AN BVALUleON OF TPE DUTIES FND ”BSPONSQLLITIBS OF A SM“LL DLSTQICT SUPEDlNTfiNUENT OF SCHOOLS 1N A St‘JLJPC'l‘bLU MlU-WBT Q. ELL“. 9y George Spencer Pwitcnand P THESIS Submitted to the School or Gwefluate Studies or Micblyen State Collece of @qwicultuve and Applied Science in pawtial fulfillment or the wequiwements fow the depwee or DOC 'l‘O '3 OF Ell) LE ’-‘ T I ON College of Education 1954 ragga: Accepted by the faculty of the School of Education of Michigan State College as fulfilling the thesis require- ments for the degree of Doctor of‘Education. Qk%rfi ‘%m Dire tor of Thesis Doctoral Committee: 324344 ACKNOWLEUEMJMD The writer wishes to express his appreciation to all who have assisted throughout the progress of this study. Special acknowledgment is made to the cooperating state school board associations, local school board members, superintendents, and teachers for furnishing data for this study. Special mention should be made of Dr. Clyde M. Campbell, Professor of Education, Michigan State College, whose helpful suggestions and criticism as director of the study have been.a valuable source of inepiration and guidance. Appreciation should also be expressed for the assistance given by Dr. Troy L. Stearns, Dr. Robert E. Brown, Dr. Cecil V. Millard, and Dr. Milosh.Muntyan.who also served on the doctoral committee for this thesis. AN LVPLU/‘aTION OF TVE DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF A SMELL DISTRICT SUPEVDITHVDIWT OF SCHOOLS DJ A ShlECTEDIMIUMEiflflflfla By George Spencer Pritchard z’—" N ABS'l'W‘ACT OF A TFE'S IS Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Michigan State College of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of EDCTOR OF EDUCATION College of Education 1954 George Spencer Pritchard Important areas of school administration.were determined by the amount of space given to these issues in current books in school administration, From.these principal areas, eleven standards of satisfactory administrative practice were formulated and validated. These standards were then used as a basis for the construction of an interview guide for the use of the six interviewers used in this research. The following is a summary of the findings and con— clusions of this study: 1. In the areas of the selection of personnel, the board of education plays a major role and the superintendent a minor role. Complete board domination was found in 561,223 of the cases in the selection of teaching personnel, and in 42% of the cases in the selection of non teaching personnel. 2. In the area of school finance the board of education retains much of the administrative control. In 47% of the schools surveyed, the power of the superintendent of schools is greatly checked by the board in the preparation of the budget and the purchasing of supplies. 3. The superintendent spends as much time in actual teaching as in administering the school system. All of the superintendents included in this study listed teaching as one of their major duties. On the average they spend 45% of their time in the classroom. George Spencer Pritchard COOperative action between the board of education and the superintendent of schools is necessary for effective school administration. any deviation from this generally approved practice may result in an unstable educational program . This thesis is an investigation of the practices and techniques of school administration in current use in small district school systems in Eastern Nebraska and Restern Iowa. Specifically, the purpose of this study was threefold: (l) to determine the practices in the different areas of school administration now in use in small district schools, (2) to evaluate these procedures in the light of administra- tive practices approved by leaders in education, and (3) to discover areas of school management that experienced teachers in these small schools feel need improvement. Data were obtained by means of personal interviews with board members, superintendents, and teachers on current school administrative procedures, and on the improvement of these procedures. School board members and superintendents in each community were asked in separate interviews to des- cribe their procedures in each area of school management. These two answers were then cross checked to increase the accuracy of the study. Sixty school systems were selected at random in this Midwest area to participate in this study: George Spencer Pritchard 4. Most schools completely ignore teachers in the formation of administrative policies. Even in the field of curriculum.construction, where the teacher's specialized training would be of considerable value, only lot of the teachers in the sixty schools surveyed were allowed to assume even a minor role in.policy formation. In only 25% of the schools surveyed do the teachers play a part in the formation of the salary schedule for the school system, 5. In the areas of board and superintendent rela- tions, where participation and cooperation have been used to arrive at administrative policies, there has been less dissatisfaction expressed than.where one group makes the decision alone. Approved by Gaga. ”’1' Dr.‘Clyde M. Campbel Major Advisor for Thesis TABLE OF C ON TENTS CHAPTER I. II. III. INTRODUCTION . Statement of the Problem . Significance of the Study. Idmitations of the Study . Definition of Terms Used Small Dis trio t . Superintendent . Procedure. Development of the Office of Superintendent Historical background. The origin of supervision. unsuccessful attempts at public school administration . The first superintendent of schools. The future of the office of school superintendent . REVlEW’OF THE LITEQATUQE . THE EXPERTS IN SCHOOI.AIMlNlSTQATION LOOK.AT THE JOB OF THE SUPEQINTENDENT. THE INTEYVIEW'CUESTIONNAIQE.AND ITS USE. PAGE \0 \C 15 1b 20 22 25 55 46 7b CHAPTER PAGE 'V. THE RESUITS OF THE INTERVIEWS. . . . . . . . 9l Personnel -- Selection of Teachers (Table II) 9; Personnel -- Selection of Non-Teaching Per- sonnel (Table Ill) . . . . . . . . . . . 9b Personnel -- Preparation of Salary Scale (Table IV) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Personnel -- Personnel Policies (Table V). lOO Personnel -- Evaluation of Teaching Skill (Table VI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lUj Finance -- Preparation of Budget (Table VII) lob Finance -- Purchase of Supplies (Table'VIll) loo Public Relations -- Use of School Facili- ties (Table lX). . . . . . . . . . . . . llO Public Relations -- Interpretation of School to General Public (Table X). . . . . . . lie Public Pelations -- Meeting an Attack on SchOOl (Table Xi). . . . . . . . . . . . ll5 Public Relations -- Relations'With Patrons (Table Xll). . . . . . . . . . . . . . llo Pupil Personnel -- Policies Governing Pupil Activity (TablerIIl). . . . . . . . . . lzl Pupil Personnel -- Pules of Conduct (Table XIV). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l2) CHAPTER Curriculum and Supervision -- Board‘s QOle in Curriculum (Table XV). . . . Curriculum.and Supervision -- Extra-Curricular Activities (Table XVI). . . . . . . Curriculum and Supervision.-- Evaluation of School Program.(Table.XVII) weaknesses of Small District Superintendents (Table XVIII) . . . . . . . . . Administrative Areas Which Are Being Neglected (Table XIX) . . . . Qualities Considered in Selection of New Sup- erintendent (Table XX). Failure of Teacher Training Institutions to Train Administrators (Table XXI) . Turnover of School Officials in the Past Ten Years How the SUperintendent Divides Vis Time (Table XXIIl) . . . . . . . . . . . . Election of Board Members -- Composition of School Boards (Table XXIV). written Board of Education Policies and Participation of Superintendent in Board of Education.Meetings (Table XXV) 120 150 193’ 142 144 14b 146 CHAPTER PzaGlzl Teachers Tell How School fldministration Could be Improved (Table XXVI) . . . . . . . . . . 150 Summary of all areas of_activity . . . . . . . 15) VI . PhTPLTXlNG PVO'SLEMS FLAC lNG SMALL DlSTRlCT ' liufill‘IlS‘l'Qfixl'ODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l5? 1. The dual leadership reSponsibility of the superintendent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 2. Encroachment of the board on the adminis— ‘trative authority of the superintendent. . . loo 3. Reluctance of the board of education to grant the school system.sufficient funds to Operate a satisfactory educational program . lo2 4. lack of teacher interest in a program of democratic administration. . . . . . . . . . lo4 5. Desire of many boards to dominate the superintendent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . loo o. Lack of time on the part of the superintendent to deal adequately with problems in supervision and curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . loo 7. Duty of the superintendent to give full moral support to teachers in case of unfavor- able public criticism. , , , 170 5. Opposition and lack of interest on the part of citizens to a community school program. . l7l CPJAPTPP. 'Vll. iMODERN EDUCATIONA11PSACTICES POINTlNG TO BETTE? SCHOOL amid."lS‘l'Dj’xl'lON . . . . . . The change from.line-Staff organization to democratic administration with participa- tion encouraged from.all those involved in the educational program . . . . . . Participation of teachers in school administration . . . . . . . Participation of pupils in school administration . . Participation of community in school administration . . . . . . . . . . . Life adjustment programt . . . . . . . A teacher welfare program. . . . . . 'VIll. CONCLMSIONS AND RECOMMENDATlONS FOR FURTHE? STUDX. . . . . . . . . . Summary of Most Important Findings General Conclusions. . . . implications of the Study and Suggestions for Further Research . . . . . . . . . BIBLIOGQaPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . APPENDIX.A. State Maps of areas surveyed . . . . APPENDIX B. Statistics of school districts surveyed i'f'f le loS l92 19:5 199 TaBLE II. III. 'VI. 'VlI. Vlll. XI. XII. XIII. XIV. L15 ‘1' OF T PBLES Pages in Fecent School Administration Texts Devoted to Each firea of Activity of the L3 School Administrator. 11 Personnel -- Selection of Teachers (Interview- ing and Hiring) 95 Personnel -- Selection of Non-Teaching Personnel 97 Personnel -- Preparation of Salary Scale or Pay'Adjustments . . . . . . . . . . 99 Personnel -- Personnel Policies 102 Personnel -- Evaluation of Teaching Skill . 104 Finance -- Preparation of the Budget. lOb Finance -- Purchase of Supplies and Eduipment . 109 Public Deletions -- Use of School Facilities. lll Public Deletions -- Interpretation of School ‘to General Public ll) Public Relations -- In Case of an Attack on the School System . . . . . . . . . llo Public Qelations -- Relations With Patrons. 119 Pupil Personnel -- Policies Governing Pupil Activity . 122 Pupil Personnel -- Rules of Conduct 124 Curriculum and Supervision -— Board's Sole in Curriculum.. . . . . . . . . . 127 XVII. XVIII. XIX. XXII. XXIII. XXV. XXVI. XXVII. XXVIII. Curriculum and Supervision -- Extra- Curricular Activities Curriculum and Supervision -- Evaluation of School Program.. . . . . . . . . . . weaknesses of Small District Superintendents Administrative Areas Which are Being Neglected What Qualities Are Considered in the Selection of a New Superintendent Failure of Teacher Training Institutions to Train Administrators. Turnover of School Officials in the Past Ten Years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . How the Superintendent Divides His Time Fleetion of Board Members -- Composition of Sch00l Boards written Board of Education Policies and Par- ticipation of Superintendent in Board of Education.Meetings. Teacners Tell Pow School administration Could be Improved . . . . . . . . . . The Belative Amount of Authority of the Suieri - tendent in the Different fidministrative Areas Statistics Concerning the Schools Involved in the Survey, viii PAGE 155 140 I45 I45 141 ix TABLE PflGE XXIX. Summary of Statistics Concerning the Schools Involved in the Survey . . . . . . . . . . 291 LIST OF FIG was F IG U913} . PI“. 35:} 1. Location of Schools in Nebraska Participating in the Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22b 2. Iocation.of Schools in Iowa Participating in the Survey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 CHAPTER I INTRODIETION This is a study of the administration of small schools in Western Iowa and Eastern Nebraska. It deals specifically with the techniques of school management employed by super- intendents and boards of education in school systems of less than 500 students. It attempts to show areas of school admin- istration dominated by boards of education and those areas in which the superintendent is assigned full authority. Not only does this study attempt to identify and classify the various procedures used in school management, but also in- quires into the local acceptance of the methods of school administration in current use. To this end, board members and superintendents were asked whether they considered the present manner of administering their schools ideal, and if not, they were asked to suggest ways in which the situation could be improved. A study of this type has been needed for a number of years to secure a clear picture of the methods employed by school officials in small towns to operate their schools. Little improvement can be made in small school administration mless the expert in education knows definitely the procedures presently being used. This study attempts to point out areas of weakness in school management in small districts so that the expert may study these areas and suggest ways in which the situation may be improved . f This is the first study of its type that covers activ- ities in every important area of school administration. It is also the first study that has brought together data from all groups directly involved in school administration; namely: smerintendents, board members, and teachers. This study is more accurate and more objective than many others of a similar type because of the type of research technique used . The interview method was used with superintendents and board members . Both groups were asked the same questions concerning the methods employed in the administration of school affairs in their town. These answers were then cross checked for fur— ther accuracy. Also this is one of the few studies that asks teachers for their evaluation of administrative procedures. The importance of this study is further shown by the fact that the writer was able to secure a grant from the Mid- west Adminis tration Center of the University of Chicago to defray the expenses incurred in the travel and clerical help required to collect this‘data. This financial aid made it possible to expand the project to cover more territory and to secure a better sampling, thus making this a more representative study. Recently there has been a revival of interest" in the problems of the small school system by educational leaders- 9 Working on the theory that all children should have an equal opportunity for a good education, educational leaders feel that a child should not be denied this right merely because he is living in a small town. Today small school systems are facing a number of problems which unless adequately solved will re- sult in a sub-standard educational program. The migration of rural born people to urban areas, due to the lack of demand for farm labor, has reduced the number of students in the average small town school. Coin, Iowa, is an example of the effects of this migration. At one time this rural Southwestern Iowa town graduated as many as forty- four students a year. Today the average graduating class is about ten. This situation is typical of the rural Midwest. ' This decline in the size of the student body brings with it a decline in the number of taxpayers, forcing the community school to hold classes of such small size that the per pupil cost increases tremendously. A high school with an enrollment of twenty students is not unusual in the rural Midwest. The above problem has been solved to some extent by programs of school district consolidation. However, poor roads limit the number of districts that can be combined ad- vantageously. Another woe besetting the rural areas is the decline of farm prices. A side of beef that retailed for fifty-three cents a pound three years ago, now sells for forty-one cents a pound. The pegging of farm prices by the 4 federal government has been of only limited value. Drought has plagued many areas . Faced with these economic problems, rural boards of education have been even more reluctant than usual to offer attractive salaries in order to secure a good teaching staff. These problems and others must be solved or the rural child will receive an education inferior to that of the city child. The education of a child in a small town must be on a par with the education of his city cousin if there are to be equal educational opportunities for all. Statement of the Problem The purpose of this study is to identify and evaluate standards of administrative practice in small school systems, and to determine the extent to which this administrative pracs tice is being followed. In arriving at standards for evalua- tion, it was necessary to make the following investigations: 1. To determine what outstanding educators conceive to be desirable educational practice in small school systems. 2. To discover whether superintendents of schools and members of boards of education feel their present practices in school administration are ideal. 3. To discover what teachers and principals regard as administrative practices which are operating against the best interests of the school. 1+. To discover how the methods and procedures in school administration as recommended by experts in education agree with opinions expressed in this field by superintendents, school board members, and teachers. 5. To discover the extent to which administrative practices in representative small school systems agree with the recommended practices of professional educators. 6. To discover and to indicate general trends in administrative practices of small school districts. 7. To discover points of agreement and disagreement between the superintendent and his board of education concern- ing small school management. Significance of the Study According to Walter Monroe, the term small town as we have defined it applies to 80% of all incorporated places in- the United States.1 Consequently any study in the area of small school administration would be relative to the activi- ties of four-fifths of the school superintendents in the United States. Because of the number of schools involved, educational leaders realize the importance of this problem and have done considerable study and writing in this area. lWalter Monroe, Encyclomdia 9; u ational Research, (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1950;, p. 15118. b The proper ministration of a school should make the realization of a good educational program easier; conversely poor administrative practices may handicap the school in educating its children. Other studies in the past either have dealt with only one phase of school management, or have used the rather in- accurate questionnaire method. None of these have also dealt with the activities of all three interest groups in school administration; namely: superintendents, board members, and teachers. Other studies have dealt with the responsibilities of only one of these groups. This study is of particular significance to leaders in education who are interested in small school management in that the role of the superintendent and of the board mem- ber in the different areas of school administration is defi- nitely determined. In some areas of school management the superintendent of schools is given complete authority to make nearly all decisions , while in other areas the board of education assumes the entire responsibility, using the superin- tendent to carry out its wishes. The more desirable situation is one in which decisions on administrative affairs come as a result of the c00perative action of the board of education and the school executive . This research points to areas in which the board exercises control and those areas in which the superintendent is given full authority . . 7 This study is important in that it has collected and classified information supplied by classroom teachers regarding practices in school administration that need improvement. The purpose of administrative activity is to make the job of the teacher easier and more effective. Teachers see the end result of administrative policies, and thus are in a good position to point out areas in which improvement is needed. Another important feature of this study is the compari- son of administrative practices presently in use with those practices in the same area recomended by leaders in the field of school administration. This comparison points out also areas of weakness in small school management. A final feature of this thesis is a discussion of ' trends in school administration pointing to improved school management in the future . Limitations of the Study 1. The study is limited to the following areas of the Midwest: Eastern Nebraska, Central Nebraska, and Western Iowa. metern Nebraska represents a part rural and part urban area where a great diversity of occupations is found. Central Nebraska represents the agricultural interests of the sparsely settled cattle country. Western Iowa represents the interests of the agricultural corn belt. t5 2. The survey includes twenty small school district systems in each of the three areas, making a total of sixty schools participating in the study. 3. The interviews were limited to the superintendent, the president of the school board, and two teachers from each system. 4. Since it was impossible to cover every detail of the administration of a school system, five administrative areas were selected for study. These were personnel, finance, public relations, pupil activity, and curriculum and super- vision. Three to five key questions were asked of superin- tendents and board members in each of these five areas. The teacher interview was limited to a single question of a general nature. Definition of Terms Used ml; District. The United States Census considers a small or rural town as one of 2500 or less in p0pulation. Because consolidation of the area may increase the size of the school system, for the purposes of this study a small district is defined as one that has a combined total of fewer than 500 pupils in the high school and the elementary grades. Actually the average school system used in this study was considerably under this maximum. (See Table XXIX.) 9 Superintendent. According to Carter Good, the super- intendent of schools is the chief executive and advisory officer charged with the direction of schools in a local school administrative unit.2 From this definition we may assume that the superintendent is morally and legally respon- sible for everything that transpires in the system under his jurisdiction, unless the board of education restricts his respons ibil ity . Procedure The first step was to review the related research in the field of school administration with special emphasis on studies dealing with the duties and responsibilities of the small district superintendent and his relations to the board of education. The next step was to determine the principal duties of the typical school superintendent. In order to do this, all textbooks published in 1951 and 1952 dealing with the general topic of school administration were selected to serve as a basis for determining the important duties of the school executive . The number of pages in each text devoted to each area of activity of school administration was tabulated. For the purposes of this study, the areas of work receiving the 2 Carter Good, Di tiona 9;; Education, (New York: McGraw Hill Book Co., 19 5 , p. 399. 10 most space were considered as the most important. Table 1 indicates the areas of activity in order of the frequency mentioned in these six texts in school administration, and the number of pages allotted to each subject. The following six text books were used to determine the principal areas: A. S9199; Administration by Arthur B. Moehlman.3 B. Practical Applications 9; Dggocratig Administration by Clyde M. Campbell. 0. rig Administratio 2!; American Publig Schools by Harlan L. Hagman. D. 113g Fundamentals 0 Public School Administration by Ward C. Reader. E. The Public; Administration p_f_ M’ ican Schools by Van Miller and Willard B. Spauldling.7 F. The Administration 91.: Public Education by John T. hahlquist, William E. Arnold, Roald F. Cgmpbell, Theodore L. Roller, and Lester B. Sands.~- In Table I the textbook used is indicated by the above letter to conserve space . 3 Arthur Moehlman, S hool Aginistnation, (Cambridge: Houghton Mifflin Co. , 1951;, 512 pp. 1‘ Clyde Campbell, Practical Applications of Democratic Administration. (New York: Harpers Bros., 195277 325 pp. 5 Harlan Hagman, The Administ tion 9;; e ican Public Schools , (New York: Mcmw-H'i—II —Boo-J”k: '66 .' , 1951 , 2 "pp"'_. ‘ 5 Ward Reader, _T_h_e_ Fundamentals 9; Public School Administration, (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1951), 756 pp. 7 Van Miller and Willard Spalding, The Public Adminis- t tion of American Schools, (Yonkers-on-Hudson, World Book 0-: 195.57: PD. 8 John Wahlquist, William Arnold, Roald Campbell, Theodore Roller, and Iester Sands, The A ti 01E1 £211.15: W: New York: The Rona' l r638: :7 1 pp- ll um: PMS 1! RICE! SGOOL “HIWION EXT DEVOTED TO nos ARIA 01' ACTIVITY 01' m SCHOOL WUIWOR mm strstive Areas Selection of Personnel Personnel Policies School finance Public Relations Policy Regarding Pupil end Pupil Activity much of auricula- Progrsn of heluties Public Participation in School Progrel Use of School Milities 3 Public lepton-est of Instruction Emulation of kitten Board. Policies for]: with ledersl Govern-est Vork with State Government Pupil Transportation Gere of School Buildings hotection of Health Organising School Proms Construction of School hildings ' Adult Direction hpervision of Libraries for Bchoel Textbooks A D O D I 1 Total '30'88 41'67'40 29'235' 'ssieg'?so' 36‘81'258' '40' 5‘§§‘114'47‘47'28Et_' '_aa'62 so as 96 3531*.) I I I I I I I I '72'62'gg'101'25'49'334' '27‘10'25'w'125'31'248' '12 “'54 _2_9'80'30 250' I I I I I I I"—'I '_Q'45'50' 45.'1.0l'38'389' I I I I "1 I“! I '13'25'24'26'60'21'169' '31‘71‘62i53T5073'296' I T I‘I I T—J—T—t I15I21I25I39I45I21I157I '8 3 4' 5 9 10 3:19;} '5'2'8' 4' B'?‘ 35' 8571130301 3W 511T: '5'233'W'6'43' '1' 3'2‘ 3'10'121 31' '6'5'5' 10'16 10'51' 5I 4I'i'1""§I 9I10I43I 0307I53 I ‘T‘I I I I I 1 if I I—g‘fl '4' '10'11' 4'8. 3' 12 Table I indicates the frequency with which certain duties of the superintendent of schools are mentioned. Because of the space devoted to these responsibilities it is assumed here that they are primary duties and are considered important by authors in the field of school administration. Since consideration of all issues in each of these im— portant areas would be impossible, the writer has selected from these primary fields eleven issues forspecial study in this thesis. These are stated as eleven standards that a, good superintendent should follow in order to manage a satis- factory school. A satisfactory school does not mean an ideal school, or one that cannot be improved, but rather one that fulfills the minimum requirements of experts in school adminis- tration so as to merit the label of satisfactory. These standards or requirements will be validated and described in detail in Chapter III. They are: I. To help secure the best trained and qualified personnel available for the school system. 2. To help establish a satisfactory salary schedule and a satisfactory set of personnel policies on such matters as merit rating, sick leave, tenure, retirement, etc. 3. To help establish a sound financial system that includes the securing of adequate revenue, the distribution of funds, the use of sound accounting practices, and the use of an adequate purchasing system. 13 4. To endeavor to establish communication between the school and the citizens of the community so they may work together to c00perative1y plan for a better school. 5. To help formulate through cooperation with the board of education and the teachers a set of policies re- garding pupil activities. 6. To help set up a continuous program of evaluation of the work of the school. I 7. To help set up a program to evaluate continually and to improve the curricular offerings of the school. 8. To help set up a system that will make it easier for the general public to participate in planning a program of instruction that will best fit the needs of the community. 9. To help set up a program that will encourage the use of school facilities by the public and the use of com- munity facilities by the school. 10. To help improve instruction in the school by means or a c00perative program which involves teachers, pupils, and citizens, individually and collectively. 11. To formulate, with the help and approval of the board, the staff, and the citizens of the community, a set of written policies for the governing of the school. These principles or standards are discussed and are approved by leaders in educational administration as described 14 in Chapter III of this study. These experts feel that a super- intendent must follow the above eleven standards in order to operate a school that may be judged as satisfactory. These eleven standards were used as a basis for the questions that appear on the interview guide (See Chapter IV), which was used to direct and standardize the activities of the individuals who interviewed the officials and teachers in the schools included in this survey. The purpose of the interviews was to determine the type of administrative pro- cedures now currently used in small district schools and to determine whether school officials believe they are ideal. These current practices were then compared with the "good practices" indicated by leaders in the field of school administration and causes for differences were noted and analyzed. From the results of the interviews, the writer pointed out eight perplexing problems facing the typical small town superintendent today. Several possible solutions to these problems were suggested . ' Current professional literature that indicated future trends in school administration was studied. From these ideas predictions were made concerning future trends in school administration pointing toward better school systems. This discussion also indicated sources from which the future school executive might expect help in the management of a school system. lb Conclusions were drawn from the research data, along with suggestions of areas in which future study was needed. DevelOpment of the Office of Superintendent In order to gain a clear and intelligent understanding of any governmental office, it is essential to have a knowledge of its develOpment. In tracing the history of such an office one can detect organizational features adapted to conditions of the past generation. Though these conditions are not pres- ent in today's culture, we have retained this out of date organizational structure. This may account, in part, for some of the problems of present day school administration. The modern office of the superintendent of schools resulted from a trial and error procedure in attempting to devise satisfactory methods for administering public schools. In attempting to secure good school administration, various organizational features of similar institutions were trans?- planted into the school system. Some of these ideas were not well adapted to the management of a school. In some cases organizational features which were obvious failm~es were discarded, but unfortunately this was not true in all cases. Consequently some of these errors are still with us. The position of superintendent develOped under a cloud of suspicion and distrust. Principals and teachers resented the presence of this "intruder." As Theodore Roller says: 10 Serious also was the opposition of teachers and principals. One teacher sarcastically questioned " mass: as seminars 22.33am authority, and silently or ogenly sabotaged the superintendent*s leadership. This resentment made the work of the superintendent even more difficult. A number of townspeople questioned the wisdom of a centralized school system. Everyone seemed to question whether the superintendent would be able to use his authority wisely. Perhaps some of this feeling of suspicion and lack of confidence is still present today, seriously interfering with the administrator's ability to properly manage the school system. Historical W- There are many interesting thoughts and theories concerning the development of the superintendency. The idea of an official in charge of the local school system is not altogether new, nor is it altogether American in origin. During the period that it was develOping in New Ergland, and even before that time, traces of a similar office were found in Europe. Several educators have speculated at considerable length regarding the influence of certain historic institutions upon the organization of school administration. The verifica- tion of some of these ideas would be difficult, if not impossible. 9 Theodore Roller. The W or the City aim- of h ls in the Ignited States, (Philadelphia: the Author, 1-9-53 .9 p0 59' 1'! However, for a complete understanding of the background of this office, a discussion of some of these theories seems justified in this study. ‘ Walter Cooking, editor of _S_qh_o_o_l Executive Magazine, in a speech given before a gathering of school administrators at Michigan State College in June 1952 advanced the interest- ing theory that the office of superintendent of schools was borrowed in form from the autocratic Prussian school system. He attributed many of our present day difficulties in school administration to the transplanting of an autocratic system in a democratic country. This may also account in part for the large number of autocratic school administrators so common I in early days. Although examples of dictatorial school execu- tives still exist, fortunately it seems that this form of school administration is on the decline. To this point Ben- jamin Pittenger says: Originally, the democratic approach in school adminis- tration was a protest against authoritarianism. One of its earliest expressions is accredited to John Dewey, in 1903. The idea made little headway during the first quarter of this century buIOhas flourished with increas- ing vigor since that time. Three other interesting theories concerning the origin of school administration methods were advanced by Clyde Campbell in a recent article on democratic administration: 10 Benjamin Pittenger, local Public chool Aginistnation, (New York: McCraw—Hill Book Company, 1951 , p. l . 15 Our present structure is more of a fortuitous circumstance than a planned method of government. To state it in brief, school administration is a lineal descendant of religious and military govern- ment; its immediate ancestor, big business, c0pied the line and staff type of organization from these institutions and in turn it was accepted as a plan of operation for public schools. Formal education had its begirmings in the church dominated schools of the Middle Ages. The administration of education lmder the sponsorship of the churches would naturally be patterned along lines acceptable to the church hierarchy. This organization was paternalistic in nature and the authority of the officials in charge was supreme. Despite the passage of the years, it is only natural that the church influence would not entirely disappear . As has been previously suggested, educational adminis- tration may have borrowed some of its techniques from the armed forces. Since education is a function of the State and is state controlled, types of organizations most familiar to state officials would likely be used. One idea comon to both the military and the school system organization is that of "chain of commands". This is the old line-staff idea in which a teacher is under a head of the department, who is in 11 Clyde Campbell, ,"A Democratic structure to Further Democratic Values",,§mg;@§_s_iz§ Edmation, 30:25, November, 1952. 19 turn under a principal, who in turn takes orders from his superior, the superintendent. The superintendent takes his orders from the board of education, and must secure its ap- proval for any major decision. Orders start at the top and are relayed to the bottom step by step. Any suggestion for improvement or change made by a teacher must go through channels before it finally reaches an official with suffi- cient authority to initiate the change. Though this system is not in harmony with democratic patterns, it may be set up to work with deadly efficiency. Since administrators at one time or another in their lives may have been associated with the military, it is not surprising that the practices of school administration should have a few of these military techniques. A final theory worthy of consideration is that school management techniques are patterned after big business. The line-staff organization, so characteristic of corporation management, has been adopted by school systems. So often, the superintendent is judged on his business ability, rather than his ability to carry out a sound educational program. As Clyde Campbell says, " Too many board members and people still feel that good administration is efficient business managment and little more."12 Our schools certainly should 12 Clyde Campbell, Practical Applications at W Adm§istnation. (New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers, 1952 , p. . . 20 be conducted along business like lines, but this is only one phase of the complex job of school management. The line and staff type of organization, which the public schools have borrowed from the business world tends to be autocratic and is not well adapted to a democratic organization. The. QnigLn 9_f_‘_ supezgision. From the initiation of the first pedagogical institution, we have had supervision of some variety. In the days of the "Ould Deluder" laws, the minister of the gospel was a frequent visitor to the school. He represented the elders and the parish of the local church, and it was his job to check on the instruction of the school lest Satan somehow contrive to poison the souls of the learners by false doctrine or by false scholarship. At this period much of the school's curriculum was of a religious nature. Most of the textbook material was taken from the Bible. Since the minister was the final word in matters of religion, it was his task to check the pupils on their mastery of the catechism, and to examine them in other phases of religious instruction. The minister‘s visits persisted in some sections well into the 19th century; however after 1800 his importance de- creased in most areas. :At this time he was joined in his visits to the schools by selectmen- and other prominent citizens. This period saw the beginning of the formation of local boards of education. Despite the lay character of the local boards, 21. the minister continued to be important to school supervision, even with the decline of religious instruction. Since the minister was one of the few educated members of the comrmmity, it was only natural that he should be chosen to judge the discipline, the general conduct, and the efficiency of the instruction in the local school. The minister contributed the first feeble beginning of professional administration and supervision in the local American school systems.‘ During the first half of the 19th century this shift from church supervision of the schools to lay school board supervision took place. The minister was removed from this crude type of supervision. Members of the school committee recognized the need of some type of supervision for the pub- lic schools. It was only natural that one member of the school committee who had more education than his fellow com- mittee members was appointed to act for the entire committee on this matter of supervision. In case no member of the committee had the desire or ability for such visitations, the minister or some other informed layman might be charged with the duty. Thus developed the New England "school visi- tor". In New York the job carried the title of "school in- spector". These duties and responsibilities soon appeared in the local statutes. InConnecticut the local board of visitors was charged with the responsibility for instruction and permitted: 22 To appoint a committee of one or two persons, to exercise all the powers and perform all the duties of the whole board, under their advice and direction 3:12-3:3ng one dollar a day for the time actually This plan of the school visitor worked fairly well in a small town, or in areas that had a small school population. However, as population increased, cities grew, visitations multiplied, and the problem of supervision became increasingly acute. School committees found it increasingly difficult to obtain, either from within or outside the membership of the school committee, competent laymen who would sacrifice the time necessary for visiting schools and making the required reports. To complicate matters further and to multiply the school problems during this same period the high school be- came popular. This, of course, added to the school popula- tion. ‘ Unsucceppful attempt; _a_t pphlig pghppl administration. In the middle of the 19th century, school committees or local boards of education in large cities were overwhelmed with administrative and supervisory duties brought on by the in- crease in school population. They made several unsuccessful attempts to solve these problems. Although these attempts were later recognized as failures, they nevertheless made a contribution to the final adOption of the office of superin- tendent of schools. 13 John Morrison, The legal. §ltiatus 93 the it School Smrgtenden , (Baltimore: Warwick Press, I922 , p. 17. 2) The school committee in many areas felt that the principal of the school, who at that time was nothing more than the chief teacher, was capable of giving all necessary supervision in his school. The weakness of this scheme is immediately obvious. The principal taught full time, or nearly full time, and was unable to teach and supervise at the same time. He could handle the finances of the school when school was not in session, but he couldn't improve the teaching of the other teachers. One school system came up with an interesting solution to this problem. A building in the eastern part of the United States was constructed in an "H" shaped arrangement. The princ ipal's classroom was in the center of this plan, and glass was used to partition off the classrooms. Thus the principal could see what was transpiring in the other classrooms at any hour in the day. Another attempt to solve the administrative problem was made in Boston. In 1846 there took place in this city the historic battle between the school committee and the school masters. The school committee had found the job of school inspection an increasingly difficult one because of the increase in school population and was looking for an answer to the problem. Thus written examinations based on academic content were 'bprung" on the schools by an examining committee. The purpose of these examinations was to check the content of courses retained by the pupils and to make 24 comparisons among various schools in the city. After two years of trial, punctuated by heated discussions, this de- vice was discarded and an official statement declared that: No comparison of individual schools or of one school with itself two years in succession could justly be made with the unerring accuracy such array of figures would apparently demons trate.lfin However this innovation did start the use of standardized tests in the process of supervision. The school committee had h0ped to prove teaching competency by the use of these tests. They were also justified on the basis of economy, for the committee had hoped to substitute ~standardized tests for htmian supervision, but found that this method was not satisfactory. . A third unsuccessful try was made to meet the problems of supervision so much increased by the added school pOpula- tion. The school committees or school boards divided them- selves into special standing committees, each responsible for one phase of school service. As the duties and the schools increased, the committees increased. Chicago once had 79 such committees, and Cincinnati 71:. Sometimes the boards would assign to individual members the direction of all the schools in a district or ward, or even individual 14 John Philbrick, City School Syptems in the United States, U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education, No. 1, (Wash ton, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1885 , p. 11:1. 25 schools. Some cities experimented with the device of sub- districts, each area having a local board. Philadelphia under this system had at one time 559 board members. Baltimore’s board of school commissioners in 1838 secured the enlargement of the board in an effort to meet its responsibilities more adequately, found the results un- satisfactory and requested that the number be diminished. Some school systems still use the idea of standing com- mittees. Another bad feature of this system was the con- tinued use of the early title of "school director" . This gave the members of the school board the idea that they were administrative officers, rather than policy making officials. . 1h__e_ Lil-L83 superintendent 91 schools. There seems to be some uncertainty concerning the appointment of the first chief school official of the local district. Since the main factor bringing into being this office was the increase of the school population, it is only natural that the office should have originated in the cities and spread to smaller commmities as the need arose. One of the earliest claims made for the origin of this professional position came from the south. . In 1771 a Spanish director of schools for New Orleans was appointed by Charles III. This was, of course, not an Merican position. However, it seems that this office which had its beginnings under the 20 rule of the Spanish did reappear in the state of louisiana in the first part of the 19th century. Stuart Noble writing in this field says: ' After Iouisiana was admitted to the union, the state legislature in 1826 authorized the establishment of two primary schools and one higher school in the city of New Orleans. These schools were placed under a board of regents of ten, who in turn appointed a director to ififi°¥é§§nfifieo¥r$§r§1§§2§°§2£fia‘fis°"amm° and mm“ In 1836, the city of Buffalo, New York, was authorized to appoint a " superintendent of common schools" . His duties were to correspond to those of the school inspector so common in many states at this time. He was a layman and received no remuneration for his services. The job proved too difficult and he resigned a few months later. He wassucceeded by another layman who was to receive a salary of $75 per year. The idea of pay for the job was an innovation. Cambridge, Massachusetts, had a superintendent of schools as early as 1836, but he was probably no more than the usual New England school visitor so common during this period. Louisville and other cities in Kentucky, under laws passed in 1838, appointed "agents of public schools" at small salaries . In fact, the agent received less money than the grammar school teacher. In 1839, St. Iouis engaged a super- intendent but paid him no salary. 15 Stuart Noble, ”Early Superintendents in New Orleans," Jogrppl pf Edpcational Reseapph, 24:253, November 1951. 27 In 1838, the city of Providence, Rhode Island, ad0pted a school ordinance providing for a superintendent of schools. Under this law is to be found the first full time superin- tendent of schools. Nathan Bishop was chosen by the board and he took over the job on August 1, 1839. At this time there were six men teachers, 28 women teachers, and 1671 pupils in the Providence Public Schools. Bishop was a grad- uate from Brown College in 1837, and had completed his first year as tutor in that institution at the time of his appoint- ment as superintendent. His beginning salary was $1250 per year, which was considered an attractive salary in those days. He remained as superintendent in Providence until 1851, at which time he was appointed the first superintendent of schools in Boston, where he remained for six years. As has previously been mentioned, Baltimore, Maryland, tried unsuccessfully to solve its school difficulties by adding to the members of its board of education. After discarding this idea, the Baltimore board turned to a manager type plan under which one of the board members and a former teacher, J. N. Mchlton, was appointed school treasurer. The duties assigned to him were clerical, statistical, business, and financial. Frequently he was also the school visitor, kept office hours, and distributed information to the public con- cerning the school system. Here we see the modern position of superintendent of schools beginning to form. This went 28 on through several years, until, in 1857. the treasurer re- ported to the board that the business and financial aspects of the work demanded too much of his time, and emphasized his interest in the instructional aspect of the work. Ac- cording to Theodore Reller, a historian making a study of this period: In 1859 the treasurer was relieved of the business phase of his work so he could devote his time to visit- ing and other activities leading to the improvement of instruction, plus caring for building repair. This he did so successfully that when the council and the mayor decided to appoint a superintendent of schools in 1866, they converted the office 3% treasurer into that of superintendent of schools. In the middle of the 19th century there took place another educational development that was to have an influ- ence on the formation and shaping of the position of chief public school officer in the local community. This change was in the method employed in selecting local boards of edu- cation. Previously they had been appointed by selec tmen or 8 city councils, and consequently were chosen because of their knowledge or experience in the field of education. Now the boards of education were chosen by popular election. There was no assurance that even one member would be qualified or have the desire to supervise a school system. Thus, the school boards were likely to be without the benefit of well 15 Theodore Reller, '_I'_h_e. Melanoma 9.1: the Citl Sumpiptpppency of khools _il_l_ thp United Stages, (Philadelphia: the Author, 1935): p. 32. - . H 29 educated members who were qualified to serve as visitors to the school system. Consequently, the boards were forced to turn elsewhere to find proper supervision and administration for their school systems. This helped speed the appointment of a manager for the school system. Thus there gradually developed an official in charge of the school system (1) who remained in his position for a considerable length of time, (2) who devoted his major in- terest to the position, (3) who received a professional salary for a full time job, and (4) who was the executive officer of the school committee. ’ The growth of the office of superintendent of schools was not rapid at first. In 1850 there were but ten positions of this type in the United States. However, by 1876, 142 of the ’175 cities of 8,000 or more people had city superinten- dents. In the years following, small communities gradually adopted the office. Today the position is universally recog- nized and accepted by the general public. The entire develop- ment of the office is characterized by a change from lay to professional leadership. The outlook for the future of the position of superintendent of schools is not very promising under the present line-staff organization. Each year more and more routine work is being assumed by the administrator. The task of educating a child 30 is becoming more complicated. More new services are being offered to students by school systems. The schools are also undertaking many new community services. In the event of federal aid to education there will be an increase in required clerical work. School finances present an even greater problem than in past years. The superintendent of schools is caught in the present "tug of war" for the tax dollar, since other agencies are also expanding their services. Moreover the superintendent of a small school is expected to teach at least on a half time basis. His time is so occupied by these many tasks that he could not help his teachers improve their teaching, if he had the desire and ability to do so. As has been indicated in previous pages, the position of superintendent was not logically planned, but just de- veloped. Much of the evolution of this office took place during a period when the demands upon the central office of the school were not as great as they are today. We are attempting to Operate our schools under an administrative system which is geared to the light burden of duties re- quired of a school manager several decades ago. The increased requirements of the superintendent' s office have made it more difficult for an administrator to do a satisfactory job. lack of security has characterized the position. Since the school administrator is unable to complete 31 all of the sundry tasks assigned to him, the board becomes dissatisfied and his contract is not renewed. Several writers in the field of school administration have referred to the superintendent as a professional "gypsy" . A recent and very comprehensive study of the turnover of school superintendents in the Midwest clearly indicates the lack of security connected with the position today. This study was made by Earl Mosier and John Baker, staff associates of the Midwest Administration Center located at the University of Chicago.17 A survey of 5767 superintendents in the Midwest states of Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, Ohio, South mmm, and Wisconsin was made. In the five states of Illinois, Kansas, Michigan, Missouri, and Nebraska about one half of the superintendents surveyed have been employed in their present positions for three years or less, and only 26% have held their present position for as long as six years.18 This study showed statistically the plight of the small district superintendent, which is the primary concern of our study. In the above states, one-third of the 17 Earl Mosier and John Balcor, "Midwestern Superinten- dents on the Move," Nation‘s Schools, 49:44-6, January 1952. 18 Ibid., p. #4 32 superintendents in districts with fewer than six teachers ‘were serving in their positions for the first year. Two- thirds of the superintendents in.this group had served in their present positions less than three years. The tenure of superintendents in districts with from six to twenty teachers was only slightly longer, 50% having been on the job less than three years.19 School boards in the Midwest area under investigation ‘were faced with the tremendous task of choosing 1159 new superintendents in.the school year of 1949-50. A.year later approximately the same number of new superintendents were employed againe making a turnover of 40% in two years. This situation might have some compensating features if the nonrreturning school officials were promoted to better jobs. However statistics prove that this is not the case. Of a group of 355 superintendents in twelve states who re- mained in school work and changed jobs in 1950-51: 6% moved to districts employing at least 23 more teachers. 19% moved to districts employing from 8 to 22 more teachers. 23% moved to districts employing from 3 to 7 more teachers. 39% moved to districts employing from 2 more to 2 fewer 8% atgzglpggopositions in distriCts employing from 3 to 7 fewer teachers. 14% were employed igodistricts employing at least 8 fewer teachers . 19 Ibid., p. 45. 20 Ibid., p. #6. 3) The above figures are made even more unfavorable by the fact that many of these moving school officials were from such small systems that they could not move to much smaller schools. The difficulty in making professional advance- ment is rather evident. In one respect, at least, the rate of turnover among superintendents has changed little in the past decade. A comparison of 1940-41 state educational directories of seven . states with those of 1950-51 showed little change in the percentage of superintendents being replaced . Seventeen percent were replaced in 1940 in comparison to 1% in 1950. This study shows the rapid turnover and the lack of security in the position of superintendent of schools, par- ticularly in small district schools. Society cannot expect to attract the ablest leaders to situations exacting so much training and professional competency, and yet providing so little security. The superintendent is faced with a near impossible task. Yet, he gets "fired" before he has held the job long enough to sponsor any long range program of school improve- ment. The board of education then hires another superinten- dent who is also unable to cope with the situation, and he also is discharged. The entire blame for this deplorable situation does not rest with boards of education. Institutions that train 34 prospective administrators must assume part of the respon- sibility. The duties and responsibilities of the superin- tendent of schools have never been properly defined. Consequently, teacher training institutions have failed to prepare their students adequately for these administrative positions. School boards should also recognize that there are other solutions to the problems of school administration than continually replacing administrators. Unless we re-examine the position of superintendent of schools and establish some basic agreement on what a good superintendent should be doing, the present situation will likely get worse, instead of better. Many young superin- tendents interviewed in our study have seriously questioned the advisability of remaining in this field because of its lack of. security and the complicated problems of the office. l1 ' CHAPTER II REVIEW OF TIE IJTERATURE There has been considerable discussion among educa- tional leaders regarding administrative procedures in small schools. Because of the large annual turnover of school superintendents in small communities many educational ex- perts have become alarmed and have attempted to assign logical reasons for this unstable condition. Few of these leaders agree on the causes of this situation. However, many educational thinkem point to areas that are neglected in school administration and areas where the boards of education and the superintendents cannot agree on assign- ment of duties or methods of procedure. Etperts also fail to agree here. This state of confusion may be caused in part by the lack of a comprehensive study which definitely shows the assignment of duties in the administration of a school and the areas where boards of education usurp powers usually assigned to the school superintendent. Up to now statements concerning these procedures were based on hunches or theories. The results of this study give the expert more definite basis for his judgments. In addition to covering the major areas of administra- tion of a small school, this study, due to financial assistance 3o from the Midwest Administrative Center, is based on a larger sampling than is usually considered adequate for such a study. Other studies have been made in this area, but none of them covers all of the major administrative areas, nor have the others used as many samples. This is also one of the few ”studies using the interview method exclusively and cross checking the data for more accurate results. The in- terview method was chosen in preference to the questionnaire method because it was felt that more valid replies could be secured from the school officials being interviewed. The following are reviews of findings from studies in the past which deal with phases of the problem of this study. One of the classic works in this area of rural adminis- tration was published in 1933 by Frank:Cyr.l Despite the age of the study it is still well regarded by educational leaders. Although Dr. Cyr was primarily interested in the duties usually assigned to the county superintendent, his study also dealt with the administrative duties usually assigned to the local town superintendent.2 1 Frank Cyr, Besponsibilities for Rural School fidminis- tration, (Teachers College Contribution to Education, No. 579, New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1933). 9 Ibid., p. 116. , 37 Frank Cyr used a combination interview and question- naire technique in collecting his data. The area surveyed was certain selected states in the midwest area. He found that the small local district still retains the major re- sponsibility for educational administration, even though there is little agreement on the allocation of duties. He also concluded that the functions of the duties thus delegated to the local superintendent vary from state to state. He found lack of uniformity in practice. During this same period another study dealing with school administration in the Midwest area was made by Frederic Archerd at the University of Nebraska.3 He tried to determine the relationship between the tenure of the superintendent and the efficiency of the school system.” An interesting feature of this study was the discovery of a great turnover of school superintendents, particularly in small districts. These figures were compiled in 1930, and were similar in percentages to turnovers indicated in 19% and 1950 by the University of Chicago study described in Chapter I. 3 Frederic Archer-d, I'A Comparison of the Efficiency of School Systems in Relation to the Tenure of the Superin- tendent." (Unpublished Master's dissertation, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, 1931). 4 Ibid., p. 131. 38 Archerd concluded that a term contract for the chief school administrator is more desirable than one drawn up annually. He also concluded that it is logical to assume that long tenure for the superintendent, whether it be from annual re-elections or from a term contract is beneficial to the commity in the form of increased efficiency for the school system.5 Another Nebraska study, by Lloyd Shepard, is concerned with the work schedule of the superintendent of schools.6 He found that 64% of the group surveyed made no attempt to follow a work schedule. After examining the plans of those who professed to follow schedules, Shepard concluded that none of them adequately served the needs of the various school groups. He found alsothat there was considerable difference between the theory and the practice in using the work schedule. It seems that superintendents know what they should do and how they should spend their time , but are not, on the whole, following accepted standards, or even their own beliefs. The results of this study also show rather forcefully that the majority of the superintendents consider school 5 1pm.. p. 131. 6 Lloyd Shepard, "The Superintendent's Work Schedule," (unpublished Master “3 dissertation, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, 1937), p. 16. 39 administration merely the performance of a series of routine tasks. There are definite indications that they are subject largely to the various pressures of the moment, regardless of their relative value. The study also indicated the lack of ability and willingness on the part of the chief school executive to delegate his administrative duties to any other member of the faculty.7 Among the recent studies completed in this field of school administration is one written by Charles Gerstbacher.8 Although it is closely related to our study, the techniques of research are somewhat different. This work deals with the working relationships between the superintendent of schools and the board of education. Gerstbacher was pri- marily interested in types of conduct that create ill feel- ing and made suggestions on how to avoid conflicts arising from such feeling. The study is limited to schools in the state of California.9 A questionnaire was sent to 128 superintendents and the following were listed as types of conduct in which boards interfered in the administration of the school: 7 Ibid., p. 89. 8 Charles Gerstbacher, "Areas of Conflict in California School Administration," (unpublished Do tor‘s dissertation, University of California, Berkley, 1949 . 9 Ibid., p. 18. no the assumption of executive functions. playing politics and doing personal favors. encouragement to complainants to carry grievances directly to the board . By interference in the selection of teachers. By promoting interests other than education. inc one is tency . open demonstration of lack of confidence the superintendent. lack of knowledge of the school system. failure to keep the confidences of the board. perfunctory membership . By use of standing committees. use of "rump sessions”. . delving into trivial matters10 14. By interference with purchases. 333 $3 “5:559:30 row: E“)? 333533 In this same study a summary was made from 400 replies regarding principles of sound relationship between board members and the superintendent. Those principles common to both the board and the superintendent were: 1. Each, the board and the superintendent, should stay in his own area. 2. All decisions should be made in regularly consti- tuted meetings . Those principles applicable to the superintendent were: 1. Keep the board fully informed . 2. Strive for unanimity of decision on policy matters, but be sure to have unanimous support in carrying out policy. 3. Maintain an impersonal, professional, coopera- tive, and business like relationship with the board. ll. Win, sustain and enlarge the confidence of the board and public in your educational leadership. 10 Ibid., p. 163. 11 Ibid., p. 81 ’41 5. Observe strict ethical norms. 6. Know the board. 8: figggtggg gogggfiiggrale in the entire staff.12 The conclusions of this study are rather interesting. The author found that the board encroached upon.the duties of the superintendent most in the areas of personnel, cur- riculum, housing, and fiscal affairs. He also concluded that the principles governing the relationship between the chief local school official and the board of education are the same as those set out in.professional literature. One of the most recent studies in.the field of super- intendent and board relationship was made by Norval Hazel- baker at Arkansas University.13 He states that the purpose of this study was to ascertain.and to analyze certain of the methods and procedures used by local boards of education in the state of Arkansas in the discharging of their responr sibilities for the control and direction of public education 'within.their respective areas, and to analyze and compare these practices with recommended procedures by authorities in the field of educational administrationclh This was done 12 Ibid., p. 87. 13 Norval Hazelbaker, "An.Analysis of Certain Methods and Procedures used by Local Boards of Education in.Arkansas," (unpublished Docto 's dissertation, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, 1953 . 14 Ibid., p.13. 42 by means of a check list sent to boards of education and professors of school administration. The areas of agree- ment and disagreement were tabulated . The study was concluded by a list‘of recOmmendations regarding practices used by local boards of education which are considered to be desirable. The board of education and the professors of school administration seem to agree on the desirability of the following procedures : Holding closed board meetings occasionally. Holding special board meetings. Following an order of business in board meetings. Having current professional publications available. Attending some professional meetings during the year. Making board minutes accessible to the public. Both groups agree to delegate to the superintendent: O NONU'I-fi'UMl-J 0'9 quHD'OQ Ho 0.0 m. Interviewing applicants for all positions. Planning courses of study. Selecting textbooks. Assigning teachers to classes and rooms. Informing teachers of termination of contracts. Determining the general methods of instruction. Preparing the school budget. Keeping financial accounting records. Taking and maintaining the school census. Accomting for extra curricular money. Preparing the annual financial statanent. Suspending pupils from school. Supervising the operation and maintenance of the school plant. Interviewing salesmen. Purchasing supplies. Preparing agendum for board meeting. Preparing bills for presentation at -. board meeting. Determining the duties of the custodian. Determining the school bus time schedule. Establishing rules of conduct for pupils while riding school buses. 8. “3 All agreed that the following should be performed jointly by the board and the superintendent: Deciding on promotion for employees. Evaluating the total educational program. Selecting and employing school architects. Determining and negotiating for school sites. Flaming new school buildings. Determining the salary schedule. Establishing the age of admission for school. Determining the need for additional facilities. Determining the Opening and closing dates of school. Establishing school bus routes. 1 Writing and revising rules of board of education. 5 wand-“€270? H00 0:0 0“” Little or no agreement was found between the practices used by local boards of education in Arkansas and the Opinions of professors of school administration in the following areas: Regular meeting place for board of education. Methods used to notify members of meeting dates. Holding dinners at regular board meetings. Presenting an agendum to board members before meeting. Accessibility of books dealing with the board mmnber and his duties. Use of special school board committees. Responsibility for keeping school board minutes. Use of written board of education rules and regulations. Drawing up contracts for employees. Determining regulations regarding corporal punishment. Writing checks on school funds. Determining requirements for graduation. Determining the curricular offerings. Seeing that proper publicity is given to board meetings. Inspecting the buildings and grounds. Ekpelling pupils from school. Determining school levies to submit to voters. Arranging for the sale .of school building bonds. Selection of candidates for teaching and non teaching jobs . 15 Mu P- 93. 20. 21. 44 Selecting depositories for school funds. 16 iEstablishing the age for admission to school. In light of the evidence collected in this study, Hazelbaker recommended that local boards of education give serious consideration to the following practices which are considered desirable: 1. lo. 11. 12. Helding all school board meetings in the school building where reports and records are on file and available for reference. Keeping the number of closed school board meet- ings held to a.minimum. Helding more informal social activities in cone 'unction with regular school board meetings. reparing an agendum or schedule of tOpics for discussion.at board meetings and making it available to members in advance of the meeting dates. ,. Giving more consideration to the methods used to encourage patrons to attend open school board meetings. Making more materials available to newly elected school board members to assist them.in becoming acquainted with their work. Attending professional meetings considered to be of value to school board members. Preparing a written set of rules and regulations for the board of education. Encouraging participation.of lay committees in cooperative planning for the educational program of the community. Using a greater variety of methods to evaluate the educational program of the schools. Preparing a written statement of the division of responsibility between superintendent and school board. Employing the secretary to the superintendent to serve also as secretary to the board of education and be responsible foi keeping the official records of the board. 7 16 mm. , p. 101. 17 Ipid., p. 167. 45 This study was very interesting, but in some ways rather incomplete. A questionnaire method was used to col- lect the data. It was in the form of a check list which failed to provide for any shades of meaning or qualified statements. It seems too, that the superintendent should have been also surveyed to secure a complete picture of school administration. Another study relating to the job of superintendent of schools was made by the National. Institutional Teachers Placement Association.18 This survey dealt with the reasons for the success or failure of school administrators as in- dicated by fifty five directors of college placement offices. These directors mentioned causes for failure and said little concerning qualities needed for success. From this it seems that success is caused by absence of undesirable traits. The study showed that of the reasons mentioned for failure, 32% mentioned inadequate preparation, 31% mentioned undesir- able personal traits, and 34% mentioned ineffective human relations. Under the heading of inadequate preparation, public relations and inability to understand the job as a whole were most frequently mentioned .19 Though the study 18 Some Reasons Why School Administrators _S:u_cceed 92 Fail, a report from the National Institutional Teacher Place- ment Association delivered at the American Association of School Administrators Regional Conference, St. Louis, Missouri, February 1952. 19 Ibid., p. 12. 46 indicated no quick formula for success, the ability to work skillfully and tactfully with townspeople on educational problems is an important asset to any administrator. John Baker has recently completed a study dealingwith the selection of new superintendents by boards of education.20 Some of the conclusions of this thesis have far reaching im- plications in our study. They indicate how the average school board member feels toward the job and the superintendent and the areas of competency he feels are the most important. The conclusions relating to this present study are: 1. A lack of careful planning characterizes the pro- cedures of most boards of education when faced with the problem of selecting superintendents of schools. 2. Members of school boards are more likely to be concerned with the prospective administrator’s experience as a superintendent, skill in finan- cial matters, and interest in school building and maintenance problems than his role as an educator and as an agent for facilitating the development of better instructional and educa- tional services for the community. 3. School board members seldom regard the selection of the superintendent as an opportunity to in- volve teachers and community groups in clarifying what kind of leader is needed t8 develOp what kind of an educational program. 1 20 John Baker, "The Selection of Superintendents of Schools by Boards of Education." (Unpublished Docto 13 dis- sertation, The University of Chicago, Chicago, 1952 . 21 Ibid., p. 178. 41 Here again it seems that the board of education is inclined to rate a school administrator on his ability as a business manager, rather than as an educational leader. It seems also that board members are unwilling to allow other groups to participate in the selection of a leader for the local school system . CHAPTER III THE EXPERTS IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION LOOK AT THE JOB OF THE SUPERINTEVDFNT The first step in this study was to determine the main or principal areas of school administration today. These main areas might be determined on the basis of the amount of time they required in the administrator's work schedule, or they might be determined in relation to their importance in the total school program. In this study principal areas of school administration were determined by the total number of pages devoted to each of the areas in all of the texts on school administration published in 1951 and 1952. This pro- cess was described in Chapter I. It was important to deter- mine principal areas, since they were to be used as a basis for the questions asked in interviews of board members and administrators. Since it would be impossible to cover all of the de- tails in all of the principal areas selected on the basis of number of textbook pages, the writer picked eleven im- portant procedures for this study. These procedures were stated in the form of tasks a superintendent of schoOls must perform adequately in order to have a satisfactory school. ' The term satisfactory is defined with reference to a minimum 49 standard for a school system. It is not suggested that satisfactory refers to an ideal situation or one that cannot be improved upon, but rather to one which incor- porates those procedures which experts feel are necessary in an acceptable school program. The third step was to validate these satisfactory minimum standards in the light of the thinking of educational experts. Who should be considered as expert in this field was determined by the process of elimination. The superintendent himself, despite his professional training, was discarded as a qualified authority on this subject. He can be eliminated on the grounds of being too close to the job to properly evaluate it. Most of his ideas on school administration are based only on his ex- perience in positions he has held, which may not be typical of all positions of this type. The school board member is even less qualified to serve as an authority. Most board members have had little, if any professional training and are acquainted only with the local situation. Their activities in school management are usually of the once a month variety. Since teachers seldom attend board meetings and only on rare occasions participate in school policy formation, they are also unqualified to speak with authority in this , area. Teachers come in contact with some areas of school 50 administration, but few have any experience in the field of school finance or school building management. Townspeople may also be eliminated as experts because of their lack of experience and lack of background in this area. Assuming that we may eliminate the above groups, the authority for these principal areas of school management would be assigned to experts in school administration. Though professors of school administration and writers on educational subjects do not agree in every detail on all facets of school administration, there is considerable gen- eral agreement among this group on a minimum program that would merit the label of satisfactory. The opinions of these experts are of considerable value because: I 1. They have spent their lives in the study of school administration problems and have conducted a number of research studies in this field. Most of these leaders have also had practical public school experience. 2. They are remote enough from the actual process of school leadership to make judgments impartially and objectively. 3. Nearly all of our innovations in the field of education have originated in the research and writings of these experts in school administration. The following eleven practices were selected by the writer for study. These are described as minimum procedures 51 necessary for an administrator to perform adequately if his program is to be judged as satisfactory: ' 1. To help secure for his school system the best trained and qualified personnel available. 2. To help establish an attractive salary schedule, and an adequate set of personnel policies on such matters as merit rating, sick leaves, tenure, retirement, etc. 3. To help establish a sound financial system that includes the securing of adequate revenue, the distribution of funds, the use of sound accomting practices, and the use of an adequate purchasing system. 4. To endeavor to establish communication between the school and the citizens of the community so they may work together to c00peratively plan for a better school. 5. To help formulate through cooperation with the board of education and the teachers a set of policies re- garding pupil activity. 6. To help set up a continuous program of evaluation of the work of the school. 7. To help set up a program to continuously evaluate and to improve the curricular offerings of the school. 8. To help set up a system that will make it easier for the general public to participate in planning a program of instruction that will best fit the needs of the community. 52 9. To help set up a program that will encourage the use of school facilities by the public and the use of community facilities by the school. 10. To help improve the instruction in the school by means of a c00perative program which involves teachers, pupils, and citizens, individually and collectively. 11. To formulate, with the help and approval of the board and the staff, a set of written policies for the gov- erning of the school. These eleven standards, previously mentioned in Chapter I, are considered as good general practice in school management by experts in school administration. The purpose of the following discussion is to take each of these standards separately, verify it as a minimum standard of good school management procedure, and describe in detail what educational experts feel should be included in such a program. . The first item on this list of standards deals with the selection of personnel. This is one of the most impor- tant tasks delegated to the local superintendent of schools. Its importance is probably best summed up by Albert Huggett in a recent book in school administration: Perhaps the most important 8 1e task of the superintendent is the selection 0 teachers. A good teaching staff, functioning efficiently, is the back-bone of any school. With the right kind 53 of teachers the school will be a good one even if the superintendent does little except to offer encourage- ment and to see that necessary books, supplies, and equipment are provided. Harlan Hagman in a recent text in the field of school management cites the following as important duties of the chief school official of the local district: (he) Selects teachers by personal interviews, studies the qualifications, recommending teachers to the board for employment. (he) Selects staff members by interviews, studies the qualifications, 2 recommending individuals to the board for employment. The importance of selecting a good staff is further emphasized by Ward Reeder: 0f the multifarious, varied, and difficult tasks of administering the school there is none whose proper performance begets greater benefits for those for whom the schools exist--namely, the pupils-~than the selec- tion of competent teaching personnel. "As is the3 teacher, so is the school is a time-worn truism. These statements seem to indicate the importance of securing the best teaching staff possible. No school is good without excellent teachers no matter how well the school may be ad- ministered . 1 Albert Huggett, Practical s hool Administmtion, (Champaign: The Garrard Press, 1950 , p. 75. 2 Harlan Hagman, The Administration pi; Ameri an Public Mg, (New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, 1951 , p. 53. 3 Ward Reader, The _F_'_u_ndamentals 9_f_ Public School 1 t tion, (third edition; New York: The Macmillan Company, 1951), p. 109. 54 The next logical step would seem to be to help set up a series of good personnel policies. These policies, if adapted to the needs of the teachers, would tend to elim- inate, to a marked degree, the feeling of tension and in- security among the teaching staff. The end result would be a stable and reasonably happy teaching staff. Dennis Cook refers to this when he says: The executive who can eliminate the needless fears and worries of his teachers is sure to attain a measure of success in teaching management. One of the most significant factors in the teaching staff' 3 morale is the matter of salary. A teacher with fi- nancial worries seldom makes a good teacher. A professional service demands a professional salary. Educators realize today that school systems must provide an adequate salary scale in order to secure and retain good instructors. As Ward Reeder says: Other factors being equal, teachers will tend to gravitate to the school systems which pay the large salaries. A school system which has a schedule of low pay for its teachers is in danger of losing its well qualified teachers, if it is fortunate enough to have any, to school systems which pay larger salaries--or what is worse, especially for society and for the teaching professionuloging them to other businesses, trades, or professions. 4 Dennis Cook, Adminsteriggg the T achin Personnel, (Chicago: Benjamin H. Sanborn Co., 1940 , p. 20. 5 Reeder, __p.. cit., p. 192. 55 A good salary schedule is a very potent instrument in at- tracting and retaining capable individuals, but other per- sonnel policies such as sick leaves, merit rating, tenure, and retirement also help to keep a good teaching staff. The value of a good salary policy is considerably reduced if the tenure of the teacher is uncertain. Most teachers today are given one year contracts which may or may not be renewed at the whim of the local board of educa- tion currently in power. Many abuses arise from the one year contract plan. As Benjamin Pittenger says: It occasionally happens that what appears on paper to be an excellent local salary schedule is vitiated by a policy of dismissing most of the workers before they can benefit fully from it. More frequently, while the great majority of the employees actually enjoy a permanent status, a few are arbitrarily dis- missed, and none is assured of continuance in posi- tion by positive regulations. Under either of these conditions, much of the value of the salary provisions is lost to the worker and to the school. Few persons will deny that efficient teachers and other school employees sho be secure from the threat of unjust dismissal. The importance of the security of the teacher is shown by the fact that several states have adopted a state wide tenure system under which, after a period of probation, the teacher may not be dismissed unless formal charges are presented by the board of education. 6 Benjamin Pittenger, local Public. School Administration, (New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co. , 19511, p. 157. 56 Another feature of good personnel management is a sound and adequate retirement program. This also goes a long way toward relieving the fears and anxieties of the teaching staff regarding their economic condition in old age. A good retirement plan serves a dual function. It prevents the pupils from receiving instruction from teachers whose efficiency has been impaired through senility or dis- ability. It also boosts the morale of the teacher, who knows he will be economically secure in his old age. A good pension plan is also a possible inducement to en- courage young peOple to enter the teaching field . The universal acceptance of the idea of retirement for teachers is shown by the fact that every state in the union has a retirement plan of some type. However, many of these state plans are inadequate in relation to present living costs. Consequently, many systems have adOpted local retirement plans more in line with present. day needs. A good policy of sick leave is another must on any personnel program. It will go a long way toward relieving the anxieties caused by loss of pay because of illness. It is argued with considerable justification that the board should assume at least part of. the cost of illness since many diseases are contacted in the classroom. Conversely, by giving the teacher sick leave, it will prevent him from attempting to teach when he is ill, thus preventing the 57 spread of disease to children. A poll of 150 school ad- ministrators, conducted by the Nation's Schools in 1943, revealed that 70% of the group favored cumulative sick- leave for teachers.7 There is considerable controversy regarding the use of a merit system rating for school employees. Many teachers and administrators agree that a merit raise is a just reward for an outstanding performance in the classroom, but there is considerable discussion as to who will award the merit. Too often administrator awarded merit is based on subservience to administrative orders rather than quality achievement in the classroom. Despite the opposition, there has been consid- erable interest evidenced in merit rating. New York has adopted it as a state wide plan. It is the vision of many educators that sometime in the not too distant future, a master teacher will receive a higher salary than the school administrator. A merit system adequately administered and prOperly received by the staff should up grade instruction in the school. The third feature considered desirable to a satis- factory school system is the establishment of a sound I financial system. In harmony with one of the recognized 7 "Sick leave Allowances." Nation's Schools 32:27, Decanber 1943. 58 principles of financial responsibility, the superintendent is required by the laws of most states to set up a sound financial accounting system. It is the initial step in any program of finance. To this point Mort and Reusaer say: The first set of accounting records that must be mpt accurately in any school system is that which provides the basic documents for the authorization of expenditures and for payment of liabilities. In this set of records are those which authorize pay- ment to persons for services and8those for the pur- chase of materials and supplies. Many states not only hold the chief school officer accountable for the funds he may handle, but also have established state wide uniform accounting systems which the superintendent must use. The state of Iowa offers a good example of a uniform accounting system required for school systems. In providing for the financial welfare of the school system, the school executive must see that funds are properly and equitably distributed. In the performance of this func- tion, he must make out the yearly school budget. Harlan Hagman definitely assigns him this duty when he says: The preparation of the budget is prOperly the task of the professional administrator and his staff with the help of other professional and lay persons, both in and out of the school organization. Boards of education, especially in small communities, may assume budget making as a fmiction of theirs but such lay preparation, unless made with considerable 8 Paul Mort and halter Reusser, Public School Finance, (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1951), p. 231. 59 help from the professional staff will ordinarily be predicated simply on financial grounds and without sufficient attention to tge educational prOgram which is to be supported. . Today, with the struggle on for a piece of the "tax dollar" , another important function of the office of superin- tendent of schools backed by the board of education, is the securing of adequate school revenue. Unless requests for school revenue are prOperly prepared and presented to the proper governmental authorities, the school system may find itself without adequate funds to support the kind of educa- tional program needed by the comrmmity. A fourth standard set forth by writers in the field of school management is the establishment of easy direct channels of communication between the school, as represented by the superintendent's office, and the general public. If these lines are properly established, information will flow freely between these two groups and information will be prop- erly interpreted by both parties. Most educators agree that the schools belong to the public. On this premise, the school officials must serve the wishes and desires of the stockholders, the general public. Consequently, it is of utmost importance that the administration be in constant contact with the public. It is of equal importance that the public know the details of 9 Harlan Hagman, The Administration _o_f_’_ American Public Sghools, (New York: McGraw 111 Book Co., 1951), p. 262. 60 the programs of an educational nature that are underway in the school. Many times superintendents are discharged and boards are split into factions because of mutual misunderstandings caused by the absence of prOper channels of communication. It is the reaponsibility of the school administrator to set up these lines of expression between the school and the public. His job is somewhat complicated by the fact that there are publics to deal with, rather than a single public. William Albig says: There is no one public. There is virtually an in- finite number of publics, each one to be identified with the situation or problem which is common to the individuals whose interests and welfare are conmiingled therein. If the word "public" is used as synonymous with "group", there are many publics differing as to size, organization, interest, methods of cormnunication, and systems of control or guidance. Even if the term is reserved for the largest group, still there is a great number of pgblics , each organized about some common interest. Too often, the school administrator, sets up a plan of com- munication that is aimed at only one group and ignores the others. Misunderstanding and dissatisfaction are bound to result. Communication in an area must include all groups. Many superintendents find themselves in difficulty because they resort to technical language which is either misunderstood or misinterpreted by the community. To be properly understood, the 1anguage6)used must be simple 10 William Albig, Public opinion, (New York: McGraw- Hill Book Co., 1939), p. 17. 61 and direct. It must be phrased in terms of the experiences of the members of the community and should be stated in defi- nite enough terms so as to prevent misunderstandings. Many of the public relations difficulties of the average adminis- trator are caused in part by misunderstandings by the general public. Another feature of a good communication system is the establishment of an effective vehicle of expression for the public to use in communicating with the school. It should be of a-type to males it easy for'townspeople to reach the school authorities with ideas and suggestions for school im- provement. The pUblic should also be made to feel that their contributions to the educational program of the town are welcomed as well as needed. Number five in the list of criteria for a satisfactory school program deals with policies regarding pupils and pupil activity. The school system, in the interest of effectiveness and consistency, must establish certain basic policies regard- ing the handling of the pupils of the school. The public is entitled to this information, and the teachers must have it available to guide their work with the pupils. The superin- tendent, with the assistance of his staff and representatives of the general public, must take the lead in the formation of policies regarding pupil activities. Harlan Hagman assigns responsibility in this area when he says: 62 As a responsible agent of the school system, the board of education, and the community, the administrator has both legal and moral compulsion upon him for the education of those persons whose well-being is in the keeping, in part at least, of the schools. Administrative concern is properlyrdirected toward the enrollment in the school of all persons within the compulsory school-attendance age limits and others whom the schools may assist through its resources; the regular attendance of those enrolled; the correct placement in grade and class according to the individual needs of the pupil; the provision of ade- quate individual and group instruction augmented by counseling and special teaching as needed; the develop- ment of ability in the practice of democratically pur- posed self-discipline among students; and the maintenance and employment of such records and reports as will facili- tate the schools' efforts toward the accomplislmient of each of the above . 1 Naturally, the board of education must give the final approval for any such policies that are adopted, but it is the responsibility of the chief school official of the com- munity to take the lead in recommending such policies. It is of equal importance that these policies, if adOpted, be written, published, and made available to all those interested in the educational program of the community. This will do much to reduce misunderstandings between the school and the community. A sixth item which educators feel is essential in the administering of a satisfactory school is the presence of a continuous program of evaluation of the work of the school. Whether the administrator likes it or not the process of evaluating the school system is going on continually in the 11 Hagman, loc. cit., p. 240. 63 community. This judgment of the work of the schools is based on reports from pupils, town gossip, and other informal means which may or may not reflect the true condition of the school. Educators feel that the administrator should take the lead in the formation of a plan whereby the administrators , teachers , students. and former students, school board members, and mem- bers of the local commity may join in a cooperative effort to evaluate the present work of the school, decide what types of activities best fit the needs of the comrmmity, and make recommendations for a better program of instruction for the following year. As Miller and Spaulding say: Ehraluation that involves the total community in concern for and understanding of its own conduct of its own schools is the key to support and improvement of the schools. Sound support in local commtmity results only as peOple know what they are buying and why. Such understanding improves education beyond the increased financial support it provides. As attention is focused upon the relationship of each aspect of local school Operation to the total program, each teacher and pupil gains a greater sense of im- portance of all he is doing, withlg resultant gain in diligence and in satisfaction. If we apply the axiomatic formula that the schools belong to the public, any complete program of evaluation would be unthinkable without the participation of the general public . The evaluation process should be continuous and 12 Van Miller and Willard Spalding, The Public Administration 9f; e ican Schools, (Yonkers-on-Hudson: World Book Company, 1952 , p. 1152. 64 should cover every phase of school activity. It should be as democratic as possible, with the emphasis on self-evaluation. As Clyde Campbell says: Too frequently, evaluation has been considered as a theoretical rather than a practical phase of democratic living. This apparent dichotomy has created much con- fusion in thinking about the role of evaluation in democratic organization. It is proposed here that evaluation is an extremely important practical appli- cation of democratic administration, essential to the process and continuous within the framework. Number seven on our list of standards approved by leaders in the field of education deals with evaluation in the field of the curricular offerings Of the school. Our modern day cultural patterns are under a continual process of change. Most educators recognize that one of the princi- pal tasks of our educational system today is to prepare the youth of the country for future living. Our instructional program must be of such nature as to make changes, even in the personalities of the students, for next generation living. As B. o. Smith, William Stanley and Harlan Shores say: Education, then, will be required to penetrate the deeper layers of personality, and thereby, to assist in the reconstruction of the loyalties, aspirations, points of view, and moral ideals of individuals. The task is no less than that of transforming the charac- ters of men--of creating new personality types adequate for the task of controlling the social arrangements emerging from the conditions created by science and technology. 13 Clyde Campbell, Ppactical Appligapions 9f; Democratic ist at 11, (New York: Harpers Brothers Publishers, 1952), P- 2 . . 14 B. o. Smith, William Stanley, and Harlan Shores, iFung%gntals _O_f_ sziculpgg Development , (Yonkers-on-Hudson: 0P 0 ompany: 1 e e 65 We must be a process of constant change in order to adapt our teaching to future living. If this change is not made, children will be trained either to maintain the status duo or to live in the past. It is the reaponsibility of the ad- ministrator to take the lead in a cooperative effort to make a study of the problems of curricular changes, and once these studies are agreed upon, to set up machinery so that the staff may put these changes into operation. The eighth item on the list of approved practices for the administrator of a satisfactory school is the next logical step after a good system of communication has been set up. The superintendent should help to set up a system which will make it easier for the general public to participate in planning a program that will best fit the needs of the com- munity. In past years, if members of the community had any suggestions or requests to make relative to the program Of their school, the only recourse open to them was through the board of education. If the citizen took his suggestion directly to the school officials, the administrator inmediately went on the defensive and took the attitude that school affairs were of no concern to the general public. This attitude among schoolmen has undergone a great change in the past decade. Now school officials welcome suggestions from the public and many times have called upon citizens for assistance in solving a particularly difficult 66 school problem. Clyde Campbell points out the growing impor- tance of the average citizen when he says: Since schools have arisen from the felt need of laymen, since the legal structure of the state places responsibility for providing schools on laymen, and since school improvement depends upon the response of laymen to felt needs, one of the first and major activities of the school administration should be to increase lay understanding about what the entire program of good schools can and should do. What the schools do depends in the first place upon what the laymen.in the local community understand that schools can do, and in the second place upon.the participation of laymen in.arriv . at a decision.on.what their schools should do. A device commonly used today, which enables the general public to give help and suggestions regarding educational problems, is the lay committee. Under this plan.a group of citizens are asked to work in a OOOperative committee on a specific problem or in.a general school area. This method of expression.is becoming more widely accepted each year. Recently, the entire issue of January 1952 SchogliExegutive Magazine was devoted to the organization and work of lay committees. It is a vital vehicle of public participation. Some people who object to the lay committee claim that the board of education represents the people and such citizens groups are not needed or wanted. In answer to this Walter Cooking says: 15 Campbell, pp. cit., p. 162. 67 Someone says, however, that citizens are already represented by their school board. It is also urged that the work of citizens committees conflicts with that of the school boards. What is a school board? It is the legal instrumentality of a community with respect to its schools. Its task is to do those things which are necessary to carry out the will of the community. It is not the job of the school board to do the community's thinking about schools . . . When the community‘s judgments are crystallized, it becomes the task of the schoollgoard to put the come munity's judgment into action. Another device to encourage community participation in school affairs is the policy of open.board meetings in which the citizens of the community are encouraged to par- ticipate. The average local board meeting is a closed session and outside advice is neither sought nor welcomed. Another phase of school and community relationship is suggested in the ninth item in the list of acceptable standards. A two way program is advocated by educational leaders. A program should be set in action to encourage the community to use school facilities. The school may very well become the cultural center of the entire district. This trend is indicated in some of the writing in.the field of school building where special facilities are provided for the use of community groups. Stoneman, Broady, and Brainard assert that: The trend toward the extending of educational Op- portunity to the whole community rather than to children.of school age alone has resulted in.a l6Walter Cooking, "Schools Belong to the People", The School.Executive, 71:40, January 1952. tendency to speak of schools as community schools, and in numerous instances special rooms and equip- ment have been provided especially for community use. . . Commmity use of school building will mean that it is utilized as a center for adult education, social, and recreational activities.17 A program should be set up in the school to encourage the organizations of the community to use the school facilities. This is a two way street. With the cooperation of the local board of education and various community organiza- tions, a program should be developed that encourages the school to use the facilities and resources of the local community. The Business-Industry-Education Day program at which the teachers and business men exchange informa- tion and share experiences in each other's field is a good example of this program in operation. labor, represented by labor leaders, should be invited to participate in a school community program. Teachers may enrich the curriculum of the school by a series of field trips into the coanunity. By the use of such a technique boys and girls will learn first hand about the community in which they are likely to live. Paul Mort and William Vincent sum up this movement when they say: The community is now coming into its own as an educational resource, and we see the beginning of a two-way flow between commity and school. In 17 Merle Stoneman, Knute Broady, and Allanson Brainard, Plagzqning and Moderniz P the School Plant, (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 19 9], p. 74. 69 one direction there is the flow of public interest in the school; in the other there is the spreading of the school and its activities out into the community. Ac- cordingly the school is ceasing to be a place bounded by solid walls. School people are beginning to sense there are enormous educational possibilities that lie unused in almost any community. If pupils are to learn to manage their community when they grow up, they ust observe, study and work in their commumities now.l Another feature of this school community relationship is the mutual exchange of the use of school and community physical facilities. The presence of a community room in the school will encourage the townspeOple to use the school as a cultural and recreational center. On the other hand, leading educators have suggested the use of the town parks for playground facilities, or the use of the public library to ex- pand the number of books available to pupils in the school. A final concept of school community relationship is the idea that the school and the community are one and should work together as a unit . All members of the community would participate in the school program, and the school would take a vital part in comrmmity life. looking to the future Clyde Campbell says: In the ideal school--if thinking may be projected to the future--all the people would have the Oppor- tunity of planning, all would have the privilege of learning, all would be invited to participate actively in furthering the community program of education. Professional teachers might instruct the peOple; 18 Paul Mort and William Vincent, Modern Educational Pragtice, (New York: McGraw Hill Book Co., 1950), p. 273. 70 the peOple might teach others; and in many instances they might instruct the professional teachers. Especially might this be true when the topics for study concerned problems in community life. In this true commumity school, then, everyone would be teaching, everyone would be learning, everyone would be growing intellectually. 9 In this commnmity school the emphasis would be on social education. Here the student will have a real chance to discuss social problems confronting him in his everyday life. Not only will he have a chance to secure knowledge concerning these perplexing social problems, but will have an opportunity to participate in such areas as city government. The goal of such a program is the socialization of the individual. As Clyde Campbell further says: In striving to improve natural resources, human resources, and social organizations within the com- munity, each daily act performed should be in harmony with the most g8sirable forms of democratic social relationships . Item ten on the list of standards deals with the im— proving of the quality of instruction in the school. Good teaching is the most important service of any educational institution. As Arthur Moehlman says: The best possible basis for institutional success is the maintenance of an excellent school. There is no substitute for good teaching. It. is not only the 19 Clyde Campbell, Practical Applications 9_f_ Democratic .Admipigtration, (New York: Harpers Bros., 1952}, p. 22. 9° lac-9.12., p. 23. 71 supreme function of the school but is also the best means for securing community confidence. A school that stresses publicity and neglects teaching cannot long disguise its failure. It is necessary because of the increasing intricacy of our social life to provide supplementary means whereby ability to recog- nize and value good tSaching may be brought to come munity consciousness. 1 The superintendent can.do much to improve the present instructional program in his school. He should help set up a cooperative program for the purpose of improving the quality of the teaching in the system, The emphasis should be on group work:and self evaluation on the part of the teacher. With.the cooperation of the board of education he should lead in the formation of an in-service prOgram.to meet the individual needs of the teachers. Some financial help should be given to those teachers who wish to improve their work by attending teacher training institutions. A professional library should be available to members of the staff to keep them informed on current issues in their respective fields. Continual self- evaluation should be encouraged on.the part of every individual teacher, so that he will be constantly working to improve the quality of his teaching. There are other practices which contribute to an.imr proved instructional program. Albert Huggett suggests the following: 21‘Arthur‘Moehlma‘n, Social Inter etation, (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 193 , p. 22 . 72 Teachers bulletins, teachers meetings of various kinds, individual conferences, encouragement to at- tend various conventions and meetings are all parts of the program.to improve instruction. Teaching will indirectly be benefited through assistance to the in- structor in the matter of finding suitable friends. Instructors should be backed to the fullest extent possible and should be given.%ll the recognition for good work:that is practical.2 A final means of improving instruction within the school is a cooperative program that involves the members of the community; Here the citizens of the local area are asked to express their own.particular opinions as to the effectiveness Of the instructional program. Harold Hand and his associates at the University of Illinois have de- vised questionnaires in.which teachers, pupils, and parents have a chance to express themselves as to the effectiveness 23 It is an excellent chance of the local school program. for the citizens, who correspond to the stockholders of a corporation, to express themselves on the management and instruction of the local school district. In addition to the questionnaire for parents, Hand and his associates also have devised one to secure the reaction of the pupils of the school to the type of teaching they are forced to accept. Many worthwhile suggestions have come from the citizens in k 22 Albert Huggett, PLaQtical School Adminiausration, (Champaign, The Garrard Press, 1950), p. 114. 23 Harold Hand, What People Think About Their Schools, (Yonkers-on-Hudson: World Book Company, 191337, p. 201. 72 Teachers bulletins, teachers meetings of various kinds, individual conferences, encouragement to at- tend various conventions and meetings are all parts of the program to improve instruction. Teaching will indircctly be benefited through assistance to the in- structor in the matter of finding suitable friends. Instructors should be backed to the fullest extent possible and should be given 311 the recognition for good work that is practical.2 A final means of improving instruction within the school is a cooperative program that involves the members of the community. Here the citizens of the local area are asked to express their own particular opinions as to the effectiveness of the instructional program. Harold Hand and his associates at the University of Illinois have de- vised questionnaires in which teachers, pupils, and parents have a chance to express themselves as to the effectiveness 23 It is an excellent chance of the local school program. for the citizens, who correspond to the stockholders of a corporation, to express themselves on the management and instruction of the local school district. In addition to the questionnaire for parents, Hand and his associates also have devised one to secure the reaction of the pupils of the school to the type of teaching they are forced to accept. Many worthwhile suggestions have come from the citizens in 22 Albert Huggett, Practical School Administration, (Champaign, The Garrard Press, 1950), p. 1117. 23 Harold Hand, What People Think About Their Schools, (Yonkers-on-Hudson: World Book Company, 1948), p. 201. 73 a community where they have been.given a chance to participate in the program of education offered by the school in the com: munity. The final item on.this list of practices approved by writers in the field of education, deals with the importance of written.policies for the governing of the school system. Emery school board, with help and guidance from.the adminis- trator and the staff, must set up rules and regulations to govern the school. Along this line ward Reeder says: Such rules and regulations would inform the school board and employees of their powers and duties, and responsibility could therefore, be definitely placed. Thus much of the uncertainty and friction which.now exists between school boards and superintendents and among other employees would be eliminated. This instrument would especially aid new board members and employees in.informing themselves about their powers and duties. Without such a guide, new board members and employees are likely to leave some of their work undone or do WOEE which belongs to other officials or employees. Some boards of education prefer that these rules and regulations not be written, but generally understood by the board and the staff. They feel that such a plan.gives the board greater flexibility in ruling on.individua1 cases. HOwever,:most educators agree that to be effective these regulations must be written.- Ward Reeder in setting up standards for such rules and regulations says, "They should 2" Ward Reader, School Boards a ‘Superintendents, (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1915 , p. 25. 74 be written. 'Unwritten laws' are likely to be misunderstood and to result in a large amount of litigation".25 The following is a summary of the eleven practices in school administration, under the present administrative set-up, which professors of school administration consider as essential tasks if the administrator is to run a satisfactory school: 1. To help secure for his school system the best trained and qualified personnel available. 2. To help establish an attractive salary schedule, and an adequate set of personnel policies on such matters as merit rating, sick leaves, tenure, retirement, etc. 3. To help establish a sound financial system that includes the securing of adequate revenue, the distribution of funds, the use of sound accounting practices, and the use of an adequate purchasing system. 4. To endeavor to establish communication between the school and the citizens of the community so they may work to- gether to COOperatively plan for a better school. 5. To help formulate through cooperation with the board of education and the teachers a set of policies re- garding pupil activity. 6. To help set up a continuous program of evaluation of the work of the school. 25 Ibid., p. 26. 75 7. To help set up a program to continuously evaluate and to improve the curricular offerings of the school. 8. To help set up a system that will make it easier for the general public to participate in planning a prOgram of instruction that will best fit the needs of the community. 9. To help set up a program that will encourage the use of the school facilities by the public and the use of com- munity facilities by the school. 10. To help improve the instruction in the school by means of a COOperative program which involves teachers, pupils, and citizens, individually and collectively. 11. To formulate, with the help and approval of the board and the staff, a set of written policies for the governing of the school . CFAPTER IV THE IN‘i‘EW JEN QIJFSTIOI‘I‘NAIDE AN D ITS USE The last chapter dealt with the duties and responsi- bilities of the superintendent of schools as viewed by ex- perts in the field of school administration. It was fairly easy to determine their appraisal of this important office, as they have expressed themselves rather definitely in the literature they have written in the field. Though these experts may disagree on minor issues, most of them agree on the eleven educational practices which seem to characterize the management of a satisfactory school, as eXplained in the last chapter. The next logical step in this study was to determine what administrative procedures are actually being used in school management today. Perhaps the procedures in current use are ideal. Even if it is Obvious that school adminis- tration in small district schools is not always satisfactory, we must determine the areas of Operation in which improvement is needed, and the areas in which good practices are being followed. These inadequate areas need to be pointed up, and suggestions for improvement need to be cited. Using the eleven standards of a satisfactory school as a basis, an interview guide was constructed. This was to serve as a base for the individual interviews. Five /.—-’-‘ I 77 major areas of school.management were chosen for investiga- tion. These were personnel, finance, public relations, pupils and pupil activity, and curriculum and supervision. It was impractical to attempt to cover every detail in each of these five areas, consequently three to five key questions ‘were asked in each field. In addition to this major portion of the interview, a series of questions were asked concern- ing the vital statistics of the local school system in order to secure a picture of the community in.which the school must operate. The individual interviewed was also asked whether he considered the situation ideal, and if not to sug- gest ways in.which the procedure would merit such a rating. The next step was to determine just what officials in.a small community would be able to speak with authority and experience concerning the administration of the sdhool system in that locality. The most obvious choice was the superintendent himself. The management of the school sys- tem.is his daily job. All administrative functions, with a few exceptions, are channeled from.his office. He is also in a position.to determine the administrative practices ‘which seem to be satisfactory and those which are unsatis- factory. No one is more keenly aware Of the problems of the office than the chief school executive. Thus one of the Officials chosen to be interviewed is the superintendent of schools. 78 Another official who should have considerable know- ledge concerning the administrative techniques employed in management of a school system.is the president of the local board of education, Although official board meetings are held but once a month, it is his moral and legal obligation to follow the program of the school very closely. The presi- dent of the board is Ordinarily the senior member from.the standpoint of service, and usually works more closely with the superintendent than do other.members. For these reasons, the president of the board or education was chosen as the second official to be interviewed in this study. Since the superintendent and the board members were the only ones in.most communities actively working in all of the different administrative areas, the complete interview was limited to these two groups. It seemed no other indi- vidual or group was qualified to pass judgment on all of the administrative procedures. The superintendent and the presi- dent of the board of education were asked identical questions concerning various phases of school management in.eeparate interviews. One had no idea of the response of the other. The two interviews were then cross checked to gain an even clearer picture of school administration,in that community. Surprisingly enough, in most cases the two individuals interviewed described identical procedures. There was little variation except in.minor details or interpretation of the 79 question. This was probably due to the fact that they were asked to describe a procedure rather than give a personal opinion. In.most of the school systems in this survey, the teachers did very little in the active administration of the school. Thus they were unable to speak with authority in all areas. Hewever they could speak:with considerable authority concerning the effect on the school program of good or bad practices in school administration. It was also found in these Midwest schools that the principal of both the high school and the grade school is an administrator in name only. They are teachers with a few routine administrative duties. There is only one administrator in the average school. He is the superintendent. Because of this, the reaction of the principal toward administrative practices in the local school would be that of a teacher. It was decided to interview briefly two teachers in each system.regarding the effects of poor administrative practices on the school program. A number of these teachers interviewed carried the title of principal. Each teacher was asked the single question.“From.your experience as a teacher what do you consider some of the ways in which ad- ministration of schools could be improved?” Several admin- istrative areas were mentioned in order to facilitate the response to the question. The question was asked in a very 80 impersonal way so that the answer could not necessarily be construed as a criticism of the present superintendent Or the board of education. To recapitulate the procedure used in.this research, four interviews were conducted in each of the sixty school systems cooperating in this survey for a grand total of 240 interviews. The sampling of the area studied was much broader than is ordinarily required in such a study. To indicate the coverage of this study, in the state of Nebraska forty out of lj5 small district schools were surveyed. This is about 29% of the schools within the area. As has previously been indicated, the study is limited to small school districts with a total of fewer than 500 students in both grade school and high school. The Midwest area selected for the study was Central Nebraska, Eastern Nebraska, and western Iowa. Douglas county in Nebraska and Pottawattamie county in Iowa were omitted from.the study because of their urban character. Twenty school districts ‘were selected at random.in each of the three areas, making a total of sixty schools to be surveyed. Six experienced teachers, most of whom had had admin- istrative experience, were chosen as interviewers. Each teacher was assigned ten school districts. The interviewers chosen.for western Iowa were William.Spickerman, a teacher of mathematics at Thomas Jefferson.High School of Council 81 Bluffs, lowa; and Melvin Church, principal of the high school at Minden, Iowa. The interviewers chosen for eastern Nebraska were Bruce Cowgill, superintendent of schools at Monroe, Nebraska; and Henry Clinch, superintendent of schools at Duncan, Nebraska. The interviewers chosen for central Nebraska were Eldon Davis, superintendent of schools at Campbell, Nebraska; and Dale Williams, superintendent of schools at Silver Creek, Nebraska. In several cases one of the schools chosen at random was one in which one of the in- terviewers was the superintendent. In these cases other in- terviewers were assigned to the schools in question. The writer and the six selected interviewers met at the University of Omaha for a period of a week in September 1952. An intensive training prOgram was held in order to acquaint the interviewers with the nature of the study and to standardize the responses as much as possible. The inter- viewers questioned each other in order to increase their efficiency in interviewing. Several pilot studies were car- ried on in small schools near Omaha which were not included in the main study. Several errors in procedure and questions were discovered and corrected. The emphasis was on consis- tent procedure so that the results could be compiled easily. Care was taken to insure that all questions would be asked by all of the interviewers in exactly the same manner. The interviewers agreed to encourage freedom of expression and 82 to take only as many notes on answers as was absolutely necessary. It was agreed to throw out the results of school systems where the answers of the superintendent and the president of the school board were radically different. Fortunately this did not occur. . The interviews started in October 1952 and were con- cluded by February 1953. The reaponse and cOOperation were excellent. Of the original sixty schools selected, only four schools declined to participate in this study and four new schools were selected at random to replace them. Part of the reason for this excellent COOperation was the fact that this project was jointly Sponsored by the Nebraska School Board Association and the Iowa School Board Association. Consid- erable publicity was given to the project and the interest was excellent. The writer attended several district school board conferences to explain the study and to assure the board members and the superintendents that all replies would be strictly confidential. The following schools in western Iowa participated in this study: Wiota, Gray, Emira, Shelby, Tennant, Persia, Pisgah, Malvern, Neola, Underwood, Beebeetown, Wales-Lincoln, Modale, Silver City, Massena, Carson, Magnolia, Emerson, Glenwood, and Mondamin. (See Figure ll and Table XXVIII.) The following schools in eastern Nebraska participated in this study: Duncan, Rising City, Valparaiso, North Bend, €53 Papillion, Malmo, Brainard, Creston, Eagle, Ulysses, Monroe, Platte Center, Bellwood, Linwood, Yutan, Kennard, Shelby, Gresham, leigh, and Clarks. See Figure I and Table XXVIll.) The following schools in central Nebraska participated in this study: Genoa, St. Edwards, Spaulding, rickson, Ord, Scotia, St. Paul, Chapman, Silver Creek, Cedar Bapids, Elm Creek, Gibbon, Callaway, Sargent, Arcadia, Cairo, Doniphan, Boelus, Burwell, and loup City. (See Figure l and Table XXVlll.) letters were then sent to the superintendents of schools in.the selected towns inviting their respective schools to participate in this area study. The interviewers then contacted the schools in their assigned areas and ar- ranged a time and place for the interviews. lt required between one and two hours for each of the interviews. The results of the interviews were then sent immediately to the writer's office at the University of Omaha where they were interpreted and tabulated. Early in April lC JEja dinner meeting was held at the University of Oma a for the superintender ts and board memoers who participated in this study. The results of the study were announced and a discussion of administrative procedures in small district schools was held. Most attending members felt this meeting was of considerable value as an in-service training device for both board members and administrators. an It was the task of the writer to select the inter- viewers, prepare the interview guide, attend district school board meetings to publicize the program, compile the results, and coordinate the entire program. The following is the interview guide used in this study to direct the interviews and to record the results of the questions asked. On the last page of the guide is a COpy of the interview form used to direct the interview given to teachers and principals. 3. 55 INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR OMAHA UNIVERSITY PROJECT (Used in interviews of superintendents and board members) PERSONNEL In the selection of teachers (interviewing and hiring). a. What are the duties of the superintendent at present? b. What should the duties of the superintendent be in an ideal situation? c. What are the duties of the members of the board of education? d. What should be the duties of the board.members in an ideal situation? In the selection of non-teaching personnel (interviewing and hiring). a. What are the duties of the superintendent at present? b. What should the duties of the superintendent be in an ideal situation? c. What are the duties of the members of the board of education? d. What should be the duties of the board members in an ideal situation? In preparing a salary schedule, or determining salaries for the coming year: a. Tb what extent do the teachers have a voice? b. What is the superintendent's responsibility? c. What is the board's responsibility? d, ‘What difficulties arise with this prOblem.of salaries, etc.? tjb Interview Guide continued. 1:. 5. A. Who makes the decisions in regard to personnel policies such as sick leave, arrangements for securing substitute teachers, and the fixing of working hours for the staff? B. What misunderstandings, if any, exist as to the proper responsibilities of board and superintendent in these matters? With respect to the evaluation of teaching skill, especially in relation to promotion, retention, and discharge: A. new are Judgments reached? Who participates and what methods are used? B. Have you encountered any difficulties whichzmay be attributed to the methods used? FINANCE In the preparation of the budget? A. ‘What are the duties of the superintendent at present? B. What should the duties of the superintendent be in an ideal situation? C. What are the duties of the members of the Board of Education? D. What should be the duties of the Board members in an ideal situation? In the purchase of supplies and equipment: A. ‘What are the duties of the superintendent at present? IL What should the duties of the superintendent be in an ideal situation? C. What are the duties of the members of the Board of Education? 67 Interview Guide continued. D. What should be the duties of the Board members in an ideal situation? 8. In permitting the use of building and school facilities for public gatherings: a. Does the board have an established policy or does it decide each request on the basis of merit? b. Are the arrangements for using facilities made with the superintendent or the board? c. Wheat problems have arisen over the use of buildings or facilities? 9. In the interpretation of the school to the general public: a. What are the duties of the superintendent at present? b. What should the duties of the superintendent be in an ideal situation? Co What are the duties at present of board members in this area? ‘1' What should be the duties of the board members in an ideal situation? 10. In case of an attack against the school system from the community: a. What would be the responsibility of the superintendent? b. What would be the responsibility of the board members? 11, A‘ In case an irate parent approaches a board member: a. What does the board member usually do? b. In your opinion, what should he do? th Interview Guide continued. 12. 13. lh. 15. B. C. In case a patron demanding a special favor approaches a member of the board? PUPILS What part does the board play in determining policies governing the school entrance age, graduation requirements,.etc.. What is the superintendent's role in determining such policies? Are these arrangements satisfactory? Who establishes rules of conduct? Who enforces these rules? If unfavorable community action develops, who accepts the responsibility for the policies in force? CURRICULUM and SUPERVISION What is the board's role in determining what shall be included in the curriculum? \ What is the superintendent's role? To what extent do teachers have a voice in curriculum construction? In the control of extra-curricular activities: a. b. What are the duties of the superintendent at present? What should the duties of the superintendent be in an ideal situation? What are the duties at present of board members in this area? What should be the duties of board members in an ideal situation? 359 Interview Guide continued. l6. 17. 18. 19. 20. In evaluating the total school program: a. To what extent are pupils, teachers, and patrons asked to consider the effectiveness of the school program? i ' b. How much does the board rely upon the superintendent to_Judge the quality of the school work? c. To what extent does the board base its Judgments upon school visitations? d. To what extent do board members control the school program by making sug- gestions to teachers, Janitors, etc.? Among the superintendents you have known, what seems to be the area or areas in which they were the weakest? (board only) If you had additional time, in what areas would you do more work? (supt. only) What determines the selection of a new superintendent of schools? In what respects are colleges failing to train school administrators well? Vital Statistics Concerning School System How many superintendents of schools has this school system had in the past ten years? How many principals of the high school has this system had in the past ten years What has been the turn-over in school board.membership in the past ten years? How long have you been in your present position? As a superintendent, how do you divide your time during the year as far as per- centage is concerned: Personnel problems Financial prdblems Building and repair prOblems Supervision of teaching Working with the curriculum Clerical work (letters, etc.) Purchasing (interviewing salesmen, etc.) Working with community groups Other activities - ' -5- 90 Interview Guide continuedt 6. What methods are used by the community to assure the selection of good school board members? School board members are from what trade or occupation group? Is there a record of policies determined by the board which is available to teachers and the general public? 1k>what extent does the superintendent attend board.meetings? Does he plan the program for the board meetings? INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS, HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS, ELEMENTARY PRINCIPAL, AND ELEMENTARY TEACHERS. From your experience as a teacher what do you consider some of the ways in which administration of schools could be improved? (Provide a list of areas which is to be used only when the teacher has diffi- culty in responding.) 1. Curriculum 2. Public relations 3. Werking hours for staff A. Passing on information 5. Getting supplies -6- CHAPTER V THE RESULTS OF THE INTERVIEWS The primary purposes of the interviews were two. The first was to ascertain the types of administrative procedures practiced in the various areas of school management in the sixty schools included in this survey. The second purpose was to ascertain whether in the think- ing of the superintendent and the president of the local school board the practices they were using were ideal. To increase the accuracy of this study, the super- intendents and the board members were asked in separate interviews to describe the procedures followed in the different areas of school administration. The two responses from the same system were then compared and a fairly ac- curate picture was indicated of the method actually used in that community. One interview served as a check on the other. To make the study even more accurate, the superin- tendent was'asked to describe the duties assigned to the board of education in each area, and the board members were asked to describe the duties assigned to the superin- tendent. This served as an additional check. The second question asked the individual being inter- viewed in each system was whether the procedure used locally was ideal. Actually they were asked to suggest what the 92 duties should be in this area under ideal conditions. In nearly all cases where the individual evidenced dissatis- faction with the procedure being used, he suggested in an ideal state he would have more power, and either the board or the superintendent would have less. In.only one instance of dissatisfaction, was the reverse true. One board presi- dent frankly said that if the present superintendent didnit assume more responsibility in the future he would be re- placed with.one who would. Thus, the object of asking whether the situation was ideal was to determine whether each party believed the present procedure to be satisfactory. ‘When.the study was first set up, it was planned to separate the three geographic areas surveyed into three different groups. Hewever, as the results began to come in it was fairly evident that geographic location.had little, if anything to do with.administrative procedures. Each area had about the same number of board dominated schools and about the same number of superintendent dominated schools. Consequently, no attempt was made to classify the results by geographic areas. The following is a description.of the results of the interviews. In classifying the results, the responses were tabulated into three columns. The first column is a desrip- tion of the various types of procedures as described in the interviews. The first column also indicates the extent, as 9-5 expressed in percentages, to which these procedures are prac- ticed in the schools participating in this survey. The second column indicates whether the superintendents and the board members individually believe the procedure being used is satisfactory. The third column indicates whether, in the judgment of writers in the field of school administration, the procedure indicated in column #1 is considered highly satisfactory, satisfactory, unsatisfactory, or highly un- satisfactory. Personnel - Selection gt: Teachers (Table 13;). Since the superintendent must work with his teachers during the entire year, most educational leaders agree that he should have the right'of nomination. This agreement is so universal that it is listed in the "Bill of Rights" for school adminis- trators as drawn up by Howard Jones.l Thus the right of nomination must be included in any hiring procedure in order to merit the label of satisfactory. Situations in which the board hires with utter disregard for the wishes or de- sires of the school executive must be judged as unsatisfactory. To be rated as even more satisfactory, a situation should include democratic participation in the nomination of a candidate. Following the principle of democratic adminis- tration, that as many individuals as possible should be involved 1 Howard Jones, "A Bill of Rights for School Adminis- trators," University of Michigan School p): Education Bulletin, 23:90, March 1952. 94 in decision.making, Reader suggests that the nomination of teachers should be shared by heads of departments, principals, and supervisors, and also that teachers be brought into the process through the head of the department in.which the va- cancy occurs.2 As the Thirtieth‘Yearbook_g§ the Amerigan Association 9: School Administrators suggests, "it is hm- perative that classroom.teachers share in the process wher- ever instruction or teacher welfare is involved."3 A board which utterly ignores professional advice and hires blindly, without the help of its chief school official, must be rated as highly unsatisfactory. The situation is somewhat improved when the board hires, but allows the super- intendent the right of veto. Several boards used rather unusual methods of hiring teaching personnel. One board-dominated school asked all of its present teachers to resign the first of March and resub- mit their applications if they wished to be considered for a position the following year. They'made-it a rule never to hire a teacher for a period of more than three years. 2 ward Reader, The Fundamentals g; Publ c School Admin— istration, (New Yerk: The MacmillanfCo., 19515, p. 132. 3 "The American School SUperintency,"IThirtieth Year- book of American Association of School Administrators, (washIfigton, REA Association, 19525, p. . TABLE II M -- MOTION 01' moms (INTERVIEWING AND HIRING) A 3 disapprove I I Identification 31 procedure ' local Qproval ' Ivaluatien 2d. extent practiced. I for method used. : I I l. ”erintendent screens ' flex-intendents ' candidates and recommends ' 18 approve ' ' his choice to the board. ' l disapproves ' gtisfactog which generally accepts " ' his recalculation. ' as member ' ' 9 approve ' 19 cases - 31$ : lo disapprove ' I I I 2. aspen-intendent and his ' git-intendent; ' staff cooperatively ' approve ' select candidate. Board ' O disapprove ' usually hires these ' ' m candidates. ' Board member ' gtisfactog ' 7 approve ' 7 cases -- 13$ : 0 disapprove ' I I I 3. ”erintendent presents ' hprintendents ' to board applications and ' I? approve ' credentials of candidates. ' z disapprove ' Board selects and hires. ' ' unsatisfactog ”erintendent may have ' Board member ' right of veto. ' l5 approve ' ' 4 disapprove ' 19 cases -- 31$ : I I T I 4. The board hires teachers ' mermtendent! ' with virtually no help ' l approvu I fru the. ' superintendent . ' 14 disapprove ' ' ' and: 15 cases -- 25$ ' Board member ' uneatisfactog ' 12 approve ' I I I I h 96 Another board allowed the superintendent to pick:his own teachers, but held him personally responsible if the choice turned out to be unfortunate. The results of the interviews made in the area of teaching personnel show that the board still plays a domi- nant part in the selection of teachers. Personnel - Selection 9: Non-Teaching Personnel (Table III). The same principles of evaluation of the pro- cedures used in the selection of teaching personnel may be applied to those used to select non-teaching employees. The superintendent should retain the right of’nomination, though he may be aided by principals, supervisors, and teachers. If the board hires without regard to the wishes of the administrator, the superintendent may be forced to ‘work with.an employee whom he dislikes or one who is not qualified. Such an employee also feels that he should take orders from the board rather than from.the superintendent. under such a plan a system of political patronage may develop. The superintendent and the board of education should COOperatively select nonrteaching personnel. Although there :may be a tendency for board members to pick their friends for jobs in.the school, ordinarily the advice of board members is invaluable since they are acquainted with the local peOple. An unhappy picture is presented in one school system, in.which the chief custodian is the father of one of the TABLE III rnsoml. .- smmcncu or sen-rncnmo ransom; I I Identification _o_f_ procedure ' Local mmvel ' Evaluation and extent practiced. ' £95 method used. ' """ "'""""" I """'""' I I j l. aspermtendont usually ' mutual“; ' recommends end the board ' 13 approve ' accepts his recommendation. ' 2 disapprove ' ' ' atioi'aotoiz 15 cases .. 25$ ' M member ' ' 10 approve ' ' 5 disapprove ' I . I _ I I 2. Board and superintendent ' Eel-intendent! ' Jointly consider appli- ' so approve ' cents for non-teaching ' O disapprove ' position and board hires. ' ' m ' ' atisfgtog 20 cases -- 33$ ' Board amber ' ' 20 approve ‘ ' O disapprove ' I I I I #4 3. Board hires without ' winked“; ' recommendation from ' 7 approve ' apes-intendent . ' 18 disapprove ' ' ' unsatisfactog I I I I I I I I 25 cases - 42$ Board member 19 approve 6 disapprove 95 board members. He takes his orders only from the board and also works as an "informer" for the board. In some schools the job of custodian is a reward for loyalty to a political party, while in other communities unemployed relatives of school board members are chosen to work in the school system. Personnel -- Preparation pf Salary Scale (Table $1). The formula for democratic administration mentioned in the Thirtieth Yearbook of the AASA states:‘ "It is imperative that classroom teachers share in the process wherever in- struction or teacher welfare is involved.” If this previously mentioned formula is applied here, no salary determination policy can be judged as satisfactory unless the teachers have an Opportunity to participate. The process of a teachers' committee working with the administrators to bring salary recomendations to the board of education is judged to be highly satisfactory. The superintendent may relay the wishes of his teachers to the board, but the Situation is more satis- factory when the teachers themselves play a part ill the formulation of salary policies. In situations in which the teachers are allowed to bargain for salaries with the board of education the results are unfortunate. As Albert Huggett says: Everyone who has ever been in a small school system has seen teachers of only moderate efficiency, through 1* Ibid., p. 68. noun \0 \O mam .- PHDMIG GI SALARY SCALE OR PA! mommies r— I Identification p_f_ procedure ' Problems arisiiig ' ' Iv tion a; ghost prggticed. I under this plan. ' I I I l. apes-intendent presents ' Board cuts “1.1-1.“ a salary schedule, which ' too low to get ' the board with possible ' applicants. ' satisfactog modifications, adopts. ' .Toachers' requests ' ' for raises never ' 3 cases - 14 ' get to board. ' I I I I ‘__ 2. Teachers assist the ' Teachers are ' superintendent in the ' satisfied under ' preparation of salary ' this plan. ' M schedule which the board, ' Teachers want too ' satisfgtog with possible modifica- ' much money. ' tions, accepts. ' less hard feeling ' ' this way. ' 14 cases - 28$ ' ' I I I T A 3. hperintendent presents ' Board ignores ' salary recommendations ' requests for more.“ ' which board considers in ' money. - ' setting salaries. ' Board ignores A ' satisfactog ' increase in cost, ' ‘ 11 cases - 19$ I of living. I - I I I I 7 4. board bargains with teachers ' low teachers get ' and sets salaries without ' more than veterans.‘ consulting superintendent. ' Have to got another' ‘ m ' Job to get raise. ' usatisfsotog 27 cases - 44‘ ' Hard feeling all ' ' around in this plan. I I Comments: Because attempts to set up salary schedule failed good teachers left. low salaries cause big turnover. lo provision for increases for good teachers. Salary raises based on political standing of teacher with beard. Bo pruium for degrees or experience. lOO their ability to haggle, force their salaries higher than excellentrteachers. Oftentimes, also, some teachers have friends on the Board of Education, or possess influential connections, who help them attain higher wages than they would otherwise obtain. This sort of system seems all wrong. Salaries should be determined by ability to teach not b; ability to bar- gain, or by influential connections. Board members and administrators justify the "bargaining process" on the grounds that they must pay the current "market price" for teachers. This is poor logic for if an inexperienced teacher is worth more money on the Open market, the veteran teacher should be worth even more. This system forces the experienced teacher to move from school to school in order to keep up with the current living costs. It also has the effect of causing a large turnover of the teaching staff each year. The, question of teachers‘ salaries incited considerable emotion on the part of board members. The present drop in farm prices caused many board members to hesitate to increase the salaries of their teachers. The teachers and administra- tors felt that further raises were necessary to keep apace with the standard of living. This is a real problem in this area. In fourteen schools surveyed, the teachers were given an opportunity to present their requests for salary increases 5 Albert Huggett, Practfiitcal School Administ ation, (Champaign: The Garrard Press, 19507, p. 195. 101 to the board of education. This points to increased par- ticipation of the teachers in school administration. gersonnel -- Personnel Policies (Taglg 1). Pittenger says: "A program of personnel management should be planned and adopted."6 Consistency is perhaps the most desirable quality of a personnel program, but consistency is impossible in a school where personnel policies are determined by either the board of education or the superintendent as the need arises. As Albert Huggett says: "Policies in respect to what is expected of teachers are valuable for them because they are not in doubt as to how they should conduct themselves in certain situations."7 The schools visited in this survey are realizing the importance of the adoption of a definite policy. Over half of the schools without a definite written policy are now in the process of formulating such policies. In school districts where the board makes such de- cisions only when necessary confusion is bound to result. Board meetings are held only once a month. Thus speed is not possible. Where the superintendent makes the decision, speed is possible, but consistency is not. 5 Benjamin Pittenger, legal Public School Administra- tion, (New York: McGraw Hill Book '0' o' '1'," '1'951"I,"p. 123. 7 Albert Huggett, Practical School Administration, (Champaign: The Garrard Press, 19507, p. 19h. wan Y PEML .- PIBSOMIII POLIOES 102 21 cases -- 35% I I Identifications; procedure ' Problems arising ' Evaluation 95 extent gacticed. ' uder this plan. ' I """""‘"""—' I I I 1. Decisions are lads at ' Can't depend on ' board neetings as cases ' what board will ' 2.1231 arise. ' do. ' unsatisfactog ' Insediate action ' 12 cases .- zofi I needed. I I I I j 3. Policies have been adopted ' Teachers like this' which in general cover all ' plan. hperin- ' situations and which ssh I tendents say they I m possible fair and eqval ' are acre secure ' saturate}: treat-ent for all staff ‘ under this plan. ' ”bar's : ' I 27 a”. se- 4” . I I I . I I 3. Board penits snperintend- ' loard thinks ' ent to ash all decisions ' superintendent I as need arises. ' too easy with ' unsatisfactog I ' ‘mr'e ' I I I I 105 The state of Iowa has adopted a state wide policy regarding sick leaves for teachers. Perhaps in the future most personnel policies of this type will be set by the state governments. Personnel -- Evaluation of Teaching Skill (Table 11). None of the procedures observed in the area of evaluation of teaching skill may be judged as satisfactory because they fail to provide for participation of all concerned in policy formation. Since the teachers' welfare is involved in this process they should be able to participate in it. As a recent text in school administration states: However, at policy-making stages on major problems, when best solutions are being sought, the full utiliza- tion of all faculty resources in group thinking seems indispensable. Each successful experience of this kind tends to increase the skill of all members of the group in the procgss, and the heightening of group morale is tremendous. Not only should teachers have a chance to participate in the policy making phase of this area, but they should also have a chance to evaluate their own activity. Pittenger says: ”Both individualworkers and worker groups should be hSILped to develop and use methods of self-appraisal."9 \ 5 John Wahlquist and others, The Administration of Lublic Education, (New York, The Ronald Press, 1952), p. 251. 9 Pittenger, _p. cit., p. 125. WY]: rnsomu. .. rvnmrlon‘or manna gm. 10LL Identification _o_f_ procedure Problens aris1_9_g holds these decisions. glean-«35$ obedience to school edicts. I I I I g £3.29- prggticed I under this plan. : Ration O I I 1. Beard sakes all evaluations I lvaluation based I without consulting the I on town gossip. I m superintendent. I Plan is not I unsatisfacteg I liked by the I 16 cases -- 26% I superintendent. I i I 2. ”erintendent recommends I Board ignores I his evaluation of the work I the reconenda- ' ‘ of the teachers and board I tions of the I ungtisflgtog ashes its decision. : nperintendent. : 28 cases -- 3‘ I : I I 3. Beard per-nits the superin- I atperintendsnt I tendent to sake all of the I is a dictator. I evaluations and board sp- : Rating based on I unsatisflgteg I I I I I I I 105 In the three types of procedures observed in this area, none made any provision for teacher participation. It is also important to provide for a formal type of com- munity participation in this evaluation process. Members of the community participate in an informal manner by placing pressure on the school board. The school belongs to the public and the public has a right to participate in the evaluation of the teaching staff. As Huggett says: "For the writer's part, he is willing to stand or fall on What the public--and by that is meant the whole public, not some little offended .group--judges that his work is worth."10 . For a procedure to merit the label of satisfactory, provision must be made for all individuals concerned with the promotion, retention, and discharge of teachers to participate in policy formation. Many problems develop in a community where town gossip is the criterion used to judge the work of the teacher. ;Einanas ".Ezsaanailga.2£.§2ds§£.(labia 111} Hisle' satisfactory budgetary procedures are described by Ward Reeder : Since the superintendent is the chief executive of- ficer of the school system and has, or should have, the primary responsibility for the Operation of the school \ 10 Huggett, 9p. cit., p. lll. W VI: was .. plasma or m ms! 1 06 Identification 93 procedure Local gpproval I I I I 29; giant gacticed. I £93 method used. I tion I """""" I I I l. ”erintendent prepares I mrintendents I budget, board approves I 26 approve I with little change. I 5 disapprove I I I gtgfacteg 31 cases -- 51$ I Board member I I 20 approve I I ll dimreve I I I 2. angel-intendent and rep- I rintendents I resentatives of board I ll approve I Jointly prepare hdget. I 3 disapprove I I I satisfgtog 14 cases -- 24$ I Begs member I I 12 approve I ' Liana"?- I I I 3. Board prepares Indget I rintendents I ht consults with tin I l approve ‘ I superintendent. I O disapprove I I I mwhat 1 case -- 2% I heard muber I atisfactog I l approve I ~ I 0 disapprove ; 4. Board or official of the I mantendents I board prepares budget with I O approve I little or no help from the I 12 disapprove I werintendent. I I m I m member I ugtisfactog 12 cases - 20$ I 12 approve I —~ ' Linger"- I I I 50 ltaff participates with I Eerintmdent! I the superintendent who I 2 approve I recommends budget to the I O disapprove I ”heard. I ’ I 9.15!!! I Board member I atisfacton 2 cases - 3! I 2 approve I _ Q dis_a_'oprove \———————————————— ii 107 system, he should be given the responsibility of per- forming that task which has to do with determining the efficiency of the school system: that task is preparing the budget. Of course, the board of education has, and should have, the responsibility of approving, amending, or disapproving the budget which the superintendent of schools prepares and presents. . . In preparing the 33.8.33 éfifieiufiifiéflie‘éig‘iéyzfii‘ffi seek the W This comprehensive summary of budget making places the responsibility for the preparation squarely in the hands of the school executive. For the board or an officer of the board to assume this responsibility is a misconception of the responsibilities of board members. Preparation of the budget is an administrative function rather than a policy making function. The preparation of the budget should be done coopera- tively. As Wahlquist says: "This process is most effective ' when cooperatively done. Teachers, supervisors, principals, clerks, janitors, and even pupils and citizens should have a part in it.”12 Many rural boards are particularly sensitive regard- ing financial matters. One board member said that the trouble with present day superintendents was they don‘ t know the value of a dollar. 11 Ward Reader, The Fundamentals 9;; Public Schog; Admgristnation, (New York, The Macmillan Co., 1951), p. jbO. 12 Wahlquist and others. 2P.- QlE-a P- 3‘97- 105 Finance -- Purchase p_f_ Supplies (Table VIIl). The administration of school supplies commonly rests in the hands of the superintendent. As Hagman says: ”Since most school systems are without business managers, the superin- tendent of schools must commonly administer the supply ser- vices with such assistance as he can develop through teacher committees, principals, custodians, and others.J'j Any pro- cedure in which the administration of such supplies is in the hands of the board of education must be judged as un- satisfactory. To limit the allowable expenditure of the school executive to a small amount endangers the educational program of the school. An even better program of procurement of supplies can be instituted if the superintendent will receive advice from his staff before such purchases are made. Here also, coopera- tion is the essential ingredient of an efficient and happy system. it is unreasonable to expect the superintendent and the staff to order all supplies six months before they are to be used. Many items can be anticipated, but many needs are the result of the demands of the moment and cannot wait 1'01- board approval. \ 1) Harlan Hagman, The Administmtion of: American % Sghools, (New York: McGraw Hill Book Co., 1951), p. 262. mm: 7111 mac! —. moms: Gl' mm: m) mum Identification 23 procedure ' Local mrovul ' Iveluotion ad extent pmtioed. : £9; nothod need : I o 1. apex-intendent given ' apex-intendent! ' free land in pursue. of ' 31 approve ' e11 enppliee except in ' 0 disapprove ' meal ceeee. ' ' gtiefectog ' ' Board unborn ‘ 31 cane - 53$ ' 38 approve ' z 3 dimprove : 2. ”erintendent taboo ' 3:23:11:th ' recommendation to board ' 1 approve ' for purchaeee - board ' 3 disapprove ' givee ite approval. ' - ' unthfactogz ' Board where ' 4 can .- 5; ' 4 uppro" ve" ' ' O dimprove ' I n 3. hperintodent law he: ' Mrmtendente ' itene of leee than $5, ' 4 approve ' hut ’eoerd hue e11 itene ' 16 disapprove ' of value. ' ' ugtiefeotog ' Beard nonhere ' so oeeee -- 33$ ' 10 approve ' ' 10 diuzpreve : 4:- herd in oonplete charge ' rintendent ' of purchaee of all mppliee ' O approve ' end equip-ent. mperntendp ' 5 dieeppreve ' a: Ju: mm. then. ' ' m ' M neuter! ' untiefectog 5 ceeee -- Bfi ' 3 approve ' : 2 disapprove ' : 110 Public Relations -- Use _o_i: School Facilities (Table 33:). There has been in recent years a marked increase in the use of school—building facilities by community groups.”r This may be due in part to the increase of leisure time among the adult population and in part to a public recognition of the need for the school and the commLmity to work jointly and cooperatively in improving the quality of community living. In the interest of consistent performance and good public relations with the various community groups, a written policy regarding the use of school facilities must be in existence and use. As Ward Reeder says: Every board of education whether of a large or of a small school system, should adopt a set of rules and regulations which it will follow in the letting of school property for community use. . . A set of rules and regulations and an application blank reduce to routine ,much of the work of letting school prOperty, and give greater assurance that all groups of the community will be treated alike. When they do not have such guides school officials are more likely to be accused of partiality and high-handedness, and friction will be engendered.15 Consequently, any system without such a written policy re- garding the use of school facilities must be judged as having unsatisfactory procedures in this area of school adxninis tration . k 14 ”The American School Superintendency" , Thirtieth nYearbook of American Association 9;; School Administrato 3, (Washington, N E A Publishers, 1952), p. is). 15 Reeder, __p. cit., p. 255. 111 m 1: mo mmzols .- valor swoon ncxmms no Mini-tration of School mum“ Iraluation 1. tho of an oatahliahod policy -— 28 caaoo -- 47$ - satisfactory 2. Each can decided on norit .- 32 cans -- 53$ - unsatisfactory remission to an «hool facilitiu secured from 1. unarmtondont «— 36 cacao -- 60$ «- satisfactory 2. coupontiro with superintendent and board .. 9 caaoa .. 15$ - satisfactory 3. ma or! Education -. 15 -- 25$ - unsatisfactory Count: on an of school facilities: (a) Pay-onto chargod to groups for lights canon hard tooling. (b) non-profit groups only allowd to use facilitioa (c) con-unity wants to no. it for danooa (d) promo. of pain; a Janitor for oxtra duty (0) cash rentals in admco tab pro- codonco over school activitioa (f) lots of trouble but worth it (s) groups that an building loaf. it in bad condition (h) difioront religions groups want to no building (1) Inponntondont ia dictator (a) trouble with excluded groups (k) trouble with town toan bahtball. A..— 112 Most writers in the field of school administration list the promotion and direction of a program of the use of school facilities by the public as one of the duties of the school administrator. As Hagman says: ”(the superintendent) promotes school services to comrmmity by opening school buildings and grounds (under school board regulations) to public use.”lb The frequent practice of boards of education in making all assignments to community groups for the use of school facilities without first clearing with the administra- tor is definitely an unsatisfactory practice and leads to confusion and ill feeling. Public Relations -- Interpretation 91: School 339 General Public (Table 2;). Interpretation of the school to the general public has differing connotations for various individuals, and so needs defining. For the purpose of this study inter- pretation was defined as a report to the people on the prog- ress and general condition of their school. It would cor- respond to a report to the stockholders of a corporation. Interpretation does not mean publicity or "selling the public a bill of goods.” It is truthful objective report- ing from the administrative officers to the citizens in the community. This may be done through bulletins or by word of mouth . ‘ lb Hagman, op. cit., p. so. 115 mm 1 PUBLIC MIG! -- mwxon 01' SCHOOL '10 GENERAL PUBLIC u n Identification _o_f_ procedure ' Local gproval ' Evaluation and. extent Emoticed ' £93; method used ' u """"" "“ a T a 1. ”erintendent ie in con- ' Mintendente ' plete charge of the program ' 30 approve ' and doee root of it hineelf. ' 10 disapprove ' ' ' matiefactogz l) caaee - 66 2]” ' Board nenber ' ' 15 approve ' z 25 disapprove ' I r u 2. ”erintendent and board ' mmtendente ' lurk cooperatively te ' 16 approve ' interpret the echool to ' O disapprove ' the public. ' ' atiefactog ' ' Board nenber ' 16 caeee -- 26 2/3 ' 16 approve ' ' 1 dieapprovee ' a I t T 3. School board in couplete ' mrntendntjg ' charge without help from ' 0 approve ' the uperintendent. ' 4 disapprove: " ' ' seen: 4 can -- e 2/31 ' we member ' maturgtog ' 3 approve ' ' 1 disapprove; ' cement" le need to do acre in this nrea, the board ehonld help out more, an: echool 'fighta' would be prevented it we had a good pre- grea, don't have the tine to develop a pregru, teen goeeip 1e unreliable and caneee trouble, to all help to keep the ten up to date about our school program, the board ante lore participation. ‘__ lll.l The leadership for this program of interpretation should be in the hands of the superintendent. Harlan Hagman points this out when he lists the following duties of the adminis tra tor : Reports to the community on activities of the schools, accomplishments of the schools; qualifica- tions of the schools in terms of staff, physical plant and equipment, and curriculum; needs of the schools in terms of community needs in education; plans and prospects of the schools. Informs the community about trends in education, news of the school and persons connected with them, changes in policy and practice. / The leadership obligation of the school administrator in this area is also expressed in the Thirtieth Yearbook 91 the American Association p_f_ School Administrator : In this reapect the superintendent has a real obligation as well as a real Opportunity for sup- plying to the public relations organization the dynamics needed for its proper motivation. His role as a leader will require him to adapt his procedures to the pattern of his own personality and to the structure of the community which he serves. This role also requires him to be an educational statesman. 5 The board of education also has a real responsibility in this area. Harlan Hagman lists as one of the duties of the board of education to ” interpret the educational pro- gram and plans to the community.”19 ‘_ 17 Ibid., p. 5o. 16 "The American School Superintendency" , Thi tieth w pf the American Assogiation p_f_ School administrators, 1952, p. ljl. 19 Hagman, pp. cit., p. 122. 115 Since both the superintendent and the board of educa- tion have responsibilities in this area, the program should be a cooperative venture, with both sharing in it. Where the administrator and the board plan and execute the inter- pretation of the schools on a cooperative basis the procedure can be judged as satisfactory. As has been previously mentioned, the right of leader- ship in such a program is definitely assigned to the chief executive. Any procedure in which the board of education excludes the administrator from sharing in this program is judged as highly unsatisfactory. Public Relations -- Meeting a_n_ Attack 93 School Liable 2g). Today many school systems are under attack from various pressure groups. There should be formulated a definite policy or plan to meet these attacks if they should come. Most Writers in the field of educational administration feel that the force of any such attack should be borne jointly by the board of education and the superintendent. Neither may step aside and let the other meet the attack. The responsibility must be assumed cooperatively. Hagman feels that in this area the superintendent should direct ”a program for reaching the citizens of the community with adequate information about the activities of the schools, the reasons for the activities, and the results obtained.’20 However he says that one of the \ 20 Hagman, pp. cit., p. 105. 3“ 116: m 11 mo muons .. m can our ATTACK on m saloon Stem ! Identification g_f_ procedure ' Ivalnation _apd, extent practiced ' O . n l. Ihe board assumes the responsi- ' bility to defend against an ' attack free the comnity. ' nnsatisfggtm I 3 cases -- 6% t u t 2. The board and the superintendent ' Jointly assnle the responsibility ' incaeoofanatteckfroathe ' m cos-unity. ' gtisfactog I , 25 cases -- 41$ : 1 3. he ”erintendent asst-es the ' entire burden of defending the ' school against the community ' m and the board of education. ' unsatisfactog u a u szeaeeso-M‘ haunts: In a board doninated comity, the sues-intendent says he'd leave toss, the board said fire the superintendent. Board says they'd back the adninistrator if he were right. aperintendent lays board would yield to public opinion. Beard saber says he hopes the school use in the right, but back then anyny. 117 duties of a board of education is to "uphold the administra- tion of the schools before individual citizens and citizen gmups . ..21 The role of the teaching staff in case of an attack against the school system will vary according to the extent to which the teachers have had a chance to help in the forma- tion ’of the program or policy under attack. It is incon— sistent to hold teachers responsible for defending policies that others have made. However, under a system of democratic administration in which the teachers play a major part in policy formation with their superintendent as a leader they will likely rally to the support of the school program. Under an autocratic system, the superintendent is forced to stand alone, with possibly some support from the board of education. In a democratic system he should have the support of his entire staff since it is their policy as well as his. For any procedure to be labeled as satisfactory, both the superintendent and the board of education must be included in the program. This study indicated that most school systems had never suffered a serious attack against their schools and many of the school officials gave an evaluation of procedure based on what they thought would happen. \ 21 Ibid., p. 105. 116 Public Relations -- Helatiopg With Patrons (Table XII). Wahlquist sums up the duties and responsibilities of the board members regarding their relations with patrons in the following manner: Board members as individuals inevitably become public relations emmissaries. Such.an obligation suggests that board members be well-informed con- cerning school policies and school practices. Mere explanation of a policy may at times satisfy individuals who raise questions. At other times, such individuals should be referred to the proper authorities for additional information. At no time should an individual board member speak:for the board unless he knows he is enunciating policies which.have board approval. Board members need to be particularly careful that as individuals they do not commit the board in any way. Persons seeking favors can.be told through.which channels they may work, and they can Be assured that their case will be properly'heard.2 This is a good summary of satisfactory procedures to be used ‘by the board and the administrator in their relations to patrons. In the case of an irate parent, the board member should attempt to explain the board policy to him, or fkailing in this, he should send the parent to the superin- tendent. To attempt to solve the problem himself is defi- nitely unsatisfactory. The same procedure should be used in a case where a Special favor is asked. The patron should be sent to 2‘2 John Wahlquist and others, The Administration 9;; M Education, (New York, The Ronald Press, 1952), p. 156). WEI PUBLIC WINS .- WIONS WITH FARMS ‘ :— 1. In case an irate parent approaches a board aesber shat does he do? Identification pg pgocednre lhat should 33; 9g £5 extent gacticed 91 present lvalnation Qperintendent 19.9.13 1. Advises parent to tabs con- plaint to next board seeting. pptisfactogz 8 25 27 cases ~— 45$ 2. Tries to solve the preblen hileelf e unsatisfactogz 2 19 11 cases - 23$ 3. m... parent to take pubis- to superintendent . m satisfactog 5O 16 22 cases - 35$ _— A“ I. In case a patron delanding a special favor approaches a sober of the board he should: Identificptien pf_ 2922!... and extent practiced g ppesent lveluation .1- Advise patron to tab request to board neeting. atigfpgtog __ a case! - 48! 2- Board nenber solves preblel hisself. uneatisfactog 3- leads patron to the superintendent. 5‘10!“th 24 cases -- 0f \ ‘ 120 the superintendent for an explanation of the policy of the board, or should be asked to bring up the situation at the next board meeting in order to get legal action. The date in this area indicates that superintendents definitely disapprove of the practice of the board member attempting to solve the problem himself. As one administra- tor remarked in granting the favor, the board member is not only acting illegally, but usually fails to pass his decision on to the superintendent and the board, thus causing consider- able confusion. When a board member is approached by an irate parent or a citizen asking a special favor he'may suggest that the matter be presented at the next board meeting, but the better procedure would be to ask the patron to talk to the superin- tendent. Hagman lists as one of the duties of school board members to "refer to the professional staff, subject to re- view by the board if necessary, problems of professional relations with the community.”25 It is entirely likely that the superintendent may be able to take care of the matter in a satisfactory manner and thus save the school board the time needed for them to arrive at a decision. _ 23 Hagman, pp. cit., p. 122. 121 Pupil Personnel -- Policies Governing Pupil Activity (Table XIII). There seems to be more uniformity of action in the area of policies governing pupil activity than in most other areas. In boy.) of the school systems studied, the superintendent plays a dominant part in policy forma- tion in this area. Professors of school administration also approve this procedure. Hagman says: As a responsible agent of the school system, the board of education, and the community, the adminis- trator has both legal and moral compulsion upon him for the education of those persons whose well-being 24 is in the keeping, in part at least, of the schools. This area is not a very controversial one. Most school of- ficials agree on the placement of responsibility and most officials seem satisfied with the plan that is currently being used. In only 1 E6 of the cases did the board assume control of the area of pupil activity. This is judged as highly un- satisfactory since they are assuming the administrative duties assigned to the school administrator who is designated as the responsible agent of the school system. In this area the superintendent should enlist the aid and advice of his teaching staff. Their suggestions would be invaluable and they might prevent the passage of a rule that could not be enforced and might need to be changed later. 21* Hagman, _o_p. pit., p. 240. f4 ‘0 {\3 mm XIII MIL an - POLIOIIS ammo PUPIL ACTIVITY A. In the matter of such pupil activities as graduate age, entrance ace, work permits, etc.: Identification 93 procedure _apd extent practiced lvaluat ion 1. ”erintendent reeonends, board approves. tisfact fl cases -- 60$ 2. Board sets pelicies vithout aperintendent' s recommenda- hula unsatisfactog 8 cases -- 14$ 3. Board and superintendent work out pelicies together. Qtisfacteg 14 cases - 26$ 3. Is the plan you are using satisfactory? he 52 cases - 86£ lo 6 cases - 191 3.: A.) \N Constant changes in rules regarding pupil activity lead to confusion and misunderstanding. _P_up_i_l_ Pepsonnel -- Mp p_f__ Conduct (25.1213 LIX). In the same area of establishing rules of conduct most of the schools surveyed are working on a cooperative basis. As has been previously mentioned, democratic administration implies the involvement of as many of the responsible groups as possible in the making of decisions. In 69% of the cases rules of conduct were formulated in a COOperative manner. The average board of education is not sufficiently acquainted with the school to independently formulate rules of conduct. There seems to be universal agreement as to who should enforce these rules. School officials and professors of school administration agree that the superintendent and his staff should enforce these rules. As Hagman says the super- intendent (with the help of others) “enforces state compulsory school--attendance laws, rules, regulations, and board policies.”25 It is also important that, like other school policies, these rules of conduct be written. This is important to avoid misunderstandings. As Wahlquist says: The rules and regulations of a board of education should certainly be written. There may be doubt that 25 Ibid., p. 55. 1’84 m 117 mu. ransom .- ETIES OF CONDUCT A. file establishes rules of conduct? Identification pg procedure and extent practiced lvaluat ion 1. lhe apex-intendent, or superin- tendent, students and staff. satisfactog 64 see -- 89$ 2. The board ungtisfactog 2 cases -- 4 n 3. he saperintendent and board. caper.- tively establish rules of conduct. ”tisfpptog 4 gas! -— 7f if he enforces rules of conduct! Identification 91 mcedure .29. 253.923. ELM m 1. hperintendent unsatisfactepz a) .. 3. ”attain!“ “a hi. .we satisfpgtogz «3 case; -- 67$ 0. If unfavorable community action develops in this area, she accepts the responsibility for the policies in force! Identification pg proceare 9.3.4. extent practiced lvaluatien 1. ”erintendent unsatisfggeg W 2. he superintendent and staff gtisfactog O s - 14 30 he nperintendent and heard w 21 m“ __ g9, sail-m ‘- Ins beard unsatisfactog 7 s--11 125 policies not recorded are policies at all. Even if they are policies, they may be followed rather capric iously and thus considerable doubt and con- fusion will be engendered in the minds of school personnel, the public, and even of board members.26 In case unfavorable community action develops in this area of pupil personnel, it is the duty of the board of educa- tion to back the superintendent and his staff. Hagnan lists the following as two duties of the board of education: "To protect professional and other school personnel from improper pressures of community groups or individuals and to interpret the educational program to the community."27 To carry out these two duties properly, the board must assume at least part of the responsibility when unfavorable criticism deve10ps. On the other hand, the superintendent cannot be excused from participating in the defense of the school system. He cannot step aside and allow the board of education to handle the situation. The staff must also assume part of the respon- sibility for the attack. As Clyde Campbell says, "Where possible, the administrator should encourage teachers and groups of teachers to assume responsibility for individual Programs."25 26’ Wahlquist and others, __p. cit., p. 143. 27 Hagman, _qp. pit., p. 122. 25 Clyde Campbell, Ppactical Applications pf Demogratic ist tion, (New York: Harpers and Brothers, 1952), p. 49. 1263 Curriculum and Sppervision -- Board's Role Q Curpipulum (Table XIV). Duties and responsibilities in the area of curric- ulum making are definitely assigned to the superintendent and his staff. It is a task that requires much professional ex- perience and training; consequently the board of education is usually content to delegate the authority to the administrator. Reeder says: " the modern curriculum is made or revised through the cooperation of the superintendent, the supervisors, the 29 principals, the teachers, and all other educational employees." One board member remarked that they looked for " radical things", but for the most part approved of any prOgram presented to them by the school executive. In cases where the board was asked to consider curriculum changes, little change if any was made. The results of inquiries as to teacher participation in curriculum making were shocking. In only 16% of the schools were the teachers allowed to participate in the construction 0f the curriculum of the school. One board member remarked that they were told what to teach.. leadership is expected fPom the superintendent, but the actual curriculum must be made by the individual teacher. As Wahlquist says: Unusually strong leadership is expected of adminis- trators who plan to attack the problems in the recon- Struction of the curriculum. The progress that can be \ 29 Reader, _p. cit., p. 593. 127 mm IV minim AND SJPERYISIU -- W8 ROLE II 00331me mat is the board's role in detouining what shall be included in A. the curriculum? hoard delegates an authority to the superintendent. 1. statistics - unsatisfactory 43 cases - 71$ heard considers and approves the superintendent's recommendations. 2. lvalution - unsatisfactory 17 oases .. 29$ EB. ht is the superintendent's role! 1. lbs snpsrintsndsnt and staff assume all responsibility. Ivaluation - unsatisfactory 50 cases -- 84$ labs recommendations for board's approval. 3. Evaluation - satisfactory 10 cases -- 16% Do the teachers participate! 1. They participate .. 10 cases .- 155 They do not participate .. 50 cases .. 54$ 0. 2. The board watches for 'radical things', teachers are MtII told that to teach, teachers are told shat to do, curriculum is no ”action of teachers. k ¥ 125 made will depend entirely upon the administrator‘s ability in guiding the personnel into study programs, inspiring them to make creative efforts, and en- couraging them in every way to make their philos- 50 cphies function in the classrooms and school environment. Participation on the part of the teaching staff in a program dealing with curriculum revision is essential to the welfare of any school system. Curpiculum and Supervision -- Extra-Curricula: Activ - ties (Table XVI). Though the board of education is required to give its official sanction to any curricular program, the superintendent is generally held responsible for the entire extra-curricular program. Reeder says: “superintendents and principals are always responsible for the general ad- ministration and supervision of an extra-curricular program."jl Huggett further emphasizes this when he says: While the superintendent of even a small schOOl seldom takes a very active part personally in the actual direction of extra-curricular activities, he does have a very important part to play in the supervision and unification of this vital part of the modern school. It is his responsibility to see that there is an adequate program, that there is prOper supervision of all activities and that all funds are properly handled?a in several of the schoom surveyed, the superintendent shared this responsibility for the extra-curricular program with his 9” Wahlquist and others, pp. cit., p. 279. 91' Reader, pp. cit., p. bl5. 52 Huggett, _Qp. cit., p. l'(7. mm 129 wmcvm AID "REVISION .- mas-commune ACTIVITIIS _- _— flle has the control and responsibility for extra-curricular activities! 1. 2. Ident ificatien pg gocedure _ss_g_ extent practiced lips-intendent has full control and responsibi lity. 52 cases - 88$ he superintendent shares tlm responsibility with tn. 'Me 4 cases -- 65 ———- ne board has complete cmtflle Scans—4% Local Qproval _fp; method used mantendenjp 48 approve it (11 sapprsvs Board members 25 approve Lil-spam" Mintendents 4 approve 0 disapprove Board member! 4 approve O dipppprove mrintendsnt; O approve 3 disapprove Board members 2 approve l disapprove __‘ 4. he superintendent recom- mends and the board Qproves or modifies the recommendations. lease—2‘ ”intendent; l approves O disapprove Board members I approve 0 mm lvaluat ion atisfactorz has; ti to gtisfpgtog 150 teachers; however, because of the public relations implications of public performances most administrators are reluctant to share this board given power. One rather interesting trend pointing toward a school- commmlity relationship was the practice in several schools of members of the board of education taking tickets at athletic contests. Cuppiculum and Sirpervision -- Evaluation _o_i; School Progpam Liable ELI-I). It is unfortunate that so few schools studied in this survey fail to make any provision for the . participation of students, citizens, and teachers in the evaluation of the effectiveness of the school program. For, as Pittenger says, " the modern trend is to use all persons involved in, and associated with the school who can make helpful contributions. Teachers and parents, supervisors, principals, directors of instruction, the superintendent and board, even pupils should be brought into action."55 This cooperative plan is particularly effective in leaving a permanent effect. As Campbell says: He (the superintendent) must decide whether, in his work, he will attempt to rely solely on his own judg- ment, or whether he will accept the community and staff at face value and work with them to deve10p, c00peratively, 32 Benjamin Pittenger, Local Publig School Administration, (New York: McGraw Hill Book Co., 1951), p. 2jj. LC ljl m XVII common»: in mansion .. ruminant or swoon meow: _:— ‘3 To what extent do students, citisens, and. teachers participate to consider the effectiveness of the school program! 1. 2. 8. lens -- 22 cases -- 36% -- unsatisfactog hall amount -- 24 cases - 39$ -- satisfgtepl hm mm - 14 cu» -- 25$ -- mailman Io that extent does the board depend upon the superintendent for evaluation! 1. 3. htirely -. 45 cases .— 75$ - unsptisfactog aw cost to a iscisias cosperatively .. 5 cases - of .- p323 satisfactog lens -- 10 cases -- 16$ -- pm unsatisfpgtgg C. To 1. 2. what extent does the board base its Wants on school visits! lone .. 46 cases - 77$ -- unsatisfactog Occasional but infrequent visits - 11 cases -- 13$ -— sstir factog Periodic inspections -- 3 cases -— 5% .- tisf t Does the board give suggestions to Janitors. teachers, etc.? 1. 3. 3. lot at .11 .- 43 -- 72$ - atisfactog Occasionally -- 13 -- 21$ - unsatisfactgl is a general rule —- 4 cases _- 7$ .. unsatisfgtog 132 a better school system. The latter road is much more difficult and probably will take more time, but it lays a foundation in the comnmnity that will have some permanency. This principle can also be applied to the evaluation of the work of the staff. Situations in which the board depends entirely upon the opinion of the superintendent for evalua- tion must be judged as unsatisfactory. As the responsible agent of the citizens of the com- munity, it is the historic responsibility of the board of education to make occasional visits to the school. As Hagman says: ”Although the board should expect the schools to be Operated‘by trained and competent professional person- nel, the duties of inspection and observation are board ch- 35 ligations.” However, the inspectorial duties of the board should not'extend to the supervision of school personnel. This function properly belongs to the administration of the school. Hagnan says: Educators have urged that- boards of education confine themselves to policy making with the ad- ministration of schools and the execution of prac- tices dictated by board policy made matters of professional procedure. The history of education in the United States records a sufficient number of serious gases of lay interference with school operation? 34 Clyde Campbell, Ppactical Applications 9:; Demogratic Amipistpation, (New York: Harpers Brothers, 1952), p. 155. 35 Hagman, pp. pip” p. 114. Eb 291-11.: P- 109- 133' Not onlyare the members of the board of education departing from their sphere of authority when they attempt to supervise school personnel, but many times confusion re- sults. The staff member, instead of having one "boss", now has several. If conflicting orders or suggestions are given, the employee is at a loss to know which suggestion he should follow. Weaknesses pf; Small, Distpict Supepintendents (Table XVIll). The question of what causes a superintendent to fail is broad enough for a number of large studies. It was difficult to secure definite answers from board members on this important question. They indicated that it was a combination of a number of causes, rather than any one particular difficulty. A majority of the board members interviewed said the unsuccess- ful administrator failed to get along with citizens in the town. They said he lacked tact in dealing with school patrons, was unfriendly, and refused to accept his social responsibili- ties in participating in community activities. It seemed they objected more to his personality than his lack of ability to handle school problems. Perhaps our teacher training institu- tions need to spend more time in training students to work in community groups and to develop more social poise. Inability to handle disciplinary PrOblems was also prominent on the list of weakness of school administrators. This is a definite reflection on the leadership ability of 134 mm xvm mass or sun. manic! mmmma mat are the ”mo-us of superintendents you have had in the putt (asked of heard: only) .1922; 2:. Utah!» II £132 mentioned. 1. Personal relations with adult. 17 2. Poor ham" wont 15 3. M a unciplmrian 15 4. 3019.151011- vith pupils 5 6. lack of 10343111111) 4 6. hand home at! 4 1'. Into: the 4 8. In” follow board's onion 4 9. DIN know value of a dollar 4 10. he]: of knowledge of the manta-y £1.14 3 11. lot interested in the emit: 3 135 the superintendent. lf the curriculum is better adapted to the needs of the individual students and if the teachers can be motivated to a greater creative effort in their teaching most of the disciplinary problems will vanish. Some of the areas of weakness are obviously the result of a struggle for power between the board and the superintend- ent, with neither side being willing to compromise or cOOperate. Administrative Areas Which Are gang Neglected (Table 2:33;). A complete doctoral dissertation could be made on a study of the neglected areas of school administration. The administrators were very frank on this subject and said that they knew they were neglecting the areas of supervision, guidance, and public relations in particular. They felt that office routine was given priority and was _so time consuming that little time was available for the more important jobs. One superintendent reflected the sentiments of his fellow administrators when he said he found himself spending his time on things, rather than working with peOple. Most writers in the field of school administration agree that one of the most important tasks of the school administrator is that of working with teachers in an effort to upgrade the quality of instruction in the school. Begin- ning teachers, in particular, need help from the superintendent. If this help is not forthcoming, the quality of instruction mm mmxmxu mus WHICH m BEING NEGLEGTEID in e aperintendont in what men would you work more .- if tine per- nitted (land on]: of superintendents) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. £32 nentioned. apex-vieion Guidance hr: with “it, more hrk with teachers lore hdnntien of school program here tine for extra. curricular work firk with the element-.17 i’ieli Iork on redistricting fin: with library Vol-h with dieoipline hrk with finance hrh with public rehtiene nore hogging: each g3; _w_a_e_ nentiened 38 tines 1? time 10 tines 5 times 5 tine: 3 tines 3 tines 3 tines 3 tiles 2 tines 2 tinee 2 tiles 157 will drop. This in turn will cause difficulty in the field of public relations, since the best public relations program is a program of good teaching. In order to run.a satisfactory school, the superin- tendent must be freed from these petty office details that a secretary could easily handle, and be given a chance to work out in the school with his teachers. :gpalities Considered in Selection 9: New Superintendent ‘(Table XX). The selection of the superintendent of schools by boards of education has been the subject of several doctor's dissertations, so there is little attempt here to do any more than secure a general reaction. If we know the qualifications the school board places on.this position we may be able to understand better what the board expects of the superintendent. Three items most frequently referred to by board members are personality, general qualifications, and experience. Upon further questioning, it became evident that general qualifica- tions also meant experience to most board members. 'When a school system.needs a new superintendent, most boards fail to set any minimum.standards for the position, and the night the selection is made the town is flooded with candidates. This is particularly true in.Nebraska, where an administrator may be certified without a single hour of graduate work. Personality and appearance are important assets of any successful administrator. HOwever where boards of education mm: In! ovum-us m consxmm In can summon or i m: surmrmmm lid Ihet doterninee the selection of a new superintendent! (asked. of board nanhere only) Elitieo considered Personality General qualifications prerience Hora standards Ability to discipline Appearance Degree held Teaching field.- Ahility to handle noney Health Ability to work with people Ability to keep costs down Ability to work democratically -—— 1AA l'reggencz each i; mentioned. 35 tinee 32 tiles 19 tines ' 13 tinee 7 tines 7 tines 5 tines 5 tines 4 tinee 3 tines 3 tines 3 tines 2 tines 139 hire administrators solely on the basis of personality, a premium is placed on the aggressive, egotistical type of in- dividual, who may be insincere and may make a poor school leader. The board of education.may find that it has hired a charlatan who could do considerable damage to the educa- tional program of the community. It also seems that boards of education place a high premium on the amount of experience rather than its quality. Unsuccessful experience doesn‘t seem.to be any handicap in securing a new position, unless the candidate was dismissed from.a previous position because of immorality. In this area there is a real need for professional guidance. School boards are in real need of assistance of a professional nature in the selection of new school leaders. Educational placement bureaus and professors of school ad- lninistration in teacher training institutions have an oppor- tunity for real service in this field. Failure 51‘ Teacher Training Institutions _tg Tpain Administratprs (Table XXI). The question concerning the wealmesses of the training program for prospective adminis- tzwators was poorly answered by school board members. Most bCDEtrd2members frankly said they were not acquainted with the Program, and thus had no basis to make value judgments. This may indicate a weakness in the public relations program 017 (Jur teacher training institutions. It seems that board rm W 1111 mm or mama mum; HSTITUTIONS TO mm immlsrmoas -._. L— Kow are teacher training institutions failing to prepare ndlinistrntors? (Asked of both superintendent. end board members. he board nenbere answered this question. They frankly sdnitted that thq know little ebeut the training program given to prospective ndnmistrntors.) _L3_e_e._s_ 35 froguencz £953 glare; mentioned i; mentioned 1. Too Inch theory 25 tines 2. Itore training needed in finance 18 tiles 3. Can't get eleng with people 13 tines 4. Help needed in handling discipline 8 tines 5. lot enough practical experience 7 tines 6. Here training in elenentm work 7 tines 7. lore work in school low 6 tines 8. lbllew-qa proctor needed 5 tines 9. hilure to eliminate misfits 4 tines 10. here tuning in nsintensnce work 4 tines 11. Here training in school ethics 3 tiles 12. Here work in public relations 3 tines 13. Training not breed enough 2 tines llll members should at least have a general idea of the curricular offerings of training institutions, so as to be able to prop- erly evaluate the credentials of prospective administrators. Most superintendents thought that the courses in edu— cation that they had taken contained too much theory and were of little practical value. But after further questioning, it appeared that the complaint was really based on the lack of Opportunity to utilize educational theory in practical school situations. It may also be true that superintendents are looking for easy answers to involved administrative problems. They are often unwilling to spend the extra effort in reading and study needed for a prOper understanding of these problems. This complaint also may reveal the state of confusion in the mind of the average superintendent relative to present day problems in education. Throughout this entire study, the subject of human relations appears again and again. It seems that administra— tors experience considerable difficulty in adjusting themselves to the local community life. No one expects the superintendent to agree with everyone in the community. His position should be that of a leader, rather than a clerk trying to make every- one in the town happy. However, the criticism was aimed at his social life with members in the community. He seemed to Withdraw himself from community life and made very little effort tO make friends. lll? It is also fairly clear that many schools of education need to offer more practical training in the field of school finance, school buildings and maintenance, and school law. The prospective administrator also needs a better background in the field of elementary education since most superintendents have advanced from secondary positions. Tumover _o_f School Officials II___l'_l —the Past Ten Years SELL? 3.3.12.1)- In a few cases the superintendent of schools had retained his present position for as long as twenty years. For this reason, median rather than average figures were used to indicate the general turnover pic ture. The median figure of two years indicates a very rapid turnover in the position of school superintendent. In the case of board members, the turnover is not too great. The median figure of six years indicates a stable board of education. Stability is preferable to instability in board membership. However, many board members said that it was very difficult to induce citizens in the community whom they felt would make good school board members to run for the office. It seems that many citizens in small comrrmnities are reluctant to accept this social responsibility. This points to the need for a good school community program of education which would result in increased interest in school affairs. The short tenure of the superintendent of schools Creates a chaotic condition. It is virtuallyimpossible to 1N3 TABLE XXII mom 01' SCHOOL OFFICIALS I! THE PAM TEN YEARS 1. 2. 4. How many superintendents has your school system had in the past ten years! (Asked of board members only. Medium figure was used as it yes more representstive.) lumber 6 How many principals hes your school system bed in the poet ten yeerst (Asked of board members only. Kodian figure also used.) labor 4 but has been the turnover of board membership in the past ten years? (Asked of board members.) ‘ A. Ierae turnover .- 9 cases .. 15$ 1. Average turnover - 21 cases -- 35$ c.‘m1tumnr—ooceua-5o$ how my years have you been in your present position! (Hedisn figure used.) A. Board member - median figure 6.2 years. 3. ”erintendent -- median figures 2 gore. ‘\°\ 1241.1 plan any long range program of modern education in a period of two years. Boards should realize the unfortunate results of this system of constantly changing the administrator. They should give capable administrators more security, which will bring dividends in the form of better school systems. How the Superintendent Divides His Time (Table XXIII). To get an accurate picture of the actual division of a school administrator's time, a time study would have to be made. However, the following estimate should give a fairly accurate picture of some of the difficulties involved in the position of superintendent. In the first place, the superintendent is primarily a teacher. If he teaches half of the time (as indicated by Table XXIII ), he must devote at least a little additional time to the preparation of his lessons. This leaves little time to devote to the task of school management. In this area clerical work and purchasing seem to take a great amount of his time. He must devote at least some time to the financial management of the school and the filling out of reports for the state department. . It is not surprising that under these conditions nearly every superintendent interviewed complained that he did not have sufficient time to get the immediate work done. It is also not surprising that supervision and curriculum are being neglected . 1115 Im mu KW THE WW DIYIMS HIS TIME is s aperintendent. how do you divide your time! (lumber of times each item is indicsted end sversge percentage spent in this sres shown in the table.) lumber Aver” lane 2:. 12:5 a; mu m 1. Personnel Problems 49 7 2. linnmcinl Problae 4B 6 3. hildinc sud lepsirs 50 6 4. mm“... ef Teechiuc 39 10 5. 'orking with mrrioulm m 5 6. Clerical brh 60 17 7. Purohseing 53 10 8. hiking with (lo-unity Groups 31 3 9. fondling 60 46 10. Other btivities 15 4 1W3 Under a plan of democratic administration many of these school management tasks could be shared by the teachers of the school, leaving the superintendent free to try to im- prove the instructional program of the school. Election 93 EM Members -- Composition _qlf; §§l1_9_9_l _Bcoards (Table XXIV). An unsatisfactory situation was dis- covered by this study in the area of the selection of school - board members. The value of a good school board cannot be overestimated in the light of an adequate educational program, yet the citizens in the towns included in this survey have failed to come up with a formal program to secure the best possible membership for their boards of education. Positions on the local school board should be filled by individuals who are honestly interested in school affairs. Tco often, school board membership is filled by politicians who have little interest in school problems. The only method of selection of board members mentioned was that of old board members picking new members. This makes for a self-perpetuating board and school elections cease to have any real significance, because few single individuals feel strong enough to "buck" such an organized group. It is not here suggested that a heavy board membership turnover is a good thing. On the contrary, if the old board is doing a good job, it should be retained. However, school affairs should not be dominated by a small organized group which is self perpetuating. mumv mortal or Bum mms ..'. oomosmou or 563001. some - .- 4 Ihst methods does your community use to get good board members? 1. 2. 3e~ 4. 5. flatbed! used lone Get best people to run he eld board picks new mabers hose who here children in school alperintendent picks the board. lumber 2; times mentioned 33 7 $48 l.‘ 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. school bosrd members ere from whet groups in your town! 9.119.! mentioned More lerohnnts hell business men Prefeseionel men hammers Tredes Neil omrriers Housewives lumber 3; times mentioned 55 54 43 13 10 f" H/P 1’46 Boards of education in small towns seem to be composed mainly of farmers and small business men who sell to farmers. The outlook of such boards is usually rural in character. It is surprising that so few women are found on boards of education. Women frequently have considerable interest in school affairs and should make excellent members. written _Bpard _qf Edugation Policigs and Pantigipation pf Supegintendent _i__n 39.53136. _9_f_‘_ Education Meetings (Table XXV). As has been mentioned previously, there is some question whether a policy is a policy at all unless it is written. Most writers in the field of educational administration ad- vocate written school board policies in the interest of con- sistency. Though all of the schools involved in this survey do not havewritten board policies, most schools are at present working on them and should have them ready for publication in the near future. It is important that superintendents attend board meetings. Hagman says: The superintendent of schools, while not a part of the board, has an important relation to the board and an important place in board meetings. As the executive officer of the board, as its professional adviser, as representative of the board to school employees and of the school employees and others to the board, as leader in meeting educational problems, the superintendent contributes greatly to the function- ing of the board in its meetings. As a specialist in school government and counselor in methods of improving board practices and procedures, he should participate fully. I fiY Hagman, 91;. cit., p. 191. fit ‘0 mm mm: noun: or summon mucus in) rmmmrxou or mmmmm In mm orrmcumn MEETINGS Is there a written record of policies of the board of education avail- able to the teachers and. the public! Yes -- there is such a record -- 17 cases -- 29$ -- satisfactory le - there is no written record .- 43 cases -- 71$ - unsatisfactory lo written record available but are preparing one at the present time -- 17 cases -- 29$ To what extent does the superintendent attend board meetings? A. All meetings - 48 cases - BO$ -- satisfactory I s. hequently .- 5 cases -- 9% - unsatisfactory c. Seldom -- 4 cases -- 6% -- highly unsatisfactory 2D. Attends all meetings. but informal “down town. meetings are held to decide important matters from which he is excluded -- 3 oases -- 5f -- unsatisfactory Does the superintendent plan tn program for the board meetings? 1. Yes - 30 cases - 50‘ -- satisfactory 3. Partly -. 13 cases -- 21$ - satisfactory c. lo .- 17 caees .- aos -- highly unsatisfactory 150 In addition to this, the superintendent has current information.as to the Operation of the school not available to board members. The practice of excluding the superin- tendent from board meetings must be judged as highly un- satisfactory. In planning school board meetings, Hagman says: The agenda, prepared as a simple list of items of business or as a list accompanied by recommendations and supporting information, can be prepared by the secretary with the help of the superintendent of schools or by the superintendent alone and given to the secretary for additions and distribution.56 It would seem.that the board is making a grave error by refusing to allOW'the superintendent of schools the right to participate in the planning of board meetings. By excluding the administrator from.the planning phase of board meetings, the schOOl board is depriving itself of current information concerning the needs of the school system, In order to properly'plan.board meetings to meet present needs of the school program, the chief schQOl administrator needs to be consulted. Teachers Tgll How School Administration gggld pg lgngygg (Table XXVI). Teachers, some of whom.carried the title of principal, were asked to suggest how they felt school administrative procedures could be improved. This question was asked in an impersonal fashion so that it had reference to administration.in general rather than to the situation jd.lhid-a p. lj4. mm: monks m1. sow SCHOOL mummies cum) 3 moan 151 lrom your merience as a teacher what do you consider some of the ways in which ministration of schools could be improved? (Asked of two teachers in each system) 1. 3. 3. 4. 5. 6. ll. 12 . 13. 14. gas 933$; Easement hilure to back up teacher .hil to pass on information loo autocratic dumps in curriculum needed Too much time on petty details help needed in getting supplies Help needed with discipline Poor public relations Help needed on elementary level lot out of office enough Routine poorly planned let in school cough Poor working hours Listens to gossip too much -: _— r lumber 9_1_'. times mentioned 48 46 36 31 83 11 m: 152 in.their particular schools. The answers were rather in- teresting and gave a fairly good picture of administration as it effects the teacher. There were two main.complaints. Many teachers men- tioned that the superintendent could not be depended upon to give them moral support in a difficult discipline case. If the incident became an issue in the town, the administra- tor would let the teacher take the entire blame and refuse to accept any responsibility. They pointed out that such a situation was not only detrimental to the moral of the teaching staff, but also made the enforcement of school regulations more difficult in the future. Discipline difficulty is symptomatic of another weakness mentioned by teachers. Thirtyrsix teachers sug- gested that certain revisions in the school curriculum.were needed. If the school curriculum is better adapted to the needs of the students, discipline cases and violations of school regulations will decrease considerably. Not only does the superintendent have a great responsibility in this area, but the teachers must devote time and effort to improving the curriculum of the school. The second complaint in order of frequency of menr tion.was the failure of the administrator to pass on.infor- mation concerning school policy and school routine to the teachers. Teachers said they were held responsible for the 155 enforcement of these decrees without knowing what they were. Many teachers said they depended upon student information to discover the program for the day. It is fairly obvious that the communication system of such schools needs revising. However the real difficulty here lies in the system of undemocratic administration. If the teachers were allowed to help formulate school policies and school programs they would not only know the school policies but also know the reasons for their instigation. Teachers also complained that the superintendent was so busy with petty routine duties that he was unable to give the teachers any help. One teacher said ”our superintendent spends his time counting nickels and dimes.” Other teachers said their administrator spent his time with salesmen. Another complaint was the inability of teachers to get needed supplies. One teacher said he bought the supplies he needed to avoid going through the routine required by the central office. In some schools few or no supplies were kept on hand and each request required a separate order. The administrator must plan a system where supplies may be procured easily and quickly by the teachers. Summam 9i; all m gt; activity. The following table (Table XXVII) is a summary of the information presented in the first sixteen tables, concerning the responsibility assigned to the superintendent in each of the designated areas. um mu 154 mm mom or Amman: or rm mmm m m 1211an muxsrmxn mu. Hawaiian: Authority Percentage of such typo Minor 56% ‘ 1. Bring teachers COOperative 13$ . 313,191- 311 2. Hiring non-tonal.“ liner 4.2T per-om]. Cooper“ in 33‘ Mar %_______ 3. humming salad" Minor COOperative 42$ Kerr 7% , Minor ‘0 M11101“ ” personnel poncho “23L lo; “a” g 5. Pants», rotation, fight 1" if: and discharge I310:- % “her 6. Preparation of mm Chapel-nun 27% I312!- 5;% liner 4]. 7. Purchase of applies co apex-an" 6i and equip-ent .91” liner 8. Us. at! school Oooponun :3; km W mu (continued) :3: 33mm: manna! Macaw! or m maxim 111 m bum mmxs'mum: AREAS hcponcibility Authority Percentage of ouch typo 9. htorproting school math. 2:; lino: 10. Attacks against 0009011151" 415; th school No.10! 54’ Minor 5f 11. Dalia; with irate parontc °°°£;r‘“" 45$ 12. Policy conning Minor 14; . 13. l‘onmlation at 21;; u 4?; mic of conduct ‘ W ' agar ass 14. construction of m” 0 tbs curriculu- 22°F?“ 1" 3:; 16. htu curricular m” 5‘ activitiu “oar-“1” 8;; 16. human of tho m‘u" 1:; school Inmat-ww Mot 75 f 17. Anna of .11 um:- 21-75 nuponuihilitios “mun" 25.69% 1991' 63pm 15o In some school systems the superintendent does all of the administrative work and is in complete charge. The board does little but "rubber stamp” his actions. In other schools the school board is in control of all administrative acts, and the superintendent is merely a clerk and an errand boy for the board. The ideal situation is one in which the superintendent and . the board of education arrive at admin- istrative decisions through cooperative efforts and the pooling of information. These three situations are represented in the table by the terms ”major," ”cooperative," and "minor." The SUperintendent whose duties are more clerical than adminis- trative is shown as having “minor" authority. He usually must secure the permission of his board before making any decision of importance. If the board and the superintendent share authority in making administrative decisions and co- operatively plan administrative policy, their methods are shown to be "COOperative." When the superintendent is given full authority to make and execute administrative policies in most cases, he is shown as having "major" authority. CHfiPTE?'VI PE'QPIE‘CDIG P‘YOBLEMS FAC ING SMELIL DISTYICT fiDVIJNISTDfi'l‘OVS A careful study of the data collected in this study of small schools reveals that the superintendent of schools is faced with a number of perplexing problems. Although all school administrators face similar problems, many of the difficulties that beset the small district administrator are unique. This is due in.a large part to the fact that the small school administrator Spends approximately half of his time as a teacher and to the fact that there is a more per- sonal relationship among school employees in a small school. It is not the purpose of this chapter to offer infal- lible solutions to these enigmas, but rather to point out various facets of the problems and to suggest several courses of action open to school executives which seem.to be con- lsistent‘with good school administrative practices. 1. The dual leadership responsibility 9: the super- intendent. The school executive, because of the nature of his position, must play two leadership roles. By law he is designated as the executive officer of the board of educa- tion at the same time that he is expected to be the leader of the instructional program of the school. Because he has had similar training and because he must work closely with his staff, the teachers look to him for leadership and 155 guidance. However his attempts at leadership are at least partially checkmated by the fact that he is excluded from most teachers' professional organizations. Most large schools in.the Midwest area exclude all administrators from teachers unions and teachers associations. Some towns allow him to attend meetings, but not to vote or hold office. Pow can.the superintendent be expected to lead a group from.which he is excluded? Thus he has a dual role in that he is the leader of the board of education and the leader of his teachers. In order to maintain a position of trust and con- fidence, he must be loyal to the wishes and demands of both groups. This apparent dichotomy leaves the perplexed admin- istrator impaled on the horns of a dilemma. iEverything is peaceful and serene as long as the demands of both groups are the same; however when these demands are diametrically opposite the superintendent is in.a quandry. If he accedes to the wishes of one group, he will alienate the other. If he offers a compromise and can induce both sides to accept it, neither side will be satisfied and the ultimate solution of the issue will be postponed. He may delay bringing the issue to a point of decision, but neither side will be de- ceived very long by these tactics. For example, the teach- ers:may desire a raise in salary and expect their leader, the superintendent, to present these demands in as effective 159 a manner as possible. On the other hand, the board of educa- tion.may have agreed on a policy of economy and perhaps has instructed the administrator to reduce expenses. ‘Which way will he turn? Unless the superintendent is a man of consid- erable courage and considerable financial reserves, he will probably bow to the wishes of the board of education, since it does have the power to discharge him. Under the old line-staff system.of school administra- tion this problem defies solution. However under a plan of cooperative policy formation.the position of the superin- tendent would be quite different. In a system.where the faculty and the superintendent COOperatively formulate the policies for the school and the board of education accepts or rejects such decisions the role of the administrator is considerably altered. Instead of working ”behind the scenes" with the board of education to determine policies which the staff must accept, he now works with his staff members to determine policies which the teachers will accept. Here the school executive truly represents the thinking of his staff, rather than following the dictates of the board. In the case of a salary schedule for the coming year, the superintendent working with the teachers could prOpose a schedule planned by the staff. The board of education would receive these recommendations and listen to the justification for such proposals. They could then accept, l 630 reject, or possibly modify such recommendations in.light of the financial condition of the district. 2. Encroachment g: the board 9Q the administrative authority 9: the superintendent. Board members fail to dis- tinguish.between the policy making functions of the board and the executive-administrative functions usually assigned to school administrators. This study also shows that board members assume administrative powers and give individual de- cisions in cases of conflict within the community without consulting with.the superintendent or the other members of the board. This action is illegal. To this point ward Reeder says: The functions of a board of education cannot be legally performed except in a regular or a special meeting at which.there shall be present a quorum.of the board's membership; meetings are therefore held in order that the business of the board may be legally transacted. When a member is not in attendance at a meeting of the board, the courts have stated that his decisions have no more legal force than those of a person.who is not a board member. 1 The study further shows that in the areas of personnel and finance this abrogation of authority is more commonly found than in other areas. It is difficult to assign any one logical reason for this inconsistent practice. It may be that the members of the board are unacquainted with the 1 ward Reeder, Thg Eyndamentals of Public School Adminigtration, (New'York: The Macmillan Co., 1951), p. as. 161 legal functions of a school board and the resultant practices are the outgrowth of ignorance. It may be that individual members of the board of education have a craving for power and prestige in the community and are using their school board office to satisfy this desire. Another factor may be that because of a weak superintendent in the past years, the board does not trust the present administrator sufficiently to grant him.the authority usually associated with this office. It may also be a combination of several of the above reasons. In addition to these general causes, there may be other reasons which apply:more directly to the field of finance. Though the board may Openly admit its lack of knowledge in.many areas of school administration, board members feel they are acquainted with problems dealing with finance. They feel they are on a par with the school admin- istrator in.this area. Then.too, taxpayers seem.to take more interest in school matters where their pocketbooks are involved. They are in.many instances reluctant to spend additional tax money for schools, and if such.money is to be voted they insist that the additional expenditure be justified. The problem.of immediate concern to the school execu- ‘tive is to regain his lost authOrity without incurring the ‘wrath of the school board members. Peassignment of lb? administrative duties will not occur overnight. It is a long slow process based on education rather than quick decision. The board members themselves must make the change of their own.volition. One suggested solution would be an in-service training program for members of the school board. They should have a chance to read extensively in the field, to attend conferences with other board members, and to visit neighboring school systems to observe methods of administra- tive Operation. If they can sense the fact that they are not operating to the best interests of the school, they will likely initiate the needed changes themselves. Another prOposed solution to this problem.of lost power would be for the superintendent to do such a good job of school management in those areas in which he still retains authority, that he would gain the confidence and approval of the board of education and the community at large. As the board gains more confidence in the ability of its super- intendent, it will be inclined to grant him.more authOrity. j. Reluctance g: the board 9: education pg gragg tgg school system.sufficient funds 39 enerate a satisfactory educational program" A number or the administrators inter- viewed were very vocal in complaining that boards or educa- tion were not offering high enough salaries to secure properly qualified teachers. Many a superintendent, after making a fruitless search for satisfactory teachers willing to teach 105 at the low salaries offered by the board of education, was obliged either to ask the board for a higher level of pay, or to employ teachers who were academically or emotionally ‘Ifiit to handle children. Boards of education also refused to grant enough.money to provide the type of educational program needed by the community. In some schools the lack of funds had caused the quality of instruction and the quality of equipment to be reduced to a point where state accreditation was uncertain. These unwise economy measures place the superintend ent of schools in.a quandry. Should he take the attitude that if the board orders a sub-standard school, it is his job to furnish the type of education.it demands. This ob- viously is not the answer. The administrator also has a real obligation to the children.in.the community who suffer the most under an inadequate program of education. In.communities with a high assessed valuation of prOperty, where additional school revenue is available, the board of education.must be induced to vote additional funds. This may be done in two ways. First, the attitude of the board members themselves may be changed. This may be accomr plished by an.inrservice training program sponsored by a neighboring teacher training institution for school board members, or a visit to a neighboring school that has a sound educational program, unhampered by economy measures. The lbu best and most permanent solution to this problem is to change the attitude of the board. A second method might be that of enlisting the aid of the community. Without attempting to incite an Open break between the board of education and the townspeOple, the admin- istrator and his staff can do much in Organizing study groups ‘within.the community to study educational problems. When the members of the community are informed as to the features of a good educational program and realize that present economy measures by the board are resulting in.inadequate instruction, the community will put pressure on.the board members to pro- vide additional school funds. HOwever in areas of limited taxable prOperty, whose economy is geared to current farm prices, increased school revenue may be difficult, if not impossible to Obtain. Ln these cases additional aid must come from the outside. An increase in state aid may more nearly equalize school income throughout the state, or in the event that federal aid becomes a reality these rural areas may, through these additional funds, be able to afford a better educational program. 4. gag}; 9_f_ teacher interest in a program 9; demo- cratig administration” Many of the administrators inter- viewed in.this study evidenced genuine interest in operating their schools under a system of democratic administration, 165 but were frustrated in their efforts by lack of COOperation and lack of interest on the part of staff members. The atti- tude prevalent among many teachers seems to be that they are hired to teach, and the administrator is hired to "run” the school. They feel that any time they might spend in group meetings to suggest school policy improvement, they are doing a job that the administrator is hired to perform. The study indicates that this attitude is widespread. This lack of interest may be due to a faulty concept of school administra- tive procedures. The teacher‘s response is conditioned by a background of home, church, and school experiences in.which his actions were controlled by an autocratic administrative sys tem . Since this attitude of indifference is ingrained in the average teacher as a result of his background, the solu- tion will be neither quick nor easy. The teacher must be made to appreciate the social responsibilities of his posi- tion. An.inrservice program.might be set up for the study of techniques of democratic procedures. This program.must be voluntary and controlled and handled by the teachers them: selves if it is to be effective. Too often these conferences are set up by administrators, who force teachers to discuss topics of interest only to the administration. Teachers should have a major Part in.planning the program and should discuss subjects of interest to teachers. Much of the apathy 166 on the part of the teachers will diminish considerably if these meetings are teacher dominated instead of administra- tor dominated. The administrator can best serve the interests of such a group by acting as an organizer and as a resource person in the discussions. The planning stage for such a democratic program might take as long as two years before any real contribu- tions were made. Discussion might be limited to one area in its initial stages, then.gradually extended to other areas. Much of this misunderstanding concerning the social responsibilities of teachers in.school administration can be eliminated by action of the board of education. The board may assume the leadership in such a program by placing the responsibility for school policy formation on.a legal basis. They may even wish to include in the teacher’s contract the duty of assisting in the formation of administrative policies. In any case it should be made very clear to teachers that they are expected to help out in this area on the Same basis as they are expected to help supervise certain phases of the extra-curricular program“ The justification for this action can be found in the dividends that will follow in an improved educational program. 5. Easire 9: many boards 39 dominate the superintend- _§nt. Several board members were outspoken relative to this problem. They said the teacher training institutions are 1b7 not training prospective administrators to take orders from boards of education. me would agree relative to the truth of this statement, but would question.whether blind obedi- ence to school board orders is a desirable situation. if the principal duty of the school executive is to comply with the decrees of the board, he has been automatically demoted to the position of a clerk. If the board is to ”run” the school there is little need to hire a trained individual as an administrator, when only a clerk is needed. Leadership is expected from the superintendent. Not leadership in the sense that the administrator is out in front showing the board the way, but rather leadership with the board, where a condition of cooperative understanding is present. The solution to this problem is based on.mutual under- standing between the board of education and the superintendent of schools. The board must understand the basic function of a school administrator. Fe should be an educational leader in the community, and not be reduced to the status of a "hired hand” working for the board of education. They must realize where policy making stops and executive-administrative functions begin. in in-service program for board members will do much to bring about such an understanding. The superintendent should encourage the board to discuss and plan school policy cooperatively, with the advice and coun- sel of their chief school officer. The dividends of such 166 a plan.will be in the form of a better organized and managed school program. 6. lack of time on the part pf the superintendent pg deal adequately with problems lg supervision and curriculum. Nearly every superintendent interviewed in this study mentioned the lack of time needed to adequately perform all of the duties required of this position. They frankly admitted they were neglecting the areas of supervision and curriculum. This statement was borne out by the fact that about half of their time was spent in teaching. Teachers verified these affirma- tions. They claimed that the administrator was always too engrossed in his own duties to render any type of sustained assistance. One superintendent would like to work more with his beginning teachers. Another administrator said he would like to initiate a guidance program, but couldn't find the time to do it. Several superintendents felt that curriculum changes were needed, but little had been done. It is important that these statements not be taken at face value. lack of time may not be the only reason for this condition. we cannot assume that if time were provided, the administrator would use it wisely in these neglected areas. The superintendent even with sufficient time, still might not have the knowledge, interest, or leadership ability to work with teachers to improve the school program” Hewever, time is an essential ingredient in.any program of this type, and in.most of the schools visited in.this survey time was 169 not available, no matter how able the superintendent might have been. In order to make more time available to the superfin- tendent, a new plan of administration of school affairs is in order. This study indicates that too much time is being spent by the school executive in routine clerical tasks that a good clerk could handle adequately. Several plans might be suggested in order to relieve the school executive of some of his routine tasks. Some schools appoint a business manager from the teaching staff to take charge of the finances of the extra-curricular pro- gram. Other routine duties might be delegated to staff members on a voluntary basis. large city systems have had this same difficulty with the increasing amount of office routine work. They have attempted to solve the problem by appointing a business man- ager to direct the business affairs of the superintendent's office. This plan.would not be feasible in a small system, but it might be possible to hire a part time business assist- ant who might also be employed to help manage the business affairs of the local government of the town. By the school and the local government each contributing a share of this business manager's salary it would be possible to employ a competent individual for the position. If arrangements can not be made with the local government, the board of education 170 might make an arrangement with a local business institution which could also use a half time business manager. This plan would not place too great a strain on the school budget, and would free the superintendent to work with the instructional program.of the school. 7. .Qgpy pf the superintendegt pg give full moral support pg teachers ig.gg§§_gf unfavorable public criticismi This problem is fraught with such complications that no one guiding principle can be applied equally well to all situa— tions. In case of an open violation of a school regulation by a pupil, the superintendent should COOperate with the teacher in.ease of public criticism, if the punishment for the offense is justified. If he fails to support his staff in such a case, school discipline and teacher morale will be impaired. waeve , where the teacher himself has violated a school rule or has exercised poor judgment, the school admin- istrator in the interest of the entire organization should not openly condone his actions. Part of the cause of the failure of the administrator to support his staff, is the lack of a democratic administra- tive organizationt If the teachers cooperatively plan.and execute policies concerning pupil conduct, they are fully cognizant with the details of school policies. When a prob- lem.arises the staff member knows how the other teachers and the administrative officials feel about it and will act 171 accordingly. Mutual misunderstandings on the part of teacher and administrator cause much of the trouble in.this area. The teacher believes the school policy to be one thing, when actually it may be entirely different. In.schools where the teacher is given an opportunity to participate in the deter- mination of this policy, misunderstandings will be less fre- quent. There is a pOpular misconception among teachers that the administrator should support his teachers, right or wrong. It would be morally and philosophically wrong for any admin- istrator to approve the action of a staff member that was a flagrant violation of school regulations. 8. Opposition and lack 9f interest pp phg pgrp.gf citizens 39.a community school program, Many administrators remarked that they had encountered considerable reluctance on the part of town organizations to accept the gracious offer on the part of the school to use school facilities for come munity activities. Other superintendents complained that when town organizations did use school facilities, that these facilities were mistreated to such an.extent that the board of education and the administrator began to wonder at the wisdom.of such a policy. Conversely, when.the school re- quested the use of community facilities in order to further its educational program, many town organizations were reluc- tant to COOperate. 172 In order to carry out a school community program, the general public must be re-educated as to the modern day con- cept of the function of a school in community life. Many citizens still hold to the concept of the school being an “ivory tower“. This idea was common several decades ago. The modern concept of a unity of school and community must be explained and accepted by the general public before any such program can ever be accepted or fully appreciated. This re- education should become a cardinal point in the public rela- tions program.of the School. This process will be a slow one, but the school will be repaid for its time and effort in the form of better community living. Another possible solution is the instigation of a campaign throughout the community to bring about a feeling of pride in the school and its accomplishments. This does not mean a publicity campaign to overemphasize the achieve- ments of the school and to cover up its weaknesses, but rather an information campaign to enlighten the public con— cerning the educational program of the school. Too often, both the townspeople and the school staff underrate'the accomplishments of their school systemn If such a feeling of pride can be developed, a program.of school-community relations will move forward rapidly. The above eight perplexing problems facing the typical administrator in a small district school have been.briefly 175 presented. These problems emerged from the interviews con- ducted in this study. They are ever present and are very real. All superintendents will be faced with these problems in varying degrees of intensity. They must be able to solve them with some degree of success, or their term of employment will be short. These problems were not only presented and explained, but a number of suggested solutions were offered. Commmnities vary in.their cultural heritage and their inherent comprehen- sion.of modern educational problems. Consequently, no one solution is infallible for all cases. In retrospect, the following eight problems which de- velOped from the interviews were presented, with their im- plications and suggested solutions: 1. The dual leadership responsibility of the superin- tendent. 2. Ebcroachment of the board on the administrative authority of the superintendent. 3. Reluctance of the board of education to grant the school system.sufficient funds to Operate a satisfactory educational program. ° 4. Lack of teacher interest in a program of democratic administration. 5. Desire of many boards to dominate the superin- tendent. 174 6. lack of time on the part of the superintendent to deal adequately with problems in supervision and curriculum. 7. Duty of the superintendent to give full moral support to teachers in case of unfaVOrable public criticism, 6. Opposition and lack of interest on the part of citizens to a community school program. CHAPTER VII MODEQN EDIEATIONMJ PRACTICE POINTING TO BETTE? SCHOOL PDVIINISTRATION The research in this area indicates a rather gloomy picture of the job of the superintendent of schools in a small district school. Nearly all of the adminiStrators interview- ed in this study said they lack the time needed to get all of the duties of their office completed. A common complaint voiced by these officials was the burden of petty office details that kept them "chained" to their desks. They felt that these details, though of a petty nature, must be completed with dis- patch and efficiency or it would be a reflection on their ability as administrators. It seems that these routine duties consumed so much time that the superintendent did not have any time left to work with his teachers in order to improve the instructional program of the school. The study further showed that in many cases the chief school official is almost a full time teacher, and also that his office help is usually of the part time student—help variety. The administrator of a small district school has nearly as many forms to fill out, reports to write, and letters to l7o write as his comterpart in a larger system, but without the additional clerical help usually found in larger towns. Today the government is participating more and more in various phases of school activity. It is also possible that in the near future we may have federal aid to education. An even greater burden of routine duties will be required of the chief school official because of the additional paper work that inevitably follows any governmental assistance. Thus, it would seem that more will be required of the administrator in the future than is now required of him. It is here suggested that one of the principal reasons for the near impossible task facing the average superintendent of schools is the use of the inadequate line-staff framework of school administration in current operation today.- The history of the development of the office of the superintendent was presented to show the haphazard formation of the office. It was never systematically planned. It was the result of trial and error. During the days of small enrollments and few government forms to complete, it was adequate for the job. Today it is not. As long as administrators retain the old administrative system, they will be swamped with petty routine duties and the teachers will be unable to act without an administrative decree. The change from line-staff organization pg democratic administration with participation encouraged from all those involved Q the educational nrogram. Teachers have been trained by tradition to leave all administrative duties strictly alone. These powers have been jealously guarded by the central office. Usually any inquiry a teacher may make regarding the administrative policy of the school is treated as "none of his business." After a rebuff of this type, most teachers lose interest in the administrative policies of the school and resign themselves to following orders. Today in many schools the attitude of the administra- tor is changing. More and more he realizes that help is need- ed. Each day he gets further behind in his work. Strangely enough the needed help, which is both willing and qualified is close at hand. The superintendent may secure this needed help from three sources: the teachers, the pupils, and the citizens of the local community. It is not suggested that teachers be assigned routine office work; however, because of their experience and training they are as well qualified to handle many of the administrative problems concerning policy as is their "boss." Teachers like to work in a well run and efficiently administered school, and most of them are willing to spend extra time and effort to reach this goal. The pupils are exposed to the instructional program every day. They should be able to make worthwhile suggestions regarding areas of the school program in which improvements are needed . 175 The individual citizen of the community is also willing to help out. It is "his" school, so why not look to this source for help. Participation of teachers _i_n_ school administration. It is obvious that under the line-staff organization, the teachers can contribute little to the welfare of the school. The entire system should be changed to one of "democratic administration." Despite the general nature of this term, it has come to mean something rather definite to educational leaders. Under this new type of organization the entire staff participates in the formation of school policy. Educational leaders have borrowed some of the newer ideas from business management and have transplanted these ideas in the organization of school management. One of these new techniques that have been borrowed by school administration is "middle management." Middle management has been defined as " that group of junior administrators through which the coordi- nated responsibilities of tOp management are executed."1 This plan as adapted to school organization means that suggestions for improvement in the school made by staff members will have a better chance of being heard and acted upon. Under the line- staff system any idea a teacher might have must go through the lAlbert Been, The Management Dictionary, (New York: Exposition Press, 1952), p. 215. 179 "chain of commands" to the very top, then down again to the department that might profit from the suggestion. Under the old system few ideas survived the two way trip and often an idea was stolen by one of the intermediate administrators and represented as original with him. Under the middle manage- ment plan the idea would go directly to a committee, which would correspond to the junior executive in business, and would be presented by the staff member who originated it. If the suggestion in the judgment of the committee had merit, the idea would be routed to the department where the change is needed without ever going to the tOp. Catheryn Seckler- Hudson speaks of the merit of this plan when she says: If all cases were routed thro h formal channels, functioning of the organization wo d probably be delayed intolerably. Organizational lines are useful, but if things are to run smoothly, there must be a great deal of voluntary COOperation by persons whose jobs are not closely related on the organization chart.2 Mary Niles has written an entire book dealing with middle man- agement. Concerning the crossing of lines of authority she says: Since in a modern corporation many transactions must cross interdepartmental lines the coordination between the jurisdictions of different officers is particularly important to assure smooth performance with a minimum of delays and errors and a maximum of economy. 2 Catheryn Seckler—Hudson, Processes pf Organization and Management, (Washington, D.C.: Public Affairs Press, 1948), p. 53. 3’ Mary Nil s, Middle Management, (New York: Harpers and Brothers, 1919 : p. 52. 150 A modified "middle management" plan was suggested in a book on administration by KOOpman, Miel, and Misner.” Despite the fact that the book was published in 1943, many of the ideas presented in it represent a forecast of future developments in school management. Under this plan all of the teachers would serve on at least one committee, which would also have members representing the administration. For example, one committee would be in charge of the curriculum of the school. All suggestions for curricular changes would go through this committee and then be submitted to the entire faculty for final improvement. This plan would obviously give the superintendent much needed help and suggestions in all areas of school problems. This plan, if properly carried out, is a long step toward democratic administration. The teachers are part of the school program and actively contribute to the administra- tion of the school. They know that the ideas they may suggest for the improvement of the institution will be given full consideration by a representative committee and if 4 Robert Koopran, Alice Miel, and Paul Misner, Democragy Q School Administratipn, (New York, Appleton- Century-Crofts Inc., 1915) 151 approved by the committee will be submitted to the faculty for final vote. They also know that they will be given recog- nition for this contribution. Another plan of school administration toward a more efficient and more democratic school Operation is an idea presented by Clyde Campbell in a recent publication.5 The most interesting feature of this article is the suggestion that the teaching staff should participate in policy making for the school. The following statement sums up the plan: The most significant and sweeping change should be in the area of policy making. That the board of education should adopt policies is not being questioned. Who should formulate policies is quite a different matter. The position advanced in this presentation is that the final policies should be formulated by the staff and accepted or rejected by the board of education. The lines of responsibility should be sharply defined -- the staff should formulate policies and the board of education should either accept or reject them. This does not mean that board members should drop their hands resignedly and endorse all policies recommended by the staff. The converse might be true in many cases. The board of edu- cation quite legitimately might ask staff members to reformulate policies a nmnbcgr of times before they would be willing to endorse them. Under this new plan of administration the role of the teacher would be considerably changed. Under the old line- staff system the teacher simply performed routine tasks handed down from above. He had little if anything to do 5 Clyde Campbell, "A Democratic Structure to Further Democratic Values," Progressive Education, 30:25, November 1952. 6 Ibid., p. 28. 1’5? with changes in school policy, and sometimes he was never even informed that certain changes had been made. Under this new plan the teacher becomes an active working member of a big team that is joined together to improve the school system. It is now the teacher's school. He has something to say about its organization. This is democracy in action, democracy of the same type used to govern the United States. How can we justify talking about democratic education and preparing the children for survival in a democratic state, when our schools are administered in an autocratic manner? When this idea of the staff making school policy first appeared in print in March 1952, it created considerable comment.7 Many educators denounced it as too revolutionary and an invasion of the rights of the members of the board of education. After the initial shock, many leaders in the field of school administration look upon this plan as a forward step in the field of school management. Several other leaders have advocated similar plans. Ernest lake, Superin- tendent of schools of Racine, Wisconsin, gives the following as one of the new "looks" in school organization and admin- is tration: u 7 Clyde Campbell, "The Administrator Treads a Perilous Path," Nation's Schools, 49:49, March, 1952. lbj School board members have generally come to accept the point of view that the functions of policy making and administration.can be separated -- that each is not mutually exclusive. Administrative councils of principals, teachers, etc., share in the preliminary discussions which lead to new policy decisions by the board of education.8 Nearly everyone connected with the field of education would agree that for superior work teachers should be rewarded both by salary increases and by promotion, The theory behind the merit plan is excellent. Hewever, teacher organizations have opposed merit ratings because they do not trust a single administrator to make such ratings. They feel, not without cause, that in.many cases the merit awarded by the superinten- dent is based upon factors other than superior‘work; ‘Many times obedience to administrative decrees, rather than good performance in the classroom, is the basis for pay increases. Consequently, most teachers prefer a strict salary scale with blanket raises, as the lesser of two evils. However, when.the principles of democratic administra- tion are applied to the formation.of such a plan and the awarding of merit, much of the objection.voiced by teacher groups disappears. If the teachers are consulted about the merit system.to be used, and are allowed through representatives to participate in such a program it will be accepted in.better spirit. 8 Ernest Lake, "The New 'Look' in School Organization and Administration," The American School Board Journal, 26:29, February, 1953. 154 Most rating systems indicate the use of a score card or scale. Participation.is important in the adoption of any such rating scale. Ward Reader advocates this when.he says: When a score card or scale is devised for the rating of the teachers of a particular school system, it should be made co-Operatively. It should not be devised by one person, even though he may be an educational Solomon. Although the accomplishments of one brilliant mind may be worth more than those of several mediocre minds, and "the intelligence of one person may be more valuable than the ignorance of many persons," nevertheless the mediocre mind may be of assistance to the brilliant mind, particularly in.pointing out deficiencies. When it has been decided that a score card or scale would be helpful to a school system, the superintendent should appoint a committee to design such an instrument. On this committee there should be representatives of the persons to be rated as well as principals, supervisors, and superintendents. Teachers are likely to think more highly of an evaluation instrument which they have helped to devise; they are not likely to regard highly such anginstrument devised by the use of the ”armchair" method. The adoption of a rating scale devised and accepted by those being rated would solve only part of the problem” No matter how the rating scale was devised, the autocratic administrator could still use it to maintain.his "empire." Several writers have further suggested that the teachers participate not only in the formation and adOption of the instrument to be used, but also share in the administration of the plan. Robert KoOpman writing in.the Michigan 9 Ward Reeder, The Fundamentals of Public School Administration, (New‘York, The Macmillan.Company, 19517, P 227 Educational Journal was one of the first to offer such a plan.10 His idea was limited to the promotion of regular teachers, who after teaching a specified number of years, were eligible to be classified as career teachers. The board chosen to make this type of rating would be composed of seven persons: two classroom.teachers from the same system, the principal of the school in.which the teacher is teaching, a representative from.the local board of education, a teacher with a comparable assignment in.another school system, a consultant in teacher personnel administration from a graduate school of education, and a consultant in.instruction from another system. A teacher so selected for carerr status would enter a new salary bracket, providing annual incre- ments until age sixty. Uhder a plan of this type the career teacher might be making a larger salary than the local administrators. The above plan is not mentioned as a perfect one, but a step in the direction of more democratic administra- tion; Its weaknesses are fairly obvious. It applies only to the career teacher and thus would not apply to the majority of teachers. A different board would have to be appointed for each case and most systems would be unable to secure professional consultants. 10 Robert Kbopman, "Merit Plan", Michigan Education layrnal, 25:165-66, October, 1947. loo The writer of this study would like to suggest an ex- tension.of the plan offered by Robert KoOpman, which would permit rating of the staff of the local school system.to be done by a board composed of two teachers, two administrators, a representative from.the local school board, a representative from the local community, and one or two outside resource people if such are available. The two teachers selected to serve on such a board should be experienced teachers with tenure, so they may be able to express themselves freely on controversial issues. This board would be appointed by the local school board to consider the employment of personnel for the coming school year. The superintendent would preside at this meeting and have personnel records available for members of the grOUp to study. This group would make ratings for every employee of the local school system, with recomr mendations for promotion, retention, or discharge. These recommendations would then be presented to the board of edu- cation, The board might not accept all of this group‘s report, but it would have the benefit of the thinking of a represent- ative group. Perhaps the most important single effect of allowing the teachers to participate in administrative policy making would be the change that would take place in the group itself. Under the line-staff plan a number of routine tasks were as- signed to teachers. Under a democratic form of administration, 187 the routine worker becomes a creative worker. He now has a place of responsibility and authority. He is responsible for the creation of the structure under which he works. He now has freedom.of expression, so necessary for creative ‘work. lt is the responsibility of the administrator to pro- vide the opportunity for teachers to work creatively. Clyde Campbell sums up this situation when.he says, “Creative workers should delegate routine duties to administrators rather than administrators delegating time consuming tasks to creative workers.”11 A word of caution should be injected at this point. The citizens own the school. This ownership may be manifest through federal, state, and local governmental representatives or agencies but in the final analysis the people own the school and the school staff are their employees. Under our represen- tative form of government the citizens select a board of educa- tion. This board represents the wishes of the electorate and has final veto over anything that may transpire in the school system, For the administration, teachers, citizens, or any other group to assume the duties legally assigned to the board is unthinkable. On the other hand, school policy is better and more representative if the board will use the expert advice of its school staff. 11 Clyde Campbell, "A Democratic Structure to Further Democratic Values”, Progressive Education, 30:28, November 1952. 188 Participation_9§ pupils ig_§chool administratiqg. Another source of help in the formation of administrative policies might be the pupils, themselves. Because of his lack of maturity, the average pupil cannot be expected to render mature judgment on all issues. Hewever he can.render valuable assistance in helping to evaluate the instructional program.or in helping to formulate and to enforce many school regulations. A strong argument favoring pupil participation is its effect in educating a student for living in a democracy. If we are to educate students for living in.a democracy, we must organize our schools along democratic lines, so that pupils, as well as staff members, will have a chance to participate in school government. In other words, the school should be a living laboratory for exercises in democratic living. H. H. Giles lists the following as needs of a demo- cratic society: 1. Creativeness 2. Effective social participation 3. Skill in.ref1ective thinking 4. 'Readiness to act on.tentatige judgments 5. Intelligent self-direction Most educational leaders would agree that these principles are important. None of the above five needs can be adequately met in an autocratic situation. The classes in the schools 12 H. H. Giles, Teacher Pupil Planning, (New York, Harpers and Brothers, 1941), p. 57. 169 must be conducted in such a manner that these needs may be met by the students. Students must be given a chance to exercise reflective thinking within a group, and an Oppor- tunity to arrive COOperatively at solutions to these prob- lems. As H. H. Giles says: Furthermore, democracy at its best does not mean compromise, in the sense of sacrificing parts of two good ideas to make a third which contains the weakest features of both. It means something positive, like the unanimous agreements that Quakers achieve in their meetings. Groups of students of many different age levels have demonstrated time and again.that in the face of apparently irreconcilable conflicts it is necessary and possible for them to reach an agreement to try one course or another in.order to get down to business. In order to achieve such a demonstration, the atmosphere of the classroom.must be one of ease and freedom, really democratic, and the students must feel that there will be an honest re-examimation ole the problem.at the conclusion.of the trial effort. It is safe to say that if these needs demanded by life in.a democratic society are sufficiently met, the number of administrative problems in connection with the control of pupils will diminish considerably. The students will feel that the time they spend at school is worthwhile and discipline problems will become fewer in.number. In order to achieve these goals, educators must strive for more and more student participation. Another way in which the students can become involved in the democratic process, is through their participation in 12 Ibid., p. 73. 190 the actual policy making of the school. No one is seriously suggesting that the management of the school is to be turned over to the students, but students through their duly elected representatives can participate in both policy formation.and the carrying out of such policy. One effective device used with varying degrees of success is the institution of the student council. In.many schools, the principal takes charge of meetings in.which.the students are expected to rubber stamp his decrees. In other schools, the matters brought up before the student council are so trivial that the students feel it to be a waste of time. To be effective the student coun- cil must be a democratic body, each.individual having a fair chance to participate in the decisions. It must also have worthwhile purposes and actually influence the program of the school. The students could serve on.committees either composed solely of students, or a combination.of students and teachers, joined together for the purpose of considering and suggesting changes in.eertain administrative practices. This would offer an excellent opportunity for both reflective thinking and COOperative action under adult direction. ,Another means of student participation.is the student questionnaire concerning the program of the school. Harold Hand and his associates at the University of Illinois have devised a pupil evaluation.questionnaire, which many schools used to determine the reaction of the pupils to the educational 191 program.“ It is not here suggested that students are mature enough to critically evaluate all phases of an educational program, but they are in a position to make many valuable suggestions. They should be able to indicate which teachers seem to be the most effective and which courses seem to be the most worthwhile. The Hand type of questionnaire serves a dual purpose. It requires the student to analyze carefully the type of educational program to which he has been exposed and to give an Opinion as to its effectiveness. It also asks the student to decide whether his immediate and future'needs have been met. In summary, in the field of student participation, three methods have been suggested by which the student can make a worthwhile contribution to the administration of his school. These methods are (l) the creation of a democratic atmosphere in the classroom in which the pupils actually participate in planning and experiencing learning situations that seem to best fit their needs. (2) The creation of a vital form of student government through which representatives of the studentbody can participate in the formation of im- portant items of administrative policy. (3) The use of a pupil questionnaire that will enable individual students to 1’4 Harold Hand, What People Think About Their Schools, (Yonkers-on—Hudson: World Book Company, 1945), p. 204. 109 JL~ offer constructive suggestions for school improvement, and to systematically analyze the worth of their own educational experiences. Partigipation 9: community in school adnunistration. Another source of help very near at hand is the citizens of . the community. Townspeople are greatly interested in.their school and are in a good position to observe the effects of the educational program offered to the pupils. Those citizens who have children in.school are interested in.maintaining just as good a program as possible. It is to the advantage of all to have the best educational program possible. Many administrators fear this type of help. They may feel inadequate and insecure and may look upon.any attempt by citizens to offer suggestions for educational improvement as an intrusion upon their private domain. From.the democratic viewpoint this attitude is wrong. The school system.belongs to the people and the only administrative authority possessed by the school executive has been given to him.by these Citi- zens through the local board of education. The superintendent is a servant of the peOple. To this point waiter Cooking says: After all, the schools do belong to the peOple. we have seen enough of absentee ownership of land and plants to know that such ownership is not healthy either for the people and prOperty immediately cone cerned, or for the economy as a whole. This is equally true of schools. huthout active participa- tion.in school affairs, others--school boards, ad- ministrative staffs, selfish groups-~are encouraged 195 to act as if they owned the schools and to take over the functions of the owners. . . If the schools be- long to the peOple they must be concerned with school policies, programs, results. The people are the only stockholders in this enterprise called education. It is the business of stockholders to determine the policies of the enterprise. School boards are the boards of directors of the enterprise. They are selected by the people to legislate, or carry out, the people's will. Administrators and teachers are the technical personnel employed to conduct and carry on.the enterprise. Because of their technical competence they also have the function of advising community groups and the school board on school pOlicies and programs. . . Lastly, the community is the laboratory or plaie or business in which the enterprise is conducted. 5 This is a complete and comprehensive statement of the position of teachers and administrators in the corporation or an educational institution. If administration is viewed from the standpoint of corporate organization, it is un- thinkable that the stockhOlders should be left out of any major policy decision. It refutes completely the old idea of many an administrator that it was ”his school" and the community should stay out of school business. if we are to accept the corporation idea, the only logical course Open to the superintendent is to invite community participa- tion in school policy making. A school that encourages and sponsors community participation in school affairs, as well as school partici- pation in community affairs is termed a community school or 15 Walter Cooking, "Schools Belong to the Peeple”, The School Execggive, 7lz40, January 1952. 194 a life-centered school. If an administrator desires to establish such a school he must set up, with assistance and advice from the local board of education and his im- mediate staff, methods and devices to make community par- ticipation both easy and effective. The citizens of the community should be made to feel that their counsel is both welcomed and needed. A device commonly used today to secure citizen participation is the lay committee system, This has been.mentioned previously as an administrative plan used in a satisfactory school. Since the movement is comparatively new, many types of lay committees have been formed. Some of these committees have been of invaluable help to the school administrator, while others have had just the Opposite effect. According to Edward Tuttle, Emecutive Secretary of the National School Board Association, the following are the three fundamental principles that should guide citizen committees: 1. Citizens committees should be representative of the entire community, not of some segment, faction, or area of it. 2. Citizens committees should base their discussions and recommendations upon.established facts, not upon guesswork or hearsay or unsupported opinions. Their initial task is that of fact-finding. 3. Citizens committees should work with and through duly constituted school authorities to the greatest possible extent. Every effort should be made from the beginning to establish and maintain harmonious working relationships between the citizens commitige, the board of education, and the professional staff. 10 Edward Tuttle, "Why Citizen Committees?”, The School Executive, 71:60, January 1952. 195 All citizens in a community may not be able to serve with equal effectiveness in all types of committees. Hewever, nearly everyone in.the school area is an "expert" of a type in some kind of activity. Each individual could serve on a committee where his interests and training would be of most value. Because of the technical contributions he might offer, a worker in the building trades would make an.excellent member of the building and grounds committee. ,A doctor or housewife might be more interested in serving on the curriculum.committee. Every citizen.shoudd be able to make a contribution.to the welfare of the school. It is the job of the superintendent to enlist the aid of these citizens to serve on committees that are in their fields of interest or training. I Another phase of the school community program.is the use by the school of community facilities. This is a two way street. On.one hand, the citizens of the community may use the school as the cultural center of the town, and on the other hand the school can enrich its educational program by becoming acquainted with community resources. This is real education, As John Dewey says: i It is not exaggerating to say that the book habit is so firmly fixed that very many pupils, otherwise intelligent, have a positive aversion to directing their attention to things, themselves -- it seems so much.simpler to occupy the mind with what someone else has said about these things. While it is mere stupidity not to make judicious use of the discoveries and attainments of others, the substitution of the *4 \ L; C seeing of others for the use of one's own eyes is such a self-contradictory principle as to require no criticism, Ernest Melby advocates school community education.when he says: The important part about the social aspect of education is that educational institutions cannot Operate within four walls. They must, to be ef- fective, be identified with their supporting com- munities. They must utilize these communities in their work. . . The more closely an.educational institution.responds to the need of its community, the more effective it will be. 5 Since most of the pupils will be likely to reside in their present community, a study of the resources of that locality would be extremely beneficial to them in.later life. Edward Olsen lists ten bridges between the school and the com- munity which would be worthy additions to any school program: Documentaryflmaterials. Audio-visual aids. Resource visitors. Interviews. Field trips. Surveys. Extended Field Studies. School Camping. Service Projects.19 lO. Wbrk.Experiences. \ooc-qouuzvmw The instructional program of any school will be much richer because of the inclusion of a number of these school-community l7 John.Dewey, "The Primary-Education.Fetich,“ The FOrum, May logo. 1“ Ernest Melby, "A Concept of Lynamic Education," Educational Trends, June-July lgjo. 19 Edward Olsen, School and Community, (New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., l940), p. 7;. 197 projects. This is classwork applied to life problems, and reproduces situations which the student will encounter after he completes his formal education, Another phase of the school community program is the interchange of physical facilities. The school uses community facilities and the town uses educational facilities. in.many communities the school possesses the only building adequate for public meetings. if the school encourages the use of its facilities, our local educational institutions may develop into the cultural centers of their respective communities. Such meetings, with certain common.sense regulations, should be encouraged. In many new schools today, certain areas are being set aside for adult use. As several writers in the field of school buildings have suggested: By "school”, i mean an institution and an organiza- tion designed.to facilitate neighborhood education. This school will not attempt to house or carry on all the educational activities of the community but only those which it can provide more efficiently than can be done by other agencies. . . It will be the place where various educational agencies of the community are marshalled and brought to bear upon.the community's educational nerve center.‘ The school may also benefit from the use of such come munity services as the public library and the public parks. These institutions have functions that are often duplicated by our schools at considerable expense. 20 Merle Stoneman, Khute Broady, and Alanson Brainard, Planning and Modernizing the School Plant, (Idncoln: University of Nebraska, 1949), p. 52. 195 Life adjustmen t prOgram.. Another method of decreasing the administrative problems and increasing the educational efficiency of the school is a curricular program aimed at meeting the needs of a greater percentage of the students. It is not here suggested that all so called Life Adjustment Programs are good or do meet student needs as they are in- tended to do. Life Adjustment is used here as a descriptive term to apply to those students, particularly on the high school level, who are not interested in attending college, or in work in semi-skilled trades. This includes about nos of the students in the average high school whose needs are being ignored. French, Bull, and Dodds describe the type of prOgram that we have reference to: life adjustment is, of course, the goal of all education for all youth. Observation and study indicates, however, that the present school program markedly fails to meet the needs of that group of youth who are neither academically inclined nor blessed with interests and aptitudes for the skilled occupations. The general education program is fre- quently too academically oriented to be functional for them, and the vocational programs are too special- ized to be useful or appropriate. From.this group 21 comes the largest prOportion of those who drop out. life Adjustment Education is general education built around the common.problems of general family living and vocational education of a less specialized nature. It is further maintained that this type of education is also ___—— 21 Will French, Dan Hull, and B. L. Dodds, American High_§chool Administration, (New York: Binehart and Co., 1951), p- 227. 199 valuable to the college preparatory and the semi-skilled group. This program.offers a new approach in.meeting the needs of this neglected middle group. ‘When these needs are met, many of the discipline problems and many of the drOp out problems will disappear. §_teacher welfare program, Most alert, aggressive administrators today are becoming more and more concerned with the personal welfare of their teachers. A happy, con- tented teacher usually produces happy, contented classes. If the teachers are satisfied the turnover is usually slower, and the administrator is spared the annual "scramble" for new teachers. It is also possible to do a better job in.long range educational planning if the staff is reasonably stable. A principal feature of such a welfare program would be for the administrator to determine COOperatively the best possible placement for his teachers. This would include an assignment to a field of major interest in an area in.which the teacher will be satisfied to continue for a number of years. To force a Latin.teacher to teach a third grade is unfair both to the teacher and the pupils, to say nothing of being a waste of manpower. An unhappy teacher usually makes for an unhappy class. Another phase of this program would be for the admin- istrator to help set up an orientation program for new teachers. Some schools have adopted the ”buddy" plan, under which a new 200 teacher is assigned to an experienced teacher in order to make the adjustment to the new situation easier. An assist can also be given in the matter of locating housing and get- ting acquainted with the townspeople. These programs and others go far in reducing the tension.and feeling of in- security so often found in an individual starting on a new job. In summary, this chapter has been devoted to the following new developments in.the field of education that, when.used effectively, will reduce the administrative burden of the individuals in.charge of the management of a school system and in turn.make for a better educational program. These developments are as follows: 1. The change from the line-staff organization to democratic administration.with participation encouraged from.all those involved in the educational program. 2. Participation.of teachers in.school administration. A. A change from the "chain of commands" idea to the ”middle management" system whereby suggestions for im: provement will go directly to the tOp and.have a reasonable chance of being adopted. B. The teachers and the administrators sitting in.committee session to determine school policy, which is either accepted or rejected by the local school board. 201 C. The teachers and administrators jointly devising merit rating scales, and jointly administer such a scale. D. Change of teachers' role from.a routine worker carrying out orders, to a creative worker who has a definite voice in the policies of the institution. 3. The pupils participation in school administration. A. COOperative planning of an.educational program among teachers and pupils geared to the individual needs of the pupils. B. Student participation in.the formation of the administrative policies that govern the school through an effective dynamic student council program. 4. Participation of community in.school administration. A. The adoption of the principle that the schools belong to the people. ' B. The formation of a community centered or life centered school. C. The use of lay citizen committees to study and offer suggestions for the solution.of school problems. D. Enrichment of the school instructional program by the use of community resources and community facilities. E. Establishing a program.that will encourage the public to use school facilities for the betterment of the com: munity. 2.02 5. Use of new administrative devices pointing to more efficient school operation.and more effective education. A. The adoption of the life Adjustment program on the secondary level. B. The adoption of an activity program that is concerned with the welfare of the teachers as well as the welfare of the pupils of the school. CHAPTER VIII CONCLIBIONS AND REEONMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY It would be appropriate at this time to review briefly the statement Of the problem involved in this study. The purpose Of this study, as stated in Chapter I, is _t_c_>_ evaluate standards of practice _i_I_1 the administration of small school systems and _t_O_ determine the extent to which these practices are being followed. In arriving at these standards it was necessary to make the following investigations: 1. TO find out what constitutes sound and desirable school administration in small school systems at present, as expressed by the thinking Of outstanding educators. 2. TO discover what superintendents and board members think they should be doing in the administration of a school system in an ideal situation. Is the present system satisfactory? 3. TO discover from teachers and principals what they regard as desirable administrative practices, and what practices they feel are not Operating satisfactorily. 4. To discover points of agreement and disagreement among professional educators, superintendents, board members, principals, and teachers. 5. To discover the extent to which administrative 204 practices in representative small school systems agree with the recommended practices Of professional educators, super- intendents, board members, principals, and teachers. 6. To discover and indicate general trends in the administration Of small district schools. 7. TO study some of the modern educational philosOphy and recent thinking in the field Of school administration. TO indicate how these trends, if adopted, will improve school administration and make for better educational programs. Before turning to the general conclusions it would be well to smnmarize briefly the most important findirgs of the research portion Of this study. Summary of Most Important Findings. Based on the research material tabulated from the results Of 2110 inter- views in 60 small district schools, the following findings seem to be the most significant: 1. The tenure of the superintendent Of schools is comparatively short, while the tenure Of the average board member is comparatively long. The tenure Of the superintendent was 2 years compared with 6 years in the case of the board member. 2. Most schools completely ignore the teachers in the formation Of administrative policies. Even in the field Of curriculum construction, where the teachers' specialized . 205 training would be of considerable value, only 16% of the teachers in the sixty schools surveyed were allowed to take even a minor role in policy formation. In only 23% of the schools included in this study do the teachers play a part in the formation of the salary schedule for the school system. 3. The superintendent spends as much of his time in actual teaching as he does in administering the school system. All of the superintendents interviewed included teaching as one of their major duties. On the average they spend 16% of their time in the classroom. 14. In the area of board and superintendent relations where participation and cooperation have been used to arrive at a decision, there has been less dissatisfaction expressed than where one side makes the decision alone. 5. In the area of school finance the board of educa- tion retains much of the administrative power. In 47% of the schools surveyed, the power of the superintendent of schools‘ is greatly checked by the board in the areas of preparing the budget and purchasing supplies. 6. The typical school board in a small district school is rural in its character and make up. The occupational groups most often mentioned in connection with school board membership were farmers and small business men who make a living by selling to the rural citizens. 206 7. In.many school systems boards of education are not utilizing to the fudlest extent the professional advice or experience of their school administrators. In only 5 % of the small districts surveyed does the superintendent prepare the agenda for the board meeting. In 20% of the schools studied the superintendent is not allowed to attend all of the board meetings. 8. In approximately 6556 of the towns surveyed the citizens either have no formal method of choosing members of the school board, or allow the old board to choose new members. 9. The three weaknesses of superintendents of schools most frequently mentioned by board members were in the areas of (l) discipline, (2) personal relations with adults of the community, and (3) business management methods. 10. In 56% of the cases in.the selection.of teaching personnel, and in 42% of the cases in.the selection.on.non- teaching personnel, the superintendent plays a minor part and the board of education.a dominant part in selection of the individual to be hired. 11. In 88% of the schools surveyed, the superintendent is given.full control and responsibility for the extra curricular program. Because of the public relations angle he is reluctant to share this responsibility with his staff. 207 12. The administrative procedure in the assignment of salaries to the teaching personnel in 41% of the schools surveyed is not only highly unsatisfactory, but flagrantly Imethical. The bargaining process is not only undesirable, but undermines the professional status of teaching. The state department of education is neglecting its duty if it knowingly allows this practice to continue. 13. There is need for a formal democratic program for the evaluation of teaching skills for the purpose of retention, promotion, and discharge. All cases surveyed included reactions only from the superintendent and the board on teaching skill. Participation of principals, teachers, students, and citizens of the town would be helpful in this important area. 14. Fifty-three percent of the schools surveyed did not have an established policy with reSpect to the use of school facilities by the general public. The system of deciding each case on its merit leads to inconsistent action and consequently poor public relations. 15. There is considerable confusion in the type of procedure to be used in case an irate parent approaches a board member. The lack of agreement as to the most satisfactory method leads to poor public relations, confusion, and mis- understandings . 206 General Conclusions. The data from 240 interviews in 60 small district schools plus considerable reading in the field of school administration support the following conclu- sions: 1. Under the present line-staff organization, leaders __iI_1_ the field 9: school administration believe that the .s_1_1_p_r- intendent should assume the leadership in setting 332 groups _o_f_ g__itizens and teachers 39 work 9}} rgcpggngndations for imprgved administrative practiceg. Present day writers in school management seem to be in accord in advocating democratic participation in policy forma- tion. However, they also agree that it is the direct respon- sibility of the school executive to encourage suggestions, help set up study groups, and present the recommendations made by these groups to the board of education. The superintendent must assume this vital role in the educational program of his school or democratic administration will be ineffective. 2. Present day experts __ip the field 9_f_‘_ education continually emphagizg the importance _o_f good commmication between the school and the general public. A school that can communicate easily and intelligently with its local citizenry has a minimum of public relations problems. Much of the difficulty encountered in educational administra- tion comes from a lack of understanding and a lack of con- fidence between the school officials and the general public. 209 If the lines of comrmmication are Open, most misunderstandings can be cleared up more readily. 3. Write_r-_s_ _i}; the field _o_f education agree that the _u_s_e _o_f writ_t_e_n__ pqlicggg regarding administrative procedures is preferable _t_c_>_ deciding each case _o_n its individual magi. This item applies particularly to the fields of personnel policies, pupil policies, and policies concerning the use of school facilities by the school staff and the general public. Consistency and fairness are possible only where policies are in a written form and have been made available to teachers and citizens alike. As one writer remarked, there is some question as to‘ whether it is a policy at all if it is not in a written form. Over half of the schools participating in this study which were without written policies are now at Work on the formulation of their policies in written form. 4. Superintendents feel that boards p_f_‘_ education are assuming administrative ppwers that properly belong _t_o_ the school executive. This seems to be particularly true in the areas of selection of personnel, preparation of the budget, purchase of supplies, and Organization of and participation in the board meetings. School administrators feel that the board and the citizens of the town hold them personally responsible for all that transpires in the school system; yet in many areas they are not allowed even to make sugges- tions . 21’) 5. The typical board 9_f_f education is reluctant pg giye its superintendent _of schools freedom _o_f _ag_t_i_qn .111 many areas. _‘I'hig ig particularly true Q 311?. apeg _o_f finance. In 147% of the schools surveyed, the authority and power of the chief school administrator are considerably checked in his activities in preparing the budget and purchasing supplies. It seems that the superintendent in a small town is allowed only one mistake. After the error is made, the board assumes control in this area. It seems that the board of education should show more confidence in the ability of its superintendent. This added show of faith may transform the administrator from a clerk following the orders of the board to an educational leader who will be able to help guide the educational program of the school in such a way that a better school will result. 6. The superintendent spends the maiority _o_f _h_i_s _t_i_r_n_e teaching and doirg routine clerical 322... fig does not have sufficient extra time _t_q properly supervise the educational prggram 93 the school. More than half of the administrators interviewed frankly admitted that they neglected the super- vision of their teachers. One administrator said he found himself working with things, rather than people. On the average 70% of the superintendent's time is spent on clerical work and teaching. If we could free the school executive of the clerical work that a secretary could easily 211 handle, he would be able to spend more time on the educational program of the school and work with his teachers more effectively. 7. Boafls p1: education and teachers consistently mention that one p_f_‘ the most serious weaknesses pi the typical superintendent is. _h__i_s_ inability _tp get along with people. By getting along we do not mean agreeing with everyone in the conqunity. The meaning here applies to the lack of the ability of the superintendent to work with others in a group for COOperative action. He is unable to work with others, and the school soon becomes a "one man" show. Whether this situation is due to lack of confidence or lack of training, much of the responsibility for this must be assumed by teacher training institutions. More training should be offered in techniques for organizing peOple into workable groups. We also need to help prospective administrators to better adjust themselves to living with people in a community. 8. Two weaknesses pf school administration most fre- quently mentioned py teacpers _Ls the inability 93: the school executive __tp p_a_sp 9n policy infpmation _tp his teachers, and pig inability _tp help his teachers __ip the field 91 curriculum ing discipline. If the teachers were invited to participate in policy making there would be little need to pass the information along, since the teachers would be aware of it. A complaint of this type can come only from a school operated on an 212 undemocratic basis. If the administrator insists on excluding his staff from participating in policy making, he should at least on the grounds of common courtesy inform them of the decisions made. Curriculum and discipline difficulties are listed together because one is symtomatic of the other. Discipline trouble is usually caused by the use of a school curriculum that is not geared to the needs of the individual pupils. If students feel the instructional program is inadequate they will become bored and discipline trouble will follow. If the administrator will adapt the curriculum to the needs of the students, discipline problems will decrease materially. 9. 311m _i_s_ _l_<_3_s_s_ difference 9; Opinion amopg m- sional educators, board members, app supepintendents pp p29- gedppes _m the field pf pug; personnel pp]; public relations. Though some of the practices used in these areas are far from ideal, the three groups agree fairly well upon what the ideal procedure should be. All agree that policies in pupil person- nel and public relations should be centralized in the super- intendent's office. They agree that participation of all concerned is desirable, but that the superintendent should assume the leadership for the program. They also feel that the superintendent and his staff should assume the responsi- bility for the formation and execution of pupil personnel policies, with, of course, approval of the board of education. In case of an attack on the school, all parties agree that Qlj the board of education should at least cooperate with the superintendent and his staff to the extent of seeing that the entire issue is fairly and accurately presented. 10. Professional writers E the field p_f_ education disagpee _w_i_._1;_1;_1 supepintendents and board members o__r__1 many pypgg _c_>_f_' procedures g the field 93 staff personnel, finance, and curriculum. The writers in the area of school administra- tion would definitely insist that the teachers be given an Opportunity to participate in the formation of policies in this area. The study reveals that administrators and board members are reluctant to invite the school staff to contribute suggestions in these three areas. Writers feel that the teachers will be more effective in their work and their morale will be greatly improved if they are given a chance to help. It seems that superintendents and boards of education have jealously guarded their power in these areas and are unwilling to share it with their staffs. ll. _Thp office 9: principal _o_f the high schoozl= and £139.; pf principal p_f_ the grade school _i_g dying out pp p vital factor __ip small school administration. In most of the schools surveyed there is only one real school administrator with any authority, the superintendent of schools. In several of the schools included in this study, the title of principal has been discontinued and administrative authority is centralized. In small schools the principal is a figurehead, with few adminis- 214 trative duties beyond checking the daily attendance. This trend toward centralizing administrative authority helps to. encourage undemocratic administration. 12. Most small district schools are inclined _tp base their decisions nggngipg the evaluation pf the wo;:k p_f_ the teaching staff almost entirely O__I_1 the pldgment pf the super- intendent. In 74% of the schools surveyed the. school admin- istrator either plays a major. part or is in complete charge of the promotion, retention, or discharge of the teaching staff. This practice also encourages undemocratic adminis- tration. It places too much power in the hands of the school executive. The teaching staff and the citizens of the community should be invited to participate in such an evalua- tion. 13. _I_n_ 2.1.6.5. £222 pi: purr ipulum, public relations, and personpel, the superintendent plgyg p dominant pap}; g php formation _o_f policy. _Ip the areas p_f_ finance and personnel his activities are closely checked and significantly limited. In this conclusion the activities of the superintendent also include such help as may be given by his staff." In the __first three areas suggestions for policy formation which have evolved in the school executive's office are usually approved by the board. However, in 50% of the schools included in this study, the policies regarding personnel and finance are board inspired. It is unfortunate that the board of 215 education in these schools does not have enough confidence in.the ability of its superintendent and staff to grant them a greater part in policy formation, The superintendent should at least have the authority to offer suggestions. 14. Many writers ppppipp ppap ip the future our schools pill p_e_ more democratic and the teachers will actually have .p Egg; ip the formation 9: school policies. At present the trend is toward more participation.by all parties concerned in the formation.of school policies. Citizens of the town, as well as the members of the teaching staff, are asked to offer suggestions and help. The board of education, as a legal representative of the interests of the community, will re- tain.the right of veto over any suggested legislation. 15. The future use pf mppe citizen gpgppp pp ppppy school problems and offer spggestions‘fpp their solution will .lpag pp a mppp satisfactory school situation. In recent years there has been.considerable interest in the work of lay committees in.the interest of solving school problems. At present, this:movement has failed to penetrate the admin- istrative organization of small district schools. The purpose of such.committees is not to relieve the constituted authority of the school of any responsibility, but rather to give them a sounder basis upon.which.to make decisions affecting the over-all policy of the school. It is also a move in the direction of producing a true community school situations 216 Eplications p: the ptudy and Suggestions for Further Research. The tenure of the superintendent of schools in the smaller districts continues to be very unstable. The position of the school administrator is becoming increasingly difficult. The clerical demands of the office are increasing yearly. Because of the shortage of qualified elementary teachers , many small school districts are forced to employ teachers with inadequate qualifications on the grade school level. For this reason, supervision by the administrator on this level is more needed now than in periods when teachers were more plentiful. The increase in the cost of living has made it necessary again to make salary adjustments upward. Because of the decline of farm prices, boards of education have been reluctant to grant these salary increases. All of these problems and others have complicated the task of manage- ment of a school system. As the problems increase in number and complexity, the need for a democratic administration structure becomes even more apparent than previously. An emmleration of some of the major implications of this‘ study follows: 1. School boards, with the assistance of the superin- tendent and other qualified personnel, need to deveIOp a set of criteria for the selection of a new superintendent of schools should the need arise. 2. Teacher training institutions need to discover 217 how to prepare prospective administrators in techniques of leadership to interest citizens and teachers in working COOperatively in groups to help solve school problems. 3. School boards need professional help in.the select? ion.of new superintendents. Teacher training institutions and state departments of education could render valuable service in this area. 4. An.inrservice study program.should be organized to study the needs of various types of small communities. Such information would be valuable to institutions training pro- spective administrators. If we know the competencies needed by administrators in.small school systems, training programs can be modified to meet these needs. 5. Teacher training institutions should give the prospective administrator more opportunity to use the methods and the philosOphy learned in the classroom in actual school situations. The area of curriculum was indicated by this study as one neglected by the small school administrator. If the prospective administrator were given.practical experience tn this area he might be more inclined to sponsor curriculum projects in his own school. Increased interest in internships for administrators seems to indicate a recognition of the need for more practical experience. 6. It would be of interest to determine what the inr dividual citizens of a small community expect from.their school 218 administrator with respect to educational leadership. The results of such a study would be invaluable in developing a program of public information concerning the duties and responsibilities of this position. 7. Since the schools belong to the public, or the community at large, the administrator should be doing more to organize a formal program for the interpretation of the school to the various publics in the community. Through prOper leadership on the part of the school executive, the opinions and attitudes of the people may be changed to the extent that they will desire and demand a better school program. 8. Teacher training institutions should give the prospective administrator more practical training in the field of finance. One reason school boards may be reluctant to give the superintendent more authority in the area of finance is that they do not believe the administrator has had prOper training in this field. School superintendents also have expressed themselves as favoring more training in this area. 9. A study is needed to determine the effect on a small school system of the application of the principles of democratic administration, particularly in regard to the practice of teachers participating in the policy making of the school. If such a practice proved successful, the results of such a study would do much to encourage other school systems to adOpt similar procedures. BIBMOGQA PHY 22’.) A. BOOKS Albig, William, Public Opinion. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1959. 486 pp. Benn, Allan E., The Management Dictionary. New YOrk: The EXposition Press, 1952. 981 pp. Campbell, Clyde M., Practical Applications pf Democratic Administration. New York: Farper and Brothers, 1952- 35 PP- Cook, Dennis, Administering the Teachigg Personnel. Chicago: Benjamin H. Sanborn Company, 1940. j48 pp. Cubberley, Ellwood P., gublic School Administration. Cambridge, Mass.: BOughton—Mifflin Company, 1916. 710 pp. Cyr, Franka., Besponsibility for Bural School deinistjation. New York: Bureau of Publications - Teachers College, Columbia University, l9jj. 158 pp. Dawson, POward A.,_§atisfactory Local School Units. Field Study 7. Nashville, Tenn.: Division of Surveys and Field Studies, George Peabody College for Teachers, 1954. 180 pp. Fine, Benjamin, Educational_§ublicity. Revised edition; New York: Harper and Brothers, 1951. 561 pp. Flesch, Budolph F., The Art of Plain Talk. New York: Harper '“flm Giles, Harry‘Hfl, Teacher-Pppil Planning. New York: Parper and Brothers, 1941. 595 pp. Good, Carter Victor, Dictionary 9: Education. First edition; New York: McGra -Hill Booszompany, Inc., 1945. 495 pp. Hagman, Harlan In, The Administration p: Amerigan Public Schools. First edition; New York: McGraw-Fill Book Company, Inc., 1951. 428 pp. Hand, Parold, What Peeple Think About Their Schools. YOnkers- on-Hudson: WOrld Book Company, 1948. 215 pp. Huggett, Albert J., Practical School fidministratipp. Champaign, Illinois: The Garrard Press, 1950.L 284 pp. 221 KOOpman, Robert, Alice Miel, and Paul Misner, Democracy in Administration. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1945. 521 pp. Moehlman, Arthur 8., School Administration. Cambridgez. Houghton.Mifflin.Co., 1951. 512 pp. , Social Interpretation. New York: Appleton Century- Crofts, 1nc., 1958. 485 pp. Monroe, Walter 8., Encyclopedia 9: Educational Research. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1950. 1520 pp. Morrison, John C., The Legal Status 9: the City School Super- intendent. Baltimore: warwick Press, 1952. 217 pp. Mort, Paul R., and'William 3. Vincent, Modern Educational Practice. First edition; New York: McGraw—Hill Book Company, Inc., 1950. 457 pp. Mort, Paul B., and'Walter C. Beusser, Public School Finance. Second edition; New YOrkx McGraw-Hill Book:Company, Inc., 1951. 059 pp. Niles, Mary 0., Middle Management. New York: ‘Farpers and Brothers, 1949. 274 pp. Olsen, Edward G., School and Community Programs. New York: Prentice Hall Inc., 194o. 510 pp. Pfiffner, John.McDonald, The Supervision 9: Personnel. New York: Prentice Hall Inc., 1951. 454 pp. Philbrick; John.D., City School Systems in the United States. U. S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Education, 1, washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1885. 187 pp. Pittenger, Benjamin.F., Local Public School Administration. First edition; New York: McGraw-Hill Book:Company, Inc., 1951. 512 pp. Punke, Harold H., memunity Uses Q: Public School Facilities. New York: King's Crown.Press, Columbia University, 1951. 247 pp. ' Reeder, Ward G., Schgol Boards and Superintendents. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1945. 798 pp. 229 5.... , The Fundamentals g: Public School Pdministration. Third edition; New York: The Macmillan Company, 1951. 750 pp- Beller, Theodore L., The Development of the City Superinten- dency'g£ Schools i; the United States. Philadelphia: the Author, 1955- 520.PP° Seckier-Puds on, Catheryn, Proce sse s5_§ Or~°nizntior a‘nd M‘naae- ‘ ment. Washington, D. C. Public .PlfB irs Press, 1940 . 29b pp. Smith, B. Otha niel puiliam 0. Stanley, and J. Parlan Shores, Fprda mentals of CurriCL {lum_2eve10pment. Ybnkers-on-Fudson World Book Company, 1950. 780 pp. Stoneman, Merle A., Knute O. Broady, and flanson D. Brainard, Planning and Modernizin: the School Plant. Lincoln, Nebr.: University of Nebraska Press, 1940. 528 pp. 'Van.Miller, and Willard B. Spaulding, The Public fidministration Q£_5merican Schools. First edition; New York: World Book Company, Yonkers- on—Pudson, 1952. 808 pp. Pahlquist, John T., William E. anold, Boald F. Campbell, Theodore L. Feller, and Lester B. Sands, The Administration IQ£_Ppblic quca tion. New York: The Bonald Press, 1952. 611 pp. B. PEBIODICSL ABTICIES Bolmeier, E. C., “Superintendents ! praise Pre-Service Train- 0 H ing, The School PXecutive, 71: 2, July, 1952. Campbell, Clyde M., “A Democr atic Structure to Further Demo- cratic‘Values,” Procressive Eiucation, 50:25, November 1952. , “The Administrator Treads a Perilous Path, Nation's Schools, 49:49, March, 1952. Cooking, walter, "Schools Belong to the PeOple,” The School Emecutive, 71:40, January, 1952 Coulter, Kenneth G., ”Traininv Superintendents,’ The School Evecutive, 71: 55, July, 1952. 22) Eewey, John, ”The Primary Education Fetich,” Forum and Centugy, 25, May, 1595. Editorial, ”The Greatest Need for 1952,” Nation's School 49:51, January, 1952. 3: Editorial, “Sick Leave Allowances," Nation's Schools, 32:27, December, 1945. Edmiston, 9. W1, and Donald E. Garrison, ”Tenure of adminis- trative Peads of Public Schools,“ Educational Administra- tion and Supervisigg, 55:}, March, 1950. Flower, George E., “Belationship with PeOple is the Key,” fmerican School Board Journal, 124:6, June 1952. Penzlik, F. E., "Ways That Felp the Superintendent to Make the Most of His Day,” Nation's Schools, 6:55-59, November, 1951. Jones, waard 9., ”A Bill of Rights for School Administrators,” University 9: Michigan.School 9: Education Bulletin, 23: 55- 90, March, 1952. Kbopman, G. T., ”Merit Plan,” fiichihan.Rducatign Journal, 25: 165-66, October, 1947. Lake, Ernest G., ”The New Look in School Organization and Administration,“ American School Board Journal, 126:29, February, 1953. Melby, Ernest, ”A Concept of Dynamic Education," Educational Trends, June-July, 1955. Miller, Bruce, “The Superintendent as an Educational leader," The S9hool.§;ecutive, 71:70, June, 1952. Mosier, Earl 3., and John E. Baker, “Midwest Superintendents on the Move," Nation's Schools, 49:45, January, 1952. Noble, Stuart G., "Early School SUperintendents in.New Orleans,” Journal of Educational Besearch, 24:247-79, November, 1931. Rogers,'Virgil M., "The Superintendent,“ NBA Journal, 41:110- 11, February, 1952. Shepoiser, L. H., "The Superintendent as an.Administrat0r,“ The School Executive, 71:72, June, 1952. weaver, B. 9., ”Check List Showing Pow to Identify a Superintend- ent of Education,” The SQhQQl.EX€QuEiKQJ 62:36, May, 1943. ,- .r 3:)”. 'C. PUBEJCATIONS OF iaeaman ore KNIZATIONS “Developing Leaders for Education,” A Report of a.Wbrk:Con- ference of Professors of Educational Administration, 1947. Endicott, New York. 160 pp. "Educational leadership," EJeventh Yearbook of the Department of Superintendengy of the N‘fl. Washington, D. C. February, 1953. 663 pp. “Emerging Programs for Improving Educational lea dership," A Peport of the 3rd Werk:Conference of National Conference of Professors of Educational Administration. Clear Lake, Battle Creek; Michigan, 1949. 117 pp. “Public Velations for America's Schools,” Twenty7Eithh Year- book of the American Associatign Q: School administrators, Department 9: the NEA. washington, D. C., 1950. 497 pp. “Some Beasons‘Why School Administrators Succeed or Fail,” A Report from.the National Institutional Teacher Placement Association to the National Conference of Professors of Educational Administration.delivered to the NCPEA Come mittee of Preparation Programs for School Administration, rA34 Peqional Conference. St. Louis, Missouri, February, 1952.16 pp. "The American School Superintendency,' Thirtieth Yearbook of The American fissociation of Sghggl Ldmin1stration, Depart— ment of the NEA. washington, D. C. , 19 665 pp. “The Superintendent of Schools and His Wbrk,“ The Final Report of the Committee on Certification of Superintendents of Schools. AASA, a department of the'NEA. washingtonq TLC., February, 1940. 32 pp. D. UNPUBLJSHLEIMATEEIAIS Archerd, Fredrick 8., "A Comparison of the Efficiency of School Systems in Relation to the Tenure of the Superin- tendent." Unpublished Master' 3 Thesis, The University of Nebraska, Lincoln, 1931. 127 pp. Eenben, John 8., "Changing Concept of School Administration as Pevealed in City School Surveys, 1920-50." Unpublished Doctor's dissertation, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, 1952. 276 pp. 225 Gerstbacher, Charles, “Areas in Conflict in California School Administration." Unpublished Doctor's dissertation, Uni- versity of Southern California, California Association of School Administrators, Pasadena, 1951. 315 pp. Hitt, James B. , ”A Case Study of the Careers of Public School Administrators Who Have Fad Much Experience in Small School Systems." Unpublished Master‘s thesis, The University of Nebraska, Lincoln, 1932. 132 pp. Shepard, Lloyd A. , "The Superintendent's Work Schedule." Un- published Master's thesis, The University of Nebraska, Lincoln, 1937. 167 pp. APPEN DIX 1);) b WANG.“ H 2 2 2 a. z 2 a. : 2 a a h o a . L n F u r _ “I.“ "I19...- ._.u¢..o'l_ O R H 2i. ‘5. . 9,... 29. .l B T __ . .5. s. . m an...” 538. 23:22: A E N :o 9...: 2:3 2 9...... 5.1.3:. 02. .EE: £35052. C N I a E 5.2....“ a... u... a.“ n N I o. a or” - Scrum...» .. _- 3.“ . .3 3 oz .3. w I 6v. u... ”a. an s.” " 1.. ~an .lO.l<_m - 0:. Iva-ad 3 s 8 a 0— o S 'u E 1 a .2. 5c: .. 25.: g 3 ' : O _30 3.26 (a 1. mg. 1“: o T v . a :2, 39-7... e 3:... 5:36.. I A S x at 2 05:3 .0? (3:5! fiwgmwz . R . . E: 3...... . mu.” 5...... .—..J :0 a I '25 E w U 2... “oar“ SSH-ad . a 233 9338 _ a . c If. f. 35 mEdbo E300 , H C S a .. «a x...“ 2 s. ii: R c n :5 lo. ‘vf‘ixr - u 0.1» :35 5 ab. :9: 3:15-01 . x .E _ (Grime mmwhmwIQ 0.. 23.. c an . P03. ( (an: . oz 0." 0 ' 0 “o. 82 ‘ Uh!” ‘WIP-W. O ‘ v up“ w u o .133 J up - >338 w”. 558 253 zomcuzmu: «2:5 . 38a .2 u 5.55 . . . 20m 955 . .3? / £8. . . o 2356 .3350: 33.5 m: — ‘ .33 00m 0 02.330 Shibw 6mg CUJUUX’ 042% $304 92; m<801> CNXOOI h2<¢0 — . — e 2993:» . 1.1! at}! . — 084 i . ~ 85... u» ... 25m 3.. . o 39.3 . 4n _ 20KB . o O _ 88¢ , — _r. . :9. \.\l: {538 o \ ’0 . o 0’ . I — o (it (rut EUZU 2389.3 mga oral-Lovfi-luInlalnlulululalul lulu x § 4. ’30“! 6. 21 IOWA 1i: ./ 2 _ 2 ._ 2 _ a. _ = _ a. F o. _ .00 — ‘ F ' h .I .l...... 91.5. .9 n .4 . 20:3 3 .. 2 9 I322— . .2. _ 0 1 012 0 _n 2 23.021 2 x (an: «In. 20 29‘ _ 2.425.: a. u «so - 5:30 2 0 it. call "Hr-punt: . . x. H. \ c a 2...... .20.!- 2. 2v 2 «I: _ 182 ~ 2 to: v 0 3.2 a :0 8. ~ 0.2.: a 2 3.2 :30 a . 02,8 .100. l I) ll}: ., $.99:- 27 , _ 2. . 2.20! o . 3...: =83 . 2 :2 . 2.5.08 2 .5 _ 9.2: . 0 :1 .0685: 2 u 1...: :Li. 2 2 3: .2210 2 0 238. 292! 29.2 . . .ill ~ 0 2.13 ESQ-Del \ 0 _S V... 2.2.20 2 I 20.: 22.0 L a .2 2 1.2: 2 .. 6. 2 g; o 2 3. I :99. 2 a 2.. 2 31420.20 3 . 32 2 5.2.3 .2; unfit-‘0 «2‘,- v.92v32213u 2 2 2 . K 225222.! c z 2... ._ 55:2 3. 22 3 3.2233. c. . f; .3 .2: r: 8. 2 it! 2 0 2. : 302030 c 0 «S 2 2:02.20 4 x 92 : .8303 «27.0.03. :9 . ...... . 2.: 30-2285 .2 2.. 00. :03 2 $1.; 5280.80! .2 . c .3 n x 09...; g a 2 i... 2 2:21.220 0. I .203 088 0.03 2 4 a: 3092‘ . ._ . 3.. 3 2:03! 0 . 93 : 2 c _ Ell! 2 . t 739.... .: . a: 2 £0.22 a. 2 .90... 31.09 30 20 032 2.005 2.2 .252 a; 02— .>z 0520 30022222 0222. 20:83 . 3802... 20.5: .. ..\ o 82.0: $0 taut...- 2'34)... 2' Pa ‘W’JRW- " . O Y A >25: 285:2 030223 002202 9.03 3.530 20.2: $220920: Nu m . . 359 OOO3¢W0217 20 w m E \ . J O . n — I \O . ZOPUZ§m<3 .563. (Km; 20.5} / Zulu—<3 20mg. ¢.(O( ‘ 'wfidt(3<:02 J 00 T 0 .\ .3.th 52:34 J 2 u N . 02:23:: . L. ‘11 w... a J “ o \ 43... 13462 .I. E x .I 2 ‘2J 34¢“. \o 200220. 225. 20.22.0262 532.. 50.. 9320 0.2250 7 2000002 >323 {SuyamFSzA W m n o «280 M 2' A u . 0 (cv- W 00 .- 292. 0/ c ' mo $220222 5.05 02000 02320 $02220 02023220 2 T 22020: .2 co (:3 b R . . J 0 0 H / 52:20 2.0221 20» 4.22: 23055 9% «cl..— >23883r-I II 2 / 0000000 0222.53 . 2222103 22.2: 552 5583 I O 0 In 0 I. /. ’2 $2020 2350 232225 020.23 54002:: 92201200.. <5; 22000 00202020 250:»: .\ 2 — 20:30 :5»: \ q‘ u I . 2.3.5.920 90: a \ 0028 0250 200022: 052 0022 :30 20.3.0 .50.... . H O / .v . r / . . >62 3020 F 5203 82322.2, :30 232.290 . o < 0 wu‘gi ”fizlzpfillowr. Illhhfil I'll IIIII.[IFIhIIIP—U‘l3u vlillLllbluwfilllJvaflaL TABLE XXVIII MIMIOS “MUG TEE SCHOOLS INVOLVED I! mm mm A) ID on contra roman Size of School Town County Papulgtion Gr. H. 8. Valuation Genoa lanai 245 128 131 $1,804,000 St. Murd- Bom 195 109 108 1,042,000 gunning Greeley 220 35 31 870,000 lrickoon wheeler 118 63 49 323,000 0rd Yancy 2,239 288 237 3, 376,000 Scotia, Greeley 191 123 108 1,770,000 8%. Pull Howard 330 234 149 1,880,000 mp.» Ila-rick '79 . 53 48 1,000,000 Silver Crook Herrick 134 101 69 1,134,000 00hr 80103 Bonn. 541 93 45 1,335,000 11- Crook name 799 133 34 1,282,000 Gibbon M2310 1,063 225 140 1,828,000 Callus: cantor 744 128 116 800,000 want Guitar 818 145 104 900,000 Arcadia. Valley 5% 107 78 813,000 (hire an 422 85 57 733,000 Doniphan Hall 412 70 53 736,000 300111. Howard 167 71 37 650,000 mu . mum 1,413 244 195 1,785,000 My City mm 1,508 177 13? 1,999,000 ILBLE nun (Continued) 8111152108 GONWING THE SCHOOLS INVOLVED II M SURVEY 2’89 lantern Nebraska. Size of School Em county Population Gr. 8. 8. Valuation mncen Platte 228 25 24 81,063,000 Rising City Butler 374 54 64 955,000 Valparaiso Semen $2 59 47 953,000 lerth Bend Dodge 906 155 128 1, 837,000 Pepillien' 8.1-” 1,034 177 126 2,286,000 11.1» Under: 151 25 17 548,000 Brainard htler 373 70 15 736,000 Oreetae Platte 228 43 38 651,000 legle Ge.” 265 112 53 2.38.000 Ween htler 381 81 50 913,000 Home rlette . 269 a 29 742,000 Platte Center Platte 422 81 39 800,000 Bellwed htler 389 70 42 660,000 Linwood mtler 168 27 ‘ 18 540,000 Intel under- 287 45 49 1,084,000 . Kennel-d Washington 273 40 38 850,000 molly Polk 624 80 54 1,035,000 Gresha- Ierk 269 111 52 2,988,000 Leigh Colfax 551 73 86 1,274,000 clerks Herrick 454 102 78 1,418,000 mu XIVIII (Continued) 8111185108 WINNING THE SCHOOLS INVOLVED II THE SURVEY Intern love. 290 Size of School town County Population Cr. 3. 8. Venetian liotn hoe 227 173 77 81 ,214,000 “as none. Gnu 500 83 73 1,002,000 Ore: Andnbon 200 101 43 989,000 kin Audubon 1, 122 193 184 1, 240, 000 31011:: melt: 592 214 106 2,835,000 i'ennent Shelby 95 66 32 1,164,000 Peroie. Kerri-on 339 97 72 527,000 Piogah Hnrrieon 400 142 70 1,270,000 mun 1:111. 1,265 216 111 1,295,000 hereon Itille 589 120 84 465, 000 lanolin Horrieon 230 127 53 986, 000 Vole e-Linooln Iontgonery 45 111 53 1, 353,000 Beebeetovn hrrieon 45 76 39 518 ,000 8ilver City llille 350 116 38 495,000 1001; Pettevnttenie 918 83 51 805, 000 Glenvood lille 4,000 294 197 2,280,000 Underwood Pettnvettenie 400 112 112 1,563,000 nodule Harrison :00 118 49 2, 163, 000 Canon Pottnvettolie 550 218 83 2,144,000 londnnin Horrioon 489 117 73 1,804,000 'v‘ TABLE mx mm OF SMISE‘ICS GONCMING THE SCHOOLS INVOLVED IN THE SURVEY Iotele for the Different Irene leetern Rebraekn Average Hodian Central Nehrneh Arerege lledien Veetern love herea- Hedien Pmtion 402 392 510 481 ___..omd 2221': 22.1.: _____m 1r- m . Average ledien 498 Size of School 9;. 74 70 133 109 120 1.11 3,8, 53 99 78 77 70 12229210.! 31,191,000 956,000 1, 303,000 1,042,000 974,000 996,w0 1,156,000 985,000 2.1.,- JE 1 2 540475!" 5E 1? '54 -7 ‘\9\‘°’ _ N . Apr '22“ 535%., Oct 11 5S ."LI :5 ‘1' Aug 2 '57 ~ _ l f ”a ’0 , ~.‘ my 22 ”:0?!" IL 1‘ Jan 1'3 33 3:?" '7 Nov 8 $58 7; '7‘}; 77.7, 24 "a I"? Dec 8 253 " 1c- " 3 1:. ' " 9 ('13: _8‘ ' MAR 1 02901551" .3 .7 ‘r‘ {LA—r ‘7 by” .__1 U' 3 'J U 5 £2 4 t ('11.; 3' '771111111111111111111"