AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF A MEANS FOR ASSESSING BOTH CREATIVITY AND CONFORMITY OF FIRST GRADERS Thesis for the Doom of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSTIY David Lyle Smith 1966 .11 .. v“..'fi3-’I'ltluq4. v. IH‘ in .V V . .11":ny A 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII _ ‘ . Jiig;;:‘s‘;am SEES-“m University This is to certify that the thesis entitled AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF A MEANS FOR ASSESSING BOTH CREATIVITY AND CONFORMITY OF FIRST GRADERS presented by David Lyle Smith has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degree in Education Date N ovembe: 0-169 NJ. 3;. ABSTRACT AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF A MEANS FOR ASSESSING BOTH CREATIVITY AND CONFORMITY OF FIRST GRADERS by David Lyle Smith The problem for this study was to see if a bipolar instrument could be constructed which would be easily administered, easily scored, easily and meaningfully interpreted, and which.would measure BOTH the ‘variations of creativity and of conformity of first grade public school children. The purpose of this study was to learn more about the relation- ship of creativity and conformity of first grade children through develop- ing and testing a bipolar instrument called the Selection and Color In Test (S-CIT) designed by the investigator to assess variations of crea- tive AND conforming behavior. Three hundred and one children constituted the sample. They were drawn from twelve classes in six schools selected in certain ethnic and socio-economic areas in Lansing, Michigan. Their teachers adminis- tered the S-CIT over a period of five days, during two sessions of twenty- five minutes each per day° The children selected one drawing each session, from a possible six, ranging in completeness of drawing from a Coloring Book Type to a Stimulus Line Type, to which they added lines to express real or imaginary ideas and then colored them in. This test was to measure the variations of both creativity and of conformity of the children. David Lyle Smith The investigator gave three non-verbal tasks of the Minnesota Tests of Creative Thinking (MTCT) recommended by Torrance to 281+ of the first graders. Each.child also was given a Test of Suggestibility (TS), devised by the investigator, in which the attempt was made to influence the children to shift their second response on the TS to the false norm contrived by the investigator to indicate the variations of conformity. Teachers were asked to nominate their "most creative" and their "most conforming" students just prior to the testing. Seven scores were obtained on the S-CIT: Selection (SEL), Flexibility'(FLEX), Color (COLOR), Elaboration (ELAB), Originality (ORIG), Coverage (COVER), and Dispersion (DISP), as well as a total score. The MTCT yielded four scores: Fluency (FLU), Flexibility (FLEX), Originality (ORIG), and Elaboration (ELAB), as well as a total score. The TS obtained two scores: Positive Shift (PS) toward the false norm, and Negative Shift (NS) away from the false norm. Seven hypotheses were concerned with the relationship of the above scores on the three tests as well as with the teachers' nominations. The statistical treatments used indicate that: 1. There was no relationship between the total creativity score of the MTCT and the children's shifting toward the false norm on the TS which assessed conformity. While it was possible to determine which children were creative on the MTCT, it was not possible to show that these same children were nonconforming or less conforming by using the TS. 2. Teachers who nominated their students as "most creative" and as "most conforming" were able to predict this quite well based on the David Lyle Smith part scores of the three tests. The children so nominated scored either high on the creativity meaSures (MTCT and S-CIT) or high on the conformity measure (TS), so that the correlation between all of the part scores on the MTCT, the S-CIT, and the TS and the teacher nominations, as determined by the multiple regression analysis, was .55. After the least significant variables had been deleted, the scores of the remaining four most significant variables correlated .#h with the teacher nominations with 163 children; significant at the <. 005 level . The SEL score was considered the key to the S-CIT. It showed no significant relationship to the total score of the MTCT so that it was not possible to predict which students would be more creative based on which.drawings of the S-CIT they selected to draw on and color in. The method for scoring ELAB, devised by the investigator, is signifi- cantly related to the method developed by Torrance. The correlation was .#B. It would be possible to use the former method for scoring ELAB. The S-CIT is not particularly capable of predicting creative behavior when compared with Torrance's MTCT. The multiple regression coeffi- cient was .31 between the part scores of the S-CIT and the total score of the MTCT. Perhaps the S-CIT is assessing different creative abilities not measured by the MTCT. Three of the scores of the S-CIT are not particularly capable of predicting creative behavior when compared with their corresponding scores on the HTCT. Perhaps the scores on the S-CIT are predicting David Lyle Smith different factors of creative behavior. The corresponding ELAB scores were somewhat related but they correlated only .30 with each other which is not capable of significant prediction. 7. The reliability of the S-CIT over a five day period varies depending on the particular part score. The seven morning scores were com- pared with the seven afternoon scores for the five days. AM COLOR correlated .68 with PM COLOR; AM ELAB correlated .h6 with PM ELAB; and AM DISP correlated .A1 with PM DISP. All were significant at the .001 level for 300 students. The other four AM and PM scores, including SEL, were not particularly reliable. In conclusion, the S-CIT was easily administered but more :research needs to be done on it before the scoring of the instrument 'will be easily accomplished. In addition, more work needs to be done to refine the S-CIT to increase its validity and reliability. If the S-CIT can be redesigned to assess creativity as well as conformity con- sistently, the test will be capable of greater prediction and better interpretations can be made from it. A number of implications for education were discussed. The pos- sibility exists that in the future people may be as intolerant of uncrea- tive people as they are now of creative people. Recommendations to schools, parents, and the community include setting up a coordinated program enlisting the services of a Consultant In Education Through Creativity and groups of interested teachers, parents, and students to work for fostering and enhancing creativity in education starting at the kindergarten level and working up each year for thirteen yearso AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF A MEANS FOR ASSESSING BOTH CREATIVITY AND CONFORMITY OF FIRST GRADERS By David Lyle Smith A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1966 @ Copyright by DAVID LYLE SMITH 1967 VITA David Lyle Smith was born June 6, 1926, at Stamford, New York. He was raised on a Jersey farm in the Catskill Mountains. He attended Brookdale Grade School for seven.years: a one-room school with one devoted teacher. After graduating from Roxbury Central School in 19hh he worked with his father on the farm until September 191W. Following a short stint in the 0.3. Army he began his studies at the University of Michigan and was graduated in June 1951 with a Bachelor of Design from the College of Architecture and Design. He stayed on at the University of Michigan for another two years, complet- ing his MA degree in Education and also receiving an AFROTC commission as a Second Lieutenant in the U. S. Air Force in June 1953. His next two years were spent at wright-Patterson AFB as an Educational Specialist with the USAF Institute of Technology. From September 1955 until the present he has taught in the Lansing School District in Lansing, Michigan: eight years at the junior high level and nearly three years as an Elementary Art Helping Teacher, working in the elementary classroom with children and teachers from grades K through six in an in-service type of program. His work experiences have been varied: (1) graphic artist for The University of Michigan Television Department; (2) clerk-typist for Kaiser;Frazer at'Willow Run; (3) AIM bicycle tour leader for two summer ii iii trips, one in the New England States in 1950, and one in Europe in 1952; (4) government advisor at Michigan wolverine Boys' State; and (5) letter- ing of certificates for various organizations. He started his doctoral program at Michigan State University in June, 1957, and completed the last requirements during the fall term, 1966. . He is active with his local church and with the USAF Reserve Program in Lansing. He is a life member of the Michigan Education Association and the National Education Association. He is a member of the Lansing Schools Education Association, the National Art Education Association, and the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. He lives with his wife Alyce and their five children in Haslett, Michigan. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The investigator wishes to acknowledge the support and cooper- ation of many peeple without whom this study could not have been made. The support and encouragement of his wife, Alyce, and their five children: Matthew, Markalan, Elizabeth, Leigh, and Stuart; his close relatives; and numerous friends. The patience of Dr. Charles A. Blackman, his Major Professor, who stimulated changes in the investigator over a period of time. The members of his committee: Dr. Ernest O. Melby, Dr. Troy L. Stearns, Dr. John H. Suehr, and Dr. John H. Useem. The assistance and words of wisdom of Dr. Fred Vescolani, the investigator's former Major Professor while he was still enrolled in the Department of Administrative and Educational Services doctoral program at Michigan State University. Miss Grace Van wert, Director of Elementary Education for the Lansing School District, who assisted in arranging for the study to be conducted in the six schools in Lansing selected by the investigator. The Lansing Board of Education for granting the investigator a sabbatical during the Second Semester of the 1964-65 school year, which iv gave him time to read, to study, to prepare the problem, and to collect the data for this study. The six elementary principals and the twelve first grade teachers who cooperated so willingly to make it possible for the test instruments to be tried out with their 309 first grade students. The four teachers and the several officials in the two school systems who cooperated in the pre-test portion of the study. The assistance of Dr. Jean M. LePere, Dr. Robert B. Zajonc, Dr. Robert L. Trezise, Mr. John Anderson, and Mr. Bruce Rogers during vital phases of this study. The various publishers and owners who granted permission for the investigator to include their drawings or paintings,which he adapted as part of the Selection and Color In Test,are acknowledged in Appendix B where all the drawings used in the S—CIT are included. And my typist, Mrs. Jan McGiveron, for her task of transforming the material to finished form. TABLE VITA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . LISTOFTABIES......... LIST OF APPENDICES . . . . . . . Chapter I. THE CONCERNS AND THE Introduction . . . . . OF CONTENTS NEEDS The Need for Creativity Introduction Beautification of the Environment. As Synonymous with Individual Differences The Essence of Life Itself As a Social Need Individualism Revalued For Better Mental Health 0 O I O O O O For Keeping Up with a Changing world As an.Avenue for Self-Expression As an Avenue for Helping the Unmotivated and the Motivated Student . . . . . For the Continued Sovereignty of The Need for Research The Problem . . . The Purposes . . Basic Assumptions Basic Hypotheses Theory . . . . . Definitions of Terms Methods . . . . . . . Limitations . . . . . Overview of the Thesis 0 O O O O -O O O O 0 II. Introduction ' on Creativity RELATED LITERATURE ION CREATIVITY a Categories of Definitions of Creativity vi 0 O -. -. -. O O '0 O I O O O O 0 O O O Nation . . Page ii iv xi H uNNNNNNI—b HH .4... gguomtuppm cu moomwmmew u» U \0 MOW \0\O vii O O O O O O O O O I Elementary Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter Four Basic Approaches to the Study of Creativity Background of Studies on Creativity Evidence of an Increase in writing and Research The Work of Guilford and Torrance Others working in this Area The Role of Art Education Studies of Creativity and Intelligence . . . . Origination of the Minnesota Tests of Creative Thinking . .‘. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pertinent Studies of Creativity at the Lower Other Studies and Specific Comments about the Use of Coloring Books . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III. RELATED LITERATURE ON CONFORMITY Introduction . . . . . . . . . . Definitions of Conformity Definitions of Suggestibility Relationship of Conformity and Suggestibility of Conformity . Pertinent Studies of Conformity at the Lower Characteristics 0, .0 O Q 0 0 Elementary Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conformity in Contemporary Society as Seen and written about by Various Relationship of Creativity Summary IV. CONDUCT OF THE STUDY . Introduction . . . . Background . . . . . Design . . . . . . . The Minnesota Tests of The Selection and Color In Test Distinguished writers and Conformity 0 Creative Thinking The Test of Suggestibility . . . . Instrumentation . . Major Selected Sample~ Rejected Sample . . Pro-Test Sample . . Statistical Null Hypotheses Data Collection Devices Data Processing validity and Reliability Validity....... Reliability 0 O O 0 0 O O O O - O O O O Page viii Chapter Page AnaJ-ij-s O O O O O C I C O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 139 Appropriateness of the Statistics Used . . . . . . 139 In Regard to Correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . 1h0 Multiple Regression Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . 1A6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1A7 V. PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Restatement of the Hypotheses with the Findings Of EaCh . O O O C C O O O O O C O O C Q C C O C C 15 1 811mm 0 e o e e e o e e e o e e e o e e e o e o o 15 7 VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 SW 0 O O C O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O 158 Discussion of Findings and Conclusions Reached . . . 161 Implications for Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Recommendations for Future Research . . . . . . . . 17% Recommendations to Schools, Parents, and the community . O O O O O O O C O O C O C C O O O O O 177 BELImRAPH C C O C C O O O O O O O O 0 C C C O O O O O O O C 1 8 1 APENDIX O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 189 Table 2-1. 4-1. h-Z. 5-70 LIST OF TABLE§_ Grade or Age Breakdown of Doctoral Dissertations Reported in Dissertation Abstracts From 1952 to my1966.........oggeeoeoeeoeoe A Description of the Scoring Schema for Each Type and Class of Drawing on the Selection and Color In Test. . Breakdown of the Daily Schedule of the Forty-eight Drawings Used on the Selection and Color In Test . _ During the Five Day week with Six Drawings Offered Each Day as Indicated Below' . . . . . . . . . . . . . Analysis of Variance for Overall Regression on Selected variable 8 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Analysis of variance for Overall Regression on Remain- ing Selected variables 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Multiple Regression Analysis for Four Remaining var iabl e S O C . C O O O O O O O O O O O C O O O O O 0 Analysis of Variance for Overall Regression on Remain- ing Selected Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Correlation Coefficients of Corresponding Part Scores on the S-CIT and MTCT o e e e e e e e e e e e o e e o FrequenCies Of Ehtrles in Table 5-5 0 e o e e e e o o 0 Correlation Coefficients of AM and PM Part Scores on S-CIT Q 0 Q Q Q Q Q Q 0 . . O O O I O O O O O I O O 0 Summary of Data for Seven Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . Drawings of the Coloring Book Type - Typical Class Used in the S-CIT by Title and Days for Groups A & B . . . Drawings of the Coloring Book Type - Atypical Class USed in the S-CIT by Title and Days for Groups A & B . . . ix Page “5 129 130 152 153 154 155 155 156 156 157 253 255 Table I-3. I-h. I-5. 1.6. I-7. I—8. I-9. I-10. Page Drawings of the Geometric Design Type - Simple and Symmetrical Class Used in the S-CIT by Title and Days for Groups A & B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Drawings of the Geometric Design Type - Complicated and Asymmetrical Class Used in the S-CIT by Title and Days for Groups A & B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 Drawings of the Dot Type - Numbered - Simple Class Used in the S-CIT by Title and Days for Groups A & B . . . 261 Drawings of the Dot Type - Numbered - Complicated Class Used in the S-CIT by Title and Days for Group B only . 262 Drawings of the Dot Type - Unnumbered Class Used in the S-CIT by Title and Days for Groups A & B . . . . . . . 263 Drawings of the Stimulus Line Type — Closed Class Used in the S-CIT by Title and Days for Groups A & B . . . 26“ Drawings of the Stimulus Line Type - Open Class Used in the S-CIT by Title and Days for Groups.A & B . . . . . 265 Numerical Breakdown of 2917 Drawings by Type and Class for Sample of 301 First Graders . . . . . . . . . . . 268 LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix Page A. Continuation of Discussion About the Differences Between the Position of Torrance and Crutchfield - Is Creativity Antithetical with corl-formity 01‘ r1013? 0 a o e e e o o e e e e o O ‘ ‘ 189 B. The Forty-eight Drawings of the Selection and C0101. In TeSt - S-CIT e 0 e o e e e e e e e o e o 192 C. Information for Administering Stimulus Drawings for the S-CIT e e e e o e e e e o o e e e e e o e Zaz D. Teacher Identification of Most Creative and Most Conforming Nomination Form . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 E. Composite Scoring Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 F. Scoring Sheet for the Minnesota Tests of Great ive T hirlk ing 0 I O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O 247 G. Letter of Permission to Use MTCT from Dr 0 E O P3111 Torrance Q 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O Q 2&8 H. Minnesota Tests of Creative Thinking - Non-Verbal Creative Thinking Tasks - Form NVA . . . . . . . . 249 I. The Rationale for Each Type of Drawing Used in the S-CIT O 0 O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O I 253 J. Specific Directions for Administering the Three Tests Used in this Study: the S-CIT, the MTCT, and the TS O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 269 K. Response Sheets for Test of Suggestibility . . . . . 280 xi CHAPTER I THE CONCERNS AND THE NEEDS It is thus creative education which best serves the needs and purposes of a democratic society. It is creative education alone that can produce individuals with the development and the social effectiveness needed for the success of freedom. It is thus in a creativellearning process that we seek the role of the teacher. Introduction The major concern of this study is with the attempt to assess the variations of creativity and of conformity found in first graders. The first grade level has been selected for study since these children are relatively new to the school environment as they will experience it in the future. The kind of atmosphere experienced in kindergarten begins to change in the first grade into a more formalized structure of specific skill attainment and knowledge intake which, for reasons known and unknown, will take its "toll" of these young people. Another concern is with these young people as human beings. This latter concern is by far more important than any attempt at measur- ing their creative and conforming behavior. Hopefully, by measuring children's behavior educators may know better what appropriate oppor- tunities to provide for meeting the problems of their future. Ernest O. Melby, The Teacher and Learning (New York: The Center for Applied Research in Education, Inc., 1963), p. 31. Educators, psychologists, and other individuals are greatly concerned about the education of the children in this generation. This concern is evidenced by the increased interest, the increased writing, and the increased research done in the past six:years. Much more needs to be done. The study of creativity is a whole new field in which there are great numbers of unanswered questions. Significant persons are struggling with the topic in order to create a body of knowledge which will be usable by the practitioners in the classroom as well as other places where peoples' minds are stretched. A number of research- ers are involved in measuring or assessing the creative abilities of persons of all ages from pro-school children through the productive years of employment. Continued effort and support are vital to learn- ing all that we can about this most precious asset. In many books and articles on creativity there are statements about the need for creativity. The first section of this chapter will include some of the reasons why creativity is so vital as reported by various authors. The second section will list some of the reasons for. the need for research. The problem of this study is given. The pur- pose is stated and the basic assumptions are given. The hypotheses are listed that are of concern: that creative children are more non- conforming and that conforming children are not as creative. The next section includes the theoretical aspects of creativity followed by sections on definitions of terms, the methods used, limitations of the study and finally, by an overview of the remaining chapters of this study. The Need for Creativity Introduction While it may appear that the needs for creative behavior given here are mutually exclusive and segmented, in reality, they are an inte- gral part of the total fabric of life. The analysis of these needs might be seen as differentiation or diversity within the total life style of a person in which all of these needs operate with unity. Rugg maintains that everything we do is through the whole body; yet there is much more involved. Every act of man includes the integra- tion of "mind," "purpose," and "will" all with and within the body.2 The reasons selected and listed here are not intended to be all inclusive but to show the relatively wide feeling that the need for creativity does exist. Creativity, as broadly defined for this study, is thought of as a fresh independent response; unique to the creator, characterized by personal initiative and conscious effort, involving thinking and doing according to the need of the self, utilizing a variety of past and present experiences, and an openness for new and divergent relation- ships.3 On the other hand, conformity is viewed as the degree of com- pletely consistent behavior which coincides with group or social norms as perceived by the individual. It implies a rigid and closed mind, a ZHarOId Rugg, Imagination (New York: Harper & Row, 1963). pp 0 98-99 0 3UnderIined portions are from the definition of creativity appearing in 1959 ASCD Yearbook: Toward Better Teaching (washington, D.C.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1959), p. 121. dependent attitude, a usual feeling of inferiority, anxiety, and lack of basic self-confidence. Here are a number of important needs which have appeared in the literature. Beautification of the Environment Rollo walter Brown, speaking in 1929, emphasized that even though heredity may not be changeable, the environment can be changed by making it over for the better, if we give the creative minded people a chance.h Related to his concern for remaking the environment was his great interest in the cities. He felt that the problem of the city could be solved with much creative effort. The world needs the beauty of which creative people are capable. This was Brown's real interest. Ugliness stood as a monument to the efforts of most men as he looked across the United States in 1929.5 Unfortunately, the problem of the city never really has been solved by creative people or anyone else. 'wo do continue to see evi- dences of creative architects in some of our cities and they appear as a golden ray of light. Most cities are getting uglier. No one wants to live in today's city if he can avoid it. In addition, the sprawling suburbias have compounded the difficulties of redesigning the cities. There have been creators, as indicated by Brown, who have made gains in making the environment into a more beautiful place to live but 4Rollo Halter Brown, "Do we want Creative Minds in America," Progressive Education, VI (April, May, June, 1929), 139. 5Ihid. there are still too many forces which condone the ugly. Brown indi- cated that the "architect just now is having his inning as a creator."6 MacKinnon, for one, has indicated indirectly the relative importance of the architect in solving today's urban problems by selecting the architect for his study and research of the creative person because "it seemed to me, and to my collaborator in this research, wallace B. Hall, that architects might as a group reveal that which is most characteristic of the creative person."7 As more and more people become concerned about making our environment more aesthetically appealing by retaining the wonders of nature and blending them with the structures of creative man, perhaps overall advances will be made ultimately. For example, a recent UPI article from washington, D. C. reported that John Kenneth Galbraith, formerly in the Kennedy administration, new teaching economics at Harvard, took aim at the idea "that while in the short run beauty may cost more than ugliness, it costs less in the long run."8 If people say, when asked about the importance of beauty along our highways, that this makes the scenery more appealing and life more enjoyable, then people in the billboard business, for one, should take heed. 6%. p. 136. 7Donald MacKinnon, "Personality and the Realization of Creative Potential," American Psyghologist, XX (April, 1965), p. 274. 8The State Journal (Lansing, East Lansing, Michigan) "Quest for Beauty," August 21, 1966, p. E3. As Synonymous with Individual Differences More recently, Anderson considered that creativity is the stream of individual differences; the process of originality and uniqueness in each and every person. This is, as Anderson has written, a characteristic of protoplasm.9 Much verbal effort has been expended to make an educational program more meaningful to more individuals through attempting to meet their individual differences. The current National Education Association (NBA) Project on Instruction certainly points to the importance of this concept today. Miller writes that if all pupils are to have equal opportunity to grow, the curriculum needs to be differentiated to consider individual differ- ences. He also expresses the idea that the development of creativity is as "important for the individual as for the nation."10 The creative teacher more likely will be able to meet individual differences and, indeed, to help make life more meaningful for each and every individual child. The Essence of Life Itself Being creative has been likened to living; living a full and meaningful life each day. Anderson feels that the process of creativity is important "not because the product of each moment is such a gem but because the process is the essence of life itself."11 9Harold H. Anderson, "The Nature of Creativity," Studies in Art Education, I (Spring, 1960), 14. 10Richard I. Miller, Education in a Changing Society (washington, D. C.: National Education Association, 1963), p. 129. 11Harold H. Anderson, "Creativity and Education," AHE College and UniversityBulletin, XIII (May 1, 1961), 4. Maslow writes about this process which he refers to as "self- actualizing." He has found that trying to define self-actualizing creativeness is difficult because it seems to be coterminous with health itself as well as with essential humanness.12 Trezise, in a recently completed study, explains that the crea- tive person is more than a highly skilled person; he is a person who has internalized certain moral and ethical commitments. Trezise then sums up his own orientation and that of Drews when he writes that "the creative process is more than the functioning of highly trained and disciplined abilities; it is a whole style of life."13 As a Social Need Rogers sees creativity as a social need as he deplores the "dearth of creativity" in America. Conformists and stereotyped persons who can learn no more are turned out in the educational mill while the freely creative and original thinkers are not turned out. In every facet of our lives including the hours of leisure activity, the things we wear, what we eat, the books we read, and the ideas we believe, are all pulled toward the vortex of conformity. "To be original, or differ- 14 ent, is felt to be 9dangerous.“" Likewise,Stoddard wrote that 12Abraham H. Maslow, "Creativity in Self-Actualizing People," ‘Qreativity and its Cultivation, ed. Harold H. Anderson (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1959), p. 94. 13Robert L. Trezise, "A Descriptive Study of the Life Styles of a Group of Creative Adolescents" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, College of Education, Michigan State University, 1966), pp. 3-4. 1“Carl R. Rogers, On Becoming a Person (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1961), p. 3h8. "conformity rules, not because peOple crave it but because they fear deviation."15 Individualism Revalued Another need for creativity concerns the importance of the individual in juxtaposition to society, to groupism, to impersonaliza- tion in industry and government, and to those hand-in-glove agents of mass - production and media. Trezise sees a widespread concern for the individual in society. The current interest in creativity is another indication of this societal trend "for the creative man is, above all, an individual."16 Perhaps the recent popularity of the existentialist's philoso- phy is due to its ontological concern for the meaning of life for the individual. Tillich, writing about "the anxiety of emptiness and mean- inglessness," in The Courage To Be, offers that: Everyone who lives creativity in meanings affirms himself as a participant in these meanings. He af irms himself as receiving and transforming reality creatively. He loves him- self as participating in the spiritual life and as loving its contents. He loves them because they are his own fulfillment and because they are actualized through him.17 David Reisman, author of The Lonely Crowd, writing in his Individualism Reconsidered, recognizes we must encourage people to develop their own private lives especially, ignoring groupism, but know- ing that, in a few cases, people will use their freedom in ugly and/or 15George D. Stoddard, "Creativity in Education," Creativity and its Cultivation,_gp. cit., p. 181. 16 Trezise, op cit., p. 15. 17Paul Tillich, The Courage To Be (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1952), p. 46. idle endeavors.18 Reisman insists that "no ideology, however noble, can justify the sacrifice of an individual to the needs of the group."19 Gardner believes that the single conception central to the con- sensus of today's society is the belief in "the dignity and worth of the individual." However, he cautions that individuality per se is meaningless without the social system that provides the means.20 A discussion of the relationship of creativity and conformity follows page 96 in Chapter III. Gardner sees our task as enhancing the areas of modern society that promote the individual's integrity as a free and morally responsible being. At the same time the individual needs help to bridge the gap between what he finds meaningful to him and what society demands of him.21 Miller adds that the nature of our mass society, impersonal and mechanistic as it is becoming, makes it vital for the school to demonstrate "greater concern for the individual, a task often spoken about but too infrequently provided for."22 For Better Mental Health Torrance, along with his great involvement in creativity research and writing, has written about mental health. There is little doubt that creativity, which is silenced, adversely affects the way a 18David Reisman, Selected Essays From Individualism Recon- sidered (Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 195h), p. 26. 19Ibid,, p. 27. 20John W. Gardner, Self-Renewal: The Individual ani the Innova- tive Society (New York: Harper & Row, 1963), pp, 8 -87. 21Ibid. , p, 94, 22Miller, op. cit., p. 128. 10 person lives. Eventually the tension becomes overwhelming and a break- down often results. Torrance firmly believes "that one's creativity is his most valuable resource in coping with life's daily stresses."23 Anderson, in his concluding chapter in Creativity and its Cultivation, summarizes the ideas of those authors who agree about men- tal health and neurosis in relation to creativity. They indicate there is a close association between health and full use of one's creative potentials. These authors agree "that creativity is an expression of a mentally or psychologically healthy person, that creativity is asso- ciated with wholeness, unity, honesty, integrity, personal involvement, enthusiasm, high motivation, and action."2 For Keeping Up with a Changing WOrld A recent newspaper article by Joseph L. Mylar begins with the statement that "remote control of human behavior by radio may one day be commonplace"25 and goes on to discuss some of the promising possi- bilities for microminiaturization. Is America's educational fabric so strung that the youth of today will be able to cope with these fantas— tic advances of technology and not only be able to control them effec- tively but to think of equally fantastic ideas in the years ahead to continue the advance? In the near future, according to Ralph Dighton, an Associated Press Science Writer, we must decide the future 23E. Paul Torrance, Guiding Creative Talent (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962), p. 2, 2“Harold B. Anderson, "Creativity in Perspective," Creativity and its Cultivation, op. cit., p. 2h8. 25The State Journal (Iansing, East Lansing, Michigan) "Micro- electronic Era Dawns in U.S.," December 6, 1965, p. C5. 11 develOpments of "genetic tinkering" in which the grotesque possibility exists, according to Dr. James Bonner, a biologist at the California Institute of Technology, of being able to "have four hands" or of having "the brain stay at home, concentrating on thought, while the sense organs roam the world, seeing, talking, listening, playing. 'we will enjoy a new freedom - freedom from carrying our heads around."26 Is it possible for educators to string the warp and weave the weft to create new open flexible patterns of perceiving, behaving, and becoming appropriate to the future climate of human activity? Miller sees tremendous forces today working with computer like speed. Man has not even been able to comprehend past adjustments much less being pre- pared for new ones. "Keeping abreast of developments requires running fast just to keep up."27 Public education is right in the midst where the problems will be the greatest. Miller envisions the children in school now living as adults in a world as radical then as between the early 1900's and today.28 Brittain, in up-dating the late Viktor Lowenfeld's classic Creative and Mental Growth, indicates the importance of creativity in a changing world. Lowenfeld and Brittain postulate that "To teach toward 29 creativity is to teach toward the future of society." 2§2h9_§3§tg_igugn§l_(Lansing, East Lansing, Michigan) "Mankind Must Decide Future Course of 'Genetic Tinkering,'" August 12, 1966, p. B3. 27Miller, op. cit., p. 7. 28Ibid. 29Viktor Lowenfeld and W. Lambert Brittain, Cregtive gnd Ment§l_ Growth (th11 ed.; New York: The Macmillan Co., 1961+), p. 7. 12 As an Avenue for Self—Expression As part of the "style of life" of a person he may paint, sing, sculpt, write, dance, speak, and in many other individual and special- ized ways bring ideas and emotions into fruition. These specialized ways of self-expression have been part of the curriculum in schools for a number of years as art, music, modern dance, forensics, dramatics, and creative writing. Art education is perhaps the major area where the individual is encouraged to express himself in his own unique way. Lowenfeld and Brittain feel that for people to develop healthy person- alities it is important that "a proper balance be kept between emotional and intellectualgrowth."3O The authors conclude that the acquisition of knowledge should not smother the need for freedom in expression. They feel that "knowledge will remain unused, frozen, unless the child develops the urge and freedom to use it."31 D'Amico glows with the vision of the child as the potential creator: He is a free natural being. His creativeness is born of real enthusiasm and joy of expression. He has no competition to fight, no market to please, no price to set. He belongs to no cult and knows no "isms." He expends his energy on draw- ing and painting as he does in play. Art with him is a form of play, the spirit and imagination at play, revealing the true, innocent, child-like self.32 3°Ibid.. p. 65. 311bid. 32Victor D'Amico, Creative Teaching in Art (Scranton, Pa.: International Textbook Co., 1953), p. 2&1. 13 As an Avenue for Helping the Unmotivated and the Motivated Student In trying to find ways and means to make education more palat- able for students it appears that many things can be learned better by creative methods than by methods of authority. More people would pre- fer to learn creatively if given the opportunity.33 Melby, writing from the zenith of his experience, knows that education for creativity is important in helping children, youth, and adults to make the most of themselves. In seeking a creative education the point is not to create artists, but to enhance the growth of boys and girls into fully real- ized men and women - people who are equipped for maximum service to their fellow men.34 As educators are better able to help students gain, keep, and enhance their self images more students will want to "learn how to 35 learn and [willj acquire a taste for learning" forevermore. Melby, in writing and speaking extensively about the important role of the teacher and the learner, firmly believes that the creative teacher can help his students build their own world. He can increase their feeling of their own worth, as well as point out their contribution in relation to the contributions of others, and he can help get them started on a career. "In all of this, the attitude of the teacher toward his pupils is of prime importance."36 33Torrance, op. cit., p. h. 3b’Ernest O. Melby, Education for Renewed Faith in Freedom (Columbus, Ohio: The Ohio State University Press, 1959), pp. 65.66. 35Ernest O. Melby, The Teacher and Learning, op. cit.,pp. 19-20. 361ml... p. 69. 14 But even when helping a student plan a career in the field of science, for example, Melby maintains that educators should begin when the child is small and help make possible an exciting and creative life. But really, since scientists, statesmen, artists, or executives cannot be identified this early in life the consummate way to encourage creativity and develop it in all children is to give all of them the kind of education that permits them all to live creatively and gives them all a chance to learn what they can learn.37 Imagine schools then, where students, young and not-so-young, all with positive self images, wanted to learn how to learn and could do so creatively; where they had unlimited opportunities for their full- est self-realization; and where creative teachers facilitated their students to build their own worlds from kindergarten through graduate school. would there be such a person as an unmotivated student? would the dropout exist? would the motivated student succeed just as well or better than at present? would there need to be more educational facili- ties for more groups of people with the yen to learn more and more about many different things? For the Continued Sovereignty of a Nation The missile race and the race to the reaches of outer space, according to some people, have developed out of all proportion to their importance in relation to the many social problems of mankind which are in urgent need of extensive understanding and immediate solutions. Nevertheless, both areas of endeavor now require, and will continue to 37Ibid., p. 21. 15 require, many creative minds to cope with and control the forces of technology within our society. Taylor points out that there is "compe- tition for the very minds of men."38 He goes on to explain that crea- tivity will be one of those significant factors which will indicate the final outcome of this competition. He continues: Because creative acts affect enormously not only scientific progress, but society in general, those nations who learn best how to identify, develop, and encourage the creative potential in their people may find themselves in very advantageous positions.39 Rogers gives us some sobering reasons for the need for crea- tivity. He foretells that if individuals, groups, and nations are not able to imagine, build, and creatively integrate new relationships in our complex times "the lights will go out." If man cannot make new and unique adaptations to his environment as quickly as his science can "our culture will perish." Individual dishevelment and group tensions, along with international annihilation, will be the tremendous cost for not encouraging creativity.uo As Rogers reviews the situation, it would seem to him "that investigations of the process of creativity, the conditions under which this process occurs, and the ways in which it may be facilitated, are of the utmost importance."41 There are many other reasons that might be added. The point that is so vital is that creativity IS important for every walk of life, 1* 38Calvin W: Taylor, "Introduction," Creativity: Progress and Potential, ed. Calvin W. Taylor (New York: McGraw-Hill Co., 196E), p. 2. 39Ibid. 1+ORogers, op. cit., pp. 348-3h9. “11bid., p. 349. 16 for every act of man, for everything that goes on in this universe. The Need for Research on Creativity In Widening Horizons in Creativity, Taylor is optimistic about the future of research on creativity. There is no longer any doubt that research into the many aspects of creativity can be fruitful. He writes that there are a number of leads available now for researchers to follow. Taylor suggests that first we need "to learn all we can about what it is and how to build measures to identify it, so that we can formulate sound educational, environmental, and other programs designed to be more favorable to creative talent"!+2 Highlights for Teachers, a quarterly professional service pub- lication for teachers subscribing to Highlights for Children, edited by Myers, Myers, Barbe, and Witty, recently devoted its four-page issue to "Creative Thinking in the Classroom." A statement made in this issue is particularly appropriate here: There is no activity in the classroom in which we may not find opportunities to foster creative thinking. So the problem for the teacher is to identify creativity in the learner, especially in the elementary grades, and to find ways to further orgativity in him and in as many class- rooms as possible. 3 In the NEA's Project on Instruction, Miller proposes that the school of today should encourage creativity by providing the materials and a place for each student to work since it is generally recognized that all students are creative, to a degree, in certain areas. The “ZCalvin W. Taylor, "Preface,"'Widening Horizons in Creativity, ed. Calvin W. Taylor (New'York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1964), p. xv. “BGarry C. Myers, "Creative Thinking in the Classroom," .Highlights for Teachers, XXI (March, 1966), 1. 17 schools can also help find the highly creative children and give them special attention.44 However, this needs to be weighed along with Melby's point that the best way to encourage people to choose appropri- ate vocations is to see that all children have the kind of education that permits them to live creatively. Beittel, summarizing one section of his article on "Art," reports that a number of test instruments have been devised between l9#8 and 1958. The majority of these instruments were planned for specific problems and experiments and have made use of operationally defined variables, statistical analysis, and empirical separation of criterion groups. Most of these tests need further analysis so that it may be known just what they measure, what their statistical perform- ance is, and their relationship to other instruments.“5 Beittel indi- cates that, in studying the creative process, researchers should give attention to isolating important variables and note how they interact.46 Brogden and Sprecher report a growing need for measures of crea- tivity useable at the different levels of education from grade school to college and beyond. Research aimed at finding ways of identifying and measuring creative talent at the earliest age would be invaluable. Longitudinal studies 20 to 40 years in duration should be commenced now with children in elementary school so that evidence of creativity “Miller, op. cit., p. 129. uSKenneth Beittel, "Art," Enc clo dia of Educational Research ed. Chester w. Harris (3rd ed.; New York: The Macmillan Co., 1960), p. 81. 46Ibid., p. 82. 18 in one's life work may accumulate};7 Flanagan is involved with Project TALENT which includes 440,000 students to be followed up 1, 5, 10, and 20 years after they graduate from high school.)+8 Torrance outlines five of his own reasons for wanting to do research in measuring creative behavior in children: 1. As a means of obtaining a more complete understanding of the human mind and personality and their functioning. 2. As a possible basis for individualized instruction. 3. As a part of the process of guiding mental growth, as an indicator of mental health status, and as a source of clues for remedial or psychotherapeutic programs. 4. As a means of assessing the differential effects of various kinds of experimental programs, new curricular arrangements or materials, organizational arrangements, teaching procedures, and the like. 5. As indicator of growth potential and future guidance needs.“9 Trezise is concerned about the characteristics of the creative student as well as the need for studies in the area of creativity pri- marily because "relatively little has been done with young people.” He is concerned that teachers need to understand these creative young people because, for one thing, many teachers are not as fond of creative students as they are of gifted students as shown by the studies of “7Hubert E. Brogden and Thomas B. Sprecher, "Criteria of Creativity," Creativity: Progress and Potential, op, cit., p. 175. 48John E. Flanagan, "Implications of Research in Creativity," .Fpture Implications of Creativity Research (A One Day Symposium Co- Sponsored by Los Angeles State College and Chouinard Art Institute, J. leonard Steinberg, Coordinator, Pasadena: March 10, 1962), pp. 31-32. 49E. Paul Torrance, "The Measurement of Creative Behavior in Children," Productive Thinkipg in Education, ed. Mary Jane Aschner and Charles E. Bish (Washington, D. C.: National Education Association and the Carnegie Corporation of New York, 1965), pp. 201—203. 19 5O Getsels and Jackson, Torrance, and Drews. we need to keep in mind that no matter how valid and reliable a test might be, or whether the results of measurements are made known to the teachers or not, nothing will happen in the classroom without the vital key. Pencil and paper tests and measurements, by themselves, mean very little. The teacher is and always will be the key; what he thinks, what he believes, what he perceives, what he knows, and most important - what he actually does in the classroom is the vital link between whatever research may say and what happens with children. Goldberg acknowledges the fact that the already taxed teacher is not expected "to draw the inferences and create the procedures by which to incorporate psychological research findings into the work of the class- Resistance on the part of educators comes because they want concrete procedures which are guaranteed to produce results which are valuable and practical in their own educational system. She suggests that perhaps representatives of psychology and education or persons trained in both disciplines will be able to translate the theory, the research materials, and the results into practical examples for the classroom teachers to begin to use on an experimental basis. Goldberg ends by explaining that many people are agreed thatthe task of transla- tion and dissemination urgently needs to be done.52 Fortunately, steps are being taken now in some regions to give 50Trezise, op. cit., pp. 17-18. 51Miriam Goldberg, "Preface," Productive Thinkipg in Education, op. cit., p. vi. 52Ibid. 20 aid in this area of concern. One such organization, the Michigan-Ohio Regional Educational Laboratory (MOREL), a recently established inde— pendent non-profit corporation, has as its major aim the improvement of learning opportunities for pupils in the two states through the process of continuous interplay of ideas with needs in making the educational programs stronger in as many school systems as possible. A major diffi- culty in trying to do this has been the disparity between idea genera- tion and clearly outlined problems. written in the experimental draft is the statement that: MOREL has accepted as one of its major tasks an examination of the process by which ideas are brought to bear on educa- tional problems in such a way that change occurs; obviously a dimension of this process involves a look at the communica- tion between the researcher and the practitioner. Through these particular efforts more may be learned about the nature of educational change.53 Guilford, speaking in 1962, discussed the future implications and applications of our knowledge of the creative disposition. He indicated that numerous problems in connection with education, the arts, our economy, our government, our personal living, and with society in general, call for imaginative, creative solutions. In con- cluding he said: . . . my impression is that scientific research during the past decade has brought creativity down from the clouds and out of the mists, giving it dimensions the knowledge of which enables us to do something about it. Although a general increase in creative productivity in our popula- tions should naturally introduce some new social problems, 53"The Concept of the Laboratory," (A statement by the planning and development team of the Michigan-Ohio Regional Educational Labora- tory, Stuart C. Rankin, Director; Detroit, Michigan: June 30, 1966), p, 2 . (Mimeographed . ) 21 these problems can also be solved imaginatively.5u He ends by agreeing with Rogers: "we can and must learn to live with increased creativity for without it we should probably not live at all."55 The Problem Can a bipolar instrument be constructed which can be easily administered, easily scored, and easily interpreted, and which will measure BOTH the variations of creativity and of conformity of first grade public school children? The Purposes The primary purpose of this study is to learn more about the relationship between creativity and conformity in first grade children through developing an instrument, bipolar in nature, which may be used by the elementary classroom teacher, to assess variations of creativity and conformity in his students. It is hoped that, with an appropriate measuring instrument developed, one which is easily administered, scored, interpreted, and with suitable validity and reliability determined, the elementary teacher will become more sensitive to the creative needs of students and become more aware of and aroused about the need to teach more crea- tively. It is assumed that creativity can be measured, that it can be 54.1. P. Guilford, "Creativity and Our Future," The Future Implications of Creativity Research, op. cit., pp. 31-32. 55mm... p. 32. 22 developed as well as squelched. Measuring instruments have been devel- oped which have moderate validity thus far. It must be remembered that as soon as creativity is standardized to the point where it can be meas- ured precisely it ceases to be creativity and becomes something else; perhaps conformity. In a sense creativity can never be measured, for the act of measuring implies a constancy which is certainly not an innate quality of creative behavior. Creativity is a fresh response unique to the creator. People can be creative consistently but their respective behaviors are never the same between each other nor from one moment to the next for any single individual. The instrument developed in this study was designed to be used by the classroom teacher to assess the general occurrence of creative and conforming behavior of first grade students and is quite imprecise at best without further research. But once a teacher realizes which children have the spark and those that need the spark rekindled he should be in a better position to do more for each one, urging some on to greater achievements and getting others to respond in simpler ways at first. This instrument should be only one of a number of different ideas needed to make a simultaneous direct approach in the improvement of the creative climate of the elementary classroom. Pertinent informa- tion about creativity and specific methods of implementing the current relevant ideas into practice are just as important as "waking the teacher up to a need." Administrators must be part of the "waking up." The general public, and especially the parents of children in school, should be approached with the positive benefits which accrue when crea- tive opportunities are provided for children at school and at home. 23 Another purpose is to conduct research in an area related to art education; an area where the need for research is great, if not greater, than in any other educational area. Basic Assumptions 56 1. 2. Creativity should be an important behavior in our society. The fullest development of creativity in human beings is important. Creativity has vital significance right now for every person so that he can live a full meaningful life and is ready to meet and initiate the inevitable changes in life. Creativity exists in all people to some degree both qualitatively and quantitatively. Creativity in children should be greater and more evident than it is. Creative behavior of people can be fostered, developed, and enhanced under both favorable and unfavorable conditions but the latter instance is considered less ideal. likewise, creativity can be obstructed, blighted, or denied. Creativity can be measured, to a certain degree, in adults as well as in children. The tests are yet inadequate and only measure a fraction of that which is possible. The conditions for creativity are worthy of serious study and inquiry. Creativity is not limited to the arts nor to some special aspect of living. 56Built around the Basic Assumptions presented by Laura Zirbes in her book Spurs to Creative Teaching (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1959). pp. 3-4. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 24 Conformity is a tremendous force in our society. Conformity can be minimized as creativity is maximized. Conformity can be measured to a certain degree. Conformity is a social construct also worthy of serious study and research. Conformity exists in every thread in the fabric of our society. Every individual in our society needs to maintain a flexible bal- ance between the forces of creativity and the forces of conformity. Basic Hypotheses 1. There will be a significant negative correlation between the total score of the Minnesota Tests of Creative Thinking (MTCT) and the Positive Shift (PS) score of the Test of Suggestibility (TS). The part scores on the MTCT, the part scores of the Selection and Color In Test (S-CIT), the PS-TS score, and the Negative Shift (NS) of the TS will differentiate between the creative and the conforming groups as identified by the classroom teachers. The Selection (SEL) part score of the S-CIT will have a signifi- cant positive correlation with the total score of the MTCT. The Elaboration (ELAB) part score of the Picture Construction Task of the MTCT scored by Torrance's method will have a signifi- cant positive correlation with the same task and part score scored by the Smith method. The S-CIT part scores will yield a significant positive correla- tion with the total score of the MTCT. The part scores of the S-CIT will have a significant positive correlation with the corresponding part scores of the MTCT: 25 Flexibility (FLEX), Originality (ORIG), and Elaboration (ELAB). 7. There will be a significant positive correlation between the AM part scores and the PM part scores of the S-CIT in order to see how reliable the test was over the period of five days that it was used. Theopy Rogers, in his chapter "Toward a Theory of Creativity" writes that the "mainspring of creativity" appears to be: . . . - man's tendency to actualize himselfyyto become big tentialities. By this I mean the directional trend which 3 en all organic and human life - the urge to expand, extend, develop, mature - the tendency to express and activate all the capacities of the organism, or the self . . . . that it exists in every individual and awaits only the proper conditions to be released and expressed. It is this tendency which is the primary motivation for creativity as the organism forms new relationship; B3 the environment in its endeavor most fully to be itse . He likens the urge or need for creativity to be the "same tendency which we discover so deeply as the curative force in psychotherapy.”8 Getzels and Jackson explore the findings on creative thinking in the theoretical and educational context. They deal in quite some detail with five theories which represent somewhat distinct and quite significant orientations.59 In their own work they have an affinity for the writing of Schachtel who believes that the most fruitful approach to the riddle of creativity is through the framework of 57Rogers, op. cit., pp. 350-351. 581bid., p. 350. 59Jeoob w. Getzels and Philip'W; Jackson, Creativit and Intelligence (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1962), p. 77. 26 perceptual theory rather than through psychoanalytic theory.60 Taylor and Holland briefly mention possible avenues researchers have taken, in a limited way, to attempt to develop a theory of crea- tive performance. At that time there was no single, overall statement about the nature of creative behavior and related theory. They indi- cate that Stein and Heinze have approached this goal.61 Published in 1960, Creativity and the Individual by Stein and Heinze does not contain one organized theory of creativity, but reviews of books and articles in which the various authors present their own theories. Stein and Heinze have categorized these various theories together.62 Two years later Stein discussed thinking and problem- solving and the several theories related to them: associationism, Gestalt theory, and psychoanalytic theory.63 wonderly discussed the evaluation of the creative process theo- ries in an article in 1964, including the psychoanalytic interpretation of Freud and others and the two outgrowths from Bergson's intuitionist interpretation.6u 6C’Ibid., p. 112. 61Calvin‘W’. Taylor and John Holland, "Predictors of Creative Performances," Creativity: Progress and Potential, op. cit., p. 45. 62Morris I. Stein and Shirley J. Heinze, Creativity and the Individual (Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1960), pp. 191-192. 63Morris I. Stein, Survey of the Peychological Literature la. the Area of Creativity with a View Toward Needed Research, Cooperative Research Project No. E93 New York: Research for Human Relations, New York University, 1962), p. 42. 6“Donald M. wonderly, "The Evolution of Theories Concerning the Creative Process," The Gifted Child Quarterly, VIII (Spring, 1964), 27c 27 The break with the traditional psychoanalytic theory has been increasing. The perceptual theory, as interpreted by Schachtel, is composed of two basic modes of perceiving the world: the autocentric and the allocentric. The former is confined to early self-indulgent behavior, the latter to being open to all those persons around oneself.65 Schachtel spells out what he means: The main motivation at the root of creative experience is man's need to relate to the world around him, a need which, as we have seen, becomes particularly strong and striking when urgent physical needs such as food and rest have been stilled. The Quality of the encounter that leads to creative experience consists primarily in the openness during the encounter and in the repeated and varied approaches to the object, in the free 6 and open play of attention, thought, feeling, perception, etc. Recently, MacKinnon acknowledged having overlooked Otto Rank in his own reviews of the theories of creativity. He had considered Freud's theory of primary and secondary process and his concept of sub- limation, Kris's ideas about regression in the service of the ego which Torrance mentions occasionally, and Kubie's concern with the role of the preconscious processes in creative thought and action.67 He goes on to recall vividly: . . . Jung's ideas on the reconciliation of the opposites: the dichotomies of conscious-unconscious, rational-irrational, sensation-intuition, thinking-feeling, extraversion-introversion, persona-anima, the individual versus the collective and the archetypal images and the processes of individuation. And, of course, I thought of Maslow's notion of the self-actualizing " 65Ernest G. Schachtel, Metamorphous: On the Developgent of Affect, Perception, Attention, and Memory (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1959) 9 p. Zhle 66Ibid. 67MacKinnon, op. cit., p. 273. 28 person, of Roger's concept of the fully functioning individual, and of Allport's description of becoming. I was aware of the influence of all these ideas on my own thoughts as I planned and undertook my research on creativity. I even vaguely recalled Adler's concept of the creative instinct, but found not much help in6§hat. But no once did I consciously think of Rank's theories. What MacKinnon found so significant about Rank's theory is his "conceptualization of three stages or phases in man's winning his own individuality and in realizing his own creative potential." Rank labeled these three stages: as the average or normal man, the con- flicted or neurotic person, and as the artist or man of will and deed.69 MacKinnon presents the pertinent portions of Rank's theory and makes it central to his rationale for selecting the three groups of creative architects used in his well known and widely referred to study. Indeed, after reviewing a number of theories, some of which seem equally compelling, this approach of Rank, as presented by MacKinnon, seems to have some application in this present study with first grade bdys and girls. This will need to be spelled out in future extensions of this work. The perceptual theory offers some possibilities also. Then there are various models which have been created to repre- sent theories. Among them is Guilford's Structure-Of-Intellect which has been widely pictured and described since it was first presented by him at the Paris International Conference of Factor Analysis in 1955.70 Another is Mooney's conceptual model of the essential conditions for 68Ibid. 69Ibid. , p. 274. 7Owayne S. Zimmerman, "Introduction and Overview," The Future ‘Implications of Creativity Research, op. cit., p. 3. 29 71 the existence of man in his world. Definition of Terms Creativity Broadly speaking, creativity, for purposes of this study, is seen as a fresh independent response; unique to the creator; character- ized by personal initiative, conscious searching, and flexibility; involving thinking and doing according to the need of the self in becom- ing realized and actualized; utilizing a variety of past and present experiences; and an openness for newness and divergent relationships. Operationally narrowed, for purposes of this study, creativity is viewed as the particular behavior of children which causes them to select a Stimulus Line drawing on which they can then express their own ideas maximally. Conformity Broadly speaking, conformity is the degree of completely con- sistent behavior which coincides with group or social norms as per- ceived by the individual. It implies a rigid and closed mind, a dependent attitude, an avoidance of newness, a usual feeling of inferi- ority, rigidity, anxiety, and lack of basic self-confidence. Defined operationally, conformity is the particular behavior of the first graders in this study which causes them to select a Coloring Book drawing on which they can only express a minimum of their own ideas. 71Ross L. Mooney, "A Conceptual Model for Integrating Four Approaches to the Identification of Creative Talent," A Source Book for nggtive Thinkigg, ed. Sidney J. Parnes and Harold F. Harding (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1962), pp. 76-78. 3O Suggestibility Suggestibility, as defined by Coffin, usually implies: . . . some sort of "uncritical" acceptance of a proposition of course of action and the observer or experimenter usually notes or sets up a situation offering possibilities of "right" or "appropriate" responses and of "wrong" or "inappropriate" responses, together with a "proposition" to the subject that he make the "inappropriate" response. If he does so, the observer considers this "suggestion"; if he makes the "right" response, it is considered "non-suggestibility," or "thought" or "critical response." Of the Part Scores on the Selection and Color In Test - (S-CIT) The abbreviated titles in parenthesis will be used often to designate the terms when referring to them in the remainder of this study.73 Selection - (SEL). - the number of points given to each type of drawing a student selected each morning and each afternoon for the five days. A low number was given for each Coloring Book Type drawing selected. A few more points were given for the Geometric Design Type and the Dot drawing. A larger number of points were given if a Stimulus Line Type of drawing was selected by the student. On Thursday, a Blank Sheet of Paper Type was offered in the morning and in the afternoon. This type received the highest number of possible points. Color - (COL), - the number of basic crayon colors used by each student 72Thomas E. Coffin, "Some Conditions of Suggestion and Sugges- tibility," Psychological Monographs J ed. John F. Bushnell, LIII (1941), vii. 73The definitions of the Part scores are given here so the reader willunderstand them as he reads along even though they might have been placed in Chapter IV where the test instruments are described. 31 on each drawing counting only the following: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet, black, white, gray, brown, gold, silver, and any mixtures. Flexibility - (FLEX). - the difference between each of the SEL scores for the morning and afternoon for each of the five days. If the student kept selecting the same type of drawing time and time again he would receive a low FLEX score. If he selected a Stimulus Line drawing first, with a high SEL score, and then a Coloring Book drawing in the afternoon, with a low SEL score, his FLEX score for that day would be high since it would be the numerical difference between the AM and the PM SEL score. Elaboration - (ELAB). - the number of lines, either in pencil or crayon, drawn by the child. A continuous line, with no breaks or definite changes of direction, would be counted as one line. If the line zigged and zagged and changed directions many times, each change of direction would constitute a different line and a higher score. Obvious scribble lines or areas were given an arbitrary ten points. Each separate color was counted as one point for ELAB even though it may have been repeated any number of times as long as another color separated the same color each time. Opiginality - (ORIG). - the score based on the relative frequency of the name or the title of the drawing as told by the student and written down by the teacher. The titles were classified and each classifica- tion resulted in a frequency distribution. The least frequent responses received 15 points; the most frequent 5 points; and those in between were given 10 points. Not all drawings were titled nor did all 32 teachers write all responses down since the investigator's instructions called for titles on only the drawings of the latter three types: Geometric Design, Dot, and Stimulus Line. Coverage - (COVER). - the number of square inches the drawing covered as drawn by the child. A clear plastic grid, marked off with one inch squares, was placed over each drawing and the number of squares was counted in which the child's own lines appeared. No score was given to the squares over lines already part of the original drawing. This con- stituted a handicap score and was subtracted from the COVER score. Dispersion - (DISP). - the number of square inches around the perimeter of the four sides of the drawing that included lines drawn by the stu- dent. Again, any line originally on the drawing did not count even if the child went over the line again heavier or with a colored crayon. The line had to be originated by the child and to be in areas not cov- ered by lines on the drawing originally. 0f the Part Scores on the Minnesota Tests of Creative Thinking - (MTCT) Fluency;- (FLU). - the number of separate responses to each task given by the student which are non-repetitious. Flegibility - (FLEX). - the number of shifts in the flow of a student's responses between a variety of ideas on each task. Originality - (ORIG). - the weighted score given to the student's reSponse of name or title according to the frequencies of their occur- rence among the particular population tested thus far. 33 Elaboration-A(ELAB). - the developing and working through of an idea by the student with points given for things added to the drawings which are not repeated. It would include added parts, added colors, lines, shapes, forms, shading, and textures. Of the Part Scores on the Test of Suggestibility - (TS) Positive Shift - (PS). - the number of responses on the second adminis- tration of the TS which were influenced by the investigator presenting a contrived shift agent, which changed, causing the student to shift his response in the direction of the false norm of the shift agent. The shift agents, in the order of their presentation,were: (1) other first grade children in Lansing, (2) other fourth grade children in Lansing, and (3) other Art Teachers in Lansing. .Ngggtive Shift 34£N§)o - the number of responses on the second adminis- tration of the TS which were influenced by the investigator presenting the responses of the three contrived shift agents, which changed, in order,causing the student to shift his response away from the direction of the false norm of the shift agent. The shift agents, in the order of their presentation, were given above. Methods During May 1965, a sampling of 309 first grade boys and girls, from twelve classrooms in six schools in the Lansing School District, selected on the basis of ethnic background and the socio-economic area in which they lived, were administered three paper and pencil tests: (1) Torrance's MTCT, an experimental test, which is designed to measure some of the creative abilities of a wide age range of people; (2) the 34 S-CIT which attempted to measure a degree of creative behavior AND a degree of conforming behavior, and (3) the TS which attempted to measure a degree of conforming behavior. The latter two instruments were devised by the investigator for the purpose of developing them in this study for possible use in other experimental studies as well as for use by elementary classroom teachers. The S-CIT was administered by the twelve individual teachers over a period of one week, from Monday through Friday, using materials supplied by the investigator. Each child selected a drawing that he could draw on and color in from a set of six drawings of three different types. This was done each morning and each afternoon for the five days. Each session lasted about twenty-five minutes. At the end of the week each child had selected, drawn on, and colored in at least ten drawings on which he had spent about 250 minutes of activity. The MTCT and the TS were administered by the investigator either one or two weeks following the completion of the S-CIT, during part of a morning or an afternoon of the school day. The tests were scored during the following summer and through the next year. The MTCT produced four part scores: FLU, FLEX, ORIG, and ELAB. The S-CIT yielded seven part scores: SEL, COL, FLEX, ELAB, ORIG, COVER, and DISP. The TS had several part scores but only the PS and NS scores were used. Limitations Whatever generalizations are attempted are obviously limited, to the specific students studied and to the specific circumstances under which the investigator worked. 35 The sample contained 309 students from a possible 2500 first graders. Twelve classrooms have been included out of a possible ninety- one, not including another fourteen combination first and second grade classrooms. Six schools have been used out of a possible forty-two in Lansing. The sample was a selected sample and not a random sample. The total first grade population was used at five of the six schools. At the sixth school two out of the five first grade classrooms were used. These two selected classes met in separate small buildings, referred to as primary units, which could be remodeled into homes at some future date. They were selected because both teachers liked the primary units very much, even though they were several blocks from the main school, and because the two classes were small in numbers. Of course, selecting these two particular classes compounded the number of variables already present in this study. All of the test instruments were scored by the investigator. No one else was called upon to score a random sample of the tests in order to arrive at inter-scorer reliability. Scoring is time consuming and often requires rather specific interpretations which may be hard to standardize due to the variability of the children's responses. Ease of scoring needs to be developed but this is not usually possible until the various scores originally employed are checked for validity and reliability. The S-CIT was administered by the twelve teachers over a period of five days from Monday through.Fridey. On Wednesday afternoon, of the test week, all Lansing public school children were sent home because of a tornado threat. Rather than leave a gap, even though it might skew the results, the investigator asked the twelve teachers to let their 36 children pick from the wednesday set of drawings on the following Monday. Teachers were not visited during the administration of the S-CIT in order to observe the standardization of administration of the test. Several substitute teachers were involved when the regular teacher was absent, usually for a day. Teachers were asked to rate their students as "Most Creative" and "Mest Conforming." Some teachers nominated only two or three chil- dren as most creative or as most conforming, while other teachers tried to nominate and rank the whole class as either conforming or creative. They might have been asked to nominate and rank the ten most creative and the ten most conforming children instead of leaving it open. Overview of the Thesis In Chapter II a short review is given of the work of Repucci, Yamamoto, and Taylor as they categorized the many definitions of crea- tivity. The four broad approaches used in the study of creativity are described by Mooney and some background is given related to the studies on creativity as well as the increased interest and diversity in writing and research. The different approaches of Guilford and Torrance are mentioned. The area of art education has had a vital interest, in its unique position, in providing opportunities for children and youth to be creative in working in the arts. Several studies of creativity and intelligence, as reviewed by various authors, are mentioned. A brief resume of the origination of Torrance's MTCT follows. Relevant studies by Townsend, Freyberger, Heilman, Bencetic, Johnson, and Neff are pre- sented. Ideas from Lowenfeld and Brittain, D'Amico, Zirbes, the Michigan Art Education Association, and Torrance, concerning coloring books, are 37 included to round out the information presented in Chapter II. Chapter III concerns the area of conformity. A short section on the definitions of conformity and of suggestibility is followed by a discussion of the relationship of conformity and suggestibility. A number of characteristics of conformity are described from Crutchfield's work. A review of the literature by Zajonc is cited for a number of characteristics of conforming behavior. After several pertinent studies are reviewed briefly, comments about conformity in the contemporary society are given as reported by a number of significant authors and then ideas are presented concerning the relationship of creativity and conformity. Chapter IV is devoted to a description of the conduct of this study from its beginning to its design using the three tests. The sec- tion concerned with the administration of the three tests and the sec- tion on instrumentation, which gives the rationale for using the different types of drawings, are included in the Appendix because of their supportive role to this Chapter. Information about the sample is outlined. The statistical null hypotheses are stated as they were used to set up the data for the com- puter. Space is given to the data collecting devices and the data processing used. An important section is included on the validity and reliability of tests of this type and of the instruments used in this study - particularly the MTCT. A discussion of the appropriateness of the statistics used in the study is presented. Only the presentation of the findings are included in Chapter V. The hypotheses are presented with the particular findings of each. Chapter VI concerns the summary and the conclusions, along with 38 a discussion of the findings and of the implications felt to be appro- priate for education. Recommendations are listed for future research, particularly related to this study. In addition, recommendations to schools, parents, and the community are suggested for working on the important idea of fostering and enhancing creativity for all persons. CHAPTER II RELATED LITERATURE ON CREATIEITY ‘lptroduction Only a relatively small amount of the total literature which has accumulated on creativity, mostly in the past six years, is reviewed here. There are scores of definitions of creativity, many descriptions of the creative process, and a great number of personality character- istics explored. Taylor lists over eighty attributes of the creative person in a review of the intellectual, the motivational, and the per- sonality traits of the creative person.1 There are so many definitions of creativity that it is impossible to describe them all. Repucci, Yamamoto,and Taylor have evolved somewhat systematic classifications of these definitions. Categories of Definitions of Creativity Repucci indicates that much effort has been spent in trying to understand the term "creativity." He noted some fifty or sixty defini- tions which he classified into six major classes. His first class is labeled "Gestalt" or "perception" type where the greater emphasis is upon the "recombination of ideas or the restructuring of a 'Gestalt.'" 1Calvin‘W'. Taylor, "Research Findings on Creative Characteris- tics," Creativity and Art Education, ed. W. Lambert Brittain (Washington, D. C.: National Art Education Association, 1963), pp. 30-33. 39 no The second group indicates an "end product" or "innovation." A third class emphasizes self-expression with the main idea that one has a need to express oneself in a unique, individual manner. The fourth group has a "psychoanalytic" or "dynamic" orientation with creativity thought of as an interacting hierarchy of the id, ego, and superego. The fifth class, referred to as "solution thinking," emphasizes the thinking process instead of the actual solution of the problem. The last group is beyond characterization so Repucci called it "varia."2 Yamamoto writes about the "holistic approaches - non—positive and positive" and the "elementaristic approaches - non-positive and positive." In his Epilogue, Yamamoto sums up the different approaches. Some people believe that analytical studies of creativity are really not possible without obliterating the essence of the creative act. These people are "non-positivistic holists." Others believe that empirical investigation is possible and argue against reductionistic approaches. They argueiknfthe need to understand a man's creative behavior in its whole. These people are the "positivistic holists." Another group vehemently declares its belief in the total creative potential of man and asks others to follow specific steps to foster creativity, arguing on the basis of intuitive judgment and happenstance observation. He classifies Torrance in this group. The fourth group includes those who contend that reductionistic empiricism is the only way to understand creative behavior which.Yamamoto termed "positivistic , 2L. C. Repucci, "Definitions and Criteria of Creativity," (unpublished manuscript. Midland, Michigan: The Dow Chemical Company, n.d.). PP. 1-2. (Mimeographed.) 41 elementarism." Here he places Guilford.3 He goes on to explain that: Each group has its unique assumptions, adopts its particular definitions, and employs its preferred techniques of inquiry. Each group has its own language, its peculiar way of speaking about the problem which is not readily understood by other groups of workers. Obviously, these divergencies in frame of reference and in form of communication add to the difficulty of integrating man's knowledgg about his uniquely human behavior , namely , creativity . Yamamoto is quick to add that doing anything to stratify con- cepts or ways of working would be counter to the free and rich cross- fertilization of ideas which are vitally needed for the furtherance of knowledge in this multifarious area of study.5 Taylor's content analysis of some 250 definitions included the simple to the complex, from children's spontaneous finger paintings to Einstein's formulation of E = Mcz. He places the many definitions into 'five "levels" or "clusters." The first he identified as "expressive creativity" because of the idea of spontaneousness shown by preschool children "before social pressures substitute conformity patterns for individual spontaneity, a loss which may be sought for again throughout life but which few ever regain again." A second application Taylor called "productive creativity." Most of the definitions fall here. The emphasis is on producing some idea or object. A third cluster is called "inventive creativity" where efficiency and ingenuity with mate- rials and ideas at hand are emphasized. Relatively few people are # 3Kaoru Yamamoto, "Research Frontier: 'Creativity' - A Blind Man's Report on the Elephant," Journal of Counseling Psychology; XII (1965). 428-433. “laid... p. u32. 51mg. 42 creative at this level where they are capable of producing or doing something absolutely new. The person does not produce any basically new principle however. The fourth cluster Taylor listed as "innovative creativity," for the reason that a substantial change is made in a prin- ciple which is already known and requires a capious amount of cognitive flexibility. The last grouping of definitions at the highest level of creating Taylor calls "emergentive creativity" where singular men of rare talent radically transform old sciences and arts or develop new ones. Einstein, Darwin, Freud, Marx, Picasso, and wright are individu- als who became "nullists in their field of science or art" as Taylor calls them.6 Four Basic Approaches to the Study of Creativity Creativity has been variously approached, as Mooney and others indicate when they discuss the different orientations to the problem. Mooney describes four aspects: (1) the product created, (2) the process of creating, (3) the person of the creator, and (4) the environment in which the creation comes about. Just as Yamamoto discussed his orienta- tion to the various approaches, Mooney says that each affords a differ- ent rendering of the identification of creative talent; each criterion differs and each has an appeal to a different group of researchers. Mooney informs us that the four approaches, in addition to having vari- ous levels of sophistication which make them different, also have an antagonistic tendeney toward one another. He wonders if an overall perspective of the four approaches can be maintained which can serve A 6Irving A. Taylor, "Creativity Research for Future Creativity," Future Implications of Creativity Research, op. cit., pp. 56-61. 43 and support each other rather than tmaa threat to each other. In order to do this he calls for the overall perspective which is "large enough to encompass all four [approaches within one system and deep enough to establish the interlocking function of all four." 'With this goal in mind Mooney gradually evolved a model which integrated the four approaches by showing them to be aspects of one overall perspective "that nature is put together according to order." If we find a germinal drder per- taining to the forming of life structures many social and biological problems could be thought through successfully.7 Background of Studies on Creativity Evidence of interest in the area of creativity existed before the turn of the twentieth century. It has only been.within the past sixteen years, however, that interest in the area has really increased. Hutchinson, writing in 1931, reported only two articles were referenced in the Psychological Abstracts for the year 1930 and those were not sig- nificant.8 Guilford, in giving his 1950 presidential address to the gathered psychologists at the annual meeting of the American Psychologi- cal Association, referred to Hutchinson's review, as well as to one by Markey.9 Markey reviewed the field of imagination in 193“ and, in summa- tion, wrote: 7Mooney, op. cit., pp. 79-76. 8Eliot Dole Hutchinson, "Material for the Study of Creative Thinking," Psypholggical Bulletin, XXVIII (1931), 392. 9J. P. Guilford, "Creativity," American ngchologist, V (1950), #45. 44 Conceptions of the nature of imagination vary from definition as the simple reproduction and reconstruction of sense material by the use of imagery to views of creativity as a mysterious force or instinct which transcends description. Cognitive and quantitative aspects on the one hand are contrasted to affec- tive and qualitative theories on the other. In education, formal training programs, as opposed to creative expression programs, illustrate this difference. Research has not been sufficiently varied or extensive to determine conclusively the validity of either type of approach in nurturing the imagina- tion. Theory, practices, and experimental data on imagination are notably uncoordinated. O Guilford caused the battle flags to be raised among the many psychologists attending the 1950 annual meeting as he deplored the gross neglect of creativity. The lack of studies is so obvious, he said, that no proof is necessary. He indicated he was astounded when he went to look for himself, at that time, and found nearly 121,000 articles listed in the Psychological AbstractsJ over the past twenty-three years, with only 186 definitely related to the area of creativity.11 Evidence of an Increase in writing and Research In reviewing the Dissertation Abstracts, from 1952 until May 1966, a listing was made of the doctoral dissertations with the word "creative" or related concept included in the title. This search revealed approximately 99 EdD's and 127 PhD's granted to scholars for specific work related to the subject of creativity in this fifteen year period. Seventy-five per cent of these doctorates have been completed in the past six years. TABLE 2-1 shows the particular ages or grades used by the many scholars in their studies. Some studies reported did 1oFrances V. Markey, "Imagination," Psychological Bulletin, XXXII (1935). 233. nGuilford, op. cit., p. 445. 45 TABLE 2-1 GRADE OR AGE BREAKDOWN 0F DOCTORAL DISSERTATIONS REPORTED IN DISSERTATION ABSTRACTS FROM 1952 TO MAY 1966 Number of Grade or Age Dissertations Pre-school . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Kindergarten . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Retarded . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Elementary - no grade listed . . . 5 lst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2nd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 3rd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 4th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 5th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 6th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Junior High . . . . . . . . . . . 1 7th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 8th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 High School . . . . . . . . . . . 5 9th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 10th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 11th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 12th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 College . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Community Colleg . . . . . . . 1 Freshman . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Sophomores . . ...... . # Juniors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Seniors . . . . . . . . 7 Graduate Student . . . . . . . . 3 Adult 5 0 O O O 0 0 O O 0 O O O O O % Total 2 2 not happen to indicate the grade level,and only five studies out of approximately 226 specifically involved first grade students. 0f the approximately 226 dissertations, about twenty-eight of them were concerned with the original art work of children or adults to 12The total number of dissertations adds up to more than 226 because many of the studies used students at more than one grade or age level. 46 see if they were creative. Eleven were written about the identification of the creative person either through teacher nominations or the ratings by the job supervisor, in the case of research scientists particularly, or by a peer group. Of particular significance is the fact that approxi- mately sixty-three dissertations used Torrance's Minnesota Tests of Creative Thinking, or parts thereof, as a measuring device: approximately sixty used all or parts, usually parts, of Guilford's battery of creative thinking tests; and another twenty-three reported using the measures used by Getzels and Jackson. Approximately eighty-three utilized other 13 measuring devices developed by others or for themselves. Taylor indicates that useful research has been done on many dif- ferent aspects of creativity, at all age and grade levels and in various research installations, professional activities, and industry. Yet by 196#, according to Taylor, the increase in recent literature, both basic and applied, has not helped very much since relatively little is yet known. Markey reported this in 1934 concerning the study of imagination. Much more basic research needs to be supported},4 Yet support, particu- larly financial, according to Torrance, has been marginal except in the last few years when it has increased somewhat.15 The work of Guilford and Torrance Guilford and Torrance are undoubtedly the foremost individuals 13Again the total is misleading because some scholars used several tests in their studies. 11+Calvin W. Taylor, "Introduction," Creativity: Progress and Potential, op, cit., p. 9. 15E. Paul Torrance, "Education and Creativity," Creativity: Progress and Potential, op. cit., p. 66. 47 in deve10ping tests of creative thinking. Yamamoto classfies Torrance as a "non-positivistic elementarian" because of Torrance's six guides for enhancing creativity in children which "remain quite general and grossly outlined."16 Yamamoto places Guilford in the "positivistic ele- mentarian" group since Guilford is a "correlational psychologist" whose concern is with the variation among organisms or individual differences.17 Guilford and his associates are doing intensive work on their Structure-Of—Intellect model. At the Fifth Utah Creativity Research Conference in 1962 Guilford said that in recent years their major empha- sis had been to see if factors predicted by the Structure-Of-Intellect model could be discriminated by factor analysis. Each test they devise is on the basis of unique qualifications that represent each empty cube of the model. Extending the tests to both sexes at younger levels is in prospect.18 The Structure-Of-Intellect appears to be a very useful model. Thurstone is encouraged that it may be like the periodic table of the elements which has served physical scientists so long. Unknown abilities could be predicted and then searched for in order to fill in the gaps in the Structure.19 Yet not all psychologists and research workers, inter- ested in and working in the area of creativity, are necessarily trying to fit their approaches and what they have found from their studies into 16Y'amamoto, op. cit., p. #31. 17Ibid, 18J. P. Guilford, "Progress in the Discovery of Intellectual Factors," Widenipg Horizons in Creativity, op, cit., p. 263. 19Thelma Gwinn Thurstone, "Commentaries," Productive Thinkigg in Education, op, cit., p. 37. #8 the Structure as such. Guilford, for example, asked Mednick to explain how units, one of the six products in the Structure, could be explained within the associative principle which Mednick uses in his Remote Asso- ciates Test - RAT.20 According to Guilford, the creative abilities seem to be local- ized in the divergent-thinking category and somewhat in the transforma- tion category. 'With this in mind, Guilford asks if educators have been emphasizing these skills enough. A better balance is needed in the divergent-thinking areas when compared with teaching in convergent think- ing and in critical thinking or evaluation.21 Goldman, writing for a British audience, explains that "divergent" thinking means thinking which produces multivariat responses, not the expected or conformist answers required by most standardized ability tests which usually demand "convergent" thinking. Guilford's evaluative thinking indicates sensitivity to problems unnoticed by less creative persons.22 Goldman goes on to compare Guilford and Torrance: One major difference between Guilford and Torrance is that whereas each of Guilford's tests was designed to identify or represent a single factor, Torrance soon initiated more complex tests each of which could be scored on several factors. Torrance has emphasized that it is the processes of creative thinking which demand urgent attention more than 236 products which have so far claimed major considera- tion. ‘ ZOGuilford, op. cit., p. 263. 21J. P. Guilford, "Three Faces of Intellect," American Psycholo- gist, XIV (August, 1959), #78. 22R. J. Goldman, "The Minnesota Tests of Creative Thinking," Educational Research, VII (November, 1964), 4. ZBIbid . 49 According to Mackler and Shontz, different approaches produce significant differences in measurements. They indicate that Torrance's approach involves "high intratask consistencies among individuals, since it is the person, rather than a set of task-independent factors, that is responsible for the final test performance. Intertask consistency is not essential, since creative persons are not necessarily expected to be equally creative in all situations."2u Torrance is oriented toward discovering creative people and studying the characteristics of their behavior. He feels that it is too early to define a specific group of factors. While Torrance was not in agreement with Guilford's approach of factor analysis, he did start by using some of Guilford's tests. Others Wbrkinggin This Area The approach used by the investigator in this study in the devel- opment of the S-CIT relates to the approach of Torrance since seven part scores are possible for each student given the S-CIT. The purpose here is not to determine that one approach or any combinations thereof would be more productive than any other even though the approach taken by Torrance is favored. Understandably, any approach to researching crea- tive abilities is a very difficult and involved task. The elusiveness of the various creative abilities is legend. Some researchers have been more successful than others in their findingszs but this does not mean 2“Bernard Mackler and Franklin C. Shontz, "Characteristics of Responses to Tests of Creativity," (unpublished manuscript, Teachers College, Columbia University: Institute of Urban Studies, 196a), p. 3. (Mimeographed.) 25Ta.‘ylor and Holland, op. cit., pp. 3“-39. 50 that everyone should give up his own particular tack and follow the most productive approach. Diversity of approach, while confusing and seem- ingly uncoordinated, may, in the long run, lead to more data which is meaningful and can be pieced together with other data to fill out the picture more completely, and perhaps, as Guilford would wish, ultimately to validate the total Structure-Of—Intellect. To indicate another approach to creativity, some researchers even use serendipity in their efforts to find new and sometimes acci- dental relationships of two unrelated ideas. Diversity of effort is con- sistent with the general meaning of divergeney within creativity.26 Trezise discusses the various approaches, including those which are concerned with the multi-dimensional approach of studying the crea- tive person such as is done at the Institute of Personality Assessment and Research (IPAR) at the University of California at Berkeley where MacKinnon, Barron, Gough, and Crutchfield have done extensive work. Trezise used the total "life style" of the person as his approach to the study of the creative adolescent.27 In Burkhart's Spontaneous and Deliberate ways of Learning, two useful constructs are delineated, as the title of the book indicates, for looking at the process of creativity with the major emphasis on pupil's creative growth as shown by their progress in their own art.28 26$arnoff A. Mednick and Martha T. Mednick, "An Associative Interpretation of the Creative Process," Widening Horizons in Creativity, op. cit., p. 55. 27Trezise, op. cit., pp. 23-24. 28Robert C. Burkhart, Spontaneous and Deliberate‘wgys of Learning (Scranton, Pa.: International Textbook Company, 1962), p. 7. 51 The influence of Creativity_and Iptelligence by Getzels and Jackson has been great but controversial. Getzels and Jackson, as well as Torrance, have used tests of creativity in their studies originally devised by Guilford. Thus far, we have largely considered the work of researchers who have had a psychological orientation, with Guilford as perhaps the most influential. Torrance may have written more than Guilford in the area of creativity, which would include his writing on the gifted stu- dent. But both men are prolific writers and their works appear in numerous books and journals. wo need to remember constantly that in whatever directions researchers are going they are usually concerned with providing oppor- tunities for creativity for all people, young and old. ‘We must not lose sight of the fact that the children and adults who are studied are not just numbers, or protocols in a book, or statistics - they are unique human beings. The Role of Art Education Art education has contributed to the overall development of crea- tivity. Eisner indicates that "art education has long been concerned with the development of human creativity. Whitford, Lowenfeld, and Road are but a few who have made pioneering efforts to understand creative behavior in order to develop it in children."29 Art education, for most of the past twenty years, has been oriented toward the development of creativity in children but has seemingly ignored the systematic study 29Elliot‘W’. Eisner, "A Typology of Creativity in the Visual Arts," Studies in Art Education, IV (Fall, 1962), 11. 52 and research on creativity up until perhaps ten years ago. Support for the relatively important position of art education has come from Taylor who was instrumental in the organization, imple- mentation, and reporting of the five different University of Utah Con- ferences which were mainly concerned with the scientific study of creativity, not only in the scientific field, but in other areas of study and of vocational interest. Taylor concluded an article with this emphasis on the art education approach: Art education may be more valuable in this age of science than is generally realized. By the approach of education through_ .553, as stated by Lowenfeld, perhaps a better understanding of the nature and importance of creativity can be transmitted to more of our students, even though it may not all transfer to the sciences or to other fields of human endeavor. There are some researchers who do feel that creativity is a general and universal trait and perhaps what one person does in his creating, whether he works in a scientific laboratory, or in designing a large building complex, or in sculpting a block of marble really is using many of the same general creative abilities as well as some dis- tinct abilities within the creativity hierarchy unique to the particular task. It seems reasonable to assume that the scientist, the architect, the sculptor, and all other people, not so artistically endowed, can live their respective lives just as creatively as anyone else. Taylor goes on to say that a goal throughout the whole educational program in science, for example, could be the strong emphasis on the development of creativity in each and every student just as Melby maintains should be done with every child in every school in every part of this country. 30Calvin W} Taylor, "Research Findings on Creative Characteris- tics," Creativity and Education, op. cit., p. 3’4. 53 Taylor's impression of art education is that it has "always had the encouragement and development of creativity as its central goal or at least one of its most central goals."31 Studies of Creativity and Intelligence In reviewing the literature to find reports of research designed specifically to test and measure creativity, it became evident that rela- tively few studies were concerned with younger elementary school chil- dren. In addition, most of the early studies were concerned with the measurement and the relationship of creativity or imagination and intel- ligence. No test was found which attempted to assess both creativity and conformity at the same time. writing in 1957, Czurles explained that about 90 years ago Fechner did an experiment with a set of proportions and forms which produced pleasing reactions on the senses of the subjects. From that time until the 1920's the historical sequence of major research in art was limited. According to Czurles, extensive research, designed to measure art ability and achievement with a variety of scales and tests, began in earnest in the 1920‘s. These tests included the Meier-Seashore, the McAdory Tests, and F. L. Goodenough's measurement of intelligence through drawings, all of which were quite influential.32 Getzels and Jackson review the early researchers but, again, they mention people who were doing testing, using various measures, to see what relationship existed between creativity or imagination and 31mm, 32Stanley A. Czurles, "Milestones in Research for Art Education," Research in Art Education; Art Education Bulletin, XIV, (May, 1957), 13. 54 intelligence. They mention Dearborn who used inkblots to study the imaginative responses of students and faculty at Harvard in 1898. After reviewing a number of the works of other researchers, the authors con- clude their review by commenting that "the casual observation by Dearborn in 1898 had become a commonplace research finding - giftedness in intel- ligence and giftedness in creativity were by no means synonymous." They conclude their brief summary of research in the area of creativity and intelligence with the same concern Guilford expressed in 1950 that "we must look well beyond the boundaries of the IQ if we are to fathom the domain of creativity."33 Torrance, in Guiding Creative Talent, refers to a number of dif- ferent tests of creativity, and of imagination, as well as citing a number of studies concerned with creativity. There is some overlap with the studies reported by Getzels and Jackson. Torrance has grouped his review of the early research studies according to grade or age level: the early childhood years, the elementary school years, the high school years, and higher education. Again, the concern in these studies is with the relationship of creativity or imagination and intelligence.3a Origination of the Minnesota Tests of Creative Thinking35 In Rewarding Creative Behavior, Torrance writes that Sam Nath Ghei, Kenneth DeYoung and he started at the same time, early in 1958, to review the measures of creative thinking that had been devised up to 33Getzels and Jackson, op. cit., pp. 5-6. 3“Torrance, Guiding Creative Talent, op. cit., pp. 23-38. 35Torrance, Reward Creative Behavior (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1965), pp. 32-40. 55 that point and to read about the lives and experiences of recognized creative persons through autobiographies, biographies, and other writings about them. About a year and a half later the first tests were devel- oped. The authors wanted to devise an instrument which "could be administered from kindergarten through graduate school - tasks which would challenge the graduate student and have a high ceiling and at the same time be easy enough to elicit creative responses from the kinder- gartener." One can imagine the challenge to these authors, particularly since none of the three had had experiences in devising and using tests of creative thinking. They decided to adapt some of Guilford's materials since something was already known about them and they "had a sound theo- retical rationale." The first battery had only six tasks with.Forms A and B contain- ing parallel sets of tasks to make them equivalent for a pre-test and a post-test situation. The six tasks included: Unusual Uses of Tin Cans, Impossibilities, Consequences, Situations, Common Problems, and Improve- ments. Torrance goes on to explain that they were encouraged with the response to these tasks at the fifth-grade level and up. They found the tests were able to differentiate those chosen by peers and teachers as having a "lot of good ideas" and other criteria of creative behavior from those who were not nominated. This indicated some evidence of validity. They also found out that the youngsters who scored highest in the creative thinking abilities differed in "meaningful ways from their classmates of the same sex and equal mental age as measured by three different intelligence tests." When the authors compared the intelligent children with their equally intelligent, but highly creative, 56 classmates the works of the latter were "characterized by humor, playful- ness, relative lack of rigidity, and relaxation." Things produced during regular activities were rated as most original and more "off the beaten track." They also were known by their teachers and classmates as "having wild or silly ideas, especially the boys." Another fact appeared which has been shown by others, in experiments, that statistically positive relationships exist between the creativity measures and the standardized measures of achievement even when mental age has been cancelled out. Getzels and Jackson have shown that highly creative children, whose intel- ligence is not as high as the highly intelligent children, still do as well on the standardized tests of achievement as the highly intelligent.36 The next test of imagination, Form C, came about because the two parts of the first test, Forms A and B, did not obtain adequate responses from children in grades four and lower. The authors introduced the idea of having fun, in line with the theoretical orientation of "regression in the service of the ego." This involved asking the students to think of ideas for making each toy object, used in the test, better so that it would be more "fun to play with." A number of scores were obtained from this product improvement test some of which later proved to be too time consuming to score and were dropped. At about the same time a need for a figural, or non-verbal, test prompted the authors to develop several such tests. 0f the two consid- ered, one was dropped while the Circles Test and its alternate, the Squares Test, have been used since. The figural tests could be given to groups of children, rather than by the time consuming individual 36Getzels and Jackson, op. cit., p. 25. Po D‘ 57 administration method. They were considered important because they would measure the creative thinking of a child whose verbal development was slow or delayed and would generally complement the child's total creative thinking abilities. Other figural tests were developed along the way including the Picture Construction Task and the Incomplete Figures Task. The former was developed by Torrance while the latter was adapted from the Drawing-Completion Test developed by Kate Franck and used by Barron and others in studies of creativity. The several non-verbal tasks referred to above are discussed in the Appendix of Guiding Creative Talent and include pictures of the test instruments.37 Goldman's article, referred to above, presents a good overall description of the MTCT. Pertinent Studies 9f Creativity at the Lower Elementary Level Of particular interest for this review of the literature are six studies done with elementary school children, including first graders. The investigator found no study that was quite like the present study although portions of other studies related to parts of this study. Townsend38 studied the ability of 287 first, second, and third grade school children in a New York school to copy seventeen geometric forms. He also gave a form perception measurement test, a test of tap- ping to determine the motor abilities along with tests of horizontal and vertical movements of the preferred hand. Two other measures were 37Torrance, Guiding Creative Talent, op. cit.. Pp. 21h-222. 38Edward Arthur Townsend, "A Study of Copying Ability in Children," (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1950), Dissertation Abstracts, X (1950), 56-57. 58 used, the mental age from the Kuhlman-Anderson, and the chronological age from confirmed birthdates. All of those measured variables were studied in relation to copying. Townsend found that: Copying, whether considered from the viewpoint of the four scoring criteria, copy by copy, or subject by subject, did not vary regularly with chronological or mental age, with form perception, or with motor abilities. Teachers of children of these ages will find some copying errors in some children. Fewer errors are made by older children but not all adults can copy with preciseness. Although teachers may specifically direct attention to the components and form of the copies variable errors will still be made. Further, tests of mental age for these children which rely upon copying may or may not yield reliable estimates of mental age since copying is a variable. At first glance, an art educator would look aghast at the proc- ess of having any child copy geometric forms. At second glance, one might wonder why it was important that one should be "concerned with the nature of the functions involved in copying designs as this skill devel- ops in children during the first three years of school" as Townsend so states. However, if one wants to know whether children will be able to form their letters and numbers as they learn to print, either by copying the letters from a workbook or from the blackboard, then one would know something about when this can be expected to be done more efficiently. If this is the case, why not use actual letters rather than designs? For the purposes of producing art, copying is definitely frowned upon. Nevertheless, one may argue that drawing a still life is copying. It is if the requirement is a very factual representation. But if the still life is a stimulus for the person to create his own interpretation, particularly of a spontaneous nature as Burkhart would encourage, then it is not copying but creating a very personal statement. The idea of the child forming his letters by copying them from the board goes back 59 to the delineation of imitation which is necessary for children to learn certain prescribed ways for facilitating meaningful communication. Learning to form letters is not art for the young child, but lettering can be an art for the older students and artists who have learned the basic rudiments of written communication. In 1951, Freyberger39 studied the differences in the creative drawings of children of varying ethnic and socio-economic backgrounds in Pennsylvania based on samplings of grades one through six. She developed an object checklist containing 110 items to use in rating nearly 1600 creative spontaneous type drawings which were collected from selected areas in that state. She noted the similarities as well as the differences in the various groups investigated. She states that "there were almost three times as many similarities found among the socio- economic, ethnic, and grade groups as differences in these same groups." In the lengthy list of similarities were some which concern first and second grade students.)4 Freyberger's findings indicate that "the real differences that were found were attributed in all instances to the grade levels and not the ethnic or socio-economic groups. The majority of these differences occurred with the extremes of the grade level, either first or sixth grades." 39Ruth Freyberger, "Differences in the Creative Drawings of Chil- dren of Varying Ethnic and Socio-Economic Backgrounds in Pennsylvania Based on Samplings of Grades One Through Six," (unpublished Ed.D. disser- tation, Pennsylvania State College, 1951), Abstracts of Dccto a1 Disser- tations. . . Pennsylvania State College. . . . XIV (1951), 265-266. “OSee Chapter VI for "Recommendations for Future Research" since space does not permit exploration of these findings in this study. 60 The significant findings of the study indicate that there were a great many more similarities than differences between the socio-economic and ethnic areas. These similarities did not appear until after the differ- ent grade levels had been compared. The present study was not directly concerned with counting the incidence of many of the similarities and differences given in Freyberger's study but many of her pertinent findings could be compared with the various drawings which were made by the first graders in this study. This is an area for future study. 41 Heilman conducted an experimental study of workbook influence on the creative drawings of second grade children. Because of its perti- nence, even though the study involved only second grade children, it is reviewed here. Some educators feel that workbooks, as they are sometimes used, without definite goals of supplemental reading in mind for the child, or of checking them over, have very little value for the child. The author writes about a vital issue considered in this present study. He indicates that: werkbooks, it seems, reflect quantitative interest in subject matter with virtually no concern for creative development. The use of workbooks in the primary grades become significantly important when considering their almost universal adoption in American classrooms. The art educator becomes particularly concerned because the authors of workbooks tend to refute educative processes that promote total-growth. workbook activities reflect: imitative procedures, dependent thinking and regimentation that opposes self-confidence in activities. ulHorace Heilman, "An Experimental Study of workbook Influence on the Creative Drawings of Second Grade Children," (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Pennsylvania State College, 1954) Abstracts of Doctoral Dissertations . . . Pennsylvania State College . . . , XVII (1954), 319- 323. ' 61 Heilman planned to "determine what conflict in the creative thinking of the pupil is established by exposure to workbooks." He col- lected 384 drawings from sixty-four second graders from three schools from a sequence of workbook exposures and creative drawing sessions with and without motivation. After treating the data statistically, the author found that the "study population has established positive evidence that workbooks qualitatively influence the total structuring of their creative drawings. There was interference with the characteristics of the total growth pattern as promoted by creative drawings." He concluded that: There was no discoverable evidence in the examination of the literature on workbooks that the drawing and/or coloring activities were of any direct influence on growth in reading or arithmetic. Since, as previously stated, the statistical data reveal that the general growth pattern through creative work was seriously influenced by exposure to workbooks, this investigator cannot establish any justification for the inclu- sion in workbooks those activities that interfere with the total growth of the child. Using the coloring book idea as part of the S-CIT, it was hypothe- sized that children who would select coloring book type drawings to draw on and color in would be "imitative," "dependent," and "regimented" as Heilman has indicated in discussing workbooks. This appears to be another way to look at conforming behavior in children. In 1959 Benceticu2 made a study "to contribute information on the preferences of elementary school children for paintings of various styles and categories which would prove helpful in planning future picture-study units and curricula to develop aesthetic appreciation in 42Stephen Bencetic, "Picture Preferences of Elementary Children," (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Pennsylvania State University, 1959), Dissertation Abstracts, XX (February, 1960), 3117. 62 children." He used forty-one reproductions of paintings, post-card sized, of differentstyles from Renaissance Realism to Abstract Expres- sionism and three examples of children's paintings. He showed the pic- tures to 540 children in grades one through six in three Pennsylvania communities selected on the basis of socio-economic and ethnic back- grounds, size and location. One of Bencetic's conclusions is pertinent for noting here: Realistic pictures were favored by a ratio of two to one over the ten pictures judged "most abstract." Mansfield children showed the greatest preference for the abstract pictures on an overall basis; the preferences from the first through sixth grades remained almost constant, with the greatest preference shown by the fifth grade, indicating a possible influence of the creative school activities and the college community environment. Johnson“3 working under the direction of Torrance, conducted a cross-cultural assessment of the creative abilities of school children of Samoa in order to determine if the absence of cultural discontinuities would cause creativity to increase or decrease at certain points. Cultural discontinuities, in the United States, cause the so-called fourth grade slump in creativity. The Samoan culture was chosen because it is free of major discontinuities in the up-bringing of children, yet it is stifling of divergency. The fifth hypothesis is noteworthy for this present study: "The Samoan teacher's concept of the 'ideal pupil' reflects the cultural emphasis on conformity." Johnson used three instruments to gather data: the MTCT (both non-verbal and verbal), the Ideal Pupil Checklist, and the Goodenough "Draw-A-Man" test, from over "3Riohard Johnson, "The Gorwth of Creative Thinking Abilities in western Samoa," (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Minnesota, 1963), Dissertation Abstracts, XXIV (November, 1963), 1922. 63 1000 pupils in grades one through six from two main subcultures: the mission and the government elementary school systems. Grade one in the mission school was not tested for a reason not stated in the "Abstract." The findings indicate that: The over-all Samoan sample did not show the drop in creative thinking abilities characteristic in the American culture, but neither were levels at each grade as high as a comparison Minneapolis-St. Paul sample. However, those students who were taught by American teachers did show a drop at the end of the third grade, and have a much lower level of tested abilities compared to students of Samoan teachers within that school. The mission students showed a rapid rise in creative thinking abilities in the first year of school, and then leveled off. The government school students had a much lower starting level, but followed this with a steady rise in each year assessed. Both previous research, and the Ideal Pupil Checklist indicated that because conformity was stressed as pre-requisite to suc- cess, tendencies toward creativity are likely to be extinguished. The conclusion was drawn that the typical "slump" found in the United States was not inevitable, and that three conditions appear necessary in order to raise and maintain a high level of creative thinking abilities: first, a reduction in discontinui- ties; second, a variety of stimuli to be rearranged, integrated, and responded to; and third, a continual cultural rewarding of the creative enterprise. Since conformity was stressed in the western Samoan culture as a prerequisite to success, tendencies toward creativity are likely to be extinguished. One may feel that the American middle class cultural influence, in the case of the American mission cross-cultural setting of Johnson's study, would compound the degree of conformity in the chil- dren, even more than was noted. Elsewhere, Torrance discusses cultural discontinuities in rela- tion to the larger study of which Johnson's was a part. A number of other cultures were included in order to study the particular differences of creative thinking abilities within as well as between them. Examples 64 of cultural discontinuities include: Concern about sex appropriateness and emphasis on sex differences become tremendously inhibiting at about age five and continue into the beginning of first grade. Many children at this age are inhibited in their thinking because they have begfi harshly warned by parents and teachers to eliminate fantasy. At the fourth grade level children are expected to act more grown up. They encounter more organization and formality at this age and grade which tend to stifle original behavior and thoughts. Homework is added gradually as the subject matter areas change from year to year. Student council and other school activities take the student's time and interest. Perhaps some children serve as hall monitors and are respon- sible for the behavior of others. Torrance mentions a number of other cultural discontinuities which students encounter as they get older and more is expected of them.1+5 Torrance, in discussing the idea of the various "slumps" which appear at different age levels in our culture, indicates that: Now that the develOpmental curves for the creative thinking abilities of some of these cultures are becoming clear, the idea has been thrust upon us that the declines ["slumps"1 in the creative thinking abilities that occur at about ages five, nine, thirteen, and seventeen are the result of the stresses imposed by cultural discofiginuities and are accompanied by personality disturbances. uhTorrance,_§ducgtion and the Creative Potential (Minneapolis: The University of Minnesota Press, 1963), p. 77. ”51bid, wij-d 9 po 72. 65 47 In 1963, Neff had fifty-four first, second, and third grade boys and girls of high, average, and low IQ construct simple puppets and give a performance with their puppets. His purpose was: (1) to investigate the relationship between puppetry and the creative imagination of children; (2) to develop, empirically, a puppet test capable of measuring some aspects of the child's thinking ability; and (3) to partially validate this instrument by comparing the success of young children on the Puppet Test with personal data and other measures of their creativity. He found that the Puppet Test Scores correlated with the scores on the three creativity measures for children as developed by Torrance, and with the judgments of three pieces of art work from each child: a crayon drawing, a tempera painting and a cut-paper project. Among his conclusions, these have importance for this study aside from the fact that Neff worked with first, second, and third graders. The Puppet Test did measure some aspects of creativity as defined for this study. Certain items on the Puppet-Head Construction Test were related to the Torrance tests while the totals were not. The same items also correlated well with the Puppet Perform- ance Test and the painting judgments. A definite relationship existed between the facets of creativity measured by the Puppet Performance Test and the Torrance creativity battery. Individual criteria on the two measures were shown to correlate significantly. 'With the possible exception of painting, the Puppet Test did not measure those aspects of creativity in the production of art work. The two phases of the Puppet Test correlated highly in the nonverbal areas, suggesting that the Puppet-Head Construction Test complements the Puppet Performance Test by probing non- verbal creativity. h7George Neff, "The Creative Imagination of Young Children as Revealed in a Puppet Construction and Puppet Performance Test," (unpub- lished Ed.D. dissertation, Pennsylvania State University, 1963), Dissertation Abstracts, XXIV (February, 1964), 3206. 66 One of the concerns of this present study is how the various part scores on the three instruments used are related just as Neff was concerned about the relationship of his Puppet Performance Test and Puppet-Head Construction Test with Torrance's creativity test battery. For instance, does the S-CIT measure some of the same creative thinking abilities that Torrance's MTCT does? Do the various part scores of the MTCT and the S-CIT have any positive relationship with the teachers' nominations of their students as "most creative" and "most conforming"? These and other relationships are of interest to the investigator just as Neff sought certain relationships with his tests. Other Studies and Specific Comments about the Use of Coloring Books In Creative and Mental Growth, Lowenfeld and Brittain write that the particular workbooks normally used in reading and in arithmetic cause the student to repeat over and over again the same pictorial con- cept, whether it be twenty-five bluebirds, or sixteen sail boats, or eight elephants. Add nine kittens to three kittens, and what will you have? These children are learning a number concept by using a stereotype of some object which, over time and repeated in enough instances, may cause the child to become inhibited in conceiving of certain objects. The authors cite Heilman's study and also discuss the experiments by Russell and waugaman. The latter found that "63 per cent of all children who had been exposed to coloring book birds lost their initially estab- lished sensitivity to birds and changed their concepts to resemble the stereotype.“+8 An individual's self-expression can be and is so easily, “Lowenfeld and Brittain, op. cit., p. 22. 67 so often, neglected. The effect of predrawn, completed, stereotyped drawings has a very subtle, but devastating effect, on the impressionable child who is searching for answers. lewenfeld and Brittain describe the handicaps a child encounters when using coloring books: let us assume that the first picture the child has to fill in is that of a dog. As soon as the child is confronted with the task of following a predetermined outline, we have prevented him from solving his own relationship creatively. His rela- tionship to a dog may be one of love, friendship, dislike, or fear. There is no opportunity for him to express his relation- ship and thus relieve himself of tensions of joy, hatred, or fear. . . . There is not evefiga place for the individual dif- ferences of Johnny and Mary. Most children come to realize that they would never be able to draw the object as well as it is drawn in the coloring book. As they use coloring books constantly their own ability to represent something in their own unique way withers and finally dies. Many children began to say "I can't draw."50 Since we do know that the use of coloring books does affect a child's creativeness we should be on guard. Lowenfeld firmly believes that "every child deserves the maximum chance to grow."51 Children even do better when assigned to practice coloring within a line, just to learn that skill, when they have the opportunity to make their own drawing. They will color it in more painstakingly than if the object is pre-drawn.52 “91bid., pp. 22, 24. 50Ibid. , p. 24. 51Lowenfeld, "Creativity: Education's Stepchild," A Source Book for Creative Thinking, op. cit., p. 16. 52Lowenfeld and Brittain, op. cit., p. 24. 68 It might be well to indicate a note about the idea of imitation. lowenfeld and Brittain fear that there is a misunderstanding about the word IMITATION. Imitation is very useful in learning ways to communicate for instance, so that a person can express himself to others in particu- lar ways as writing and Speaking. According to the authors "imitation in any learning situation is only used as a means to an end and never as an end in itself."53 Zirbes indicates that there are some procedures which leave lit- tle if any opportunity for anything butconformity to instructional expecta- tions. One of her concerns is with "murals which are outlined or stenciled to be 'filled in' by the children." She adds that they "are a piece with the 'coloring in' which blights so many young children's creative poten- tialities."5l+ In a short article in the Michigan Education Journal, a number of reasons are listed why stereotypes, including coloring books, should be avoided by all teachers. These reasons include: They tend to produce uniformity, conformity, and dependence, rather than independent thinking, creativity, and individuality. They are above the skills and abilities of some children and beneath the skills and abilities of others. In any case, they are an insult to the children using them. They leave the impression that there is only one way to do something. They are ugly, as compared to the variety, personality, and individuality of results obtainable through.more creative and flexible art lessons. They help to perpetuate mediocrity. 531bid, , p. 21. 5uzirbes, op. cit., pp. 267-268. 69 They prevent a child from discovering his own methods or representing his own interests, experiences, and observations. They jeopardize a child's appreciation of his own work through unfair comparisons. They reduce human knowledge and experiences to a meaningless decoration. These reasons were originally presented in a position paper on art and creativity as the result of a cooperative workshop by members of the Department of Classroom Teachers (DCT) and the Michigan Art Education Association (MAEA). The teacher-artists and classroom teachers of art, recognized a common concern so the two organizations established liaison in 1965, put some money aside for workshops, and gathered together a committee on art and creativity. This is a very encouraging example of two educational groups "working together to further innovation, self- renewal, creativity, and inquisitiveness."56 Concluding this review of the literature it seems appropriate to share a report of a boy, now a seventh grader,whom Torrance learned about as he was studying creative students in one of the schools where he was conducting some of his research activities: Before Keith entered school, everyone was impressed by his curiosity, cleverness, and mature thinking. Strangers would assume that he was in the third or fourth grade at the time he was four and a half years old. When Keith brought home his corrected kindergarten papers, his mother was disturbed to find he was doing failing work. He would add cowboy hats or boots to the dittoed drawings his teacher gave him to color or even more radically change a drawing. The trend seems to have continued throughout the remainder of Keith's educational career. His parents have had Keith tested by some of the best 55"MtAEA-DCT Help for Teaching Art," Michigan Education Journal, XLII (May 1, 1966), 18. 56Ibid . 7O pediatricians in their area. All have said that there is nothing wrong with Keith either physically or mentally and that he will learn when he had the "right teacher." Now thirteen years old, Keith was retained in the seventh grade last year, and teachers suspect that he is mentally retarded. His parents wonder. They see him come alive and work enthusiastically with projects at home and cannot believe that he is mentally retarded. Instead of talking about when the next school vacation will begin, as Anne does, Keith talks about when he will be old enough to drop out of school.57 Surely there must be something amiss here. Is it Keith? The school? The parents? The teachers? The pediatricians? Or an unfortu- nate combination of all or part thereof? Where is the "right teacher"? Why does Keith come alive at home with his projects and fail at school? As an "unmotivated" youngster in school, will he become a dropout? Summagy After all of the definitions have been listed and all the approaches taken and the measures found and studies compiled we come down all the spokes to the hub of the wheel. After all the words are written and all the speeches made and all the actions completed, the vital concern is what happens to people in their everyday lives - right now, this instant - concerning the opportunities they have for being creative. Nothing in this study is important unless it can provide some insight into how we can make life more meaningful for everyone. This does not necessarily need to be couched in the framework of a reli- gious experience or an artistic experience or a hypnotic experience or any other type of experience except your wholehearted commitment to everyday living. Right this very minute are you able to think creative thoughts, do creative actions, write creative words, or draw creative 57Torrance, Education and the Creative Potential, op. cit., p. 64. 71 ideas? What keeps you, RIGHT NOW, from being creative? What forces prevent you from trying out different ideas right now or in the next few minutes or in the next hour or this afternoon or during the coming week- end? The forces are staggering. It takes more than words, or talk, or even good opportunities to be creative; it takes the courage of one's convictions. Most people realize it is usually very difficult to be creative for a whole host of reasons. But does creativity belong only to the few? Can you become creative in different ways in different areas at different times in dif- ferent degrees? You can if you are willing to keep trying. Those who have led the way in creativity research, especially Guilford and Torrance, have been inspirational to many students and scholars who have benefited from their ideas and actions. These two researchers have provided much impetus to the difficult and complex study of creativity through the development of their experimental tests of creative thinking and in their prolific writings. Guilford's Structure-Of-Intellect, first presented in 1955, con- tains 120 hypothesized unitary abilities; some of which relate to crea- tivity. He indicates that the creative abilities seem to be localized in the divergent-thinking category and somewhat in the transformation category. His Structure is somewhat analogous to the Periodic Table of the Elements used by physical scientists. Through factor analysis he seeks to isolate the unitary abilities for which he develops specific tests. Torrance has approached creativity through testing for a number of creative attributes in the same test. He feels that it is too early to define a specific group of factors. As Torrance and associates 72 developed the Minnesota Tests of Creative Thinking they sought ways to validate their efforts. This was done, to a certain extent, with the various tests by finding out about the children who scored high on the creative thinking tests. These high creatives, as rated also by their teachers and peers, had lots of good ideas, were characterized by their humor, playfulness, relative lack of rigidity, and relaxation especially when compared with the highly intelligent but less creative children. Another significant finding mentioned by Torrance and others was that highly creative children, whose intelligence was not as high as the highly intelligent children, still did as well on the standardized tests of achievement as the highly intelligent. This means that IQ alone should not be the sole criteria for selecting students for special pro- grams or for college entrance. Form C of the Torrance MTCT was designed to measure a child's ability to think of ideas to make a toy animal more fun to play with following the theoretical orientation of "regression in the service of the ego." At about the same time the figural tests were devised which were used in the present study. we need to remember constantly that in whatever directions researchers are going they need to be concerned with providing opportuni- ties for creativity for all ages and groups of people. we must not lose sight of the fact that the people who are studied are not just numbers, or protocols in a book, or statistics - they are unique human beings. While most art educators have not been involved in doing research on creativity, they have been concerned with fostering and enhancing creativity through the teaching of art activities. According to Taylor, "art education may be more valuable in this age of science than is 73 generally realized" since one of its most central goals always has been the encouragement and development of creativity. Getzels and Jackson, as well as Torrance,review the early studies. Much of the research in this area of creativity was concerned with the relationship of creativity or imagination with intelligence. Dearborn, in 1898, casually noted that "giftedness in intelligence and giftedness in creativity were by no means synonymous." Practically every study reported even today supports this lack of correlation between creativity and intelligence. This meant that tests of creativity were measuring other abilities not touched by intelligence tests. Both measures are necessary to secure more complete information about a person. Of the six studies cited at the lower elementary level three are of particular relevance and apply most directly to this study. Heilman collected 384 drawings from sixty-four second graders and found "positive evidence that workbooks qualitatively influenced the total structuring of their creative drawings" and interfered with the "total growth pattern as promoted by creative drawings." Bencetic showed 540 children, in grades one through six, forty- one post-card sized reproductions of paintings of different styles. Among his findings he noted that "realistic pictures were favored by a ratio of two to one over the ten pictures judged 'most abstract.'" Johnson showed that in a Samoan cross-cultural assessment of over 1000 school children, in grades one through six, that the "typical 'slump' found in the United States was not inevitable, and that three conditions appear necessary in order to raise and maintain a high level of creative thinking abilities": (1) that cultural discontinuities be reduced; (2) that stimuli of various kinds be "rearranged, integrated, 74 and responded to"; and (3) that creative enterprise be continually rewarded in the particular culture. There is very little the various authors report that can be said in favor of coloring books as we review the comments of Lowenfeld and Brittain, Zirbes, and the list compiled by the MAEA-DCT. According to the MAEA-DCT article, all teachers should avoid using the coloring book approach with their students; especially those like Keith. CHAPTER III RELATED LITERATURE ON CONFORMITY Introduction In order to know something about conformity it was felt important to consider: how researchers define conformity; how suggestibility is viewed by social psychologists; the characteristics of conforming persons, as identified in various studies; the significant studies of conformity reported at the lower elementary level; what various authors have written about conformity; and the relationship of creativity and conformity. Definitions of Conformity walker and Heyns define conformity: . . . as movement toward some norm or standard and non-conformity as movement away from such a norm or standard. This definition implies a dimension of some kind which permits specification of at least three points: an original position for a person or group, a point or position specified as a norm, and a seco position of the person or group somewhere on the continuum. They go on to explain that "conformity and non-conformity always involve movement or change," and that "a norm in this formulation can be any standard from any source." Social norms can have a positive type of sanction, a negative type of sanction, or both. There are also 1Edward 14 Walker and Roger W} Heyns, An Anatomy for Conformity (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962), p. 5. 75 agencies to administer them.2 Zajonc defines conformity as the "behavior of an individual [when it] is under the control of a group norm." He refers to a group norm as a uniformity of social behavior among the members of a specified group.3 In the Test of Suggestibility (TS) devised for this study, the attempt was made to influence the first grade children to shift their second response, as they viewed a prepared set of drawings a second time, to the false norm established by the investigator.“ This was essentially a single observation taken in about a fifteen minute period. The real norm had been established during the week that the S-CIT was administered. At that time, the children had selected certain drawings which might be referred to as their "favorites." The child's initial position on the T3 was determined when he viewed the set of paired draws ings the first time, and each student recorded his responses. walker and Heyns point out that "conformity is a class of behavior. As such it should be manipulatable like any other class of behavior." A simple formula which describes the manner in which behavior is usually manipulated is pictures here: 00.415 \ \ NEED /INSTRUMENTAL ACT 7 ZIbid . ’3Robert B. Zajonc, "Conformity," International Encyclopedia of Social Sciences (New York: The Macmillan Company, to be published in January, 19385, p. 4 in author's copy of article. “A false norm is a contrived norm set up by the investigator to influence the subjects to shift or move toward it in order to see if they have a tendenqy to conform. Swalker and Hayns, op. cit., pp. #-5. 77 Definitions of Suggestibility Coffin writes that suggestibility usually implies: . . . some sort of "uncritical" acceptance of a proposition or course of action and the observer or experimenter usually notes or sets up a situation offering possibilities of "right" or "appropriate" responses and of "wrong" or "inappropriate" responses, together with a "proposition" to the subject that he make the "inappropriate" response. If he does so, the observer considers this "suggestion"; if he makes the "right" response, it is consideged "non-suggestibility," or "thought" or "critical response." McConnell indicates that: Suggestibility is a broad psychological construct which has often been used to describe the uncritical amenability of an individual to influences outside of himself.7 Relationship of Conformity and Suggestibility The investigator found no direct reference to the similarity or distinctness of conformity and suggestibility. McConnell. mentioned that suggestion is similar to other constructs such as prestige and conformity suggestion, instructional set, propaganda influence, and persuasibility.8 Asch describes the general method used in suggestibility experiments for effecting changes of opinions and judgments. He states that the process followed is simple and forthright: One establishes first how an individual evaluates a given matter. The second step consists of informing him about the evaluation of the same matter by others. If we find the indi- vidual altering his position in the suggested direction, we have obtained a definite social effect, the result of a reaction to the evaluation of others. In brief, one determines the views 6Coffin, op. cit., p. vii. 7Thomas R. McConnell, Jr., "Suggestibility in Children as a Function of Chronological Age," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychologz, LXVII (1963), 286. 81bid . 78 of individuals before and after they have been subjected to the views of others; the latter is the experimental factor, the effect of which is measured.9 When we compare the steps outlined by walker and Heyns and those just described by Asch we find a similarity. walker and Heyns picture conformity and nonconformity in this way:10 1 2 3 4 5 4* 4y 7: AZ \. ./ \. NC \\ /’ OP .\ 1’ C N OP = Original position N = Norm C = Conformity, movement toward NC = Nonconformity, movement away Asch's description might be pictured as follows: 1 2 3 a 5 0P-————-—;>CP JO OP Original position JO CP Judgment of others Changed position Asch has not introduced the idea of non-suggestibility in out- lining the twe steps mentioned above but it is assumed that this dimen- 11 and Bird12 refer to the fact that subjects sion does exist. Coffin are positively, negatively or neutrally influenced by suggestibility stimuli. 9Solomon E. Asch, Social Psychology (Engleweod Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1952), pTIEOB. 10Walker and Heyns, op. cit., p. 5. 11Coffin, op. cit., p. vii. 12Charles Bird, Social Psychology (New York: D. Appleton- Century Company, 19h0), p. 269. 79 The neutral position is not represented in either diagram above but it is assumed that there were subjects in the studies by walker and Heyns who did not shift from their original position.. Zajonc tells us that as conformity experiments are typically contrived, the subject is confronted with the responses of a group of people before he makes his own decision about the object seen or state- ment read or whatever the test situation might be. The group response is often purposefully different with what is actually true and what the subject perceives to be true.13 The similarity of the experimental process in studying conformity and suggestibility in subjects appears to be so similar as to suggest that they are essentially the same process or at least comparable. Early authors, including Asch, do not even discuss "conformity" in their writ- ing, whereas, they do include discussions of "suggestion" and "suggest- ibility." The studies reported by walker and Heyns were completed in a period from 1955 to 1962 when their book, An Anatomy of Conformity) was published. They make no mention of "suggestibility"; conformity is all that is discussed. Zajonc reviews the area of "conformity" but does not even mention "suggestibility" at all. Student does a very complete review of the literature related to the personality correlates of "con- formity" but does not mention "suggestibility."1l+ McConnell obtained 13Zajonc, op. cit., P. 23- 1“Kurt R. Student, "The Personality Correlates of Conformity: A Literature Review," (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Michigan, 1965) (Mimeographed.) 80 four measures of suggestibility, one of which was "conformity suggestion."15 The method used by McConnell to obtain this measure is very similar to the method the investigator used in obtaining the Positive and Negative Shift Scores on the Test of Suggestibility used in this study. Characteristics of Conformity It should be kept in mind that the distinguishing characteristics of conformity, as in the area of creativity, are subject to a multitude of variations because the study of human behavior is so complex. In addition, research on conforming behavior of people has not been intensi- fied by a Guilford-like battle cry, though Sherif, Asch, and Crutchfield, among others, have done much work. Crutchfield posits four types of personalities: (1) [The general] conformer . . . lacks ego-strength, is anxious and suggestible, is overly dependent on the emotional support of other people. Such a person is brought to comply with the group through a weakened conviction about his own judgmental powers, a readiness to assume that the group is right and he is wrong. (2) [The "expedient" conformer] is brought by group pressure to express more outward agreement with the group, while his private judgment remains unaffected . . . . [he is] not prevented in his inner thinking from seeking for creative solutions, despite the group pressure. (3) EThe counterconformist reacts] negatively to the group, . . . repudiates its standards, [and is] actively contra-suggestible. [He needs to defend] his personal identity, becoming emancipated from the group's authority, and expressing hostile impulses toward others . . . . [all of which] can be expected to impair his creative efforts. (h) [The] independent-minded person is often highly conventional in those ways of social behavior that facilitate life in the group and yet do not impede his own aims. The truly independent 15McConnell, op. cit., p. 287. 81 person in whom creative thinking is likely to flourish - is someone who can ascept society without denying himself.16 Crutchfield, working at the Institute of Personality Assessment and Research (IPAR), at the University of California at Berkeley, found that, among 100 men from different professions, the ones who exhibited extreme independence in the test situation were described by the assess- ment staff in the form of descriptive Q sorts: Is an effective leader. Takes an ascendent role in his relations with others. Is persuasive; tends to win other people over to his point of view. Is turned to for advice and reassurance. Is efficient, capable, able to mobilize resources easily and effectively. Is active and vigorous. Is an expressive, ebullient person. Seeks and enjoys aesthetic and sensuous impressions. Is natural; free from pretense, unaffected. Is self-reliant; independent in judgment; able to think for himself.17 Crutchfield has worked with MacKinnon, Barron, and others at IPAR, for a number of years. He has administered a standardized experimental technique, for measuring conformity tendencies of the individual, to over 600 persons, including samples of college students, engineers, writers, architects, medical school applicants, mathematicians, military 16Richard S. Crutchfield, "Detrimental Effects of Conformity figessures on Creative Thinking," Peychologische Beitraggl VI (1961/62), 8-h70. 17Crutchfield, "Conformity and Character," American Psychologist, X (1955). 194. 82 officers, and research scientists. In contrast to the independent think- ing person, he found that the extreme conforming thinker evidenced these behaviors:18 Cognitive functioning Motivational and emotional functioning Self-conception Relations with others Significantly less intelligent. Shows tendencies toward rigidity of cognitive processes and poverty of ideas. Perceptual performances tend to be less adaptive to reality. Poorer in critical judgment. Less well informed. Clearly lower in ego-strength and in ability to cope under stress. Exhibits more emotional constriction, lack of spontaneity, repression of impulse, and tendency toward indirect expression of hostility. More subject to anxiety. Inclined toward pronounced feelings of personal inferiority and inadequacy. Lacks self-confidence. Tends to be less insightful and realistic in his self-conception. Exhibits strong sociometric orientation and an intense preoccupation with other people. Interpersonal behavior shows more passivity, suggestibility, and dependence toward other people. Considerable evidence of disturbed and distrustful attitudes toward them. Proves to be inferior in social acuity, that is, in his ability to judge other people's reactions correctly. 18Crutchfield notes that the precise way in which personality fac- tors relate to conformity behavior vary greatly, depending in part upon the specific nature of the psychological situation in which conformity is elicited. 83 Personal Expresses attitudes and values of a far more attitudes orthodox and excessively moralistic nature often and values coupled with An intolerant and authoritarian outlook. Less likely to exhibit aesthetic ignsitivity and inquiringness as a habit of mind. Student reports that Crutchfield, using the Strong Vocational Interest Blank, found that those people who were concerned with conven- tional values, such as policeman, office men, real estate salesmen and morticians, had interest patterns like those who were found to be con- formers. "Interest patterns of the independents tend to be similar to those persons in occupations calling for artistic and scientific origi- nality, e.g., artist, musician, author-journalist, mathematician., and architect.20 Zajonc reviewed numerous studies in social psychology, in the area of conformity, and described the various characteristics of conform- ing people - young and old. He indicates that the tendency to conform has been shown to be a stable individual characteristic showing up repeatedly in different situations. He cites a study by Ferguson in which subjects who shifted attitudes on one scale, of different attitude scales, also shifted attitudes in the direction of the contrived majority on other scales.21 Rosmer and Crutchfield are reported to have found clear evidence that for a single task and for a single experimental session the subjects 19Crutchfield, "Detrimental Effects of Conformity Pressures on Creative Thinking," op. cit., pp. l466.J+67. ZOStudent, op. cit., pp. 86, 88. 21Zajonc, op. cit., p. 16. 84 who shift to the majority on initial trials are also likely to shift on subsequent trials. Also individuals who shift on the specific task dur- ing one experimental session, tend to shift on that same task on a 22 Bird indicates that there repeated administration at a later date. is support for the finding "that people constantly are suggestible along certain lines [but not] in all or a majority of instances covering a wide range of suggestions."23 In other studies reviewed by Zajonc,Tuddenham found that children are prone to conform more readily than adults, girls more than boys, and women more than men. Both Crutchfield and Tuddenham report that intel- ligence and conformity are negatively related. Zajonc reports that con- formity to a false majority is substantially negated when it involves fairly stable values. Even when people have a strong commitment, some degree of conformity is seen.24 One of the hyp0theses which is being tested in this stuiy is the idea that conforming children are not-as-creative. The conforming child, for instance, is more dependent on others. As a child is more dependent he is not as open to his total experience. Zajonc indicates that perhaps the most outstanding among many personality factors which has a signifi- cant relationship to conformity is the dependency variable. He states that: Naturally, a dependent individual would be more prone to conform than one who can function independently, and who need not rely 22Ibid., p. 17. 231mm, op. cit.,_p. 271. ‘_ 2I"'Zajonc, op. cit., pp. 18-19. 85 on others in judging his own actions. . . . It is generally found that children are more dependent than adults, and that females [are] more dependent than males.25 Children are normally dependent. It is realized that independ- ence comes gradually, but dependence need not be prolonged by measures such as coloring books, patterns, and other ideational "crutches." Zajonc paints the "picture of the conformist as a dependent, submissive person, with little confidence in his own ability, [whichJ leads one immediately to suspect that he is also quite sensitive to his relation- ship with authority figures." This is borne out, but not too cleanly in research studies. Zajonc presents the idea in his review that "dependency is a personality disposition related to the affiliative strivings of the individual" whereas "independence . . . is related to his achievement strivings." He says that they both can predict conform- ity but in opposite directions.26 Concerning independence, Torrance feels that "creativity by its very nature, requires both sensitivity and independence." we have come to believe that sensitivity is a feminine virtue, and independence is a masculine value. 'With this in mind the highly creative boy (sensitive) seems more effeminate than his peers and the highly creative girl (inde- pendent) more masculine than her peers.27 According to Zajonc, a unitary personality disposition to conform generally has not been found consistently. In addition, followup studies 25% , pp. 19.20. 26Ipid:, p. 21. 27Torrance, Education and the Creative Potential, op. cit., I). 22. 86 are often at odds with the original studies. The author does state the fact that females tend to conform more than males is the most reliable finding in this area. Concerning group factors, Zajonc goes on to dis- cuss the importance of a person's confidence in resisting conformity. As conformity experiments are typically contrived, the subject is con- fronted with the responses of a group of people before he makes his own decision about the object seen or statement read or whatever the test situation might be. The group response is often purposefully different with what is actually true and what he perceives to be true. Indeed, many factors can be introduced in the experimental contrived situation to cause the person to change his decision, often in instances of obvi- ous fallacious situations, depending on the characteristics of the group, its size, its unanimity, its reputed expertness on the task. These are some of the factors helping to negate the individual's confidence in his own judgment. Just as walker and Heyns indicated earlier, the conform- ing situation can be manipulated by various tried and tested techniques briefly mentioned by Zajonc.2'8 Zajonc concludes his review by saying that even though research studies on conformity have not been highly reliable, much data has been collected since the early studies by Sherif and Asch who also charted the way ahead. They have shown that group pressures are powerful con- ‘trolling agents even under completely private conditions. When subjects Inake obvious wrong judgments, even in a situation they know to be experi- mental, the pressures on them are great, real and serious. Increases 1J1 physiological stresses are noted in the person as he is confronted k 28Zajonc, op. cit., pp. 22-27. 87 with a majority, false or otherwise, counter to the subject's belief, which then declines when he agress with the group.29 Student, reviewing the research on psychological characteristics and conformity, reports various findings made by Barron who selected extreme groups in susceptibility by the use of the Asch situation and compared their self-ratings on the Gough Adjective Check List. He found that: Subjects low in conformity significantly more often perceived themselves to be artistic, emotional, original (.01 level of confidence), demanding, excitable, fairminded, logical, moody, rational, reckless, and tactless (.05 level of confidence). Yielders considered themselves to be more determined, efficient, kind, obliging, optimistic, patient (.01 level of confidence), affected, considerate, dignified, friendly, helpful, Bodest, stable, tactful, and wise (.05 level of confidence).3 Pertinent Studies of Conformity at the Lower Elementary Level work on conformity with young elementary school children is relatively rare, perhaps because of the fact that children are so changeable. Perhaps the age factor is the reason for the lack of studies in these lower grades. Coffin indicated that "most experimenters agree that suggestibility is higher in children than in adults, and that it may increase from infancy to approximately age seven or nine and decrease progressively from then on." Coffin cites a number of researchers who have made this finding while several researchers found no decrease in suggestibility with age.31 291bid., p. 28. 30Student, op. cit., p. 86. 3icorrin, op. cit., p. 20. 88 McConnell studied the relationship between suggestibility and chronological age of 290 boys and girls in grades one through twelve attending a demonstration school affiliated with George Peabody College. He defined suggestibility as "a broad psychological construct which has often been used to describe uncritical amenability of an individual to influence outside of himself." This idea is similar to other constructs which include: prestige and conformity suggestion, instructional set, propaganda influence, and persuasibility. None of these constructs seem to correlate highly with each other. It is therefore thought that "the generality of the construct is probably limited in some degree to the operations involved." McConnell lists some of the variables he feels are important which tend to influence suggestibility: the type of sug- gestion, the method of testing, the physiological and psychological states, the stimulus ambiguity, the subject's sex, and the various per- sonality characteristics. The author says that several factors play a large part in making substantial inter-subject variability - the person- ality structure and the past learning experiences of the subjects. Even though the area of suggestibility is quite complex, as it has been opera- tionally defined, it has been shown to be measurable and predictable. McConnell refers to Coffin's excellent article written in 1941.32 McConnell found that "little suggestibility research using chil- dren as subjects has been published over the past decade." It is assumed that as a child grows older that his tractableness to suggestion decreases. Some researchers have shown this, others have not. The author hypothesized that chronological age would have a negative * 32McConnell, op. cit., p. 287. 89 relationship to suggestibility and that boys would be less suggestible than girls.33 In discussing the results, the author writes that: The developmental curve for suggestibility confirmed the hypothesis that uncritical amenability to suggestion decreases as children grow older. This decrease is likely to be a func- tion of more and wider learning experiences, greater confidence in perceptions, and generally increased autonomy. C O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O C O O O O O O O O O O O O O The finding of no sex differences in the suggestibility measures questions prgxious research results which have found such differences. A study of Maslow of 316 fifth and sixth grade boys identified some relationships between social conformity and self perception. He wondered if a person's low self-esteem is also seen in his lack of trust in his ability "to know reality" and in his compensatory "need to validate his perceptions by consensus" in order to prove his adequacy. The results indicate that "the relationship between conformity and low self-esteem, which has been consistently found with adults, is not present in pre- adolescent beys."35 The basic idea for the Test of Suggestibility for this study was suggested by Zajonc and shown to be possible by McConnell's study. The latter's study obtained four measures of suggestibility: baseline sug- gestibility, prestige suggestibility, conformity suggestion, and prestige suggestibility. The third measure, conformity suggestion, was essentially the measure obtained in this study. McConnell told the students that: 33Ibid. 3“I‘pid. , p. 289. 35Albert R. Maslow, "Some Relationships between Social Conformity and Self Perception," (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, The American University, 1961), Dissertation Abstracts XXII (October, 1961), 1285. 90 "we have given these last slides to a group of boys and girls your age in another school and they nearly always marked one of the figures as bigger than the other. we want to see if you agree with what they said." This investigator obtained responses based on the prestige factor of a first grade shift agent, a fourth grade shift agent, and art teachers as a shift agent. The design of the TS needed to be simple and easy enough for first graders to do without a great deal of preparation and explanation. Qppfpgmity in Contemporary Society as Seen and written pbgut by Various Distinguished Authors Lowenfeld writes that "originality" is the name we give to that quality which is directly opposite "conformity" in thought and expression. Creative students give statistically infrequent responses to questions and solve problems in often unique and individual ways. "Their solutions spring from the depths of their own minds rather than from something they have read or heard."36 Anderson, writing about Terman's well-known longitudinal study of gifted children many years ago, remarks that in looking back it is small wonder that the children in Terman's study, while developing into intellectually capable people, have not shown their great originality in the arts and the sciences. As Anderson notes, "these 'geniuses' were selected not on the basis of a demonstrated originality or uniqueness in their responses but on the basis of their swift and superior conformity 37 in cultural norms." 36Lowenfeld, op. cit., p. 13. 37Harold H. Anderson, "Creativity and Education," ABE College and University Bulletin, op. cit., p. 1. 91 Anderson discusses the Open and the Closed Systems in education. In the Closed System of education the student has only to learn what his forebears have already discovered or agreed upon. He learns what someone else thinks is right or wrong, to follow directions, and do what he is told. Unfortunately for most of us that is where our school learning stopped. It is, however, the system by which the heritage of the race is preserved - including the sorting, classifying, and cataloging of attics 8 full of useless, unlovely, and undiscarded psychic antiques.3 In writing about the meaning of creativity, Anderson discusses nine propositions about creativity. The seventh one concerns the infant starting his life in an Open System where he may interact freely in his environment. He is unable to move around, but he takes everything in. After he learns to communicate and to move about, people in his environ- ment begin to close in on him and confine him in some of his behavior. He begins to meet the complex system of demands from his environment which include a great many socializing and acculturating processes. The climax comes to these early requirements for conformity when the child. begins school. The systems begins to close surely and tightly even in the school setting. There is no escape. Unfortunately, the environments of most children, at all socio-economic levels, but especially the lower, do not stimulate nor even allow the continuous process of fostering and enhancing creativity that is so vitally needed. It is not surprising, argues Anderson, that in early childhood, creativity is universal and that among adults, who have been through the acculturation process for many years, it is almost nonexistent.39 Torrance realizes that creative performance is enhanced by the 38Ib1d . 39Ibid,, p. h. 92 right conditions in the home and at school, by how one responds to the creative needs of others, and by whether creative thinking and creative 40 He mentions that future achievements are encouraged or discouraged. teachers continue to learn only the way to devise tests to measure what pupils learn, almost never to utilize what pupils learn. Teachers talk about objectives of concentrating on "pupils' being familiar with and conforming to behavioral norms, and learning the 'right' attitudes." Seldom do teachers state outcomes in terms of all kinds of thinking: critical, creative, constructive, independent, logical, liberal, and analytical. Seldom is educational research, according to Torrance, devoted to the investigation of the thinking process.“1 Elsewhere, Torrance discusses some problems in attempting to maintain creativity: Inescapably, the individual who thinks of a new idea is in the very beginning a minority of one. Even when matters of demon- strable fact are involved, as in the Asch experiments, there are very few people who can tolerate being a minority of one. Since creativity involves independence of mind, nonconformity to group pressures, or breaking out of the mold, it is inevitable that highly creative individuals experience some unusual problems of adjustment. Thus, the highly creative child must either repress his creativity or learn to cope with the pgnsions that arise from being so frequently a minority of one. Toynbee sees in America today the affluent majority "striving desperately to arrest the irresistible tide of change." With this impos- sible aim in mind, public opinion in America is putting a tremendously high premium on social conformity right now; and this endeavor to stand— ardize the behavior of adults is "as discouraging to creative ability uoTorrance, Education and the Creative Potential, op. cit., p. 62. “lipid“ p, 1:. azTorrance, Guidipg Creative Talent, op. cit., p. 10h. 93 and initiative as the educational policy of egalitarianism in childhood."l+3 He firmly believes that any child can be so easily discouraged, since children are especially sensitive to hostile public opinion. They are willing to pay a high price for "poor-spirited conformity" since this is what an "egalitarian-minded society" values. He warns that egali- tarianism which is "misguided" and conservatism which is "benighted" are current menaces in most English-speaking countries to the fostering of creative ability. Creation is a threat to the status quo in society because it is expanding and building outwardly. It ruins the old estab- lished order in the process of building a new and better one. The crea- tive artist or the creative architect or anyone with a creative spirit makes the dough rise, but this valuable social service is castigated as highly undesirable in a society where the "powers-that-be have set them- selves to stop life's tide from flowing."ua Schachtel writes that the pressure of society affects everybody's life. Parents, teachers, peers, all partake of the process which results in the formation of a more or less definite, closed view of life and the world, a certain code of behavior along with quite specific views about things and people.)+5 He goes on to add another dimension of the effects within the family: In addition to the closure of the world which results from the 43Arnold Toynbee, "Is America Neglecting Her Creative Minority?" VVidenipg Horizons in Creativitp, ed. Calvin w. Taylor (New York: John FViley & Sons, Inc., 19 , p. . h41bid,, pp. 6u7. 45Schachtel, Metamorphosis: On the Development of Affect, ,Eiercgption, Attention, and Memopy, op. cit., p. 187. 9a transmission of a familiar and/or cultural viewpoint, parental curbing of the child's exploratory drive can also be a factor that interferes with the world-openness of the child and often leads to a more or less powerful strengthening of the to ncy to avoid the unknown and remain embedded in the familiar. Melby writes with great sensitivity for the place of creative teaching and creative teachers working with all children but, he adds, it is very difficult to grow up creatively since society's total struc- ture is designed to grant approval to those who conform. He says that children with the "most vigorous and obstreperous spirits" are the ones who are able to be completely themselves. From their ranks we have juvenile delinquents and those "who find creative outlets [and] become artists, musicians, scientists or other kinds of original persons."u7 Later on, as he begins to write about the power of the self-image, Melby feels that as one looks around at the social and educational panorama, one becomes concerned with the enormous waste of human potentialities. This is because there has been tremendous emphasis "on knowledge rather than on the individual, on information rather than on personal growth, on conformity rather than on creativityflfl'8 In effect, Melby and others are asking how the unrelenting cas- cade of cadaverous commonality, captive consensus, callous conventional- ity, and cautious conformity can be curbed and controlled, especially in the process of education. Here is the eroding process as Melby writes about it: Somehow or other as the child grows older and progresses from “éIbid. h7Me1by, The Teacher and Learning, op. cit., pp. 28.29. “8M. p. 78. 95 grade to grade his spontaneity is reduced. The curiosity evidenced in earlier years seems gradually to be lost. Increasingly the individual's educational progress is measured in terms of how much he can remember of what other people have done rather than in terms of the degree to which he develops himself in creative directions. As we progress through the grades and levels of education there is more concern with subject matter and leSS‘With the individual's own outlooks, interests, aptitudes, and creative capacity. Thus, the educational system becomes a vast enterprise that is shot through with a deadening emphasis upon conformity, upon routine, and upon the individual's ability to master what others have done rather than to develop something of his own. Curiously, educators look at A. S. Neill as a radical, like some other men in history, who is a man of his own convictions and who has patiently shown that the art of living can be a way of teaching and learning. In many ways he is a man come too early for his meaningful labours to have much of a significant impact. Neill maintains that: You cannot make children learn music or anything else without to some degree converting them into will-less adults. You fashion them into accepters of the status quo - a good thing for a society that needs obedient sitters at dreary desks, standers in shops, mechanical catchers of the 8:30 suburban train - a society, in short, that is carried on the shabby shoulders of the scared little man - the scared-to-death conformist.5o Fromm, in his remarks for Neill's book, joins in the lament: Our economic system must create men who fit its needs; men who cooperate smoothly; men who want to consume more and more. Our system must create men whose tastes are standardized, men who can be easily influenced, men whose needs can be anticipated. Our system needs men who feel free and independent but who are nevertheless willing to do what is expected of them, men who will fit into the social machine without friction, who can be guided without force, who can be led without leaders, and who can be directed without any aim except the one to "make good."51 ugMelby, Education for Renewed Faith in Freedom, op. cit., pp. 54-55. 50A. s. Neill, Summerhill; A Radical Apprgapp tp Child Regripg (New York City: Hart Publishing Company, 19 O), p. 12. 51Erich Fromm, "Forward," Summerhill: A Radical Approach to Child Rearipg, op. cit., p. xi. 96 Is it any wonder that someone recently remarked, "stop the world, I want to get off!" "Include me out," as Goldwyn immortalized.52 Thurstone remarks that if you give children a chance they will show creative ability. She bemoans the fact that we seem to plan things just the opposite so our general philosophy "is not to allow non-conformity or originality.. . . One of the purposes of civilization is to make us all as much like everybody else as possible."53 Sylvia Ashton;warner wonders about her Maori students in their New Zealand habitat: "I don't know where the intention fails but we end up with the same pattern of a person in nine hundred ninety-nine instances out of a thousand."sl+ Relationship of Creativity and Conformity In the discussion about the relationship between creativity and conformity which follows, we can ask ourselves just what should the rela- tionship be? All of one and none of the other? Half and half? This implies an all or neither or an even balance relationship, respectively. Perhaps there needs to be some kind of shifting or sliding relationship. In this study the aspects of creativity are felt to be of major importance but the numerous and onerous forces in society command the opposite strategy - that of conformity. Overcoming this vast barrier is one of difficult tasks of man in our advanced civilization. 52John Gardner, Selmeenewal The Lndividpgl and the Inngyatiyg Society, op. cit., p. 61+. 53Thelma Gwinn Thurstone, "Commentaries," Productive Thinkipg_ in Education, op. cit., pp. 38~39. 5nSylvia Ashton-warner, Teacher (New York: Bantam Books, Inc., 1963)! p0 86o 97 Student informs us that the current interest in creativity, among the great many social scientists, is in finding ways in which crea- tivity can be increased, and in the relationship between creativity and conformity. He feels that "a better understanding of the relationship between conformity and the motivation to be right55 would also enhance our understanding of the group processes which promote creativity."56 Sherif believes that social isolation is not a natural condition of the human being, either from a particularly desired setting or as a prolonged unending state. People in a normless isolated state experience personal conflict or, most certainly, loss of personal identity. Sherif asks: Why, then, denounce groups as such, or norms as such, or con- formity as such? Instead, our efforts should be directed toward evaluating particular groups and particular norms in terms of the state of interdependence of human beings in given socie- ties and in terms of enduring, lasting human values in contem- porary settings - where what one does relative to others is no longer his own business. What one group does has come to be the business of all groups.57 When the difficulty is reduced to everyday experience MacKinnon realizes that: It is not easy for a teacher, or for anyone else who always has to deal with groups of individuals, to welcome nonconform- ing behavior; and this is, of course, especially anxiety 55Student is making the implicit assumption that "a relationship exists between creativity i.e., creative problem solving and the moti- vation to be correct." The investigator wonders if to be "correct" at any cost, even of "conforming," is meant to mean that creative people are more likely to be "correct" most ofthe time if they use the "creative problem-solving" way. 568tudent, op. cit., pp. 69-70. 57Mquafer Sherif and Carolyn w; Sherif, Reference Groups: Exploration into Conformity and Deviation of Adolescent (New York: Harper and Row, 1964), p. 273. 98 provoking for the inexperienced person. It is not nonconformity as such that deserves respect or even acceptance - and certainly not nonconformity that is carried on for nonconformity's sake (which ends by being conformity in reverse) - but rather, that kind of nonconforming, independent behavior merits respect which is an expression of the wholehgarted commitment of the individual to truly creative goals.5 MacKinnon is quick to urge that freedom for the student is not unlimited but that discipline and self control are vital. learning these abilities appears to be necessary for being truly creative but not to the point of overlearning self-control and discipline. In addition "there is a time and a place for their learning [and for their practic- ing - investigator]; but having been learned, self-discipline and control should be used flexibly, not rigidly or compul_sivel‘y."59 The concern in this study is with the degree or variations of creativity and conformity normally found in first grade children. 'With all the pressures and cultural discontinuities from society designed to have children and adults conform in most areas of social and intellectual activity, it seems that there is little room or energy left for children and adults to be creative, when to be creative often takes enormous energy and strength of one"s convictions. Torrance emphasizes: It should be recognized, however, that the goal of guidance is not to promote just individuality and creativity but to encourage healthy kinds of individuality, creativity, and conformity. As shown by Pepinsky"s findings . . . , creativity and conformity are not antithetical to each other. Many creative individuals, however, need guidance in achieving the balance between creativity and conformity so that they enhance one another. This is a guid- ance task for teachers and counselors at all levels of education, because the creative personality does not emerge suddenly and 58Donald W. MacKinnon, "Personality Correlates of Creativity," Productive Thinking in Education, 4p. cit., p. 166. 59Ibid, 99 dramatically. It must be nurtured thgough many crises from kindergarten through graduate school. 0 (Italics mine.) On the other hand Crutchfield believes "that conformity and creative thinking are antithetical.”61 (Italics mine.) He calls this a "truism." In this particular article Crutchfield makes two general points: (1) "That conformity pressures tend to elicit kinds of motiva- tion in the individual that are incompatible with the creative proc- ess, . . . and (2) that high susceptibility by the individual to conformity pressures tends to be associated with certain personality traits that are detrimental to creative thinking."62 Pepinsky describes the young college women in her study as accepting certain limits as unavoidable, but they view authority with "critical respect" instead of "unquestioning servility." These women "conform to the majority view in trivial matters, but where they differ on issues they see as important, they can maintain their positions under pressure." The important idea here is the ability of the nonconforming independent thinkers to accept conformity in areas of unimportant actions or ideas, but to maintain their own unique position in the vital mean- ingful areas that really matter and for which they can work with convic- tion and commitment.63 Business, industry, and government are vitally interested in 60Torrance, Guiding Creative Talent, 9p. cit., pp. 142-143. 61See underlined statements by Torrance and Crutchfield. This dichotomy is presented in more detail in Appendix A. 6ZCrutchfield, "Detrimental Effects of Conformity Pressures on Creative Thinking," op. cit., p. 463. 63Pauline N. Pepinsky, "A Study of Productive Nonconformity," The Gifted Child Quarterly, IV (Winter, 1960), 81. 100 developing creative talent among their "key" personnel who are considered a vital resource. Creative talent is a valuable commodity in the per— sonnel market place. What the researchers are finding in these areas certainly has added to the general knowledge about creativity as execu- tives, scientists, and research workers have been studied. There is also the great concern about the embedded cultural expectations and the other kinds of discontinuities which every individual in our society has been steeped in and is continually confronted with. Researchers, writ- ing about creativity in business, industry, and government, have dis- cussed the relationship of creativity and conformity. The consensus seems to be that both are necessary. Maier and Hayes acknowledge: W. H. Whyte, Jr., for the best known and most determined effort to equate participation, teamwork, and democracy in business with mass mediocrity and conformity. The new social ethic, he argues, has overemphasized the value of the group thesis to such a degree that it has led to a delusory and self-destructive trend toward a climate which inhibits initiative and imagination. The solution he offers social institgtions lies in the compulsive power of a word: INDIVIDUALISM. 4 However, these two authors see Whyte's "individualism" creating the "very problems of conformity and mediocrity it is avowed to cure." As they point out "fear and dependency are at the root of the matter. A young man in business today cannot be a nonconformist by himself unless such behavior is acceptable to his superiors." They believe that "men get into trouble more for what they do than for what they fail to do. Conforming may not always be an asset, but it is not dangerous."65 6l"'l\lorman R. F. Maier and John J. Hayes, Creative Management (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1962), p. 25. 65mm... p. 26. 101 Nevertheless the job of tightening bolt after bolt after bolt after bolt after bolt into car dash after car dash after car dash after car dash is also very dangerous. Creative outlets can help relieve the tedium. In connection with mass production of goods, Haier and Hayes out- line "a fundamental principle in the philosophy of democratic leadership: people in organizations are interdependent, not independent."66 The authors explain that: Each member needs the help of other members to assume some share of the total task. It is this mutuality of needs that creates interdependence and defines the climate in which creativity must take place. . . . Our problem is not simply to enhance personal freedom and creativity, but to do so within the context of social interdependence. The individualist in the organization who assumes he is independent is meregy ignoring the costs of mismanaging the economics of freedom. Meier and Hayes point out that it is certainly imperative in a democratic society such as ours that, within large and small units of society, such as corporations and families, limitations on individual freedom are necessary. No one can do just as he pleases at any time or else the resulting disintegration of the corporation and the family, of the entire society, would "seriously impair the freedom of every indi- vidual in it. The climate would be anarchy."68 This is certainly true, but the organizational setup of most corporations, huge and small, does not seem to be capable of the flex- ibility which can permit divergency, or individuality of effort, or 661bid., p. 35. 67Ibid . 681bid. . pp. 29-30. 102 spontaneousness of feeling, or anything resembling humanness, especially for the individuals on the assembly-line type of jobs. A double stand- ard exists with a few individuals who are "officially encouraged" to be creative in their work. Industry needs men who can fit in and not rock the boat and, of course, there are a great number of individuals in society who have learned to like and accept this kind of effort. As the family unit changes, further loss of personal attachment will be evident. This might be a unit of society where creativity can still be fostered and enhanced even as it changes dimensions. As ways of fostering and enhancing creativity are devised to fit better the various changing dimensions of society, they need to be fabricated almost on a floating foundation which can adapt flexibly and appropri- ately to significant changes within society. Haefele, a research chemist at Proctor and Gamble Company, main- tains that the: . . . problem of climate arises because organizational pressures operate to limit and to mold creativity. This is but one aspect of the larger problem of conformity, which stands as one of the most important blocks to creativity. ‘we squelch our children with conformity and social adjustment in school, and give them another big dose in business. But creation is nonconformity per_ 555 If one applies any logic at all, the organization should strive to make a man whom it desires to be creative, less a conformist than he is already. The creator has to be a no con- formist because eveny creation is an act of nonconformity. 9 Haier and Hayes write of the double standard which allows some talented individuals to be creative while making all others continue in desirable, safe and conforming ways on the production line.70 Fromm 69John‘W. Haefele, Creativity and Innovation (New York: Reinhold Publishing Corporation, 1962), p. 193. 70Maier and Hayes, op. cit., PP. 31-3u. 103 wrote, quoted above, that "our system needs men who feel-£322_and inde- pendent but who are nevertheless willing to do what is expected of them, men who will fit into the social machine without friction, who can be guided without force, . . ." In a publication written for the Foundation for Research on Human Behavior entitled Creativity and Conformity — A Problem for Organiza- tiggg, Carol Ludington, its editor, wrote in conclusion: CREATIVITY AND CONFORMITY are important to every organization. Both are needed. It is a mistake to assume, loosely, that one is good and the other bad. They are both essential to social progress and social stability. What society and business must work for is a wholesome balance between the two. Gardner, drawing heavily on the research of Barron, Crutchfield, Getzels, Guilford, MacKinnon, Stein and others for his discussion of creativity, offers many insights which are relevant to the relationship of creativity and conformity. He reports that one of the findings he found most interesting from recent research was the idea that "the crea- tive individual as a rule chooses to conform in the routine, everyday matters of life, such as speech, dress, and manners. One gets the impression that he simply is not prepared to waste his energy in noncon- formity about trifles." Just as with Pepinsky's young college women, "he reserves his independence for what really concerns him - the area in which his creative activities occur."72 Gardner indicates that "one shortcoming in current writing on this subject has been the tendency to seek a villain." It might be one 71Carol Ludington, (ed.), Creativity and Conformity: A Problem for Organizations (Ann Arbor, Michigan: Foundation for Research on Human Behavior, 1958), p. 33. 72Gardner, op. cit., p. 37. 10# social class dominating another, Madison Avenue, The Establishment, or any other "tired old bogey man" the individual wishes to use. But, as Gardner advises, "an essential feature of the individual's predicament today is that there is no villain." He writes that "what is oppressing 73 the individual is the veny nature of modern society." As he discusses tyranny without a tyrant he seys: If we understand how these things can happen, then we are in a position to understand that people can construct their own tyrannies. If one's freedom must be invaded, it is perhaps comforting to find the invasion accomplished democratically. But loss of freedom is loss of freedom. Finally, as we have already seen, many threats to individual freedom do not stem even remotely from the relationships of authority and subordination nor indeed from any political cir- cumstance, but from customs, traditions, and conceptions of what is gproper procedure." These can be as coercive as any tyranny. Meier and Hayes write that automation may be valuable in freeing men from the assembly line so that human resources may be used "in more creative ways." They say that "machines can do many things better than human beings. This leaves man free to do what he can do best - think."75 Even though men might be free to think, Gardner feels that the "root of the difficulty is an attitude of mind that has never really died out in the world, nor perhaps even diminished greatly since the days of the Pharaohs - a willingness to sacrifice human values to other objectives." The author warns that if human aesthetic, spiritual, and social values are not preserved, modern technology will destroy them 73Ibid., p. 55. 7“Ibid., p. 56. 75Maier and Hayes, op. cit., pp. 33-34. 105 76 'most certainly. According to Gardner: The tyranny of the mass society is not a matter of one man's foot on another man's neck. It is a tyranny of the formula. Mass society searches for common denominators. Sheer numbers make it impossible to take account of individual identity. Serving the mass market requires standardization. Popular culture becomes homogenised. Even political campaigns are planned by the marke researcher.77 Gardner feels that the fault of society and organizations, and presumably of the individuals themselves, "lies in an assignment of func- tions that ignores the needs of the individual."78 So often the man is trained to fit the job. We need to realize that: Organization serves man and rules him, increases his scope and hems him in. we must be exceedingly discriminating in weighing its benefits against possible disadvantages. And in doing so we shall discover that everything depends on the patterns of organization. Gardner sees hope that "on some fronts we seem to be achieving patterns of organization that avoid stultification, rigidity and threats to freedom inherent in monolithic integrations. If this is true, it may be the most important single fact in our future."80 Maier and Hayes see that the "problem of improving creative achievement in organizations is basically the problem of maximizing free- doms in social settings. . . . to avoid the pitfalls of irresponsible individualism on the one hand and blind conformity on the other." They have searched for "a synthesis:a new creative climate within the 76Gardner, op. cit., p. 57. 77$§l§a 78;pig;, p. 60. 79lhi§.. p. 63. 80Ibid. 106 framework of orggnization."81 Gardner urges that we need to devise ways to create organizations and other systems of technology so that the talents of individuals are fully used and that satisfaction and dignity are preserved for all human beings. "we must learn to make technology serve man not only in the end product but in the doing."82 Maier and Hayes suggest that until automation takes over the drudgery and boredom of repetitive and monotonous work that: Group problem solving represents a form of participation that supplies a creative climate wherein individual freedom and creative opportunities are enhanced for every member of the group. It represents an interdependent balance of needs of members and needs of the organization. By maximizing human freedom, it maximizes human creativity. It provides active, responsible roles for each member of the organization in a climate that encourages freedom to think, freedom to disagree8 freedom to experiment, freedom to err, and freedom to create. In the meantime, in spite of what Maier and Hayes say about "irresponsible individualism," we must nuture: . . . the creative man who seems a little sandy in the fine- meshed organizational gears [who] is fighting a battle for the very management that may look at him askance. He fights for all men, and for the free spirit of the western world, which has in large degree given fgpedom to live, and now seeks to maintain freedom to create. Summagz Conformity is seen as a movement toward some norm or standard while non-conformity is a movement away from such a norm or standard. 81Maier and Hayes, op. cit., p. 37. 82Gardner, op. cit., p. 6#. 83ueior and Hayes, op. cit., p. 38. 81+Haefele, op. cit., p. 194. 107 Suggestibility is viewed also as a movement toward or away due to the uncritical amenability of an individual to influences outside of himself. In the absence of any explanation in the literature reviewed by the investigator, concerning the relationship of conformity and suggestibility, it is assumed, by comparing definitions and descriptions of the process of each, that there is a close relationship - perhaps of being synonymous or at least part of the same behavioral sequence for most individuals. The work of MacKinnon, Barron, Gouch, and Crutchfield, done at the Institute of Personality Assessment and Research (IPAR) has been coordinated, systematic, and significant. Some of Crutchfield's find- ings concerning the characteristics of conformity as well as of inde- pendence, for purposes of contrast, are presented in detail. Basically, he posits four personality types: (1) the general conformer who lacks ego-strength and is suggestible, (2) the "expedient" conformer who con- forms in public but who thinks creatively in private, (3) the counter- conformist who reacts negatively on purpose, and (4) the independent minded person who can accept society without denying himself. It needs to be pointed out that no one person truly is character- istic of one type or another at any one time. Generalizations are gross estimates at best. Among the findings reported by Zajonc, as he reviewed the litera- ture on conformity, these are most significant for this study. Conformity is considered a stable individual characteristic showing up repeatedly in different situations as well as in subsequent trials on a single experimental task. Bird indicated that people seem to be suggestible along certain lines in a majority of instances covering a wide range of suggestions. Zajonc reported that children are prone to conform more 108 readily than adults, girls more than boys (not always found), and women more than men (the most reliable finding in this area). Dependency is the most outstanding trait, among many personality factors, of people who conform. Because independence and sensitivity are associated with creativity, creative girls are thought to be more masculine (independent) and creative boys more feminine (sensitive). Thus far, a unitary personality disposition to conform generally has not been found consistently. In a typically contrived conformity experiment, the subject is confronted with the responses of a group of people before he makes his own decision about the situation, the group response is often different on purpose to see if the person can be influenced to change his opinion. This can be done through a number of different contrived situations. A study of suggestibility with 290 children in grades one through twelve is reported by McConnell. He found that uncritical amenability to suggestion decreased with age, due to the child's wider learning experiences, his greater confidence in perceptions, and his generally increased autonomy. He also found that boys and girls showed no differ- ences when their suggestibility scores were compared. The basic idea for the Test of Suggestibility (TS) for this study was suggested by Zajonc and shown to be possible by McConnell's study. Included are a number of significant authors who have written about conformity in our present day society. Almost as a body they have deplored the fact that conformity has been over emphasized and that there must be more provisions made for all people to become more creative. Anderson's Open and Closed System represents the creative and the conforming aspects of society. Young children start out in life as 109 open to their total experiences but, with age, their mobility and curi- osity are restrained increasingly to keep them in bounds. In school, a child's intellectual activities are often curtailed rather than stretched while behavioral conformity is implicitly expected. Creativity becomes less possible as more forces are brought to bear on the social child. Children, according to Toynbee are willing to pey a high price for "poor-spirited conformity" since this is what an "egalitarian—minded society" values. Melby says that the children with the most vigorous and obstreperous spirits are the ones able to be themselves completely: turning out to be delinquents or someone, perhaps, who seeks an artistic outlet. The discussion of the relationship between creativity and con- formity attempts to point out that both behaviors are needed. The question that has been unanswered is what degree of each behavior is needed, wanted, or desirable in human activities in the myriad of rela- tionships with others. Certainly, people cannot do as they wish at all times nor should society impose its sanctions or power on a will-less individual. Indi- viduality must be balanced by considerations for others. Independence must be balanced with dependence and interdependence. Technology must be balanced with humanism. Mass production, mass media, mass advertise- ment, mass this or mass that must not be the end product of society. The means of production must be appropriate to the needs of the indi- vidual. By sacrificing the values of the working man to the drudgery and monotony of production we are threatening our own future role in a technological society. By learning self-control and self-discipline the person can, 110 using these behaviors flexibly, become totally committed to a creative way of life. Counselors, teachers, parents, patrons and other interested people can help guide students in creative ways without sacrificing either the individual's creativity or denying societal processes. Creative people who are independent can conform in areas that are necessary for their physical well-being in society yet be extremely independent in the areas that are of vital concern to them. The intel- lectual frontier of the mind has much room for creative efforts. This is the area in which every school should be excelling. By devising social organizations around patterns of human needs and concerns perhaps large and small groups can find a meaningful rela- tionship where creativity can be fostered and enhanced within the frame- work of individual freedom as well as within the framework of freedom of others who can enjoy the same behaviors and thoughts. By having groups as well as technology serve man, not only in the end product but, in the doing process, society will be capable of maximizing individual achievement as well. As ways of fostering and enhancing creativity are devised, to fit better the various changing dimensions of society, they need to be fabricated almost on a floating foundation which can flexibly and appro- priately adapt to significant changes within society. This floating foundation would be the flexible behaviors of individuals who have learned self-control and self-discipline and who are able to use it flexibly in the pursuit of a creative way of life with conviction and commitment. CHAPTER IV CONDUCT OF THE STUDY ‘lptroduction Most of the first grade children in this study had one year of schooling as kindergarteners during which time they became acclimated to the academic atmosphere at its earliest level. The children had not yet gone through the academic and socialization process to the extent that third and fourth graders have. First graders are still more naive, more open, more curious, and more creative. Perhaps because first graders are more open and more naive they are also more amenable to suggestion so that they would be influenced by the ideas and behavior of others. Most young eager minds soon learn that conformity is the expected mode of behavior in our society as well as the safer mode. This conformity usually extends past the physical behavior of students to their intellectual behavior as well. In order to see if first graders are more creative or more con- forming than older students a cross section of each age or grade level would need to be included in this study. The major concern in this study, as stated on the first page and in the Purpose, is with the attempt to assess the variations of creativity and of conformity found in first graders regardless of their relative creativeness or conformity with upper grade children. This 111 112 would be an area for future research. Torrance has shown that children generally receive higher scores on most measures of creativity as they grow older with the exceptions of certain slumps caused by various cultural discontinuities.1 McConnell and others have shown that "uncritical amenability to suggestion decreases as children grow older." He suggests that "this decrease is likely to be a function of more and wider learning experi- ences, greater confidence in perceptions, and generally increased autonomy."2 However, society exerts great pressures on children to conform so that generally conformity increases with age as children fit into adolescent roles and then into adult patterns of behavior. Crutchfield has described the behavior characteristics of extremely conforming persons so we do know something about some people who do conform a great deal in many situations in life.3 The investigator was interested to see if the variations of crea- tivity and conformity of first graders especially might be assessed. If a test instrument could be developed that would be sensitive to these variations at this level perhaps the test might be extended to the older children, much as Torrance has been able to do with some of his Minnesota Tests of Creative Thinking tasks. This is an area for further research too. 1Torrance, Education and the Creative Potential, op. cit., p. 7h. 2McConnell, "Suggestibility in Children as a Function of Chrono- logical Age," op. cit., p. 289. 3Crutchfield, "Detrimental Effects of Conformity Pressures on Creative Thinking," op. cit., pp. ’466-1467. 113 As first grade teachers use the S-CIT with their students, it is hoped that the information gained about the variations of creativity and conformity of their students will point out the need for them to provide many opportunities for their students to be more creative. As first grade teachers become more aware of and concerned about providing these opportunities for creativity, their students will be able to open more intellectual doors wider as they pursue their own education. Teachers of the other grades would need to become equally con- cerned so that eventually a student could start in kindergarten and pro- ceed up the educational ladder encouraged by teachers who provided every possible opportunity to foster and enhance hishgreativity. Background Permission was granted by the Lansing School District for the investigator to conduct his study at the elementary school level. Build- ing principals of the six schools were contacted by the Director of Elementary Education. After discussing the proposed study with each of the six principals, the twelve first grade teachers, two from each school, were contacted, and meetings were arranged to discuss the pro- posed project with them. All principals and teachers contacted were most willing to participate in the study. Arrangements were made with the teachers to administer the major test instrument, the Selection and Color In Test (S-CIT),u during the week of May 24, 1965, starting on Monday. Necessary instructionss and uSee Appendix B. 5See Appendix c. 114 the first of the five phases of the test were distributed. Each teacher was asked to list and rank his "most creative" and his "most conforming" students on a form6 provided which listed some criterion for creative children and for conforming children. These nomination forms were col- lected prior to the administration of the S-CIT so that the teachers might not be influenced by the children's selections on the S-CIT. Following the administration of the S-CIT by the twelve classroom teachers, arrangements were made for the investigator to administer the Minnesota Tests of Creative Thinking (MTCT) and the Test of Suggestibil- ity (TS). This was to be done either one or two weeks afterwards. One school day was devoted to the administration of the MTCT and TS in each school; one class in the morning and the other in the afternoon. Test- ing was done on Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday of both weeks, leaving Monday and Fridey open for any followup. Right after the two tests were completed, each child was asked individually by the investigator to name or title each object that he had drawn on the three different tasks of the MTCT. The investigator recorded the responses and, in most cases, this was done before the children went home for lunch at noon, or when they came back to school for the afternoon, or by the time they returned home in the afternoon (for those children tested in the afternoon). For several schools it was necessary to return the first open day in order to finish recording all the children's responses. This could have been avoided by having a second person along or by asking the teacher to help record responses, but he would normally be busy with his class again after the tests 689s Appendix D. 115 'were done. When all the data had been gathered, an individual folder was made for each student. The drawings for the S-CIT were tallied for each student and for each class.( Tables were developed for each class show- ing the number of each type of drawing selected by each student for each morning and afternoon of each day for the test week. Most students had a total of ten drawings in their folder. On the back of each drawing the teacher had asked the child to print his name, the school, the teacher's name, whether AM or PM, and the date so that each set of drawings for each child could be kept in chronological sequence or separated and grouped together by the type of drawing, for scoring purposes, and then refiled back in the child's folder in the proper chronological order. When the ten drawings for each of the 3017 students were accu- rately identified on the back and tallied, the various types of drawings were sorted together by type and class for scoring purposes. All of the Clowns of the typical (class) of the Coloring Book (type) were put together to be scored as a group. The scoring process on the nearly 3000 drawings, representing #8 different classes, of five different types, for the S-CIT took most of the summer of 1965. Each drawing was scored first for Elaboration, Originality, Coverage, and Dispersion8 according to methods developed by Torrance and adapted by the investigator. Objective scoring procedures for all three tests were worked out 7There were 309 students in the total sample. Eight students were absent for most of the time. Only the 301 students with five or more drawings were included in the study. 8See Chapter I for Definitions of Terms. 116 as much as possible, and care was taken that they were consistently applied to each drawing of each test by the investigator. The drawings ‘were not rescored by a second party in order to determine the inter- scorer reliability. The investigator rescored a few of the drawings to note the agreement of scores and found it to be satisfactory. The investigator did all of the scoring for all three instruments so the scoring error might be held constant. The Test of Suggestibility (TS) was scored when all of the other scores from the S-CIT and the MTCT were tabulated on a composite scoring sheet for each student.9 Another form was devised to record the indi- vidual scores from the MTCT for each student so an accurate tally was kept of how each part of each task was scored.10 Design Three tests were used to collect the data for this study: the Minnesota Tests of Creative Thinking (MTCT), the Selection and Color In Test (S-CIT), and the Test of Suggestibility (TS). Each.wi11 be dis— cussed in turn. The Minnesota Tests of Creative Thinking - (MTCT) The tasks that were used in this study were all figural or non- verbal which means the tasks involved drawing ideas: Picture Construc- tion with a curved, jelly bean shape; Incomplete Figures, Form A; and Circles. These were developed by Torrance at the University of Minnesota 9See Appendix E. 10SeeAppendix F. 117 and have been rather widely used experimentally.11 Permission to use the MTCT was secured from Torrance prior to its use in this study.12 The MTCT13 was administered to the students in order to arrive at a rela- tive creativity score for each student obtained from a test that had been used widely for which some validity and reliability had been secured. Torrance had suggested using the particular three tasks because they were non-verbal so the children did not need to write down anything and the tasks could be group administered. The scoring of the MTCT was aided by using a Guide developed by 14 Torrance. The Selection and Color In Test - S-CIT This test was developed by the investigator. The attempt was made to construct a bipolar (two ended) test which, at one end, would measure the degree or variation of the children's creative behavior and, at the other end, would measure the degree or variation of their conform- ing behavior. The test needed to be of such a design that the children would easily understand the directions, could do the test somewhat inde- pendently, and would enjoy doing it, even repeatedly. The teacher would need the test in a form that could be easily administered, easily scored, 11Personnel Press, Inc., of Princeton, N. J., is publishing this test in standardized form for general distribution under the name of the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking. 12See Appendix G. 13See Appendix H. 1hE. Paul Torrance, Guide for Administering gnd Scoring Non- Verbal Form B: Minnesota Tests of Creative Thinking (Minneapolis: Bureau of Educational Research, College of Education, University of Minnesota, 196h). (Mimeographed.) 118 easily interpreted, and would give him valid and reliable results. These factors were all considered in designing the instrument. In the construction of the S-CIT it was hypothesized that con- forming children might more often tend to select a certain type of draws ing when given the opportunity to do so. Drawings which are very common and very popular with most children and easily available on the general market are contained in coloring books. So a selection was made of five typical coloring book drawings which were included in the test to see if they might measure the conforming behavior of first grade children. If the children did select a coloring book type drawing, it would be difficult for them to add any of their own ideas. In other words, they would have a minimum of opportunity to express their own ideas on this type of drawing. It was also hypothesized that creative children might more often tend to select certain types of drawings (or "non-drawings") which would allow the child a great deal of opportunity to add his own lines, areas, colors, and ideas. Based on previous experience, it was thought that a child would not usually select this type of drawing without a very strong desire to express himself more fully. Such drawings had been used in Torrance's Incomplete Figures Tasks. He, in turn, had adopted them from the Drawing-Completion Test developed by Kate Franck. The Stimulus Line type of drawing was included in an attempt to measure the creative behavior of first graders. Other types of drawings were used to make the test instrument into an ascending scale, which included Coloring Book type drawing (all the lines furnished), a Geometric Design type (fewer lines were supplied). a Dot type drawing (only dots were supplies), and a Stimulus Line type 119 drawing (just a few lines were supplied). The Coloring Book designs were considered to allow for the least creative response, the Stimulus Line for the most.15 In order to translate this idea into an instrument with a range of drawings for making it varied, more interesting, and capable of meas- uring varying degrees of creative effort, the following scoring scheme was used and assigned to each drawing. The lowest score was given to the coloring book drawing, the highest score to the blank sheet of paper.16 The scores given to the geometric and dot drawings were con- sidered equivalent. A second score was assigned to each drawing, usually two points lower, in the event the child selected the same drawa ing twice in one day. It was thought that the seven part scores from the S-CIT would be correlated with the four part scores of the MTCT in order to determine what, if any, relationship existed between the two tests. Three part scores were common to both tests: Flexibility, Originality, and Elabora- tion, though the first and the last were scored differently in the S-CIT. A significant positive relationship between the part scores of the two tests would indicate that essentially the same creative abilities were being assessed. This would tend to validate one end of the bipolar S-CIT as capable of measuring creativity. This, of course, does not establish the validity of the MTCT. More about this is included in the 15The rationale for selecting the different types and classes of drawings for the S-CIT appears in Appendix I. 16The blank sheets of colored paper were only offered on Thursday of the week the S-CIT was administered. 120 section of Validity which follows. The S-CIT was designed to be administered over a period of one school week in order to measure a degree of a child's creative and conforming behavior for a sustained period of time.17 This would tend to minimize the effects of a "bad" day or even a "good" day for the child. The idea of using a test over a longer time period was suggested by Calvin Taylor, who indicated that Ghiselin had considered having people "try take-home aptitude tests to find those who continue to be involved and who jot down additional responses whenever they occur." Taylor also indicated that "the ebb and flow of ideas in the creative process suggests the need for tests that assess variability in the performance of an individual over a period of time." People have their ups and downs. According to Taylor, "perhaps the person with the greatest variability over a period of time has more creative potential."18 Further support for designing a test over a period of time came from Lansing, of the University of Illinois, who wrote: One of the favorite experimental techniques of researchers in art education has been to stimulate a group of children, to have them produce art works based upon the stimulus, and then to evaluate their products. Usually, the products are drawings or paintings produced within 50 minutes after the stimulation. ‘We have believed it to be possible, by this method, to measure accurately the influence of such things as stimulation and school environment. Three questions about this practice arise: '— 172For a complete description of the specific directions used in administering the S-CIT, as well as the MTCT and the TS, see Appendix J. 18Taylor and Holland, "Predictors of Creative Performance," Creativity: Progress and Potential,__p. cit., p. 22. 121 1. Is there any reason to expect an immediate reaction to a stimulus? 2. Is there any reason to assume that an individual will do equally well in all media? 3. Is 50 minutes long enough for each individual to give form to his unique reaction to the stimulus? If the effect of a stimulus may be delayed (for an hour, a day, a week), if artists are not necessarily equally proficient in all media, and if a Piera della Francesca conceivably would require more time than a Mathieu to finish his work, then there is reason to doubt the validity of results obtained under the research conditions we have described.19 Administering a test over a period of time would furnish a type of reliability. However, attempting to gain in reliability by readminis; tering the S-CIT and the TS a second time to the same children'did-not seem feasible in the present study. Further research is necessary in refining or abbreviating the S-CIT and in securing additional validity and reliability data concerning it. The same holds true for the TS if further developmental work in this area seems warranted and appears to be fruitful. Since the S-CIT instrument consisted basically of six different drawings for each of five days, it was necessary to find, to adapt, or to create enough equivalent drawings for each of the four types of draw- ings for the five days. In addition, enough copies of each drawing needed to be duplicated to anticipate the eventuality of every child picking the same drawing if it happened to be especially appealing. It was assumed, however, that there would be enough diversity of interest and behavior in the class so that all the children would not ask for the 19Kenneth M. Lansing, "Editorial," Studies in Art Educgtign, Iv, (Fall, 1962), 1. 122 same drawing. In the pre-testing of the instrument in several different schools prior to using it in Lansing, the investigator did find that children typically chose different drawings. It was felt important that each of the six drawings be equally available both at the AM and the PM sessions. Depending on the size of the classes, either 30 or 35 capies of each drawing were duplicated. In addition, the first grade classes in each school were desig- nated as Group A and Group B to see if certain drawings of the S-CIT would be affected by pairing them with other drawings. Two drawings of equal appeal would reduce the number of selections of each while an appealing drawing paired with an unappealing drawing would skew the selections in favor of the appealing drawing. The idea was to find out, by using a wide range of drawings, which set of drawings or which particular pairings of drawings, or re- pairings, might make up the final set for the final test instrument which would be given on just one day. The day could be determined by seeing which of the five days obtained the most "even" responses from the chil- dren in the present study. It was assumed that Wednesday would be a good day to administer the test since in the middle of the week children would be neither "too tired" nor "too fresh." The Test of Suggestibility After investigating the area of conformity studies and suggest- ibility studies, the present investigator found no suggestibility test that would be suitable for using with first grade children. The test needed to be as simple and short as possible, not involve written responses, and measure suggestibility as exclusively as possible. The 123 approach of the TS was suggested by Zajonc and shown to be possible by McConnell. The purpose of the test was to measure the degree or varia- tion of children's conforming behavior. The basic idea in conformity and suggestibility research appears to be very similar as is carried on in social psychology research. In such research an attempt is made to influence a subject to shift his response from an initial response, given under neutral circumstances, to a false norm of some type usually contrived by the investigator. In most experimental test situations some outside influence is exerted to cause the person to change or shift his own opinion, judgment, or posi- tion to the one desired by the investigator. If the person conforms by shifting toward the response desired by the investigator, he could be considered suggestible. The investigator attempted to find research concerning the relationship of conformity and suggestibility, but none was available. However, it is assumed here that the two characteristics are a part of the same general behavioral process. There are three methods of testing for conformity which are quite widely used experimentally. They include Sherif's autokinetic 21 phenomenon,20 the Asch technique using lines, and the Crutchfield 22 apparatus. The investigator translated this approach, suggested by Zajonc 20Eugene L. Hartley and Ruth E. Hartley, Fundamentals of Social Psychology (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1952), p. 5. 21Solomon E. Asch, Social Psychology (Englewood Cliffs, N. J., 1952). p. 1451. 22Richard S. Crutchfield, "Conformity and Character," American Psychologist, op.’cit3, p. 191. 124 and also by McConnell, into the Test of Suggestibility. The first graders were asked to choose one of two drawings that they would like to take and color in if they had the chance again. There were eighteen pairs of drawings. All the drawings for the TS were selected from only those drawings used for the S-CIT and were paired so that an "art oriented" drawing appeared in each pairing. The art oriented drawings were either an atypical Coloring Book drawing, a complicated Geometric Design drawing, a complicated Numbered or an Unnumbered Dot drawing, or an Open Stimulus Line drawing. These classes of drawings had actually been selected least frequently by the children when the S-CIT was administered.23 The first graders saw each of the eighteen pairs of drawings. one pair at a time, and were asked to record their responses by circling the corresponding number and letter on a response sheet supplied for the purpose.2u The first time through the set of paired drawings the chil- dren were asked simply to choose one of the two drawings they liked the best. The second time through the set of eighteen pairs of drawings the investigator attempted to influence the children to shift their second response from their first response, already recorded and collected, to the false norm established by the investigator. The false norm was established as the contrived responses of three different shift agents: other first grade children in Lansing, other fourth grade children in Lansing, and other Art Teachers in Lansing. The eighteen pairs were 23The rationale for each type and class of drawing is given in Appendix I. 2“See Appendix K. 125 divided in thirds, six responses to be given for each shift agent. It was hypothesized that the children who shifted their second response to the false norm would be more conforming children because they were influenced by the idea that some other group, the shift agent, liked the drawings they had not chosen the first time through the paired draw- ings. Perhaps, if others liked the drawing so much, they would shift and choose the suggested drawing selected by the shift agent. The false norm was always the drawing that was art oriented. It should be pointed out again that these same art oriented drawings included in the TS were part of the S-CIT. Children usually had not picked these drawings to color in as often at the time the S-CIT had been administered so the investigator found this useful on two counts: (1) for selecting or con- triving these drawings for the false norm, and (2) as the basis for an Art Score. When the TS was given the first time, the children had marked their answer sheets with the drawing they liked the best. When only the first responses which coincided with the art oriented drawing were counted, this yielded an Art Score for each child. This is an avenue of investigation planned for the future. The TS yielded two other scores that were used in the data in this study. One was called the Positive Shift (PS) score and represented the child's change or shift of his second response toward the false norm. It might have been referred to as his Conformity Score. The one called the Negative Shift (NS) score represented the child's change or shift of his second reSponse away from the false norm and also away from his first choice which, in this situation, coincided with the false norm. This might have been referred to as his Nonconformity Score. A great many children did not change or shift but apparently remembered which 126 drawing they liked the best on their first response and duplicated their response the second time in spite of the nominal "soft sell" approach by the investigator to influence their second choice to shift to the false norm. However, some children did shift to the false norm, and one may speculate why they shifted. First, the investigator is a rather tall, adult male whom some of the children may find imposing. Further, visit- ing art teachers are favored figures in a first grader's school life; and if this teacher suggested the superiority of certain drawings, this would undoubtedly influence some of the children's opinions. Further, the equal appeal or dislike of certain drawings make it difficult to decide, and, therefore, the children's opinions of them might be more amenable to change. Also, the fact that other children in the city chose certain drawings may have influenced their choices. However, the reasons why some youngsters shifted their opinion and others did not need not be of concern here; it is enough to say that some were influenced by some factor or combination of factors at a particular moment, and the shift can be called conforming to the suggestion stimulus. It was thought that if the PS score were to have a significant negative correlation with the MTCT part or total scores and possibly the S-CIT, it might indicate the antithesis of creativity - namely conform- ity. Also, the possibility that the NS score might possibly have a significant positive correlation with the two other tests was considered. The TS had not been tested for either validity or reliability except as it might have a certain valid relationship with the MTCT. It was designed to test conformity in order to validate the opposite end of the bipolar S-CIT instrument. 127 Even though the investigator felt the TS was being administered successfully at the time, a number of children failed to respond to the complete set of eighteen pairings of drawings. In the event the child failed to respond six times or more his score on the TS was not included or recorded on the composite scoring sheet. The investigator made some very careful judgments for the children who lacked six or less responses and their scores were recorded including those made for them by the investigator. ‘Instrumentation. In the Selection and Color In Test the student chooses a drawing from a set that ranges from drawings with all the lines supplied (Color- ing Book) to those with only a few lines supplied (Stimulus Line). If the student selects a Coloring Book type drawing it was hypothesized that the child, at that moment, shows a degree of conform- ing behavior; that is, he is conforming to the situation or norm, which in this case is defined as that which one might normally expect a stu- dent to follow. In other words, one would expect a student to choose a drawing that is familiar to him, that he enjoys doing, that requires little mental or artistic effort, that he can do quickly, that looks good when it is done, and that generally requires no creative independ- ent thought. If the student selects a Stimulus Line type drawing, it was hypothesized that the child, at that moment, is showing a degree of creative behavior. The behavior is hypothesized to be creative because it represents a rejecting of the norm and of the expected by disregard- ing all the other more common drawings and picking the one that might 128 be new to him; that he has never tried before, much less seen before: and that would require some creative independent imaginative thought. As mentioned, the various types of drawings were given weighted scores in order to translate their selections on the S-CIT into some type of relative measure. TABLE 4-1 gives a description of the scoring schema for each type and class of drawing on the S-CIT. These selection scores also appear on the composite scoring sheet.25 By arranging the 48 drawings in a visual relationship such as is done in TABLE 4-2, the reader can see the total range of the instru- ment as it was administered to both Group A and Group B over the period of five days. Each drawing mentioned by title in TABLE 4-2 is included in Appendix B arranged in the same order chronologically with Group.A's set of drawings followed by the set for Group B for the days when each day had different sets. All drawings are included with permission of the particular owners or those who could grant such permission and are mentioned in the Acknowledgments. Major Selected Sample Three hundred and nine boys and girls from twelve first grades were selected on the basis of the location of their six schools in dif- ferent socio-economic areas in the Lansing School District. Schools were selected in which several different racial groups were represented. 2SSee Appendix E. 129 TABLE 4-1 A DESCRIPTION OF THE SCORING SCHEMA FOR EACH TYPE AND CLASS OF DRAWING ON THE SELECTION AND COLOR IN TEST Selection Score ist 2nd Type Class Short Description 1 0 Coloring Book Typical a All lines provided 3 1 Coloring Book Atypical All lines provided 5 3 Geometric Design Simple Disproportioned shapes;Symmetrical 7 5 Geometric Design Complicateda Flexible movement: Asymmetrical 5 3 Dot Numbered Simple A few dots and numbers provided 6 4 Dot Numbered Complicated A lot of dots and numbers provided 7 5 Dot Unnumbered a Dots and circles of various sizes 9 7 Stimulus Line Closed A few basic lines with closure 11 9 Stimulus line Opena A few basic lines with no closure 13 11 Blank Paper White No lines whatsoever 13 11 Blank Paper Colors No lines whatsoever: Five colors aIndicates that the drawing was usually considered "art oriented." It was used as the false norm drawing on the Test of Suggestibility as well as being the basis for the Art Score obtained on the TS. See TABLE 4-2 for examples of specific "art oriented" drawings. See also Appendix B for the actual drawings. See also Appendix E for the com- posite scoringfbrm which also shows which drawings were designated "art oriented." First graders were selected because it is at this grade level that creativity needs to be continued just as it was encouraged in the kindergarten setting. The first grade teacher who is sensitive to these needs can help keep the students' interests and curiosity open. As the teacher learns more about his first graders he is in a better position to open many more doors at this early school age. As the teachers in the succeeding grades become equally sensitive to these needs children can go through their years of schooling with their intellectual frontiers more fully explored and expanded. 130 TABLE 4-2 BREAKDOWN OF THE DAILY SCHEDULE OF THE FORTY-EIGHT DURING THE FIVE DAY WEEK WITH SIX DRAWINGS OFFERED EACH DAY AS INDICATED BELOW DRAWINGS USED ON THE SELECTION AND COLOR IN TEST FOR GROUP A~ Type & Class Days of the week with Title of Drawings for Each Day of Drawing Mondayb Tuesday Wednesday Thursdayb Friday CB Typ Clown Bird Fishing Tom & Pig Train CB Atypa First Stepé3Puffd Cheeringe People & Degf Still Lifec GEO Simp Cross ---- Circle ---- Triangle GEO Compa Design --—- Parabola ---- Flexible DOT-N Simp ---- 1-2-3-4 ---- Rabbit ---- DOT-N Comp ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- DOT-UnNa ---- Large & ---- Dispersed ---- Small STIM Clos Flam'ei Hat Flag wheels Bumps STIM Opena S Curve Waist Beach "H" Mtn. Line Sticks BLANK ---- ---- ---- Six Colors ---- FOR GROUP B CB Typ Clown Still Life: Womanh Tom 8: Pig ‘Vendorg CB AtypS First Steps°Seated Playere People & Dog Puffd Womanc GEO Simp Cross ---- Triangle ---- Circle GEO Compa Design ---- Parabola ---- Flexible DOT-N Simp ---- ---- --—— Rabbit ---- DOT-N Comp ---- Sailor ---- ---- ---- DOT-UnNa —--- Large & ---- Dispersed ---- Small STIM Clos Flame: Hat Bumps Wheels Flag STIM Opena S Curve Sticks Beach "V" Mtn. Line Waist BLANK ---- ---- ---- Six Colors ---- 8‘An "art oriented" drawing. See specific titles of drawings. bSets of drawings for Monday & Thursday same for Groups A & B. 0Paintings by Pablo Picasso. dOriginally used by John Anderson. 6Adapted from paintings by Bob Peak. fPainting by Joan Miro. gPainting by Diego Rivera. hPainting by Henri Matisse. iFrom Figural Form B - Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking. 131 Intelligence test scores were not available for the children because students usually do not take these standardized tests until the second grade. The possibility of doing the study with second grade stu- dents was considered since at this level the intelligence test scores would be available, but it was felt the advantages of dealing with first graders outweighed the advantage of having I.Q. scores available for a second grade sample. The investigator considered giving an intelligence test to the first graders in this study, but the time involved in doing this made it prohibitive. Future research using the data collected in this study perhaps would indicate differences between white and non-white first graders, between children from different socio-economic areas, and between chil- dren in the same school in different classrooms. Rejected Sample Eight first graders were absent so much of the time during the week that the Selection and Color In Test was administered that they were not able to complete five or more drawings so they were not included in the Sample. Some children were absent during the administration of the MTCT and the TS but they were retained in the Sample because they had completed more than five drawings of the S-CIT. By using the Miss- ing Data Routine for the computer, just the data that were available for each subject were used. A number of students did not complete enough of the TS to include their responses in the final data so the number of subjects who had missing data on the various part scores of the three tests varied considerably. 132 Pre-test Sample Two first grade classrooms in one of the Haslett Elementary Schools and two first grade classrooms in one of the East Lansing Schools were used in order to try out the Selection and Color In Test instrument. Administrators and teachers cooperated willingly. Data was collected from approximately 100 first graders which helped to answer a number of questions. Statistical Null Hypotheses 1. There will be no significant correlation between the total score of the MTCT and the PS score of the TS. 2. The part scores of the MTCT, the part scores of the S-CIT, the PS and the NS scores of the TS, will not differentiate between the Creative and the Conforming groups nominated by their teachers. 3. The SEL part score of the S-CIT will have no significant correlation with the total score of the MTCT. h. The ELAB part score of the Picture Construction Task of the MTCT scored by Torrance's method will have no significant correlation with the same task and part score as scored by the Smith method. 5. The S-CIT part scores will yield no significant correlation with the total score of the MTCT. 6. The part scores of the S-CIT will have no significant correlation with the corresponding part scores on the MTCT: FLEX, ORIG, and ELAB. 7. There will be no significant correlation between the AM part scores and the PM part scores of the S-CIT. 133 Data Collection Devices A number of devices were designed for recording the data system- atically from the S—CIT, the MTCT, and the TS. For the S-CIT the children drew their responses right on the drawings provided. The teacher recorded their titles on the drawings themselves. Scoring of Elaboration, Originality, Coverage, and Disper- sion was done on the front of each drawing. These four scores and three others, Selection, Flexibility, and Color, were compiled on the compos- ite scoring sheet. (See Appendix E for the composite scoring sheet.) On the MTCT each child responded by drawing certain objects for each of the three tasks in the test booklet provided. (See Appendix H for a copy of the MTCT.) Titles were given by the children individually to the investigator, who wrote them beneath each object drawn. Scoring was done on a separate scoring sheet on which it was possible to indie cate the scores in detail for future reference. Scores were obtained . for Fluency, Flexibility, Originality, and Elaboration. These were recorded on the front of each child's MTCT booklet as well as on the composite scoring sheet. (See Appendix.F for the scoring sheet used just with the MTCT.) On the TS the children responded by marking their choices first on a green sheet and then on a pink sheet. Scoring was done when this information was compiled in a special section on the composite scoring sheet. (See Appendix K for a copy of the green and pink response sheets.) Teachers' nominations of their pupils as "most creative" and "most conforming" were written on a form provided by the investigator prior to the administration of the S-CIT. (Appendix D.) 134 When all the tests had been scored and the data compiled on the composite scoring sheet, they were transferred to a coding form for key- punching on statement cards by operators at the Computer Center at Michigan State University. After the data were run through the computer, a number of pages of statistical data were obtained which provided the information on which the findings are based. Data Processing Three statistical programs were written which provided the data to test the null hypotheses. For various reasons a number of children did not have complete data for all of the part scores involved in the computations. The Missing Data Statistics Routine (MDSTAT) was used in these instances. This procedure allowed the investigator to use as much of the available data in the many correlations desired.26 The second program used the Least Square Deletion Routine (LSDEL).27'28 This enabled a multiple regression analysis to be made of the four part scores of the MTCT, as the dependent variable, and the seven morning and seven afternoon part scores of the S-CIT, as the inde- pendent variables. 26William L. Ruble and Mary E. Rafter, Michigan State Universi_y Agricultural Experiment Station, STAT Series Description No. 6, Calcula- tions of Basic Statistics When Miss Data is Involved The MDSTAT Routinei, (January, 1966). (Mimeographed. > 27William L. Ruble, Donald F. Kiel, and Mary E. Rafter, Michigan State Universitygggricultural Experiment StationL STAT Series Description No, 2, Calculation of Least §guares {Regression} Problems on the LS Routine, March, 19 Mimeographed 28Mary E. Rafter and William L. Ruble, Michigan State University Agricultural.Experiment Station. STAT Series Descri-tion No. 8 Ste- e etion of Variables from a Least ouares ouation LSDEL Routine (March, 1983;. (Mimeographed. )L 135 The third program used the same LSDEL Routine to do a multiple regression analysis, with the teacher nominations of their students as "most creative" and "most conforming" as the dependent variable,and with the part scores of the MTCT, the S-CIT, as well as the PS and NS scores of the TS for the three shift agents computed separately, as the inde- pendent variables. In the latter program a linear discriminant analysis was used in order to maximize the differences between the two groups of the "most creative" and the "most conforming" students. The "most crea- tive" students were designated as "1," while the "most conforming" stu— dents were designated as "O." The mean scores for the creative children then could be compared with the mean scores for the conforming children to note the variance. Validity and Reliability validity Taylor indicates that "minimum reliability of [creativity] meas- ~urement techniques is essential, although, given a certain minimum, reliability is less important than validity."29 He also reviews the concurrent validities of variables related to creative performance. He and Holland discuss the following areas which give a rather complete picture of the various ways in which researchers are working: correlates of tests of creativity with no external criteria, concurrent validities based upon external criteria, motivation and interest inventories, biographical information, personality 29Calvin W. Taylor, "Some Knowns, Needs, and Leads," Creativity: Progress and Potential,__p. cit., p. 185. 136 and originality scales, self-ratings, ratings by others, special devices (such as the Problem Solving Apparatus, invented by John and Rimaldi) and tests, physical measures and effect of drugs, and situational or environmental influences.30 At the Fifth Utah Creativity Research Conference, a participant asked Guilford about the large number of intellectual dimensions that might be involved in creativity and would not just one of these many factors account for very little of the variance in a criterion of crea- tivity? Guilford replied that no only was this true but with so many. factors involved in such a complex area as scientific research no one factor is likely to show much validity since you have to divide the pro- dictable variance in the criterion in many parts. Guilford felt that "a combination of tests of all the relevant intellectual factors, however, should give substantial prediction. Adding nonaptitude and aptitude predictors in a composite should do even better."31 Admittedly} validity and reliability.are very difficult-to establish.when attempting to assess human behavior. Torrance reports in several of his books that he and his associates attempt to establish some types of validity for their measures of creative thinking involving one or the other of these two approaches: (1) Identifying high and low groups on some test measure and then determining whether or not they can be differentiated in terms of behavior that can be regarded as "creative." (2) Identifying criterion groups on some behavior regarded as 30Taylor and Holland, "Predictors of Creative Performance," Creativity: Progress and Potential, op, cit., pp. 3h-39. ’31J. P. Guilford, "Progress in the Discovery of Intellectual Factors," Widening Horizons in Creativity, op. cit., p. 278. 137 creative and then determining whether or not they can be differentiated by test scores.32 Torrance has often used teacher and peer nominations as immediate criteria to establish validity. The latter measures are particularly significant above the third grade. He writes that "quite uniformly we have found that children nominated by their teachers on such criteria [as creative thinking, curiosity, and the like] achieve higher scores on the tests of creative thinking than do their peers not so nominated or who are nominated as being especially low on the criterion in ques- 33.34 tion." Teacher nominations of their children as "most creative" and as "most conforming" were asked for in this present study. The find- ings are reported later. Torrance cites a study by Yamamoto in which teachers were asked to choose fifth grade students whom they considered most capable:(1) of producing the greatest number and the most unusual ideas: (2) of finding alternative ways of meeting problems: (3) of being the most inventive and of developing new ideas, and (h) of being able to figure out all the details involved. The teacher nominations of students based on the above criteria clearly differentiated the fifth graders nominated from those not nominated by their teachers on three of the four scores of Form D of the MTCT that Yamamoto used, thus providing a rough validation for 32E. Paul Torrance, "The Measurement of Creative Behavior in Children," Productive Thinking in Education, op. cit., p. 212. 33Torrance, Rewarding Creative Behavior, op. cit., p. 275. 3“In discussing the early development of the MTCT several examples of validity were included in Chapter II of this study which are not included in this section. 138 35 the three scores. Longitudinal studies have been mentioned by some researchers as a possible way for validating criterion. In such an approach an experi- mental and a control group of creative children are tested and observed over an extended period of time on the basis of a wide range of criteria to determine if those originally most creative would subsequently'prove to be most creative. Reliability Torrance reports that generally, test-retest reliabilities after specific lapses of two weeks, three months, eight months, and twelve months have shown satisfactory results. Also quite satisfactory have been the battery totals. Correlations of around .88, even with the alternative forms of the test instruments, have been found for the inter- mediate grades and the college students. Reliability figures for the primary grades for battery totals have ranged from the upper .40's to the .70’s. When retesting for single factors, reliabilities are lower. For example, test-retest reliabilities in the primary grades for single tasks and scores in a few cases drop as low as the .30's. Torrance is "not so concerned about the lack of reliability of the tests in the primary grades as [he is] about the conditions that cause this low reli- ability in scores."36 Elsewhere Torrance states that at the kindergarten, first, second, and third grade level, test-retest reliability is not as high 35Torrance, op. cit., p. 275. 36Torrance, "The Measurement of Creative Behavior in Children," Productive Thinking in Education, op. cit., pp. 211-212. 139 as he would like. But he is not especially worried about this since his major interest is "in evoking and developing whatever creative talents a child possesses." Torrance further explains that test-retest reli- ability can be influenced by conditions of the home and the school. by whether creative thinking.and creative achievement are rewarded or dis- couraged from day to day or week to week.37 In the present study reliability was calculated on the basis of a comparison between the mean of the seven morning (AM) part scores and the mean of the seven afternoon (PM) part scores. This represents a test of reliability over a span of five days. Analysis Appropriateness of the Statistics Used A variety of correlation coefficients were computed to determine the relationships between certain variables, and two multiple regression analyses were used. By this method the best combination of significant variables that would give the best prediction was found. Fisher's linear discriminant function was used in one of the multiple regression analysis. Guilford explains that the general principle of the discriminant function "is that the different scores or measures will be weighed in such a way as to maximize the differences between the means of the two composites derived from two criterion groups, relative to the variance within those 38 groups." 37Torrance, Education and the Creative Potential, op. cit., p. 62. 38a. P. Guilford, Fundamental Statistics in P cholo and Education (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 19555, p. 532. 140 In Regard to Correlations It is assumed that if either a significant positive or a signifi- cant negative correlation existed between certain variables that certain of the stated hypotheses would or would not be capable of prediction. Five such hypotheses were so stated: one, three, four, six, and seven. Hypotheses two and five are discussed Shortly in relation to the multi- ple regression analysis used. Concerning First Hypothesis.--It was felt that there might be a negative relationship between the total score of the Minnesota Tests of Creative Thinking (MTCT), measuring a degree of creative thinking for each first grader, and the Positive Shift (PS) score on the Test of Suggestibility (TS), measuring a degree of conformity for each first grader. A child with a high creative thinking score on the MTCT would be more creative and not-as—conforming so that a low PS score on the TS would tend to support this hypothesis. Concerning Third Hypothesis.-~An attempt was made to show that a high Selection (SEL) part score on the S-CIT would indicate that the children who received the highest scores on SEL would be the most crea- tive students. The basic assumption is that the most creative first graders would consistently seek to express themselves in the fullest manner possible. It was further assumed that they could do this more fully by selecting a Stimulus Line drawing. As mentioned, the scores given for SEL for different types of drawings were weighted: the highest score given to the Stimulus Line Type drawing.39 39Actually, the highest score was given to the Blank Sheet of Paper Type but this was only offered to the children in the S-CIT once during the five days - on Thursday. 141 A child who had selected the Stimulus Line drawing would have a high SEL part score for the week. If the relationship between the SEL part score, for each child, and the total score of the MTCT, for the same child, would be significantly positive, then some validity would be established for the SEL part score, assuming that the MTCT had a significant degree of validity. Partial validity has been established for much of Torrance's MTCT through teacher and peer nominations and other observations of creative behavior. Concerning Fourth Hypothesis.--Torrance, in scoring his figural non-verbal tests of the MTCT for Elaboration (ELAB), instructs the scorer to follow certain directions. He indicates that: Two assumptions underlie the scoring of elaboration for the Picture Construction Test [as well as the Incomplete Figures Task and the Circles task . The first is that the minimum and primary response to the s imulus figure is a single response. The second is that the imagination and exposition of detail is a function of creative ability, appropriately labeled elaboration. Therefore, in scoring elaboration, credit is given for each pertinent detail (idea) added to the original stimulus figure itself, to its boundaries and/or to the surrounding area. Howe ever, the basic response itself must be meaningful before elabo- ration has any worth, or can be scored.""0 Further, Torrance gives one point for "each essential detail of the total response, but once that class of detail is scored, further evidence of the same class is not counted."’41 In other words, the repeat of an idea does not count. In art, however, we do count on the repeat of an idea, called a motif, to establish patterns. Much effort uoTorrance, Guide for Administering and Scoring Non-Verbal Form B: Minnesota Tests of Creative Thinking, op. cit., pp. 11-12, 29. “fluid“ p. 12. 1h2 is spent in trying to get this idea across to students from the third grade up; that elaboration, or textural surface enrichment, makes for a much more interesting drawing or design. But this is not the primary point of disagreement with Torrance concerning ELAB. In regard to the scoring of the Circles task he states: The principles for scoring elaboration for the Circles task are the same as those which have been stated for the Incomplete Figures task. The problem is to determine the number of ideas communicated by each subject, IN ADDITION TO THE IMUM BASIC IDEA. How much of a story does the response tell For example, a circle is not an apple until it is minimally elaborated with a curved stem or other basic appurtenance which identi— fies it as only an apple. A circle is not a face until the minimum of eyes, nose, and mouth are drawn in. Once the basic object is identified, further elaboration will count and increase the ELAB score for the stu- dent on the task. The worm would be counted. Eye lashes over the eyes would be counted. This implies a basic pictorial dictionary for this particular scoring so that every figure or object would need to be defined by the minimum lines drawn which will basically identify it as one thing and not another. Then any additional and non-repetitive lines added to elaborate the object will increase the score for the child. The contention is that this method of scoring ELAB on the various tasks was difficult to do consistently, without such a pictorial diction- ary, and perhaps did not represent an additional aspect of creativity - namely, the energy level of the creative child. It was never stated by Torrance, nor anyone else, as far as the investigator could find, that the energy level factor was even considered, much less felt to be uzIbid., p. 29. 143 important. Of course, there are a great number of other factors that can be assessed, but that is not the point. It was the investigator's assumption that the more creative child would, of necessity, need more energy and be more willing to expend that energy in order to draw all the things his mind would bring forth. Just as feeble minded children do not usually Show up as being creative.)+3 a physically lazy child would have difficulty satisfying the demands of an especially active and preg- nant mind. The investigator devised a method (described in Definition of Terms) whereby all lines drawn by the child, including repetitions, either made with pencil or with crayon, which did not trace over another line already supplied on the selected drawing, would be scored. A con- tinuous line, with no breaks or definite changes of directions, would be counted as one line. If the line zigged and zagged and changed direc- tions many times, each change of direction would constitute a different line and a higher score. In order to see if this method of scoring ELAB would be related to the method used by Torrance an hypothesis was stated to be tested statistically. A significant positive relationship would indicate that both methods were predicting essentially the same thing. One particular task, the Picture Construction Task; was scored by both methods to determine this relationship, although the investiga- tor's method was used throughout the scoring of ELAB on the SeCIT. Concerning45ixth Hypothesis.--There were three part scores on both the MTCT and the S-CIT which were common to both tests. These were “BGetzels and Jackson, Creativity and Intelligence:Explorations with Gifted Students, op. cit., p. 26. 144 Flexibility (FLEX), Originality (ORIG), and Elaboration (ELAB). Only ORIG was scored similarly by Torrance and the investigator. FLEX on the S-CIT was based on the particular types of drawings selected by the child. It was assumed that a child who selected a Stimulus Line draw- ing, then a Coloring Book drawing, and then a Stimulus Line drawing would be a more flexible child than one who always selected either all Stimulus Line drawings (and who would receive a high SEL part score and be more creative) or the child who always selected a Coloring Book drawing (and who would receive a low SEL part score and be more conforming). The assumption is that a creative child is freer to select whatever he would like to work on to express himself most fully at the moment. At some point in the week he might be attracted to a particular Coloring Book drawing and, being free and open, could select it to work on. At other times, he would have need or see the possibilities for a more complete expression of his own ideas and would be open and free to select a Stimulus Line drawing. As he selected different types of drawings it was assumed that he would be more flexible. The apparent inconsistency between a high SEL score (more crea- tive) and a low FLEX score (less creative) is explained in this way: the more creative child who always selects a Stimulus Line drawing and who has a low FLEX score would be sacrificing one ability for the other. It is felt that the SEL factor is more important and would supercede the FLEX factor. In other words, the opportunity a child takes to be able to express his own ideas is more important, according to the investiga- tor, than the shifting back and forth between the Stimulus Line drawings and the Coloring Book drawings. Torrance's method of scoring FLEX used the same idea of shifting 145 back and forth but does so by counting the number of different categories into which the responses fall. He has classified most of the responses given by the children he has studied into specific categories which can be referred to in the scoring manual by subsequent examiners.hh The two methods of scoring ELAB by Torrance's method and the investigator's method have been discussed above. It was felt that a significant positive relationship between these three scores in common, FLEX, ORIG, and ELAB, on the MTCT and on the S~CIT would lend some validity to the S-CIT, again assuming that the MTCT was testing what it was purporting to test - several aspects of creative thinking. It would also show that alternative methods of scor- ing predict the same creative ability. If more efficient, yet still significant, scoring methods can be devised, the usefulness of the test instrument is thereby increased. Concerning Seventh Hypothesis.--Since the S—CIT was not given as a retest to determine its reliability over a two, three, or four week interval it was felt that by comparing the Morning (AM) part scores with the Afternoon (PM) part scores that a degree of reliability could be shown since the same basic instrument with different, though equivalent, drawing types, was used for the period of five days - Monday through Friday. It was felt that a significant positive relationship between the AM and the PM part scores would indicate a significant degree of reliableness in prediction. Correlations between the seven AM part uuTorrance, Guide for Administeripg and Scoripg Non-Verbal Form B: Minnesota Tests of Creative Thinking, 9p. cit., pp. 13-18. 146 scores and the seven PM part scores were calculated to find this out. Multiple Regression Analysis Concerning Second Hypothesis.--The twelve teachers had been asked to nominate and rank their "most creative" and their "most conforming" students. Some teachers rated just a few students while several teachers attempted to nominate their whole class as either creative or conforming. It was felt that the more creative students would receive higher scores on the MTCT and the S-CIT than the more conforming students. In addi- tion, it was felt that the more creative child would also receive a low Positive (PS) score on the Test of Suggestibility (TS). Using the teachers' nominations of their students, as most creative and most con- forming, as the dependent variable, and the twenty-six other part scores on the MTCT, the S-CIT, and the TS, as the independent variables, a mul- tiple regression analysis was selected to best determine the most sig- nificant relationships as well as the particularly significant variables which would afford high prediction. After the various correlations were computed the least signifi- cant variables were eliminated or deleted in the subsequent computations in the multiple regression analysis until the most significant variables remained with high predictive capabilities. In order to differentiate the two groups statistically, the most creative from the most conforming, Fisher's linear discriminant function was used. This permitted all of the scores for the most creative chil- dren to be computed for that group and the same for the most conforming children. It was thought that if the relationship between the teacher nominations, as most creative and most conforming, had a significant 147 positive relationship with the numerous part scores of the MTCT, the S-CIT, and the TS, that a degree of validity would be provided for the MTCT as well as for the S-CIT. It would also Show that the teachers in this study were capable of nominating their students quite accurately as being "most creative" and as "most conforming" as shown by their high and low scores on the MTCT, the S—CIT, and the TS. Concerning Fifth Hypothesis.-4With the total score of the MTCT, as the dependent variable, and the fifteen part scores of the S-CIT, counting AM and PM scores separately, as the independent variables, a multiple regression analysis was used to see if there might be a signifi- cant positive relationship between the total score of the MTCT and the fifteen part scores of the S-CIT. If there was a significant positive relationship it was felt that the S-CIT would have a high degree of validity, assuming the MTCT was quite valid. On the other hand, if the relationship was not significant, it might be assumed that the various part scores on the S-CIT were measuring other aspects of creative behav- ior, just as valid and just as important, as the various aspects meas- ured by the MTCT. This would be true for the other relationships in all of the previous hypotheses. A low correlation between variables might mean that a number of different and distinct factors or abilities of creative behavior were being measured by the MTCT and the S-CIT. Summary Permission was granted by the Lansing School District to conduct this study with first grade students after which the proposal was dis- cussed with the six building principals and the twelve teachers who would 148 be involved. All were willing to participate in the study. The Selection and Color In Test (S-CIT) was administered by the teachers for five days, twice a day during the week of May 24, 1965. Instructions and materials were supplied by the investigator. Teachers were asked to nominate and rank their "most creative" and their "most conforming"students. The investigator then administered the Minnesota Tests of Crea- tive Thinking (MTCT) and the Test of Suggestibility (TS). After all three tests were completed, the drawings on the S-CIT were separated by classes and types of drawings after they were thoroughly counted, iden- tified, and tabulated for each classroom. All scoring was done by the investigator. The design of this study involved using three tests:“5 The MTCT to place the children in some perspective in regard to creative thinking abilities; the S-CIT to do the same in regard to both creative as well as conforming behavior patterns; and the TS to place the chil- dren in regard to conforming behavior. Of interest is the editorial by Lansing concerning the general approach to research design. He questions the use of a fifty minute period by investigators during which time they hope to assess accurately the influence of stimulation and school environment for purposes of col- lecting research data. He asks if fifty minutes is long enough for each individual to give form to his unique reaction to the stimulus. The S-CIT consisted of forty-eight different drawings of five uSSee Appendix L for the description of directions used in administering the three tests. 149 different types: Coloring Book, Geometric Design, Dot, Stimulus Line, and Blank Sheets of Paper.46 Part of the S-CIT each day were always the Coloring Book Type drawings and the Stimulus Line Type drawings. Two of the types were used alternately. The Blank Sheet of Paper was used only on Thursday for both Group A and Group Bf"7 It was hypothesized that the more creative, as well as less con- forming, student would select a Stimulus Line drawing to work on and color in when given this opportunity twice daily for a week. It was also hypothesized that the more conforming, as well as less creative, student would select a Coloring Book drawing to work on and color in during the same time. The Stimulus Line drawing provided maximum opportunity for the student to express his own unique ideas on a drawing. The Coloring Book drawing provided a minimum of opportunity for the student to express his own ideas since everything ha been pre-drawn and all he needed to do was color inside the lines - a mechanical job at best. The sample contained 309 first graders, eight of whom were not included because of lack of data. Pre-testing of the S-CIT was conducted with two first grade classes in two other local school systems. The null hypotheses are stated, data collecting devices are men- tioned, and a note about the data processing by the computer is included. Validity and reliability are discussed. Admittedly, both are very dif- ficult to establish when attempting to assess human behavior. Torrance uéSee Appendix I for the rationale for selecting the S-CIT draw- ings. “7Each class in each school was assigned to either Group A or B in order to test the particular effectiveness of the pairings of the S-CIT drawings. 150 approaches validity in one of two ways: (1) "Identifying high and low groups on some test measure and then determining whether or not they can be differentiated in terms of behavior that can be regarded as 'creative.'" (2) "Identifying criterion groups on some behavior regarded as creative and then determining whether or not they can be differentiated by test scores." Taylor indicates that a number of different methods are used by researchers to establish validity for their measures. Torrance is not especially worried about reliability since his major interests are "in evoking and developing whatever creative talents a child possesses" and in finding out about the "conditions that cause this low reliability in scores." Torrance has used teacher and peer nominations of children as creative or not-as-creative as immediate criteria to establish validity. This was done in this study but only teacher nominations were asked for. Reliability in this study was determined by comparing the seven AM part scores and the seven PM part scores of the S-CIT. A discussion of the apprOpriateness of the statistical methods used is treated in detail concerning the seven hypotheses. Five were written to be tested by correlating two or more scores for the children involved. Two hypotheses needed to be treated by the use of multiple regression analysis with Fisher's linear discriminant function employed in the hypothesis concerned with differentiating students whom the teachers nominated as "most creative" from those nominated "most conforming." CHAPTER V PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS Restatement of the Hypotheses with the r Findipgs of Each 1. It was hypothesized that there would be a significant negative cor- relation between the total score of the Minnesota Tests of Creative Thinking (MTCT) and the Positive Shift (PS) score of the Test of Sug- gestibility (TS). An r = -.10 was obtained between these two scores, based on an N of 267. The statistic fV/NZT has approximated a unit of normal dis- tribution.1 In this case, f\/N:l = 1.63 which was not significant at the .05 level on a two-tailed test. Hence, the hypothesis was not con— firmed. 2. The part scores of the MTCT, the part scores of the Selection and Color In Test (S-CIT), the PS score of the TS, and the Negative Shift (NS) score of the TS will differentiate between the "most creative" and the "most conforming" groups. The linear discriminant function originated by Fisher was used. He employed the discriminant variables as the independent regression variables and brought in a dichotomous dummy variable as the dependent 1Helen M. walker and Joseph Lev, Statistical Inference (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1953), pp. 251.252. 151 152 variable designating group membership. In this second hypothesis the dependent variables were the children who were nominated by their teach— ers as most creative (as the first group) and as most conforming (as the second group). Since a computer was used in the processing of the data for this study it was possible to employ this particular function.2 The results of this analysis3 are presented in TABLE 5—1. It will be seen that the results are significant which supports the hypothe- sis. The obtained multiple regression coefficient was .55. Accordingly, it was decided to use a smaller set of variables which would do essen- tially the same amount of discriminating between the two groups. Collier“ has shown that the method of deleting variables in a regression TABLE 5-1 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR OVERALL REGRESSION ON SELECTED VARIABLESa Sum of Degrees of Mean Squares Freedom Square F P Regression 12 .1865 25 0.4875 2 .3442 (005 (About Mean) Error 28.4883 137 0.2079 Total (About Mean) 40.6748 162 aSee Hypothesis 2 above. 2Raymond O. Collier, Jr., "A Note on the Multiple Regression Technique for Deleting Variables in the Discriminant Function," The Journal of Experimental Education, XXXI (Summer, 1963), 351. 3Mary E. Rafter and William L. Ruble, "Stepwise Deletion of Variables from a Least Square Equation," STAT Series Description No. 8, op. cit. “Collier, op. cit., p. 353. 153 analysis is suitable for this purpose, and accordingly the least pre- dictive variables were dropped, one by one, until the regression coef- ficient for each variable was Significant at the .05 level with N = 163. The final multiple correlation coefficient was .44. The results of the analysis are presented in TABLES 5-2 and 5-3. TABLE 5.2 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR OVERALL REGRESSION 0N REMAINING SELECTED VARIABLESa Sum of Degrees of Mean Squares Freedom Square F P Regression (About Mean) 7.7623 4 1.9406 9.3159 (.005 Error 32.9126 158 0.2083 Total (About Mean) 40.6748 162 aSee Hypothesis 2. 3. The third hypothesis stated that the SEL part score of the S-CIT would have a significant positive correlation with the total score of the MTCT. The correlation coefficient was .11 which was not significant at the .05 level on a two-tailed test (N = 284), using the test described in Hypothesis 1, so the hypothesis was not supported. 4. ELAB on the Picture Construction Task of the MTCT was scored by two methods. The Torrance method is referred to as ELAB-T; the investi- gator's method as ELAB-S. It was hypothesized that there would be a significant positive correlation between these two scores. The resulting coefficient was .48 which was significant at the 154 TABLE 5—3 MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS FOR FOUR REMAINING VARIABLESa Standard Standard Regression Error of Beta Errors Variable Coefficients Coefficients weights of Betas E, P ‘ Constant -0.1395 0.1479 0.8885 0.35 ORIG 0.0088 0.0033 0.19 0.07 6.8672 0.01 FLEX-TOTAL 0.0090 0.0030 0.22 0.07 9.1187 (0.005 ELAB-AM 0.0041 0.0014 0.21 0.07 8.5346 (0.005 PS-First Gr -0.0602 0.0261 -0.17 0.07 5.3003 0.02 aSee Hypothesis 2. .001 level on a two-tailed test (N = 286) as described in Hypothesis 1. Consequently the hypothesis was supported. 5. It was hypothesized that the S-CIT part scores would yield a signifi- cant multiple correlation with the total score of the MTCT. The results of the multiple regression analysis are presented in TABLE 5.4. The multiple regression coefficient was .31. While the results are statistically significant, the variance in the total score of the MTCT which is accounted for by the best linear function of the S-CIT was only about nine percent which was considered so low as to be incapable of good prediction. N = 284. 6. The part scores of the S-CIT were hypothesized to have a significant positive correlation with the corresponding part scores of the MTCT. The results are presented in TABLE 5-5 and TABLE 5.6. Although the correlation between ELAB part scores was statistically significant 155 TABLE 5-4 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR OVERALL REGRESSION 0N REMAINING SELECTED VARIABLESa Sum of Degrees of Mean Squares Freedom Square F P Regression (About Mean) 30905.1406 2 15452.5703 14.7007 (0.005 Error 295371.9404 281 1051.1457 Total (About Mean) 326277.0810 283 aSee Hypothesis 5. at the .05 level, on a two-tailed test, it was still not considered high enough to be of practical importance. The other corresponding part scores did not even reach statistical significance. TABLE 5-5 CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS OF CORRESPONDING PART SCORES ON THE S-CIT AND MTCTa S-CIT Part Scores FLEX ORIG ELAB FLEX .10 MTCT Part ORIG .10 Scores ELAB .30 aSee Hypothesis 6. 156 TABLE 5.6 FREQUENCIES OF ENTRIES IN TABLE 5.5al S-CIT Part Scores FLEX ORIG ELAB FLEX 285 MTCT Part ORIG 284 Scores ELAB 285 aSee Hypothesis 6. 7. Hypothesis seven stated that there would be a significant positive correlation between the morning part scores and the afternoon part scores of the S-CIT. The results are presented in TABLE 5-7. Although all of these part scores proved statistically significant at the .01 level, only the first three, namely COLOR, ELAB, and DISP were considered to be of practical importance, N = 300. TABLE 5-7 CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS OF AM.AND PM PART SCORES 0N S-CIT“ PM Part Scores of S-CIT COLOR ELAB DISP COVER SEL ORIG FLEX COLOR .68 ELAB .46 AM Part DISP .41 Scores COVER .32 of 3-011 SEL .26 ORIG .17 FLEX .14 aSee Hypothesis 7. 157 Summapy The pertinent data concerning the seven hypotheses are presented in TABLE 5.8. TABLE 5-8 SUMMARY OF DATA FOR SEVEN HYPOTHESES No. Brief a Description r N P Supported 1. Sign. neg. corr. between total score- MTCT and PS-TS score -.10 267 --- No 2. Part scores of MTCT, Initial .55 163 (£005 Yes S-CIT, PS & NS of TS will differentiate between creative & conforming groups Final .44 163 (3005 Yes 3. Sign. pos. corr. between SEL part score of S-CIT and total score of MTCT .11 284 --- No 4. Sign. pos. corr. between ELAB-T and ELAB-S for Picture Construction Task .48 286 .001 Yes 5. Sign. multiple corr. between part scores of S-CIT and total score of MTCT .31 284 .001 Nob 6. Sign. pos. corr. between corresponding FLEX .10 285 --- No part scores of S-CIT ORIG .10 284 --- Nob and MTCT ELAB .30 285 .001 No 7, Sign. pos. corr. COLOR .68 300 .001 Yes between 7 AM and 7 ELAB .46 300 .001 Yes PM part scores of DISP .41 300 .001 Yes S-CIT COVER .32 300 .001 Nob SEL .26 300 .001 Nob ORIG .17 300 .01 Nob FLEX .14 300 .01 Nob 8‘On a two-tailed test. bNot supported for practical prediction. CHAPTER VI SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Summapy The problem for this study was to see if a bipolar instrument could be constructed which would be easily administered, easily scored, easily and meaningfully interpreted, and which would measure BOTH the variations of creativity and of conformity of first grade public school children. The purpose of this study was to learn more about the relation- ship of creativity and conformity of first grade children through develop- ing and testing a bipolar instrument called the Selection and Color In Test (S-CIT) designed by the investigator to assess variations of crea- tive AND conforming behavior. Three hundred and one children constituted the sample. They were drawn from twelve classes in six schools selected in certain ethnic and socio-economic areas in Iansing, Michigan. Their teachers adminis- tered the S-CIT over a period of five days, during two sessions of twenty- five minutes each per day. The children selected one drawing each session, from a possible six, ranging in completeness of drawing from a Coloring Book Type to a Stimulus Line Type, to which they added lines to express real or imaginary ideas and then colored them in. This test was to measure the variations of both creativity and of conformity of the children. 158 159 The investigator gave three non-verbal tasks of the Minnesota Tests of Creative Thinking (MTCT) recommended by Torrance to 284 of the first graders. Each child also was given a Test of Suggestibility (TS), devised by the investigator, in which the attempt was made to influence the children to shift their second response on the TS to the false norm contrived by the investigator to indicate the variations of conformity. Teachers were asked to nominate their "most creative" and their "most conforming" students just prior to the testing. Seven scores were Obtained on the S-CIT; Selection (SEL), Flex- ibility (FLEX), Color (COLOR), Elaboration (ELAB), Originality (ORIG), Coverage (COVER), and Dispersion (DISP), as well as a total score. The MTCT yielded four scores: Fluency (FLU), Flexibility (FLEX), Originality (ORIG), and Elaboration (ELAB), as well as a total score. The TS Obtained two scores: Positive Shift (PS) toward the false norm, and Negative Shift (NS) away from the false norm. Seven hypotheses were concerned with the relationship of the above scores on the three tests as.well as with the teachers' nominations. The statistical treatments used indicate that: 1. There was no relationship between the total creativity score of the MTCT and the children's shifting toward the false norm on the TS which assessed conformity. While it was possible to determine which children were creative on the MTCT, it was not possible to show that these same children were nonconforming or less conforming by using the T3. 2. Teachers who nominated their students as "most creative" and as "most conforming" were able to predict this quite well based on the part scores of the three tests. The children so nominated scored either 160 high on the creativity measures (MTCT and S—CIT) or high on the con- formity measure (TS) so that the correlation between all of the part scores on the MTCT, the S-CIT, and the TS and the teacher nomina- tions, as determined by the multiple regression analysis, was .55. After the least significant variables had been deleted, the scores of the remaining four most significant variables correlated .44 with the teacher nominations with 163 children, significant at the (3005 level. The SEL score was considered the key to the S-CIT. It showed no significant relationship to the total score of the MTCT so that it was not possible to predict which students would be more creative based on which drawings of the S-CIT they selected to draw on and color in. The method for scoring ELAB, devised by the investigator, is signifi- cantly related to the method developed by Torrance. The correlation was .48. It would be possible to use the former method for scoring ELAB. The S-CIT is not particularly capable of predicting creative behavior when compared with Torrance's MTCT. The multiple regression coef- ficient was .31 between the part scores of the S-CIT and the total score of the MTCT. Perhaps the S-CIT is assessing different crea- tive abilities not measured by the MTCT. Three of the scores of the S-CIT are not particularly capable of predicting creative behavior when compared with their corresponding scores on the MTCT. Perhaps the scores on the S-CIT are predicting different factors of creative behavior. The corresponding ELAB 161 scores were somewhat related but they correlated only .30 with each other which is not capable of significant prediction. 7. The reliability of the S-CIT over a five day period varies depending on the particular part score. The seven morning scores were com- pared with the seven afternoon scores for the five days. AM COLOR correlated .68 with PM COLOR; AM ELAB correlated .46 with PM ELAB: and AM DISP correlated .41 with PM DISP. All were significant at the .001 level for 300 students. The other four AM and PM scores, including SEL, were not particularly reliable. Discussion of Findings and Conclusions Reached 1. There will be a significant negative correlation between the total score of the Minnesota Tests of Creative Thinking (MTCT) and the Positive Shift (PS) score on the Test of Suggestibility (TS). No sig- nificant correlation was found. The PS score on the TS was intended to show that the child with a high PS score was a more conforming child and therefore not-as-creative a child as shown by a low score on the MTCT. The essentially zero correlation, even though it is negative, -.10, indi- cates that the PS score has only a chance relationship with the total score of the MTCT when it is called upon to predict. This means that the child who scored high on a creativity measure is not necessarily less conforming or that the child with a low creativity score is not necessarily more conforming. Generally, the kinds of validity measures Torrance used with the younger children in schools have been these: FIRST AND SECOND GRADES. In the first two grades there was a general tendency for children chosen most frequently on the Odd-ideas criterion to have moderate creative thinking scores. 162 Highly creative boys, however, were frequently chosen as having silly ideas and ideas for being naughty.1 Wishing for validity will not cause it to appear automatically: neither does a person's reasoning ability make any better validity, and not treating the subject at all does not obviate anyone from the respon- sibility of determining what is valid and what should be valid. It is certainly an important area of investigation, not only in this study, but in all such experimental studies. This is one reason why the teachers were asked to nominate their "most creative" and "most conforming" stu- dents. The fact that the Test of Suggestibility (TS) was not able to Show that the creative children who scored high on the MTCT or the S-CIT were not particularly less conforming may mean several things. First of all, the TS may be assessing some behavior unrelated to either conformity or suggestibility. Second, the test may be measuring a high level of conformity but the MTCT and the S-CIT are not assessing creative abili- ties necessarily. Third, all three measures might not be too valid for assessing either creativity or conformity. 2. The many part scores of the S-CIT, MTCT, and the TS will significantly differentiate the "most creative" and the "most conforming" groups Of first grade children as determined by the ratings of their teachers. In the multiple regression analysis that was used, the coeffi- cient was .55 which indicates a significant positive relationship existed between the many part scores and the teachers' ratings of their children 1Torrance, Guiding Creative Talent, 9p. cit., p. 53. 163 as "most creative" and "most conforming." The multiple regression analy- sis, with all 25 variables, as the independent variables, showed a cor- relation of .55 with the teacher nominations held constant, as the dependent variable. Thirty percent of the variance was accounted for by the teachers' nominations. As succeeding variables of less signifi- cance were deleted, four variables remained which.were significant at the .01 level of confidence or better. The resulting multiple correla- tion coefficient was .44 which is significant at the (3005 level of confidence. Teachers were able to nominate their "most creative" and "most conforming" students with significant prediction. This means that a great percentage of the children who received high creative scores were rated as "most creative" by their teachers, and a large percentage of the children who received high conformity scores were rated as "most conforming" by their teachers. This indicates that the teachers in this study were quite sensi- tive to the creative and conforming behavioral characteristics of their students to be able to select with this degree of predictability. In other ways, these teachers evidenced sensitivity to their students in such.ways as encouraging them to think of imaginative titles for their drawings and taking the time to listen carefully and to write down the stories that many children told as they elaborated on the picture they had drawn and colored in. The most sensitive teachers encouraged more complete imaginative responses from their story tellers and some of the recorded stories ran a long paragraph in length. 3. The SEL part score on the S-CIT has a significant positive correlation with the total score of the MTCT. 164 No significant positive correlation was found between the two measures so that essentially the SEL part score was measuring something other than the various measures included in the MTCT. 'With the correla- tion of .11 the two measures are independent of each other and cannot be used to predict the existence of the other. The basis for the S-CIT is the particular type of drawing selected by the child to work on and color in. Since the relationship of the SEL score is essentially a chance one with the total score of the MTCT it cannot be used to predict that a child is creative if he selected a Stimulus Line drawing. Since there was no significant relationship between the SEL score and the PS or NS scores of the TS it cannot pre- dict whether a child who selected a Coloring Book Type drawing or a Stimulus Line Type drawing is necessarily a conforming child or a crea- tive child. 4. The ELAB part score of the Picture Construction Task of the MTCT has a significant positive correlation with the ELAB score on the same task as scored by the investigator's method. The correlation of .48 indicates that there is a significant positive correlation between these two measures, though it is not as high as desired. This shows that the investigator's method of scoring ELAB might be used interchangeably with the Torrance method. Both methods are quite objective since each is done by counting certain items such as lines, colors, parts, and other details, added by the child to his drawing. The contention rests in these two areas: First, Torrance's method of scoring ELAB seems to indicate that a pictorial dictionary is necessary in order to define every object by a minimum set of lines in 165 order to know what then to count as ELAB and, second, it does not account for the energy level the investigator feels most creative chil- dren possess in adding repeated lines, colors, and details. Torrance's method does not count repetitions at all. The investigator's method involves counting all lines as separate lines if they zig and zag and change directions. A long smooth curved line would count one point. Repeated objects, colors, lines would be counted as separate items in the scoring. Since the relationship between the two methods is quite high it would appear that perhaps Torrance's method is taking into account the energy level of the student inadvertently. If it were not, the correla- tion would be much lower. 5. The S-CIT part scores will yield a significant positive correlation coefficient with the total score of the MTCT. The multiple regression analysis produced a coefficient of .31 which does not support the hypothesis since it is not high enough to be significant as a measure of prediction. While the Beta weights predict in a sense, the multiple correlation coefficient of .31 means that only about nine percent of the variance is accounted for by the MTCT part scores. This is not appreciably different from a chance relationship between itself, as the dependent variable, and the fifteen independent variables from the S-CIT. The S-CIT apparently is not capable of predicting creative behavior as does the MTCT. The possibility exists that the creative abilities measured by the S-CIT are different from those assessed by the MTCT and do not have a significant positive correlation because of this 166 difference. However, it might be possible to take Hypothesis 2 as support for this latter possibility since the nominations by the teachers of their "most creative" and "most conforming" students correlated .55 with their scores on the different measures of creativity as well as with their measure of conformity. 6. The part scores of the S-CIT will have a significant posi- tive correlation with the corresponding part scores on the MTCT. The part scores which are common to both tests are FLEX, ORIG, and ELAB. Even though the first and last scores are scored differently, they show essentially the same things. The purpose was to check particu- larly the positive relationships that existed between them. The correla- tion coefficients for the two corresponding FLEX and ORIG part scores were both .10 which were not statistically significant for purposes of prediction. The correlation for the corresponding ELAB part scores was .30. While this is somewhat higher it is essentially no better than a chance relationship which does not make it statistically significant for purposes of prediction. Yet the correlation of ELAB on the Picture Construction Task, when scored by two methods, Torrance's and the inves- tigator's, was .48. However, the overall relationship between these three corresponding part scores on both the MTCT and the S-CIT is essen- tially no better than chance so that the three scores of the S-CIT are not capable of predicting creative behavior as was hypothesized. 7. There is a significant positive correlation between the Morning (AM) part scores and the Afternoon (PM) part scores of the S-CIT. In order to determine the reliability of the test instrument when tested over time, it was determined that a high positive correlation 167 between the AM and the PM scores was necessary. The S-CIT was admin— istered over a consecutive five day period so that there were five AM scores and five PM scores added together and averaged for the mean AM and the mean PM part scores. Of the seven measures, only three had a significant positive correlation coefficient to warrant using them for determining reliability. These included the following: COLOR, ELAB, and DISP with correlations of .68, .h6, and .hl respectively. The remaining part scores: COVER, SEL, ORIG, and FLEX had correlations of .32, .26, .17, and .14 respectively which were not considered signifi- cant for purposes of supporting the reliability of the S-CIT or for pre- dicting purposes. Reliability for the different scores is somewhat variable. The AM SEL score, which was considered the key to the S-CIT, only correlated .26 with the PM SEL score. An alternate method of determining reliability from the existing data is possible whereby the SEL score for Monday is compared with the SEL score for Tuesday, and the rest of the week. This would be done with all of the seven part scores of the S-CIT. There is the possibility that many children selected one type of drawing in the AM and a different type in the PM which would reduce the reliability. The similarity of the second and third days' selections with Monday's selections may be more closely related thereby increasing the reliability of the S-CIT. In regard to reliability, Torrance indicates that the reliability of the three tasks used in this present study: Picture Construction, Incomplete Figures, and Circles Tasks is not as high as he would like when given at the kindergarten, first, second, and third grade levels. The reliabilities for retesting at one year intervals drop to 168 the 30's for some of the individual tasks and are in the .50's and .60's for battery totals. Above the fourth grade, test- retest reliabilities for total batteries range from the high .50's to the high .80's.2 Torrance is more concerned about bringing out and encouraging children's creative abilities and in finding out what conditions make reliability so low. Implications for Education Perhaps the most significant result of this study is the fact that only several of the hypotheses were supported by the statistical findings. Often this is true when assessing the vagaries of human behavior. As such, prediction is very difficult at best. This diffi- culty of assessing human behavior is a natural deterrant to many research- ers. Even as research techniques become more refined, more powerful, and more inclusive, the degree of prediction will still remain relatively gross because changes are always taking place in the individual and in his relationship with a changing society. Creativity, by its very nature, almost defies regularity, or usualness, or predictability, or even measurement. Until further research is done on the S-CIT and the TS, they remain experimental and cannot be regarded as particularly valid or reliable. The words of Melby are most significant as he advised that the best way to encourage creativity and develop it in all children is to give all of them the kind of education that will permit them all to live creatively and gives them all a chance to learn what they can learn. All children should have all the opportunities that can be provided for 2Torrance, Education and the Creative Potential, op. cit., p. 62. 169 creative activities in school as well as at home and in the community. Yet we need to consider Toynbee's warning that "misguided" egalitarianism and "benighted" conservatism do not thwart the fostering of creative ability. Do we provide creative activities just for the creatively talented or for everybody? If opportunities to be creative are provided for every child in school all the students who can best succeed with special opportunities will shine forth. The NEA Project on Instruction indicates a philosophy of provid- ing special opportunities to those who can best use them. According to Miller, "today's school should foster creativity in two ways: by pro- viding the facilities and materials for each student's development, for every student has SOME creativity in SOME area; and by identifying highly creative children and giving special attention to them."3 Which approach would seem the most fruitful to follow? The answer may be self-contained in the method used. If all children are provided maximum opportunities for creative expression, the ones who will be normally and naturally outstanding will be provided with all the opportunities they can use. Those who are not as capable still will have all the opportunities they can use. Providing creative activities for all children is not a human leveler or a sponsor of medi- ocrity but a fostering and enhancing force which takes into consideration individual differences and leaves ample growing room for all abilities at all ages. Flanagan tells us that "one of the big changes which is coming to the schools which should take into account creativity as well as 3Miller, Education in a Changing Society, op. cit., p. 128. 170 other talents is the individualization of instruction."u He thinks that "the most important implication for education from our present research findings is that education needs to be individualized to a much greater extent than it has been by whatever methods seem most effective. ‘We should have a tailor—made program which.will permit each child to develop his particular talents."5 wolfson maintains that "essentially, individualizing instruction requires the teacher to encourage individual interests, allow for indi- vidual styles, and reSpond to individual needs."6 Flanagan indicates that it would be "a waste of effort to try to develop imagination, originality, or creative ability of people who have a substantial deficiency in this area." But it is important to try to assist everyone to learn everything he can regardless of talent or ability. Flanagan states that people in the upper levels of creativity need to be encouraged to devote time and energy in doing things as crea- tively as often and as much as possible. Others should accomplish as much as they can on things for which they have the greatest ability and talent.7 A great amount of what we know today as subject matter content in the typical school curriculum may need to be reoriented, revised, or replaced. Torrance foresees one of the most revolutionary changes “John C. Flanagan, "Implications of Research in Creativity," The Future Implications of Creativity Research, 9p. cit., p. 50. 5Ibid. 6Bernice J. WOlfson, "Individualizing Instruction," NEA Journal, LV (November, 1966), 31. 7Flanagan, op. cit., p. 51. 171 occurring in the objectives of education. Schools of the future will be designed not only for learnigg but for thinkigg. . . . Colleges and universities are still teaching only the pgzchology of learning, almost never the psychology of thinking. . . . Rarely do teachers state objec- tives in terms of thinking - I mean thinking of all kinds - critical, creative, constructive, independent, logical, liberal, and analytical. . . . Most of our educational research is still being devoted to the investigation of the learning process; seldom to the thinking process.8 Melby feels that "perhaps the most signal failure of much of American education is its failure to help students to see that they are in effect creating their own environment for growth, that they are engaged in their own education."9 Wblfson writes that "in order to develop individuality and feel- ings of competence and to move toward self-actualization, children need to learn how to learn, to think independently, to make choices, to plan, and to evaluate."10 According to Lowenfeld and Brittain, "the ability to question, to seek answers, to find form and order, to rethink and restructure and find new relationships, are qualities that are generally not taught; and in fact these seem to be frowned upon in our present educational system."11 They emphasize that the flgpportunity for the child to create constantly with his present knowledge is the best preparation for future creative 8E. Paul Torrance, Education and the Creative Potential, pp; ci ., p. #. 9Melby, The Teacher and Learning, op. cit., p. 69. 10W'olfson, op. cit., p. 31. 11Viktor Lowenfeld and W. Lambert Brittain, Creative and Mental Growth, op. cit., p. 2. 172 12 action." The task of the teacher is to assist the students as they learn more about themselves and to stimulate creativeness using whatever methods the teacher finds most effective in this dual task.13 wolfson indicates that "there is no best method for all teachers to use in teaching anything to all children."1u Guilford writes that every course or subject in school has opportunities for being taught creatively. A teacher who shows imagina- tion in her teaching is bound to make any subject more exciting, more meaningful, and more inspiring. Encouragement for self-initiated activity by the students should be rewarded since unique achievements are more important than conforming achievements. As we continue to reward unique achievements, children will increasingly seek these rewards by demon- strating these kinds of behavior.15 He believes that: we remember best and with greatest potential usefulness those things that we discover for ourselves and those things that have greatest meaning and significance. The active young child is thrilled by his discoveries. The more of this approach to gain- ing knowledge we can maintain in education the better. we should encourage the learner to seek information actively, got to be a passive receiver of information that is fed to him.1 Flanagan mentions that people expend extra effort on whatever job they are doing because they believe that they are doing something successfully that is very important. As he discusses the implications 12Ibid,, p. h. 13Ibid., p. 11. 1"‘W’olfson, op. cit., p. 33. 15J. P. Guilford, "Creativity and Our Future," The Future Impli- cations of Creativity Research, op. cit., p. 18. 161bid., p. 190 173 of research findings for the individual he writes: I think the most important thing as far as the individual is concerned is that he needs as early as possible to discover his pattern of talents and to learn the implications of these talents for his life and career planning. He needs to know this in considerable detail because only if he knows how his imagination and ingenuity compare with these abilities in his fellow students and other persons in his own age group, can he plan intelligently how to use these and his other talents in planning both vocations and avocations. Perhaps there are other ways of discovering patterns of talent, but certainly in the experience of people such as Dr. Guilford and myself, there is nothing as good as a test, or, certainly nothing as efficient as a test. Sound planning can be done only if one has fairly objective data on himself in relation to comparable data on many other people and knowledge as to the importance of his special talents for various types of jobs.17 Taylor, in looking toward the future, sees a "creative morality" developing which will begin to tolerate increasingly the characteristics of people who are presently associated with deviant creativity, such as "tolerance with personal latitude, ambiguity, and inconsistency, human- istic tolerance of human variability, to accept security and insecurity within an individual, to be comfortable with the opposite extremes of 18 He visions nonverbal communication being emphasized and emotions." accepted with such things as the language of gesture and posture and the use of the design elements: color, shape, texture, dark and light, line, form, and pattern.19 Last of all, Taylor foresees "the creative task for the educator and the man in the future" as one of designing his universe," to relax 17Flanagan, op. cit., pp. 1+6J47. 18Irving A. Taylor, "Creativity Research for Future Creativity," The Future Implications of Creativity Research, _p. cit., p. 83. 19Ib1d. 174 the 'psychic sphincters,‘ and to avoid 'hardening of the categories.‘ we will begin to apply what we know, particularly in the field of educa- tion where it is most needed.” As we go from one "cultural character" to the next, in a kind of severe transformation, extreme social tensions are bound to occur as has happened in prior transformations. Taylor believes that the "coming era will probably be as intolerant of the uncreative as the uncreative are now intolerant of the creative."20 Recommendations for Future Research Here are a number of specific projects, taken directly from this study, which are considered worthwhile for further research. 1. To study in more detail the various theories, particularly Page the perceptual theory, discussed by Schachtel, and the one by Rank, to see which one, or both, might explain the crea- tive and conforming behavior of first grade children . . . . 28 2. To study the similarities and differences between the find— ings of the Freyberger study and this study . . . . . . . . 59.60 3. Further research is necessary in refining or abbreviating the Selection and Color In Test and in securing additional validity and reliability data concerning it. The same would be true for the Test of Suggestibility if further develop- ment work in this area seems warranted and appears to be fmitfuleoeoeeeeeoeeeeeooeeeeeeeee 121 ZOIbid. , pp. 86-87. 4. 175 Page To study which set of drawings on the S-CIT or which particular pairings of drawings, or re-pairings, might make up the final set for the final test instrument which classroom teachers would be given, experimentally, at first, on just one day. The day could be determined by seeing which of the five days obtained the most "even" responses from the children who took the S-CIT. Perhaps ‘Wednesday might be a good day to administer the S-CIT since this would tend to equate "freshness on Monday" with "tired- ness on Friday" or vice versa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 To study the use of the S-CIT right up through graduate school; just as most of Torrance's tests of creative think- ing have been used experimentally. Some of the drawings might need to be changed for different age levels but the basic idea of seeing if people, creative in other ways, would select a Stimulus Line Type of drawing and if people, conforming in other ways, would select a completed Color Book Type or a Paint by the Number Type drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 In addition to refining the S-CIT, one set of simpler drawings could be ranged from completeness to incompleteness. The first drawing would be complete in order to assess a degree of con- formity; the second drawing would have certain lines deleted to make it less complete; the third one would have more lines deleted; the fourth drawing would have a few stimulus lines remaining and the fifth drawing would be a blank sheet of paper in order to assess a degree of creativity . . . . . . . . . . .122 10. 11. 12. 176 Page To study the Art Score which each child received when one of his responses on the initial administration of the TS coin- cided with an "art oriented" drawing on the TS . . . . . . . 125 To study WHY some children did or did not shift on the Test of Suggestibility. Also, what degree of shift resulted from the effect of each of the three shift agents: other first grade children, fourth grade children, and art teachers . . . 126 To study the differences between white and non-white first graders; between children from different socio-economic areas; and even between children in the same school but in different classrooms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 To compile the responses and to write a summary of the data supplied by the twelve teachers on the short questionnaire given them to fill out concerning the study . . . . . . . . . None To study the reliability of the S-CIT further by comparing the relationship of the seven part scores for each of the five days the instrument was used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 To study the consistency of the selections made by the child on the S-CIT; on the TS, first administration; and the two draw- ings each child selected to take home after he had given the investigator his responses on the MTCT. It was hypothesized that the more creative child would consistently select the Stimulus Line drawings because he would be able to express him- self more freely . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 13. 177 To study the comparison of the tOp ten or twenty percent of Page the high creative group with the top ten or twenty percent of the high conforming group, as determined by their scores on the MTCT, the S-CIT, and the TS, to see if there might be a significant negative correlation between them . . . . None Recommendations to Schools, Parents! and the Community In line with the investigator's great interest in fostering and enhancing creativity some recommendations are outlined which have been drawn generally from this study. 1. 4. Since children, youth and adults need all the opportunities for creative activities that educators, parents, and patrons can provide them, our thinking needs to be directed toward providing these opportunities within the community. The task of fostering and enhancing creativity in children, youth, and adults should not be relegated solely to the schools. The school can do at least two things: it can provide the facilities and materials for each student's development, and it can identify the highly creative students and give special attention to them. Teachers need their skills developed, through teacher training insti- tutions and in-service programs, in being able to provide all the creative activities possible. A number of possible ways of working with students have been suggested by Torrance and others. A community wide group of interested and sensitive members, with 7. 8. 178 wide and varied backgrounds, trained professionally and otherwise, needs to be created. It would be responsible to determine the paths to follow in an organized effort to begin the information and educa- tion program for the community concerning the need and importance of creativity. The next step would be to put into action a program of fostering and enhancing creative activities. After careful planning, a total action program involving the entire range of community life is vital. Much needs to be done in establishing basic research studies with school children and with people of all ages so that significant findings are available for improving programs for fostering and enhancing creativity. Findings need to be translated into practical demonstrated methods by educational psychologists, or others with inter-disciplinary backgrounds, and selected teachers, for use in the schoOl system. A number of possibilities exist for promoting the program in selected classrooms and for sharing the program outcomes with others in the school system in order to increase the creative opportunities in all schools. Several schools located in different areas might be the "stimulus schools" where innovations would be worked out and developed prior to working them into the remaining schools. WbrkshoP activi- ties can help provide teachers with ideas and skills. Resource people for the classroom could further stimulate new ideas and approaches. Materials of all sorts would need to be tested and the best things made available as supplemental aids to assist the teacher 10. 11. 179 in providing opportunities for all children to be creative. The position of Consultant in Education Through Creativity, or Stimulizer, would be established to give direction and continuity to the overall program. Additional professional assistance would be essential. Resources would need to be provided for making the position possible, and for other appropriate assistance such as secretarial help, a variety of materials and resources, and space and time to work. A thirteen year study is recommended starting at the beginning of the school year. Initial planning and coordination would be done during the remainder of the school year as well as during the fol- lowing summer so that the initial phases of the plan can be set in motion by September for the kindergarten level to be studied. Dur- ing each succeeding year one more grade would be incorporated in the reorientation from kindergarten through high school. Constant changes will need to be made within each grade level from.year to year as well as incorporating one higher grade level each year. This study would follow the initial class of kindergarten students through the senior year in high school. As the creative education program for all kindergarten students is phased into the whole school system the following year, that is, one year after the study of each succeeding level began, a number of programs in the com- munity, involving parents particularly, could be initiated. A number of programs already underway could be supported and strength- ened. 180 12. The emphasis must be on providing creative opportunities in all areas of the school curriculum as well as within the home and in the total community. BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Anderson, Harold H. "Creativity in Perspective," Creativity and its Cultivation, Edited by Harold H. Anderson. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1959. Asch, Solomon E. Social Psychology. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice- Hall, Inc., 1952. Ashtonswarner, Sylvia. 'Teacher. New York: Bantam Books, Inc., 1963. Barron, Frank. 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Columbus, Ohio: The Ohio State University Press, 1959. . The Teacher and Learnipg. New York: The Center for Applied Research in Education, Inc., 1963. Miller, Richard I. Education in a Changing Society. 'Washington, D. C.: National Education Association, 1963. Mooney, Ross L. "A Conceptual Model for Integrating Four Approaches to the Identification of Creative Talent," A Source Book for Creative Thinkipg, Edited by Sidney J. Parnes and Harold F. Harding. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1962. Neill, A. S. Summerhill: A Radical Approach to Child Rearing. New York: Hart Publishing Company, 1960. Reisman, David. Selected Essays from Individualism Reconsidered. Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1954. Rogers, Cazl. On Becoming a Person. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 19 1. Rokeach, Milton. The Open and Closed Mind. New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1960. Rugg, Harold. Imagination. New York: Harper & Row, 1963. Schachtel, Ernest G. Metamorphous: On the Development of Affect, Perception, Attention, and Memory. New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1959. Sherif, Musafer, and Sherif, Carolyn W'. Reference Groups: Exploration into Conformity and Deviation of Adolescents. New York: Harper & Row, 1964. Stein, Morris I. Survey of the Psychological Literature in the Area of Creativity With a View Toward Needed Research, COOperative Research Project No. E-3. New'York: Research for Human Rela- tions, New York University, 1962. 184 , and Heinze, Shirley J. Creativity and the Individual. Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1960. Stoddard, George. "Creativity in Education," Creativity and its Cultivation. Edited by Harold H. Anderson. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1959. Taylor, Calvin w. "Research Findings on Creative Characteristics," Creativity and Art Education. Edited by W2 Lambert Brittain. washington, D. C.: National.Art Education Association, 1963. . "Introduction," Creativity: Progress and Potential, Edited by Calvin W; Taylor. New York: McGraw-Hill Co., 1964. . "Some Knowns, Needs, and Leads," Creativity: Progress and_ Potential. Edited by Calvin Wk Taylor. New York: MeGraw-Hill Co., 19 4. . "Preface," Widening Horizons in Creativity. Edited by Calvin w; Taylor. New York: John'Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1964. , and Holland, John. "Predictors of Creative Performances," Creativity: Progress and Potential. Edited by Calvin‘W. Taylor. New York: McGraw-Hill Co., 1964. Taylor, Irving A. "Creativity Research for*Future Creativity," Future Implications of Creativity'Resegrch. A One Day Symposium Co- Sponsored by Los Angeles State College and Chouinard Art Institute, J. Leonard Steinberg, Coordinator, Pasadena: March 10, 1962. Thurstone, Thelma Gwinn. "Commentaries," ProductiveJThinking in Education. Edited by Mary Jane Aschner and Charles E. Bish. washington, D. C.: National Education Association and The Carnegie Corporation of New York, 1965. Tillich, Paul. The Courage To Be. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1952. Toward Better Teaching: 1959 ASCD Yearbook. washington, D. C.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1959. Torrance, E. Paul. Guiding Creative Talent. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962. . Education and the Creative Potential. Minneapolis: The University of Minnesota Press, 1963. . "Education and Creativity," Creativity: Progress and Poten- tial. Edited by Calvin w. Taylor. New York: McGraw-Hill Co., 1964. 185 . Rewardipg Creative Behavior. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 19 5. . "The Measurement of Creative Behavior in Children," Productive Thinking in.Eduo§tion. Edited by Mary Jane Aschner and Charles E. Bish. washington, D. C.: National Education Association and The Carnegie Corporation of New York, 1965. Toynbee, Arnold. "Is America Neglecting Her Creative Minority?" Widenipg Horizons in Creativity. Edited by Calvin W} Taylor. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1964. walker, Edward L.,and Heyns, Roger w. An Anatomy for Conformity. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962. walker, Helen, and Lev, Joseph. Statistical Inference. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1953. Zajonc, Robert B. "Conformity," Internationgl Encyclopedia of Social Sciences. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1968 (sic). Zimmerman, wayne S. "Introduction and Overview," The Future Implications 9:;Creativity Research. A One Day Symposium Co-Sponsored by Los Angeles State College and Chouinard Art Institute, J. Leonard Steinberg, Coordinator, Pasadena: March 10, 1962. Zirbes, Laura. Spurs to Creative Teaching. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1959. Periodicals Anderson, Harold H. "The Nature of Creativity," Studies in Art Education, washington, D. C.: National Art Education Association, I, No. 2 (Spring, 1960), 10-17. . "Creativity and Education," AHE Collggeand University Bulletin, washington, D. C.: National Education Association, X, No. 14 (May 1, 1961), 1-4. Brown, Rollo welter. "Do We want Creative Minds in America," Progressive Education, VI (April, May, June, 1929), 136-142. Coffin, Thomas E. "Some Conditions of Suggestion and Suggestibility," P cholo ical Mono ra hs, 53, Whole No. 241, Edited by John F. Bushnell, (19415. vii-ix, 1-123. Collier, Raymond 0.. Jr. "A Note on the Multiple Regression Technique for Deleting Variables in the Discriminant Function," The Journal of EXperimental Education, XXXI (Summer, 1963), 351-353. Crutchfield, Richard S. "Detrimental Effects of Conformity Pressures on Creative Thinking," Psychologische Beitrage, VI (1961/62), 463-471. 186 . "Conformity and Character." American BEYOhOlOgiSti X (1955)! 191-198. Czurles, Stanley A. "Milestones in Research for Art Education," Research in Art Education:gpArt Education Bulletin, XIV (May, 1957) v 13"11+ - Eisner, Elliot w. "A Typology of Creativity in the Visual Arts," Studies in Art Education, IV (Fall, 1962), 11.22. Goldman, R. J. "The Minnesota Tests of Creative Thinking," Educational Research, VII (November, 1964), 3-14. Guilford, J. P. "Creativity," American Psychologist, V (1950), 444-454. . "Three Faces of Intellect," American Psychologist, XIV (August, 1959). 469-479- Hutchinson, Eliot Dole. "Material for the Study of Creative Thinking," _P§ychological Bulletin, XXVIII (1931), 392.410. MacKinnon, Donald W. "The Nature and Nurture of Creative Talent," American Psychologist, XVII (July, 1962), 484-495. . "Personality and the Realization of Creative Potential," American Psychologist, XX (April, 1965), 273-281. McConnell, Thomas R., Jr. "Suggestibility in Children as a Function of Chronological Age," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, LXVII (1963), 286.289. "MAEA-DCT Help for Teaching Art," Michigan Education Journal, XLIII (May 1, 1966), 18. Markey, France: V. "Imagination," Psychological Bulletin, XXXII (1935), 212-23 . Myers, Garry C. "Creative Thinking in the Classroom," Highlights for Teachers. (March, 1966), 1.4. Pepinsky, Pauline N. "A Study of Productive Nonconformity," The Gifted Child Quarterly, IV (Winter, 1960), 81-85, 88. wolfson, Bernice J. "Individualizing Instruction," NEA Journal, LV (November, 1966), 31-33. wonderly, Donald M. "The Evolution of Theories Concerning the Creative Process," The Gifted Child Quarterly, VIII (Spring, 1964), 26-31. Yamamoto, Kaoru. "Research Frontier: 'Creativity' - A Blind Man's Report on the Elephant," Journal of Counseling Psychology, XII (1965), 428.434. 187 Unpublished Material Bencetic, Stephen. "Picture Preferences of Elementary Children." Unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Pennsylvania State University, 1959. Dissertation Abstracts, XX (February, 1960), 3117. "The Concept of the Laboratory" (A Statement by the planning and develop- ment team of the Michigan-Ohio Regional Educational Laboratory, Stuart C. Rankin, Director; Detroit, Michigan: June 30, 1966.) (Mimeographed.) Freyberger, Ruth. "Differences in the Creative Drawings of Children of Varying Ethnic and Socio-Economic Backgrounds in Pennsylvania Based on Samplings of Grades One Through Six." Unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Pennsylvania State College, 1951. Abstracts g Doctoral Dissertations . . . Pennsylvania State College . . . , XIV (19515, 265.266. Heilman, Horace. "An Experimental Study of Wbrkbook Influence on the Creative Drawings of Second Grade Children." Unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Pennsylvania State College, 1954. ,Apstrgcts of Doctoral Dissertations . . . Pennsylvania State College . . . . Johnson, Richard. "The Growth of Creative Thinking Abilities in western Samoa." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation , University of Minnesota, 1963. Dissertation Abstracts, XXIV (November, 1963), 1922. Mackler, Bernard,and Shontz, Franklin C. "Characteristics of Responses to Tests of Creativity." Unpublished manuscript, Teachers College, Columbia University: Institute of Urban Studies, 1964. (Mimeographed.) Maslow, Albert R. "Some Relationships Between Social Conformity and Self Perception," Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, The American University, 1961. Dissertation Abstracts, XXII (October, 1961), 1285. Neff, George. "The Creative Imagination of Young Children as Revealed in a Puppet Construction and Puppet Performance Test," Unpub- lished Ed.D. dissertation, Pennsylvania State University, 1963. ,Dissertation Abstracts, XXIV (February, 1964), 3206. Repucci, L. C. "Definitions and Criteria of Creativity." Unpublished manuscript, Midland, Michigan: The Dow Chemical Company, n.d. (Mimeographed.) Student, Kurt R. "The Personality Correlates of Conformity: A Literature Review," Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Michigan, 1965. (Mimeographed.) 188 Townsend, Edward Arthur. "A Study of Copying Ability in Children." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1950. 'Qissertgtion Abstracts, X (1950), 56-57. Trezise, Robert L. "A Description Study of the Life Styles of a Group of Creative Adolescents." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, College of Education, Michigan State University, 1966. Manuals Rafter, Mary E., and Ruble, William L. Michigan Statg University Agricultural Experiment Station,,STAT Series Description No. 8, Ste 'se Deletion of Variables from a Least Squares Equation (LSDEL Routine). March, 1966. (Mimeographed.) Ruble, William L», and Rafter, Mary E. Michigan Statngniversity Agricultural Experiment Station, STAT Series Description No. 6, Calculations of Basic Statistics When Missing Data is Involved (_he MDSTAT Routine). January, 1966. (Mimeographed. ) Ruble, William L., Kiel, Donald F., and Rafter, Mary E. Michigan State University Agricultural Experiment Station, STAT Series rDescrip- t .N Calculation of Least uares Re ression Problems gppthe LS Routine. March, 19 (Mimeographed. Torrance, E. Paul. Guide for Administering and Scoring Non-Verbal Form §i__Minnesota Tests of Creative Thinkipg, Minnespolis: Bureau of Educational Research, College of Education, University of Minnesota, 1964. (Mimeographed.) welsh, George S. Preliminary Manual - welsh.Figure Preference Test, Research Edition. Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc.. 1959. Yamamoto, Kaoru. Revised Scoring Manual for Tests of Creative Thinking, (Forms V3 and NVA). Minneapolis: Bureau of Educational Research, The University of Minnesota, 1962. (Mimeographed.) Newspapers The State Journal. Lansing, East Lansing, Michigan. "Microelectronic Era Dawns in U.S.," December 6, 1965, CS. The State Journal. Lansing, East Lansing, Michigan. "Mankind Must Decide Future Course of 'Genetic Tinkering,'" August 12, 1966, BB. The State Journal. Lansing, East Lansing, Michigan. "Quest for Beauty," August 21,1966,E3. APPENDIX A CONTINUATION OF DISCUSSION ABOUT THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE POSITION OF TORRANCE AND QBUTCHFIELD - Is CREATIVITY ANTITHETICAL WITH CONFORMITY OR NOT? In summarizing his first point, as given on page 99 in Chapter III, Crutchfield has this to offer: In short, it appears that extrinsic, ego-involved motivations in problem solving, as contrasted with intrinsic, task-involved motivations, are detrimental both to the ability of the creator and to free himself from the rigid constraints Of old ways Of thought and to his capacity to produce original insights. Part of the reason that conformity pressures may be expected to damage creative thinking thus become manifest. The other pres- sure and inner compulsion to conform arouse extrinsic, ego- involved motives in the problem solver. His main efforts tend to become directed toward the goals of being accepted and rewarded by the group, of avoiding rejection and punishment. The solution of the problem itself becomes of secpndary relevance, and his task-involved motivation diminished. Elsewhere Crutchfield labels the extrinsic, ego-involved indi- vidual as the conformist thinker while the intrinsic, task-involved Individual is the independent thinker.2 Concerning the second point, made on page 99. Crutchfield lists 1Richard s. Crutchfield, "Detrimental Effects of Conformity Pressures on Creative Thinking," op. cit., p. 465. 2Crutchfield, "Independent Thought in a Conformist world," Conflict and Creativity, ed. Seymour M. Farber and Roger H. L. Wilson, (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963), pp. 209-210. 189 190 about eighteen personality traits which generally characterize the 3 extreme conformist. In summarizing this position Crutchfield writes that: It seems undeniable that the differentiated pictures of the personalities of the highly conforming individual and the independent individual revealed in the above findings bear remarkable resemblance to many of the critically distinguish- ing features that are commonly thought to set off the non- creative from the creative person. Here then is strong supporting evidence for the antithetical relationship of con- formity and creativity.“ It appears that Torrance and Crutchfield are in direct opposition to each other on the question of whether creativity is or is not anti- thetical with conformity. Upon referring to the particular study of Pepinsky, cited by Torrance, it is found that she is studying "'produc- tive nonconformity' — or perhaps more precisely Al'productive independ- ence.'"5 She describes these productive nonconformist young ladies in her study as follows: For the characteristically productive students, independence seems to be a function of an internalized, well integrated set of values, whether verbalized as religious, ethical, or social. "Ego strength" is the term that suggests itself: these students have self control; they have developed their inner resources. They can be alone without discomfort, but they can and do form warm, non-exploitative attachments to others. They accept some limits as inevitable, but their attitude toward authority is one of critical respect rather than of unquestioning servility. They conform to the majority view in trivial matters, but where they differ on issues they see as important, they can maintain their positions under pressure. They are, however, willing to listen to and consider alternatives; their typical set is that nearly 3These traits have been included on page 82 of Chapter III. “Crutchfield, "Detrimental Effects of Conformity Pressures on Creative Thinking," op. cit., p. 467. 5Pauline N. Pepinsky, "A Study of Productive Nonconformity," op. cit., p. 81. 191 any situation is capable of constructive restructuring, and they relish an exchange of ideas and opinions. Because they "see both sides," they sometimes have trouble in reaching decisions, but they can and do get things do 6. They regard nonconformity as an end in itself as pointless. The type of person that Pepinsky is describing as a productive nonconformist seems to be very similar, upon comparison, to the person- ality characteristics which Crutchfield has defined as the type of per- son who is the independent thinker. Here is his distinction between the independent thinker and his conformist thinker: Independent thinking is distinguished from conformist thinking in both its aims and its processes. The aim of independent thinking is the solution of problems, the achievement of understanding and truth, the production of ideas that have valid relation to external reality or that can create a new reality. The aim is quite dif- ferent from the aim of conformist thinking, where the person seeks to achieve a feeling of relief from pressure, an escape from anxiety, a sense of being in step with the group. Indeed, inde- pendent thinking typically involves a deliberate exposing of one- self to the challenges and discomforts of uncertainty, of confusion, of alienation from the secure beliefs of the group. One may conjecture that Torrance is using the term conformity in a very special way when he states that "creativity and conformity are not antithetical to each other." Perhaps Torrance is referring to the idea that these young college women "conform to the majority view in trivial matters, but where they differ on issues they see as important, they can maintain their positions under pressure." In this way, they are balancing the pressures of conformity in trivial matters with the need for creativity in the important areas so that they are successfully using and controlling conformity as well as creativity. Indeed, this should be the goal of all mankind. 6Ibid, , p. 83. 7Crutchfield, "Independent Thought in a Conformist werld," op. cit., pp. 209-210. _ APPENDIX B ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF PUBLISHERS AND OWNERS WHO GRANTED ‘EERMISSION TO INCLUDE ADAPTED VERSIONS OF THEIR PAINTINGS OR DRAWINGS IN THIS DISSERTATION (1) The drawings designated as _CL_QEN_, _B_I_l_lQ, EM, FISHING and ‘TRAIN'were adapted by the investigator from drawings copyrighted by the waldman Publishing Corporation, 62 west 47th Street, New York, N. Y., and included with their permission. (2) The drawing appearing in Appendix B, designated FIRST STEPS, was adapted by David L. Smith, the author, from the painting by Pablo Picasso, FIRST STEPS, and is included here with the permission of the owner: Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven, Connecticut, Gift of Stephen Carlton Clark. (3) The drawing designated as_ELAM§_was adapted by the investi- gator from one of the tasks of the Figural Form B of the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking and included with permission of Dr. E. Paul Torrance, Department of Educational Psychology, University of Georgia, Athens, Ga. (4) The drawing designated as_§§§§_was adapted by the investi- gator from a drawing by Naney Madtes for John Anderson of Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, and used with the latter's permission. (5) The drawing designated as STILL LIFE was adapted by the investigator from a painting by Pablo Picasso, STILL LIFE WITH MILK CAN, and included here with permission of Time, Inc., Rockefeller Center, New Yerk, 10020. (6) The drawing designated as SEATED WOMAN was adapted by the 192 193 investigator from a painting by Pablo Picasso, SEATED WOMAN, and included here with permission of Harry N. Abrams, Inc., Publishers, 6 west 57th Street, New York 19, New York. (7) The drawings designated CHEERING and PLAYER were adapted by the investigator from commercial illustrations painted by Bob Peak and included with permission of the Seven Up Company, 121 South Meramec Avenue, St. Louis, Missouri. (8) The drawing designated WQMAN_was adapted by the investigator from a painting by Henri Matisse, ANEMONES AND WOMAN: HARMONY IN BLUE, and included with permission of The Chanticleer Press with the provision that the dissertation not be published without requesting permission from the owner. (9) The drawing designated PEOPLE AND DOG was adapted by the investigator from a painting by Joan Miro, PEOPLE AND DOG IN THE SUN, and included with permission of the Kunstmuseum Basel, St. Albangraben 16, Basel, Switzerland, and is from the Emanuel Hoffmann - Stiftung, Basel. (10) The drawing designated VENDOR was adapted by the investiga- tor from a painting by Diego Rivera, THE FLOWER VENDOR, and included with permission of the owner: The San.Francisco Museum of Art, Veterans Building, Civic Center, San Francisco 2, California. 196 TYPE: GEORETRIC DESIGN CLASS: SIMPLE AND SYNNETRICAL DESIGNATED: CROSS GROUP: A 8;- B 1'7 O N DAY 197 TYPE: GEOHETRIC DESIGN CLASS: COMPLICATED AND ASYMMETRICAL DESIGNATED: DES GROUP: A & B MONDAY 108 TYPE: STIMULUS LINE CLASS: CLOSED DESIGNATED: FLAME GROUP: A & B MONDAY 199 TYPE: STII-‘TULUS LINE CLASS: OPEN DESIGNATED: S CURVE GROUP: A 8: B NON DAY 200 TYPE: COLORI 800 V CLAS . TYPICAL DESIGNATED: BIRD GROUP: A IIIIIIAI.‘ It. fN:/x sf .0) 202 TYPE: DOT CLASS: SIMPLE NUNBERED DESIGNATED: 1.2-34: GROUP: A TUESDAY we 203 TYPE: DOT CLASS: UNLWPERED DESIGNATED: LARGE AND SMALL GROUP: A' TUESDAY 0 . 204 TYPE: STIFULUS LINE CLASS: CLOSED DESIGNATED: HAT GROUP: A TUESDAY 205 TYPE: STINULUS LINE CLASS: OPEN DESIGNATED: WAIST GROUP: A TUESDAY ,, ’4 8 2'2 2% TYPE: DOT 27 26 o ' CLASS: COMPLIYD NUMBERED DESIGNATED: SA 30 3! '3R3-——025 GROUP: B 35 TUESDAY :1. 209 TYPE: DOT HAfih ummMEmm DESIGNATED: LARGE AND SPALL GROUP: B ' TUESDAY 0 . 210 TYPE: STIMULUS LINE CLASS: CLOSED DESIGNATED: HAT GROUP: B TUESDAY 211 TYPE: STIMULUS LINE CLASS: OPEN DESIGNATED: STICKS GROUP: B TUESDAY 212 TYPE: COLORING POOR CIA-35;: T'YPI.~ -.‘. N M- “I GROUP: , g ‘aEDNES . . Y ? \ 214 TYPE: GEOMETRIC DESIGN CLASS: SIMPLE AND SYNNETRICAL DESIGNATED: CIRCLE GROUP: A WEDNESDAY 216 TYPE: STIMULUS LINE CLAS : CLOSED WEDNESDAY 217 TYPE: STIMULUS LINE CLASS: OPEN DESIGNATED: BEACH "H'I GROUP: A WEDNESDAY 220 TYPE: GEONETRIC DESIGN CLASS: SIMPLE AND SYNNETRICAL DESIGNATED: TRIANGLE GROUP: B WEDNESDAY 222 TYPE: STIMULUS LINE CLASS: CLOSED DESIGNATED: BLT’TP‘S GROUP: B NE D NE S DA Y 223 TYPE: STIMULUS LINE CLASS: OPEN DESIGNATED: BEACH "V" GROUP: B WEDNESDAY |I‘\\:*Ah1‘| .Iu.‘ ..l| \ TYPE: COLORING BOOK CLASS: ATYPICAL DESIGNATED: PEOPLE & GROUP: A & B THURSDAY 9‘ 226 - u . ' : . . 0 C 8 .0 . . ' O " ' ' 0 ' ‘ 6 TYPE DOT O i . 0 ‘ . : CLASS: SD’TPLE 7 o 0 l7 NUIYJBERED ,6 DESIGNATED: RABBIT 48 GROUP: A A B O. .0 0. THURSDAY 0... .5 q .‘9 . O O C 0 g . C . O . . O. ..ooo::.::'.oo O o o I 'O 93 . . 0.. 026 .i :0. '0". .0: 23.22.00...::': 0 . : 35.00.. :.. 0"". '0 O '0. a" .0 . 0.: . ' o 0 227 TYPE: DOT CLASS: UNNUNBERED DESIGNATED: DISPERSED GROUP: A 9-B THURSDAY 0 O O O O ‘ A}. III I: 228 TYPE: STINULUS LINE CLASS: CLOSED GNATED: WHEELS GROUP: A 229 TYPE: STINULUS LINE CLASS: OPEN DESIGNATED: MOUNTAIN LINE GROUP: A & B THURSDAY __..— f 232 TYPE: GEONETRIC DESIGN CLASS: SIMPLE AND SYNNETRICAL DESIGNATED: TRIANGLE GROUP: A FRIDAY flflfla {\f \j 234 TYPE: STINULUS LINE CLASS: CLOSED DESIGNATED: BUNPS GROUP: A FRIDAY 235 TYPE: STIMULUS LINE CLASS: OPEN DESIGNATED: STICKS GROUP: A FRIDAY 7%” MN flé (;fi;// 4% M” M W d) f d M :1 A ’4’? d d \ \ TYPE: COLORING BOOK CLASS: ATYPICAL W DESIGNATED: PUPP GROUP: B F IDAY 238 TYPE: GEONETRIC DESIGN CLASS: SIMPLE AND SYNTETR ICAL DESIGNATED: CIRCLE GROUP: B FRIDAY Tl ...I|nl|: l l III: I A 1'..." l I 240 TYPE: STIMULUS LINE CLASS: CLOSED DESIGNATED: FLAG GROUP: B FRIDAY 241 TYPE: STIMULUS LINE CLASS: OPEN DESIGNATED: WAIST GROUP: B FRIDAY APPENDIX C TYPORNATIOU FOR ADT'INISTERING STII-rUIUS DRA':-."II"C~S 1. Separate the drawings from the Nonday envelope into separate piles so they are all easily and equally available for students to select from. 2. Select a 20 minute period in the morning each day when the children can select a drawing and color it in. Try to make the same 20 minutes1 available each morning at the same time. Nine thirty to nine fifty might be a possibility. 3. Select a 20 minute1 period in the afternoon each day when the child— ren can select a second drawing and color it in. Try to make the same time available each afternoon at the same time, say at one to one twenty each day. Each child will have two Opportunities to select, to add to his drawing, and color it - for a total of 10 selections for the five days. 4. When the time comes for the children to select their first drawing in the morning take a few minutes to hold up each drawing for the students to see before they select their own. Individual selection time may go faster this way. 5. Answer any questions the children may have. 1Time for each AM and PM session changed to 25 minutes on Tuesday. 242 243 6. Names should be printed on the back of each drawing turned in. Have the children print "AN" (for morning) or "PM" (for afternoon), the school's name, and the teacher's name plus the date. A sample entry on the blackboard should give most students the help they need for this. The list of information I need is this: Name of student AM or PM School Teacher Date 7. Keep the AM and PE drawings paper clipped separately. I can collect them each day from the office, if you need to leave before I get around. I will have six widely scattered schools to pick up from each day. 8. The children can use their boxes of six crayons. Students may use their pencils first and then their crayons or they can add all lines with their crayons. 9. Concerning motivation: Read to them each time before the children select their drawings:2 CONPLETE THE DRAWING YOU SELECT BY COLORING IT WITH YOUR CRAYONS. IF YOU PICK A DRAWING THAT NEEDS MORE LINES YOU PAY USE YOUR PENCIL AND YOUR CRAYONS TO ADD MORE LINES AND THEN COLOR THE DRAWING IN. USE YOUR IMAGINATION WHEN YOU ADD YOUR LINES WHERE YOU WANT THEN. YOU CAN MAKE THE DRAWING INTO ANYTHING YOU WISH. TRY TO MAKE IT INTO SONETHING THAT NO ONE ELSE WOULD THINK OF. TRY TO MAKE IT DIFFERENT THAN ANYBODY ELSE'S DRAWING. YOU MAY PICK ANY DRAWING 2Teachers found it unnecessary to repeat the directions after several readings to the students. 24# YOU WOULD LIKE TO WORK ON. YOU HAVE 20 NINUTES TO DRAW AND COLOR. WHEN YOU ARE DONE TURN THE DRAWING OVER AND WRITE THE THINGS ON THE BACK WHICH I HAVE WRITTEN ON THE BOARD. RENEEBER: WHAT MORE CAN YOU ADD TO THE DRAWING YOU SELECT BESIDES COLORING IT IN? USE YOUR IMAGINATION. 10. On the attached "Teacher Identification of Most Creative and Most Conforming" form, I would like you to list the names of your students whom you feel are especially creative. List as many as you feel would qualify. A short description of some qualities of creative children is included from Torrance's GUIDING CREATIVE TALENT. Please rank the most creative children from 1 to ___, Please list the names of your students whom you feel are especially conforming. Again, list as many as you feel would qualify. A short description of some qualities of conforming children is included from a book by Heil, Powell, and Feifer: CHARACTERISTICS OF TEACHER BEHAVIOR RELATED TO THE ACHIEVEMENT OF CHILDREN IN SEVERAL ELEMENTARY GRADES. Please rank them. 11. When the children have selected their drawings pick up the rest of the drawings for the afternoon session. I will collect both the complet- ed drawings and those unused. 19 Hay 1965 David L. Smith 5655 Hallendale Road Haslett, Michigan FE 98437 APPENDIX D TEACHER IDENTIFICATION OF MOST CREATIVE ATD FOST List the names of the students you feel are your HOST CREATIVE children. List as many as you feel would qualify. Please rank them. Creative children may not be well-rounded. They may diverge from sex norms. They prefer to learn on their own. They like to attempt difficult tasks; may undertake dangerous tasks; are searching for a purpose; have different values; search for their uniqueness. Some creative children can't stop working. COR FORFIHG List the names of the students you feel are your HOST CONFORNING List as many as you feel Please rank them. children. would qualify. Conforming children are dependent; their self-confidence may not be very high. They look for approval from others. They tend to incopor- ate adult standards and place an emphasis on mature behavior. They maintain strict control of Empulses; particularly, of hostility. 1. 1. 2. 2. 3. 3. 4. 4. 5. l5. . 6. Z. 7. 8. 8. 9. 9. 10. 10. 1E RETURN TO DAVE SMITH AS SOON AS POSSIBLE. . Paul Torrance, Guiding_Creative Talent (Englewood Cliffs, I. J., Prentice—Hall, Inc., 196ES, pp. 109-120. 2Louie Heil, Marion Powell, and Irwin Feifer, Characteristics of Teacher Behavior Related to the Achievement of Children in Several Elementary_Grades (washington, D. C.: Contract #SAE 7285 Cooperative Research, Office of Education, U. 3. Dept. of Health, Education and welfare, May 1960.), p. 26. 245 APPENDIX E COMPOSITE SCORING FORM 2% I‘llll‘lll III‘I “Lu 2! V». A... 59: .N 35.23 .59 534% EVE; :5: .59.? a); 9:55 {(1 .ém g 4% ms. “.fio an Antiwar AID .5: (U .u.z 33 9 M“ wan an ‘3 A :1va 0? .«vo. 5,3 2‘ Hunt 5 . 3. AK- cu nanwoh'n {5" a: «a; A A,» 1.... New ”Kw EH... *6 é gnawldvahuéunavfii “a 0... m9 APPENDIX F SCORING SHEET FOR TIE MINNESOTA TESTS OF CREATIVE THINKING J Eek D lilll u J+Po|r m imam . . . . a d . l . u _. _ . . “ ABLFV . _ . _ . . . __ . . u h _ m