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thesis entitled

PERCEPTUAL COGNITIVE STYLES AND PERSON-
ALITY VARIABLES RELATING TO STUDENTS'
PROGRAM CHANGES AT AN INNER-CITY
COMMUNITY COLLEGE

presented by

James E. Jennings

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph.D. degree in Education

 

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ABSTRACT
PERCEPTUAL COGNITIVE STYLES AND PERSONALITY VARIABLES

RELATING TO STUDENTS' PROGRAM CHANGES AT AN
INNER-CITY COMMUNITY COLLEGE

BY

James E. Jennings

The purpose of this investigation was to determine
if students who change their program of study after college
entrance differ in certain cognitive and/or personality
variables from students who choose a major area of study
at the time of college entrance and remain in that program.
A review of the literature revealed no studies directly
relating to the problem under consideration.

Two major hypotheses were formulated.

1. There is a significant difference in the mean
scores on Sigel's Conceptual Styles Test between
those students who change college programs and those
who do not.

2. Program changers differ significantly from non-
changers in their scores on the extroversion scale
of the Eysenck Personality Inventory.

Several other student variables, chiefly demographic in
nature, were also investigated.

The population for the study consisted of students
who had completed four or more semesters at the Highland
Park Community College, Highland Park, Michigan during the
1972 summer session.

Data relative to the cognitive, personality and

demographic variables were analyzed by analysis of

variance. The analysis and conclusions of the data yielded

James E. Jennings

variables of significant difference at the .05 level of
confidence as follows:

1. The population of 128 students in this study
scored significantly lower on the extroversion,
neuroticism and lie scales of the Eysenck Per-
sonality Inventory than the American college
norm.

2. There was no direct relationship between program
change and cognitive style, as measured by
Sigel's Conceptual Styles Test.

3. Those students who indicated a desire to change
programs showed a lower grade point average than
those indicating no desire to change.

4. Students who worked full-time scored higher
on the analytic and lower on the relational
scales of the Sigel Conceptual Styles Test than
those students who worked only part-time or not
at all. These students also: (a) had a higher
grade point average, and (b) scored nearer the
introversion end of the personality scale than
those students who worked part-time or not at
all.

The primary conclusion of this study was that
students who changed programs and those who indicated a
desire to change programs had some characteristics in
common, i.e., they did not work, made lower grades and
carried fewer credit hours. This suggests that variables
other than those hypothesized in this study may be a
better prediction of program change.

Implications for further research included:

(a) further research to determine the appropriateness of
using the American college student norm for determining

personality type for the inner-city college under study,
and (b) developing and refining instruments to determine

the probability of college students to change programs.

PERCEPTUAL COGNITIVE STYLES AND PERSONALITY VARIABLES

RELATING TO STUDENTS' PROGRAM CHANGES AT AN

INNER-CITY COMMUNITY COLLEGE

BY

v

James E. Jennings.g "”‘~—

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

College of Education

1973

{\0} ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Thanks are in order to the many individuals who
helped to make this study possible. In particular, I
am indebted to my committee: Dr. James Nord, who inspired
me to this particular investigation; Dr. Kent Gustafson,
who spent so much time assisting me through the research
thickets; Dr. Lawrence Lezotte, who insisted that I demand
more of my research effort; and Dr. Iwao Ishino, who insisted
upon correctness and precision.

Above all, I am grateful to Clara--few wives have

sacrificed so much to see their husband's dream come true.

ii

Chapter

I.

II.

III.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION . . . . . .

Statement of the Problem
Need for the Study . . .
Rationale for the Study

Hypotheses . . . . . .

Limitations of the Study
Definition of Terms . .

Assumptions Underlying the St tudy

REVIEW OF LITERATURE . .

The Relationship Between

tics and Academic/Vocational Choice . . .

value 0 O O O O O O
Attitude . . . . . .
Personality Type . .

Predictors of Academic/Vocational Success

Personal Characteris-

O
O I O O O O O I O
0

Reasons for Change in Academic/Vocational

Orientation . . . . .
Cognitive Style . . .
Witkin' s Articulated
Styles . . . . . .
Kagan's Analytic and
tive Styles . . .
Cohen' s Analytic and
Styles . . .
Related Studies
Personality Typology
Conclusion . . . . .

PROCEDURES . . . . . . .
Source of the Data . . .

Sample and Population .
Testing Instruments .

Sigel's Conceptual Styles Test

Scoring . . . . .
Scoring Agreement
Reliability . . .

Eysenck's Personality Inventory
The Extroversion Scale . . . .

Statistical Treatment of

iii

and Global Cognitive
Non-Analytic Cogni-

Relational Cognitive

Data . . .

17

18
18
19
20
21

22
24

26
27

29
30
37
42

44
44

48
48
49
51
52
53

56
57

Chapter
IV. FINDINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Highland Park College: Demographic Data .
Measurement of Student Program Change
Behavior . . . . . . . . . .
Responses on the Sigel Conceptual Styles
Test and the Eysenck Personality
Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Sigel Conceptual Styles Test . . . .
The Eysenck Personality Inventory . . .
Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Additional Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GPA's of Males and Females . . . . . . .

Class Withdrawals . . . . . . . . . . .
Credit Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Work Status . . . . . . . .

Number of Semesters Subject Attended
College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Evening vs. Daytime Students . . . . . .
Summary of Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . .

V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS AND IMPLI-
CATIONS FOR ACTION AND FURTHER RESEARCH . . .

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cognitive Styles Test . .”. . . . . . . . .
Eysenck Personality Inventory . . . . . . .
Other Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cognitive Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Personality Typology . . . . . . . . . . . .
Other Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . .

Implications for Action and Further Research .
Implications and Recommendations for Action
Implications and Recommendations for

Further Research . . . . . . . . . . . . .

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Appendix A: Student Data Form . . . . . . . . .

Appendix B: Sigel' 5 Conceptual Styles Test . . .
Appendix C: Eysenck' 8 Personality Inventory . . .

iv

Page
59
59

66

67
67
68
68
73
73
74
74
75

76
77
77

80
80
81
82
84
84
84
85
87
88
91
94
106
106

108
113

Table

3-1.

4-9 0

4-10.

4-11 0

LIST OF TABLES

Test-retest Reliability Coefficients
for the SCST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Distribution of Subjects on the
NeurotiCism scale I O O O C O O O O O O O 0

Estimated 1971-72 FYES . . . . . . . . . . .

Resident and Non-Resident Enrollment at
Highland Park College, Fall Term, 1971 . . .

Enrollment of Resident Students At Highland
Park College, 1969-1971 . . . . . . . . . .

Enrollment Trends for Local Students (Exclu-
ding Apprenticeship Enrollments), 1964-1971

High Schools Supplying Students to Highland
Park College, Spring, 1970 . . . . . . . . .

Curriculum of Highland Park Students as
Compared With Students at 13 Michigan
Community Colleges, Fall, 1971 . . . . . . .

Male and Female Enrollment, Fall, 1970-
Fall, 1971 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

Comparison of Mean Scores on the Neuroticism
and Extroversion Scales . . . . . . . . . .

Grade Point Average and Number of Program
Changes 0 O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O 0

Mean GPA's and Analytic Scores of Students
in Various Program Groups, Highland Park
Community College . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Mean Scores on the Analytic and Relational
Scales and Werk Status . . . . . . . . . . .

Page

53

56

61

61

62

62

63

65

65

68

71

72

75

4-14.

Page
Employment Status, Grade Point Average
and the Extroversion Scale . . . . . . . 76
Mean Scores on the Neuroticism and Analytic
Scales in Relationship to Number of Semes-
ters in Attendance . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Summary of Findings . . . . . . . . . . . 78

vi

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page
2-1. Three Categorizations of Cognitive Style . . 26
2-2. Cohen's Cognitive Styles . . . . . . . . . . 30

vii

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Educators in the inner-city community college have
been aware for some time that many entering students are
in need of guidance if they are to choose a major area of
study which they will complete or in which they will earn
a degree. The problem of counseling a student relative to
his major area of study was well described by Whiteleyl
in her discussion on the use of rating scales, where she
points out the difficulties incumbent in the use of scales
as indicators of vocational or career guidance. Because
of the difficulties in obtaining proper counseling, many
students, especially those in the inner-city college, find
themselves in programs which they do not complete. Many
times students select their second college program on the
basis of data no more complete than that used for their
original selection. This would suggest that if the student
is to obtain maximum benefit from his college experience,

he should be accurately guided into a college program which

he has a high probability of completing.

 

1Mary T. Whiteley, "An Empirical Study of Certain
Tests for Individual Differences," Archives of Psychology,
No. 19 (August 1911), p. 79.

 

If the college does not properly fulfill its coun-
seling role, many students will either withdraw from the
college or make many program changes (sometimes a single
student will need to make several changes before he "arrives"
in the proper field). The inner-city community college
especially, because of the special needs of its students,
must deal with this problem if it is to effectively utilize
its resources and those of the students.

At the present time many counseling decisions are
based on the student's academic performance as reflected
in his grade point average. But the use of academic per-
formance as a basis for changing programs represents
decision-making after the fact; this can cost both the
institution and the student unnecessary resources.

Counselors should be able to assess a student's
likelihood of program change before that student enters his
first program. Having this information may cause the
college to treat this student differently and may cause the
student to treat his program differently. Perhaps a closer
look should be taken at the phenomenon of program change by
inner-city college students. Answers should be sought to
the following questions: What are the reasons for the student's
desire for change? What are the personality characteristics
of the student desiring the change? If the student does
have a low grade point average, does this necessarily mean
that his original choice of course of study was wrong? Will

a program change be beneficial for this student or the

college? Should the student leave college entirely? Does
the student's desire to make a change reflect more upon

the college's needs than the student's? Is it perhaps the
college itself that should be changed to better serve its
student body? A study of program changes by inner-city
community college students could provide answers

to many of these questions, thus providing assistance to
both the student and institution in future planning. If
needless student program changes were to decrease, institu-

tional efficiency of student "through-put" would increase.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The major problem of this study centered upon two
concerns. The first was an identification and assessment
of the construct "program changes of inner city community
college students"; the second was concerned with whether or
not there was a relationship between these changes and cog-
nitive styles, personality typology and selected demographic
characteristics.

The problem of this dissertation evolved through a
critical review of literature pertaining to the empirical
relationship between a particular cognitive style and aca-
demic success and a particular personality typeology and
academic success and adjustment to the college life style.

Since so many students do change programs at some

point in their college careers, if the characteristics of

these students and/or student groups could be identified
more specific measures could be taken to assist in program
selection those students who are most likely to change. If
these students could be identified early in their college
careers, much of their own and the college's resources
could be put to better use. If a student is in a program
and his characteristics show him to be prone to change from
that particular program, much time and money could be saved
by anticipating this change.

Specifically, this investigation will be carried
out to determine whether any differences (relating to
program changers and non-changers) can be discerned
between different perceptual cognitive styles—-as measured
by Sigel's Conceptual Styles Test--and/or different person-
ality typologies--as measured by Eysenck's Personality

Inventory.

NEED FOR THE STUDY

The study of student changes of college programs is
important to colleges and universities for several reasons.
First, it is important because of the responsibilities of
the institution to the individual student and to society.
It is important to the student in that the college is res-
ponsible for providing him with as much information as
possible and assisting him in maximizing its utility; it

is important to society in that society has entrusted no

other institution with gathering and applying information
relative to the process, content, and amount of information
transfer which will occur in the college. This information
will invariably affect society as a whole.

Secondly, student changes of college programs
represent an indirect but general criterion of success or
failure of the educational programs. That is, a high pro—
portion of student attrition within a given program may be
reflective of inadequate admission programs, inappropriate
course offerings, poor orientation programs, or any number
of factors resulting from institutional malfunction or the
student's expanding awareness. A study of student program
change may contribute to the improvement of one or more of
these institutional functions.

The third, and increasingly more important need
for the study of student program change is that of institu-
tional efficiency. As increasing amounts of knowledge are
required for entering occupations, placing greater strains
on the information transfer system of the colleges, the
efficient use of human and physical resources will become
more and more important.

In diagnosing its problems, every community college
faces the similar problems of understanding the nature of
its task, the way in which its systems function, and the
manner in which it responds to its environment. In addi-
tion, inner-city community colleges face the difficult task

of regearing to serve the needs of a new clientele. Thus

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it is of prime essence to enter these crucial decision-making
situations with hard research data. It is generally agreed
that there are many components of the regular community
college which are dysfunctional for its counterpart in the
inner-city.2 Inner—city colleges, even more than other
colleges, are in a constant state of change. Pressures
on colleges to change have increased. These pressures are
both external and internal and require decisions to guide
change. The quality of these decisions will depend upon
the kind of information received and the accurate analysis
of that information.

Most of the student variables such as interest,
self-concept, peer pressure, grade point average, etc.
which are measured by generally acceptable instruments have
been either beyond the control of the college, or the vari-
ables themselves have been unstable. The colleges, for
example, have little control over demographic factors, or
dropouts for financial reasons. However, this investiga-
tion is concerned with student variables which are relatively
constant and around which the college can modify its

behavior if necessary, i.e., cognitive style and personality

type.

2John H. Fischer, "Educational Problems for Segre-
gation and Desegregation," in A. Harry Passow, ed., Educa-
Eipn in Depressed Areas (New York: Teachers College Press,
Columbia University, 1963), pp. 290-97. '

RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY

Several studies related to the characteristics of
students who change college programs provide a rationale
for the present investigation. A study by Brass3 of
students who changed schools within Purdue University
revealed that students who transferred from one degree-
granting curriculum to another tended to increase their
grade point average after changing curricula. Moreover,

a study by Fullmer4

revealed that students who changed
majors persevered longer than non-changers, and that fewer
students who changed majors withdrew failing than in the
non-changers group. However, other information collected
on changers and non-changers which is related to academic
success revealed no significant differences in the mean
grade point average of the two groups; mean grade point
average was not altered significantly after change (corre-
lation of .98 before and after change); and, the non-change
group scored highest on the American College of Education

Psychological Examination.

A person's decision to change college programs may

 

3Robert V. Brass, "An Investigation of Selected
Personal Background Factors and Reasons Related to Students
Who Change Schools Within Purdue University," Unpublished
Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Psychology, Purdue
University, 1956, p. 84.

4D. W. Fullmer, "Success and Perseverance of
University Students," Journal of Higher Education, Vol. 27

 

be influenced by his cognitive style. The terms "cognitive
style," "learning style," and "conceptual style" have been
used somewhat interchangeably and reflect to some degree
alternative models of information processing. "Learning
style" may be defined as the characteristic mode of learning
utilized by an individual. It implies the integration of
cognitive, affective, and psychomotor processes. The char-
acteristic prOportion of these three variables in the learn—
ing process varies between individuals according to past
experiences. Such variation is implicit in S-O-R (stimulus-
organism-response) theories of learning where the mediating
variable (0) between stimulus and response is the stored
residue of past experience.5 The cultural background of the
individual may be presumed to contribute a significant pro-
portion of the mediating past experience. Further, this
past experience will contain common elements for all members
of the culture. Thus, Kagan, Moss and Sigel6 submit that
there are not only individual differences in learning style,
but also that there are modal cultural or group differences.
Kagan, Moss and Sigel developed this position on
cognitive styles through a series of exploratory studies

conducted with children and adults at the Fels Institute.

 

5Asahel Whodruff, "Cognitive Models of Learning and
Instruction," in Laurence Siegel, ed., Instruction: Some
Contemporary Viewpoints (Chicago: SRA, 1967).

 

6Kagan, Moss and Sigel, "Psychological Significance
of Styles of Conceptualization,” Mono ra h of the Societ
for Research in Child Development, Vol. 28, No. 2 (1963).

In these early studies the subjects classified a number of
stimulus pictures into groups. The subjects' reasons for
forming the groups were examined, and three basic conceptual
categories were defined:
Analytic-descriptive: Concepts based on similarity in
objective elements of the stimuli grouped together—-
for example: peOple who have no shoes on.
Inferential-categorical: Concepts involving an infer-
ence about the stimuli grouped together, in which any
stimulus is an independent instance of the group con-
cept--for example: poor people.
Relational: Concepts based on a functional relation-
ship among the grouped stimuli, in which each stimulus
depends for its membership on its relationship to other
stimuli in the group--for example: a family.

In subsequent research Kagan, Moss and Sigel turned
to investigations of the significance of a preference for
one dimension, the analytic style. Eight studies of the
analytic-nonanalytic dimension were conducted. Two studies
of adult men established the existence of distinct person-
ality, perceptual and intellectual differences between
analytic and nonanalytic subjects. For example, analytic
men were more reluctant to be dependent upon family or
friends, showed greater concern for intellectual mastery,
had slightly higher I.Q.'s, strived more for social recog-
nition, had shown in childhood more persistence in the face
of problem situations, confidence in their approach to

challenging intellectual tasks, and motivation to obtain

achievement-related goals, and in a perceptual vigilance

 

71bid., p. 76.

10

task analytic men exhibited greater accuracy of perception.8
'Studies of the analytic-nonanalytic dimension in
children included language and memory tasks, interpretation
of ambiguous stimuli, performance in stimulus-learning
tasks, and reaction time. The results of these separate
studies suggested that
an analytic style is associated with a reflective
attitude, a tendency to differentiate experience,
and the ability to resist the effects of distracting
stimuli on ongoing behavior. The nonanalytic child
tends to be impulsive, more reactive to external

stimuli, and less likely to differentiate complex
stimulus situations.9

These empirical findings were supported also by case study
observation of the children at Fels Institute.

It would seem, according to the research reported
in this study, that differences in cognitive styles influence
differences in most types of academic behavior. The
decision and process of changing major areas of study within
the college is a kind of academic behavior which may well
be influenced by cognitive style.

A person's decision to change college programs may
also be related to his personality type. Several studies
have been conducted to determine whether students in various
academic areas can be differentiated according to personality

type. In a study of the authoritarian personality type,

 

8Ibid., pp. 77-78.
9Ibid., p. 101.

11

Neello found that this type person has difficulty in
mastering theoretical material whereas this type learns
more easily where factual materials are used. It should
be noted, however, that this study was based upon thirty
senior medical students in one psychiatry course, and
may not apply to students of different curricular back-
grounds.

In a study by Middleton and Guthriell attempting
to delineate the personality syndromes among high and low
achieving students, it was found that different groupings
of personality factors can apparently be associated with
different levels of achievement.

The findings of the above studies support the view,
inherent in this investigation, that differences do exist
between groups of students, and that students may be grouped
according to these differences. They also support the
view that a student's success in a given academic area of
study may be related to his personality characteristics,

apart from his cognitive style.

 

10Ann Felinger Neel, ”The Relationship of Authori-
tarian Personality to Learning: F Scale Scores Combined
to Classroom Performance," Journal of_Educational Psych-
ology, Vol. 50 (October 1959), PP. 195-99,

 

11George Middleton, Jr. and George M. Guthrie,
"Personality Syndromes and Academic Achievement,"
Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 50 (April 1959),
pp. 66-69.

 

12

HYPOTHESES

The following hypotheses were formulated.

Hypothesis 1. There will be a significant difference
in the mean scores on the Cognitive Styles Test, of
those students indicating a change in programs and
those indicating no change in programs.

 

Hypothesis 2. There will be a significant difference
in the mean scores on the extroversion scale of those
students who indicate that they would change programs
if they could do so without losing credit and those
who indicate that they would not.

 

Hypothesis 3. There will be a significant difference
between the mean score on the extroversion scale of
students who indicate that they are not in the
college program in which they started and those who
indicate that they are in their original program.

 

Hypothesis 4. There will be a significant difference
between GPA of students who indicate "none," "one,"
”two," and "three" changes in college program.

 

Hypothesis 5. There will be a significant difference
ii the mean GPA of students who indicate that they
would change programs if they could do so without
losing credit and those who indicate that they would
not.

 

Hypothesis 6. Among the four major program groups,
liberal arts, business, health and other vocational-
technical, the group having the highest GPA will show
the highest soore on the analytic scale.

 

ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING THE STUDY

The following assumptions are essential to this
study:
1. There are differences in ways peOple systematically
process information; these differences can be
categorized.

2. Cognitive styles may be identified in behavioral
terms.

13

3. The effectiveness of an instructional event is in
direct proportion to ways in which the learner pro-
cesses the information being transferred, or reacts
to the stimuli contained in the event. '

4. A student is expressing a type of program change

behavior when he expresses a desire to change
programs.

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

This study is exploratory in nature and not designed
to focus sharply on any single variable which may relate to
program change. Other limitations of this study fall into
two main categories. The first is concerned with the type
of institution from which the population was taken. High-
land Park Community College is one of the oldest community
colleges in the State of Michigan. The teaching staff is
85% middle class white and its student body is about 85%
inner-city black. In the fall of 1971, 76.9% of the student
body was enrolled in the liberal arts program. With the
many other program choices available, one may speculate
that there is something operating uniquely within this
p0pulation to cause this high concentration in the liberal
arts program. This would lead one to question whether the
results would be the same if the study were conducted
using a different college population.

A second limitation could be seen in the choice of
population. Only those students having completed four or
more semesters at Highland Park Community College were
included in the sample. Only the summer school p0pu1ation

provided data for this study. The author has no evidence

14

that this population has characteristics other than those
found in the regular school year population; however, there
were substantially fewer students enrolled in the summer

session than during the regular school year.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Cognitive Style. The individual's preferred mode of per-

 

ceptual organization and conceptual categorization of his
environment. The cognitive styles referred to in this study
are analytic and relational, which represent two ends of

the same continuum.

Analytic. A cognitive style characterized by the

 

tendency to differentiate elements of a stimulus complex

on the basis of objective similarity of the elements.
Operationally, an analytic individual will score toward the
analytic pole of the Sigel Conceptual Styles Test. He
shows: (a) reluctance to be dependent on his family or
friends, (b) need for social recognition, and (0) concern
with intellectual mastery and confidence in his approach

to challenging intellectual tasks.

Relational. The polar opposite of analytic on the

 

Sigel Cognitive Styles Test. Nonanalytic or relational
individuals tend to group elements of a stimulus complex
on the basis of a functional relationship between or among

the elements. He shows: (a) dependence on his family and/or

15

friends, (b) low need for social recognition, and (c) lack

of concern with intellectual mastery.

Personality Type. The individual's characteristic mode

 

of reacting to and interacting with environmental stimuli.
The two personality categories used in this study are
extrovert and introvert. The introvert and extrovert

represent two ends of the same continuum.

Extrovert. The typical extrovert is sociable,

 

likes parties, has many friends, needs to have peOple to
talk to, and does not like reading or studying by himself.
He craves excitement, takes chances, often sticks his neck
out, acts on the spur of the moment and is generally an
impulsive individual. He is fond of practical jokes, always
has a ready answer, and generally likes change. He is
carefree, easygoing, Optimistic, and likes to "laugh and be
merry." He prefers to keep moving and doing things, tends
to be aggressive and to lose his temper quickly. His
feelings are not kept under tight control, and he is not
always a reliable person. Such a person in this study will
score above the American college mean of 13 on the Eysenck

Personality Inventory.

Introvert. The typical introvert is a quiet,

 

retiring sort of person, introspective, fond of books
rather than people; he is reserved and distant except to

intimate friends. He tends to plan ahead, "looks before he

16

leaps," and distrusts the impulse of the moment. He does
not like excitement, takes matters of everyday life with
proper seriousness, and likes a well-ordered mode of life.
He keeps his feelings under close control, seldom behaves
in an aggressive manner, and does not lose his temper
easily. He is reliable, somewhat pessimistic, and places
great value on ethical standards. Such a person in this
study will score below the American college mean of 13 on

the Eysenck Personality Inventory.

Inner-CityCommunityCollege. For purposes of this study,

 

the inner-city community college is at least 60% black;
students come from high schools which are 60% black and

all students commute.

Program Change. When a student changes or reports having

 

changed from one program to a second before the first is
completed, he, for purposes of this study, has changed

programs.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter presents a review of literature
related to the study. First, consideration will be given
to some student characteristics which may be related to
academic success (value, attitude and personality type).
Secondly, a very brief discussion of predictors of academic/
vocational success will be given. Thirdly, a discussion
of the reasons people change fields of study while enrolled
in college will follow. Next, this chapter will include
a detailed description of various models of cognitive
style, with emphasis on Cohen's analytic-relational continuum
which is used as the measuring scale for this investigation.
In addition a review of research on cognitive styles
emphasizing the differentiation in cognitive styles
emerging from various cultural backgrounds will be presented.
Finally, described in detail will be the personality
typologies to be studied--introvert and extrovert--with
emphasis on Eysenck's personality scale which is used as
the personality measuring instrument in this study. Some

research work in other personality types will also be

Cited.

17

18

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS
AND ACADEMIC/VOCATIONAL CHOICE
Research studies have been conducted in an attempt
to relate various student characteristics to academic/
vocational choice and chances for success in the chosen
field. Among these characteristics, emphasis has been
given to the following factors: value, attitude and

personality type.
Value

An investigation by Warnath and Fordyce1 revealed
that significant differences in value patterns emerged on
the Poe Inventory of Values (PIV) between five groups of
college students divided according to major areas of study.
The areas indicated were humanities, natural science,
business, social science and education. This study indi—
cated that the PIV is of definite value in differentiating
between students at the beginning of their freshman year
relative to their choice of major. The study revealed
that students entering as business majors were low on
aesthetic, intellectual, religious and humanitarian scales,
but high on material values scores; humanities majors were
high on the aesthetic and humanitarian scales; the natural

science majors were low on the aesthetic scales but high

 

1Charles F. Warnath and Hugh R. Fordyce, "Inventoried
Values of Entering College Freshmen," Personnel and Guidance
Journal, Vol. 40, No. 3 (November 1961), pp. 277-81.

19

on the intellectual scales. The social science and
education majors did not show definitive patterns except
that the education majors tended to be low on the intellec-
tual scales and about average on the aesthetic scales.

The study indicates that students within a specific major
area of study tend to hold the same values as other students

within that same grouping.
Attitude

Another area of study has been concerned with the
relationship between students' attitudes and choice of
a course of study. The Mary Conover Mellon Foundation has
supported an extensive program of study for the purpose of
increasing the understanding of the learning and person-
ality development of the student. Webster2 reports from
one of these studies that his data support the theory that
substantial changes take place in the attitudes of a student
during his college career. However, other research has
indicated that college causes little change in a person's
basic attitudes.

The stereotypic beliefs of students are probably
one of the most difficult aspects of a student's attitudes

to work with.' Research as a whole tends to agree with

 

2Harold Webster, "Changes in Attitudes During
College," The Journal 9f Educational Psychology, Vol. 49
(June 1958), pp. 109-17.

20

the work of Frumkin,3

which showed that stereotypy is a
function of the level of education, and as the student
advances in college he becomes less dogmatic. This was
also shown in the study by Payne4 who found that test-
retest data using the Inventory of Beliefs and the Dif-
ferential Values Inventory indicated that students became
less stereotypic during their freshman year in college, and
that a large number of students, both male and female,

exhibit significant value changes and become less tradi-

tional upon completion of one year of college.

Personality Type

 

Middleton and Guthrie, as discussed in Chapter I,
found that different groupings of personality factors can
apparently be associated with different levels of achievement.
This finding, together with the findings reported above,
supports the view of this investigator that differences
do exist between groups of students, and that students
might be grouped according to these differences in value,

attitude, and personality type.

 

3Robert M. Frumkin, "Dogmatism, Social Class,
Values and Academic Achievement in Sociology," The_
Journal of Educational Sociology, Vol. 34 (May, 1961),
pp. 398-403.

 

4Isabelle E. Payne, "The Relationship Between At-
titudes and Values and Selected Background Characteristics,"
Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation, College of Education, Michi-
gan State University, 1961, pp. 77—81.

21
PREDICTORS OF ACADEMIC/VOCATIONAL SUCCESS

An idea essential to the present investigation is
that if academic/vocational success or program persistence
can be predicted, much time and money (both the individual
student's and the institution's) could be saved by guiding
the student into the program in which he will persist.

A number of research studies have been devoted to the use
of groups of tests for prediction of differential success

in college. Horst5

presented relatively elaborate pro-
cedures for selecting sub—tests from a large test battery
which would predict relative success in a student's college
curriculum. However, a subsequent study by Eells,6 using
sub-battery groups for liberal arts, engineering and
commerce, led to the conclusion that separate prediction
batteries for different curricular groups are of doubtful
usefulness.

Another area investigated in attempting to estab-

lish predictor patterns is represented by the study done

by Holland7 in which be explored the usefulness of

 

5Paul Horst, "A Technique for the Development of a
Multiple Absolute Prediction Battery," Psychological Mono-
graphs, Vol. 69, No. 5, Whole No. 390 (1955), pp. 1-22.

- 6Kenneth Eells, "How Effective is Differential Pre-
diction in Three Types of College Curricula?" Journal of
Educational and Psychological Measurement, Vol. 21 (Sum-
mer 1961), pp. 459-71.

7John L. Holland, "The Prediction of College Grades
from Personality and Aptitude Variables," The Journal of
Educational Psychology, Vol. 51, No. 5 (October 1960),
pp. 245-54.

 

 

22

non-intellectual factors in the development of a theory of
academic prediction by the use of college grades. However,
his findings appeared to be inconclusive for developing
such a theory.

In another study using grades as the measure of
achievement, Marshall and Simpson8 reported that the student
who comes to college with a definite vocational field in
mind has an advantage over the undecided student. They
found that the students who are definite in their voca-
tional choice on college entrance rank lower in academic
aptitude than those making tentative vocational choices, but
the academic performance of both of these groups (as
measured by grades) is definitely higher than the entering
college students who are undecided as to their vocational
choice. The findings of this study would suggest that a
significant factor influencing academic success, and
indirectly persistence in a given college program, is

the student's sense of occupational direction.

REASONS FOR CHANGE IN ACADEMIC/VOCATIONAL ORIENTATION

A number of studies have been done on why students
change their major while in college. In his study of

curricular changes at Purdue, Brass9 found that the majority

8M. V. Marshall and E. W. Simpson, "vacational Choice
(and.College Grades," Journal of Educational Research, Vol.
437 (December 1943), p. 303.

9

 

Brass, 0p. cit.

23

of reasons given by the students for changing major
involved interest changes, curricular preferences and
dissatisfaction, and generally low grades.

A study by Pierson10

used Michigan State University
graduates who received bachelor's degrees in June 1958.
This study showed that the three predominant reasons for
changing majors were: (1) the extent of curricular oppor-
tunities in the university, (2) the content of courses in
the original major, and (3) the requirements and Oppor-
tunities in vocations related to the original choice.
Pierson's post-graduation study revealed that 85% of the
graduates appeared to be satisfied with their final choice.
However, it should be remembered that the group studied
are those students who had successfully completed a major
area of study for a bachelor's degree. This does not
include students who did not finish a degree program; the
present study will include these. In addition, the study
does not show any relationship between a student's cogni-
tive and/or non—cognitive variables as related to the
reasons for his change of major.

After reporting on the literature in some of the

general areas related to the present study, the focus will

become the specific factors to be studied in this

 

10Rowland R. Pierson, "Changes of Majors by College

Students," Personnel and Guidance Journal, Vol. 41 (Jan-
uary 1962), p. 461.

 

24

investigation. These factors include two distinctly dif-
ferent cognitive styles--ana1ytic and relational--and two
opposite personality typologies--introversion and

extroversion.

COGNITIVE STYLE

The terms "cognitive style," "learning style,"
and "conceptual style" have been used somewhat inter—
changeably and reflect to some degree alternative models
of information processing. In this study we are concerned
with the information processing variables that determine
the cognitive aspect of learning style. This aspect, or
"cognitive style," refers to "stable individual preferences
in mode of perceptual organization and conceptual categori-
zation of the environment."11 In this study cognitive
style will also refer to the mode of perceptual organiza-
tion and conceptual categorization that characterize a
given cultural group.

Several models of cognitive style have been pro-
posed. Those models discussed below describe what together
appear to be a cluster of related continua rather than a
single dimension. Thus, the ”analytic" of Kagan is not the
equivalent of the "articulated" cognitive style of Witkin,

although it may be presumed that there is a tendency for

llKagan, Moss and Sigel, op. cit., p. 74.

25

an individual rated highly at one pole of a continuum to

score near the same pole of related continua.12

13

This is
also the conclusion of Cohen from analysis of the
results of a variety of investigations conducted at the
University of Pittsburgh. Cohen14 has synthesized the
models of Witkin and Kagan to form a composite of two
cognitive skills: mode of abstraction and field articula-
tion. Her composite, the analytic—relational continuum,
is of particular value in this study because of (1) its
relation to the demands of schooling, and (2) its corre-
lations with a variety of cultural variables.

Thus Cohen, Witkin and Kagan have developed
dichotomies of cognitive style which describe similar
differences and likenesses; these three conceptualiza-
tions of cognitive style are discussed in detail below.

Figure 2-1 presents a summary of how these three authors

categorize the various cognitive styles.

 

12Ibid. See also the discussion by Witkin in
R. B. Dyk and H. A. Witkin, "Family Experiences Related
to the Development of Differentiation in Children," Ch1ld
Development, Vol. 36 (1965), pp. 21-55.

3Rosalie Cohen, "The Relation Between Socio-
Conceptual Styles and Orientation to School Learning,"
Sociology of Educatigp, Vol. 41 (Spring 1968), pp. 201-
20; Rosalie Cohen, "Conceptual Styles, Culture Conflict,
and Nonverbal Tests of Intelligence," American Anthropolo-
gist, Vol. 71, No. 5 (October 1969), pp. 828-56.

14Cohen, "Conceptual Styles, Culture Conflict,
and Nonverbal Tests of Intelligence," ibid.

 

 

26

 

 

Authors ngnitive Styles

Cohen analytic relational
Witkin articulated global

Kagan analytic non-analytic

 

Figure 2-1. Three Categorizations of Cognitive Style

Witkin's Articulated and Global
Cognitive Sters

In Witkin's conceptualization, "articulation"
refers to cognitive functioning which involves the ready
ability to overcome an embedding context and to experience
items as discrete from the field in which they are con-
tained. A highly articulated individual is thus said to
be "field independent." Operationally, an articulated
cognitive style may be determined by high scores on
Wechsler's Block Design and Picture Completion tests, a
high score on Witkin's Embedded Figures Test, and various
related measures. A well-articulated or field independent
cognitive style has been empirically shown to be charac-
terized by:

l. The individual's tendency to perceive items as
clearly distinguished from their embedding context.

2. An ability to actively impose structure on rela-
tively unstructured perceptual fields.

3. The individual's tendenCy to view himself as pos-
sessing an identity distinctly independent of his
social environment.15

 

15Witkin, op. cit.

27

Cultural groups which foster individual autonomy
in children have been found to be characterized by an
articulated mode of cognitive style. Brunerl6 also
emphasized the importance of an individualistic value
orientation in societies with an articulated mode of
cognition.

A "global" cognitive style, in Witkin's theory, is
the polar opposite of articulated. Global individuals
tend to perceive a gestalt. A highly global individual is
said to be "field dependent." Individuals with global
or field dependent cognitive styles have been empirically
shown to be characterized by the tendency toward:

1. orientation by reference to the environment,

2. greater need to function as‘a member of a group,
and

3. tendency to experience items as being an integral
part of their background.17

Kagan's Analytic and Non-Analytic
Cognitive Styles
In Kagan's formulation "analytic" is defined as
a cognitive style characterized by the tendency to dif-
ferentiate elements of a stimulus complex on the basis of

objective similarity of the elements. Operationally, an

 

16J. S. Bruner and P. M. Greenfield, "Culture and
Cognitive Growth," International Journal of Psychology,
Vol. 1, No. 2 (1966).

17Witkin, op. cit.

28

analytic individual will score toward the analytic pole
of the Sigel Conceptual Styles Test. Analytic individuals
tend to be characterized by:

1. reluctance to be dependent on their family or
friends,

2. need for social recognition, and

3. concern with intellectual mastery and confident in
their approach to challenging intellectual tasks.18

The term "non-analytic," in Kagan's theory, is the
polar opposite of analytic on the Sigel Conceptual Styles
Test. Nonanalytic individuals tend to group elements of a
stimulus complex on the basis of a functional relationship
between or among the elements. Operationally, a nonanalytic
individual will score toward the nonanalytic pole of the
Sigle Conceptual Styles Test. Nonanalytic individuals tend
to be characterized by:

1. dependence on families,

2. less concern with the acquisition of recognition
goals, and

3. anxiety and dependence as children.19
Although no cross-cultural research on the analytic-
nonanalytic continuum appears to have been conducted, its
similarity to the articulated-global continuum may be noted

20

in the above definitions. Kagan, Moss and Sigel concede

 

18

Kagan, Moss and Sigel, op. cit.
191bid.
2°1bid., p. 79.

29

basic similarities between analytic-nonanalytic and
articulated-global. Witkin21 also characterizes the
articulated pole as "analytic."

Cohen‘s Analytic and Relational
Cognitive Styles

 

Cohen, on the basis of the similarities noted
above, and as a result of a series of research projects at
the University of Pittsburgh, has grouped both models

into an analyticerelational dimension.22

Cohen's model,
in addition to having important implications for the formal
school, also offers an extensive categorization of the
psychological and cultural correlates of analytic and
relational cognitive styles. For purposes of this study
the most significant function of the model is to more
clearly define analytic and relational cognitive styles.
The basic definitional differences are listed in Figure
2-2.

The author of this study does not suggest that all
of the individual and group differences shown in Figure 2-2

have a direct and definable relationship to college program

changes. The important idea to be gained here is that

 

21H. A. Witkin, et al., Psychological Differen-
tiation: Studies ofDevelopment (New York: John Wiley
and Sons, Inc., 1962).

 

22Cohen, "Conceptual Styles, Culture Conflict, and

Nonverbal Tests of Intelligence," op. cit.

30

cognitive differences do exist and that these differences

can be measured.

 

Criterion

 

abstraction
sensitivity to:
Sigel Conceptual
Styles Test -
Embedded Figures
Test

perceptual
vigilance

reaction
reaction time
related person-

ality character-
istics

family group

sense of individ-
ual identity

Cognitive Sters

 

Analytic

stimulus-centered

parts of objects

good

high

reflective

greater (scanning)

nonsocial learn-
ing, independent,
control over
environment

formally
organized

strong

Relational

 

self-centered

global character-
istics

poor

low
impulsive
less

social learning,
dependent, sense
of powerless-
ness

shared
functions

identifies with
group

 

Figure 2-2.

Related Studies

 

Cohen's Cognitive Styles

In the last ten years there has been a great deal

of interest in and study of cognitive style. Although the

present study concentrates on subjects immersed in American

31

cultures, we will review studies that explore the phenome-
non in societies of Western orientation, as well as
societies of non-Western tradition.

A study by Modiano and Maccoby23

examined cognitive
development and functioning of Mexican peasant children,
Mexican urban children, and American urban children. They
concluded that children tend to develop those intellectual
skills most functional for their society. The most influen-
tial force molding the development of intellectual skills,
in their opinion, was the socio-economic base of the
society. They stated: "Without the intellectual equipment
needed to participate viably in the economy and social
institutions the individual is crippled in his ability to
achieve success and often in his ability to adapt."24
They felt their results substantiated the hypothesis of
"intelligence of necessity." From an analysis of the
peasant society, they found it to be demanding of ability
to deal with concrete situations. In order to succeed,
there is a need to be perceptive and to distinguish those
changes in nature which are economically important. They

found that those items commonly developed as part of the

peasant's "intelligence of necessity" were as follows:

 

3Nancy Modiano and Michael Maccoby, "Cultural and
Sociological Factors Relating to Learning Development,"
Research_in Education, ED-020 550, U. S. Department of
Health, Education and Welfare (August 31, 1967).

24Ibid., p. 7.

32
l. attention to details and to the perceptual and
functional attributes of items,
2. interest and skill in fine differentiation,
3. development of formal operations among older
children, but always with a preference for con-
crete, perceptual or functional attributes rather

than abstract formulations, and

4. rejection of equivalences and isolated-abstract
tasks for doing violence to reality.25

In a later article, Maccoby and Modiano26 cor-
related the mode of reasoning or cognitive style with the
socio-economic conditions in greater detail. In this
study they concentrated on the styles of reasoning of
children aged 12 and 13. Their major hypothesis was
". . . equivalence reasoning characterizes the children of
industrial workers and not peasant children, although both

live within the same national culture."27

They were able
to construct a continuum with very characteristic terminal
positions. At one extreme were located the group that
epitomized the peasant society. Traits of this group con-
stituted a concern with perceptible attributes and the
concrete reality of objects. At the other extreme was a

group functioning with an abstract frame of reference and

concentrating on nominal concepts. This group was

 

251bid., p. 66.

26Michael Maccoby and Nancy Modiano, "Cognitive
Style in Rural and Urban Mexico," Human Development,
Vol. 12 (1969), PP. 22-33.

 

27Ibid., p. 23.

33

categorized as an "industrial type" characterized by
". . . formal attributes, facility in formulating equiv-
alences and a tendency toward moral reasoning based on
reciprocity."28
Another area of influence on cognitive modes of
operation was postulated by Hess and Shipman.29 They
argue that the structure of social system interacting with
the structure of the family communication patterns shape
thought and cognitive style. One of the key examples they
discuss is the type of family control. Two types of con-
trol are discussed in relation to cognitive functioning.
One type of control utilizes the concepts of status appeal
or ascribed role norms.
In status (position) oriented families, behavior tends
to be regulated in terms of role expectations. There
is little opportunity for the unique characteristics
of the child to influence the decision-making process
or the interaction between parents and child. In
these families the internal or personal states of the
children are not influential as a basis for decisions.
Such control results in a cognitive style where the world
is viewed as a place governed by a set of regulations and

rules that is based on arbitrary decisions. Logical selec-

tion of alternative actions is missing or ruled out as

 

28Ibid.

29Robert D. Hess and Virginia C. Shipman, "Early
Experience and the Socialization of Cognitive Modes in
Children," Child Development, Vol. 36, No. 4 (December
1965), pp. 869—86.

30

 

Ibid., p. 871.

34

important. A restrictive environment of thought is fos-
tered by the status control approach.

The other type of control is oriented toward
persons.

In a person-oriented appeal system, the unique char-
acteristics of the child modify status demands and are
taken into account in interaction. The decisions of
this type of family are individualized and less fre-
quently related to status or role ascriptions.
Behavior is justified in terms of feelings, preferences,
personal and unique reactions and subjective states.31
This environment permits flexibility and greater expression
of personal choice which leads to a cognitive style of
reflection. Thought is given to a comparison of alter-
natives.

The effect of environment (social organization and
family structure) is clearly illustrated in the cognitive
style known as Cohen's "categorization style."32 She
related formal structure of family interaction and informal
friendship patterns with the relational and analytic
dimensions.

33

Dershowitz demonstrated that cultural patterns in

the Jewish sub-culture of the United States influenced the

 

31Ibid., p. 872.

32Rosalie Cohen, "The Relation Between Socio-
Conceptual Styles and Orientation to School Learning," op. cit.

 

33Zachery Dershowitz, "Influences of Cultural Pat-
terns on the Thinking of Children in Certain Ethnic Groups:
A Study of the Effect of Jewish Sub-Culture on the Field
Dependence-Independence Dimension of Cognition," Unpublished
Doctoral Dissertation, New York University, 1966.

35

cognitive style dimension used by the children. From his
study it was demonstrated that a consistent pattern of
responses was elicited over tasks related to field-
dependence in the Jewish community due to the attitudes,
values, and child—rearing practices of the community. The
greater the exposure of the child to traditional Jewish
behavioral patterns, the higher the degree of field
dependence.

Preale, Amir and Sharon34

revealed through an
investigation of perceptual articulation in several Israeli
sub-cultures that the differential emphasis on subordina-
tion to authority and on the acquisition from individual
autonomy of the environment encourages different styles.
They proposed that children from Middle Eastern families
would measure as more field dependent than children from
families of Western origin. The authors cite several
studies that reveal the Middle Eastern family as ". . . tra-
dition oriented with an authoritarian, patriarchal struc-
ture which tends to foster subordination to authority and

restriction of emotional autonomy."35

Also, because
experts on the kibbutz agree that it stimulates emotional

autonomy and self-reliance, the authors hypothesized that

 

34Ilana Preale, Yehuda Amir, and Shlomo Sharon,
"Perceptual Articulation and Task Effectiveness in Several
Israeli Subcultures," Journal pf Personality and Social
Psychology, Vol. 2, No. 2 (19677, p. 118.

 

 

351bid., p. 191.

36

children raised in a kibbutz would be more field independ-
ent than non-kibbutz children. The samples consisted of
88 males of Middle Eastern ethnic background contrasted
with 112 of their peers of Western origin and 145 males
born and raised in a kibbutz contrasted with 145 males

of Western origin but raised in a non-kibbutz setting.
Support for the hypotheses was obtained when the results
revealed that:

(a) Subjects of Western ethnic origin achieved a
higher level on four measures of perceptual
articulation than did subjects of Middle Eastern
origin.

(b) On two out of three measures of perceptual artic-
ulation, subjects raised in a kibbutz setting
achieved higher scores than did subjects of
Western background not raised on a kibbutz.

Thus all the studies cited in connection with
cognitive style have attempted to tie environment with
style. This is particularly true in the case of family
experiences such as child-rearing practices and attitudes
towards autonomy and self-reliance. It there were three
points upon which most authorities on cognitive style
agreed, they would probably be: that the individual's
cognitive style is shaped early in life; that cognitive
style remains fairly constant throughout life; and that

the environment is the primary factor in the shaping of

cognitive style.

37
PERSONALITY TYPOLOGY

The personality typologies to be used in the
present research-~introversion and extroversion--are not
new. The extrovert-introvert characteristics had their

origin with Carl Jung around 1916.

Jung first suggested a classification of individ-
uals into two psychological types on the basis of the
"flow of the libido." In the extrovert the flow of
the libido is outward toward the object. The object
contains the unconditioned value for the subject and
it determines to a large extent his reactions. In
the introvert, the flow of the libido is inward from

the objegg. The unconditioned value is in the
subject.

Guilford and Braly point out in a study on extro-
version and introversion that, while Jung may have developed
and popularized the extroversion-introversion dichotomy,
he should not be given the entire credit for its origin.

As early as 1900, Stern had suggested a pair of
types known as "objective" and "subjective," which he
found to differ in regard to simple reaction time
under sensory and motor instructions and also in their

reactions in the Aussage tests. Others who wrote late

concernigg these same two types are Klages and
Kurella.

Following the descriptive phase mentioned above,
the extroversion-introversion concept began to expand in
many directions .

It has been linked with physiological processes
and morphology, with perceptual and cognitive behavior,

 

36J. P. Guilford and Kenneth W. Braly, "Extrover-

sion.and Introversion," Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 27
(1930), p. 96.

37Ibid.

38

with sociocultural phenomena, with physical and psycho-
pathological disorders of one sort and another. Early
attempts to demonstrate these relationships produced
little in the way of definitive results; researchers
began to doubt the validity of the construct, and in
the early forties, it looked for a time as though
extroversion-introversion had had its day. Like the
proverbial bad penny, however, the construct has con-
tinued to turn up, notably in factor analytic studies,
and over the past decade it has gradually been reinstated
as an important focus in personality research.

Extensive factor analytic research on extroversion—
introversion has been conducted by H. J. Eysenck, who has
served as professor of psychology at the University of
London and Director of the Institute of Psychiatry at the
Maudsley and Bethlem Royal Hospitals in London, England.
His work has been a prime factor in refocusing attention on
the introversion-extroversion personality construct, and
will be used for the present investigation.39

The "thinking introvert" or "high daydreamer,"
based on factor-analytic studies and other correlational

work in this research program40 seems to be a person who

places a relatively high priority on attending to the

 

8 . .

Patricia M. Carrigan, "Extrover51on-Introvers1on
as a Dimension of Personality: A Reappraisal," Psychologi-
cal Bulletin, Vol. 57 (September 1960), p. 329.

 

39See H. J. Eysenck, Race, Iptelligence and
Education (London: Temple Smith, 1971).
40
J. L. Singer, Daydreaming (New York: Random
House, 1966).

 

 

 

39

ongoing material from long-term memory, and on recon-
structing this into a variety of new cognitions. Although
there are individual differences in emphases on content or
affect within the introverted group, the dimension seems
similar to Broadbent's41 distinction between long and

short sampling. The long samplers are persons who base
their estimate of a future response upon a review of all
past performances; a short sampler characteristically is
guided by the immediately preceding performances. Clearly
there would be great differences in speed of reaction or in
style of response to different information-processing tasks
for persons using these two systems of approach.

From this perspective high daydreamers engage in
more extended sampling of the environment, attempting to
match new outside material to a greater variety of possible
previously learned patterns, or reviewing and recoding a
good deal of internal material. By contrast, the short
processors briefly react to each new stimulus sequence,
spending little time in matching and transforming. Such
short sampling suggests that these persons may be less
likely to develop a complex or differentiated set of associa-
tive schema. Obvious relationships to styles such as

I O I O 42
Petrie‘s augmentors and d1m1nishers or Gardner's focusers

 

410. E. Broadbent, Perception and Communication
(New York: Pergamon Press, 1958).

42A. Petrie, Individuality in Pain and Suffering
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967).

40

and scanners,43 Voth and Mayman's ego-close or distant,44

and many other perceptual styles are indicated, but these
have not yet been compared to the daydreamer dimension.
Many other efforts have been made to divide the
human personality into a dichotomy. In Rotter's thinking
an "internal" person perceives that he is in control of
his fate and that effort and reward will be correlated.
An "external" person perceives that powerful others of "the
system" determine how well he can do, and that rewards are
distributed by such powerful others in a random fashion.
Using the I—E scale, researchers have found that internal
people: are more likely to make typical or rational shifts
in their levels of aspiration45; take intermediate rather

than extreme risks46; are more confident in their

 

43R. W. Gardner, et al., "Cognitive Controls: A
Study of Individual Consistencies of Cognitive Behavior,"
Psychological Issues, Vol. 1, No. 4 (1959).

 

 

44Guilford and Braly, op. cit.

45See E. S. Battle and J. B. Rotter, "Children's
erelings of Personal Control as Related to Social Class
and Ethnic Group," Journal gf Personality, Vol. 31 (1963),
pp. 482-90; N. T. Feather, "Change in Confidence Following
Success or Failure as a Predictor of Subsequent Performance,"
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 9 (1968),
pp. 38-46; and J. B. Rotter and R. C. Mulry, "Internal Versus
External Control of Reinforcement and Decision Time," Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 2 (1965), pp. 598-604.

46See J. P. DuCette and S. Wolk, "Locus of Control and
Extreme Behavior," Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psych-
ology'(1972); J. W. Julian and S. B. Katz, 1rInternal versus
External Control and the Value of Reinforcement," Journal of
P_ersonality and Social Psychology, Vol. 8, No. l (1968),
Pp. 89-94; and S. Liverant and A. Scodel, "Internal and Ex-
terna1.Control as Determinants of Decision Making Under Con-
ditions of Risk" Psychology Reports, Vol. 7 (1960), pp. 59-69.

 

 

41

abilities47; make better use of environmental feed-

4
k48; and are more likely to be social activists.

bac

The general conclusion from this research is that,
in most cases, "internality" is an adaptive and positive
personality characteristic while "externality" is not.
While it is clear that this statement must be qualified
since current research has indicated this construct to be
more complex than originally thought, the above attribution
of internality as being more adaptive would generally hold.
It is evident, however, that a distinction must be made

between different types of internality, especially for

minority groups,50 and that no simple or linear relationship

 

47R. C. Lao, "Internal-External Control and
Competent and Innovative Behavior Among Negro College
Students," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
Vol. 14, No. 3 (1970), PP. 263-70.

48See E. J. Phares, "Expectancy Changes in Skill
and Chance Situations," Journal of Abnormal and Social
Psychology, Vol. 54 (1957), pp. 339-42. See also, L. K.
0 e an R. E. Vogler, "Internal Versus External Control
of Reinforcement and Awareness in a Conditioning Task,"
The Journal of Psychology, Vol. 73 (1969),pp. 63-67.

49See J. R. Forward and J. R. Williams, "Internal-
External Control and Black Militancy," Journal of Social
Issues, Vol. 26 (1970), pp. 75-91. See also P. M. Gore
aha J. B. Rotter, "A Personality Correlate of Social
Action," Journal of Personality, Vol. 31 (1963),
pp. 58-64.

soP. Gurin, G. Gurin, R. C. Lao, and M. Beattie,
"Internal-External Control in the Motivational Dynamics
of Negro Youth," Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 25
(1969), PP. 29-63.

42

exists between internality and adaptive behavior.51
Several studies exist where special attention has
been placed on differential predictability of the internal-
external dimension in varying social settings. The work
of Crandall and her associates52 is a good example of such
research. Perhaps the best known example of such research
is the Coleman Report53 in which the internal-external
dimension was utilized as a predictor of academic perform-
ance in both black and white populations. Such research,
though, is the exception rather than the rule. Perhaps
more critical is the fact that even in the research cited
there are certain methodological problems which restrict

the generalizability of the findings.

CONCLUSION

As can be seen from the studies cited, many investi-

gations have been conducted or are in progress concerning

 

51J. P. DuCette, S. Wolk and E. Soucar, "Atypical
Patterns in Locus of Control and Maladjustive Behavior,"
Journal of Personality, in press.

 

52V. J. Crandall, W. Katkousky and V. J. Crandall,
"Children's Beliefs in their Own Control of Reinforcements
in Intellectual-Academic Achievement Situations," Child
Development, Vol. 36 (1965). PP. 91-109; P. E. McGhee and
V. C. Crandall, "Beliefs in Internal-External Control of
Reinforcements and Academic Performance," Child Development,
Vol. 39 (1968), PP. 91-102.

53J. S. Coleman, et al., Eqpality of Educational
0 rtunit , Superintendent of Documents, Catalog No.
PSE.238:3§§01,(Washington, D.C.: U. S. Government Printing
Office, 1966).

 

 

 

43

a student's attitudes, values, personality types, cogni-
tive styles and academic aptitude. Many of these studies
have used various mental measurement instruments to predict
the cognitive and/or non—cognitive factors investigated.
However, the use of rating scales as related to academic
aptitude have not been reviewed to any appreciable extent
in this chapter since the validity and reliability of the
cognitive variables used in this study and background
information on the personality inventory used in this

study are discussed in Chapter III.

CHAPTER III

PROCEDURES

The material described here includes: (a) a
description of Highland Park Community College, the source
of the data; (b) a description of the population and
procedures used in sampling and gathering additional data;
and (c) a description of the instrumentation used in this
investigation, including a description of scoring pro-
cedures and a description of the data analysis procedures

used for the study.

SOURCE OF THE DATA

The data for this study were collected at Highland
Park Community College located in Highland Park, Michigan.
The college was established by a vote of the people of
Highland Park in 1917. At its inception, the college's
*primary function was the first two years of collegiate
training. Since its founding, the college has shared
housing with the high school. While the exterior of the
main building is very attractive and has a "collegiate"
appearance, the interior is uninspiring; some remodeled

areas are very pleasant, but other areas are deteriorating.

44

45

The building is probably not adequate, in terms of
aesthetic quality, space, or function, to serve the needs
of students in its present form.

The college serves the City of Highland Park, an
area of three square miles surrounded by Detroit and
Hamtramck, but because of its location in reality serves
a much broader urban community. Approximately ten per cent
of the student population is drawn from the City of High—
land Park, while the remaining 90 per cent come from Wayne
County, and more particularly, the City of Detroit.

Between 1965 and 1971, Highland Park Community
College changed from a majority white to a majority black
college. In the fall of 1971, 89 per cent of the students
enrolled were black. Conversely, about 80 per cent of the
professional staff is white. In 1971, 76.9% of the student
body was enrolled in liberal arts or transfer programs,

12% more than an "average" of 65.1% for Michigan community
colleges. Yet the majority of these students do not
transfer. Many are "over-tenders" (students who take an
unusually long period of time to complete their programs).
In 1971, in addition to liberal arts or transfer programs,
the following enrollments were recorded: Business, 8.5%;
Health, 6.5%; Other Vocational/Technical programs, 8.2%.1
The sample selected for this study closely represents these

pOpulation figures.

 

1College Citizens Advisory Council, Recommendations
on the Future of Highland Park College, Submitted to the
Board of Education, School District of the City of Highland
Park, Michigan (November 1971), p. 8.

 

46
SAMPLE AND POPULATION

During the 1972 summer session, 1,100 students
attended Highland Park Community College. It was from

this population that the sample was drawn. As reported

in the limitations of the study,this investigation is con—
cerned only with those students who had completed four
semesters of college work at Highland Park Community College.
From official college records obtained from the counselors, a
total of 158 day students and 121 night students were identified
as having completed four or more semesters of work at the
college and were also enrolled in summer classes. From this
sub-pOpulation, 128 students were randomly selected.
To ensure that acceptable sample effects were estab-
lished, Lindquist's Table of Random Numbers was used
to select from the 279 students who had been given pre-
assigned numbers. One hundred and fifty alternates were
identified in the above—mentioned manner.

All initial contacts with the sample set of students
were done through telephone calls. Almost all (about 98%)
of the students contacted agreed to take part in the study.
About 80% of those who agreed to come to one of the sessions
actually came. The investigator made all the telephone
calls. A large number of students either had no phone or
the phone numbers on the student records were not current.
For this reason, the total alternate list was exhausted.

Day, night and weekend attempts were made to contact each

47

subject. Each subject was paid $1.50 for single sitting
of 25 to 35 minutes in which both tests were administered,
and other information (identified in Appendix A) was
obtained.

At the time of the investigation, Highland Park
Community College had no computer service for tabulating
grade point averages. All GPA's used in this study were
extracted by adding the total semester grade values and
dividing that number by the total number of hours carried.
In addition, there were two grade descriptions which could
be reported with the GPA: N - no grade (for a particular
class) and W - withdrawn (from a certain class). An "N"
may be given to any student upon request who makes any
grade lower than "C." The student may re—enroll in the
class as many times as he wishes, and the new grade replaces
the "N." A slightly wider range of student behavior may
account for a student obtaining a "W." Under this descrip-
tion, a student may withdraw from a class before the end of
the semester at any point and for any reason. Again, the
student may re-enroll in the class and the new grade
replaces the "W." This description is of particular
importance in this investigation because, as stated else-
where in this study, an assumption made by this investigator
is that student withdrawal from classes is positively
related to program changing within the college programs.

The number of withdrawals the subjects had made was obtained

from college records.

48

The demographic and other information taken from
college records included:

letter grades

semester hours

number of semesters in attendance
number of withdrawals from classes
number of "N's" obtained (no credit)
name

address

telephone number

momma-wrote
0

Information obtained from subjects included:

responses on Sigel's Conceptual Styles Test

responses on Eysenck's Personality Inventory
number of program changes

identification of subject's present program

sex of subject

work status

reported reason for changing programs

number of credits subject currently carried

subject's desire to change to a new program

\oooqmmanI-J

TESTING INSTRUMENTS
Sigel's Conceptual Styles Test

Sigel's Conceptual Styles Test is a booklet of
sixteen triads of pictures representing foods, people,
animals, vehicles, furniture, and tools. For each triad
of pictures, the subject selects pairs of pictures on the
basis of similarity or some other relationship, and indicates
the reasons for his selections. For example, in a triad
composed of a straight-backed chair, a simple table, and
an upholstered chair—~the straight chair and the table may
be paired because they are used together; the two chairs

may be paired because they are instances of the same class,

49

"chair"; or the straight chair and table may be paired
because they both lack a fourth leg or because they both
appear to be made of the same material. The subject indi-
cates as many pairs and reasons as he can in the time
allotted for each. Sample test items, an answer sheet, and
the instructions to the subject for the SCST are presented
in Appendix B.

For this study, special SCST instructions and admin-
istration procedures were developed. The administrator and
author of this study read directions to the subjects and
gave an example to show the proper procedure. Three points
were emphasized in the instructions: (1) there are different
ways in which people see familiar objects--some ways are
obvious to some people and other people may see different
things; (2) there are, therefore, no right or wrong answers;
and (3) this is neither a test of speed nor of productivity-—

the reasons given are important.
Scoring

The SCST is scored by assigning each reason to one

of four conceptual categories:

Descriptive - Part-Whole: Concepts are formed on the
basis of observable physical attributes of the stimuli.
The statement involves direct references to part or
all of the physical stimuli themselves.

Examples: right hand raised; made of wood

Descriptive - Global: Concepts are formed on the basis
of Observable physical attributes of the stimuli.

50

However, observations are reported on the basis of
inferences.
Examples: cowboys; young women.

Inferential - Categorical: Concepts are formed on the
basis of an inference made about the stimuli. The
concepts usually name a class or category to which the
stimuli are assumed to belong.

Examples: fruit; mammals

 

Relational - Contextual: Concepts in which two or

more ideas are tied together in such a way that no

stimulus is an independent instance of the concept;
any stimulus derives its meaning from its relation-
ship with the other stimulus.

Examples: a family; the man uses the tool

 

Each subject was assigned three scores on the basis of the
numbers of responses falling into each of the three con-
ceptual categories: descriptive - part—whole, inferential -
categorical and relational - contextual.

The total number of responses produced generally
varies widely among subjects. This factor was controlled
by converting each subject's three scores into proportions
of his total number of responses. For example, a subject
giving 56 responses might have given:

28 descriptive - part-whole responses

18 inferential - categorical responses

10 relational - contextual responses.
Conversion of these three to percentages of the total
would yield these three proportion scores:

50% descriptive - part-whole responses

32% inferential - categorical responses
18% relational - contextual responses.

 

2Because further research is needed to ascertain the
independence of the descriptive - global category, responses
were recorded and treated separately.

51

The scores used in the SCST analysis were these converted
proportion scores.
One important characteristic of the SCST is that

a subject's scores tend to be arranged in patterns. For
example, one common pattern is:

45 - 55% descriptive — part-whole responses

30 - 35% inferential - categorical responses

15 - 18% relational - contextual responses.
This pattern is also frequently observed:

25 - 35% descriptive - part-whole responses

35 - 45% inferential - categorical responses

25 - 35% relational - contextual responses.
Since each subject has three SCST scores, he cannot justi-
fiably be classified as a "type"--for example, as an "infer-
ential type." He is better characterized by the pattern
shown in his three scores. In this study, analyses of SCST

responses were performed using both the individual scores

and the patterns of scores.

Scoring Agreement

 

The agreement among SCST scores (a form of inter-
judge reliability) is eXceedingly high. Untrained scorers
following the scoring rules agree on 90% of the responses

they score3; trained scorers, who are very familiar with

 

3M. A. Wallach and N. Kogan, Modes of Thinking in
Yopnghildren (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston,
1965), P. 118.

 

52

the instrument, agree on 98%.4

Using this procedure, three primary types of
students were identified by their response pattern-program
change characteristics. These three types were: (a) polar-
relational, (b) polar—analytic, and (c) mixed and middle
range. When the characteristics of these types were
defined by an analysis of their individual test responses,
it was discovered that there were, in actuality, four
primary types. The middle range response patterns, and
those with mixed or conflicting response patterns on the
tests of cognitive style and field articulation actually
comprised two separate groups. The categories provide the
basis for the chapter on the analysis and the discussion

which follows.

Reliability

 

When the SCST is used with children, its split-
half reliability ranges from .51 to .61, depending on the
age of the subjects and the test-retest reliability centers
on .70.5 With college seniors, Sigel hasobtained a split-

half reliability coefficient of .53 for twelve items;

extended by the Spearman-Brown prOphecy formula to 35 items,

 

4N. C. Scott, Jr., and I. E. Sigel, "Effects of
Inquiry Training in Physical Science on Creativity and
Cognitive Styles of Elementary School Children," Report to
the Office of Education, U. S. Department of Health, Edu-
cation and Welfare, Cooperative Research Program (1965),
p. 29.

51bid.

53

this coefficient is .77. Since in the present study the
major concern regarding reliability was stability over time
(the test's homogeneity already having been established),

the test-retest reliability of the SCST over three week's
time was calculated for the first 20 items of the instrument.
These coefficients were then extended by the Spearman-Brown
prophecy formula to the length of the original instrument
(See Table 3-1). These coefficients indicated that the

SCST is acceptably stable over time.

Table 3-1. Test-retest reliability coefficients for the

 

 

 

SCST.
SCST Dimension
Descriptive Inferential Relational
Part-Whole Categorical Contextual
Reliability for
20 items .76 .65 .51
Extended by
prophecy formula
to 35 items .85 .77 .65

 

 

 

 

 

 

Eysenck's Personality Inventory

 

H. J. Eysenck, in connection with his work in the
area of personality, developed a questionnaire designed
to measure extroversion-introversion and neuroticism. This
questionnaire was called the Maudsley Personality Inventory.
The Eysenck Personality Inventory (See Appendix C) is

basically the same as the MPI, with some improvements.

54

The Maudsley Personality Inventory has been des-
cribed and evaluated by Arthur R. Jensen, associate pro—
fessor of educational psychology and associate research
psychologist of the Institute of Human Learning at the
University of California, Berkeley, as follows:

The MPI consists of 48 items, of which 24 are
keyed to N (neuroticism) and 24 to E (extroversion—
introversion). Unlike some personality inventories
(e.g., the MPI), none of the items could be construed
as socially objectionable; thus the inventory can be
used with adolescents or adults in almost any setting.

The MPI derives much of its importance from its
theoretical underpinnings. Probably no other psycho-
logical test--certainly no other personality inventory--
rivals it in psychological rationale. This is par—
ticularly true of the E dimension, which has been the
subject of intensive experimental research in Eysenck's
laboratory for more than a decade.

NORMS. A great deal of normative data are presented,
both for English and American subjects. The American
manual presents American college norms (percentiles

and standings based on 1,064 university undergraduates).
Means and standard deviations are presented for 32
different groups, including various psychiatric, prison,
and industrial populations, totaling over 7,000 subjects.

RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY. Split-half and Kuder-
Richardson estimates of item inter-correlations for
each scale are between .75 and .90 in various samples
. . . in short, the reliability of the MPI is among
the highest to be found for personality inventories.
The MPI has also been studied for effects of various
types of "response set." These seem to be negligible.

Assessment of the validity of the MPI is a complex
matter. There can be little question of its factorial
validity. That is to say, the N and E scales invari-
ably have high loadings on factors considered to be
indicative of neuroticism or extroversion, and there
is little factorial overlap between the scales . . .

55

Descriptive validity of the MPI has been adequately
established by the method of nominated groups. Judges
rated people on the basis of observable characteristics
in terms of neuroticism and extroversion. These ratings
show highly significant correlations with the relevant
dimensions measured by the MPI.

In summary, the MPI is a brief and highly reliable
measure of two relatively independent factors of
personality--neuroticism and extroversion. Much SOph-
isticated research has gone into its construction, and
the large body of normative data, plus the psychological
theory and experimentation associated with the MPI,
make it one of the most important of all personality
inventories.

The EPI is composed of 57 items instead of the 48
items found in the MPI. The additional nine items are
"lie" items, to be explained below. The EPI, which requires
a "yes" or "no" answer for each item, contains questions
such as the following: "Would you be very unhappy if you
could not see lots of people most of the time?" and, "Would
you say you were fairly self-confident?"

The test has three rating scales--extroversion,
neuroticism, and a lie scale. The lie scale items were
included to help the tester to know how truthfully the
subject was responding to the questions. Twenty-four items
measure extroversion (E), 24 items measure neuroticism (N),
and nine items measure lie (L). For the purpose of this
study, any subject who scored five or higher on the lie

scale was not used. Table 3-2 shows that the neuroticism

factor was balanced between the E and I subjects.

56

Table 3-2. The distribution of subjects on the neuroticism

 

 

scale.
Above Twelve and
Twelve Below
Extroverts 10 15
Introverts 11 14

 

 

 

 

The mean for the group of selected subjects was
twelve. Above this mean were ten extroverts and eleven
introverts. Below this mean were fifteen extroverts and
fourteen introverts. Therefore, there was no significant

difference between groups with regard to neuroticism.

The Extroversion Scale

 

The E scale, which is used in this study to select
subjects, provides for a score from one to 24. The EPI
norms based on 1,931 adult, normal, English subjects pub-
lished in the EPI manual show the 50th percentile to fall
at 14, with 10 being at the 18th percentile and 17 being
at the 79th percentile. Within the basic speech course
population, initial testing was done of 144 students. The
results approximated a normal curve with 23 students scoring
nine or lower and 25 students scoring 17 or greater. The
two extreme groups fell approximately one standard deviation

from the mean.

 

5 7
STAT I ST ICAL TREATMENT OF DATA

A statistical method commonly used for testing
for significance of difference among means for two or more
groups is the analysis of variance. The analysis of
variance procedure for difference in means is based on the
separation of the total sum of squares into several por-
tions. If the mean square for the means is significantly
large, the hypothesis of equal means is rejected.

An analysis of variance was made on each of the
groupings for the tests of cognitive styles and personality
typology in order to determine if differences existed
between proqram changers and non-changers. An analysis
of variance was also computed to determine if differences
existed among the demographically grouped students.

Trends in some of the data were determined through
the use of orthogonal polynomials (orthogonal comparisons).
Using these tables of weights requires that:

(a) the independent variable be quantitative and its
levels be equally spaced;

(b) that equal sample sizes be used in each treatment
group;

(c) that the number of groups and the component of
interest (e.g., linear, quadratic, cubic, etc.)
be specified.

6Roger Kirk, Experimental Design: Procedures for
the Behavioral Sciences (Brooks-Cole, 1963), PP.ll4—24.

58

Although the data computed in this study for linear trend
did not follow the characteristic model for orthogonal
polynomials, statistical adjustments were made to obtain
reliable probability factors.

The Research Consultant Service for the College
of Education at Michigan State University advised on the
statistical analysis for this study. The Michigan State

University Computer Service was utilized for most of the

computations.

CHAPTER IV

FINDINGS

In the previous chapter the theoretical orientation
and methodology of the investigation were set forth. This
chapter reports the findings of the investigation. The
initial section of the chapter is a description and analysis
of (a) the general demographic characteristics of Highland
Park College, and (b) the measurement of student program
change behavior. This includes a section which presents
a comparative analysis of the responses on the Sigel
Conceptual Styles Test and the Eysenck Personality Inventory
with the subjects' program change characteristics, followed
with a section discussing the hypotheses formulated for
this study. The hypotheses are restated in sequential
order, and are followed by relevant statistical data and
tests. Finally, another section presents additional relevant
data derived from the questionnaire used in this study.

The chapter is concluded with a brief summary of the

research findings.

HIGHLAND PARK COLLEGE: DEMOGRAPHIC DATA

Many documents are available which describe Highland

Park College. However, as a basis for further discussion,

59

60

some data which compare Highland Park College with other
community colleges in Michigan are given in order to formu-
late some basic characteristics of the college.1

Statement 1: Highland Park College is one of four

community colleges in Michigan operating as a
department of a public school district.

 

The other three colleges operating as departments
of public school districts are Grand Rapids Junior College,
Henry Ford, and Alpena. The other 25 community colleges in
Michigan operate as independent community college districts.

Statement 2: Highland Park as a city represents an
extremely small community college district.

 

The population of Highland Park, according to the
1970 census, was 35,444, a decline of 6.9% from 1960 when
the population was 38,063. As an index of the ability of
this population to support a community college, a special
study committee of the Michigan House of Representatives
recently recommended that each community college district
should contain a population of not less than 100,000.

Statement 3: Highland Park's State Equalized Valu-

ation is relatively low for the support of a com-
munity college.

 

The House Study Committee referred to above recom-
mended that each community college district have a State
Equalized Valuation of $500 million. The 1971 State

Equalized Valuation (SEV) of Highland Park was $192 million.

 

1Demographic data were taken from the College Citi-
zens Advisory Council Report, op. cit., pp. 1-11.

61

In comparison, the SEV's of other community colleges simi-

lar in enrollment size to Highland Park are as follows:

Table 4—1. Estimated 1971-72 FYES.

 

 

SEV
Jackson 2150 562,000,000
Kalamazoo 2148 940,000,000
St. Clair 2200 616,000,000

 

 

 

 

 

Statement 4: The college is dependent upon out-of-
district enrollment for continued operation.

 

Only 207 persons from the City of Highland Park
attended the college on a full-time basis during the 1971
fall term, and only about 14% of the total college enroll-
ment was from the city (figures do not include 176 appren-
ticeship students):

Table 4-2. Resident and Non-Resident enrollment at Highland
Park College, Fall term, 1971.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Full Time Part Time Total
Resident 207 304 511
Non-Resident 1455 1610 3065
Total 1662 1914 3576

 

Statement 5:

 

staBilizing.

Resident enrollment at the college is

During the past two years the enrollment of resident

students has declined as follows:

 

62

Table 4-3. Enrollment of resident students at Highland
Park College, 1969-71.

 

 

Year Number of Resident
Students
Fall 1969 932
Fall 1970 857
Fall 1971 687*

 

 

 

*The figure of 687 includes 511 college-level students and
167 apprentices.
This enrollment decline may be in large part due
to fluctuations in apprenticeship enrollments. If we
subtract apprenticeship enrollment, trends for local students
would be as follows:

Table 4-4. Enrollment trends for local students (excluding
apprenticeship enrollments), 1964-1971.

 

 

Year Enrollment
1964 204
1965 272
1966 318
1967 350
1968 392
1969 432
1970 457
1971 511

 

 

 

Obviously, no great increase in enrollment from the local

pOpulation can be expected in the future without significant

63

increases in financial aid or the introduction of major

new programs.

Statement 6: The future of out—of—district college
enrollment is uncertain.

 

Since 86% of the enrollment comes from out-of-
district, and the major portion of outside enrollments come
from Wayne County, the future of the college is directly
linked to developments in Wayne County, and to decisions
made by high school seniors and other citizens in the
county. To illustrate this, the top ten high schools sup-
plying students to Highland Park College in spring 1970
were as follows:

Table 4-5. High schools supplying students to Highland
Park College, Spring 1970.

 

 

High School Number of Students
Highland Park High School 349
Cass Technical 232
Northwestern High School 186
Mackenzie High School 175
Central High School 175
Mumford High School 156
Pershing High School 151
Northern High School 146
Wilbur Wright High School 108
Martin Luther King High School 93

 

 

 

Statement 7: Highland Park College is a predominantly
BlaCk institution.

 

Between 1965 and 1971 Highland Park College changed

64

from a predominantly white to a predominantly black
college. In the fall of 1971 89% of the students en-
rolled were black. This phenomenon has resulted in a
greater number of students attending the college from a

lower socio-economic background.

Statement 8: There is a racial imbalance between
students and staff.

 

Eighty—nine per cent of the student body is
black; conversely, about eighty per cent of the profes-

sional staff is white.

Statement 9: While only about one-third of the
students at Highland Park Community College actually
transfer, three-fourths are enrolled in transfer
programs.

 

Although Table 4-6 indicates that 76.9% of the
student body was enrolled in liberal arts or transfer
programs in 1971, the majority of these students do not
transfer. Many are "over-tenders," students who stay
longer in their program than the usual time required to
complete that program. There is a need to examine care-
fully whether viable alternatives actually exist for these
students who intend to transfer but do not. Table 4-6
also shows that the nursing program enrolls a higher per-
centage of students than the state average, but that
vocational/technical enrollments are well below the state

average.

65

Table 4-6. Curriculum of Highland Park students as compared
with students at 13 Michigan community colleges,
Fall, 1971.

 

 

 

 

 

 

m
x m.x I m
u u u 44c1E o
m o m oriora
a I m aim 0,4
g I F! @ r4 w ~ 0
a WTJP- S'Ur~ m::U
o .oczm u Cox m+Jm
0 sea mma mom»
«I (Dr-l r-i mmfip
1.; 'USH tH.C:u—l H'UQ-H
u s mri orpa niacin
s u-aru vim >+lefl
0 (0mm 00:126.: «HAZE
Liberal Arts 2760 76.9% 65.1%
Business 305 8.5 12.0
Health 234 6.5 3.9
Other Voc/
Tech 298 8.2 18.9
Total 3597

 

 

 

Statement 10: Enrollment of women is increasing while
enrollment of men is decreasing at Highland Park
College.

 

The most significant development in enrollment
between 1970 and 1971 was the increase in female attendance

and the decrease in male attendance (See Table 4-7).

Table 4~7. Male and female enrollment, Fall 1970-Fall 1971.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Highland Park Enrollment
categ°ry Fall 1970 Fall 197E
Full-time Men 850 830
Part-time Men 1040 802
Full-time Women 609 832
Part-time Women 1059 1133
Totals 3558 3597

66

MEASUREMENT OF STUDENT PROGRAM CHANGE BEHAVIOR

In this investigation of program changes of Highland
Park College Students one criterion of program change
behavior was used--students were determined by the inves-
tigator to have changed programs if they reported having
done so. Perhaps a more reliable method of determining
program changes would have been to obtain student change
data from sources more objective than student reports;
a good source would have been college records. However,
at the time this investigation was conducted no reliable or
uniform records were kept on student program changes.

Computations of program changes were made on the
basis of the subjects' responses to the following three
questions on the questionnaire:

5. "Is the program which you checked above the same
as you were in when you started your first semes-

ter at Highland Park Community College?"

7. "Altogether, how many times have you changed
programs since you have been at this college?"

8. "If you could do so without losing credits, would
you change to a new college program?"

Correlations were made to determine the consistency of
responses to these questions which were constructed to
indicate program changes.

The instrument also included five questions which
were more demographic in nature. Subsequent analysis deals
with the intercorrelations of data from the change scale

and the demographic variables as well as with the two basic

67

measurements (the Sigel Conceptual Styles Test and the
Esyenck Personality Inventory). In addition, the relation-
ships between grade point average (GPA) and program change
were investigated.

The 128 participants in the study were dichotomized
into male and female subgroups (32 males, 82 females) for
comparison on other critical variables. The subjects were
also subdivided into three groups on the basis of work
status and course load; students were classed as night and
day students as well.

Responses on the Sigel Conceptual Styles
Test and the Eysenck Personality Inventory

 

 

The Sigel Conceptual Styles Test

 

Overall, the 128 subjects scored higher on the
analytic scale than on the relational scale. The combined
high and low analytic mean scores for all subjects was
9.1. The combined high and low relational scores were
considerably lower: 6.9. There were Significant differences
in male and female responses on the low analytic scale.

Male LA mean scores were 10.3 while female mean scores were
7.6. The computed F statistic showed a significance level
of .028. No significant differences occurred amOng any
other of the 18 variables as a function of sex as was

expected.

68

The Eysenck Personality Inventory

As compared with the American college norm, scores
of students at Highland Park College were significantly
lower on the neuroticism and extroversion scales. A
comparison of mean scores is shown in Table 4-8.

Table 4-8. Comparison of mean scores on the neuroticism
and extroversion scales.

 

Mean Score

 

 

 

 

Neuroticism Extroversion Lie Scale

Freq. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D.
Highland
Park 128 8.2 3.7 11.3 3.2 2.8 1.3
College
American
College 1003 10.9 4.7 13.1 4.1 3.8 1.7
Norm

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Differences on neuroticism, extroversion and the lie

scales between the sample and the national norms were

all found to be significant beyond the .001 level.

Hypotheses

 

Hypothesis 1. There will be a significant dif-
ference in the mean scores on the cognitive
styles test, of those students indicating a
change in programs and those indicating no
change in programs.

69

On the cognitive styles test performance, this
investigator found no significant difference among the
students who had no changes, one change, two changes, or
three changes of program. Mean scores were 9.7 for
descriptive - part-whole; 9.8 for descriptive - global;
22.0 for inferential-categorical and 7.6 for relational—
contextual with a P value of .06, comparing the two
greatest differences in mean scores. Both extreme scores
occurred on the relational end of the scale. The rela-
tional scale, however, showed much less differentiation

among program changers and non-changers.

Hypothesis 2. There will be a significant difference
in the mean scores on the extroversion scale of

those students who indicate that they would change
programs if they could do so without losing credit
and those who indicate that they would not.

 

Students who indicated a desire to change programs
scored significantly higher on the extroversion scale than
students who indicated no desire to change. The 30 students
who did desire to make a change showed a mean score of
12.3 and a standard deviation of 3.95, while the 98 students
who did not desire to change showed a mean score of 11.0
and a standard deviation of 2.99. The computed level of
significance was .05; thus hypothesis 2 is supported by

the data.

70

Hypothesis 3. There will be a significant dif-
ference between the mean score on the extrover-
sion scale of students who indicate that they are
not in the college program in which they started
and those who indicate that they are in their
original program.

 

Question 5 asked the following: "Is the program
which you listed above the same one you were in when you
started your first semester at Highland Park Community
College?" The responses to this question provided a strong
indication of program change trends. Although 100 students
indicated that their current program was the program in
which they had started, 28 students did report having changed.
Those subjects who reported having changed programs showed
a significantly lower score on the extroversion scale of
the Personality Inventory. Mean scores were 11.8 and 9.6.

The level of significance was .002.

Hypothesis 4. There will be a significant dif-

ference between GPA of students who indicate

"none," "one," "two," and "three" changes in

college programs.

Four students indicated that they had changed
programs twice. These "twice changers" showed a signifi-
cantly higher GPA than those students reporting no change,
one change or three changes (See Table 4-9). The four
students in the "twice change" group scored 3.5 points
lower than any of the other three groups on the extroversion

scale. This was significant at the .005 level. Comparing

their scores with the American college norms showed that

71

all groups had mean scores between the 38th and Slst
percentiles, with the exception of the "twice changers" who
scored at the 16th percentile. It should be pointed out,
however, that the small number of changers in each category

makes the data inadequate for drawing any conclusions.

Table 4-9. Grade point average and number of program

 

 

changes.
Number of Mean
Changes Freq. GPA S.D.
0 77 2.5 .43
l 42 2.4 58
2 4 3.4 l 86
3 5 2.2 2.1

 

 

 

 

 

 

Hypothesis 5. There will be a significant dif-
ference in the mean GPA of students who indicate
that they would change programs if they could do
so without losing credit and those who indicate
that they would not.
An F-test of significance between means was used
to determine if the computed mean scores were significantly
different. Students who indicated a desire to change pro-
gram showed a mean GPA of 2.3, while those indicating no
desire to change had a GPA of 2.9. This difference was

significant at the .01 level. In addition, students were

asked if they would change programs if they could do so

72

without losing credits. Thirty subjects said they would
while 98 said they would not. The mean GPA of the "desire
to change" group was 2.2 and the GPA for the "no desire to
change“ group was 2.5; this was a significant difference

at the .01 level. The "desire to change" group also scored
significantly higher on the extroversion scale ( P .008) and
somewhat higher on the relational scale. Thus the results
of this research indicate that students who indicate a
desire to change programs earned lower grades than students

not desiring program change.

Hypothesis 6. Among the four major program groups,
liberal arts, business, health and other vocational-
technical, the group having the highest GPA will
show the highest score on the analytic scale.

 

Grade point averages for students in the four
academic areas were considered separately. Their mean
GPA's are shown in Table 4-10.

Table 4-10. Mean GPA's and analytic scores of students in

various program groups, Highland Park Com-
munity College.

 

 

Program Analytic Mean Mean
Group Frequency Score GPA

Business 16 12.2 2.66
Liberal Arts 83 10.5 2.53
Health 11 8.2 2.23
Other Voc./Tech. 18 7.0 2.20

 

 

 

 

 

 

73

The members of the business group had higher GPA's; they
also had higher scores on the analytic scale. Comparing
the mean scores of the business group with those of the
other vocational-technical group showed a P value of
.005. The business group also scored slightly higher on
the extroversion scale and lower on the neuroticism

scale.

Additional Data

 

In addition to the data gathered relating to the
hypotheses formulated during the course of this study, a
number of other areas were also investigated. The ques-
tionnaire used in the present research also provided infor-
mation in the following areas: (1) GPA's of males and
females, (2) number of class withdrawals, (3) credit load,
(4) work status, (5) the number of semesters in attendance
at Highland Park Community College, and (6) whether the

student was an evening or daytime student at the college.

GPA's of Males and Females

Although a number of studies have shown a signi-
ficant difference in GPA's of males and females, no such
difference was found in this investigation. Males showed
an overall GPA of 2.49, while the average for females

was 2.47.

74

Class Withdrawals

 

A particularly significant phenomenon observed in
this investigation was that as mean scores on the rela-
tional scale increased, so did the number of class with-
drawals a subject's record indicated. The total number
of class withdrawals ranged from 0 to 9 (P = .0006).
According to all measures and reports from college offi-
cials, class withdrawals frequently indicate that the
student is having problems negotiating his academic

program.

Credit Load

 

Students carrying more hours produced significantly
higher relational responses. This statistic does not
necessarily suggest, however, that students carrying more
hours have a more relational cognitive style. This state-
ment is made on the basis that the same students made
higher scores on the analytic scale than on the relational
scale. Rather than cognitive style varying with credit
hours carried, the total number of cognitive responses
seemed to increase in proportion with credit hours. On the
relational scale this difference was at the .008 level.

Mean scores were 7.1, 8.4 and 12.4.

75

Work Status

On the cognitive styles scale, the number of res-
ponses varied in direct proportion to work status. On the
analytic scale students who worked full—time had the
highest mean score. On the relational scale students who

did not work at all showed a significantly higher score

(See Table 4-11).

Table 4-11. Mean scores on the analytic and relational
scales and work status.

 

 

 

 

Mean Score
Work .
Status Freq. Analytic Relat1onal
Full-time 58 12.3 4.3
Part-time 36 9.3 5.4
Do Not Work 34 7.0 8.0

 

 

 

 

 

 

Though to a less than significant level, the subjects'
scores on the extroversion scale rose in proportion to
work status, with students who worked full-time being
highest; the mean scores were 12.8, 11.1 and 11.0.
Another work status phenomenon observed was that
as the student's free time increased so did his scores on
the extroversion personality inventory scale. Another
finding regarding work status was that the amount of time

devoted to work rose in direct proportion to the subject's

76

grade point average. Through the use of orthogonal com—
parisons a linear p of .002 was computed. Table 4-12
shows the relationship between employment status and
extroversion scores, as well as the mean GPA and S.D.

comparisons.

Table 4—12. Employment status, grade point average and
the extroversion scale.

 

 

 

 

 

Mean
Employment Mean Extroversion

Status Frequency GPA S.D. Score S.D.
Full-time 58 2.6 .65 10.7 3.5
Half-time 36 2.4 .38 11.5 2.5
Not employed 34 2.2 .55 12.1 3.3

Linear P = Linear P =

.002 .056

 

 

 

 

 

 

Number of_Semesters Subject
Attended College

 

The number of semesters the subject attended
college varied inversely with neuroticism scores. Another
inverse relationship appeared in comparing number of semesters
attended with mean scores on the analytic scale. (The
total population's range of semesters in attendance at the
college was from 4 to 13.) The relationship between semes-

ters of attendance and the neuroticism and analytic scales

 

eh

CE

mic

77

is shown in Table 4-13.

Table 4-13. Mean scores on the neuroticism and analytic
scales in relationship to number of semesters
in attendance.

 

 

 

:a
Semesters Mean Score
of Frequency Neuroticism Analytic
Attendance
4th 57 9.0 12.1
5th 47 8.2 10.2
6th or more 23 6.6 4.6

 

 

 

 

 

 

Evening vs. Daytime Students

 

Computations were done comparing the 46 evening
students with the 82 daytime students. Based on this
investigator's observation, the night students were
considerably older and more "serious minded." Day students
scored significantly higher on the relational scale (P .01)

and lower on the analytic scale.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

The findings of this investigation were as follows:
The statistical computations indicated that no significant
differences existed between the response patterns of those

students who (a) changed programs and those students who

78

did not; (b) indicated a desire to change programs and those

who indicated a desire not to change programs; and
(c) indicated that the program which they were currently
enrolled in was the same which they started in and those
who indicated that their program was not.

The Eysenck Personality Inventory showed that

there are significant differences in the responses of those

students who changed programs and those who did not. Those
who changed scored (a) significantly higher on the extro-

version scale, and (b) close to the significance level
(P = .06) on the neuroticism scale. Those who indicated
that they were not in the same program which they had

started college in scored significantly higher on the

extroversion scale (P = .002) .

Table 4-14 presents a summary of the level of

Significance computed for each of the six hypotheses and

Shows whether or not the hypotheses were proved.

Table 4-14. Summary of findings.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

l
Hypotheses
H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6

'\

Le\zel of

Signifi- .35 .05 .005 .002 .01 .0005

cance
\
@611 No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

 

79

Additional data obtained in this investigation
revealed a strong correlation between full-time work status

of subjects and more successful college behavior as

measured by GPA and cognitive style. Subjects having been

at the college for more semesters scored proportionally

higher on the relational scale, and lower on the analytic

scale.

cal
acad

acad

have
Succ
Hiti
990g.
Vari;
r9poz

diffs

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
FOR ACTION AND FURTHER RESEARCH

This chapter presents a summary of the investigation
and the research findings, the conclusions derived from the
data gathered in the study, implications of the study,
limitations of the study, and suggestions for further

research.

SUMMARY

The problem of this dissertation evolved through
a critical review of literature pertaining to the empiri-
cal relationship between a particular cognitive style and
academic success and a particular personality type and
academic success and adjustment to the college life style.

Most of the investigations conducted in this area
have focused upon cognitive style as a variable in academic
success. A number of studies have been done relating cog—
nitive style to child rearing practices, self-concept,
geographic area and a host of other well defined social
variables. At Oakland Community College, Dr. Hill has
reported basemapping of cognitive style along a number of

different dimensions with the purpose of matching student

80

EXp
den

abl

Par
llic
tri
90%
the

act

fol

81

cognitive styles with instructional modules.

The present investigation reviewed a number of
research documents which reported on a relationship between
various cognitive styles and academic behavior. It was
logical, therefore, for this investigator to hypothesize
that the type of academic behavior relating specifically
to program change would vary with cognitive style, as
measured by Sigel's Conceptual Styles Test. A second con-
struct which this investigator hypothesized would vary with
program change was that of extroversion, as measured by
Eysenck's Personality Inventory. Because this study was
exploratory in nature, a number of other variables, chiefly
demographic in nature, were considered. These other vari-
ables were also hypothesized to vary with program change.

The data for this study were gathered at Highland
Park Community College, one of four community colleges in
Michigan operating as a department of a public school dis—
trict. The student body numbers about 2,000, of which about
90% are black. A global assessment of this institution is
that it is an inner-city college having most of the char-
acteristics of an urban low-income school.

A discussion of the findings of the research study

follows.
Cognitive Styles Test

On the Cognitive Styles Test this investigation

revealed no significant differences among those students

(GPA;
anal)

PIOpc

follOi

82

who changed programs once, twice, three times and not at

all.
Eysenck Personality Inventory

On the whole, the 128 subjects in this study
scored significantly different from the 1,005 students in
the norms group of the American college sample for the
Eysenck Personality Inventory. These differences appeared
on all three scales. Subjects in this study were: more
introverted, more stable and scored lower on the lie scale.
In this study, students who indicated on the questionnaire
a desire to change programs scored significantly higher on
the extroversion scale than those students who indicated a
desire not to change. Students who indicated that they were
not in the same program in which they had started their
college experience scored closer to the introversion end of
the personality scale. The neuroticism and lie scales

showed less discrimination between the former groups.

Other Findings

There was no difference in the grade point average
(GPA) Of students who changed programs and those who did not.
Pumong the four major program areas, the group scores on the
analytic scale of the cognitive styles test varied in direct
proportion with the subjects' GPA's.

Additional findings of this investigation are as

follows:

83

Data obtained in this study did not support the
notion set forth in other studies that there is a
difference in academic performance of males and
females as measured by GPA.

The number of class withdrawals a subject exper-
ienced rose in proportion with his score on the
relational scale.

The number of credits a subject carried rose in
direct proportion to his total score on the Cogni-
tive Styles Test.

The amount of time a student spent working while
in school varied in direct proportion to his score
on the analytic scale and inversely with his

score on the relational scale. Students working
full-time scored highest on the analytic scale

and lowest on the relational scale.

Students who worked were more introverted and made
higher grades than subjects who worked half-time
or not at all.

Subjects who had been at the college for six or
more semesters scored closer to the stable end of
the neuroticism scale and produced fewer analytic
responses.

Day students scored higher on the relational scale

than night students.

ha:
in:
no
10‘

tr.-

CO}

the

84

CONCLUSIONS

Some of the conclusions reached through this

research are as follows.

Cognitive Style

 

One of the primary theses of this study was that
the cognitive style of students could be used as an indi-
cator of college program change behavior. This investigation
revealed no relationship between cognitive style and the
three measures of program change. Because of the relative
reliability of the Sigel Conceptual Styles Test, there is
no reason to suspect that the use of a different cognitive
styles test would reveal results other than those found in

this study.
Personality Typology

Most of the indicators of change used in this
investigation showed that subjects who changed programs
had expressed a desire to change program, or subjects who
indicated that the program which they were presently in was
not the same as they had started in, scored significantly
lower on the extroversion scale. These findings seem con-
tradictory to other research findings reported in this study.
Based on other research, this author expected a positive,
correlation between high program change and high scores on

the extroversion scale. This did not occur. The 77

85

subjects who showed no program change at all scored sig-
nificantly higher on the extroversion scale. This dif-
ference was statistically significant at the .005 level.
Although the subjects who did not change programs scored
higher on the lie scale, this difference was not signifi-
cant. The results of this study support the general hypo-
thesis that a difference does exist between introverts and
extroverts with regard to the college program change behavior
these personality typologies produce. However, the program
changers were more introverted than the non-changers. This

was an unexpected phenomenon.

Other Findings

 

The variable which showed the clearest discrimina-
tion on the cognitive styles scale was work status. Students
who worked full-time scored significantly higher on the
analytic scale and significantly lower on the relational
scale than the students who did not work at all. The
students who worked full time also had a significantly
higher GPA, made lower scores on the lie scale, and were
more introverted. These findings indicate reliability and
consistency of the two basic instruments. It is generally
an uncontested notion that GPA is a good indication of
successful or non-successful school behavior. A signifi-
cant and negative correlation between class withdrawals
and GPA was also found.

The ”thinking introvert" notion is supported in

86

this investigation. Introversion is positively related to
a higher GPA, as other research indicates.

The most significant phenomenon observed by this
investigator in comparing students working full time with
non-working students was that the students who worked full
time scored higher on most of the scales which indicate
successful school behavior and lower on the scale which
indicate unsuccessful school behavior.

Subjects carrying a higher number of credits pro-
duced a higher number of responses on both scales of the
Cognitive Styles Test. This would indicate that the
number of credits subjects elect to carry is positively
related to total number of responses on the Sigel Conceptual
Styles Test. Mean scores on the analytic scale varied in
direct proportion with the number of semesters which sub-
jects had been in college. Subjects who had been in
college for six or more semesters produced lower mean scores
on the analytic and neuroticism scales than did the four
semester subjects. The primary conclusion to be drawn from
this observation is that the "over-tenders" tend to be more
stable and less analytic.

The 46 night students scored higher on the analytic
Scale than did the 82 day students. Because the night
Students were, for the most part, also the students who
wOrked full time, the conclusion was drawn that this was
further indication that those students who worked full time

werezmore analytic in their responses.

87
LIMITATIONS

Technically, the results of this investigation are
limited to the 128 males and females who made up the popula—
tion of this study. Careful generalization may be made to
other situations and populations similar to those tested
in this investigation, i.e., inner city black students in
an inner city community college.

Some limitations which are indigeneous to the
present study are to be noted. Some advantages of including
only inner city students in the sample became limiting as
well. For example, no norm data has been reported for
either of the two basic instruments which may be used to
check for comparisons with the pOpulation under study.
Furthermore, since this study was exploratory in nature,
the measures used to qualify program change and other
previously untested methods were employed as criterion

measures .

IMPLICATIONS FOR ACTION AND FURTHER RESEARCH

The implications for this study of inner city
community college students' program changes are of two
types: (a) implications for action, and (b) implications

for further research.

88
Implications and Recommendations for Action

A number of issues relating to the problem of
changing program in an inner city community college were
raised in the problem statement of this investigation. A
major objective of this study was to develop empirical
data which have implication for action in resolving these
issues.

The underlying research issue related to identify-
ing program changes according to cognitive style and per-
sonality typology. Since no such identification was made,
this investigator can make no recommendations from these
findings other than the fact that cognitive style and
personality typology should not be used as indicators of
program change. However, other findings in this study do
hold promise for decision making in the inner city community
college. These findings are the basis for recommending the
following:

1. Inner city college officials should not use the
number of times a student changes programs as a
basis for making decisions about his academic
adjustment to college life. The empirical basis
for this recommendation lies in the fact that
(a) the analytic cognitive style (which indicates
a good adjustment to college requirements) is
equally distributed throughout the population of

program changers and non-changers. (b) Introverts

89

actually changed programs more often while extro-
verts more often expressed a desire to change.
Thus, this author concluded that there is no
evidence that personality typology varies with
program change characteristics.

Work status should be used as an indicator of
academic success in the inner city community college.
Data in this study show that students who work
full-time made the highest grades, were the most
analytic, and in general showed the best adjust-
ment to college requirements, while students who
did not work at all showed the poorest academic
adjustment of the three work status groups tested.
Of the four major program areas at Highland Park
Community College, students who complete the
business program should be recommended to four

year colleges as having the highest probability

of success in an academic program. Empirical
evidence in this study indicates that students who
spend four or more semesters in the business pro-
gram have developed more college success character-
istics than any of the other program groups observed
in this study.

Counselors should use the number of class with-
drawals as an indication of the student's percep—
tion of a given course. The number of class

withdrawals is a more valid measure because the

90

student has pursued his academic ability in

relationship to the course requirement and expressed

this perception through class withdrawal behavior.

Student GPA in a given course provides no indica-

tion that the student understands the course

requirements nor that he has reacted to the course.

The data in this study show a definite inverse

relation between GPA and the number of class with-

drawals a subject experienced, and a direct rela-
tionship between class withdrawals and desire to
change programs.

Implications for action in the inner city community
college setting are many and varied. They range from the
inclusion of new variables in the college's diagnostic
instruments to large-scale change in the college's academic
procedure. Before applying any research data, the college
itself must determine its own goals in respect to the pro-
cessing of students through programs. For example, the
college must decide if its primary goal is to (a) increase
its "throughput" without regard for program content or
academic process, or (b) seek to match student academic
information processing styles with existing programs and
create new programs for processing the information content
of developing and existing programs.

It may be argued by many that all program change
is not a negative process-~that some program change may be

desirable in order to allow students to act on new

91

information about themselves and programs. It is the
thesis of this author, however, that any change from one
program to another before the first is completed represents
a waste for the college, the student, or both. If a
student changes programs and completes the program to which
he changed, it is reasonable to assume that he does so
because he has learned something about the two programs in
relationship to himself which he did not know before he
selected the first program. If this is true, then it would
seem that the colleges should seek to develOp the instru-
ments which could provide the information the student needs

to act on in selecting his program.
Implications and Recommendations for Further Research

Implications for further research are both general
and specific and have as referents both the individual and
the group. In reference to the individual, further
exploration into the nature of socially induced college
program change behavior is appropriate. Initially, a
study of how peer groups influence personality factors
which influence the student's change of programs is
recommended.

The whole question of mutual incompatibility of
differing modes of conceptual organization is still another
area which requires moreexploration and clarification.

With the group as a referent, the effects of socio-

conceptual styles on the persistence of groups of subjects

92

(who may have characteristics other than those discussed

in this study) in certain programs should be investigated.

Specifically, recommendations for further research

would include the following items:

1.

Measuring instruments need to be developed and
refined so as to measure college student proneness
to change programs. Such an instrument, substituted
for the crude measures of program change used in
this study, would yield more conclusive results.
Data in this investigation showed that

students who worked more hours produced proportion-
ally more college success behavior as measured by
GPA, the cognitive styles test and the personality
test. Additional research needs to be done to
determine which factor or factors included in work
status accounts for this difference.

Research conducted in the present study was done

to identify some characteristics of students who
had changed programs. Additional research should
be done to determine whether other college behavioral
changes occur as a result of, or with, program
change.

Scores of the pepulation in this study were signi-
ficantly different from the American college norm
on all three scales of the personality inventory.
Other research could indicate the validity and

reliability of this test when used for populations

93

like those in this study.

Of the four program areas studied in this investi-
gation, subjects in the business program produced
more successful college behavior than students

in the other programs. Additional research may
reveal: (a) whether or not the business program
produced those factors, (b) the factors in the
business program which may be responsible for this
success, and (0) whether or not the "success factors"

can be reproduced in the other three programs.

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APPENDIX A

STUDENT DATA FORM

STUDENT DATA FORM

Name

 

Please mark an "X" in one of the spaces provided for each
question.

1. Sex 2. Do you work:
male _____full-time
female ____ part-time

____ not at all

3. How many credits are you carrying this semester?
4 or less _____between 10 and 15
between 5 and 9 _____more than 15
4. In which program are you enrolled this semester?
_____Liberal Arts ‘ .____ Health

Business Other Vocational/
Technical

5. Is the program which you listed above the same one you
were in when you started your first semester at
Highland Park Community College?

yes no

 

6. If_the answer to the above question is "no," in which
program did you start your first semester?

Liberal Arts Health

Business Other Vocational/
Technical

106

107

Altogether, how many times have you changed programs
since you have been at this college?

___0 _3
1 4 or more
2

 

If you could do so without losing credit, would you
change your present program?

yes no

APPENDIX B

SIGEL CONCEPTUAL STYLES TEST

SIGEL CONCEPTUAL STYLES TEST

INSTRUCTIONS

We know that people see groups of familiar things like these
in different ways. None of these ways are better or worse
than another, but the differences between people do exist;
just as there are differences in the ways people think.

This test examines the way you see groups of familiar things.

 

EXAMPLE

Pairs Reasons

 

Put down as many pairs as you can that go together, belong
together, or are related in any way, and give your reason
for each chosen pair. Continue giving pairs and reasons
until time is called for that page of pictures. If you
run out of pairs and reasons before time is called, wait
until you are told to go on to the next page. You will
have a minute for each page, so you will not be rushed.
Put down all the pairs that you see--don't reject a pair
just because it seems obvious--it may not be Obvious to

someone else. It is best to put down the pairs and reasons
as they occur to you.

108

109

SIGEL CONCEPTUAL STYLES TEST

SAMPLE ITEMS

 

110

SIGEL CONCEPTUAL STYLES TEST

ANSWER SHEET

 

Page Pair Reason

 

 

 

 

 

 

111

 

Page Pair Reason

 

 

 

 

 

lo.

 

11.

 

112

 

Page Pair Reason

 

12.

 

13.

 

l4.

 

15.

 

16.

 

APPENDIX C

EYSENCK PERSONALITY INVENTORY

EYS ENCK PERSONALITY INVENTORY

FORM A

By II. J. Eysenck
and Sybil I. G. Eysenck

 

 

 

 

 

Numb Age Sex
Grade or Occupation Date
School or Firm Marital Status

 

 

INSTRUCTIONS

Here are some questions regarding the way you behave, feel and act. After
each question is a space for answering "Yes," or "No.“

Try and decide whether “Yes,” or "No" represents your usual way of acting
or feeling. Then blacken in the space under the col-

 

Section of Answer

 

umn headed "Yes" or "No." can,“ Com”
Marked
Yes No
Work quickly, and don’t spend too much time over i:
any question; we want your first reaction, not a long Yes No
drawn-out thought process. The whole questionnaire 53 '

 

 

shouldn't take more than a few minutes. Be sure not

to omit any questions. Now turn the page over and go ahead. Work quickly, and
remember to answer every question. There are no right or wrong answers, and this
isn’t a test of intelligence or ability, but simply a measure of the way you behave.

PUBLISHED BY EDUCATIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL TES‘HNG SERVICE
BOX 7234. SAN DIEGO. CALIFORNIA 92107

COPYRIGHT (9 I963 BY EDUCATIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL TESTING SERVICE.
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
REPRODUCTION OF THIS FORM BY ANY MEANS STRICTLY PROHIBITED,

PRINTED IN U. S. A.

113

1. Do you often long for exoibment? ..............
I. Do you often need indecrstendin friends to cheer you
W?IIIIII .OIIIIII II ........ I ......
8. Are you osmlly oerdree? ...................
4. Doyoufinditveryhrdtoteksnoforenenswefl. . .
6. Doyouetopendthinkthineover before doineny-
thin? . . ..............................
6. lfyoueeyyouwilldosomethindoyouelweysheep
your womise. no metter how inconvenient it might
be to do so? ............................
1. Doesyour mood oftengoupsnddown? ..........
ll. Do you generelly do end sey thine quickly without
stopping to think? ........................
9. Doyou ever feel 'iust misereble' for no good reeson'.’
10. Would you do elmost enythin for e dere? .........
ll. Do you suddenly feel shy when you went to telk tosn
ettrective strener? .......................
12. Once in e while do you lose your temper end get
enry? ................................
18. Do you often do thins on the spur of the moment? . . .
14. Do you often worry ebout thins you should not heve
done or seid? ............................
15. Generelly do you prefer reedin to meetin people? .
16. Are your feeline rether eesily hurt? ...........
11. Do you like goin out e lot? ..................
18. Do you ooceeiomlly heve thoughts and idees thet you
would not like other people to know eboui? ........
19. Are you sometimes bubblin over with energy end
sometimes very sluggish? ...................
20. Do you prefer to heve few but speclel friends? .....
21. Do you deydreem e lot? . ...................
22. When people shout et you. do you shout beck? ......
23. Are you often troubled ebout feelings of guilt? ..... .
24. Areellyowhebitegondenddeeirebleones? . . .. .
25. Cen you usuelly let yourself go end enjoy yourselfe
m“.‘.ypfly7 ..... III IIOIIIIIIIIIIII
36. Would you cell yourself tense or 'highly-strun'? . . .
87. Ibotherpeoplethinkofyoueeheing very lively? . . .
28. After you love done somethin importent. do you dten
one ewey feelin you could heve done better? . .
80. Areyou mostlyquietwhenyouerewithotherpeople?
80.noyousometimesgossip? ........

PIA-EASE CIIECK TO Sl'ZlI 'I'IIA'I‘

114

Yes
Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes
Yes
Yes

Yes

Yes
7..
v”.
Yes
Yes
i.
Yes

Y!-

No

No

No
No

No

No

No
No
No
No

No

No

No

No
No
No

No

YOU HAVE ANSWI-IllI-Ill ALL

81.

34.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

44.

45.

41.

48.

49.

SI

37.

Doideesruo throughyourheedsotlntyoucennot
sleep?.........
lfthereiseomethinyouwenttolmowebwt. would

yourether lookitupinebookthentelktosomeone
M‘t? ...... I III eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee

eeeeeses 0 es. eeeeeee e

. Do youget pelpitetione or thumping in your heert?. . .

Doyoulikethekindofworkthetyouneedtopyclose
ettention to?

Do you get ettecke of ehekin or trembling? .......

ssssssssssssssssssssssssssss

Would you elweye declere everythin st the customs.
evenifyouknewthetyouoouldneverbefoundout? ..

Do you hete beingwithecrowdwhopleyiokeeonone
mother? ...............................
Are you sn irriteble person? .................

Do you like doin thine in which you heve to set
quickly? ...............................

Do you worry ebout ewful thine thst might heppen? . .

Are you slow end unhurried in the wey you move? . . .

Heve you ever been lete for en eppointment or work? .

. Do you heve meny nightmeree? ........ . .......

Do you like telkin to people somuohtlntyouwould
never miss e ohenoe of telking to s strener? ......

Are you troubled by eches end pins? .

. ledymbeveryunheppyifyouoouldnoteeelote

of people most of the time? ..................
Would you cell yourself e nervous person? ........

or ell the people you Imowerethereeomewhomyou
definitely do not like? ........ . . . ...........

Would you sey you were feirly self-oonfident?. . .

. Are you eeeilyhurtwhen peoplefindfeult withyouor

yaurwork?..

sssssssssssssssssssssssssss

Do you find it herd to reelly enjoy yourself st e live-
ly perty? ..............................

. Are you troubled with feeline d inferiority? ......

. Cen you oesin get some life into e rether dull perty?.

. Doyou sometimes alkeboutthinsyouknownothin

M7IIIIIIIIIIIIIII I II IIIIIIIIIIII
Doyouworryeboutyourheelth?..... ..........

.Doyoulikephyinwenksonothers? .....

Do you sills:- from sleeplesenees ? .............

'I'III‘I QUESTIONS.

Yes
Yes

Yes

Yes
Y,“

Yes

Yes

Y9-

No

No

No
No
".9
“9
No
No

".0

N?
No
No
No
"9
",9
".9
".9
No
No
"2
",9
",9
no
"9
",9
8.9

No

RQRIES

MICHIGAN STATE UNIV. LIB
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312931055817

215