AN INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECT OF A PROGRAMED INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD ON SKILL LEARNING IN AUDIOVISUAL EDUCATION Thesis Ior Hm Dogma oI Ed. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Roger L. Gordon 1963 THESIS This is to certify that the thesis entitled AN INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECT OF A PROGRAMED INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD ON SKILL LEARNING IN AUDIOVISUAL EDUCATION presented by ROGER L. GORDON has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ed, D. degree in Education Major professor pm 7 /7 0-169 LIBRARY Michigan State University -u—M --..-. IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII ABSTRACT AN INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECT OF A PROGRAMED INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD ON SKILL LEARNING - IN AUDIOVISUAL EDUCATION ,7 I‘LIJ by Roger L: Gordon Much interest during the recent past has centered in the area of motor skill learning. Much research has been conducted demonstrating that motor skills can be taught and learned successfully by a number of methods. A major problem in the training of motor skills lies in the choice of an efficient teaching method. Increased use in schools of audiovisual devices, shOp and business machines, and automated office devices has created a strong need for new and more effective motor skill training techniques. A teaching technique commanding much interest and re— search today is that of programed learning. At the present time, documented research on motor skill training through programed learning has been carried out only by the mili- tary and industry on teaching machines with the use of projected media (film, filmstrip, slide) and/or computer based programing systems. It was proposed that if the programed textbook, with its advantages of economy and availability could be found Roger L. Gordon effective in teaching motor skills information in the class- room, the results could be of great importance to education. This study investigated the effect of a programed textbook on student learning and reactions regarding 16mm motion picture projection principles and projector operation skills. Sixty-eight students participated in the experiment in the winter term, 1963. The students were divided into two matched groups. One group received a carefully pre— pared lecture with demonstration on projection principles and projector operation followed by an individual_unguided projector practice session while the other group worked through a programed textbook on projection principles and projector Operation. The book contained a linear program with photographs or drawings in each individual frame. Following the programed lesson, the participants in the programed textbook group engaged in an individual unguided projector practice session. Immediately following the training sessions, the participants completed a projection principles written test and a projector Operation skills test. Each participant also filled out a training session reaction questionnaire. Findings showed that when students used the programed textbook with visuals for the learning of principles (an intellectual activity), they learned more in less time and reacted more favorably to the method employed than did the Roger L. Gordon lecture with demonstration group. But when the students used the programed textbook with visuals as a step toward learning projector operation (a mechanical skill), they had difficulty transfering skills information from the book to the machine and consequently showed no advantage over the other group in actual learning of projector opera- tion or in use of training session time. It appeared that a major reason for this outcome arose from the basic problem of attempting to learn details about a skill prior to actual work on the skill itself. Although an attempt was made to anticipate this difficulty in the nature and number of programed items developed for the skills part of the experiment, it was not successful. A replication experiment was held during the spring term of 1963 to test the reliability of the findings. Findings either showed exact duplications or were closely similar to those obtained in the original experiment one term earlier. AN INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECT OF A PROGRAMED INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD ON SKILL LEARNING IN AUDIOVISUAL EDUCATION By (K, Roger L;JGordon A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements DOCTOR OF EDUCATION College of Education 1963 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT During the preparation, carrying out, and reporting of this study, much valuable assistance was received from a number of persons. The author particularly wishes to thank his Guidance Committee Chairman, Dr. Charles F. Schuller and other members of the Committee who were Dr. Harold Dillon, and Dr. William Faunce for their efforts in his behalf. Other special acknowledgement goes to Mr. John Gordon and Mr. Elwood Miller for their assistance in analyzing the statistical data and Mrs. Ann Brown for the typing. The author would like to pay special tribute to Miss Johanna Schunemann for her complete and concise editing of the original manuscript. Without Miss Schuneman's interest and that of the previously ment- ioned persons, this study could not have been completed. ii DEDICATION This study is dedicated to my darling wife Sharon whose overall patience and understanding contributed so greatly to my work. . . . iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v Chapter I O I INTRODUCTION 0 O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O 1 Statement of the Problem . . . . . . . . 1 Background of the Problem . . . . . . . 3 Importance of the Problem . . . . . . . lO Scope of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . 18 Limitations of the Study . . . . . . . 19 Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . . . ’22 Methodology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 II. REVIEW OF PERTINENT LITERATURE. . . . . . . 26 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Motor Skill Research . . . . . . 26 Educational Media and Motor Skill Research. . . 3O Programed Learning and Skill Research. . 36 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 III. METHODS AND PROCEDURES. . . . . . . . . . . 40 Organizing and Constructing the Program. 40 The Experiment . . . . . . . . . . 57 The Replication Experiment . . . . . . . 62 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . 62 IV. PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS. . . . . . . . . . 65 V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . 90 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 APPENDICES . O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O 100 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 iv Table 10 10. 11. 12. LIST OF TABLES Number of Significant Incorrect Constructed Responses per Frame . . . . . . Number of Significant Incorrect Constructed Reaponses per Frame . . . . . . . . Comparison of Major Areas of Study of 64 Undergraduate Participants in Experimental and Control Groups . . . . . . . . Mean Grade Point Average to Winter Term 1963 of 6A Undergraduate Participants in Experi- mental and Control Groups . . . . . . Summary of Indications of Prior Experience Involving Mechanical Aptitudes and Interests of 68 Participants in Experimental and Control Groups. . . . . . . . . . Summary of Indications of Prior Skill Experi- ence of 68 Participants in Experimental and Control Groups. . . . . . . . . . Comparison of Previous Knowledge of Projection Principles of 68 Participants in Experimental and Control Groups . . . . . Pre- Test Scores on Projection Principles Test of 68 Participants in Experimental and Control Groups. . . . Comparison of Knowledge Gained on Projection Principles by 68 Participants in Experimental and Control Groups . . . . . . . . . Post- Test Scores on Projection Principles Test of 68 Participants in Experimental and Control Groups. . . . . . . . Comparison of Knowledge Gained on Projector Operation by 68 Participants in Experimental and Control Groups . . . . . . Post- Test Scores on Projector Operation Test of 68 Participants in Experimental and Control Groups. . . . . . . Page 48 51 66 67 67 68 59 69 70 71 73 74 Table Page 13. Reactions of 68 Participants to Two Types of Projection Principles and Operation Training on the 16MM Sound Motion Picture Projector Winter Term 1963 . . . . . . . . . . 75 14. Reaction of 34 Experimental Group Participants to Two Types of Projection Principles and Operation Training on the 16MM Sound Motion . Picture Projector Winter Term 1963 . . . . 76 15. Comparison of Major Areas of Study of 117 Undergraduate Participants in Experimental and Control Groups in Replication Study . . 82 16. Mean Grade Point Average to Winter Term 1963 of 117 Undergraduate-Participants in Experi- mental and Control Groups in Replication Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 17. Summary of Indications of Prior Experience Involving Mechanical Aptitudes and Interests of 122 Participants in Experimental and Control Groups in Replication Experiment . . 83 18. Summary of Indications of Prior Skill Experi- ence of 122 Participants in Experimental and Control Groups in Replication Experiment. 83 19. Comparison of Previous Knowledge of Projection Principles of 122 Participants in Experi- ' mental and Control Groups in Replication Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 20. Pre-Test Scores on Projection Principles Test of 122 Participants in Experimental and Control Groups in Replication Study. . . . 84 21. Comparison of Knowledge Gained on Projection Principles by 122 Participants in Experi- mental and Control Groups in Replication Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 22. Post-Test Scores on Projection Principles Test of 122 Participants in Experimental and Control Groups in Replication Study. . . . 85 23. Comparison of Knowledge Gained on Projector Operation by 122 Participants in Experimental and Control Groups in Replication Study . . 87 24. Post-Test Scores on Projector Operation Test of 122 Participants in Experimental and Control Groups in Replication Study . . . . . . 87 vi CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Statement of the Problem There has been much interest during the recent past in the area of motor skill learning. Educators, psycholo— gists, industrialists, and the military have conducted extensive research, not only to emphasize the importance of motor skill learning as an occupational aid, but to demonstrate that motor skills can be taught and learned successfully by a number of methods. Motor skill training and research aided this nation in its economic recovery from the depression of the 1930's. It aided industry with technological developments, and promoted rapid national mobilization of the armed forces during World War II. Currently, advances in technological change and manpower utilization have made motor skill training even more important in many levels of education.1 Within our schools today, motor skill training has become widespread. A major problem in the training of motor skills lies in the choice of an efficient teaching method. Accompanying 1U. S. Office of Education, Progress of Public Educa— tion in the United States of America, 1961-1962 (Washington, D. C.: U. S. Office of Education, 1962), p.18. l the problem of selection is the uncertainty of student reactions toward one particular method of teaching to another. A teaching technique commanding much interest and research today is that of programed learning. There has been much research on complex skill learning with regard to com- puter controlled and projected media teaching machines in industry and the military. The programed textbook, though having advantages of economy and availability, remains untested in the teaching of motor skills information. We are primarily concerned in this study with in- vestigating the effect of a programed textbook with visuals on student learning regarding 16mm motion picture pro- jection principles and projector operation. Our specific interest in this study is to deter- mine the degree of factual and skills information learn- ing with respect to 16mm motion picture projector prin- ciples and operation, which are provided in a training session by two alternative methods: 1. Lecture with demonstration. (Instructor lecture with demonstration consisting of films, slides, transparencies, mock-ups, and a 16mm motion picture projector, followed by individual unguided student practice.) 2. Use of a written response programed textbook containing visual illustration of the verbal text, followed by individual unguided student practice. We also wish to determine student reactions to the teaching methods presented in the training session. Background of the Problem Motor Skills Most studies of skill learning began in the middle 1920's. The influence of technology in a number of fields following World War I took hold in industry and ultimately brought changes in the school curriculum. During the depression years Of the 1930's, skill learning became more important as men were forced to learn new trades and readapt old methodologies. During World War II, when manpower shortages in industry were apparent, there was extensive training and research into skill learning. World War II brought a fur- ther increase in motor skill research and experimentation on the part of the military. Much of the research emphasis during these years has carried over to the present time. However, the post—war boom in technological developments in an untold number of areas has brought increased research and experimentation from the military and industry. Indus- trialists and educators alike have realized that most occupa— tions require high levels of skill and technical knowledge for beginning and long-term employment. Some occupations, such as labor, farm work, and Single machine Operations require fewer workers; other Oc- Cupations are being dispensed with because of changing consumer habits, increasing automation, and other tech— nological deveIOpments.2 Educators are attempting to meet the need for better and more efficient methods of motor skill training by the use of federal, state, and local funds for expanded voca- tional and distributive educational programs. Educational Media and Motor Skills Much research and experimentation beginning during World War II has been carried out by the military and industry in the use of audiovisual instructional devices for the teaching of motor skills. Motion and still projected pictures and 3—dimensiona1 models and mock-ups have been used extensively to teach a number of motor skills. These skills have included simple Operations, such as tying a knot, learning gymnastic skills, and assembling a breech block and more complex skills, such as Operation of industrial equipment. From the end of World War II until the present, research information in the use of audiovisual media for the teaching of motor skills has been growing. A series of military research findings indicate that these media, used to advantage under prOper conditions, could, and Ibid. are now contributing to more efficient motor skill learn- ing.3 Along with the advantages in the use of these media, a number of disadvantages have been found. Researchers have found the following general problems in the use of films for motor skill trainingzu l. The lesson is presented in a sequential series of steps at a fixed pace. The learner cannot vary this pace. 2. Smaller learning steps are eliminated because of limitations on the length of the film. 3. The film cannot allow for individual differ- ences in background experience and facility, but must strike an average in these respects. In the use of three-dimensional models and mock-ups in the teaching of motor skills, one of the advantages found in research studies by the military is that the student can actually perform the physical activity needed for motor skill learning.5 A major disadvantage of 3American Educational Research Association, "Audio— visual Communication," Encyclopedia of Education Research (New York: The MacMillan CO., 1960), p. 117. 4Sol M. Roshal, ”Effects of Learner Representation in Film Mediated Motor Skill Learning," Human Engineering Report SDC 259-7-29, Special Devices Center 1952, Part III. 5Thomas Vris and J. A. Murnin, "Comparison of Train— ing Media: Transfer of Principles Involved in a Manipula- tive Skill; Operation of the Aircraft Load Adjuster Slide Rule," Technical Report SDC 269-7-102, Special Devices ‘ Center, 1955, Part III. 3-D materials is that they are costly and cannot always be justified against use of the real Object itself.6 Slides and filmstrips have been used successfully to teach complicated motor skills information.7 Their greatest drawbacks lie in their lack of motion and their flat two- dimensional quality.8 There are many studies investigating the use of edu- cational media including motion picture film, slides, film- strips, and 3-D objects in various combinations in a cross- media approach for the teaching of motor skills.9 While many of these combinations have been shown to be highly successful, some studies have shown that problems inherent in the singular use of these media are present when the media are combined.10 6G. M. Torkelson, "The Comparative Effectiveness of a Mock-up, Cutaway, and Projected Charts in Teaching Nomencla- ture and Function of the 4mm Anti-craft Weapon and the Mark 13 Type Torpedo," Technical Report SDC 269-7—102, Special Devices Center, 195fl] p. 21. 7Charles F. Hoban, Jr. and Edward B. VanOrmer, "Instruc- tional Film Research, 1918-1950," Technical Report NO. SDC 269—7-19, Special Devices Center, 1950, p. 180. 8Ibid. 9American Educational Research Association, Op. Cit, p. 120. 10P. E. Vernon, "An experiment on the Value of the Film and Film-Strip in the Instruction of Adults," British Jgurnal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 16 (1956), pp. 149- l 2. Printed Media and Motor Skills There has been much research in motor skill learning through the use of such printed media as textbooks, work— books, and training manuals. Textbooks were first used for skill training immediately before an during World War I. Early skills described in textbooks centered around physical education activities, such as tumbling and exercising. Passage of the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917, with emphasis on funds for vocational and skill training in schools, influ— enced the design and organization of many textbooks during this period. During the 1920's, vocational skills were taught for the first time through the use of textbooks.11 Motor skills information has also been taught by use of workbooks. The workbooks, usually bound by a paper cover, allow the student to write on the pages for frequent drill and review. The material is presented in small steps, sometimes as a follow—up to a textbook lesson. The text and workbook have similar advantages in the teaching of motor skills information. They can be used individually by the‘learner and allow him to proceed at his Own rate of speed. The workbook, allows some measure of active participation and reinforcement for the student by requiring him to give a written response to the material presented, followed by reference to an answer page. ¥ 11U. 3. Office of Education, Education for a Changing, Wgrld of Work (Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 19627, p. 5. Surprisingly very few work books have been used for the teaching Of motor skills.12 The training manual has been used frequently for skill training by the military and industry. The manual, bound by a paper or cloth cover, contains highly con- densed material with frequent illustrations. The manual proved an instant success during World War I when it was necessary to train thousands Of men quickly and efficiently. The advantages Of the manual for motor skill training are that it is highly mobile, economical, and contains condensed, frequently illustrated material. It can be used often and allows for feedback by frequent testing at the end of chapters or sections. Few train— ing manuals are used in schools today for skill or other types of learning. Summary Most studies of skill learning began in the middle 1920's. World War II brought a further increase in motor skill research and experimentation by the military and industry. Because of rapid technological develop— ments in industry and in the military, a heavy emphasis continues today on research in motor skill learning. Educators are meeting the greater demand for skill training by use of federal, state, and local funds for k l2Albert Gray, Lift the Workbook Cover (Wichita: Mc- Cormick Mathers Publishing Company, 1951), p. 286. expanded vocational and distributive education programs. There was much research and experimentation during World War II by the military and by industry in the use of audiovisual instructional tools for the teaching of motor skills. Motion and still projected pictures, television, and 3-dimensional objects have been used to teach both simple and complex motor skills. Each of these media, used to advantage under proper condistion, was found to be most effective in teaching some skills. Each instruc- tional tool was found to possess certain unique advant- ages for particular learning situations. There are also a number Of problems encountered with these media in motor skills trainhg. Two general film problems to be met are an inflexible learning pace and limitations on film length resulting in elimination of short learning steps. A major disadvantage of the 3- dimensional materials is that the cost cannot always be justified against use of the real Object itself. Draw- backs in the use of slides and filmstrips center around their lack of motion and their flat-2-dimensional quality. There has been much research into motor skill learn- ing through the use of such printed media as textbooks, workbooks, and training manuals. Following passage of the Smith—Hughes Act of 1917, many textbooks have been written to teach vocational motor skills. 10 Researchers have found that the text and workbook can be used individually and that they allow the learner to pro- ceed at his own rate of speed. The workbook has also been found to allow some measure of active participation and reinforcement for the student by requiring him to give a written response to the material presented and reference to an answer page. The training manual has been used fre- quently for skill training by the military and industry. Advantages of the manual for motor skill training are that it is highly mobile, contains condensed material with fre- quent illustrations, and allows for feedback with frequent testing sections. Importance of the Problem With greater emphasis on skill and other kinds of learning today, the need for new and more effective teaching methods in the classroom is evident. Recent research findings indicate that many types of effective learning can result from programed instruction. Teaching machines have been used successfully to teach many kinds of motor skills.13 Research has been conducted by the military and industry on costly computer operated machines and programs. The programed textbook, a simulated teaching machine possessing the advantages of programed learning, is similar l3Char-1es I. Foltz, The World of TeachingfiMachines (Waghington, D.C.: Electronic Teaching LabOratories, 1961), p. 5. 11 to text and workbooks in appearance, is economical, and is more readily available in the classroom than most teaching machine models.14 Teaching Machines and Programed LearningA There has been much interest in teaching machines and programed instruction since 1958, as evidenced by the avaflability of government and private funds for research, by interest within institutions of higher learning, by numerous conferences, by meetings and publications, and by the variety of teaching machines now in use and in produc- tion. This interest has been stimulated by the growing shortage of skilled teacher, by inadequate facilities throughout the country, and by the belief of many educators, industrialists, and military personnel that automated in- structional devices can aid in increasing learning ef- ficiency.15 A teaching machine is a device which can present systematically programed materials while making efficient use of the principles of reinforcement. There are many different types of machines designed to serve a number of teaching-learning purposes. Teaching machines are designed for the type of pro- gram presented on them. Generally, a program consists of luIbid. 15A. A. Lumsdaine, ”Teaching Machines: An Introductory Overview," Teaching Machines and Programed Learning (Wash- ington, D. C.: National Education Association of the United States, 1960), pp. 1-22. 12 the data to be assimilated and a set of questions and answers. The purpose of a program is to shape a series of responses into a complex act. This is done by rein- forcing specific actions Or responses that lead most directly to the learning desired.l6 There are two types Of program construction. One is concerned with breaking up a discipline into its smallest pieces to form incremental learning steps. This is called linear programing and is advocated chiefly by Dr. B. F. Skinner of Harvard University. One of the bases of Dr. Skinner's programing is the constructed response. It is his belief that the student is forced to think more and learns more quickly when he has to write in the response rather than choose from a series of alternative answers. In other words, the program does not test, buy rather teaches by requiring a positive effort. By using the constructed response method, only the right response is reinforced, and there is no chance of an in- correct response being learned.17 Another basic kind of programed learning is advo- cated by Dr. Norman Crowder of the Western Design Di- vision Of the U. S. Industries. This type of programing is called branching. In a branching program, the response ~ l61b1d. l71b1d., pp. 137-158. 13 takes the form Of a choice of various multiple choice answers. The student is more apt to err in this type of programing. The wrong answers suggested by the program are carefully chosen to correspond with popular miscon- ceptions or frequent errors shown by experience to occur 18 most often at that particular stage Of the course. Programed learning may assume many forms, but provides in most forms these three basic advantages over other teaching methods: 1. It requires continuous, active student response at moments when student interest is strongest. Questions are provided which must be answered before new material may be attempted. 2. It supplies immediate confirmation or correction, thus leading the student directly or indirectly to a correction of errors. 3. The student determines his learning pace as he operates the program or device. This permits him to move as rapidly or as slowly as his interest and his comprehension level require. Since the student proceeds at his own rate of speed, individual differences are met to some degree. Teaching Machines and Motor Skill Learning_ There has been much basic research using auto in— structional devices for the teaching Of such subjects as mathematics, science, and foreign languages. Results have shown that teaching machines using programed learning are effective in increasing learning while saving instructional time. 18Ibid., pp. 286-298. l4 Considerable industrial research has been carried out by such firms as Lever Brothers, International Business Machines, the General Telephone Company of California, and the Sandia Corporation. Each has sought to investigate programed methods for a number of reasons, including in- creased sales and production output, training of new em- ployees, and in-service training of employees.19 Gordon Pask has done considerable research in the area of computer based machines of all types for the teaching of motor skills.20 One of the original devices developed by Pask for this purpose is called a "Saki." It is composed of an electronic computer and is designed to teach the skill of card punching. L. C. Silvern, speaking before the American Manage- ment Association in 1961, pointed out that industry's role in the development Of projection media type teaching machines should be directed toward a number of areas in— cluding on-the-job motor skill training.21 The Hughes Aircraft Corporation has been responsible for motor skill research in the use Of teaching machines _ 19Theodore Dolmatch, Evolution in Training: Programed Igstruction in Industry (New York: American Management Association 1962)} _ 20Gordon Pask, "Electronic Keyboard Teaching Machines," Education and Commerce, No. 24 (1958), pp. 16-26. 21L. C. Silvern, ”The State Of the Art: Teaching Matching Technology,” A paper delivered before the American Management Association, August 28, 1961. 15 for the instruction of handicapped persons employed in industry. Their "Videosonic" machine incorporates the use of filmed Operation shown on the screen of a small machine which is hand operated and which, like Pask's "Saki," gives reinforcement to the Operator and proceeds in step-by—step fashion. The studies conducted thus far on motor skill learn- ing by the military and industry have pertained to teaching machines, with the use of either projected media (films, filmstrips, slides) and/or computer based programing systems. These auto instructional devices have also proved of great value to the military and industry. Programed Textbooks The programed textbook is a simulated teaching machine. Its external appearance does not differ from an ordinary textbook, but its interior is quite different. In most programed textbooks, each page consists usually of three, four, or five panels. Each panel consists of a short phrase or sentence explaining a small step or part of the lesson. Also included in the panel is a sentence or phrase containing a missing word or words. This is called, in the language of some behavioral psychologists, a "constructed response." It is designed to test the student's knowledge of the information contained in the frame.22 22Eugene Galanter (ed.), Automatic Teaching: ;The State of the Art (New York: Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1959), pp. 63-68. 16 The panels are not read from the top to the botton of the page as in an ordinary book. Only one panel is "read" and responded to before the student turns the page. The missing word or words Of the frame are found on the top panel of the following page. In this way, the student can confirm his written response and continue on with the lesson. For example, the student begins with the top panel on page 1; he reads and responds to it by filling in the constructed response. He turns to page 2 and confirms his answer on the top panel. He then reads and responds to the new material in this frame, confirms his answer by turning the page, and similarly continues to the end of the unit or chapter. Here he is instructed to return to page 1, respond to the second panel on each page, and so continue to the end of the chapter. Since each panel or step is numbered, this procedure is not confusing. Programed textbooks possess the advantages Of programed learning in general. They have been used most effectively in teaching factual information. Industry and the military have used programed textbooks for varied purposes including introductory and on-the-job training. Educators have used programed textbooks for factual learning of such subjects as foreign language, mathematics, and science. l7 Programed textbooks have some disadvantages in com- parison with direct lecture teaching. Research findings indicate that direct lecture and demonstration have been more efficient than programed textbooks in teaching enrich- ment and appreciation of such subjects as history, litera— ture, and the fine arts.23 With the general advantages of programed learning in mind, researchers list the following unique contributions of programed textbooks over other types of programed learning: (1) they are economical; (2) they are easily handled and transported; (3) they have a great similarity with familiar classroom materials (books, textbooks, work- books); and (4) they are more readily available.2u Programed Textbooks and Motor Skill Training At the present time, documented research on motor skill training through programed learning has been carried out by the military and industry on teaching machines, with the use Of projected media (film, filmstrip, slide) and/or computer based programing systems. In most schools ‘ 23F. Carpenter, "How Will Automated Teaching Affect Education?," The University of Michigan School of Education Bulletin, October, 1959, pp. 2—5. 2“James D. Finn and Donald G. Perrin, Teaching Mgphines and Programed Learning: A Survey 0 Industgy (Washington, D. C.: National Education Association 00v casional Paper No. 3, 1962), pp. 10-18. 18 the use of these machines and programs for further research and teaching is limited due to cost and lack of availability. Increased use in schools of audiovisual devices, shop and business machines, and automated office devices has created a strong need for new and more effective motor skill train- ing techniques.25 If the programed textbook, with its many unique advantages, could be found effective in teaching motor skills information in the classroom, the results could be of great importance to education. SOOpe of the Problem Our specific interest in this study is to determine the degree of factual and skills information learning on 16mm motion picture projector principles and operation which are acquired in training session by each of two methods: 1. Lecture with demonstration. (Instructor lecture with demonstration consisting of films, slides, transparencies, mock-ups, and a 16mm motion picture projector, followed by indi- vidual unguided student practice.) 2. Use of a written response programed textbook containing visual illustration of the verbal text, followed by individual unguided student practice. 2 5J. Lloyd Trump, Images of the Future (Washington, D. C.: National Association Of Secondary School Prince- pals, N.E.A., 1959), pp. 22-81. 19 Hypotheses to be tested are: 1. Learning measured by scores on a post-test on motion picture projection principles will be significantly greater in a group using a pro- gramed textbook with visuals rather than in a group receiving a lecture with demonstration. 2. Learning measured by scores on a motion picture projector Operation test will be significantly greater in a group using a programed textbook with visuals rather than in a group receiving a lecture with demonstration. Expected end results are: (l) improvement in factual knowledge and applied motor skills through the use of pro— gramed textbooks over a lecture with demonstration; (2) knowledge of whether the reactions of students are favor- able toward the use Of programed textbooks for the teach— ing Of motion picture projection principles and projector operation information. Limitations of the Study There are a number of limitations within the design and structure of this study which may affect the findings and conclusions to some degree. Dr. Harry Silberman, in a recent review of research comparing programed instruction with conventional instruc- tion, stated that in many conventional classes, students taking part in a research project which had a fixed train- ing interval may not have received the same material or may not have made efficient use of their time. He pointed out that, in many cases, the experimental groups worked 20 only on test-relevant material while control groups covered a wider range of topics. The Hawthorne effect, he continued, may also have been Operating.26 Every effort was made to control these factors by giving the students in both groups the same material. The sequence and time length for completion of the ma— terial was also carefully fixed and followed. It is possible that the conventional group, because of the nature of the lecture and varied use of lecture ma- terials received some instruction irrelevant to the post—test items or in different sequence from the ex- perimental group. As much as was possible, both groups worked on test-relevant material on projection princi— ples and projection Operation. The groups were told that they are not in competi- tion with each other, that the programed materials are presented as a learning experience, and that the con- structed response sheet filled in by the experimental group would not be checked by name for error count. These steps were taken in order to counteract the Hawthorne effect as much as possible. 26Harry F. Silberman, ”Self-Teaching Devices and Programed Materials," Review of Educational Researchy Ipstructional Materials: Educational Media and Technology (Washington, D. C.: National EduEation Association, April, 1962), pp. 185-187. 21 Silberman, in his review of similar research studies, pointed out that among many experiments reviewed, it was not uncommon to find very short programs administered in one or two hours to small samples of highly motivated students, who, after viewing the programs as a test, were immediately given a follow-up of short improvised quizes.27 The programed textbook used in this study was divided in two parts, one concerning projection principles and the other concerning projector Operation. The first section on projection principles, 55 frames in length, was adminis- tered in a one hour time period. The variable of student motivation described earlier was scrupulously considered, and every effort was made to simulate a classroom learn- ing situation. The lecture with demonstration group was given the same material as the experimental group in ap— proximately the same time period. A post-test composed Of items within the programed textbook and on the lecture with demonstration material was given to both groups im- mediately following the presentations. The second section Of the programed textbook on projector Operation and consisting of 170 frames, was a highly-cued small-step explanation of the six steps in- volved in this particular operation. It duplicated as nearly as possible the lecture given by the instructor to the conventional group. 27Ibid. _ 22 While the experimental and lecture with demonstration groups were carefully equated as to background and aptitude for the skill to be taught, there is a possibility that certain inaccuracies existed in the criterion instrument used, or that previous experience or background in this area was not prOperly allowed for. Another problem related to the time period for the applied projector operation test. The test for both groups could not be given as a follow-up for the presentations on projector Operation because of a lack of sufficient time in the training session and a shortage in the number of projectors available. The test was given within the next three days for both groups. It is accordingly possible that students were "contaminated" by outside factors, such as further reading or practice or, conversely, by lack of retention Of the skill. Also, the transfer process for both groups could have been to some extent within this period Of time. Under ideal conditions, all students would have been given the training and practice sessions, followed im— mediately by all testing. Definition of Terms The following terms appear frequently and are de- fined as they relate to this study: r. . :O CO a o . . I . . . a .1 no: to .. 1. ”I n. .c .. .. 1.: I. a 2.. I. and o. m .1.“ 1 :u .u T. LC .3 a. h. .. w. o. .. . 2. . . a PI. 5‘9 Y1. A\b ”It 6" "K AH» u .. ... We cu 5C .0 D... w .. . J ~.— . . A—v r . AAA rd strAL . ~ I. as n .1. fl. :1 I 4 TJ r1 «C Y . Q» a t :3 3o .r....v.. «C p: ... . . . 1. . A .. . T . . r 2 . . < u .o 3v Alv ARV Pflfi .fo EU and dd .5 u ”A“ .fd :v ram ”A ru aaA v. . r u .r. . m.” 1o a v ... .rm 2 N ”no. .u“ .. . .n W P Cu C; «It. flv ha Fin. 5 .. 9|; ”A he a . e o T. v... n». n c .1 2. ... 3 a Dr. . . . . I. r . ..- at. s . . . .. .. . 23 Skill learning: Progress toward better performance in motor activity as a result of instruction and/or practice with the 16mm sound motion picture projector. Motor activity: All specific and generalized movements involving motor coordination and better performance, resulting in improved motor coordination. Teaching machines: Learning machines, self-instructional devices, or auto-instructional devices. This includes any device which can present systematically programed materials and make use of reinforcement. Programed textbook: Printed in book form. Each page con- sists of three panels. Each panel consists of a short phrase or sentence explaining a small step or part of the lesson. Included in the panel also is a sentence or phrase containing a missing word or words. The panels are not read from the tOp to the bottom Of the page. Only one panel is read and responded to before the student turns the page. The missing word or words of the frame are found on the tOp panel on the following page. In this way the student can confirm his written response and continue with the lesson. He then reads and responds to the new material in the frame, confirms his answer by turning the page, and similarly continues to the end of the unit of chapter. Here the student is instructed to return to page one, respond to the second panel on each page and continue to the end of the unit of chapter. Cue: A word used interchangeably with "prompt" to mean any bit of information added to a program item to make it easier for the student to make the correct response. Frame: A single step of a program usually containing information and a question to be answered. Programed text with visuals: A carefully sequenced linear text, strengthened with pictorial illustrations consisting of either photographs or drawings. The constructed re- sponses will be filled in by the student in the convent- ional manner but will be additionally reinforced by the visuals. Feedback: A technique which gives the student (and even- tually the teacher) immediate knowledge of the correctness Of his answers to items in the program. This acts as a type of reinforcement to correct answers. Step: The space between one item and another in a pro— gramed lesson. 24 Methodology The experiment was conducted during the Winter term, 1962. The sample included undergraduate and graduate stu- dents enrolled in an undergraduate audiovisual education course at Michigan State University. The experiment included the following phases: 1. The participants were divided into two groups by randomly choosing names from a class list. One group was designated as Group A (control). The second group was designated as Group B (experimental). 2. Two weeks prior to the training session, the groups were equated from information gathered on a background- experience questionnaire administered to all partici— pants. Grade point averages were compared between the groups to determine if a homogeneity existed between the means. Experience and background information were compiled and students were classified as having either a mechanical or non-mechanical background. Determination was made from this questionnaire of those who had pre- viously Operated a 16mm motion picture projector and those who had not. 3. One week prior to the training session, an objective fill—in pre-test on motion picture projection princi- ples was administered to all participants. 4. On the day Of the training session the groups met in separate rooms. Group A (control) received a lecture 25 with demonstration on 16mm motion picture projection principles and projector Operation. Group B (ex- perimental) received the lesson through the use of a programed textbook with visuals. At the conclusion of the lesson on projection principles both groups took an Objective fill—in post-test. This test was matched with the pre—test administered one week earlier. The second part of the lesson concerned 16mm motion picture projector Operation. At the conclusion of the lesson the participants in both groups filled out a reaction questionnaire. Group A participants were instructed to return one of the following two days for a one hour unguided projector practice session. Group B participants were each provided with a Bell and Howell Model 540 projector following the training session for individual practice. All participants were instructed to re- turn for a final projector performance test on the third day following the training session. Each pro- jector test was administered separately and in private to each student on a Bell and Howell Model 540 pro- jector. A replication experiment was held during the Spring term, 1963. The procedures were duplicated as near as possible to the earlier experiment conducted during the Winter term, 1962. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF PERTINENT LITERATURE Introduction This review Of research literature contains a careful listing and explanation of findings on motor skill learning 'as they relate to this study. The research design and methodology of this study further cite and apply the guide— lines established by these findings in the areas of physical activity, ability, practice, and transfer as they relate to motor skill learning. This review of research literature also contains a careful listing and description Of pertinent studies on the use of educational media and programed learning for skill training; The problem, background, and important areas of this study further cite and apply these and other studies to the present one. Other studies, not described in this review, but cited in and applying generally to either the statement Of the problem, design, background, or importance of this study, are listed in the Bibliography. Motor Skill Research Almost four hundred studies have been reported during the past thirty years dealing with physical activity as related to skill learning. The physical activity theory 26 27 states that motor skills are learned most successfully when a student actually engages in an activity directly or in- directly related to the skill.28 A number of related findings have emerged from the physical activity theory. Some of the more widely accepted ones are: 1. Individuals with higher levels of motor ability can learn motor skills more quickly and easily.29 2. Motor ability or aspects thereof are related to the learning of specific skills.30 3. Distributed practice is superior to massed practice in motor skill learning.31 4. Skill learning results from specific practice of the particular skill.32 In consideration of the preceding motor skill research findings, the following steps were taken in carrying out this ¥ 28Dorothy R. Mohr, "The contributions of physical Activity to Skill Learning," Research Quarterly, Vol. 31 (May, 1960), p. 321. 29Roy M. Dorcus, "Performances of Athletes in Coordin- ation Tests," Journal of Comparative Psychology, Vol. 3 (December, 1923), pp. 475-499- 30R. H. Bur ee and W. Strolle, "Measuring Reaction Time gf Athletes,' Research Quarterly, Vol. 26 (March, 1955), pp. 2 -35. 31Olive G. Young, "The Rate of Learning in Relation to Spacing of Practice Periods," Research Quarterly, Vol. 25 (May, 1954), pp. 231-243. 32Lois Dusenberry, "A Study of the Effects of Training in Ball Throwing by Children Ages 3—7," Research Quarterly, V01. 23 (March, 1952), pp. 9-14. ‘ 28 research experiment: 1. As a part of the training session, all participants practiced with a 16mm motion picture projector. 2. The background of all participants was classified as either mechanical or non—mechanical, according to answers checked on a background questionnaire. This aided in determination of those students with and without motor skill ability. The groups were equated on the basis of background and previous knowledge of projector Operation. 3. During the training session, frequent rest periods were given to all participants, according to a theory develOped by B. R. Epstein.33 This theory states that frequent rest periods during a train- ing session will overcome possible negative ef- fects of a single massed practice session in the learning Of a motor skill. Other motor skill research has been conducted on the effectiveness Of the transfer from verbal media to the skill task itself. It has been found that positive transfer from Verbal pretraining to motor performance shows a consistent decrease as the motor task complexity increased.3u In a 33B. R. Epstein, ”Immediate and Retention Effects of Interpolated Rest Periods on Learning Performance," Teacher's College Contributions to Education, No.949 (1949). 34William F. Battig, "Transfer from Verbal Pretraining t0 Motor Performance as a Function of Motor Task Complexity," gggrnal Of Experimental Psychology, Vol. 51 (1951), pp. 371— 29 related study, in which time was used as the measure of learning, it was found that verbal training did yield a significant amount of positive transfer to the performance of the motor task.35 It has seemed evident to many investigators of motor skill learning that the difficulty of motor tasks is to a large extent determined by the complexity of the training situation to which the subject must react, rather than by the demands made on his motor capacities. In a study conducted by Gagne and Baker, the results indicated the considerable effectiveness of training on a pictured representation of the skill task.36 In consideration of the preceding motor skill re- search findings, a number of steps were taken in carrying out this research experiment. The lesson was made less complicated for all participants in both groups by divid- ing the programed textbook and the lecture with demon- stration into two sections. These sections included motion picture projection principles and motion picture Projector Operation. In the programed textbook, to 35Katherine E. Baker and Ruth C. Wylie, "Transfer Of Verbal Training to a Motor Task," Journal of Experimental W, Vol. 40 (1950). pp. 632-638. 36R. M. Gagne and Katherine E. Baker, "Transfer to a MOtor Skill from Practice on a Pictured Representation," JOurnal of Experimental Psychology: Vol. 39 (1949), pp. 342- x 355 30 further aid in simplifying the lesson, the two main sections were broken into a series of small interlocking steps, and each step was illustrated by a drawing or photograph. A number of educational media, including films, slides, and overhead projection transparencies, along with mock-ups and an actual 16mm motion picture projector, were used in the lecture with demonstration. Educational Media and Motor Skill Research The instructional motion picture film has been used extensively for research and experimentation in motor skill training. An explanation of film advantages and dis- advantages in motor skill training has been given in the area of this study on the background of the problem. The -findings in the following study further point out some axivantages and disadvantages in the use of a film for HKDtor skill training. Vandermeer and Cogswell investigated the instruction- ail effect of a film on the operation of a 16mm sound motion EDfl.cture projector.37 The problem was, that while the film 1153 until that time, had been used to teach a number of ESimple skills, little research had been conducted with the 37Abram w. Vandermeer and John Cogswell, ”Instructional Effect of the Film, "How to Operate the Army 16mm Sound MO‘tion Picture Set", Human Engineering Report, SDC 269- 2:2322, Special Devices Center, 1952, Part VI. 31 film to see how well a more complicated skill could be taught. The purpose of the investigation was to gather data pertaining to the effect of a motion picture film titled "How to Operate the Army 16mm Sound Projector Set" on (1) the development Of certain skills in Operat- ing and maintaining the Army sound projector set, and (2) the modification of attitudes concerning the pro- jector and the projectionist's job. Four separate classes of 43 servicemen trainees, unfamiliar with projector Operation, were used in the investigation. All of the experimental work was done during the first three hours of the course. The be- havioral Objective Of the film was to demonstrate a number of projector Operation procedures so that, with— out further instruction, the audience would feel com- petent to, and be able to, perform the operations directly on the projector. A projector operation test and attitude question- naire were devised to test the trainee‘s acquisition of the components of the skill in the behavioral objective of the film and to measure any shifts in the specific attitudes of the trainees. In order to determine the extent to which the film contributed to the develOpment Of the skill in projector Operation, the projector operation post-test was adminis- tered to each trainee within fifteen minutes after he 32 viewed the film. The same test was given to eleven randomly selected trainees before they had received any instruction on the projector. The projector operation post-test was administered individually and in private to each trainee. Scores on the performance test formed the basis for appraising the film's contribution to projection skill development. The attitude questionnaire was administered to those seeing and not seeing the film, in an effort to determine the extent to which the film influenced attitudes regarding the projectionist's job. The general findings of this study are (1) that trainees were able to perform many more of the skills re- quired in the Operation of the projector after seeing a film about the skill than they were able to perform before seeing it, (2) trainees were led to accept the attitudes toward the projectionist's job that were shown by the film, and (3) trainees were generally very well disposed toward the film as a help in their early stages of learning to Operate the projector. A major implication of the study cited by the investigators was that testing might be of greater value if it were conducted before the film reached its final? state of production, so that the findings could result in modifications that would improve the film prior to its release. The investigators also cited a pacing problem in the use of films for skill training.. All trainees were 33 forced to learn at the same rate of speed as the film was being shown. Three-D materials have been used extensively for motor skill training. An explanation of advantages and disadvantages in the use of 3-dimensional teaching materials for motor skill training is given in the area of this study on the background of the problem. The findings in the following study further point out some advantages and disadvantages in the use of 3-dimensional teaching materials for motor skill training. Vris investigated the relative efficiency of teaching principles versus specific training in a skill task.38 Two training procedures involving the teaching of "principles" and "specifics" were compared in order to determine their relative efficiency in producing a generalized response in motor skill learning. Vris compared various methods in the use of several modi- fications of the original equipment in the training situation including (1) the actual equipment, (2) a three-dimensional modification Of the equipment, and (3) a two-dimensional diagram. The motor task selected was the operation of 16mm motion picture projectors. Several reasons were given 38Thomas Vris, "A Comparision of Principles Training and Specifics Training Using Several Types of Training Devices," Technical Report SDC 269-7-102, Special Devices Center, 1955, Part III. 34 for the selection of this task, including the fact that the task was predominantly three-dimensional in character. A sample Of 144 college students, unfamiliar with the operation of motion picture projectors, were selected as subjects, and were assigned to groups of four subjects within each group. The 36 groups thus formed constituted the sampling units of the experiment and were assigned at random to the eight experimental conditions. The following conclusions were drawn: .1. Given a motor task involving complex equipment, it appeared that the Operation Of the specific equipment would be learned if the Operation was demonstrated in either a specific fashion or supplemented by an expla- nation Of the principles of the Operation. 2. If the actual equipment or a three—dimensional modification Of the actual equipment was used in the demon— stration, it appeared that "principles" training was more effective than "specifics" training in yielding satis- factory performance On related equipment. 3. If a two-dimensional representation of the modified equipment was used in the demonstration, and if the required operation was predominantly three-dimensional in character, the results of this experiment tended to indicate that "principles" training was no more effective than "specifics" training. 4. "Principles" training with either the actual eQuipment or a three—dimensional modification Of the 35 equipment was more effective than "principles" training with a two- dimensional representation when the task was pre- dominately three—dimensional in character. The investigator concluded the study with the state- ment that a specified Operation in a motor skill would be learned if the Operation was demonstrated on the actual equipment. When the common principles Of the task were included in the training, performance on a related piece of equipment would be greater than when the training was merely a specific demonstration on the initial equipment. Furthermore, he pointed out that the degree to which principles training would be more effective would be dependent upon the nature Of the task and the training equipment. Some recommendations from the study were: 1. If it appeared likely that generalizable learn— ing would be needed, principles Of Operation should be taught as well as the specifics of the task. 2. If the task were three-dimensional in character, a three—dimensional training device should be used. 3. Recommended that the training device be tested during the develOpmental stages upon an apprOpriate sample of trainees. Recommended the final form of the device not be considered complete until testing demon- strated that consistent performance errors no longer occurred. 36 Programed Learning and Skill Research Gagne and Bolles described the factors in learning efficiency in a 1959 research report.39 *They stated that the military was growing interested in such complex skill tasks as identification (identifying a number Of Objects, events, or places by differentiating names or other re- sponses), the following Of procedures (teaching a pilot to follow procedures in the air, such as Opening switches and checking gauges), and concept usage (guiding behavior by means of rules, such as use Of the phrase "turn power off before Opening cover”). Gagne and Bolles pointed out that the increasing use of automatic equipment has tended to decrease pro- gressively the importance Of simple motor skill learning in the armed forces. Industry has also grown more interested in complex skill tasks. Many highly complex skills have been taught in industry by "adaptive" teaching machines.40 Adaptive teaching machines are ones which adapt themselves auto— matically or through a computer control system to the 39Robert M. Gagne and Robert C. Bolles, ”A Review of Factors in Learning Efficiency," Automatic Teaching: The State of Art (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1959), pp; 13-, 550 ' ‘ 40 Institute for Communications Research, New Teaching Aids for the American Classroom (PalO Alto: Stanford Univer- SIty Press._1959), pp- 151-159. II) 37 response of the learner, advancing or slowing his learning pace. An example of the research and experimentation with auto instructional devices by the military is the descrip- tion by L. J. Briggs Of a device for affording active prac- tice, with prompt feedback, in learning to diagnose mal- functions in an airborne fire control system. The machine includes a microfilm projector coupled to a unit containing synthetic components of the equipment system which the student is learning to troubleshoot. A number of other studies describing computer con— trolled machines and experiments are listed in the bibli- ography of this study and in Appendix I to the Lumsdaine and Glaser bOOk Teaching Machines and Programed Learning.42 Summary This review Of pertinent literature contains a careful listing and explanation Of research dealing with (1) motor skill learning and (2) the use Of educational media and programed learning for skill training. There has been much research on physical activity in motor skill learning. The physical activity theory “1L. J. Briggs, A Troubleshooting Trainer for the E-4 Fire Control System (Lackland Air Force Base, Texas: Air Force Personnel and Training Research Center, July, 1956). ueArthur Lumsdaine and Robert Glaser, Teaching_Machines .flflgiProgramed Learning (Washington, D. C.: National Educa— tion Association, 1960), Appendix I. 38 states that motor skills are learned most successfully when a student actually engages in an activity directly or in- directly related tO the skill. Some related findings are that (1) individuals with higher levels of motor ability can learn motor skills more quickly and easily, (2) motor ability or aspects thereof are related to the learning of specific skills, (3) dis? tributed practice is superior to massed practice in motor skill learning, and (4) skill learning results from specific practice Of the particular skill. Other motor skill research showed that (1) positive transfer from verbal pretraining tO motor performance Shows a consistent decrease as the motor task complexity fiducreases; (2) verbal training using time as the measure