LOCUS OF CONTROL OF DAY CARE MOTHERS: PREDICTION AND CHANGE Dissertation for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY ANNE COSGROVE CUNNINGHAM 1975 Date wow???“ 1:ME\L:N‘\§E\§IT\‘\:\E\\I\I\\ a\\\ BI A KY IIIIIIIIII I III u India-30" Univ“! 3 This is to certify that the \ thesis entitled V LOCUS OF CONTROL OF DAY CARE MOTHERS: ’/ PREDICTION AND CHANGE ix presented by Anne Cosgrove Cunningham ~A,.«—'«.n--\~—— ‘.--o<- I. e . has been accepted towards fulfillment I of the requirements for I PhD degree in _Eam.1_1_y_.Ecology 26%? Major professor Oct. 20, 1975 0-7639 ‘E" 297, “V 4 ~ ~53 This is to certify that the thesis entitled LOCUS OF CONTROL OF DAY CARE MOTHERS: PREDICTION AND CHANGE presented by Anne Cosgrove Cunningham has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for PhD degree in lamilyicolo gy Major professor Date Oct. 20, 1975 0-7639 I ‘-.A - «a — ...... .I- r _.1«\‘ I‘Ti ABSTRACT LOCUS OF CONTROL OF DAY CARE MOTHERS: PREDICTION AND CHANGE By Anne Cosgrove Cunningham Extensive research has accumulated on the personality and behavioral correlates of an internal or an external locus of con- trol. In general, previous studies show that internals (persons who see events as relatively dependent on their own actions and characteristics) are good information organizers (Seeman, l963), good teachers (Hersch and Scheibe, l967; Powell and Vega, l972), less conforming (Crowne and Liverant, 1963) and capable of adjusting their expectancy of successful performance more closely with prior experiences of success and failure (Rotter, l966). On the other hand, externals (persons who see events as more dependent on factors outside themselves) are less competent at information organizing, less effective teachers, more conforming and less consistent in adjusting their behavior in accordance with prior success and failure in similar circumstances. The present research addressed the question of whether behavioral and attitudinal correlates of locus of control take on a special meaning when they are considered in connection with two people who have a relationship to each other--a mother and her young Anne Cosgrove Cunningham child. In addition it examined the question of possible change in locus of control for mothers who attend a parent program extending over a three—month period. It further addressed the possible dif- ferent effect of incentive treatments for attendance at this program on mothers who are internal and mothers who are external. The subjects were mothers living in midwestern urban areas with children cared for during the day in six federally licensed day care centers. Two hundred fifty-five mothers contributed at least partial data to the study. The designed used in the predictive model of maternal locus of control employed a pooled sample of mothers and children at one point in time from day care centers in six randomly chosen cities (out of nine). The examination of the interrelationship between the mother's locus of control, attendance at a parent program and incentives for attendance was made in a design in which the six day care centers were randomly assigned to one of three incentive conditions. The parent program was the Parents Are Teachers Too program (Boger, Kuipers, Beery, Walters, Noble and Naxler, 197l). The program consisted of 12 two-hour sessions held weekly at day care centers in which parents were taught to make materials to use the following week in teaching interaction with the child. Six measures were utilized to provide information on mothers and children in the present study. These were the Felt Powerlessness Scale, the Brown IDS Self-Concept Referents Test, Anne Cosgrove Cunningham the Hess and Shipman Toy Sorting Task, the Educational Survey Instrument, and a Parent Information Form. Linear multivariate regression analyses were used to predict the locus of control of mothers. The predictors included mother's attitudes and teaching behaviors, the child's learning achievements, age, sex and self-esteem. The results indicate that the external mother was characterized more by skillful teaching behaviors than the internal mother; she also had a child characterized by more learning achievement behaviors and better self-concept. However, the internal mother showed more affectionate behavior in the teaching situation and her child showed more cooperation. Some subgroups of mothers evidenced a greater trend towards internal control than others. Change in locus of control was examined in a 2 x 3 analysis of covariance fixed effects model in which the independent factors were treatment (3 levels) and attendance at the parent program (2 levels). The dependent variable was the post-score on the Felt Pow- erlessness test, while the covariate was the pre-score. The results indicate that mothers who participate in a parent program offered over a three month period do not become more internal than mothers who do not participate. In addition, there is no difference in change of locus of control for mothers who participate in the parent program with incentives than for those who participate without them. The interaction between the mother's locus of control and incentives was addressed in a 2 x 3 analysis of variance fixed effects model in which the independent factors were treatment Anne Cosgrove Cunningham (3 levels) and locus of control (2 levels). The dependent variable was attendance at the parent program. The results indicate that internal mothers attend the parent program less with incentives (money or babysitting and transportation) than without them. On the other hand, external mothers attend the parent program more with incentives than without them. One implication of the present study is that the term "external“ implies a heterogeneous group of persons who are cate- gorized by both congruent and incongruent behaviors to the perceived external control of events. However, the generalizations are lim- ited because no control group was utilized. The additional findings of interaction effects between locus of control and incentives sup- port the usual behavioral expectation for internal and external persons in the presence of overt manipulation. The finding that no change towards greaterinternality takes place over a three-month interval for parent program participants implies that the time was too short for effect on a generalized control expectancy. Perhaps only specific behaviors or a specific locus of control expectancy could be changed in such a short period. Finally, the programmatic implication of the study is that parent programs should be offered without money incentives although babysitting and transportation incentives are useful. LOCUS OF CONTROL OF DAY CARE MOTHERS: PREDICTION AND CHANGE By Anne Cosgrove Cunningham A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Family Ecology 1975 ® Copyright by ANNE COSGROVE CUNNINGHAM 1975 For Tommy, Katharine, and especially Tom ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express appreciation to all those who have helped me to complete this study. Chief among these is Professor Robert Boger, Director of the Institute for Family and Child Study at Michigan State University. Dr. Boger, as chairman of my com- mittee, provided both theoretical direction and pragmatic advice in this study and throughout my graduate work. He further enabled me to function as the project director for the larger study, Maternal Involvement in DayICare: A Comparison of Incentives (Boger, Kuipers, Cunningham and Andrews, 1974). Other members of my committee pro- vided Special supportive direction and advice. Professor Margaret Bubolz supervised by Family Ecology internship: studying the needs and concerns of mid-Michigan women. Dr. Hiram Fitzgerald, Associate Professor of Psychology, formed my understanding of the physiologi- cal aspects of the devel0pment of young children. Professor Beatrice Paolucci provided me with a broad understanding of the family, modeled as an Open, developing system. It would be inappropriate not to thank the Data Unit of the College of Human Ecology, especially Jo Lynn Cunningham, Mary Andrews, Verda Scheifley and Judy Pfaff for the extensive assistance in the preparation, analysis and interpretation of data. Additional major computer-processing assistance was provided by the Office of Health Services Education and Research in the College of Human iii Medicine. The principal curriculum developer of the Parents Are Teachers Too program, Dr. Judy Kuipers, deserves thanks for her general support. The Maternal Involvement in Day Care: A Comparison of Incentives project (Office of Child Development Grant #OCT-CB- 243) provided access to data which would not otherwise be available. The mothers and children who participated in this research are owed a debt of gratitude. Finally, but not least, I acknowledge the formidable support given by my family, especially my husband Tom, during the long process of completing this study. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES . LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF APPENDICES Chapter I. INTRODUCTION . Statement of the Problem Need and Purpose Objectives . Overview Definitions Assumptions . . . Research Assumptions for Phase 1 . Research Assumptions for Phase 2 . 11. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . The Construct of Locus of Control Expectancy as Presented by Rotter and Lefcourt . . . Related Constructs in the Social Sciences . Behaviors Correlated Hith Internal-External Locus of Control Expectancy. . . Development of a Genral Locus of Control Expectancy . . . . . . . Mechanisms for Change . Significant Avenues of Research Osing the Locus of Control Construct in the Last Decade Response to Success and Failure Immediate or Deferred Gratificiation Cognitive Strategies . . Literature Relating to Research Questions Locus of Control and Teacher Effectiveness Locus of Control and Educational Aspirations and Expectancies for the Child. . Locus of Control of the Mother and the Child' 5 Cognitive Achievement and Self- Esteem Locus of Control and Participation in a Group Page ix xii xiii meU'IOIWN—J —I -l o Chapter Locus of Control and Performance of Skill Tasks With and Without Reinforcement . Change in Locus of Control Toward Greater Internality . Methodological Considerations III. RESEARCH DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION Phase l . . . Design Plan--General . . . Research Questions for Phase 1 Research Hypotheses for Phase l . Design for Phase l: Hypotheses l and 2 Phase 2 . . . . . . Design Plan--General . . Research Questions for Phase 2 Research Hypotheses for Phase 2 . Design for Phase 2: Hypotheses 3 and 4 The Sample . . . . . Description of Mothers Description of Children . Instruments . The Felt Powerlessness Scale . . The Brown IDS Self- Concept Referents Test . Hess and Shipman Toy Sort Task The Educational Survey Instrument The PTT Parent Information Form The Variables . . . Locus of Control Expectancy . Teacher Effectiveness of the Mother . . Home Activity of the Mother to Prepare the Child for School . . . Realistic Maternal Aspirations Status Indicators of the Mother Achievement of the Child . . . Additional Child Characteristics . . Attendance of the Mother at the Parents Are Teachers Too Program . . The Treatment Conditions Under Which the Parent Program Has Offered . Procedures . . Data Management .and Cellection Implementation of Treatments Analyses . . Analysis for Phase l . Analysis for Phase 2 . vi Page Chapter IV. THE RESULTS Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hypothesis 1: Mother's Locus of Control and Her Other Concurrent Behaviors, Attitudes and Characteristics Hypothesis la Hypothesis lb Hypothesis lc . . . . . . . . . . Hypothesis 2: Mother's Locus of Control and Child's Achievement, Self- Esteem, Age, Sex, and Ordinal Position . Hypothesis 2a Hypothesis 2b Hypothesis 2c . . Sunmary of Results for Hypothesis 1. Sumnary of Results for Hypothesis 2 Hypothesis 3: Effect of Locus of Control and Incentives on Attendance . . . . Hypothesis 3a Hypothesis 3b . Additional Results for Hypothesis 3. Hypothesis 4: Effect of Attendance and Incentives on Change in Locus of Control . Hypothesis 4a Hypothesis 4b . Summary of Results for Hypotheses 3 and 4 V. DISCUSSION Hypothesis 1 . Hypothesis la Hypothesis lb Hypothesis lc Hypothesis 2 . Hypothesis 2a Hypothesis 2b Hypothesis 2c Discussion for Subgroups of Mothers ADC and Non— ADC Mothers . . Married and Single Mothers . . Black Mothers and White Mothers Employed and Unemployed Mothers . . Mothers Who Have Completed High School and Mothers Who Have Attended Some College Student and Nonstudent Mothers Hypothesis 3 . . . . Hypothesis 3a Hypothesis 3b vii Page 86 86 104 104 107 109 109 109 110 112 114 115 117 122 123 125 125 128 130 131 131 131 132 132 133 133 134 134 135 135 135 136 136 137 138 138 140 Chapter Page Hypothesis 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Hypothesis 4a . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Hypothesis 4b . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 VI. CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 Prediction of Locus of Control . . . . . . . 144 Change in Locus of Control . . . 145 Locus of Control and Performance of Skill Tasks With and Without Incentives . . . . . . . 147 Limitations of the Research . . . . . . . . 148 Conclusions . . . . 149 Implications for Theory and for Action Research . 151 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 viii Table wwwuwwwww LIST OF TABLES Mothers Receiving Aid for Dependent Children . Maternal Race Maternal Employment and Type of Work Terminal Education of Mothers . Student Status of Mother Marital Status of Mothers Sex of Child Age of Child Child's Ordinal Position in Family Measurement of Variables of Interest from Six Instrumental Sources . . Summary of Multiple Regression Predicting Locus of Control from Other Mother (M) Variables . Summary of Multiple Regression Predicting Locus of Control from Child (C) Variables Summary of Multiple Regression Predicting Locus of Control from Child (C) Variables (Age 47 Months or Younger). . Summary of Multiple Regression Predicting Locus of Control from Child (C) Variables (Age 48 Months and Older) . . Summary of Multiple Regression Predicting Locus of Control from Mother (M) and Child (C) Variables for ADC Mothers . Summary of Multiple Regression Predicting Locus of Control from Mother (M) and Child (C) Variables for Non-ADC Mothers . . ix Page 54 54 54 56 56 57 58 59 6O 77 88 89 90 91 92 93 Table 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 Summary of Multiple Regression Predicting Locus of Control from Mother (M) and Child (C) Variables for Married Mothers . Summary of Multiple Regression Predicting Locus of Control from Mother (M) and Child (C) Variables for Single Mothers . Summary of Multiple Regression Predicting Locus of Control from Mother (M) and Child (C) Variables for Black Mothers . . . Summary of Multiple Regression Predicting Locus of Control from Mother (M) and Child (C) Variables for White Mothers . . Summary of Multiple Regression Predicting Locus of Control from Mother (M) and Child (C) Variables for Unemployed Mothers Summary of Multiple Regression Predicting Locus of Control from Mother (M) and Child (C) Variables for Employed Mothers . . Summary of Multiple Regression Predicting Locus of Control from Mother (M) and Child (C) Variables for Mothers Who Have Completed High School . . . . . Summary of Multiple Regression Predicting Locus of Control from Mother (M) and Child (C) Variables for Mothers Who Have Completed Some College . . . . Summary of Multiple Regression Predicting Locus of Control from Mother (M) and Child (C) Variables for Mothers Who Are Not Currently Students . . . . Summary of Multiple Regression Predicting Locus of Control from Mother (M) and Child (C) Variables for Mothers Who Are Currently Students . . . . Descriptive Measures of Variables Used in Regression Analyses . Cell Means of Percent Attendance Used in 2-Way ANOVA Page 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 108 118 Table 4.19 4.20 4.21 4.22 Two-Way ANOVA on Attendance Summary of Scheffé Contrasts Cell Means of Adjusted Post-Scores on Felt Powerlessness Test Used in 2-Way ANCOVA . Two- -Way ANCOVA on Post— Score on Felt Powerlessness . xi Page 118 121 129 129 Figure 0000 «th «#5000000 NOSU‘I LIST OF FIGURES General Design Matrix for Phase 1 Design Matrix for Hypothesis 1 Design Matrix for Hypothesis 2 Design Matrix for Subsequent Analyses for Hypotheses 1,2 . General Design Matrix for Phase 2 Design Matrix for Hypothesis 3 Design Matrix for Hypothesis 4 List of Stepwise Multiple Regressions The Average Percent of Attendance Within All Treatments for Internal and External Mothers The Average Percent of Attendance Within Treatment 1 and Treatment 2 for Internal and External Mothers The Average Percent of Attendance Within Treatment 1 and Treatment 3 for Internal and External Mothers . The Average Percent of Attendance Within Treatment 2 and Treatment 3 for Internal and External Mothers . . Design Matrix xii Page 43 45 45 47 48 50 51 87 120 122 126 127 164 LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix A. Maternal Involvement in Day Care: A Comparison of Incentives . . . 8. Instrumental References . C. Parents Are Teachers Too Program (Conceptual Framework and Sample Lesson) D. Further Discussion of Results of Regression Analyses in Tables 4.1-4.16 . xiii Page 162 168 170 175 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The concept of locus control, which was introduced into psychology two decades ago, has proved to be a highly useful con- struct in a wide variety of educational and psycho-sociological contexts. According to this theory, as formulated initially by Rotter (1954), internally controlled persons perceive events as dependent on their relatively permanent characteristics and actions. Persons with an external locus of control, by contrast, perceive events as relatively more dependent on luck, chance, fate or power- ful others than on their own actions or permanent characteristics. In addition, the change in a person's locus of control from an external locus to an internal locus has drawn attention because of its presumed social application. The more internal person is expected to be more personally effective in using information and achieving goals. Some research has centered on attempts to foster internality among participants in view of its presumed social value. Statement of the Problem This study investigates the relationship of the mother's perception of locus of control to characteristics of the mother and of her young child. In addition, it examines an effective parenting program for its predicted impact on day care mothers (mothers with a child attending a day care center) assessed in terms of changing the mothers' locus of control. Need and Purpose The present study contributes to the existing research on locus of control in several ways. It removes the locus of control construct from the highly structured laboratory setting where it has usually been studied and extends it to a field setting. In place of sets of adult strangers who perform ambiguous tasks in the univer- sity laboratory, the study investigates the interaction of mother and child, a primary socialization dyad, as they accomplish more meaningful tasks in familiar environments. The present research also attempts to synthesize the char- acteristics of persons with external or internal locus of control. While research in a laboratory setting has permitted a series of pertinent characteristics to be isolated and identified, much laboratory research has precluded synthesis. By contrast, the natural, multi-dimensional setting in which the present research has been conducted encourages attempts to unify the diverse charac- teristics previous investigators have uncovered. Such a setting provides a network of data which can be subjected to multivariate analysis to enable generation of a predictive model of locus of control. The present research was conducted in conjunction with a larger study, Maternal Involvement in Day Care: A Comparison of Incentives (Boger, Kuipers, Cunningham and Andrews, 1974). The larger study was designed to examine the impact of specific incentives for mothers to attend instructional sessions and it reports the attendance generated by each incentive. The present study analyzes aspects of those data based on the mother's locus of control with the rationale that mothers with different control expectancies differentially perceive these incentives. This involves a further prediction that when no incentive for attendance is present, participation, or lack of it, can be "explained" by the mother's locus of control. While the larger study focused on incen- tives for participation in the educational program that might increase a mother's effectiveness as a teacher of her child, the present study examines the predicted impact of these incentives on the mother's locus of control. Objectives The objectives of this research are as follows: 1. To develop a predictive model for maternal locus of control based upon mother and child character- istics and parent-child interaction. 2. To investigate the reaction to incentives of mothers with internal and external locus of control. 3. To examine parent program participation of mothers with internal and external locus of control. 4. To develop a predictive model of change in locus of control based upon parent program participa- tion and incentives. Overview The present study attempts to relate, in two distinct phases, the concept of locus of control to certain characteristics of mothers and of their youngest children attending a day care center. The study's first phase, a descriptive one, considers the established behavior patterns between mother and child which permit prediction concerning the mother's locus of control. The study's second experimental phase examines both the impact which several specific incentives have on mothers with opposite locus of control and the contributions which various incentives make toward affect- ing positive change in locus of control. Locus of control is thus examined in the multi-faceted context afforded by a study of mothers of children attending a day care center, by their children, and by a program of parent teaching which sought to involve and affect both mothers and children. In the first phase a predictive model of the mother's locus of control is built with mother variables, child variables, and both types of variables in an expanded model. The kinds of vari- ables examined as possible predictors of locus of control are, for the mother, behaviors indicating her teaching effectiveness with the child, her educational attitudes and expectancies for the child, and her reported activities engaged in at home to prepare this child for school. The model is built also from a selection of child variables. These include behaviors indicating learning achievement, self- esteem, age, sex and ordinal position. As a further extension of interest, a general model involv- ing both mother and child predictors is created and examined for subgroups «If mothers. The general predictive model provides a pattern of descriptors for the internal and the external mother. Certain variables or groups of variables may prove to be the most general and frequently found predictors of locus of control for all subgroups of women. Also, a pattern may emerge of predictors for women of different status. This descriptive information may pro- vide further insight into the etiology of internal or external locus of control in family women in different socioeconomic groups. The second phase examines incentives for attending a parent education program offered the mother in a controlled situation. It involves predicting different responses to the incentives based upon the locus of control of the mother. Subsequently, it investigates possible change in locus of control toward greater internality as a function of attendance at the parent program and incentives. Although the two phases of this research are distinct, the second phase builds upon the first. The enlarged understanding of internally and externally controlled persons which is the product of Phase 1 contributes substantially to the interpretation in Phase 2 of the behaviors of mothers with opposite locus of control and of the change or lack of change in locus of control among women in the different experimental conditions. Definitions A series of theoretical definitions are given here to clarify frequently used or important terms for the reader. Operational definitions of the variables used in the research are presented in Chapter III. The following six definitions derive from Rotter (1966) and Lefcourt (1966, 1972). Locus of control: This is the individual's perception of control of events as to whether they are internally determined (i.e., under personal control) or externally determined (i.e., beyond personal control). Expectancy: "Expectancy" used with "locus of control" refers to the generalized perception across many different environ- ments and situations that events are internally determined or externally determined. Reinforcement: The perception of an event as positive or negative determines a reinforcement. Internal control: Internal control is the perception of events as internally determined or under personal control. Persons evidencing this are called internally controlled persons or internals. External control: External control is the perception of events as externally determined or as beyond personal control. Per- sons evidencing this are called externally controlled persons or externals. Change in locus of control: This is movement of a person from one locus of control to the other locus of control. Generally, it refers to positive change--change towards greater perceived internal control of events. The following two definitions are substantially those of Kuipers (1969). Mother-child interaction: It is viewed as the total com- munication process existing between mother and child. This includes dimensions of quantity and quality of language behavior, as well as nonverbal communication and a dimension of warmth. Self-concept of the child or self-esteem: It is designated as the child's concepts or view of him/herself over a wide variety of characteristics. It is considered a function of the child's view of how significant others see him/her as well as how the child per- ceives self. Incentives: The specific incentives referred to in this study are those which were offered for attendance at the parent edu- cation program. The first two are five dollars and babysitting and tranSportation. The third is considered a "control," in which there was no additional reward or help for attendance. Overt influence: This is an obvious attempt to manipulate. In this study, the incentives of money and of babysitting and transportation are considered obvious attempts to manipulate the mothers studied. Parent education program: This refers to the program offered in conjunction with this research, the Parents Are Teachers Too Program (Boger, Kuipers, Beery, Walter, Noble and Waxler, 1971). The program consists of 12 two-hour sessions held weekly at day care centers in which parents are taught to make materials to use the following week in teaching interaction with the child. Skill-type activity: This is an action or process viewed as requiring expertise for its performance. In this study, participation in the parent education program implies teacher effectiveness training and is considered a skill-type activity. Assumptions The assumptions for the two research phases are listed below. Research Assumptions for Phase 1 The mother and child behaviors in the measurement conditions are considered bounded as described in these conditions: 1.1 All the mother's previous experiences in this and other environments have affected her total per- sonality. The totality of the mother's past experience affects her behavior in this immediate situation. Teaching effectiveness shown by the mother in the research situations will be related to her previous similar experiences with this child. The child's developmental level and previous experi- ences have affected his or her total personality. The child's developmental level and previous experi- ences affect behavior in this immediate situation. Learning achievement shown by the child in the semi-structured situation will be related to devel- opmental stage and to previous similar experiences with the mother. The young child is a significant person in the life of the mother and his or her actions and attitudes can be expected to affect the characteristics and attitudes of the mother. Research Assumptions for Phase 2 2.1 The two incentive treatments of money and babysit- ting and transportation will be perceived by the mothers in this study as incentives for action which are overt rather than covert. 2.2 2.3 2.4 Attendance at the parent education program will not be perceived as a role demand for mothers. If it were seen as a role demand, then there would be no basis for predicting different behaviors by internal mothers and external mothers. Attendance at the parent program predicts more suc- cesses in teaching interaction with the child. Attendance predicts increased positive reinforce- ment from the young child because the program involves adequately preparing the mother to teach the young child and also provides her with appro- priate materials. The reinforcement received by the mother from the young child will be important enough to her that other sources of positive or negative reinforce- ment will not obviate its effect. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE The present research investigates in a particular context the personality dimension termed locus of control expectancy as it emerges in the socialization process between parent and young child. The literature concerning personality dimensions, the socialization process in general and the particular socialization process between mother and child is; extensive and well known; none of these are reviewed here. Only studies concerned with the locus of control are reviewed. It is convenient to survey under three headings the literature concerned with the construct of locus of control. First, the coherent presentation offered by two major researchers in this area, J. B. Rotter and H. M. Lefcourt, is examined. Second, the broad application which the construct has received during the past decade is sketched. Third, the specific researched which find immediate application in the present study are described in greater detail. The Construct of Locus of Control Expectancy as Presented by Rotter and Lefcourt Rotter (1966) and Lefcourt (1966, 1972) provide a substan- tial source of explication of the construct of locus of control expectancy and are the source of much of the synthesis which 10 11 follows. Internal control and external control are defined by Lefcourt (1966, p. 207) in this way: Internal control refers to the perception of positive and/ or negative events as being a consequence of one's own actions and thereby under personal control; external con- trol refers to the perception of positive and/or negative events as being unrelated to one's own behaviors in certain situations and thereby beyond personal control. In this theory, the potential for any behavior to occur in a specific situation is a function of the person and the environment. There are two dynamic factors to consider. The first is the person's expectancy that a given behavior will secure its own proper reinforcement whether positive or negative. If this does not hap- pen, then the generalized perception may change and eventually repeated incongruities may elicit a change in the person's percep- tion of internal or of external control. The second factor that must be considered is the reinforcement that is actually available within the environmental context. Thus the richer the environment is, or the richer it is perceived to be by the person, the more numerous are the possibilities of reinforcement. Related Constructs in the Social Sciences There are other concepts in the social sciences which are similar, but not identical, to this locus of control concept. The conception of alienation is similar to powerlessness and to perceived externality (Seeman, 1959). Perceived internal control is related to the concept of autonomy (Angyal, 1941, as reported in Rotter, 1966), to need for achievement (McClelland, Atkinson, Clark and 12 Lowell, 1953; Atkinson, 1958), to body-orientation as opposed to field-dependency (Witkin, Lewis, Hertzman, Machover, Meissner, Wapner, 1954) to striving for superiority (Adler, as described in Ansbacher and Ansbacher, 1956) and mastery (Strodtbeck, 1958). Several of these concepts prompted research connecting them with the internal-external locus of control concept and have been identified as behaviors correlated with control expectancy. Behaviors Correlated With Internal- ExternaT Locus of Control Expectancy To further explain this construct, behaviors correlated with either an internal control expectancy or an external one are now examined. These include (1) achievement motivation; (2) attempts to control the environment; and (3) reaction to subtle suggestion. Achievement motivation.--Studies have found, in general, that persons with an internal control expectancy are more motivated to achievement than persons with an external control expectancy. Those studies which found external persons as achievement oriented have tended to label these persons as "defensive externals" (Rotter, 1966, p. 21). Their external orienation is explained as a defense against failure which they use if their striving behavior is unsuccessful. Crandall, Katkovsky and Preston (1962) found free play and achievement test scores in a predominantly middle class sample related to internality for boys. This was not found for girls. 13 Findings like these are interpreted that some girls tend to be "defensive externals," and therefore both internal and external scoring girls will strive to achieve. Another study of reported achievement motivation (Franklin, 1963) used a national stratified sample. It found a significance (N = 1,000, r_= .69) between reports of intention to go to college and present internal-eXternal control orientation. A dimension of achievement motivation is an individual's persistence in attempting a skill-type task as opposed to lesser persistence in a chance-type task. In a controlled lab situation, Rotter and Mulry (1965) studied 120 subjects in an angle-matching situation. Half of the sample was told it was a matter of skill (defining a skill situation). The other half was told it was extremely difficult to match the angles and more a matter of luck than ability (defining a chance situation). The measure of achieve- ment in this study was the amount of time taken to select a matching angle. The results were that internals in the skill group took a longer time to judge a standard than externals. There was also a trend for externals in the chance condition to take longer to judge than externals in the skill condition. Further related to achievement motivation, and perhaps cru- cial to it, are attempts to control the surroundings. Environmental control.--One way of examining the perceived locus of control is to study persons in relatively disadvantaged situations and see if there is a trend for internality among persons 14 who try to overcome their relative disadvantage. For instance, hospitalized ill persons and reformatory inmates are objectively disadvantaged. Seeman and Evans (1962) studied the behavior of hospitalized tuberculosis patients. They found that the more internally oriented persons knew more about their condition, ques- tioned personnel more, and expressed less satisfaction with the information feedback. The striving for mastery of their situation was appropriate because, in slang terminology, "the bad patient gets better quicker." Seeman (1963) also studied reformatory inmates. Again there was a relationship between internality (independent of intelligence) and the amount of information remembered about how the reformatory was run (important for daily functioning) and about how parole was achieved. Similar results concerning attempts to control the environment were obtained by studies of minority race students. Internally oriented minority race students were more apt to be activists in the civil rights movement in the early and mid-19605 (Gore and Rotter, 1963; Strickland, 1965). Evidently, in most studies, internal orientation is correlated with attempts to master the environment. Two behaviors which relate to control expectancy were men- tioned; there is another aspect of particular importance in which differences between internals and externals have been found-~that is in the area of persuasion. 15 Overt persuasion --In a study of a group situation, a tested individual may find that his or her judgment differs from that of the contrived group majority. If the situation is such that the person with normal vision, hearing, etc., would logically decide, when acting alone, on a certain choice, then if he or she gives a different, group-held answer, it is very probable that this person was influenced by the group. In a study of this type by Crowne and Liverant (1963) which involved a reward for giving the objectively correct answer in such a situation, internals yielded significantly less to group opinion than externals. Various studies of conditioning found internals more resistant to manipulation than externals (Getter, 1962; Strickland, 1962). However, this resist- ance appears to be more to covert than to overt persuasions (Gore, 1962). Internal persons may yield to persuasion as well as external persons, but they are apt to do so when they have a clear choice. If manipulation is subtle, the choice is less clear, and internals may reSpond negatively. Another condition internals may place on yielding is that they do not disadvantage themselves or lose face by acquiescence. These differences between internals and externals were observed in controlled lab situations. Replication would appear to be needed. Since three related behaviors which differentiate persons with an internal expectancy from persons with an external one were examined, it is useful to discuss theories of control expectancies. 16 Development of a General Locus of Control Expectancy At any point in time a person's expectancy is considered as relatively polarized towards internal or towards external control. However, the present locus of control depends, in theory, on the individual's history of reinforcement. Control expectancies are said to generalize from the pattern of past reinforcements in situ- ations that are perceived as related or similar. One example is that welfare mothers have been shown to exhibit, as a group, an external locus of control (Freijo, Gordon and Bilker, 1968). The finding is reasonable because welfare mothers have presumably endured a series of financial difficulties in which the monetary solution was not in their own hands but rather provided by society. This is the basis of a general perception that powerful others are in control of important reinforcements in their lives. Another example concerns persons of high socioeconomic status who have been shown to exhibit, as a group, an internal locus of control (Joe, 1971). This is consistent with the expectation that they can literally control many aspects of their own lives because of their cultural advantages and economic status. There are cultural, familial and developmental aspects which may explain the development of a control expectancy. Persons of minority race, of low socioeconomic status, as well as women in general, have been found to perceive themselves more externally con- trolled than persons of majority race, middle or high socioeconomic status (SES) who are male. However, the family environment for this 17 development is crucial. The data indicate that a warm, accepting home with predictable consistent behavior standards is more con- ducive to producing internally oriented children than externally oriented ones, regardless of cultural background. And, at the per- sonal level, the development of an external or an internal expectancy has been studied in connection with development of generalized con- cepts of causality. Mechanisms for Change In an earlier section of this review, relating internality to attempts to control the environment, there was an interest in the information-seeking behaviors of persons who were in an objec- tively disadvantaged situation. For instance, some ill persons try to achieve some control over illness through knowledge, and some prison inmates try to learn the system so they can "beat it." It seems reasonable that other disadvantaged persons can help them- selves through acquiring an internal locus of control. What mecha- nisms, then, might re-focus an external control expectancy to an internal one? There are two general types of therapeutic interventions. The first is to assist a person to achieve a goal that has been previously held unsuccessfully. The intervention mechanism is to increase the occurrence of present successes with these goals. For example, Bilker (1970) investigated the control expectancies of indigent mothers before and after they were provided with an educa- tional program, the Parent Education Project (Gordon, 1969, as 18 reported in Bilker, 1970). The program, it was hypothesized, pre- sented consistent positive reinforcement to mothers for successful "mothering" behaviors in interaction with their infants. His results indicated a trend towards greater internal control for the participating mothers compared to a control group of nonpartici- pants. The second therapy involves assisting a person to achieve new goals. A person's control expectancy may be altered if old successes can be cognitively linked to new goals. Several studies report therapeutic changes towards intern- ality. Smith (1970) reports significant decreases in externality over a five-week period for clinic patients engaged in crisis therapy. Dua (1970) notes increased internality for two types of therapy: an action-oriented treatment directed at planning specific behaviors for improving relationships with given persons, and a reeducation approach directed towards influencing the clients' attitudes toward these persons. Lesyk (1969) tells of a program of operant conditioning with female schizophrenics. After five weeks, women with the highest ratings of positive behavior also had the most internal scores. Similarly, in another therapy program for hospitalized psychiatric patients (Gillis and Jessor, 1970), those patients judged by thera- pists as improved had a greater increase in internality than a sample of untreated patients. Besides these studies with a therapeutic purpose, other studies have reported changes in internality. For instance, when reformatory inmates were tested at the time of imprisonment, in the 19 middle period, and just before release, higher externality is found at the beginning and end than in the middle (Kiehlbauch, 1968). This could reflect the objective uncertainties related to goals at these times. Kiehlbauch suggests that stable routine brings control and that uncertainty brings a challenge to one's c0ping ability and increases externality. Other studies of college students found a movement towards externality when Senator Eugene McCarthy lost the presidential nomination (Gorman, 1968). Also, male students facing the Viet Nam war draft who became less draft eligible after a draft lottery scored more external than those whose eligibility had not changed (McArthur, 1970). In conclusion, research indicates that control expectancies do change, and that intervention programs aimed directly or indi- rectly at changing expectancies have resulted in such change. They also provide the theoretical basis for expecting change. However, these studies deserve replication and further explication. Significant Avenues of Research Using the Locus of Control Construct in the Last Decade Several research themes in the writings of Rotter (1966) and Lefcourt (1966, 1972) produced substantive research in recent years. There are other synthesizing themes not yet mentioned in this present review. These include the study of control expectancy and (l) the individual's response to success and failure; (2) the individual's preference for immediate or deferred gratificiation; and (3) the individual's cognitive ability. 20 Response to Success and Failure The research on achievement is closely related to the research on success and failure. For achievement in important areas, persistence is necessary as are appropriate response to cues and the utilization of cumulative experience. Let us consider these in turn as they relate to an internal or an external control expectancy. The literature on persistence describes studies of prefer- ence for immediate or deferred gratification and will be presented in more detail. In brief, the internal person is more prone to delay gratification. The external person is more easily satisfied with small, early success. The internal person has already been described as a better information processor. The literature on success and failure fur- ther examines this aSpect. Some early studies linked control expectancy with coping for success and failure by using a level of aspiration paradigm; in such studies subjects stated their expec- tancies for success through trials in which they experienced success and failure. In studies of skill and chance situations, Phares (1955) and James (1957) found externals behaving like subjects who received chance directions, exhibiting less expectancy shifts reflecting the actual successes and failures, and making more shifts without an objective basis. For instance, an aspiration expectancy might be raised after a failure or lowered after a success. This is considered an unusual shift in aspiration expectancy because it is not built on the actual experience of the individual. This 21 unusual shift well exemplifies the inappropriate response to success and failure of the external person (Battle and Rotter, 1963; Lefcourt, 1967; Lefcourt, Lewis and Silverman, 1968). Feather (1968) found that internals make more appropriate changes in expectancies (up after success and down after failure) than externals in a series of trials with anagrams. Other studies suggest that the response to failure by internals and externals is somewhat different from responding apprOpriately or inappropriately. Some studies report that internals merely "forget" failures or "repress" them (Efran, 1963; Rotter, l966). Externals, who see the responsibility for the failure out- side themselves, do not need to repress to escape self-reproach. This interpretation is further supported by a study of Phares, Ritchie and Davis (1968) who found that externals could remember more negative (incorrect) information about themselves than could internals. However, the internals expressed more interest in making arrangements to confront their (assumed) personal difficulties than externals. For internal persons, then, the response to success may be to incorporate the information from that event in planning appro- priate further actions. The response to failure may be two-fold: to incorporate the information learned and/or to forget deficits and perhaps become less aware of cues related to them, while con- tinuing to take an active stance to solve problems. External persons, on the other hand, tend to ignore informa- tion from successful events insofar as it contributes information 22 for further action. The response to failure for externals is also two-fold: to ignore information from the failure which could pro- vide a new basis for further action and/or to remember failure or threat-related situations and perhaps let their negative aspects color further thinking out of proportion to their objective meaning. Immediate or Deferred Gratification The argument relating control expectancy and choice of immediate or deferred gratification is this: immediate gratifica- tion is a sign of lower socioeconomic class; externality is a sign of lower socioeconomic class; so preference for immediate gratifi- cation and perceived external control of gratifications are related. Logically, the preference for easy success that is supposed to characterize the external locus expectancy should prompt choice of easy, immediate reinforcement. However, the particular research studies relating these characteristics are somewhat controversial. For instance, laboratory studies have been criticized because the laboratory definition of reinforcements may not generalize to real- life situations (Willems, 1968, p. 35). Also, delay of reward in real life implies an active striving toward the reinforcement rather than an empty waiting, which is the situation in most laboratory studies. Since movement toward internality is developmentally related to age (Penk, 1969; Walls and Miller, 1970) and increasing prefer- ence for delayed reinforcement is also related to age (Walls and Miller, 1970), studies of the cognitive development of children 23 which do not include both factors may be confounded. The next research thrust considered is that of cognitive activity. Cognitive Strategies If success doesn't just happen but must be worked for in most life situations, then those persons who plan and execute goal- oriented strategies should achieve more success than persons who don't. The strategy of information utilization has been mentioned with regard to patients who learn more about their own conditions (Seeman and Evans, 1962), and among reformatory inmates who learn how the system is operated (Seeman, 1963). Another research investigated differential use of the same information by internals and externals (Phares, 1968). Financial rewards were offered for matching data about four hypothetical men with hypothetical women and occupations. Internals gave more and better reasons for the matchings. This led Phares to conclude that internals made better use of common information than externals and thus could be more effective in their environment. A different study reported that internals engaged more in preliminary steps of data gathering than externals which might increase their probability of success in the subsequent task (Davis and Phares, 1967). Internal subjects were found more likely than external sub- jects to attend to cues providing information that could resolve uncertainties (Lefcourt and Wine, 1969). However, another study reported that both internals and externals were more motivated to 24 activity in congruent conditions than in incongruent conditions (Watson and Baumal, 1967). That is, internals wanted more practice in the chance-type activities and externals wanted more practice in the skill-type activities. This could be interpreted as in conflict with the Rotter and Mulry (1965) suggestion that internals and externals are more motivated on congruent conditions because of the greater reinforcement value and less motivated in incongruent con- ditions. However, it could also be interpreted that anxiety is raised by incongruent conditions. If this is so, a low level of anxiety may be described as "motivating" because it leads to greater information seeking, but a high level of anxiety would be self-defeating. Another variable which has been related to internal-external control is that of field dependence or differentiation. A high level of differentiation or field independence involves a clear separation of what is identified as self from that external to the self. Field dependence theoretically implies a relative reliance on external nurturance and support and less differentiation of self from field. Although relationships between field dependence and internal-external control have been predicted, they have not received much empirical support. However, when measures of locus of control and of differentiation are used together as predictors, they do produce significant interaction effects (Lefcourt, Gronnerud and McDonald, 1971; Lefcourt, Sordoni and Sordoni, 1971; Lefcourt and Telegdi, 1971, as reported in Lefcourt, 1972). 25 Literature Relating to Research Questions The study objectives listed in the introductory chapter generate four broad research questions. The first two research questions deal with a predictive model of locus of control in the mother. The corresponding literature is reviewed relating locus of control to mother's teacher effectiveness and educational aspirations and expectancies for the child. Child cognitive achievement, self- esteem, age, sex and ordinal position are also reviewed as these may relate to locus of control of the mother. The third research ques- tion deals with locus of control and performance of skill tasks with and without reinforcement of an overt nature. The fourth research question addresses mechanisms of change toward greater internality. The literature is now presented for each specific research question. Locus of Control and Teacher Effectiveness Research suggests that internal persons are more effective teachers than external persons (Hersch and Scheibe, 1967; Powell and Vega, 1972). The theoretical reasoning, described earlier in this chapter, is that internal persons in contrast to external per- sons appear to show a greater tendency to seek information and adopt behavior patterns which facilitate personal control over the environment. They also persist longer in skill-type activities. These behaviors should contribute to their effectiveness as teachers. A supporting study by Murray and Staebler (1973) found that fifth grade students made significantly more academic progress with 26 internal teachers than with external ones after a one-year period. Significant differences were found in language, arithmetic and reading skills. 0n the other hand, the Bilker study (1970) of indigent mothers participating in the Parent Education Project and their infants did not find differences in child achievement on the Stimu- lation Series Test or on the Griffiths Mental Development Scale for children of internal or external mothers after six months. 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Am.eAm m m moonowowow Aooowuz mAm. mwon. oooo. me.mmm N N om eopoweowe v e oAuomrw Ann ”oz oAnowwo> oAnkoe> one oonowwo> a eo>womno noozuom we om eonwoAnxm nowquowwou eowonom AeN n zv moAnkoo> woooweowe.m new: nowuonom noAmmowmom one wow munowowwwoou nowmmowmom wo oocewwo> wo momonn< wo AonEnm .omoAAou oEom eopoAnEou o>oz on: mwonpoz wow moAnkoo> non eAwne eee Ann weneen seww Aeweeee we eeeen eeweeweewe ceweeeweem eAeweAesz.wneEEem--.eA.e unmew 102 ANAN. ANNe.N NeAee. eeNeA. NNNNN. eweee ewee peeNee-o eeee. eNAN.N eNNee. eNAAe. ANANN. peaceewewewew ewwpwmee-z eeee. eeNN.N NNNNN. Neeee. NeNNN. eewpeweeeee Aeeweww-o eeee. NeNe.e NNeee. ANeNe. ANeNe. ee<-o I . pnowowwwoou noApNAowwou eeeeewwweewm ewemwpeem w wewwN eNN neweeeweem Aewpwee eAeewwew noAponoN Aonww cw moAnowwo> eoenAocA wow mowpmwpopm xonEnm eweem ewee peeNeo-e Awe. eeNNA. eeee. NN.NNN e e peeEeecewewew .Nee-z Nee. NNNNA. eeee. NN.NNN N N eewpeweeeee Aeewewp-o ANN. NeNee. eeee. NN.NNN N N ee<-e Nee. NANNe. eeee. e.eNN.A A A . .m . .m ANNV mmocmmkoozoo pAow .. AeroMvommv Amoeowopnwmv nowmmowmom op wo monAe> eopoweowo v e oApNNIN Ann .oz oAnNAwN> oAnkoN> one oonowwo> a eo>womno noozpom . we om eonAoAan coApvowwou eowonom ANA n zv moAnkoo> wopoweowo.m npwz nowponom :oAmNowmom onp wow Npcowowwwoou nowmmowmom wo oonowwo> wo Nomonn< wo AonEnm .mpnoenpm NApcowwnu poz ow< on: mwonpoz wow moAnkoo> ANA eAwne ece Ann weneen oeww Aewpceewweeeeen Newpeweewe eewNNeweeN eAeprez we wneeEeN--.NA.e NnNew 103 mmoo. AAAA.m mmeo. AAAmN. AAmNm. owoom pwom poohnOIQ eeoo. eNoA.m mmNoo. NNAoo. mAmAm. Noonowowow Aopowrz NNNo. NNme.N omeme. emAA.A mmome. EoopNonAomru NAAN. eeAN.N NNNee. eNeNe. Neeee. ee<-N eeeeewwweewm ewpeweapm-p wewwN .eeN pumwwwwwmmm eemewwmmeo eAeewwe> :oApenoN Aonww nw moAnNAwN> eoenAonA wow Nowpmwpopm Awernm ee<-o NAN. NNNNN. eeee. NN.NNN e e Nopnnwwppo owwwoonm moonowowow Aopowrz mom. emeeN. oooo. AA.meN m m owoom pwom poonno-u mmm. mmomA. oooo. mm.omm N N soopNonAomIU mmm. mnvo. oooo. me.eoe A A . .m . .m A a mmonmmkoozon pAow .I AeroMvommv Amoeowopnwmv nowmmwwwom op wo NonAN> eoperown v e oppomrw Ann ”oz oAnkoN> oAnkoo> ono oonowwo> a eo>womno noozpom we om eonAoAnxm :oApvowwou eowonom Aom n zv NoAnewwo> wopoweown.m npwz nowponom :oANNowmom onp wow anowowwwoou nowmmowmom wo oocNAwN> wo NomNAoc< wo AonEnm .mpnoenpm NApnowwnu ow< on: mwonpoz wow NoAnkoo> wen eAwne eee Ann canoe: eecw Aeweeeo we meeen Newpeweewe eewmmeweem eAepreznw.wwNEEeN--.NA.e NnNep 104 reinforcement messages, total references to specific attributes, total reinforcement messages and verbal commands. The general Hypothesis 2 is addressed in the second, third and fourth regressions (Tables 4.2, 4.3, 4.4) and examined in the replications along with mother variables as presented in Tables 4.5 to 4.16. The second through fourth regressions examined these child variables in connection with the mother's locus of control: object sort score, color sort score, total sort score, verbal score, cooperation, noncompliance responses, self-esteem of the child, sex, age and ordinal position. The predicting child variables in the replications (Tables 4.5 to 4.16) were limited to these: self- esteem, age, COOperation, sex, verbal score and object sort score. Additional technical information about the types of data presented in each table is given in Appendix D. Hypothesis 1: Mother's Locus of Control and Her Other Concurrent Behaviors, Attitudes and Characteristics Hypothesis la This hypothesis states that there is no relationship between the mother's locus of control and her teaching behaviors demonstrated in interaction with her youngest child attending the day care center as evidenced in the Hess-Shipman Toy Sort Task. The results of multiple regression analyses shown in Tables 4.1, 4.5-4.8, 4.10, 4.12-4.16 reveal that several variables indicative of teaching effectiveness are significantly related to the mother's locus of control. Therefore, Hypothesis 1a is rejected. 105 Typical affectionateness rating of mother.--As predicted, mothers with more warm general affect were also more internal, and those tending towards hostility were more external. This result was found when mother characteristics were examined separately for all mothers (Table 4.1). It was also found for specific subgroups of mothers when both mother and child characteristics were examined together as possible predictors of locus of control (Tables 4.6, 4.7, 4.12). This variable contributes most to the reduction of unexplained variation for non-ADC mothers (55%) and for married mothers (47%). The variable achieved significance in the initial regression which included 13 mother variables. It was retained for analyses with specified subgroups of mothers. Reinforcement messages, total reference to specific attri- butes and positive reinforcement messages.--These three variables achieved a significant prediction of locus of control, but in the direction Opposite to that which was predicted. That is, higher scores on these variables which are considered signs of the more effective teacher are related to external control rather than to internal control. Reinforcement messages accounts flnrbetween 10% and 32% of the proportionate increase in explained variation due to its presence in a regression when it is significant. It explains the most for mothers who have completed some college. In decreasing order, it is important for married mothers, for mothers who have completed high school, for employed mothers, and for all mothers when only mother variables are considered. Since this variable had 106 achieved significance in the initial regression it was retained for consideration in subsequent analyses. Total reference to Specific attributes accounts for between 10% and 44% of the proportionate increase in explained variation when it is significant. It explains the most variation for mothers who have attended some college. Then, in decreasing order, it is important for white mothers, for student mothers, for ADC mothers, for married mothers, for employed mothers, and for non-ADC mothers. Although this variable had not achieved significance in the initial regression, it was considered theoretically important and retained for subsequent analyses. Percent of positive to all reinforcement messages contributes to between 7% and 71% of the proportionate increase in explained variation. It explains the 71% for non-ADC mothers. In decreasing order it is important for employed mothers, married mothers, all mothers, single mothers, nonstudent mothers, white mothers, and ADC mothers. It is more important for non-ADC mothers than for ADC mothers, and slightly more important for married mothers than single ones. This variable had achieved significance in the initial regres- sion and was then retained for further analyses. Verbal commands.--Although this variable had not achieved significance in the initial regression, it was considered theoreti- cally important and retained for subsequent analyses. It was not significant in any of these further analyses. 107 Orientation, reguests for verbal feedback, total references to color and total references to objpgt.--These variables were not Significant in the first regression and were not included in sub- sequent analyses. When descriptive statistics on these were examined (Table 4.17), there was a mean of only 15 seconds devoted to orientation to task, and the maximum time was only 95 seconds. Consequently, this variable was considered inconsequential and drOpped from further analysis. Total references to color and to object were dropped as separate variables, and the composite vari- able, total references to attributes, was retained. Requests for verbal feedback was drOpped from analysis because it did not Show significance and because it was significantly (P S..OOl) related to another variable retained, verbal commands. Hypothesis lb This hypothesis states that there is no relationship between the mother's locus of control and her number of activities in the home which are reported engaged in to prepare the (youngest) day care child for school. The results of the multiple regression analysis in which all mother variables are considered as potential predictors of the mother's locus of control reveal that the variable, number of activities in the home which are reported engaged in to prepare the child for school, was not significantly related to locus of con- trol at the termination of the regression algorithm. Therefore, Hypothesis 1b was not rejected. 108 eNNNA.A eNNeA.A eee.A eeeee.A eeN eewewmee Aecwewe-o eeNee. eANeN.A eee.N eeeee.A NNN xeN-o eeeeN.eA eeeNN.ee eee.ew eeeee.eN NNN ee<-e eNAAe.A eNNee.N eee.e eeeee.e NAA eweea Awee Aeeew-o eNNNN.A eNANe.A eee.N eeeee.e NAA eweee ewem weAee-e eNNAN.A eNNNe.N eee.N eeeee.e NAA eweem Awem eeeNee-o eeeeN.NA eeNeN.NN eee.eeA eeANe.eA NNA eweeN Aeewe>-o NANNA. eeNeN.A eee.e eeeeo.A NNA eeAeeweeeee AeeAeAA-e eNeAN.N NANNA.A eee.NN eeeee.e NNA memeeemew eeeeAAeeeeeez-e NeeAA. NeNNA. Nee.A eNeAN. NNA eeepme-wAeN-e . . . . 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