of the single group and 33.3 percent of the "other" group demonstrated concern. School expenses were also more often a "great problem" for the single (36.8 percent) and the "other" (33.3 percent) group than for the married 63 group (18.5 percent). More than half of the single and the "other" group pointed out these two factors as either a "great concern" or a "moderate concern," whereas approximately one-third of the married group indicated the same. Being able to obtain employment after graduation was a ”great concern" for the single group (26.3 percent) compared with the "other" group (16.7 percent) and the married group (11.1 percent). (See Table 4.14.) Degree of concern experienced in entering/returning to the universityfi(by age).--Table 4.15 indicates that the factors of "great concern" by different age groups were (a) financial problems (living/ school expenses), (2) working and going to school at the same time, (3) employment after graduation, and (4) continuing studies until graduation. . For the younger age groups, especially those between 27 and 31, the financial problems were of "great concern" (52.4 percent). This concern decreased to less than 24 percent for those who were 32 years old and older. Being able to obtain employment after graduation was of "great concern" for the youngest age group (22-26). The degree of "great concern" of this factor also decreased with greater age, especially for those over 37 years old (less than 12.5 percent). Clearly, the employment problem is very critical for the younger students as the opportunities available to them tend to decrease as they become older because of the age limit in the hiring system described earlier. 0n the other hand, the oldest age group (42 years old and older) were more concerned about factors that related to 64 N NNNNNNNNNN NNENNNN< N.NN NNNNNNN NN «NNNNNNNNN N.NN oeNN NNNNNNENN .N . :oNumscmnm Houmm o NNNNNQN :N ooconwmsou c.mN newspamgm cm mcfivcfim N.NN ucosxoamso mcwcwmuno .w mofipsum wcwacwucoo n.0N usonm zucwmuuoocs w.mN mcflsmum Naowmxnm N.NN xuNNNnm :N oocoefimzoo .n Noozom 50.5 couoomxo magnum mcwacwucoo N.oN NN was: wcwuuoo m.mN “seam Nacwmuuoocz N.NN mcfismum Hmofimxsm .o cowumsvmpm noumm oefiu 05mm oz» um omNN n.0N ucosonmEo mcwcwmuno w.mN Noosom ou om tam xnoz N.NN NNNENM :N ucosumsnv< .m 30:8 595 oouoomxo Noonom Eoum wouoomxo N.NN NNNN NNNNNNNNN «.mN NN Nan: NNNNNNN N.NN NN Nan: NNNNNNN .N mafia 05mm on» «a :oNNmsvmpw Houwm m.mm Noonom ou om wee x903 m.om ucoexofimso wcflcflmuno m.m~ momcomxo Noonom .m m.mm Nomzoaxo wcw>NN m.cm Nomcomxo Noocom m.m~ momcomxo m=N>NN .m oENp oemm one we m.mm Newcomxo Hoosom m.mm Newcomxo wcw>NN N.mm Noonom on ow Nae xuoz .N :cuoocou :cnoocou ::uoo:ou amono: Nouomm awoke: Nouomm nacho: houomm mo & mo N we w . NNuzN NNNNN NNanN oNNNNN NNNuzN NBNNNN: .Amsumum NNNNNNE an xuwmuo>wcs may on mcflcysuoN\mcfluouco :N coocoflaomxo cuoucoo mo oouwooua.vN.v oNnmb 6S ¢.n o Nccoflpm wcwxmz m.m mucownm mcwxmz xuasowmmNb owsovmo< .mH NuconSHN Noogom ow wcmom o owmzmcmN cmwouom m.m nowczox :NNZ mcfluonsou v.5 use NNNENM unannommzm .va . omNN omNN o newsmum Nmofimxsm m.n xNNENm :N ucoEumznw< N.NN acouSNN ow mcwumsmo< .mN mucoosum mucocsum o Homcsox cpfiz wcfiuoaaou m.n omenw:m~ cmflogom N.NN Howcaox nu“: wcwuomeou .NN omNN moflnsum mcflscwucoo o acoauumam cm wcfivcwu m.n acouzum op mcfiumsnw< N.NN usonm xucwmunoocz .NH omNN o ucobzum cu mcflumsnb< N.mN xuNsoNMMNo owsocmo< H.NN owmswcmfi :mNonom .oN :caoocoo :cnoocoo :choocou pmopuz acuomu amouo: nouomm “mayo: pouomm mo w mo N we w NNuzN NNNNN NNNuzN oNNNNN NNanN NNNNNNZ .wo::wu:00uu.vH.v oanmb 66 :oNuaasaNu Nouua Noogom on ueNou Neceom on acNoa oNNN u:ou:um o .onaso acmzNauNo c w xNNaam «NNNNONN3m o.« a xNNaem acmuuozzsm a.v oN aeosumzma< c acNIauN NNuNana .NN ouNN xNNlau mucovaun Nouzcox N N: 23:13 N on: 95:58 N.N 832.2 5:28 N... 333:2. 3332 N 5:. 232.38 .2 xuNNmna Nucovaum noueao» omaazm N.~N Nonzonxo Noogom a cN uueouNucou o.o sNN: ucNuoaaou m.v scum acoaooca< o NacoNuu ucNNaz .NN ouNN xNNsmu Noogom on aeNou ouNN Nauuzum m.~N oaaaueaN cuNouou o xNNaoNuqu umaovau< o.m :N pcoeuNafls< m.v a ANNaNu aeNuuodaam c on ueNumsnv< .~. on: as: an Noose... Noogum 3 mica m.~N oaNu «canalsou c on on one Nuoz o.o osNu acmuzesou m.m oaNu memuaaeou c a ANmseu ucNuuoNaam .NN N325»... aNNNNNNNCNNoo .322? 2:» «Ian as .0053 m.~N NucoNNu «emxux o aeNlauN NaoNNxzm c.~N Naona NucNauuooca m.@ :« oucuuNueou a o» on was Nuoz .cN ouNN xNNlau omNN acouaum NoNsaum uzNacmucou hum—Nan N.~N moNcoaxo aem>NN c :N «coaumamv< o.~N oN unoauNaav< m.m Nzona xuemauuouez a :N oocouNueou .a Noogom scum .auo moanuN ucNazmucou . AHNNNna Noozun Iouu .mxo N.~N NM «as: ueNuuou m.~N unosm xueNauNooca o.~N :N oocouNucou o.oN NN was: ucNuuoo N.NN xuNauNuva uNaovau< .o mucousum humane» ouNN ANNsau o.m~ saw) ucNuomeou m.~N Nomeoaxo MNN>NN o.~N xuNauNmqu oNaovuo< m.- NeoSNNaas mcwvcam N.~N cm acoaumsqu< .n owNN Neov o.m~ -sum 0“ acmumane< m.~N Newcomxo Noonum c.o~ ssNeNuN NeoNnga n.eN NNNENNN Naumega N.NN ouaaueaN euNoNom .c 32.3. no: .98 2:: 2.3. an 39.3 9.:— .333 c.N~ xNNauNuuNu oNaovau< m.~N mm «as: uemuuou c.0m o» om new mac: n.vN =N «coiumnflv< 5.0N ueoauuama unmueNm .m . Nucovaum humane» :oNuuavNNu hogan :oNuaauuNa houua Noosum loam .NNo o.N~ aeNlauN NauNngm m.~N gum; uemuoaeou o.o~ .onNao «NNNNNNno o.mN .onNsu uchNauno ~.- NN was: aeuuuuu .v 323a as: 3.3. as 32.3 m.hm :« oucovmucou m.- ouaauca~ camouom c.c~ Nomcomxo Noozom o.m~ on on tea 4N0: m.nm momeomxo acm>NN .m old» clan «a Noosum :omuaaoauu Nouua Noosom aouu .nxo m.nn an on ten xuoz m.~N .onNBo newsmauao o.o~ NN «as: memuuoo v.~m Nomcoaxo acm>ma m.mm Noncoaxo Noosom .~ Nomvaum nemzcnucoo eoNNnasaNa nouua c.cm “zone zuzmauuooea o.o~ Neoauuaaa ueNaemm o.v~ NoNcoaxo u:N>NN v.~m NoNNomxo Noosom v.vq .onNao ucNemauao .— :cuoocou :cuoucou :euooeou :cuoucou :cuoueou ”mono: nououm Nacho: Nouuam Naoao: Nouns; «gnaw: Nouuam Hague: heuuam we a we a mo » No a we a NNuzN .2 8.5 NNNN NNNuzN NNNN NNanN NNNN NNuzN NNNN a THUR.” I v “itfiu I llvall.l..H . v a. "I. . III... 1“ H. m I #.fli|. In". llfll.‘ 1.41un 5" I.fll-.‘~ I.I‘i l Illi. Fl.‘ [.1 d-‘ill (flux .. Ill“ 8 z“ .noua an xNNNNo>N=3 one o» uzNecauoN\u:NNouca :N soocomuoaxo choocou we oouuos ozh--.m..e «Nash 67 studies: uncertainty about continuing studies until graduation (50 percent), confidence in one's ability (37.5 percent), and working and being able to go to school at the same time (37.5 percent). Difficulty in Making Decision to Enter/Return to the University» Nontraditional students were asked to indicate how difficult it was to decide about entering or returning to the university. As shown in Table 4.16, 37.1 percent experienced difficulty (great difficulty = 21.4 percent or difficulty = 15.7 percent), whereas 62.9 percent of the students said the decision was not so difficult (40 percent) or easy (22.9 percent). Table 4.16.--Difficulty in making decision to enter/return to-the university. Very Difficult Difficult Not So Difficult Easy N (2.) N (25) N ("6) N W 15 (21.4) 11 (15.7) 28 (40.0) 16 (22.9) Reasons for Difficulty in Making:the Decision Whether making the decision to enter/return to the university was "very difficult," "difficult," "not so difficult," or "easy" was indicated as an open-ended response and therefore elicited multiple responses. The reasons for the degree of difficulty/ease are pre- sented in Table 4.17. 68 Table 4.17.--Degree of difficulty (very difficult, difficult, not so difficult, or easy) and the reasons in making the decision to enter/return to the university. Very . Not so Reason Difficult Diff’cul‘ Difficult 5"’ T°“‘ N-lS N-ll N-28 N-16 N-70 (3) (5) (1) (*1 Financial problems (living and/or school 6 S 4 1 16 expenses) (40.0) (45.4) (14.2) ( 6.2) Have desired to study at a university for 1 10 3 14 quite some time ( 9.0) (34.2 (18.7) Expressing intentions to and/or receiving 4 S 9 understanding from others (26.6) (45.4) Leaving the job (had a good record, seniority 4 4 8 system. will increase the work load of the (26 6) (36 3) other staff) ' ' No obstacles (I: 8) (I; 7) 8 Received good understanding/support from 6 1 7 the others ‘ (21.4) ( 6.2) A special admission system ( g 6) (I: 2 ( 6 2) 6 Had been able to save time from housework 3 2 S or work (10.7) (12.5) Had confidence in ability and continuing 3 2 5 studies (10.7) (12.5) . . . . 2 2 4 , Change in life direction ( 7 l) (12 5) Changing life completely from what was 3 3 stable and secure (20.0) Upcertainty about being able to find a job 2 l 3 after graduation (13.3) ( 9.0) Making the right decision ( i 6) (I; 1) 3 . 2 2 Needing to move (13.3) 2 2 Child care (18 1) Being able to work and go to school 1 l 2 simultaneously ( 6.6) ( 6.2) Great enthusiasm for life ( § 5) ( g S) 2 Being able to do housework and studies 1 1 simultaneously ( 6.6) Commuting distance ( z 6) l Possibility of failing the entrance examina- 1 1 tion (taking the risk of failing the ( 9 0) entrance examination) ' Uncertainty about health ( g 0) 1 . l l Marriageable age ( 6 6) Lacked confidence in scholastic ability ( g 0) I . . . . l 1 Within commuting distance ( 3 5) . 1 l Desire to have a degree ( 6 2) . 1 1 Not unduly anXious ( 6 7) 69 Of all the responses, financial concerns such as living and/or school expenses were the greatest factor (22.5 percent) that made the decision difficult. Because the nontraditional students were older than traditional students, the responsibilities of supporting them- selves and their families would naturally be greater. Leaving a job was also cited as important (11.3 percent) in making the decision. Because the hiring system is based on an age limit in many cases, leaving a job has been a crucial factor, coupled with the uncertainty about being able to obtain a job after gradua- tion. Fear of not receiving understanding from other people upon expressing one's intention to enter/return to a university also made the decision difficult (9.8 percent). As nontraditional students have not been common in Japanese society, especially in the day program of a university, anxiety about gaining understanding from others added an emotional burden. The responses indicated that, regardless of individual bur- dens, the new admission system facilitated making the decision (8.5 percent). Those who indicated that the decision was "not so diffi- cult" or "easy" stated that the desire to learn at a university was the main reason (19.7 percent), followed by having the means to finance their education (12.7 percent). Receiving understanding from others (13 percent) eased the decision-making process. Other factors that made the decision easier were having time for schooling (7 percent), as well as having self-confidence (7 percent). Those who found making the decision was "not so difficult" or "easy" hinted that the financial 70 problems were all they needed to overcome since no other burden was associated with their decision. Reasons for difficulty in making the decision (by sex).-- Financial problems such as earning a living and school expenses, or a lack of money, were concerns for approximately the same percentages of males (23.5 percent) and females (22.2 percent). However, two major concerns differed between males and females. More males (29.4 percent) experienced difficulty in leaving their jobs, whereas only 5.6 percent of the females noted this. Second, having to work and go to school simultaneously was perceived as a substantially greater burden for males (11.8 percent) than for females (1.9 percent). One reason mentioned only by males as "difficult" was changing their lives completely from what was stable and secure (17.6 percent). The positive factor shown by both males and females was having had adequate funds (23.5 percent of males and 20.4 percent of females). The other positive factor peculiar only to females was hav- ing received understanding/support from others (13 percent). (See Table 4.18.) Reasons for difficulty in making the decision (by marital status).--The concern that was perceived equally by all groups was financial (16.7—26.3 percent). For the single person, leaving a job was more significant (18.4 percent) than for the married group (7.4 percent). Expressing and receiving understanding from others was a greater concern for the single (15.8 percent) than the married group (3.7 percent). Compared with the married or the "other" group, the single group rated as important such factors as changing one's life 71 Table 4.18.--Reasons of difficulty in making the decision (by sex). Male Female Total Reason N=17 N=S4 N=7l N (”6) N (96) N (%) Financial problems (living and/ or school expenses) 4 (23.5) 12 (22.2) 16 (22.5) Have.desired to study at a university for quite some time 3 (17.6) 11 (20.4) 14 (19.7) Had the financial means 2 (11.8) 7 (13.0) 9 (12.7) Leaving the job 5 (29.4) 3 ( 5.6) 8 (11.3) No obstacle 1 ( 5.9) 7 (13.0) 8 (11.3) Expressing intention to and/or receiving understanding from others 2 (11.8) 5 ( 9.3) 7 ( 9.8) Received good understanding/ support from the others 0 7 (13.0) ( 9.8) A special admission system 2 (11.8) 4 ( 7.4) 6 8.5) Having been able to free time from housework or work 1 ( 5.9) 4 ( 7.4) 5 ( 7.0) Had confidence in ability and continuing studies 2 (11.8) 3 ( 6.6) 5 ( 7.0) Change in the life direction and needed to study for personal 0 4 ( 7.4) 4 ( 5.6) growth Changing life completely from what was stable and secure 3 (17.6) 0 3 ( 4.2) Uncertainty about being able to find a job after graduation l ( 5.9) 2 ( 3.7) 3 ( 4.2) Making the right decision 0 3 ( 5.6) 3 ( 4.2) Being able to work and go to school simultaneously 2 (11.8) 1 ( 1.9) 3 ( 4.2) Time and/or cost of preparing for the entrance examination 0 2 ( 3.7) 2 ( 2.8) Needing to move 1 ( 5.9) 1 ( 1.9) 2 ( 2.8) Child care 0 2 ( 3.7) 2 ( 2.8) Commuting distance 0 2 ( 3.7) 2 ( 2.8) Great enthusiasm for life 0 2 ( 3.7) 2 ( 2.8) 72 style from stable and secure (7.9 percent), making the right deci- sion (7.9 percent), and managing work and school simultaneously (7.9 percent). The "other" group (16.7 percent) and the single group (7.9 percent) indicated that "changing in life direction" was signi- ficant, whereas no one in the married group mentioned that factor. Positive factors that were common to all groups were: having a desire to study at a university (16.7-21.1 percent) and having the ability to meet financial commitments (7.9-18.5 percent). In addition to this, the married group stated such positive factors as the special admission system for nontraditional students (14.8 percent) and receiv- ing understanding and support from others (14.8 percent). Both the married and the "other" group mentioned such positive factors as having had confidence in one's ability and continuing studies (16.7 percent of "other" and'14.8 percent of the married group) and having had free time from jobs or housework (33.3 percent of the "other" group and 11.1 percent of the married group). (See Table 4.19.) Reasons for difficulty in making the decision (by aggl,-- Financial problems were a major problem for all age groups when con- sidering the university (12.5-28.6 percent), but they posed the greatest problem for ages 27-31 (28.6 percent). The youngest age group (22-26 years old) identified three areas: leaving their jobs (22.2 percent), expressing intention and/or receiving understanding/support from others (22.2 percent), and needing to move (22.2 percent) as the greatest hindrances to decision making, whereas these factors were indicated by fewer students (0-14.3 percent) in other age groups. 73 Table 4.19.--Reasons:flxrdifficulty in making the decision (by marital status). Married Single Other Reason N=27 N=38 N=6 N (% N (% N (’6) Financial problems (living and/' or school expenses) 5 (18.5) 10 (26.3) 1 (16.7) Have desired to study at a univer- sity for quite some time 5 (18.5) 8 (21.1) 1 (16.7) Had the financial means 5 (18.5) 3 ( 7.9) 1 (16.7) Leaving the job 1 ( 3.7) 7 (18.4) 0 No obstacle 4 (14.8) 4 (10.5) 0 Expressing intention to and/or receiving understanding from others 1 ( 3. 7) 6 (15 .8) 0 Received good understanding/ support from others 4 (14.8) 3 ( 7.9) A special admission system 4 (14.8) 2 ( 5.3) 0 Having been able to free time from housework or work 3 (11.1) 0 2 (33.3) Had confidence in ability and continuing studies 4 (14.8) 0 1 (16.7) Change in life direction and needed to study for personal growth 0 3 ( 7.9) 1 (16.7) Changing life completely from what was stable and secure 0 3 ( 7.9) 0 Uncertainty about being able to find a job after graduation 2 ( 7.4) ( 2.6) Making the right decision 0 3 ( 7.9) 0 Being able to work and go to school simultaneously 0 3 ( 7.9) 0 Time and/or cost of preparing for the entrance examination 1 ( 3.7) 1 ( 2.6) 0 Needing to move 0 2 ( 5.3) 0 Child care 2 ( 7.4) 0 O Commuting distance 1 ( 3.7) 1 ( 2.6) 0 Great enthusiasm for life 2 ( 7.4) 0 0 74 Change in life direction and the need to study for personal growth were mentioned only in the 32-to-36-year-old age group (16 percent). The primary positive factor for the youngest age group (22-26 years old) was having received understanding/support from others (22.2 percent). "Desiring to study at a university" was more important among those between 27 and 36 years old (23.8 and 28 percent), whereas this was indicated by 11.1-19.7 percent of the other age groups. The special admission system for the nontraditional students was most positively acknowledged by the oldest group (42 years old and over—- 37.5 percent), while less than 12.5 percent of the other groups men- tioned this. Also, the 42-and-over age group noted specifically the significance of such factors zus having free time from housework or work (37.5 percent) and no obstacle (37.5 percent). (See Table 4.20.) Those Consulted to Help Make the Decision More than three-fourths (77.5 percent) of the students con- sulted with other people when they considered entering/returning to the university, whereas 22.5 percent made the decision by themselves. Among those consulted, friends were most frequently mentioned (35.2 percent), followed by spouses (25.4 percent), superiors and/or col- leagues at work (11.3 percent), children, respected high school teachers, and others. There seemed to be little difference between males and females in terms of whom they consulted to make the decision. 75 Table 4.20.--Reasons of difficulty in making the decision (by age). ..N ,.__._1.:‘ “I; ._5.—.s.-—L-~ ———¢. ._i N.--‘.N.-r_ 22-26 27-31 -4 43, Reason N-g N=21 N=25 N=8 N=8 N (”0) N (a) N (2,) N (”0) N (1.) >Financial problems (living and/ or school expenses) 2 (22.2) 6 (28.6) S (20.0) 2 (12.5) 2 (25.0) Have desired to study at a uni- versity for quite some time 1 (11.1) 5 (23.8) 7 (28.0) n 1 (12.5) Had the financial means 1 (11.1) 2 ( 9.5) 4 (16.0) 0 2 (25 0) Leaving the job 2 (22 2) 3 (14.3) 2 ( 8.0) 1 (12.5) 0 No obstacle 0 l ( 4.8) 3 (12.0) 1 (12.5) 3 (37.5) Expressing intention to and/or receiving understanding from others 2 (22 2) 3 (14.3) 2 ( 8.0) 0 0 Received good understanding/ support from others 2 (22.2) 0 4 (16.0) 1 (12.5) 0 A special admission system 0 2 ( 9.5) 3 (12.0) 1 (12.5) 3 (37.5) Having been able to free time from housework or work 0 l ( 4.8) l ( 4.0) 0 3 (37.5) Had confidence in ability and continuing studies 0 l ( 4.8) 2 ( 8.0) 1 (12 5) 1 (12.5) Change in life direction and needed to study for personal 0 0 4 (16.0) 0 0 growth Change in life completely from what was stable and secure 1 (11.1) 0 l ( 4.0) 1 (12.5) 0 Uncertainty about being able to find a job after graduation 0 l ( 4.8) 2 ( 8.0) 0 0 Making the right decision 1 (11.1) 1 ( 4.8) l ( 4.8) O 0 Being able to work and go to school simultaneously 1 (11.1) 1 ( 4.8) 1 ( 4.0) 0 0 Time and/or cost of preparing for the entrance examination 0 0 1 (12.5) 1 (12.5) 0 Needing to move 2 (22.2) 0 0 0 0 Child care 0 l ( 4.8) 1 ( 4.0) 0 0 Commuting distance 0 2 ( 9.5) 0 0 0 Great enthusiasm for life 0 0 0 1 (12.5) 1 (12.5) 76 However, among those who made the decision alone, 35.3 percent were males and 18.5 percent were females. Considering their marital status, approximately half of the single group consulted with friends (55.3 percent) and/or family (44.7 percent), while only 7.4 percent of the married students con- sulted with these groups. Instead, of those who were married, nearly two-thirds (63 percent) consulted with their spouses. Those under age 31 mentioned friends and family more often than those over 32. Specifically, the youngest age group (22-26 years old) indicated friends (55.6 percent) and family (66.7 percent) the highest. Children were mentioned by those who were more than 37 years old. In the older groups, fewer people consulted with friends and/or family. Making the decision by themselves was the highest in the oldest age groups (42 years old and over--37.5 percent).- (See Table 4.21.) Reasons for Entering/Returning to the University Nontraditional students indicated the degree of importance they placed on reasons for entering/returning to the university. The responses to this question were examined by sex, by age group, and by marital status. The degrees of importance were indicated as "quite important," "somewhat important," "somewhat unimportant," or "quite unimportant." The order of perceived importance of all the students is shown in Table 4.22. 77 NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.N N NN.NNN NN.N N NN.N N NN.N N NN.N N NN.N N NNNNN N N N N N N N N N N N NN.NNN NN.NNN . NN.NNN NN.N N NN.N N NN.N N NN.N N NNNNNNNN N N N N N N N N N N N NN.N N NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.N N NN.N N NN.N N NN.N N NNNNNNN N N N N N N N N N N N NooNuN NNNN NuuuuNNuN NN.NNN NN.N N NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.N N NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN Nuos NN mezmmoNNou No\eem NoNNomzm N N N N N N N N N N N NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN Nco oz N N N 4 N N N N NN NN N NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN . omsomm N N N N N N N NN NN 4N N NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.N N NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NNNNNN N N N N N N NN N NN NN N NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.N N NN.NNN N.NNN NN.NNN NNNNNNN N N N N N N NN N NN NN N NNN NNN NNN NNN NNN NNN NNN NNN NNN NNN NNN muz muz mmnz Nmnz muz enz. mmuz Nmuz Nnuz emuz NNuz eeuNsmcou 0:2 +NN NN-NN NN-NN NN-NN NN-NN NNNNN NNNNNN NNNuuaz NNNNN NNNNNN NNN2 eu< mnueum NNNNNNZ xom .xuwmuo>Nca ozu cu epsuou\pou=e cu :oNNNuee axes oN eeuNSN:ou 0:3--.N~.e NNNNH 78 Table 4.22.--Reasons for entering/returning to the university. "Quite Reason Important" N=71 N (96) 1. Personal growth for a better life 45 (63.4) 2. To fulfill my potential for the future 33 (46.5) 3. Change in life direction 31 (43.7) 4. To follow a systematic course of study 29 (40.8) 5. Intellectual stimulation 28 (39.4) 6. Made possible by a new admission system for the nontraditional student applicants 24 (34.3) 7. Have wished to study at a college but did not have the chance before because of employment, 23 (32.4) housework, or economic reasons 8. Been working for years and have found a clear objective of life that requires further study 21 (30.0). 9. To acquire knowledge in order to adjust to social change 19 (27.1) 10. To become more effective in serving society 15 (21.4) 11. To change jobs 11 (15.7) 12. To meet new people and to broaden my world view 10 (14.3) 13. To acquire more knowledge for the present job 8 (11.3) 14. To get a degree 7 ( 9.9) 15. To become a lawyer 5 ( 7.0) 16. To improve promotion/earning potential 3 ( 4.3) 17. Fewer household responsibi1ities--because children were grown 4 ( 4.2) 18. To obtain credentials (other than law) 1 ( 1.4) 19. To enter the job market for the first time 0 79 Personal growth for a better life was considered to be the most important for nontraditional students to enter or return to the university. The second and the third most important reasons related to personal life. More than 80 percent of the students considered that personal growth and intellectual stimulation were either "quite important" or "somewhat important." The new admission system for nontraditional student applicants rated sixth; 71.4 percent indicated this as "quite important" or "somewhat important." Utilitarian reasons were placed at a low degree of relative importance. Reasons for enteringlreturning to the university (by sex).-- Differences in degree of "quite important" for males and females are presented in this comparison in Table 4.23. The chi-square test was employed, and there was no statistically significant difference between males and females in the reasons for entering or returning to the university. The resultsindicated more similarities than dif- ferences between the two sexes in their decisions to resume their education. However, the difference was that the males gave the highest degree of importance to the reason of fulfilling their poten- tial for the future (58.8 percent), whereas 42.6 percent of the females indicated this. For males, the sum of percentage of degree of "quite" and "somewhat important" for this reason reached 94.1 percent. This might reflect the males' role as breadwinner as they wanted to obtain more opportunities in their careers. Personal growth was second (47.1 percent) for males. For females, the "quite important" reason was personal growth (68.5 percent), followed by intellectual stimulation (44.4 percent) 80 Table 4.23.-~The order of importance of "quite important" (by sex). Male (N=16 or 17) Female (N=53 or 54 % of % 0f Reason "Quite Reason "Quite Important" Important" 1. Fulfill potential 58.8 Personal growth 68.5 2. Personal growth 47.1 Intellectual stimulation 44.4 3. Wished to study at 41.2 Change in life direc- 44.4 a university tion 4. Change in life 41.2 Fulfill potential 42.6 direction 5. New admission system 35.3 Systematic course of 42.6 study 6. Systematic course of 35.3 New admission system 34.0 study 7. Found objective of life 29.4 To adjust to social change 31.5 8. Intellectual stimu- 23.5. Wished to study at a 29.6 lation university 9. To change jobs 18.8 Found objective of life 29.6 10. Become more effective 12.5 Become more effective 24.1 11. To adjust to social change 12.5 Meet new people 18 .5 12. For the present job 11.8 To change jobs 16.7 13. Become a lawyer 11.8 For the present job 11.1 14. Degree 11.8 Degree 9.3 15. Fewer household tasks 5.9 Become a lawyer 5.6 16. Obtain credentials .9 Improve potential 3.8 17. Improve potential/ 5.9 Fewer household tasks 3.7 promotion 81 and to make a change in life direction (44.4 percent). Slightly more than one-third of the males (35.3 percent) and females (34 percent) rated the new admission system for nontraditional students as "quite important." For both males and females, utilitarian reasons did not appear to be important for entering or returning to the university. It seemed that more females entered/returned to the university for intellectual stimulation, and the males' primary purpose was to improve their potential. Reasons for entering/returning to the university (by marital status).--The reasons that were perceived by all groups were (1) per- sonal growth (59.3-66.7 percent), (2) intellectual stimulation (33.3- 42.1 percent), and (3) change in life direction (40.7-50.0 percent). The differences in degree of importance among marital-status groups appeared in reasons to change jobs and get a degree. The single group discerned both of these reasons more strongly (23.7 and 15.4 percent) than did the married (11.5 and 0 percent) and the "other" (0 percent) groups. The utilitarian reasons, such as to obtain credentials and to acquire more knowledge for my present job to improve my earning potential/promotion, were not given importance by all marital-status groups. The order of importance of "quite important" by marital status appears in Table 4.24. 82 owcmco Aafimuo>fics m N.NN NNN NNNNNNN NNN NNN N.NN NNNuoN Nu NNNNN< N.NN um NNNNN op NNNNNN .N N.NN Newucouom NNNmNsm N.Nm o>Nuoonno venom N.NN o>Nuoomwo oeooom .w N.Nm omega 338 3 3:23 N.NN Eeumxm coNNNNNNNNN 3oz N.NN 23330 250m .N >uwmp0>wcs N Newmno>flcz e N.NN Na NNNNN Nu NNNNNN N.NN NN NNNNN op NNNNNN N.NN NNNNN NNNNENNNNN .N coNumN :oNumN N.NN naswum NmsuooNNou:N N.NN -DENNN NasuoeNNou=N N.NN Eewmxm conNNEue 302 .N :oNuooNNe :oNueN m.mm eNmoom 30: poo: N.NN omNN :N omcmcu o.Nm unawum Nesuooafiouch .e cofluooawe m.mm o>Nuoemmo osooom o.cm waucepom NNNmNsm N.oe omNN :N omcmzu .m eofluooufie o.om NMNN cN omzmzo N.NN Nuaum oNumEoumxm N.we waueouom >5 omeouoeH .N N.oo zuzonm Ne:0mnod m.mo nuzopm choNNoa m.mm guzouw Hmcomuom .H :ucmu :ucmu :uceu -hanN -NomeN -HomsH ouwso: commom euflso: commom unwed: commom MO mm MO w... MO mm . NNuzN NNNNN NNNuzN NNNNNN NNanN NNNNNNN .amzumum Nmuwams xeN :uceunomEN ouwzc: mo oocmuuoasw mo gouge onb--.v~.e oNneh 83 mofiuflgwpwmeommoa o NoNZNN N oEooom m.m hexsea m meooom N.N eaosomao: nezom .mN o uexpes non ecu Heucm N.NN no“ usemoam on» you N.N eNmoon so: poo: .NN o acumen N.NN ooamon N.NN Hoxzeg e oeooom .MH N.NN xwaum oNumEoumxm w.mN manoem so: 9002 N.NN non ucomeum one Mom .NN N.NN Eoumxm :ONNNNENN 302 v.wN o>Nuoommo once oaooom N.NN ween omcmzu .NN NoNuNNNnfimcoamou owcmzo N.NN eNogomso: Nezem N.mm Neon emamnu N.NN NmNUON op umane< .oN :NNNN :NNNN :NNNN -MMMMW: cemmom -MMMHW: cemmom -MMMMW: :onom mo N me y we a NNuzN HuNNuN NNNuzN NNNNNN NNNuzN NNNNNNz .NNNNNNNNN--.NN.N NNNNN 84 Reasons for entering/returning to the university (by age).-- As the reasons for entering/returning to the university given by the various age groups might present a picture of diverse life needs of individuals, the order by the degree of "quite important" is shown in Table 4.25. The chi-square test indicated that there were not significant differences among age groups except the factor of "been working for years and have found an objective of life that requires further study." The degree of importance of the new admission system being offered for nontraditional student applicants steadily increased with age. While none of the youngest age group (22-26 years old) thought it was "quite important,” 75 percent of the oldest age group (42 years old and over) felt that it was "quite important." Clearly, this system was a major reason for older applicants in deciding to enter/return to the university. The reason of acquiring knowledge to adjust to social change was also perceived as being more important by those over 32 years old (32-50 percent) than the younger age groups (0-19 percent). The reason of having wished to study at a university was the greatest (55.6 percent) among 22-26 year olds. Becoming a lawyer was ranked as "quite important" only by a few of those who were in the age group between 27 and 36. Trying to improve one's promotion/ earning potential was not listed as "quite important" by any students. This might reflect the employment/salary system of Japanese society, which is, in general, based on the seniority system. Hence, the skill and knowledge that one acquires do not necessarily always rElate t0 85 NoNNNNNNanoanaN m.~_ cause: a eauuo: a.» no“ Neamoua 9:» N0; n.v 1Nezenssz Name; = NoxzaN a season .mN NNNNNNNNNNeoNNaN N.NNN9>N=3 a m.~_ fiNazomaos here; o as Nwzum cu aeszz c.~_ sears. a vacuum m.a NaxzaN a secuem c 9>Nuoeano 3:33; .9— o>Nuueuuo e>NNouNNo m.~_ 0N0! emcee: a 0—:00; me: “no: c.mN . eahaa: m.¢ 9N:oe; In: “no: a once eases: .m— NoNNNNNnNNzozNoN N.NN NNoN aaeezu a sNozemzo; Nora; o.oN eNaoaz :9: «ea: N.NN no“ Neonoua as» Nam c nNaNueovoNu eNeNao .nN . excuse .3me :oNNNNN-NS Jo: N.NN 2:828 252 N.NN NNN 238a 2: .8... N.NN 32 $525 N.NN N33.0 3 :23 N u .3 NNNNNNNN 25: .NN eoNNooNNe a>NN uuzagu o.m~ ouNN :N omenzu N.NN o>NNuoNno peso; o.e~ -uouuo ouofl vacuum o.o~ Nnoq oaeazu o NaNuoN o» uN3Ns< .NN NNNNN6>Nea a e>mu =.N~ NaNNzeNog NNNuNsa m.nN Nnoq oueacu o.m~ Na Nasun oN auzNNz N.NN -oouuo 0N0. eeooem N.NN Nee“ aweazu .m .25: me 3:55”. :33? :oNNNNava Jo: .. c.m~ no“ NeoNuNa man no; N.NN amusoo omumneumxm o.~m NsNuoN cu umaqv< c.a~ a x; oNnNmNoz use: N.Nw Noumea .m :oNNoeNNs Nesum mo N.NN oNgooa Jo: Nee: N.Nm omNN :« omeazu o.om o>NNuoqao veaou N.NN NaNNzouoa NNNu_ag N.NN emuaoo uNueaoNNxm .N excuse 233:0 eeNNNN NSNNNNNNEN so: N52233:... 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Nuaum mo noNNouNNu o.ms zuzoua NeeoNNom N.NN :uzoaa Nacemuoa N.NN aNNzou uNueaouNxm q.~m ouNN :« emeagu N.NN zuzoaa NeeoNNeN .m aoNNxN eoNNNNaum mo: N.NN N NN oNNNNNoN one: N.NN NNNNNBNN NNNNNEN N.NN 538a NNNNNNNN N.NN 5,5; NNNNNNNN N.NN NNNEBNN NNCNE .N :Neeu :Neau :Neau sues» :N=n~ -uozaN -NozaN -NONEN -NozeN -NozaN e Nee - . . .. .. named: a a oNNNAy. cenaom o~_:o: censea eumao: cease: euqao: :oNeex we a we a we a we a we a Na No NuzN .mv NanzN Nv-Nm NNN No enuzN NN-N~ Na No wuzN om-- .41-.1, WQJIJxIWJI 1.1.11». . I .lvdlqldifldlilldlh.» , .fl .laradjdnualwvlllll it .‘dIIvaIJi .mm No vNH N m-mm .l.J.-.W| A C..u‘.l .Il.u.ei .voflll..flu.llv .. Jarfl‘lwllflii I. 5.11 n. I I: ... .I u 03.4 4.1.5“ N Iridiuiiqi 3.3.21 11.. I..- 4.. 1-1.51. Ail. .WI ,Ii .1 JI .Naau NNN :NNNNNoaaN ouNsyz mo oueaucogaN mo ensue use--.mn.w eNNsN 86 the salary system. Personal growth was perceived as "quite impor- tant" by all age groups (57.1-75 percent). Change in life direction was more important for those under 36 years old (44-52.4 percent). Those between 27 and 36 indicated that after having worked for years they had found the clear objective of life that requires further study (36-42.9 percent). The Most Important Reason for Entering/Returning to the University Among the 19 reasons given, two reasons emerged as most impor- tant for resuming their education. (See Table 4.26.) To fulfill one's potential for the future and for personal growth were the two most significant reasons for the nontraditional students entering or returning to school. To change in life direction was an important third reason, but utilitarian aims were seventh and tenth. Educational Barriers The question about the seriousness of potential educational barriers was intended to determine the obstacles for nontraditional students in resuming their education. Twenty-one variables were presented. The seriousness of the barriers was marked in degrees of "great problem," "moderate problem," "somewhat of a problem," or "no problem." The barriers were classified into three categories of problems: (1) situational, (2) institutional, and (3) disposi- tional. 87 Table 4.26.--The most important reasons for entering/returning to the university. Reason Number (% of 71) 1. To fulfill one's potential for the future 16 (22.5)- 2. Personal growth for a better life .15 (21.1) 3. Change in life direction 8 (11.3) 4. To follow a systematic course of study 7 ( 9.9) 5. Always having wanted to study at a university but not having had the 5 ( 7.0) chance before 6. Having worked for years and found a clear objective that requires further 5 ( 7.0) study ‘ 7. To acquire more knowledge for the current job 2 ( 2.8) 8. To become a lawyer 2 ( 2.8) 9. A new admission system for nontradi- tional student applicants 2 ( 2.8) 10. Intellectual stimulation 1 ( 1.4) 11. Fewer household responsibilities 1 ( 1.4) 12. To become more effective in serving society 1 ( 1.4) 13. To meet new people and to broaden one's world View 1 ( 1.4) 14. To acquire knowledge to adjust to social change i 1 ( 1.4) The barriers most frequently mentioned as a "great problem" by all of the nontraditional students were: (1) time to study (36.6 percent), (2) living expenses (32.4 percent), and (3) school expenses (29.6 percent), all of which were categorized as situa- tional barriers. The most frequently mentioned institutional barrier was lack of financial assistance from the school (15.5 percent). 88 Motivation to continue was ranked as highest among the dispositional barriers (15.5 percent). (See Table 4.27.) Educational barriers (by sex).--Differences in barriers experi- enced by males and females were mostly financial, e.g., living and school expenses. Over half of the males (52.9 percent) saw this barrier as a "great problem." The total who identified living expenses as a "great" and "moderate" problem was 70.6 percent, whereas living expenses were a "great problem" for 25.9 percent of the females and school expenses were listed by 22.2 percent. Along with financial problems, more males (23.5 percent) felt that a lack of financial assistance from the school was a "great problem" than females (13 percent). (See Table 4.28). The differences in dispositional barriers showed that more males had experienced difficulty in adjusting to student life. Over half (52.9 percent) experienced itzuseither a "great" or "moderate" problem, whereas 16.7 percent of the females checked it as either "great" or "moderate." Educational barriers (by marital statut).--As shown in Table 4.29, the chi-square test indicated significant differences among different marital-status groups on such factors as living expenses, time to study, commuting time, child care, family obliga- tions other than child care, and lack of financial assistance from the university. More than half (51.9 percent) of the married and "other" groups (66.7 percent) felt that time to study was the "great problem," whereas this was indicated by less than one-fourth (21.1 percent) 89 Table 4.27.--Degree of educational barriers. Great Moderate Sogszat No Barrier Problem Problem Problem Problem N (9.) N (i) _N_(°.—)_ N (9.. Situational Barriers Time to study 26 (36.6) 11 (15.5) 23 (32.4) 11 (15.5) Living expenses 23 (32.4) 12 (16.9) 8 (11.3) 28 (39.4) School expenses 21 (29.6) 11 (15.5) 15 (21.1) 24 (33.8) Child care 5 ( 7.0) S ( 7.0) 5 ( 7.0) 56 (78.9) Family obligation 3 ( 4.2) 9 (12.7) 18 (25.4) 41 (57.7) Commuting time 5 ( 7.0) 11 (15.5) 22 (31.0) 33 (46.5) Spouse's transfer 2 ( 2.8) 2 ( 2.8) 0 67 (94.4) Family planning 3 ( 4.2) 9 (12.7) 18 (25.4) 41 (57.7) Cooperation and understanding from spouse 0 3 ( 4,2) l ( 1.4) 67 (94.4) Cooperation and understanding from parents 3 ( 4.2) 10 (14.1) 10 (14.1) 48 (67.6) Cooperation and understanding from children 0 l ( 1.4) 3 ( 4.2) 67 (94.4) COOperation and understanding from friends 3 ( 4.2) 3 ( 4.2) 10 (14.1) 55 (77.5) Institutional Barriers Lack of financing assistance from school 11 (15.5) 10 (14.1) 20 (28.2) 30 (42.3) Class cancellation 4 ( 5.6) 9 (12.7) 15 (21.1) 43 (60.6) Availability of quality instructor 4 ( 5.6) 17 (23.9) 14 (19.7) 35 (49.3) Relevance of course content 4 ( 5.6) 18 (25.4) 23 (32 4) 26 (36.6) Getting assistance from faculty 2 ( 2.8) 8 (11.3) 14 (19 7) 47 (66.2) Registration and other adminis- tration procedures 0 l ( 1.4) 12 (16 9) 58 (81.7) Dispositional Barriers Motivation to continue 11 (15.5) 15 (21.1) 26 (36.6) 19 (26.8) Adjustment to a life of studies 6 ( 8.5) 12 (16.9) 17 (23.9) 36 (50.7) Competing with younger students 4 ( 5.6) 4 ( 5.6) 21 (29.6) 42 (59.2) 90 Table 4.28.--Educational barriers (by sex). Male (N=17) Female (N=54) Barrier "Great Problem" "Great Problem" N (%) N (%) Situational Barriers Time to study 7 (41.2) 19 (35.2) Living expenses 9 (52.9) 14 (25.9) School expenses 9 (52.9) 12 (22.2) Commuting time 0 5 ( 9.3) Child care 1 ( 5.9) 4 ( 7.4) Family obligations 0 3 ( 5.6) Family planning 0 3 ( 5.6) Cooperation and understanding 1 ( 5.9) 2 ( 3.7) from parents Cooperation and understanding 0 3 ( 5.6) from friends Possibility of spouse obtaining 0 2 ( 3 7) transfer to other area ' Cooperation and understanding 0 0 from spouse COOperation and understanding 0 0 from children Institutional Barriers Not enough financial assistance from school 4 (23.5) 7 (13.0)a Availability of quality instructor 0 4 ( 7.5) Relevance of course content 1 ( 5.9) 3 ( 5.6) Class cancellation 2 (11.8) 2 ( 3.7) Getting assistance from faculty 2 (11.8) 0 Registration and other adminis- tration procedures 0 0 Dispositional Barriers Motivation to continue 3 (17.6) 8 (14.8) Adjustment to a life of studies 2 (11.8) 4 ( 7.4) Competing with younger students 2 (11.8) 2 ( 3.7) 91 Table 4.29.--Chi-square test on educational barriers (by marital status). . 2 Barrier p Situational Barriers Time to study 14.05704 .0290* Living expenses 14.70592 .0227* School expenses 7.16283 .3061 Child care 30.99206 .0000* Family obligations 31.56709 .0000* Commuting time 12.83276 .0458 Spouse's transfer 6.90768 .1408 Family planning 4.47833 .6122 Cooperation and understanding from spouse 6.90768 .1408 Cooperation and understanding from parents 9.81209 .1328 C00peration and understanding from children 6.37129‘ .1731 Cooperation and understanding from friends 2.56211 .8615 Institutional Barriers Lack of financial assistance from school 17.43503 .0078* Class cancellation 3.70447 .7166 Availability of quality instructor 11.82026 .0661 Relevance of course content 1.98730 .9209 Getting assistance from faculty 4.06836 .6674 Registration and other administration 1.75348 .7810 procedures Dispositional Barriers Motivation to continue 5.13637 .5264 Adjustment to a life of studies 4.71346 .5811 Competing with younger students 5.48910 .4820 *Significant at .05 level. 92 of the single group. Three-fourths (74.1 percent) of the married group and two-thirds (66.7 percent) of the "other" group indicated this as either a "great" or a "moderate" problem, while only one-third (34.2 percent) of the single group checked this. This might indi— cate that single people tend to have fewer family obligations. Family obligation was indicated as a "great" or a "moderate" problem only by the married group (40.7 percent). On the other hand, more than one-third (33.3 percent) of the single group and half (50 percent) of the "other" group considered living and school expenses as "great" problems. These financial factors were perceived by more than half of the single group (57.9 percent) and half (50 percent) of the "other" group as either "great” or "moderate" problems. The single (18.4 percent) and the "other" (33.3 percent) groups also had more difficulty in motivating themselves to continue their studies than did the married group (7.4 percent). The lack of financial assistance from the university, e.g., not enough scholar- ships, was indicated by the single group (21.1 percent) as a "great" problem, whereas 11.1 percent of the married group and none of the "other" group expressed it as a "great" problem. (See Table 4.30). Educational barriers (by age),--Table 4.31 shows that those under 36 years old experienced more situational and institutional barriers than those over 37 years old. Living and school expenses were the "great" problem for more than half of the students who were between 27 and 31. For this age group, 71.4 percent checked "great" and "moderate" financial problems. 93 Table 4.30.--Educational barriers (by marital status). Married Single Other . (N=27) (N=38) (N=6) Barrier % of % of % of N "Great N "Great 14 ”Great Problem" Problem" Problem" Situational Barriers Time to study 14 (51.9) 8 (21.1) 4 (66.7) Living expenses 7 (25.9) 13 (34.2) 3 (50.0) School expenses 5 (18.5) 14 (36.8) ' 2 (33.3) Child care 5 (18.5) 0 0 Family obligations 3 (11.1) 0 0 Commuting time 2 ( 7.4) 0 ( 5.3) 1 (16.7) Spouse's transfer 2 ( 7.4) 0 0 Family planning 2 ( 7.4) l ( 2.6) 0 Cooperation and understand- ing from spouse 0 O 0 Cooperation and understand— ing from parents 0 2 ( 5.3) 1 (16.7) Cooperation and understand- ing from children 0 0 0 Cooperation and understand- ing from friends 1 ( 3.7) 2 ( 5.3) 0 Institutional Barriers Lack of financial assistance from school 3 (11.1) 8 (21.1) 0 Class cancellation 3 (11.1) 1 ( 2.6) 0 Availability of quality instructor 2 ( 7.4) 0 2 (33.3) Relevance of course content 1 ( 3.7) 2 ( 5.3) 1 (16.7) Getting assistance from faculty 1 ( 3.7) 1 ( 2.6) 0 Registration and other administration procedures 0 0 0 Dispositional Barriers Motivation to continue 2 ( 7.4) 7 (18.4) 2 (33.3) Adjustment to a life of studies 2 ( 7.4) 3 ( 7.9) 1 (16.7) Competing with younger students 2 ( 7.4) 2 0 ( 5.3) 94 N N N NN.NN N N NNNNNNN NNNN NNN necmumnoeca was :ofluenoaoou N N N N N NNNNNNNN scum NNN -ecmumnoeca use :owueueaoou N N NN.NN N NN.NN N NN.NNN N NNNNNNN scum NNN -ecmumuoeca use :ofiweuomoou o o o o c omaomm seam mew necmumnoeca new :oNumuemoou N N N NN.NN N N NNNNNNNN N.NNNNNN N N NN.NN N NN.NN N NN.NNN N NNNNNNNN NNNNNN N N NN.NN N NN.NN N N NNNNNNNNNNN NNNNNN N N NN.NN N NN.NNN N N uuau NNNNN NN.NNN N N NN.NN N NN.NNN N N ueNu NNNNNNNNN NN.NNN N NN.NNN N NN.NNN N NN.NNN NN N NNNNN op NNNN NN.NNN N NN.NNN N NN.NNN N NN.NNN NN NN.NNN N NNNNNNNN NooNuN NN.NNN N NN.NNN N NN.NNN N NN.NNN NN NN.NNN N NuNNNNxN NNN>NN maewnhmm Hmcofiumsufim :NNNNNNN :euNNoNN :NNNNNNN =aNNNoNN :NNNNNNN NNNNN: z NNNNN: z NNNNN: z NNNNN: z NNNNN: 2 N0 N N0 N N0 N N0 N N0 N NNNNNNN NNuzN NNuzN NNNuzN NNNuzN NNuzN +NN NN-NN NN-NN NN-NN NN-NN .fiomm an mNoNuNmn NN=0Nueo=emui.Hm.v Nanak 95 m NN.mNN NN.N N N N N NNNNNNNN Homczox saw: mcwuomsoo NN.mNN 8; N N a: N N N 8333. No NNNN «3 $33.22 NN.NNN NN.N N N NN.mNN m NN.NNN N NNNNNNNN NN NNNNN>NNN2 mnoNNNmm choNuNmommNa o o o moasvmooua o>NumaumNcwavm Nmzuo can :ofiumpumflwom Nm.NNN N NN.N N N N NNNNNNN scum oucmumNmmm mcfiwuoo flo.NNN m mw.v N N o acoucoo omuzou mo ouzm>onm mam.w N N mm.m N N o nouusyumcfi NNNNNNN No NNNNNNNNNN>< mm.NNN Ao.v N N Am.m N N o :oNumNNoucmo mmmNu NN.N N N NN.mNN m NN.NNN N Noogom ENNN mocmumfimmm Nmflucmafim mo xumN mNoNNNmm choNpsuNuch :ENNQONN :EoNnoum :EoNpoum :EoNnonm :EoNpogm umoao: “mono: uNoNu: z Nacho: z umoyu: 2 mo N mo N mo N we N mo N Nofiupmm NNuzN NNuzN NmNuzN NNNuzN NouzN +Nv Nv-nm om-Nm Nm-NN oNuNN .NNNNNNNNN--.NN.N NNNNN 96 Time to study was identified as a "great” problem by the 27-31 age group (52.4 percent) and those 42 and over (62.5 percent). The main institutional barrier, lack of financial assistance from the university, was noted mostly by those who were under 31 years old (23.8 percent and 44.4 percent). The motivation to continue was indicated as a "great" problem by the age group 42 years and over (37.5 percent), followed by those from 27 to 31 years old (23.8 percent). This was not perceived as a major barrier or even a "moderate" problem by those aged 37 to 41 years old. Reasons for Choosing a University Over Another Type of Educational Institution This question was designed to ascertain the reasons for the selection of a college-level education by nontraditional students as opposed to the educational Opportunities such as those offered by a culture center or hobby school. The open-ended questions permitted more than one response. As a result, the figures tabulated in Table 4.32 show a total percentage of more than 100 percent. More than two-thirds of the nontraditional students gave the reason that they wished to study comprehensively or systematically, which might not have been possible while studying at commercial, noncredit schools. The desire to study at a university in order to associate with teachers and friends, experience college life, study intensively, and attend the university during the day were mentioned by 18 respondents for a total of 25.3 percent. S97 NN.N N NN.N N NN.N N NN.N N NN.N N NN.v N NN.N N NN.N N N N N N N N N N N N N NNNNNN NNNNNNNN oz . . . . NNNNN NNN . ANN n. N C. m N 3. N N 2w m N NNN Hwy-:3 .muNNONNDHm on» houua N N N N N N N N N N N uNoNNoo a :N moucmsu as» com eh NN.NNN NN.N N NN.N N NN.N N N N N N N N N N N N N NoNuN>Nuua naNu NNNN oh . . . . . . . . NNNNNN NN m N NN N N NN NNN NN N N Nq m N No N N No N N NN N N NNN NN NNNNNNN NNN: NNNNNNNN N N e N N N N N v m N Nag» acumen ouoNNou N NNNNNo eh NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.N N NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN No.NNN NNN» No NNNNNN NNNNNou N N m N N N N N m o n a New NN0>NNNNNNN NNNNN ob NN.NNN NN.v N NN.NNN NN.N N NN.N N NN.N N NNNNNNN NNN N N N N N N N N N N N NNNNNNNN NNN: NNNNNNNNN Ne . . . . . . NNNNNNNN NNNNNNNN NN NNN NN e N N” N N NN N N NN N N NN N N -NNNNoN NNN aoNNNN NNNNNNaNN N N N N N N N N N N N NaNuoNN on» scum uNuocoN op NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.N N NN.N N NN.N N NNNNNosNNN N N N N N N N N N N N NNNNNN No NNNNNN NNN NNNNN oh NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.N N NN.N N NN.N N NN.NNN oNNN oNoNNNu oucoNNoNxo a» N. N N N N N N N N N N N NNN: Na NNN NNN NNNNNN NNNNN op NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.N N NN.N N NN.NNN NN.N N NN.NNN NN.N N NN.N N NN.NNN NNNNNN «Nu NNN NNNNNNNoNu N N N N N N N N N N N :oNNNuavo NNNNNou a NNNNNN as NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.N N NN.N N NN.N N NN.N N N N N N N N N N N N. N 53.32:: a an NNNNSN oh . . .. . . . . . . ooNNoN NN N N NN NNN NN NNN NN NNN NN NNN NN N N No N N NN NNN NNoNNNN NNN NN ooNNNN oNoNNou N N N v o N v N N n e um No acumen a :Nauno ch NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.oNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NNNNN No v N NN NN N n «N N 0N NN N omuaeu uNuaaouNNN a 3oNNoN eh NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN Nq.va NN.NNN NN.NNN NN.NNN v N N N N N NN NN «N NN N NNu>NN=oNoNNaou NNNNN ob NNN NNN NNN NNN NNN NNN NNN NNN NNN NNN NNN Nuz Nuz NNuz NNuz N»: on: NNuz NNuz NNuz «Nuz. NNuz NNNNNN NNN NN-NN NN-NN NN-NN NN-NN NoNNN oNNNNN NNNNNNz Nauob oNaaoN NNN: om< mzuaum NauNNaz xom g In.“ I VI- rlbv'i‘u : JJJJIQHfllfllflJL'dfl-‘fll‘l ‘11411-3.]Lr'a! Vii! up“,“uyful.uiu I . u I fiddljlflla‘ .1: :II I.3 li‘l“.ll!.u I..., IHHxH u,|xr l..- .NoNuzuNNNNN NasoNuauaao No NNN» Noguoca No>o NNNNN0>N:: a chmoozu new N=oNaoz--.Nm.e oNnab 98 Obtaining a degree for future preparation and/or because he/she wished to obtain a college degree were mentioned by 24.1 percent (17 responses). Females rated the desire to study ”systematically" or "com- prehensively" as being more important (74 percent total) than did males (58.9 percent total). For males, obtaining a degree (23.5 percent) was considered far more important than for the females (5.6 percent). This might be related to the male role as a sole income source and the possibility of greater Opportunities to find jobs as well as a better salary with a higher degree. Comprehensive and/or systematic study was of importance (44.4 a 33.3 percent) for all marital-status groups. The married students specifically indicated the special admission system-for non-. traditional students as being important (7.4 percent), whereas the single and the "other" groups did not specifically note this reason. Obtaining a degree was considered the major reason only for those under 31 years of age, with special importance for the youngest age group (22-26 years old--22.2 percent), followed by those 27-31 years old (19 percent). Having a desire to study at a college was also expressed only by the youngest group (22-26 years old--33.3 percent). Utilitarian reasons such as that a college education pro- vid es more options in the future were also cited for those 36 years of age and under (4.8-11.1 percent). This may be related to the age limit on hiring, as previously mentioned. 99 Reasons for Choosingya University Day Course Rather Than an Evening Course or a Correspondence Course The students were asked to indicate reasons for choosing the day course over night courses or correspondence courses. This Open- ended question permitted multiple responses. Among those reasons most frequently mentioned were that motivation to continue and the correspondence courses were difficult to maintain (31 percent), followed by time individual's wish to conduct a systematic course of study during the day (29.6 percent) and a special admission system for nontraditional student applicants that was offered only for day courses (16.9 percent). Night courses were described as difficult to attend because of time, health condition, physical stamina, motiva—- tion to continue, and less convenient transportatidn compared to day- time for commuting (15.5 percent). Ten respondents (14.1 percent) believed that evening courses had lower social reputations and were of lower academic quality. The difficulty of managing both study and work simultaneously was noted by 9.9 percent of the respondents. Coincidentally, the same percentage (9.9 percent) mentioned that they chose a day course because they could manage work and study simul- taneously. (See Table 4.33.) The reasons for choosing a university day course rather than an evening course or a correspondence course (byysex).--The difficulty of continuing a correspondence course was mentioned almost equally by males (29.4 percent) and females (31.5 percent). Several reasons stated only by females were the difficulties in continuing in an evening course (20.4 percent), Rikkyo University's spirit and 100 Table 4.33.--The reasons for choosing a university day course rather than an evening course or a correspondence course (by sex). Male Female Total Reason N=17 N=S4 N=7l N (%) N (%) N (%) Correspondence course is difficult to continue and/or tried before U1 (29.4) 17 (31.5) 22 (31.0) Wished to conduct a systematic course of study during the day 7 (41.2) 14 (25.9) 21 (29.6) A special admission system for non- traditional student applicants or 2 (11.8) 10 (18.5) 12 (16.9) this system was for the day course only Evening courses are difficult because of health condition, physical stamina, going out at night, motivation to 0 11 (20.4) 11 (15.5) continue, transportation for commut ing ‘ Having a family makes it easier to take day courses 0 10 (18.5) 10 (14.1) Did not think that night schools had quality programs and/or high social 6 (35.3) 4 ( 7.4) 10 (14.1) reputation Wished to experience college life and associate with teachers and friends 2 (11 .8) 7 (13.0) 9 (12.7) Difficulty studying and working simultaneously 3 (17.6) 4 ( 7.4) 7 ( 9.9) Able to manage both work and study simultaneously because of night 3 (17.6) 4 ( 7.4) 7 ( 9.9) employment or flexible hours Did not have any special reason for 2 (11.8) S ( 9.3) 7 ( 9.9) choosing day rather than other courses Time available to study during the day l ( 5.9) 3 ( 5.6) 4 ( 5.6) Wished to attend lectures and have more direct education than correspondence 0 4 ( 7.4) 4 ( 5.6) The university has a good reputation and/or corresponded with their 0 2 ( 3.7) 2 ( 2.8) spirit and goals Had planned to study at a college 0 2 ( 3.7) 2 ( 2.8) Wished to change current life style 0 l ( 1 .9) 1 ( l .4) Was convenient to commute O l ( 1.9) l ( 1.4) 101 reputation, and the desire to attend lectures directly (7.4 percent). Also, family obligations made it difficult for the females (18.5 percent) to attend evening classes. This reason was not mentioned by males. (See Table 4.33.) This is because in the Japanese society women's and men's roles tend to be separated more than for Americans. Japanese women can go out during the day more easily because they are expeCted to stay at home with their families in the evening. This was shown in the report entitled "International Comparative Study on Issues of Women" by Sorifu (The Prime Minister's Office) (1983). According to the report, 70 percent of Japanese women agreed with the notion of roles stipulating that the husband works outside (bread- winner) of the home anul the wife is responsible for household matters, whereas only 34 percent of the American women agreed with this. The rate of sharing housework was reported as follows: Only Wife All Family Members Is Responsible Are Responsible Household Task Japan U.S. ‘ Japan' U.S. Dish washing 88.6% 64.0% 3.5% 20.6% Cleaning the house 92.1 74.4 4.7 20.3 Laundry 95.3 82.0 1.9 12.7 Shopping 92.1 68.2 4.1 21.1 Preparing meals 94.2 79.5 2.3 14.1 Gardening 38.1 11.9 13.9 20.9 Car maintenance 9.3 13.8 4.8 20.4 Baby care 75.6 39.0 7.0 30.7 Overseeing children's study 68.6 50.7 11.5 25.4 Source: Gekkan Yoron Chosa (Monthly Poll), ed. Sorifu (The Prime Minister's Office) Koho-shitu, June 1983, pp. 71-74. 102 Reasons for choosing a university day course rather than an evening course or a correspondence course (by marital status).--As shown in Table 4.34, the married group was more than twice as con- cerned as the single group with difficulties in continuing both cor- respondence (40.7 percent) and evening (25.9 percent) courses. Family obligations made it easier for the married group (29.6 percent) to study during the day than for the single (2.6 percent) or the "other" (16.7 percent) group. The special admission system had nearly the same importance for all groups (15.8-18.5 percent). The same per- centage of the single students indicated that simultaneous work and study were manageable (13.2 percent) or unmanageable (15.8 percent). Reasons for choosing a university dayycourse rather than an evening course or a correspondence course (by age).--The difficulties of continuing a correspondence course became a greater factor at higher ages. The 22 to 26 year olds and those 42 and over were more concerned with the reputation/quality of the night course (22.2- 25 percent). Being able to manage both work and study simultaneously was mentioned only by the age groups 27 to 31 years (14.3 percent) and 32 to 36 years (16 percent). The same percentage (16 percent) of respondents in the 32 to 36 age group indicated difficulties studying and working simultaneously. Those 27 to 36 years old placed more importance on being able to manage both study and work at the same time. This is evidenced by the number of those who held part— and full-time jobs (14.3-28.0 percent), as Table 4.8 shows. This is because, in general, the possibility of being able to find a job decreases greatly for those over age 32, as mentioned earlier. Also, 103 Table 4.34.--The reasons for choosing a university day course rather than an evening course or a correspondence course (by marital status). Married Single Other N=27 N=38 N=6 Reason -——-———-—- N (%) N (%) N (%) Correspondence course is difficult to continue and/or tried before 11 (40.7) 9 (23.7) 2 (33.3) Wished to conduct a systematic course of study during the day 6 (22.2) 13 (34.2) 2 (33.3) A special admission system for non- traditional student applicants or S (18.5) 6 (15.8) 1 (16.7) this system was for the day course only Evening courses are difficult because of health condition, physical stamina, going out at night, motivation to continue, transportation for commut ing 7 (25.9) 4 (10.5) 0 Having a family makes it easier to take day courses 8 (29.6) 1 ( 2.6) 1 ( 2.6) Do not think that night schools had quality programs and/or high social 2 ( 7.4) 8 (21.1) 0 reputation Wished to experience college life and associate with teachers and friends 3 (ll . 1) 6 (15 .8) 0 Difficulty studying and working simultaneously 0 6 (15.8) 1 (16.7) Able to manage both work and study simultaneously because of night 2 ( 7.4) 5 (13.2) 0 employment or flexible hours Did not have any special reason for choosing day rather than other courses 3 (ll . 1) 3 ( 7 .9) l (16 . 7) Time available to study during the day 1 ( 3 .7) 2 ( 5 .3) l (16 .7) Wished to attend lectures and have more direct education than correspondence 3 (11 . 1) l ( 2 .6) O The university has a good reputation and/or corresponded with their 1 ( 3.7) l ( 2.6) 0 spirit and goals Had planned to study at a college 1 ( 3.7) l ( 2.6) Was convenient to commute 0 1 ( 2.6) 104 Table 4.35.--The reasons for choosing a university day course rather than an evening course or a correspondence course (by age). 2 2 3 Reason N=9 N=21 N 42+ N=8 (%)' Correspondence course is diffi- cult to continue and/or tried 2 (22.2) 6 (28.6) 8 (32.0) 3 (37.5) 3 before Wished to conduct a systematic course of study during the day 2 (22.2) \J A U! M .3) 8 (32.0) 0 4 A special admission system for non- traditional student applicants or 1 (11.1) S (23.8) 4 (16.0) 0 this system was for the day course only IQ Evening courses are difficult because of health condition, physical stamina, going out at 0 l ( 4.8) S (20.5) 2 (25.0) 3 night, motivation to continue, transportation for commuting Having a family makes it easier to take day courses 0 4 (19.0) 3 (12.0) 2 (25.0) 1 Did not think that night schools had quality programs and/or high social reputation I“) (22.2) 3 (14.3) 3 (12.0) 0 2 Wished to experience college life and associate with teachers 3 (33.3) 3 (14.3) 1 ( 4.0) 1 (12.5) 1 and friends Difficulty studying and working simultaneously H (11.1) 1 ( 4.8) 4 (16.0) 1 (12.5) 0 Able to manage both work and study simultaneously because of night 0 3 (14.3) 4 (16.0) 0 0 employment or flexible hours Did not have any special reason for choosing day rather than 1 (11.1) 3 (14.3) 2 ( 8.0) 1 (12.5) 0 other courses Time available to study during - the day 1 (11.1) 1 ( 4.8) 0 0 2 Wished to attend lectures and have more direct education than 0 1 ( 4.8) 2 ( 8.0) 1 (12.5) 0 by correspondence The university has a good repu- tation and/or corresponded with O y 0 2 ( 8.0) 0 0 their spirit and goals Had planned to study at a college 1 (11.1) 0 1 ( 4.0) 0 0 Was convenient to commute 0 0 l ( 4.0) 0 O (37.5) (50.0) (37.5) (12.5) (25.0) (12.5) (25.0) 105 evening courses were considered to be very difficult for those over 32. This rate increased with age and was greatest for those over 42 years old (37.5 percent). Conducting a systematic course of study was considered to be "very important" by those over 42 years (50 percent). For the 22 to 26 year olds, the desire to experience college life was a major reason (33.6 percent). Area of Study The nontraditional students were asked if law and politics was the program they wished to pursue. This question was intended to determine whether the students chose this as their primary interest or because it was the only subject available to them under the special admission system for nontraditional students. Approximately half (49.3 percent) of the nontraditional students responded that law and politics was what they wished to study. The other half (50.7 percent) responded that it was not their first choice. For nearly two-thirds of the males (64.7 percent), law and politics was their first choice, whereas it was so for less than half of the females (44.4 percent). Slightly more than half of the married group cited law and politics as their first choice (59.3 percent), compared with the single group (44.7 percent). For three-fourths (77.8 percent) of the youngest age group (22-26 years), law and politics was not their first choice, followed by the 42 years of age and older group (62.5 percent). More than 106 half (52.0-62.5 percent) of those who were between 27 and 41 responded that law and politics was their preferred subject. (See Table 4.36.) Area of Study That Would Have Been Chosen Those who indicated that the area of law and politics was not their first choice were asked to list up to three fields that they wished to study if a special admission system were available for non- traditional students. More than one-third (36.1 percent) of the students stated that literature and sociology were their two major preferences, followed by psychology (27.8 percent) and philosophy (22.2 percent). All of the fields that the students indicated were either in humanities or social science. The areas that males preferred were literature (50 percent), phiIOSOphy (50 percent), business (33.3 percent), psychology, foreign languages, religion, and tourism. For the females, sociology (43.3 percent) and literature (33.3 percent) were preferred, followed by psychology (30 percent), philosophy, social work, education, and history. Few differences in preference were indicated among the various marital-status groups except that sociology was preferred more by those designated as "other" (75 percent) than by the married (36.4 percent) or the single (38.1 percent) group. Social work was pre- ferred only by the single group (14.3 percent). Education was preferred by those under age 31 (27-31 years-- 22.2 percent; 22-26 years-~28.6 percent). The fact that all of the 107 no.ooHv flo.oofiv no.0oHV mo.oo_v no.oo3U no.oo~v fio.oo~v flo.oo~v no.oo~v Ao.oo~v deuce m mm 0 mm am am a” mm.Nov flo.qu an.oov am.mmv A“.ovv “a.omv no.mmg Am.mmu oz m NH v am am on cm 0 Am.amV flc.NmU Hm.mmv ha.qvv Am.mmv am.aqe flq.qu ma.vov mm m ma N 5H 0H mm em 3H > hay flaw flaw flaw Aye Aye Aye muz mmuz ouz mmuz ANuz Hauz emuz nauz +Nq om-~m “capo mawcfim cashew: sauce mamaua can: ow< msumpm Hmuflnmz xom .xuspm mo aog<--.on.s magma 108 public schools have age limits for hiring new teachers might have influenced older students not to choose this field. (See Table 4.37.) Impact of Special Admission System Slightly more than two-thirds (67.1 percent) of the nontra- ditional students indicated that they would not have applied for admission without the special program, nearly equal percentages for males (68.7 percent) and females (66.7 percent). The impact of the special admission system increased in importance with the age of those who applied, probably reflecting that the younger peOple were more able to identify with the tradi- tional students. When asked to declare whether they would have applied or would not have applied without the special program, only 22.2 per— cent of the youngest group (22-26 years old) declared no, whereas from 66.7 to 100 percent of those over age 27 checked this category. As the numbers increased with age, married students or those who were widowed or divorced were more likely to say they would not have applied without the special admission program. For the group designated "other," 83.3 percent checked "no," followed by 74.1 per- cent of the married and 59.5 percent of the single group. Therefore, the special admission system was very important because without it only 16.7 percent of the "other" group, 25.9 percent of the married group, and 40 percent of all the students would have applied. (See Table 4.38.) 1(39 Vo.ONV VV.a V VN.N V VN.oVV V o o o o c e V V a V athaoe VN.eVV Vm.v V VN.N V Vn.n V o c a o V a V o V V o mucaVum Vn.m V VV.m V VN.N V Vn.m V c o V o o c c V V V o uVmsz VN.NNV Vm.e V VN.N V Vm.m V e V a o c a V e V V o Vt< Vo.cNV Vm.eVV Vo.mNV VN.Q V Vo.m V VN.N V VN.cVV V o o o V V V o N V V coVNVVoz Vo.oNV Vm.m V Vm.e V VV.m V Vo.m V Vn.m V VN.oVV V e V c o e V V N V V amazucaV :NVouoa Vo.cNV Va.” V VN.QVV Vm.m V VV.m V VN.N V Vn.m V Vn.mmV V e V a V o m V m V N mmoswmam VN.NNV Vc.mNV VN.QVV VV.m V VV.VVV VN.NVV o c c m N o m V v e c :owuausum VN.ooV VN.oVV VN.QVV VV.m V VV.VVV Vn.mVV o N N o o c m V v v o aneumV: Vm.m V VN.NNV Vm.¢ V VN.NVV Vm.m V Vo.cVV o o V N o o V N N N o muVaocoum VN.NNV VN.QVV Vo.mNV Vn.qVV VV.VVV VN.NVV a o c m V V m o e v o Vac: VmVuom Vo.cNV VN.eVV VN.NNV Vm.NeV Vo.NNV VN.NVV VN.NNV VN.oVV Vc.omV V a N N n c o N m m n VenomoVVga Vo.oNV VN.oVV V4.4qV Va.N¢V Vc.mNV Vo.NNV Vm.NNV VN.NNV Vc.cmV VN.oVV V a N e m V o N cV a V NaoVoguVma Vc.ovV VN.mNV VN.ooV VN.vVV Vo.mNV VN.NMV VN.NNV VV.oNV Vm.neV N o e a V n N N NV NV c VrooVuom Vo.oNV Vo.ccVV Ve.mNV Vm.mNV Va.NeV Vo.mNV VV.NNV Vv.omV VV.onV VN.NNV Vc.omV V N N N n V N e NV cV m otaamtoVVV V»V VaV VNV V»V VaV VaV VaV VaV VaV VaV VaV muz Nuz NVnz mnz Nuz vuz VNuz VVuz omnz omuz ouz +N¢ Ve-Nn om-NN VN-NN oN-NN posse oVuch rotam: Vaaoa oVaaoa «Va: Nesum co aot< om< xom msumum Vmumcmz .Mlfl. .comogo coon o>a5 cVaoz was» xenon mo mou<--.nm.v oVnmh 110 Vo.ooVV Vo.mNV Nm.oNV VN.ooV VN.NNV Vm.mmV Vm.mmV VV.qNV VV.NoV VN.ooV VN.eoV NN.weV oz N o NV «V N m NN ON Ne cm VV Vo.mNV VN.mNV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.oVV Nm.ovV Vm.mNV Vm.NmV VN.NNV VN.NNV Vm.VNV o N N N N V mV N mN NV m mm» VNV VNV VNV VNV VNV VNV VNV VNV VNV VNV VNV wuz wuz VNuz VNuz muV ouz Nmnz Nan .smha oNuz emuz oVuz +N¢ V4-Nm om-Nm VN-NN 0N-NN posse oVueVm roanz .Ne< Vauoe oVaEQN 9V“: mm< msumum Vaudawz xom .=onNoow osu wcfixma :N Emumxm conmNEvm Hmfioomm mo oucmunoasauu.wm.v manna 111 Plans After Graduation The future plans of the nontraditional students are presented in Table 4.39. Over half (55.7 percent) expected to obtain a job. 0f the remainder, some planned to take the judicial examination to enroll in the Judicial Research and Training Institute and become lawyers (14.3 percent). Others wanted to continue their studies in other fields (14.3 percent). Various plans were mentioned by 15.7 percent. Those were (a) continue present work (4), (b) apply for graduate school (1), (c) be a full-time housewife (l), (d) continue household work and miscellaneous studies (1), (e) study abroad (1), (f) continue studies in law (1), and (g) not yet decided (2). Future plans (by sex).-—Approximately 30 percent of the males planned to take a judicial examination, while about 10 percent of the females intended to do the same. Instead, more females (17 percent) wished to pursue further studies after graduation, whereas only 5.9 percent of the males intended to continue their studies. To obtain a job was the goal of 58.5 percent of the females and 47.1 percent of the males. Future plans (by marital status).--Both the single and the married groups showed similar trends in their plans. The single group had slightly more intention to obtain a job (63.2 percent) than the married group (50 percent). To become lawyers was the intention of 19.2 percent of the married group, whereas 13.2 percent of the single group planned to do the same. Future plans (by age).--Those between ages 32 and 36 most often planned to take the judicial examination (25 percent). fl 112 Vo.mNV Vo.mNV VN.oVV Vm.m V VV.VVV N N 4 N V 8.mNV 3.x V $.VVNV N o N o o Vo.omV Vm.NoV Vo.omV Vc.NeV Vm.NNV v m NV oV N Vm.NVV Vo.mNV VN.VVV o V o m o VN.eVV VN.NVV VN.mVV V m m Vo.omV Vm.oVV Vm.VVV m a m VN.NNV VN.moV Vo.omV N vm ma VN.mVV VN.mVV o m m VN.mVV VV.mVV Vo.NVV VV N m VN.4VV Vc.NVV Vm.m V oV m V VN.mmV Vm.mmV VV.N¢V mm Hm w Vm.vVV Vv.m V Vv.mNV oV m m tango macaw nonuocm :N mowczum oscflucou DON a =Vmuno ouauflumcm mcwcwmhe w :oumomom amwowpsw ecu cw Vuonco ou cowumcfismxo VaVuVuaN a OVaN VNV VNV VNV VNV VaV Nuz muz «Nuz VNuz an +N¢ V4-Nm om-Nm VN-NN 0N-NN VNV VaV VNV ouz Nmuz ONuz goguo «VmeVm rougmz NNV NNV NNV chuz mmuz nauz Hench onsom 0V5: om< msumum Vmuwhmz xom mcme .:owum=cmum Momma mcmeuu.mm.v oVnmb 113 Obtaining a job was the main concern for the youngest group (22-26 years old-—88.9 percent), followed by those between 37 and 41 (62.5 percent). In the other age groups (27-36 and 42 and over), less than half (47.6-50 percent) planned to obtain a job. Means of Findipgfia Job Nontraditional students who planned to obtain a job after graduation indicated the means they would most likely rely on, as shown in Table 4.40. Friends were most frequently mentioned (34.2 percent), followed by school placement (23.7 percent), private job service (13.2 percent), and family connections (7.9 percent). The other means were stated as open-ended responses, which included (a) by means of newspaper ads (2 responses), (b) ask the agencies directly (2), (c) through a professor of the university (1), (d) by oneself (l), and (e) do not know yet (2). While males indicated school placement most frequently (57.1 percent), only 16.1 percent of the females did the same. Instead, females mentioned friends first (38.7 percent), compared with only 14.3 percent of the males. The marital-status groups showed few differences. Both the married (38.5 percent) and single (30.4 percent) groups chose friends as their first priority to rely on. Private job service was not inci- cated by the married group. By age groups, only those under 36 gave the option of school placement (ZS-40 percent). Friends were mentioned by all of the age 114 Vo.NNV Vo.oNv Vo.NNV Vo.oNV VN.NVV V V N N V Vo.NNV VN.N V Vo.oNV V N V N o No.oNV Vo.oNV VN.NNV Vo.oVV NV.NNV N N e V. v Vo.oeV VN.N V o N V o o VN.NNV Vo.oNV VN.NNV VN.VNV VV.NNV o N N Vc.oNV VN.NVV V N o Vo.oNV VN.NNV VN.NNV V N m VN.N V VN.NVV N V N VV.NNV NV.NNV VV.VNV VN.NNV VN.NVV N N V VN.NVV VV.NVV N N o VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NVV NV NV V VN.N V VN.N V VN.VVV N N V VN.NNV VV.NVV VV.NNV HOr—HO ouN>Nom unoEoome -n0n oum>Npm mpcofiem mcoNuooccoo NVNEmm ucoaoome Voogom o o m v N o o m m m e VNV VNV VNV VNV VNV VNV VNV NNV VNV VNV VNV vnz . muz Nan oVuz Nuz an mmuz mVnz wmnz Vmuz Nuz non m mcwpcwm +~v HeuNm omumm Hmunm o~-- uozuo odmcwm pofinumz VNHOH onEom on2 mo memo: ow< mzumum Vmuflhmz xom .noN N NcVuan mo memos--.ov.v oVNNN 115 groups (lo-57.1 percent). Family connections were mentioned by those between 32 and 41 years old. (See Table 4.40.) The Possibilipy of Finding a Job The 39 nontraditional students who planned to obtain a job after graduation were asked to predict that possibility. This ques- tion was asked to determine their perception of the factors that might enhance or restrict them in obtaining a job. Approximately 97 percent felt that it would be "very" or "somewhat" difficult. Those who predicted that it would be "easy" (2.6 percent) were single students between ages 22 and 26. The remainder, married, other and single in all age groups, considered that it would be difficult. Slightly more males (87.5 percent) than females (67.7 percent) felt that it would be "very" difficult. The married students more often perceived it as "very" difficult (84.6 percent) than did the single (66.7 percent) or "other" (50 percent) groups. Single students expected less difficulty than did married students. Ninety percent of those between ages 27 and 31 thought of it as "very" difficult. (See Table 4.41.) The Reasons for Difficulty in Finding a Job Nontraditional students who planned to obtain a job after graduation (N = 39) were asked to predict their likely success. Twenty-eight students predicted that finding a job would be "difficult" (71.8 percent), ten students (25.6 percent) thought it would be "somewhat" difficult, and one student (2.6 percent) forecast that it would be "easy." 116 VN.NVV o o o N V Vo.oNV Vo.oNV VN.VNV Vo.oVV N N N V o Vo.oNV VN.NNV VN.NNV No.oNV VN.NNV VN.N V e V N VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NVV V N N Vo.oNV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.N V VN.N V V V o VN.NNV Vo.NNV VN.NVV oV N V VN.VNV VN.NNV VN.NNV xmmm uaSuwMva amazoaom VVsoVNNVN NNo> N N N N N V NV VV NN VN N VNV VNV NNV VNV VNV VNV VNV VNV VNV VNV NNV Nuz Nuz NVuz oVuz Nuz Nuz NNuz NVuz mNuz VNuz Nuz NNNNNNNVsoVNNVN +NN V¢-NN NN-NN VN-NN NN-NN guano oVNch NoVNNNz Vmuoe oVNEQN mVaz No ooNNoa om< mzumum Vmufiumz xmm .nom m mcflpzwm :« ammo\>quonmNu mo monwoouu.Vv.v oVan 117 The reasons for their prediction were stated as open-ended responses. Table 4.42 shows those reasons. Individuals could state more than one reason. Those who predicted that it would be "easy" said they had gained connections through activities in school. The most frequently mentioned reason for predicting that it would be "difficult" or "somewhat difficult" was the age limit set by employers (69.2 percent). This reason was perceived to be far more serious than any other. The second reason mentioned by all of the students was uncertainty about their ability (23.1 percent). Gender (women) was considered to be a factor by 12.8 percent who expected finding a job to be "difficult" or "somewhat difficult." The reasons why findipg a job may be difficult (by sex).-— The reasons stated by females were more varied than those given by males. The age problem was perceived as being the greatest for males (87.5 percent) as well as females (64.5 percent). Males felt more uncertainty about their ability (50 percent) than females (16.1 per- cent) did. However, only females perceived gender as a negative factor (16.1 percent). (See Table 4.43.) The reasons why finding a_job may be difficult (by marital status).--Regardless of their marital status, the age problem was perceived by all groups to be the greatest problem in finding a job. Approximately 70 percent of both the single and the married groups identified this factor as the greatest. The single group listed uncertainty about one's ability twice as often (29.2 percent) as the married group (15.4 percent). The gender factor was pointed out only [Ha-‘H 118 Table 4.42.--Degree of difficulty/ease in finding a job. Very Somewhat Degree of Difficult Difficult Easy Total Difficulty/Ease N=28 N=10 N=l N=39 N (%) N (%) N (%) N (%) Age limit 22 (78.6) 5 (50.0) 0 27 (69.2) Uncertainty about one's ability 7 (25.0) 2 (20.0) 0 9 (23.1) Gender (women) 4 (14.3) 1 (10.0) 0 5 (12.8) Previous experience not helpful for a new job 3 (10.7) 0 0 3 ( 7.7) Current social/economic situation is not good 2 ( 7.1) 1 (10.0) 3 ( 7.7) The hiring procedures have not been clearly specified 2 ( 7.1) 0 0 2 ( 5.1) No demand in this field 1 ( 3.6) 1 (10.0) 0 2 ( 5.1) Have experience in this field 0 2 (20.0) 0 2 ( 5.1) Do not know 1 ( 3.6) 1 (10.0) 0 2 ( 5.1) Plan to find a job in local . area (less jobs available) 1 ( 3.6) 0 0 l ( 2.6) Private corporations do not necessarily take a 1 ( 3.6) 0 O 1 ( 2.6) serious view of ability The competition is high in this field 1 ( 3.6) 0 0 1 ( 2.6) The degree of requirement of quality is unknown 0 1 (10.0) 0 l ( 2.6) Have a family ( 3.6) 0 0 l ( 2.6) Little chance in this . social system 1 ( 3.6) 0 0 l ( 2.6) Gained connections and acquaintances through 0 0 1 (100.0) 1 ( 2.6) school activities Will take only the job I really want ( 3.6) O l ( 2.6) Been away from work ” O 1 (10.0 0 1 ( 2.6) This area of program may not be necessarily suitable for l ( 3.6) 0 0 0 the work I wish to obtain 119 by the single (16.7 percent) and "other" (50 percent) groups. (See Table 4.44.) Table 4.43.--The reasons why finding a job may be difficult (by sex). Male Female Total Reason N=8 N=31 N=39 N (%) N (‘16) N (%) Age limit 7 (87.5) 20 (64.5) 27 (69.2) Uncertainty about one's ability 4 (50.0) 5 (16.1) 9 (23.1) Gender (women) 0 5 (16.1) 5 (12.8) Previous experience not helpful for a new job 2 (25.0) 1 ( 3.2) 3 ( 7.7) Current social/economic situa- tion is not good 0 3 ( 9.7) 3 ( 7.7) The hiring procedures have not been clearly specified 0 2 ( 6.5) 2 ( 5.1) No demand in this field 0 2 ( 6.5) 2 ( 5.1) Have experience in this field 0 2 ( 6.5) 2 ( 5.1) Do not know 0 2 ( 6.5) 2 ( 5.1) The reasons why finding a job may be difficult (by age).--The age limits set by many public and private agencies for new employees were probably reflected in how the nontraditional students perceived their expectations of problems getting a job. Because they were under the maximum age limit, half (50 percent) of the youngest group indicated that they did not see age as a particular problem in getting a job. In contrast, this was perceived as a most critical factor for those between 27 and 31 (90 percent), probably because they would be at or near the maximum age for being hired when they completed their program. The 120 Table 4.44.--The reasons why finding a job may be difficult (by marital status). Married Single Other Reason N=13 N=24 N=2 N (%) N (%) N (96) Age limit 9 (69.2) 17 (70.8) 1 (50.0) Uncertainty about one's ability 2 (15.4) 7 (29.2) 0 Gender (women) 0 4 (16.7) 1 (50.0) Previous experience not helpful for a new job 1 ( 7.7) 2 ( 8.3) 0 Current social/economic situa- tion is not good I ( 7.7) 2 ( 8.3) 0 The hiring procedures have not been clearly specified 1 ( 7-7) 1 ( 4-2) 0 No demand in this field 2 (15.4) 0 0 Have experience in this field 0 2 ( 8.3) 0 Do not know 2 (15.4) 0 0 difficulty for older students obtaining a job; and some reconciliation to this fact may have been reflected in the declining percentages who checked this category, 75 percent for those over 32 years old and 40 percent for those between 37 and 41. (See Table 4.45.) Degree of Satisfaction Nontraditional students who were the pioneers in a university undergraduate day program in Japan expressed varying degrees of satis- faction with the education they received. Possibly the novelty of the program enhanced their sense of satisfaction, regardless of the outcome. Table 4.46 shows this by sex, marital status, age, and level of 121 o No.0vV N o o o 30mg no: on o o VN.N V V Vo.oVV V o anVm NVNN :V docmVNodxo o>~= o o VN.oVV N o o NVNVN NVNN :V Nemadu oz 0 Vo.oVV V o Vo.oVV V . o NdVNVUddN NVNNdVo soon «0: o>m: mohapooonm magma: och o o Am.w V H no.oNV N o poom uo: mN :oNHNSHNm owsocooo\~mwoom uzmausu o o o No.oNV N VN.NVV V noN 30: N pom VsmmVo: Ho: oucoflhomxo msoN>mNm Vo.NNV V o VN.N V V Vo.oNV N VN.NVV V Vcdson gonads o No.oNV V NN.VNV m No.omV N o NNNVVnN m.o:o usonm NueVmupoucz VN.NNV N Vo.ovV N VN.NNV N VN.NNV N Vo.oNV N VVsVV oN< VNV z VNV z VNV z VNV z VNV z Nuz Nuz NVuz oVuz Nuz , commom +NN . V4-NN NN-NN VN-NN NN-NN .Aomm an HVSUwaNp on xms non m mcfiwcwm xx: mnemmon o:&--.mv.v oVamb 122 enrollment. The reasons for the degree of satisfaction were stated as open-ended responses. Nearly two-thirds (63.3 percent) of the nontraditional stu- dents thought that the institution was "moderately" or "completely" meeting their goals. More females (66.7 percent) indicated complete (2.0 percent) or moderate (64.7 percent) satisfaction with the program, while none of the males registered complete satisfaction and 52.9 percent indi- cated moderate satisfaction. Three-fourths (76 percent) of the married group felt that their needs were being met to a "moderate" degree, whereas this was so for approximately half (51.4 percent) of the single students, and 68.2 percent of the "other" group felt this "completely" or "mod— erately." The degree of satisfaction expressed by age showed that students over 32 were more likely to be satisfied with the program than their younger counterparts were. While less than half (47.6 percent) of the students under 31 showed a "moderate" or "complete" degree of satisfaction, all the students between 37 and 41 (100 percent) showed a "moderate" or a "complete" degree of satisfaction, followed by ages 32 to 36 (73.9 percent) and 42 years old and over (62.5 percent). In terms of the level of enrollment, freshmen more often showed a moderate and greater degree of satisfaction (92.9 percent) than any other group. Less than half of the sophomores (45 percent) expressed "moderate" satisfaction, but the percentage was higher for 1J23 VN.NVV VN.N V VN.N V VN.N V VN.N V VN.N V VN.N V VVN VN Voz N N N N N N N N N N V V N V V VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NNV VV.N V VN.NNV V4.NVV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NVV NN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.VNV VN.VNV NNNNNN N o N V N N 4 VV N V NV N NN NV N 32 N oN VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NNVV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.VNV VN.NNV VN.VNV VN.NNV VN.NNV NNNNNN NNN NV NV N NV N N NV NV N N NV NV NN NN N -ddcoa N op VN.N V VN.N V VN.V V VN.V V VN.N V NVNNNVNeou V N N N N N V N N V N N V V N VNV VNV VNV VNV VNV VNV VNV VNV VNV VNV VNV VNV VNV VNV VNV NVuz NVuz NNuz NVuz Nuz Nuz NNuz VNuz Nuz an NNuz NNuz Nouz VNuz NVuz doVNNN NoVNNN duosogdom NasNNNNN +NN VN-NN NN-NN VN-NN NN-NN doguo NVNNVN NNVNNN: VNuoN oVNadN oVNz anus—Vowem mo Vo>oV om< maumum Naumwmz xom .AucoaVVoueo mo Vo>oV can .oum .msumum Vmumuml .xom an :oNuuaummumm mo oouuooul.ov.e oqaah 124 upper-level students. Nearly two-thirds of juniors (62.5 percent) and seniors (61.2 percent) indicated "complete" or "moderate" sat- isfaction. The Reasons for the Degree of Meeting Needs The reasons why the institution was meeting the students' needs to a certain degree were stated as open-ended responses. Thus, individuals could indicate more than one reason, and their degrees of satisfaction sometimes varied for the same reason. Table 4.47 shows the reasons and their frequencies. On the positive side, the most common reason was the excel- lence of the professors and the content of technical courses (25 percent--17 responses). The second factor was having gained what one expected from the schooling (17.6 percent--12 responses). Tied with this was the reason that the result depends on oneself, or how much one strives (17.6 percent--12 responses). Among negatives, an annoying factor was that traditional young students in the same class lacked enthusiasm to learn (8.8 percent--6 responses). Five responses (7.4 percent) contended that some of the general education courses lacked substance. Also, a lack of curriculum choice was voiced by 7.4 percent (5 responses). The reasons for the degree of meetipgneeds (by sex).--Both males (35.3 percent) and females (21.6 percent) mentioned the excel- lence of professors and content of technical courses most frequently. Males were more annoyed by the young students' attitudes (17.6 percent), 125 ll" VN.N V N VN.NNV V VN.N V N VN.N V V N NNNNNVN :oVVosNoNN-NNNs NNNNV .N 86 V v o o $.m V N o 325:9on mo omcmh 032 m 35% gm: .N. 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NHVNH0>Vca 0:» page poom NM NV .ON VNV VNV VNV z VNV z VNV z mouz Nuz NNuz NNuz Vnz monmmo monwoa commom Vmuoe VV< 304 oummowoz NVoromeou um «02 m 0H m 0H .NNNNVNNNN--.NN.N NVNNN 129 indicating that they lacked enthusiasm to learn. This was also noted by 5.9 percent of the females. Having gained what one expected from the schooling and having the results depend on one's effort were reasons indicated by more females (both reasons 19.6 percent) than males (both reasons 11.8 percent). (See Table 4.48.) The reasons for the dggree of meeting needs (by marital status).--The married group (40 percent) listed excellence of profes- sors and the content of some technical courses more than twice as often as the single (16.2 percent) and "other" (16.7 percent) groups. At the same time, the married group (20 percent) thought that some general education courses lacked substance, covering a wide range but with insufficient depth. This reason was not mentioned by the single or the "other" group. On the other hand, the reason of having gained what one expected from the schooling was stated more by the single (24.3 percent) and the "Other" (33.4 percent) groups, whereas it was mentioned by only 4 percent of the married group. Lack of curriculum choice was perceived only by the single group (13.5 percent). (See Table 4.49.) The reasons for the degree of meetinggpeeds (by age):--The age group between 37 and 41 felt more strongly (42.9 percent) about the excellence of professors and content of the technical courses than any other groups (21.7-25 percent). The same 37 to 41 age group (42.9 percent) most often noted satisfaction because the results depend on how much one strives. This was mentioned less often by the other age groups (4.8—26.1 percent). 130 Table 4.48.--The reasons for the degree of meeting needs (by sex). Male Female Reason N=17 N=51 N (%) N (%) 1. Content of technical courses and professors are excellent 6 (35.3) 11 (21.6) 2. Gained what I expected from the schooling 2 (11.8) 10 (19.6) 3. The result depends on me; how much one strives 2 (11.8) 10 (19.6) 4. Some younger students lack enthusiasm to learn 3 (17.6) 3 ( 5.9) 5. Lack of curriculum choice (not enough curriculum choice is 2 (11.8) 3 ( 5.8) available) 6. Some general education courses lack substance or cover a wide range but 2 (11.8) 3 ( 5.9) with insufficient depth 7. Have gained a wide range of experiences 0 4 ( 7.8) 8. Large mass-production classes 2 (11.8) 2 ( 3.9) 9. Teaching methods are not good in some classes (one-way, grade-oriented, 0 4 ( 7.8) memorization oriented) 10. Met good teachers and friends 0 4 ( 7.8) 11. Have gained from both general and technical courses 0 3 ( 5.9) 12. The university treats students with consideration 1 ( 5.8) 2 ( 3.9) 13. Wish more seminar courses were available 0 3 ( 5.9) 14. Foreign language courses have poor content and teaching methods 0 3 C 5-9) 131 Table 4.49.--The reasons for the degree of meeting needs (by marital status). Married Single Other Reason N=25 N=37 N=6 N (%) N (%) N (%) 1. Content of technical courses and professors are excellent 10 (40.0) 6 (16.2) 1 (16.7) 2. Gained what I expected from the schooling 1 ( 4.0) 9 (24.3) 2 (33.4) 3. The result depends on me; how much one strives 5 (20.0) 6 (16.2) 1 (16.7) 4. Some younger students lack enthusiasm to learn 2 ( 8.0) 3 ( 8.1) 1 (16.7) 5. Lack of curriculum choice (not enough curriculum choice is 0 S (13.5) 0 available) 6. Some general education courses lack.substance or cover a wide 5 (20.0) 0 ‘0 range but with insufficient depth - 7. Have gained a wide range of _ experiences 2 ( 8.0) 3 ( 8.1) 8. Large mass-production classes 2 ( 8.0) 2 ( 5.4) 9. Teaching methods are not good in some classes (one-way, grade- 1 ( 4.0) 3 ( 8.1) 0 oriented, memorization oriented) 10. Met good teachers and friends 0 4 (10.8) 0 11. Have gained from both general and technical courses 1 ( 4.0) 2 ( 5.4) 0 12. The university treats students with consideration 1 ( 4.0) 2 ( 5.4) O 13. Wish more seminar courses were I available 1 ( 4.0) 2 ( 5.4) 0 14. Foreign language courses have poor content and teaching 2 ( 8.0) 1 ( 2.7) 0 methods 132 An unfavorable factor, as perceived by those under 31, was the lack of curriculum choice (14.3 percent and 22.2 percent). No older groups indicated this as a problem. (See Table 4.50.) Preferred Additional Services The kinds of additional services that the students desired were differentiated as ”very important," "moderately important," ”somewhat important," and "not important." Table 4.51 lists the overall percentages. The breakdown by sex, marital status, and age is presented in Appendix It The kinds of services requested were: more availability of scholarships, expanded services such as student lounges and cafeteria, library services, placement service, addi- tional counseling service on study habits and personal matters, and additional orientation programs. Scholarships.--Nearly half (47 percent) of the students declared that scholarships were very important. Among them, more males (56.3 percent) than females (44 percent) thought so. That moresingle students (55.6 percent) than "other" (50 percent) and married students (33.3 percent) particularly placed great importance on scholarships probably reflects the relative availability of out- side financial resources. As the younger students were more apt to be single, a similar correlation was shown by age, with the youngest group (22-26 years) citing the highest need for scholarships in a declining order of priority corresponding with age (27—31 years-- 60 percent; 32-36 years-~52.2 percent). Apparently upper-level students were more apt to have resolved their financial dilemmas Table 4.50.--The reasons for the degree of meeting needs (by age). 1133 22-26 27-31 32-36 37-41 42+ Reason N=9 N=21 N=23 N-7 N=8 (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) 1. Content of technical courses and 2 5 S 3 2 professors are excellent. (22.2). (23.3) (21,7) (42.9) (25.0) 2. Gained what I expected from the l 3 5 l 2 5°h°°11"g (11.1) (14.3) (21.7) (14.2) (25.0) 3. .The result depends on me. The l 1 6 3 1 a551stance 15 available (11,1) ( 4.8) (26.1) (42.9) (12.5) 4. Some younger students lack enthusiasm 2 l 1 1 l t° leaf“ (22.2) ( 4.8) ( 4.3) (14 2) (12.5) 5. Lack of curriculum choice (not enough 2 3 0 0 0 curriculum choice is available) (2, 2) (14 3) 6. Some general education courses lack 0 2 2 l 0 substance or cover a wide range but ( 9.5) ( 8.7) (14.2) with insufficient depth 7. Have gained a wide range of 1 O 2 l 0 experiences (11.1) ( 8.7) (14.2) 1 0 0 l 8. Large mass-production classes (11 l) ( 8 7) (17 5) 9. Teaching methods are not good in 0 1 0 1 some classes (one-way, grade- , oriented, memorization oriented) ( 4'8) ( 8'7) (1"5) 1 0 3 0 0 10. Met good teachers and friends (11.1) (13.0) 11. Have gained from both general and 0 1 0 technical courses ( 4 8) ( 4 3) (14 V) 12. The university treats students with 0 0 0 1 consideration ( 8 7) (l7 5) 13. Wish more seminar courses were 1 l l 0 0 available (11.1) ( 4.3) ( 4.3) 14. Foreign language courses have poor 0 0 l 0 content and teaching methods ( 9 5) (14 2) 134 VN.NNV NN VN.NNV NV VN.NVV VV VN.N V N NNNNNNNNV NNVNN; NNNNNNN . . . . . . 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V m mV N: w mmuw>Hom mcwHOmczoo Hmzofipfiufld‘ . . n . . . mmanm; Apzum 909V VN NNV No VN NNV NV VN NNV NV VN NVV N NNNV>NNN NNVVNNNNNN VNNNVVVNNN VN.NNV VN VN.VNV VN VN.NVV N VN.N V N ENNNoNN :oVoNNNNVNo VNNNVNVNNN VN.NVV NV VN.NNV NV VN.NNV NV VN.VNV NN NooV>NoN “cosmoNVm VacoVNVNe< av.mVV mV VN.NNV mV VN.mNV NV VN.NNV NN NewcooV unopoum voocmmxm VN.NNV NV VN.NVV NV VN.NNV NV VN.NNV NN NNVNVVVNNN NVNNNNNNN NNNNNNNN . . . . amazoxoo3 pcm mchco>oV VN VNV VN VN NNV NV VN NVV VV VN NNV NV NNNV>NNN NNNNNVV NNNNNNNN VN.NNV NV VN.NVV NV VN.NVV NV VN.NNV VN NVNNNNVNNNN No NNVVVNNVVN>< VNV z NNV z VNV z NNV z mmwmmmww :ucmunomEV :ucmpaoosV :ucmuwomeV 00V>wom : z \A % uoz: umz3oeom: Voumyopozz N0>: .N00N>wom VmcoVquom pounomoamnu.Vm.N oVnmb 135 because the importance of this criterion declined from 50 percent of freshmen and 55.6 percent of sophomores indicating that the availa- bility of scholarships was "very important" to 43.8 percent of juniors and 38.9 percent of seniors. 'Student loupge and cafeteria facilities.--The need for expanded cafeteria facilities was identified by 38.8 percent of the students, and 32.8 percent of them also indicated that expanded stu- dent lounges were "very important." Females felt the need for expanded cafeteria facilities more strongly (42 percent) than males (29.4 percent). Approximately two-thirds (68 percent) of the females felt that they were either "very important" or "somewhat important." While approximately one-third of the married (36 percent) and single (33.3 percent) students noted the need for expanded cafeteria facili- ties, this was more strongly recognized as "very important" by the "other" group (83.3 percent). The youngest (22-26 years-—66.7 percent) and the oldest (42+ years--62.5 percent) age groups far more strongly felt this need than the other age groups (14.3-34.8 percent). The desire for expanded student lounges also showed the same trend as did the need for cafeteria facilities. Females (34 percent) felt this to be "very important" slightly more often than did males (29.4 percent). One-third (33.3 percent) of the single and the mar- ried (36 percent) and half (50 percent)N a coozuon coVuucVu N o N N N N N V N NV N «N NV N -NVN NNV NoNdzod ueV00>o ucVaoumo VN.NVV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.VNV VN.NNV VV.NNV doaaam NNN NNVNNN N N N N N N N N N VV N NN NV N Nomdaou N>VN=oo=V VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.VNV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NNV VV.VNV VN.VNV NVNNENNVNNNN aNdNodN VV NV N N N NV NV N N VN NV NN NN N NV NVVVVNVNNVN ado: VNV VNV VNV VNV VN VNV VNV VNV VNV VNV VNV VNV VNV VNV NVuz NNuz NVuz Nuz Nuz Nan VNuz an Nuz NNuz NNuz VNuz NNuz NVuz NNVNNN owoaosdom NNaNNNNN .NN VN-NN NN-NN VN-NN NN-NN Nogoo NVNNVN NNVdsz VNVoN oVNaNN NVNz NNNNNN NeonVVowem mo Vo>oa ou< Nouaum VmuVuaz xom .momemnu mo mcoVuaonzV--.Nm.N oVnmb a 140 same substance and credits as day courses and intensive courses during the summer, (c) classes scheduled for a six-month period rather than the present one year, (d) more classes scheduled between 9:00-5:00, and (e) other recommendations, which included tuition rates based on the number of credits taken, more courses scheduled in the after- noon, more courses scheduled in the morning, avoiding duplication in scheduling general and specialized courses, choices of taking physical education and foreign language courses, more specialized courses during the morning hours, and more opportunities to take courses in other colleges within the university. Summary This chapter included data regarding: 1) research questions, 2) demographic variables, and 3) motivating factors, concerns, barriers, and program satisfaction, CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND REFLECTIONS This chapter has been constructed in five sections: (1) sum- mary of the findings, (2) conclusions, (3) implications, (4) recommen- ' dations for further study, and (5) reflections. The purposes of this study were threefold: (l) to identify the personal and demographic characteristics of nontraditional stu- dents in the Department of Law and Politics at Rikkyo University in Japan, (2) to compile and analyze the data to develop a profile of significant educational and sociological characteristics of nontradi- tional students, and (3) to provide information for other institutions of higher education that may implement programs for nontraditional students in their undergrauate day programs. Summary of the Finding: Four broad research questions guided this study. They were: (1) What are some of the major characteristics of nontraditional students enrolled in the Department of Law and Politics, Rikkyo University? (2) Do the reasons differ for entering/returning to the university between males and females, among marital-status groups, and among age groups of nontraditional students? (3) Are there 141 142 differences in the kinds of barriers facing nontraditional students in terms of sex, marital status, and age group? and (4) Are there differences in the degree of satisfaction with the program expressed by males and females, marital-status groups, and age groups? Other associated characteristics were also analyzed. Those include: desired services, desired changes in course scheduling, the reasons for choosing the university day course rather than evening or correspondence courses, the degree of difficulty in making the decision to return to the university, and concerns the students had before they made the decision. In terms of Research Question 1, the data indicated that more females (76.1 percent) than males (23.9 percent) in the Depart- ment of Law and Politics participated in this study. The mean age was 33.3 years, 31.7 for males and 33.8 for females. The majority of the males were between 27 and 31 years old; the females were generally older, between 32 and 36. 0f the students, 38.0 percent were mar- ried, 53.5 percent were single, and 11.1 percent were widowed or divorced. Sixty-six percent of the students had received a high school diploma but had not been enrolled in a university before entering the program, and 22.6 percent had completed either two or four years of college. Slightly over half of the students had annual family incomes of over four million yen ($16,000, $1 = ¥250), but 11.9 percent of them had less than 1 million yen ($4,000, $1 = ¥250). 143 Among the factors affecting the decision to enter/return to the university were the desire for personal growth, intellectual stimulation, fulfillment of some potential for the future, the wish to make a turning point in life, and the desire to follow a syste- matic course of study. Another factor was the new admission system for nontraditional students who did not have the chance to take such a course previously. After working for years, some of these students had developed clear objectives that they wanted to pursue through further study. Males and females expressed no significant differ- ences in reasons for entering/returning to the university. However, males more often emphasized developing their*potential. Such reasons as "to change jobs" and "to get a degree" appeared to be more impor- tant to single than to married students or those who were widowed or divorced. The younger age groups felt that it was more important to study at a university, whereas the older ones felt that need to acquire knowledge in order to adjust to social change was more important. The new admission system was a more critical factor for older students. Nontraditional students perceived such factors as time to study and living and school expenses as great barriers to pursuing their education. It appeared that males had greater difficulty with financial problems and adjusting to student life. Similarly, finan- cial problems were greater barriers for single than for married students or the other group students. Financial factors were a greater burden for younger students than for older students. However, finding time to study and family obligations were burdens for'the married students. 144 Nearly two-thirds of the students were satisfied with the education they had received. Females felt a higher degree of satis- faction than males. The married and the "other" groups were more likely to express satisfaction with their education than the single students. Older students were more likely to be satisfied with their education than the younger students. All of the students aged 37 to 41 were satisfied with the education they received. In terms of grade level, it appeared that the freshmen were most satisfied, and sophomores were least satisfied among all grade levels. Conclusions From the data, the following conclusions can be derived regarding nontraditional students. 1. They wished to enter/return to the university for reasons relating to personal satisfaction in life. For these students, voca- tional reasons were considered least important in deciding whether to enter/return to the university. 2.1 A university undergraduate day program was needed because they strongly wished to study comprehensively and/or systematically, which might not be possible at other types of schools. Also, uni- versity evening or correspondence courses were perceived as difficult to continue because of other commitments and flagging motivation. Female married students indicated that day courses were more practical because of family obligations. 3. Concerns about returning to the university centered on finances, namely school and living expenses. Other concerns included 145 working and going to school at the same time, whether or not employ- ment could be secured after graduation, uncertainty about being able to complete their education, and whether they were getting what they expected from the school. For these items, singles, other groups, and the younger age groups showed higher concern than married or older students. Those who felt that making the decision to enter/return to the university was difficult indicated that the financial burden was the primary reason. On the other hand, those who felt that the deci- sion was not so difficult to make indicated having a desire to learn and the financial means to pay living and school expenses. 4. The special admission system for nontraditional students had a great effect on the students, especially those who were older or married. Over two-thirds of them would not have applied without the special admission system. Over half of the respondents indicated that law and politics was not their primary interest. If special admission systems had been available, half would have chosen other academic areas. 5. Following enrollment, the greatest barrier appeared to be financial problems related to living and school expenses. Males also indicated difficulty in adjusting to the life of a student. 6. In terms of financing their education, participants cited personal assets, employment, and scholarships. Sixty percent were employed full or part-time, free-lance, self-employed, or temporary. 7. Nearly two-thirds of the nontraditional students were satisfied with the education they had received. The major reason 146 for their satisfaction was the excellence of some of the technical courses and the faculty. Another reason was that they had received what they had expected. Success depends on oneself, and how much one strives was indicated as one of the reasons. 8. Improvements that nontraditional students desired were more flexibility in program requirements, evening courses, inter- changeable with day courses, and intensive summer courses. 9. In terms of additional service, the students wished the availability of more scholarships at the university. Another fre- quently mentioned desire was for improved school facilities, such as cafeteria and student lounges. 10. Slightly over half wished to obtainzijob after gradua- tion. However, the majority thought this would be difficult because of maximum age limits that most public as well as private agencies set in hiring personnel. Implications l. The special admission system has proved effective for the nontraditional students enrolled in the Department of Law and Politics, Rikkyo University. Nontraditional students were given the Opportu- nity to continue their education, which would not have been possible otherwise as the entrance examinations for Japanese universities have tended to discourage adults in the past. 2. Those who were between 27 and 36 years old especially felt the need to study after working for several years. They had clear objectives that required further study. This would imply that 147 continuing studies may be a necessary step for some people in the course of their lives to maximize both their sense of individual accomplishment and their contribution to society. 3. The proportion of nontraditional students in the Depart- ment of Law and Politics of Rikkyo University is limited to 5 percent of the student body at each level. However, considering the number of applicants.and the achievement of those who enrolled in the depart- ment, it would be desirable to increase the number of nontraditional students. 4. New opportunities for continuing learning at the univer- sities in Japan have recently been initiated in a few institutions. Based on these findings, the areas of study and the number of insti- tutions that will accept nontraditional students should be increased to respond to the demand. 5. A large number of students spend more than two hours (round trips) commuting each day. Some students indicated that they traveled hundreds of miles to school in Tokyo and to work in another prefecture. If more institutions were Open to nontraditional students, classes could be attended closer to their work or home. Commuting time is apt to be a critical factor for nontraditional students because they have more obligations to their family and to their work than do younger students. 6. As indicated in several different items on the question- naire, financial problems (living and school expenses) were the greatest burden for nontraditional students, especially for males. This is probably why they constituted a smaller percentage of the 148 nontraditional students enrolled in the Department of Law and Politics. 7. Although the university awarded scholarships to nontra- ditional students whenever possible, financial difficulties exceeded all other factors that made learning difficult. The expansion of financial-assistance programs would be a task not only for the uni- versity but would require the cooperation of the government and private sectors as well. 8. Regarding the services that the university can provide, library services could be extended or improved in terms of hours of Operation and number of books that can be checked out at one time. 9. Orientation meetings for nontraditional students could be provided to encourage cooperation and exchange of information. 10. An inservice program should be considered to familiarize faculty with the needs, diverse interests, and characteristics of nontraditional students to minimize adjustment problems for the students and give faculty more insight into those problems. 11. Because of the diverse experiences of nontraditional stu- dents, credit for these experiences, waiver of credits, or independent study could be considered in response to the desire for flexibility in program requirements. 12. As the students' predictions about the possibility of finding a job showed, the university will encounter difficulty in assisting them to obtain employment because of age limits set by many public and private agencies. Therefore, perhaps it would be 149 apprOpriate to recommend that government and private enterprises examine and revise such policies so as not to discriminate by age. Recommendations for Future Research This study sought to survey characteristics, needs, barriers, satisfaction with their education, and other associated characteris- tics of nontraditional students. Additional research is needed in Japan so that other institutions of higher education may respond to the needs of nontraditional students to fulfill its mission and benefit from the diversity of students' experiences. Based on the findings of this study, the following recommenda- tions are made for further research: 1. Identify differences and similarities between traditional and nontraditional students in terms of needs, goals, and problems, to provide further information for program development and improvement. 2. Study nontraditional students at other institutions where their numbers can be expected to increase in the near future. The development of learning opportunities and program improvement can be enhanced by sharing information on students' needs, numbers, barriers, and other related characteristics. 3. Examine the academic achievement of nontraditional stu- dents in terms of grade-point average. 4. Explore the details of curricula and teaching methods preferred by nontraditional students. 5. Conduct follow-up research to determine the effect of education and the influence of learning throughout the 150 lives of nontraditional students. Such studies may give significant information for planning prOgrams at other educational institutions. 6. Research the perceptions and attitudes of faculty toward 'nontraditional students in order to obtain information for inservice programs. 7. Investigate the motivational factors of nontraditional and traditional students and their effect on academic achievement. 8. Seek to determine why the females' average age was higher than males'. What are the factors that would prevent younger females from entering/returning to universities? 9. Study potential nontraditional students in the community to determine their interest in institutions of higher education and their preference for various fields of study. Reflections l. The strong need and desire of nontraditional students for learning appeared in several responses, including those concerned with decision making, reasons for enrolling in the university, and the degree of satisfaction with their education. The responses imply many more potential nontraditional students await opportunities in Japan. 2. Some nontraditional students were so highly motivated to learn that they downplayed the importance of barriers such as economic or family problems when they were given the opportunity to apply to the university. This suggests that other potential students with high motivation would benefit from the same opportunities. 151 3. Because of the high motivation and lack of previous Oppor- tunity, the impact of the special admission system was great. There- fore, it would be valuable if other institutions of higher education in each prefecture established some kind of selection system for nontraditional student applicants. Then, learning opportunities in university day courses could be extended to them. 4. The reasons given for entering/returning to the university related mostly to personal fulfillment in life rather than vocational success. This may reflect several cultural factors because of a hiring system that sets maximum age limits; more people, especially females, think of learning as an opportunity to explore their lives. Also, more people seek self-actualization or self-esteem after achieving psychological or economic stability in their lives. APPENDICES 152 153 APPENDIX A 154» :ucauhogeV ouVso: mo 9 . Vm.NVV VN.w V Vo.mVV VV.VVV No.» V Ac.m V V0.0 V no.5VV oocmusch :VVNoa ucovsum V o N N o o N N o N N VNVVQN: Nuoom can» NozooV VN.NVV VN.NVV VN.NVV VN.NVV VN.NVV VN.N V VV.NVV N.NVV VN.VVV NNNV>NNN NNVVNNNNNN VNNNVVVNNN V N N N N V N N N N N . 1 . . . . . . xenon N0VV VN NNV VN NVV VN NNV VN.NVV VN.NVV VN.NVV VN NVV VN NVV VN NVV VNNVNN; . N o N N 0 V m n m o N N00V>N0N chVomcsoo VmcoVuVs0< VN.NVV VV.N V VN.NVV VN.NVV VN.N V VN.N V VN.N V VV.N V VN.NVV ENNNNNN NNVNNVNNVdo VNNoVNVNNN V N N N N V N N N N N VN.NVV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NMV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.VNV VN.NNV VN.NNV NNNV>NNN VNNsNoNVN VNNNVVVNNN V N N r N N NV N NN NV N VN NNV VN.NNV VN.VNV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NNV NNNNNNV NNNNNNN NNNNNNNN m N m o o. m VV w mm NV m Vm.NoV VN.NVV VN.NNV Vo.oNV VN.ocV VN.NNV VN.NNV Vo.cmV VN.NNV Vo.NNV VN.mNV NoVuVVVon mVuouomao povenmxm N V N N N N NV N NN VN N VV.oNV Vo.mmV VN.NVV no.0mV VV.NNV Vo.m V VN.NNV Am.NNV am.nNV NO0V>NON meNnVV voocnmxm N N N VV V N NV N NV NV N VN.NVV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NNV VN.NNV NNVNNNNVong No NNVVVNNVVN>N V N NV NV N N NN N VN NN N . N N NNV . N N V.V V.V ANV ANV .VNV .V.V .VVV 4,. MMMW .Mh“ NMMquz Nm-mVnz .Nwz an NN-NNuz NNrNNuz NN-NNuz NN-NNuz NV-NVnz NNV>NNN +NN VN-NN NN-NN VN-NN NN-NN NNNVo NVNNVN Nodemz VNNNN oVNsoN «Va: om< moumum VauVumz xom it’ll: ' '1. .111! o .NouV>uom VmcoVquoN pouuomoumuu.< xVucomo< 155 APPENDIX B 156 Kikuji Saito 400 Gunson St., #3 East Lansing, MI 48823 U.S.A. ' April 9, 1982 Dr. Takao Sawaki, Dean College of Law and Politics Rikkyo University Nishi—Ikebukuro 3-chome Toshima-ku, Tokyo 171 Japan ‘Dear Dr. Sawaki: I am writing to ask your permission to work with nontraditional students in the College of Law and Politics. I am interested in the students who have been admitted since 1979 under the new entrance examination-system. As a doctoral candidate at Michigan State University, I am currently preparing a research project that will focus on the char- acteristics and needs, motivation, and goals of nontraditional students entering/returning to higher education in Japan. I have been extremely interested in your efforts to extend higher education to the nontradi- tional students, as I returned to higher education after working for many years. Information about your program was brought to my attention through professional journals and the news media. I would like to ask your permission to collect data from the nontraditional students, approximately 110, I believe, with question- naires and interviews, during the months of July, August, and September of 1982. I will submit the questionnaire instrument and the description of the method of interviewing to you in advance, if necessary. The results of the research will also be made available to you upon com- pletion of the study. The questionnaire will be reviewed beforehand by the University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects of Michigan State University. This is a university requirement for the protection of human research subjects and is based on a United States federal regulation. ' 157 I hope that my study will be of help to administrators of other institutions of higher education and people who plan to enter/ return to colleges and universities as nontraditional students. If there are any questions or conditions that Rikkyo University requires of researchers, please let me know. I would greatly appreciate your assistance in this project. Sincerely yours, Kikuji Saito [Translation from Japanese] 158 APPENDIX C 159 April 26, 1982 Dear Ms. Saito: We have received your letter dated April 9. I am sorry for not responding sooner, but your request made it necessary for me to contact the staff of the other sections of the university. Regarding your request, we would like to tell you the following: 1. Currently, Rikkyo University has a regulation that prohibits the release of the names and addresses of the students to persons out- side of the university. In such cases as yours, we ask the students in advance about their intention to release their names and addresses to cooperate in the survey. 2. In your case, it is not necessary to discuss "permission" from the university except whether we can offer you assistance. Con- sidering your purpose for the research, we would like to extend you our cooperation. ' 3. Therefore, first of all, as is explained in No. l, we need to ask all of the nontraditional students about their intentions. As we will handle this matter before you come to Japan, please send us a statement of the purpose of your research. Presently, the total number of nontraditional students is approximately 110. 4. In addition to the new admission system for nontraditional students, we have an examination system for transfer students at the junior level. A few nontraditional students are enrolled under this system also. We look forward to hearing from you. Sincerely, Takao Sawaki, Dean College of Law and Politics [Translation from Japanese] 160 APPENDIX D 161 June 2, 1982 Dear Student: I hOpe you have been having a productive and fulfilling life as you engage in various school activities at the beginning of the academic year. I received a letter from Ms. Kikuji Saito, who is a doctoral candidate at Michigan State University. Ms. Saito asked for permission to work with nontraditional students of our college for her disserta- tion research during the months of July, August, and September of 1982 to conduct a questionnaire survey and interviews. The purpose of her study is described in an enclosed statement. I understand that it is for an academic purpose. According to her, the content of the questionnaire will be reviewed by the Human Subjects Com- mittee of Michigan State University, based on the federal government regulation. Considering these reasons, I would like to extend our cooperation to her. However, as you know, the university has a regulation that prohibits the release of the names and addresses of students to per- sons outside of the university without getting their consent in advance. Therefore, I would like to ask whether or not you are willing to release your name and address to her for this study. I realize that you are very busy at this time; however, I would very much appre- ciate it if you would return the enclosed postcard. Sincerely, Takao Sawaki, Dean College of Law and Politics Rikkyo University [Translation from Japanese] 162 APPENDIX E 163 tn ""‘ .1]; {$1279 -Qié'NECPPJ-MNH 4!: '6 “9 w: l1! 5 2 fi-Psild I: 9 rm E QPP-‘P ’ a a: V I; N 1+ N. N .1. N o t l .727. .. ETC... ____-- _"“ WP’woe‘ow-xnx{aktfi-finfiflVt+ts-::_t;;e9ni~a=t3“ -- -‘ "’ ‘ U :7 M‘ji—Nm 1» §1i<4tb.+z‘7 r? 3,142 on? 3? . Zia/(1‘. taz.'>t'~'é?~:=./7w'z Jab-«Fir ~ ; J [:1] f”, ’ ‘ '\" * ‘ 4.10. fa, 3“Z‘r5};t1/J 13357’1/‘ffi/fill./7\1§N ”‘H’W‘3’4 affit'rvzugt; 1117272,?aagg’ngXI/‘RA%$%@’]7§l$.a$mfi’;za 7] ‘2 V 2 :1 mamfirh'). Aaéx‘ai'vimwwrtéth. p w a 9’7. A"? mfg. 3%”12 ,/7< x 5'59 7,; 15.42 iii/u“. L’CNM. Gfi I—a'jfglt‘13‘7:'7fl r {>7t'a- In Eié‘-)n,1x’£.u¥‘ ‘K’Lf-li 2v: u $214 $2 FMS]??? . WES. EH59. Iii/2“ film klii ’I- "U 711% [3 3312] f; 81': on? $5.527; _ 3451l~b.-£~T5f€ El??? 341%1. E :73, 732'}; fi/éznfiaom. 2rfifii¢f°ja<4%ijtqatmrj 9;. i: “a- . , N- Vr ”Apiafi-H} 3366;11' Rfifivb . H.43Zw1: 1;"3 3116313- 926le (.7 atm. ’2kw4fl-t: [fitjltsingtfli I Vib‘.$$3’~l<7fiitzIrrfi/tgmfil: 33512;? *PLt‘r"i'J. ‘ ‘ 3" 37 m 3: W I) L" ill-w Edit :“E‘f’fli T i' “3 L '( rfi'nfl’fifiwilm L'-'?Eé.\‘EPLJI-t7"i‘]. 52% #727: S‘fi ‘ S fing: z; 1 f: 168 APPENDIX H 169 August 12, 1982 Dear Student: As you must be very busy now, I especially appreciate your acceptance of my request for assistance sent in June through Dr. Takao Sawaki, the Dean of the College of Law and Politics. The purpose of this survey is to obtain information on the role of institutions of higher education for nontraditional students. The information can help administrators plan for the needs of such students, as well as assisting other nontraditional students who plan such study. In recent years, learning has been recognized as an important need throughout human life. However, the development of appropriate opportunities in higher education depends on the future administra- tion. Nonetheless, no background information is available regarding nontraditional students in Japan. Responses from you and the others would contribute to the development of more suitable programs for nontraditional students. .I appreciate your cooperation. As the questionnaire is completely confidential, no name is required. The results will be compiled as part of a doctoral dissertation. If you would like to receive a copy of the results of this study, please indicate this on the back of the enclosed postcard. I hope that you will complete the survey and return it as soon as possible along with the enclosed return postcard. If you have any questions, please feel free to write or call me at (03) 885-2210 collect. Thank you very much for your cooperation. Sincerely yours, Kikuji Saito Graduate Student Michigan State University (Translation from Japanese) 170 P.S. I am interested in the development of an admission system and learning opportunities for nontraditional students at institutions of higher education for two primary reasons: The first stems from my own educational philosophy and the difficulties and benefits I experi- enced as a nontraditional student. For my graduate studies I chose a university in the United States where the learning opportunities for nontraditional students are greater than in Japan. Presently about one-third of the students in institutions of higher education in the United States are nontraditional. The development of programs and opportunities for nontradi- tional students in Japan requires cooperative efforts by the institutions of higher education, government, and the society. Rikkyo University's pioneer program can have an important impact in the future. (Translation from Japanese) 171 APPENDIX I 172 fig figwfi.fifiKMEflwmmtamLWfiBééotmeoLpécttfib at. . £56H.&$%E$*a§§ELaLtd§%cnw~b«mcmfléafih fiLiLtfidCfifiTawiLtacamfiflécahiLt. ccmafimmttarryv—bwamu.HéAwtwmkficwfifimfi avian); '3ltdfimi’ézhwcot‘ffifiéig. Cnméwtffi‘fifl. isotO'ki’i" cfiaéfirAbmaitétwwfifleLtfitiéarébmcro mm.aeoammwm.afiemtr.agmmc$acaaaaemuae cawififimgt.itmméntatmarm.HéAmtw®K$fl§@% flziéifimfifltcnmmNtmia‘. LmLme’é. QEOJNCZ). li%/\7b>‘7<’3}'i' I“??? é‘é‘ffi’le’amrwfififlié < 35 D E 12%... SEE§ONDONDm6htfi$iTCEQw.Cnm6®k$fifitfiéA mfi%momt®fiflmxfixccswar®c.EfiCmWFsmarxéxfl' b‘htLi'd'o 7y7—bum3zczfiwwttar.fifiuéwatriawtic%xm varitaoavofifiécfigwfimuamée$Lifiirmc.fifimn fi#mewgcm&Téwo Cflaufifimfiémfificcaafiofim IZIL 1. Living expenses GP MP SP NP 2. School expenses GP MP SP NP 3. Time to study GP MP SP NP 4. Motivation to continue GP MP SP NP 5. Commuting time GP MP SP NP 6. Child care GP MP SP NP 7. Family obligation (other than child care) GP MP SP NP 8. Registration and other administrative GP MP SP NP procedures _ 9. Relevance of course content GP .MP SP NP lO. Possibility of spouse obtaining transfer to other areas GP Mp SP NP 11. Family planning GP MP SP NP 12. Cooperation and understanding from your GP MP SP NP spouse 13. Cooperation and understanding from your GP MP SP NP parents 14. Cooperation and understanding from your GP MP SP NP children 15. Cooperation and understanding from your GP MP SP NP friends 16. Adjustment to a life of studies GP MP SP NP 17. Getting assistance from faculty GP MP SP NP 18. Availability of quality instructors GP MP SP NP 19. Class cancellation GP MP SP NP 20. Lack of financial assistance from the school GP MP SP NP 21. Competing with younger (18—22 years old) GP MP SP NP students) 22. Other (specify) 192 15. How many courses are you taking now? Please give figures. Please - count 45-minute class as 1 hour. Courses Hours 16. What other services would you like from your school more than now? Please circle the degree of importance. H ‘1‘ CU >~ H H o-4 H H H . I: Q C H C O A SerVice m u m m m a": H m H A: H E 00 $4 $4 In 3 $4 I— :3 >.o o o o o o a n.-o o. E o. u = o E o E o E ocu > H 2 r—c (D H z v 1. Additional counseling services (for study habits) VI MI SI NI 2. Additional counseling services (other than study habits) VI MI SI NI Additional placement services VI MI 81 NI Expanded library serVices VI MI SI NI (evenings and weekends) 5. Expanded cafeteria facilities VI MI SI NI 6. Expanded student lounges VI MI SI NI 7. Additional orientation/guidance program VI MI SI NI 8. Students health insurance VI MI SI NI 9. Availability of scholarships VI MI SI NI 10. Other (specify) 17. What changes, if any, regarding course scheduling would help most? Please circle as many as apply. 1. 2. 3. OCH-l) More classes scheduled between 9:00-5:00 More classes scheduled for 6 months rather than one-year Offering evening courses (after 6:00 p.m.) (no distinction between evening and day courses) Intensive courses during the summer More flexibility in program requirements Other (specify: 18. 19. 20. 21. 193 Your educational background before you entered/returned to the university was: \IO‘UTHMNH Please choose one. High school diploma Did not finish junior college Completed junior college (two years) Did not finish college (four years) Completed college (four years) Did not finish technical college Completed technical college Do you have children? Please circle one. No Yes Ages of children: years old years old ' years old years old years old Ages of children living with you: years old years old - years old years old years old What were you doing before you entered/returned to the university? Please circle one. mhMNr—o Are NOMAMNH Home full-time 6. Full-time Self-employed 7. Looking for a job Free lance 8. No job Temporary (arubaito) 9. Other (specify: ) Part-time you working now? Please circle one. Please fill in the figures. No Temporary (arubaito) hours working/week Part-time hours working/week Full-time hours working/week Self-employed hours working/week Free-lance hours working/week Other ( ) hours working/week 22. 26. 27. 194 What do you plan after graduation? Please circle one. 1. Take a judicial examination to enroll in the Judicial Research and Training Institute Obtain a job Continue studies in another field 4. Other (specify: ) 23. What kind of job would you like to obtain? (e.g., junior high teacher, trading business, programmer; please specify:) 24. How would you find a job? Please circle the main one. 1. School placement 2. Family connection 3. Friends 4. Private job placement service 5. Other (specify: ) 25. At this point, what do you think about the possibility of finding a job? Please circle one. 1. Easy 2.‘ Somewhat difficult 3. Very difficult What is your current level of employment? ______ Level Your age is ______years old Sex (1) Male (2) Female Marital status (1) Married (2) Single (3) Other To what degree do you feel that the institution is meeting your educational and/or occupational goals? Please choose one. 1. Meeting completely 3. Meeting to a low degree 2. Meeting quite moderately 4. Not meeting 195 28. Please explain the reason for the above answer. Please give any comment on this questionnaire (e.g., content, difficulty of the questions, etc.). Thank you very much for your cooperation. [Translation from Japanese] 196 APPENDIX Q 197 n51. xaelcxsewmmz an); straw-comm. am 1 ~2002$l1£®¥§§§§rbtmo figwgmofiméorabr<fiauo pg [9 35m: 30% 5’1) :52? ————- fig fig fig mm L fifimfifiwfififimmetwtb #fi HE {D an 2 fiflwflfimim&floflméowatw km A3 <9 mm & fiMététw mm ME 9) Um 4. 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(EU/$311K) 5. /\’—|~94z.’6{§ajh'(b\f: ( ) P's-321. aUrzc:aE. {ifi’ébfhi’fifio 3X05 5&é‘3‘6605-97‘5UOTEA'CK 1531A. 1. erUw (fi’i’l’i—Anfwféh) 2. 7mm MEL‘CLVE —- E Emlmm-Cmé 3. /\°- 1‘? 4 A’C‘fibfi‘fh‘é -' fl “filfilfifilb‘fwa 4. ’Efi'i‘JJ’C'fibb‘TI-‘E -’ 1E Wh‘lffilhfhé 5. E] ’E‘ 313 -' i5 fiflfiffiwfhé 6. E EH fi -* IE ESPéWJh'Cha 7. «mm ( ) -' i5 Wfifmfifiib‘fhé an.$1amflfiéawxaufiitu33m.awasngvésoé—oavorflhr< 7:231.» L EEEQEEHE a,&£ma< & Mmfifiwflfiéfioa 4 Emfl<§¢flm> ( ) HZBEoEfiUElunétuttztuETm.(a zu¢#&ai.latfi.7o737—.UE! #WK) M24 fitfé’mtfi'zfiit‘éb‘TObD‘Ctb‘. 310) 55. itfifi‘i 1 crime-cave ( 7‘53“. Xiwam$fiiéfiLt ifimmDEhéfiLf EA.EA&ELT EEmAHfifiéELT f®m(fiwmm) ( ) SJ‘PWNT‘ an wassavauneaouanaakaeaaonar 85¥fl$nth37mofigtéém&-GEU Orflhr<fi$ho L Eafitfifi 2. 59%me & #Emfime émflmu M255Utmafi. (fiiéAnr<fiéw) {filifiiICEiL‘CUi'fi'b‘ M 4m :1: mu U E 2. g] l (OTUHAJ'CKfi‘Eb‘) I1. mg 2. ME 3. E0131] M27X$fififl5fitflflfibtfiDTTmoK0551GfiUOTEhT(fi3Uo L EEKMELUED & DLMEKEafwé a mfiDMfiKéafhé 4 MEEEDTUm IL! 28 H 271: ournmmcwm. ‘c < 1331‘. :0777—buout(m3.bm953.fmmahU:¢r%)SEE.SEEM EDELkéfils<fiauo ($113773 C EKJSV) 7532: '3 CEW‘E Lto 204 BIBLIOGRAPHY 205 BIBLIOGRAPHY Aanstad, Judy. A Study of Mature Women at Santa Fe Junior College. Bethesda, Md.: ERIC Document Reproduction Service, ED 057 979, January 1972. The Age Discrimination Act of 1975 and Women on Campus. Arlington, Va.: ERIC Document Reproduction Service, ED 167 021, March 1978. Annual Report of the National Advisory Council on Adult Education: Message From the President of the United States. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1972. Apps, Jerold W. The Adult Learner on Campus. Chicago: Follett Publishing Co., 1981. A50, Makoto, and Amano, Ikuo. Education and Japan‘s Modernization. Japan: Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1972. Axford, Roger W. 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