~ ” I lIII-IIIE I: . ..E.ngmwhmfi H.110. .. O ‘ a 1L! .. . .. . ..mumwm.w.-.Ww-m.-n?z-.. . . I. o. .\ . .devl. . . . ., ...-.11....- -...z. . . . . O V .- - . n u . 1. 00:9. .11.... . 4?) . “...-1.0.0.“...3? ~. . . . , .I‘ it‘d-noel- I q t I. a. . u I \ c W‘vq. ...... ...-...... a ...... . 1......- Vmaguwwflx .. «axlf - . 5.1%.“..1. 1o . .- 3 Il’ r 1 I. b .I .h... ... ... .... .... - - fi . . ... .n .- . f . . It"! icing . no. . - . - . 1.-m-M..Mn1.I..H-\IJ..-«v.-£t .... ...-Kw»... . .H ...-"i... x. 1‘1... Guam.» {Hm ...lu1. o. v.-.- .s..\ ...-hilt. 0%.an 15.05.. 1.1%» ...... .... ...”.- %. (.10; 0-.r- ill. I‘ utl". it... .. 81.0114 . s I . d. . ...“ flwH-Lnnitflmflm. ...-W1. - ... ......u: ...H-1.-Hu-n.u...m.-r . . A 1.. \l .5 0%.. H“ I. 1 nwfi“.flnh.u.1,mm.9&1.flflvn - - ....Auv >9.— .- m I. 10.". nahvv“ I ..thzwu «4 I. s r A u ’I .hfl‘fif ...1... .l!...... 511. . . 1.1%... -7.r.1 1.»....1.. 1--. . fink“. 1-!!! v)‘ .. . . 1 s 1111. I0 ... . .11....4...» ...-.51... . . O .‘fifi‘hfli‘o‘ -..~V.o 0‘ n n.) . 13%.... . - RN. . . ll. 1!. ”IMMUNI‘CV‘ E .. .-Hl-it‘o‘a..1. .. “hug-13311.3..- «....ulu-HN-fl . “a... H“. _ -..-.mfis tan-.3...- , -. .11.“.1......fl..l.-..1 - . - ......- hr...\ ......- .-.d - 1.....d-ou...uu. 1511.314»... .....l.l.\ -. .- .. .ufi. ind a l' .lblllf. ‘1‘1IIPPJ. lluifivuchnouitnu - .1 ...-NIHPI‘I 1|.VNOQHVJJUIHD-‘Plu . . w . ... .... . . ..“n . fl.- . 3.1%... ... §.-._h....1 . - . z .. . w. , .4 . -. .. duck-Haul.“ ... .I..hm u. nov luv L \ Eukn‘UH‘V‘ H. . . w ... l . ~ . ifin‘ - . - 111......- . 1.1.... -.- ... .1... ......)n.......-.. . . -IvowoblLuqut!v6A u . . -..-.... ....... ..- ... .11.... 1.5...II...” . . . . .. -1 v1...) 1:. ...... u .---hoviuunubc<'h.~¢0‘¢.c1$. . -. . ...ll ...-1.. ... [\cl 4. 1.0017101. D. ..v-Yr‘. ! . . ...-....Q1 . -- - L ...-h... .....u...“ . I.- .- l. i. a. 1 ‘ ...OIWM.‘ 1c ~~~~~ (I .... .. . .1 .110-..\o..|..l..s.91.1....11 ..1.-.11.fl.v. 7:11qu 1-1 .-.-11 1-15. 10. 1....” -.- v. - .4...) ..1...\4.01..Iv1i ...... 1 .. ...- I...‘ . .-..1 .- -.-...I ... ..vHY.--.. .fll.‘ .....l-AIOJ‘ 1.1.. 01".?th 11.9 ...-......u- : .-. q I. ..h. 4.. aka-.1131 t..- v?.9.~o\l.Al~.aththc1.-.4L.I.MQ -111 1.0.11.1” .. 1.09.11. .I..1...1 v.‘l‘ all. .. . ...- . . . \......u.L ..n........VL1.n..a-....I. .... hr-t-Hhah-t1. - 1 4.. l . ..1.. .. -11.- - ... .. u . .1‘111 .. .. €161.914171: 1. 13M! . 111. . .... . VHQEI‘. .010. n11 111.. c I101 . .. .1-... ‘1': ...; .v-fl- .......4...m......b. ... .. -. 11.11....1 ......71. Y .7: .fil~‘\1§o . s ; . ..- 1 . . fin'twflnl || - . .. . . . .. .1. -u . 12111.11. .IIIHFV v. 4.... L‘u.sr-..n\1.- v 4.. 1. -111 ..qu T1117 ..n-sn .... .1...|....\ 0 I "‘. \I‘V - . u V ...-.....- -H-fi..-..v.....-....: - . . . ...... . .“...-..-.. f a - . 5.9.31. ...... .1 ..- 1...... .... _ u . .. «.1 fil.v\l}..‘.t. ho». g . 1.1.41.11‘1 . . ...-v Shh: 7.... an... :11!a.hv.vf.lo ‘1.“ .....I .-1- ..1 4... -.H....--..-1....-..n......-1!..... 1.1...- .- . 1" v... )Ilt.\.llll..1.|-‘l\!1..tvb-IIC‘H\I|I 93.11%? 1“. ...n . 011K... I ‘ubh . . .1 ...-4.4.11. . ll... ... E1111.- 1 I... 3.03.0 . .-. .o‘ ...... .-..u: Incl .1‘0‘0 . .. 1.....11f. Vac-«1.1.0. .....vfltot: In. . .o A 1.11:9... .UI- .-....K. .1.- o........ . . :1. ....d..n-.........I..-. ..-... .-.._.-... 51-11. ...-I1. -.Hhfl.11..v..-.-..J.-.| ..84"1.\?fl%.-9. 1.1.... . - ...... I. u -.-..........H. ..........-.-....w..-. $.111J........u-nfi-.w.....+H-.. 1H .3..- -- .. ts .- It: . D1 \l..l no ‘Hfi‘hi‘fwiu u..v‘|tH.V~w|..DfiO.l {‘1 . n 9'.“ I.- I.“ «a ...-f! w ‘1'“...19- In. \ ll'IA’IA ... . l" I .1...|\|.va-.1.sturn v11...tu.1. 2.1.11. [-9.- - 1auL. . 1 i.‘ .1...c|..tl A. -.I\1,-1\1..I..-..mnlou~1 14.3.1... .0... .lel. 00. - rabid-‘1‘ olfllLM- g .I‘t-thvDIon‘II H.140 .Nllv‘nucllnfiflc‘fialfiitll..1v .l‘.‘ I I . ‘. ‘l. 1 ‘ 1 .. A 1.1.. mil pt... . .11. 1.!qu 1".1' 9111.1! 1‘ . c1l....-..u.l- . A III" -29 h.R.111-n1.h .0..- .lo. . .Q‘VG , i... 1 ... . .- o. .1. .I. . 1 ('1 10. I .I 1 II... It. 0.‘ I r -1 111 1.111 c 1.- 1: I- llllllullllnllllllIlllll THESlg. i Lyn-tuft»; 1?? V 3 1293 105711 This is to certify that the dissertation entitled JOB SATISFACTION AS RELATED TO ORGANIZATIONAL DECISION MAKING OF PUBLIC SCHOOL PRINCIPALS AND MIDDLE MANAGERS IN BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY presented by Marie Smith. has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degree in AdmInIStrat'Ion and Curriculum /Miaj0r rofessor Date $50 /fl/ /?/‘3 / MSU is an Affirmative Action/Eq ual Opportunity Institution 0-12771 MSU LIBRARIES RETURNING MATERIAL§: Place in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. , \, A! It " to“ 4. . __m,,;,.,4..9.<‘y¢ -. more" I .4 {if} {I 1"." Z5 W78 12@‘ 1‘ 1).- JOB SATISFACTION AS RELATED TO ORGANIZATIONAL DECISION MAKING OF PUBLIC SCHOOL PRINCIPALS AND MIDDLE MANAGERS IN BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY By Marie Smith A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment Of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department Of Administration and Curriculum 1983 ABSTRACT JOB SATISFACTION AS RELATED TO ORGANIZATIONAL DECISION MAKING OF PUBLIC SCHOOL PRINCIPALS AND MIDDLE MANAGERS IN BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY By Marie Smith This exploratory study sought to determine the possible cor- relation between job satisfaction and psychological participation in organizational decision making by comparing two midmanagement groups—- public school principals and middle managers in business and industry-- with respect to these two variables. The population of this study included a random sample Of the public school principals in the Kent Intermediate School District together with a random sample Of middle managers from 15 of the larger businesses and industries in Regional Grand Rapids, Michigan. The instruments used were the Short Form Minnesota Satisfac— tion Questionnaire (MSQ), a modified version of Vroom's Psychological Participation Index, and an ideal level Of participation index. The statistical treatments used in testing the seven hypothe- ses were the Pearson product-moment correlation, the t-ratio, and the correlated t-ratio. The level of significance was set at .05. The central findings Of the study were: l. Moderate correlations were found to exist between the psychological participation in decision making and the Intrinsic, Marie Smith Extrinsic, and General job satisfaction of public school principals. The significance lies in the conclusion that generally, principals who perceive the greater job satisfaction also perceive greater involve- ment in the decision-making process. 2. Moderate correlations were found to exist between the vari- ables Of Extrinsic and General Satisfaction and the psychological par- ticipation in organizational decision making Of middle managers in business and industry. The significance lies in the conclusion that generally, middle managers who perceive the greater job satisfaction also perceive greater involvement in the decision-making process. 3. The means Of the scores for the criterion variables Intrin- sic, Extrinsic, and General Satisfaction, MSQ, did not reach a level of Significance between the two groups under analysis. 4. A comparison of means Of the composite scores Of the Psy- chological Participation Index did not achieve statistical significance between the two groups. 5. A comparison of the means of each group for the perceived actual and ideal levels Of participation revealed statistically sig- nificant differences. 6. The means Of the composite scores for the criterion vari- able, ideal participation in organizational decision making, were not significant between the two groups. TO my husband, Marvin, and our children, Preston, Marika, and D'Andre, this dissertation is dedicated. Their undying love and support were the enabling forces that brought this project to its fruition. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many more people than can be mentioned in this space have contributed to the personal drive from which this dissertation evolved. Among those individuals is my chief mentor and friend, Dr. Louis G. Romano. Dr. Romano's inspiration and assistance along the way will always be remembered and will continue to be nurtured and appreciated. The other committee members, Drs. John H. Suehr, Donald H. Nickerson, and C. Keith Groty, were very helpful in the formation and completion processes Of this study. Sincere appreciation is felt for those principals and managers who took the time and effort to contribute the necessary data. Thanks is also extended to Mrs. Odette Redd, who provided the expertise necessary to complete the analysis of the data, and to Mrs. Sue Cooley, who so competently typed the finished work. Special acknowledgment is directed to Dr. Thomas S. Gunnings, who continually challenges me to develop fully all Of my attributes, and to Christine Larson Van Slyke, with whom a rare and wonderful friendship has developed as a result Of being companion doctoral students. Finally, my family deserves special recognition for tolerat- ing the many absences from home and the many moods while at home. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES ......................... vi Chapter I. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ................ I Introduction ..................... 1 Purpose of the Study ................. 3 Significance of the Study ............... 3 Assumptions and Limitations .............. 6 Definition of Terms .................. 7 Research Hypotheses .................. 8 Overview ....................... 9 11. REVIEW OF SELECTED LITERATURE AND RESEARCH ....... ll Introduction ..................... ll Participation in Decision Making ........... ll Decentralization .................. 12 Administrative/Management Team ........... 13 Group Decision Making ................ 14 Leader Behavior ................... 15 Participation .................... l6 Psychological Participation ............. 18 Job-Satisfaction Studies ............... 19 Studies Relating Job Satisfaction and Decisional Participation .................... 22 Summary ........................ 23 III. DESIGN OF THE STUDY ................... 25 Introduction ..................... 25 Population and Sampling Method ............ 26 Instrumentation .................... 29 Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire ........ 29 Psychological Participation Index .......... 32 Demographic Data .................. 34 Data-Gathering Procedures ............... 34 Statistical Treatment ................. 35 Testable Hypotheses .................. 36 Summary ........................ 37 iv IV. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA .................. V. SU APPENDICES A. MI B. MI C. IN D. F0 REFERENCES Introduction ..................... Hypothesis 1 ..................... Hypothesis 2 ..................... Hypothesis 3 ..................... Hypothesis 4 ..................... Hypothesis 5 ..................... Hypothesis 6 ..................... Hypothesis 7 ..................... Descriptive Data ................... Position, Sex, Intrinsic Satisfaction ........ Position, Sex, Extrinsic Satisfaction ........ Position, Sex, General Satisfaction ......... Position, Tenure, Intrinsic Satisfaction ...... Position, Tenure, Extrinsic Satisfaction ...... Position, Tenure, General Satisfaction ....... Summary ........................ MMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ................. Summary ........................ The Literature Reviewed ............... Design of the Study Reviewed ............ Findings ....................... Conclusions ...................... The Association Between Job Satisfaction and Psychological Participation (Findings 1 and 2) Job Satisfaction Of Principals and Middle Managers (Finding 3) .................... Psychological Participation by Principals and Middle Managers (Finding 4) ............ Actual and Ideal Levels of Participation (Findings 5 and 6) ..................... Ideal Participation by Principals and Middle Managers (Finding 7) ............... Recommendations .................... Recommendations for Further Research ......... NNESOTA SATISFACTION QUESTIONNAIRE .......... DMANAGEMENT JOB VARIABLE INSTRUMENT .......... ITIAL LETTER TO SURVEY SAMPLES ............ LLON-UP LETTER TO SURVEY SAMPLES ........... Table 3.l LIST OF TABLES Frequency Distribution for Total Respondents by Sex Categories ..................... Frequency Distribution of Responding Principals by Age Categories ....................... Frequency Distribution of Responding Middle Managers by Age Categories ................... Frequency Distribution of Responding Principals by Years in Position ................... Frequency Distribution Of Responding Middle Managers by Years in Position .................. Relationship Between Psychological Participation and Job Satisfaction of Public School Principals ...... Relationship Between Psychological Participation and Job Satisfaction of Middle Managers .......... T-Ratios Of Job Satisfaction Between Public School Principals and Middle Managers ............. T-Ratios of Psychological Participation Between Public School Principals and Middle Managers ......... Correlated T-Ratios Of Actual and Ideal Levels of Psychological Participation by Public School Principals . Correlated T-Ratios of Actual and Ideal Levels of Psychological Participation by Middle Managers ..... T-Ratios of Ideal Participation Between Public School Principals and Middle Managers ............. Description of Subpopulations by Position and Sex With Respect to Intrinsic Satisfaction ........... Description of Subpopulations by Position and Sex With Respect to Extrinsic Satisfaction ........... vi Page 27 28 28 28 29 4O 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 Page 4.10 Description of Subpopulations by Position and Sex With Respect to General Satisfaction ............. 49 4.ll Description Of Subpopulations by Position and Number Of Years in Position With Respect to Intrinsic Satisfaction ...................... 50 4.l2 Description Of Subpopulations by Position and Number of Years in Position With Respect to Extrinsic Satisfaction ...................... 5l 4.l3 Description of Subpopulations by Position and Number of Years in Position With Respect to General Satisfaction . 52 4.l4 Summary Table ....................... 54 vii CHAPTER I STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Introduction The concept of "middle management" itself connotes the notion Of being between two sides. When the ingredients Of decision making and job satisfaction are isolated and compared, their importance is evident, particularly in this position of "middle" management. B251: ness Industry reported a study which concluded that "Low Morale Pervades Middle Management." Specifically, the research showed: A great deal of responsibility but little decision-making authority has been delegated to middle managers in recent years. Job satisfaction for managers has dropped below 90 percent for the first time in 25 years of similar Opinion surveys. Managers feel that their problems are ignored while com- panies listen sympathetically to the problems Of hourly and clerical employees. (March I980) Vetter (l976) explained that because of the principal's apex position in the school, he has a greater variety and more role senders than others in the school. Different role senders may have different expectations, which cause role conflicts in decision making. Regard- ing any aspect of the school program, teachers may have different expectations from the principal than those of parents or central administration. Greer (1978) pointed out still another timely basis for decision making. Principals and their superiors are Often forced to l focus on the legal implications Of their decisions rather than on the logic, fairness, and practicality. Thus participation in decision making is narrowed even further, causing principals to perceive mini- mal influence on certain matters pertaining to their position. The evaluation Of teachers is illustrative Of the increased influence Of the courts in education. Even though a principal may determine through formal Observation that a teacher should not be with children, the cost and embarrassment of going through the grievance procedure and possible court action cause indecision. In addition to the issue Of whether to "go to court," Heddinger (1978) concluded that the principal's middle-management position between the two Opposing forces of the school board's administration and the bargaining faculty has caused decision-making difficulties in that the principal must execute a collective-bargaining agreement in which he/she had little or no negotiating power. In both the public and private sectors, an increasing middle- management trend to deal with power erosion is unionization. White- collar groups in business and principals in school districts have sought to organize themselves into collective-bargaining units. The impetus behind midmanagement unionization in both industry and public education seems to be a rising concern for quality participation in the organization's decision-making process (Kassalow, l976; Knoester, 1977; Karlitz, 1979). As stated before, top management's agreement with the labor force (blue-collar workers in industry and teachers in schools) has caused a loss of decision-making pOwer traditionally given to middle management. Purpose Of the Study The purpose of this dissertation is to investigate the rela- tionships between the job satisfaction and perceived involvement in organizational decision making of public school principals and middle managers in business and industry. Along with measuring the psycho- logical participation in organizational decision making, respondents in the study were asked to indicate their perceived ideal level of participation. Further investigation focused on whether the factors Of sex, age, and tenure have an influence on job satisfaction and participation in organizational decision making. Significance Of the Study While several studies have been done relating job satisfac- tion to the decision-making involvement Of teachers and blue-collar workers (see Chapter II), few have been conducted with middle managers. In view of the importance Ofmidmanagement positions in both industry and education, this study is significant. Several writers have conveyed the current emphasis on quality of work life as related to effective participation of workers (Strauss, 1977). A few have pointed out that the middle manager is often lost in the shuffle to please the rank-and-file worker in this movement (Iannone, l973; Greer, 1978; Karlitz, 1979; Vetter, 1976; Dickson, 1977; Knoester, 1978). This alienation has resulted in low morale among middle managers and, in several instances, administrative unionization. The latter, however, has failed to enhance decision- making involvement in school districts (Knoester, 1978; Karlitz, 1978). Knoester (1977) found that unionized principals in Michigan wanted to participate more in organizational decision making but, in actuality, were provided less Opportunity to do so than their non- unionized peers. Principals have two dominant needs: achievement and recog- nition for achievement (Iannone, 1973). However, centralized control and undefined roles in the collective-bargaining process with teach- ers Often contributed to block these needs. A role for strong principals was described by Herman (1976) as being one that nurtures true educational decision makers as Opposed to "yes" men and women who merely execute the orders Of central admin- istration. In a descriptive study, Cross (1980) found the current decision-making patterns of school principals to be rapid, reactive, and greatly influenced by subordinates. This person-dependent char- acter of the information used by principals in arriving at decisions would lead one tO expect that the same would be applied by their superiors. This is not always perceived to be true. Musella, Lawton, and Palmer (1975) concluded from their research that the degree Of autonomy invested in the principal to make decisions is negatively related to the Xness (from McGregor's Theory X) Of his administrative style. This means that the more a principal is coerced to follow the provisions Of the law, contract, and central administration, the less humanistic is his leadership behavior. As Greer (1978) pointed out, anticipated legal conse- quences Of decisions are becoming a powerful influence. How, then, can a middle manager be humanistic in his decision making and, if indeed the two are related, derive job satisfaction? Decision making is inherent in educational change. Tye (1972) Offered a different approach to the principalship, that Of being the chief educational change-agent position. This concept is counter to the idea that the principal must merely hold personnel responsible to a negotiated contract. However, Tye's reasoning is logical. Economically, school districts cannot afford outside change agents. Structurally, the principal holds the position that best lends itself to plan for new ways to attain established goals. In looking at the management characteristics of business in the 19805, it is clear that middle management, participation, and satisfaction play important roles that need further study. Four "management shapers" Of the current decade are Limits dictated by slower economic growth. Participation by individuals and groups "wanting in" on decisions affecting their lives. Complexity from the greater interactions of everything with everything else. Change accelerating to make history a less useful guide to the present and future. (Amara, 1981) Dickson (1977) described the "Plight of the Middle Manager" as a job that is neither satisfying nor participative. His proposed answer was greater involvement. Even though "participative management" has ceased to be a big buzzword, Murray (1978) cited several examples Of American companies that have successful participative-management programs. Clarke (1982) stressed the need to create the proper environment for participation and motivation. This proper environment is built on honesty, personal growth and recognition, and a finan- cially viable corporation. Assumptions and Limitations This dissertation is based on the following assumptions: 1. Job satisfaction and decision making are significant factors in job performance. 2. Principals hold a critical position in the hierarchy Of educational leadership. 3. Middle managers in business and industry hold a critical position in the private-sector hierarchy. 4. Comparisons of the two segments Of the pOpulation included in this study, public school principals and middle managers in busi- ness and industry, can be made (Holden, 1980). Limitations of the study are: l. The study is limited to the public school principals in Kent Intermediate School District (midwestern Michigan), together with the middle-management personnel of the larger businesses and industries in Regional Grand Rapids, Michigan. 2. The data used in this study consist of responses derived from an index for measuring psychological participation in decision making (originally developed by Vroom, 1960) and the Short Form Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire. The accuracy Of response is assumed. 3. The investigation is limited tO factors in job performance: job satisfaction and decision-making influence. Definition Of Terms Decision making refers to the problem-solving process within the organization. The routine sense Of response as well as the innovative sense of change are both important with respect to the joint decision making of superior and subordinate. Psychological participation is defined as the amount Of influence with his/her superior an individual perceives he/she has on decision making (Vroom, 1960). Job satisfaction is defined as an attitude or a feeling that a person has toward his/her job. This feeling is determined by the correspondence of need fulfillment and ability requirements that an individual has with the work environment (Lofquist 8 Dawis, 1969). Public school principal refers to the administrative head and supervisory officer of a public school. Middle managers are defined as those persons holding positions above the first level of supervision but below the vice-presidential, company Officer, or major department head (Holden, 1980). For the purposes of this study, middle management is further defined as those persons who supervise professional or technical persons (white-collar workers). Ignure_is defined as the number of years the respondent has held his/her present position. The following definitions are taken from the manual for the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire. Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire, also referred to as the MSQ, was used to measure the degree of job satisfaction of the respondents. The Intrinsic Satisfaction scale comprises the subscales Of the MSQ for ability utilization, achievement, activity, advancement, compensation, co-workers, creativity, independence, moral values, social service, social status, and working conditions. The Extrinsic Satisfaction scale comprises the subscales for authority, company policies and practices, security, supervision-- both human relations and technical, and variety. The General Satisfaction scale is a combination of the intrinsic and extrinsic scales and the subscales for recognition and responsibility (Weiss, 1968). Research Hypotheses TO determine the relationship that may exist between the job satisfaction and participation in organizational decision making Of public school principals and middle managers in business and industry, the following null hypotheses are included: Hypothesis 1: There is no statistically significant association between the degree to which public school princi- pals perceive that they participate in the making of organizational decisions that affect their positions and their measured job satisfaction. Hypothesis 2: There is no statistically significant association between the degree to which middle managers in business and industry perceive that they partici- pate in the making of organizational decisions that affect their positions and their measured job satisfaction. Hypothesis 3: There is no statistically significant difference between the job satisfaction of public school principals and that of middle managers in business and industry. Hypothesis 4: There is no statistically significant difference between the involvement in organizational decision making Of public school principals and that of middle managers in business and industry. Hypothesis 5: There is no significant difference in the psycho- logical participation and the perceived ideal par- ticipation in organizational decision making by public school principals. Hypothesis 6: There is no significant difference in the psycho- logical participation and the perceived ideal participation in organizational decision making by middle managers in business and industry. Hypothesis 7: There is no significant difference between the ideal levels of participation in organizational decision making as perceived by public school principals and as perceived by middle managers in business and industry. W In the first chapter, the rationale for and the purpose of the study were presented. The assumptions and limitations were stated along with the definitions of important terms. Research hypotheses in the null form were introduced. In the second chapter, selected literature and research sources are reviewed as they relate to the basic elements of the study. First, decision making in organizations is discussed. Second, the concept Of job satisfaction is reviewed. In the third chapter, the survey-research methodology of this study is explained. First, the sampling techniques are detailed. Second, the instruments are described. These include the Short Form 10 Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire, Vroom's Psychological Par- ticipation Index, and an ideal level Of participation index. Third, the study design and statistical treatment that were employed in interpreting the data are introduced. Fourth, the research hypothe- ses are presented in testable form. In the fourth chapter, the data results are examined in rela- tion to each of the hypotheses under study. Additional descriptive data are provided with respect to the subpopulations of the study. In the fifth chapter, conclusions are drawn. Implications of this study for the middle-management position in both the educa- tional and industrial settings are discussed. Finally, suggestions for further research regarding job satisfaction as related to organi- zational decision-making involvement are Offered. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF SELECTED LITERATURE AND RESEARCH Introduction The voluminosity of literature in the areas Of decision making and job satisfaction since the turn of the century demands a selected review for the purposes of this study. An attempt was made to choose references that are most relevant to the nature Of decision making and the concept Of job satisfaction that this study addresses. With a few exceptions, the selected literature and research review was developed from the research of the past decade. First, decision making in organizations is discussed with emphasis on participation models. Second, the concept of job satisfaction is explored. Approp- riate empirical studies are reviewed throughout the two sections. Participation in Decision Makingp Griffiths (1959) stated that decision making is becoming generally recognized as the heart of the organization and the process Of administration. For the purposes Of this study, decision making has been defined as the organizational problem-solving process. The emphasis is on the participation or the amount of influence the sub- ordinate (in this case, middle manager in education or business) feels he/she has on decisions made by the superior on matters that affect the subordinate's job. Vroom (1960) dealt extensively with 11 12 this "psychological participation“ concept. Vroom's study is reviewed last in this section as it applies directly to the approach of this study. First, the participation concepts of decentralization, the administrative or management team, group decision, leader behavior, and other approaches to participation are discussed. Decentralization Griffiths et a1. (1962) set forth the guideline that the administrative functions and the sources of decision making in an educational institution should be organized to provide the machinery for democratic Operation and decentralized decision making. Cross (1974) defined decentralization as a distribution of decision making. Authority and responsibility are allocated to indi- viduals near the point Of implementation. In looking at principals in a decentralized setting, he saw the principal as the leader Of a professional staff and chief administrator Of an attendance area, not just an extension Of corporate management. Drucker (1946) stated that decentralization is a basic prin- ciple Of the industrial order, as Opposed tO a technique Of t0p man— agement. According to Drucker, who studied General Motors, the aims of decentralization can be summarized as the speed with which a decision can be made, the absence Of conflict between divisions of the company, the sense Of fairness, the democracy Of management, and the absence of "edict management." In a study done by Musella (1975), it was concluded that the autonomy in decision making Of principals is positively related to the l3 decentralization of decision making. Austin (1970) did "A Compara- tive Study of Decentralization in Selected Schools and Industries." In part, he concluded that productivity, high morale, and improved labor relations are greater under decentralization than under cen— tralization. Administrative/Management Team Many writers have overlapped the definitions of decentrali- zation and the administrative or management team. However, Cross (1974) made the following distinction. Whereas decentralization is a distinct allocation Of full authority to lower levels Of the hier- archy, the administrative team consists of individuals who are linked together moving in the same direction. The National Association Of Elementary School Principals (Wynn, 1973) quoted Goldhammer (1971) as saying: "Increasingly the elementary school principal appears to be isolated from involvement in group decision making that affects his method Of leadership and deter- mines his operating patterns within his school." Heddinger (1978) stated that the team concept was precipitated by the need to involve principals in dealing more effectively with changing labor-relations problems. Wynn (1973) went on to promote the concept of the adminis- trative team, which he defined as a formally constituted, de jure body of administrators who exercise collaboratively all the administrative processes: goal setting, planning, organizing, coordinating, communi- cating, decision making, and evaluating. In 1971 the National Association Of Secondary School Prin— cipals (NASSP) encouraged the concept of the administrative team by 14 stating that its function is to ensure participative administrative decision making. According to the NASSP, the major responsibilities of the team include advising the board Of education in establishing district policies and then guaranteeing their effective implemen- tation. Estes (1973) spoke of the administrative team as a shared decision-making model. He viewed all line administrators, including principals, as being extensions Of the superintendent with appropriate authority designated in keeping with their assigned duties. Mens (1973) combined the concepts of the management team and decentrali- zation by stating that shared management cannot occur without decen- tralization Of authority. Corbett and Guttinger (1979) studied the team concept in the context of change strategies. Participants from each hierarchical level were involved in decisions concerning program implementation and adoption. Results confirmed that team participants experienced a mean of 91 percent of their personal goals achieved. Group Decision Making Stephenson and Franklin (1981) studied the nominal-group technique (NGT), which is a structured-discussion technique involving five to ten participants. Group decisions are the pooled outcome of individual votes. The authors concluded from their study, which com- pared NGT to traditional committees, that the participants rated NGT as being superior in (1) balanced participation, (2) quantity of ideas, (3) quality Of ideas, (4) efficiency of the NGT process, and 15 (5) overall sense Of accomplishment felt by participants. In a study conducted by Herbert and Yost (1979), NGT was also found to be superior in decision quality, use of best resources, and improvement in quality over average-member decision quality. However, in "The Frustrations Of the Group Executive," Business Week (1978) presented a negative picture Of the group execu- tive's job satisfaction. Survey results showed that most group heads perceived their positions to be low-profile, firing lines between divisions and chief executives. Leader Behavior Steers and Porter (1975) repOrted that the characteristics of the task and the subordinate have an effect on the relationship between leader participation and subordinate responses. The implication inherent in this path-goal theorizing is that the leader behavior alone does not affect subordinate satisfaction, but that the subor- dinates themselves along with the characteristics of the task deter- mine the effect Of the leader behavior. This theory is particularly relevant to this dissertation as subordinates gave their perceptions Of their influence on the decisions of their superiors. Hersey and Blanchard (1972) studied in depth the concept of leader behavior. They developed the Tri-Dimensional Leader Effec- tiveness Model to address adaptive leader behavior. This model relates the effectiveness of the leader to his/her ability to match leader style to the given situation. Gates, Blanchard, and Hersey (1976) further discussed a Situational Leadership Theory, in which a leader has two behaviors: l6 task behavior: the extent to which a leader engages in one- way communication by explaining what each subordinate is to do as well as when, where, and how tasks are to be accomp- lished. relationship behavior: the extent to which a leader engages in two-way communication by providing sociO-emotional support, "psychological strokes," and facilitating behaviors. A subordinate has a "maturity" level relative to Specific tasks: the capacity to set high but attainable goals (achievement—motivation), willingness and ability to take responsibility, education, and/or experience of an individual or group (Gates, Blanchard, & Hersey, 1976). The basic concept Of Situational Leadership Theory is: As the level of maturity of their followers continues to increase in terms of accomplishing a specific task, leaders should begin to reduce their task behavior and increase their relationship behavior. Adherence to the above theory by supervisors could certainly affect the psychological participation of the subordinates. In a study of managers in business, Greiner (1973) concluded that the managerial population has accepted that certain partici- pative leader characteristics produce effective results. Giving sub- ordinates a share in decision making was viewed as producing effective results. Participation Several studies fall into the general category Of "participa- tion," each having a different approach to and/or conceptualization of what participation is. Selected, representative studies in industry will be presented here. Participation studies in education will be cited at the end of the job-satisfaction section of this chapter. l7 Wheelwright and Banks (1979) determined from their study in industry that a successful planning process implied increasing Operating-manager involvement in the planning and review process. In so doing, a linkage is created between a plan and the operating per- sonnel who are supposed to implement the plan. Benefits are increased commitment to organizational goals, greater ease and accuracy in the implementation Of change strategies, and an effective decisional tool. In an industrial setting of both production and supervisory personnel, Alutto and Acito (1974) tested the decisional-participation concept Of (a) decisional deprivation, (b) decisional equilibrium, and (c) decisional saturation. The results were then related to job satisfaction. It was found that individuals who perceived themselves as decisionally deprived (participation in fewer decisions than desired) experienced less job satisfaction. The researchers also concluded that the extent Of deprivation was critical. The greater the discrepancy between the number of decisions in which an indi- vidual desired to participate and the number in which he perceived himself participating, the less was his job satisfaction. This is important to note since the tool used in this study measures the dis- crepancy between the amount of influence a subordinate perceives to have on his supervisor's decisions and the amount he/she feels is ideal. Lischeron and Wall (1975) studied the attitudes of blue- collar employees toward participation in management decision making. They determined first that employees experienced far less participa- tion than they desire. Second, the form of participation preferred 18 depends on the nature of the decision involved. The final conclusion held Simply that attitudes toward participation are positively related to job satisfaction. White and Ruh (1973) also studied the industrial setting, specifically six companies that were Operating under Scanlon Plans. The purpose of the study was to determine the effects Of personal values on the relationship between participation and job attitudes. Participation in decision making was consistently positively related to job involvement, motivation, and identification with the organi- zation. However, personal values did not consistently moderate the relationship between participation and job attitudes. Psychological Participation In 1958, Victor Vroom conducted a doctoral study with 108 supervisors in an industrial setting with the topic: "Some Per- sonality Determinants of the Effects of Participation." His award- winning dissertation was subsequently published in 1960. Several of the studies reported in this chapter employed some form Of Vroom's psychological-participation index to relate decision-making involve- ment to job satisfaction (Johnson & Weiss, 1971; White & Ruh, l973; Hollon & Gemmill, 1976; Poppenhagen, 1977). Vroom concluded in his study that participation in decision making has positive effects on attitudes (satisfaction) and motivation. A more detailed description Of Vroom's concept of psychologi- cal participation is in order here because the instrument used tO measure decisional involvement in this study is a modification Of 19 Vroom's original psychological-participation index. Vroom (1960) stated three possibilities related tO participation in the making of decisions that have an effect on a supervisor and one Of his subor- dinates: l. The supervisor can make the decision and issue an order to the subordinate, 2. The supervisor can delegate the decision to the subordi- nate, or 3. The supervisor and subordinate can make a joint decision. Even though Number 3 represents Vroom's conceptualization of partici- pation, in order to include all of the above mechanisms he tested the influence that the subordinate perceived himself having on the superior's decisions. His original test questions were: In general, how much say or influence do you have on what goes on in your station? 00 you feel you can influence the decisions of your immediate superior regarding things about which you are concerned? Does your immediate superior ask your Opinion when a problem comes up that involves your work? If you have a suggestion for improving the job or changing the setup in some way, how easy is it for you to get your ideas across to your immediate superior? Participants in the study responded on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from "A great deal of influence" to "Little or no influence." In the next section of this chapter, the concept Of job sat- isfaction is discussed. Other studies that relate job satisfaction to participation in decision making are also reviewed. Job-Satisfaction Studies Several researchers and authors have treated the general concept of job satisfaction over the past several decades. TO name 20 a few of the most renowned, Maslow (1954) spoke Of a Needs Hierarchy with the apex being self-actualization or complete satisfaction of psychological needs. Herzberg (1959) developed the Motivation- Hygiene Theory in which the satisfying factors in one's work are achievement, recognition, and professional growth. Vroom (1965) stated simply: The terms "job satisfaction" and "attitude toward the job" are typically used interchangeably. Both refer to the valence or attractiveness Of a job to the person perform- ing it. Dawis, Lofquist, and Weiss (1968) revised the Theory of Work Adjust- ment, which had been originally formulated in January 1964 as Mono- graph XV of the Minnesota Studies in Rehabilitation. It was from this theory that the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) evolved. Since the MSQ was used tO measure job satisfaction in this study, the Theory Of Work Adjustment will be discussed in depth. The following elements of the Theory of Work Adjustment have been taken from Adjustment to Work (Lofquist & Dawis, 1969). The Theory of Work Adjustment has several basic assumptions and proposi- tions. Those assumptions that are particularly relevant to this study are listed first: The Theory Of Work Adjustment is based on the concept Of cor- respondence between individual and environment. Correspond- ence between an individual and his environment implies conditions that can be described as a harmonious relationship between individual and environment, suitability of the indi- vidual to the environment and the environment for the indi- vidual, consonance or agreement between individual and environment, and a reciprocal and complementary relationship between the individual and his environment. Correspondence, then, is a relationship in which the individual and the envi- ronment are corresponsive (mutually responsive). 21 Each individual seeks to achieve and maintain correspondence with his environment. Correspondence can be described in terms Of the individual ful- filling the requirements Of the work environment, and the work environment fulfilling the requirements of the individual. The continuous and dynamic process by which the individual seeks to achieve and maintain correspondence with his work environment is called work adjustment. Satisfactoriness (external indicator) and satisfaction (inter- nal indicator) indicate the correspondence between the indi- vidual and his work environment. From the above assumptions, five related propositions are included in the Theory of Work Adjustment: An individual's work adjustment at any point in time is indi- cated by his concurrent levels Of satisfactoriness and satis- faction. Satisfactoriness is a function of the correspondence between an individual's abilities and the ability requirements of the work environment, provided that the individual's needs cor- respond with the reinforcer system of the work environment. Satisfaction is a function of the correspondence between the reinforcer system Of the work environment and the individual's needs, provided that the individual's abilities correspond with the ability requirements of the work environment. Satisfaction moderates the functional relationship between satisfactoriness and ability-requirement correspondence. Satisfactoriness moderates the functional relationship between satisfaction and need-reinforcer correspondence. Since this study examines the relationship between job satis- faction and participation in decision making, the Theory of Work Adjustment and subsequently the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire provide a gOOd theoretical base and instrument whereby to test the hypotheses of this dissertation. Participation in decision making is related to both the individual's needs and abilities in the work environment (Vroom, 1960). Inherent in the Theory of Work Adjustment 22 is this correspondence between the individual's needs and abilities in the work environment. An exemplary study using the Minnesota Satisfaction Ques- tionnaire was completed by Holden (1980), who compared the perceived job satisfaction of secondary school principals and middle managers in business and industry. He found that secondary school principals perceive less job satisfaction in their school positions than do middle managers in business and industry. Studies Relating Job Satisfaction and Decisional Participation Johnson and Weiss (1971) treated the relationship between participation in decision making, personality characteristics, and job satisfaction Of building principals. Weiss' study with elemen- tary principals found that such a relationship did exist. Johnson's study showed no significant relationship between the job-satisfaction levels of secondary school principals and their psychological partici- pation in decision-making levels. Both Johnson and Weiss used the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire and Vroom's index for measuring decision-making participation. Hollon and Gemmill (1976) and Poppenhagen (1977) also used an adaptation of Vroom's psychological-participation index in their studies. Hollon and Gemmill compared female and male professors on participation in decision making, job-related tension, job involve- ment, and job satisfaction. They found that statistically signifi- cant differences do exist. Poppenhagen did not find significant dif- ferences in his comparison of elementary school principals to 23 junior/middle and senior high principals on perceived job-related tension, participation in decision making, job involvement, and job satisfaction. This conclusion is important to this study since no distinction was made among the three principal types: elementary, middle/junior, and senior high. The following studies are representative of those dealing with teacher decisional involvement and job satisfaction. Marra (1978) determined that teacher job satisfaction was a variable that influenced the way teachers perceived decisional participation and that teacher decisional participation was a variable that contributed to the ways students achieved in mathematics. Marra also noted that there was a perception among teachers that they were not making as many decisions as they desired. Thierbach (1980) found that middle and junior high school teachers' perceived levels Of influence in the decision-making process are significantly related to their level of job satisfaction. Flannery (1980) reported significant relationships between perceived high school teacher influence, job satisfaction, and decision condition. Lipham et a1. (1981) studied the relation- ship of decision involvement and principals' leadership to teacher job satisfaction. The major findings of the study were that both staff involvement in decision making and staff perceptions Of princi- pal leadership were positively related to job satisfaction. m In Chapter II, a theoretical base and related research were presented for this study. Vroom's (1960) psychological-participation 24 concept formed the theoretical base used in the organizational decision-making involvement variable of this study. In developing the notion of job satisfaction, Dawis, Lofquist, and Weiss' (1968) Theory of Work Adjustment was reviewed. No studies were located of which this one would be a replication. Several studies have, however, related the variables of job satisfaction and decision-making involve- ment during the past decade. Those reviewed were considered to have importance relative to this study. In the next chapter, the research design for this study is detailed. CHAPTER III DESIGN OF THE STUDY Introduction The intention Of this exploratory study is to examine the relationship between the job satisfaction and organizational deci- sion making of public school principals and middle managers in busi- ness and industry. Within this general construct, the specific purposes are four-fold. The first purpose is to describe the corre- lation between job satisfaction and decisional involvement for each of the two groups: public school principals and middle managers in business and industry. The second is to note any significant rela- tionship between the two groups with regard to job satisfaction and decisional involvement. The third purpose is to identify the correla- tion between the psychological real and ideal levels of participation in organizational decision making for each group. Finally, the two groups are compared with respect to the perceived ideal level of decisional participation. This chapter presents a description Of the processes used to conduct this study. First, the population of interest is defined along with the sample. The sampling techniques are also explained. Second, the instruments used are described. Third, the data- gathering procedures are outlined. Next, the statistical treatments 25 26 are presented. Finally, the research hypotheses are presented in testable form. Population and Sampling Method The population Of this study consisted of the 170 public school principals of the Kent Intermediate School District (KISD) and 210 middle managers in 15 Of the larger businesses and indus- tries in Regional Grand Rapids. There are 20 school districts in the KISD, ranging in size from a membership of 900 to one of 37,000 pupils. Each Of the businesses and industries has 1,000 or more employees. The two samples were taken from contiguous geographic areas. A random sampling of 118 principals1 was taken from an alpha- betical list of principals, which was drawn from the 1982 Directory of the KISD. Middle managers were defined as persons whose positions are above the first level of supervision but below the vice- presidential, compahy officer, or major department classification. For the purposes Of this study, middle managers were further defined as those persons who supervise professional or technical persons (white-collar workers). Scientists, engineers, and other technical- professional employees fulfilled this limitation. A random sampling was taken from an alphabetical list of middle managers supplied by 1This number plus the number Of middle managers was derived from the "Table for Determining Needed Size 'S' Of a Randomly Chosen Sample From a Given Finite Population of 'N' Cases Such That the Sample Proportion 'P' Will Be Within i .05 of the Population Propor- tion 'P' With a 95 Percent Level of Confidence." See Stephen Isaac and William 8. Michael, Handbook in Research and Evaluation, 2d ed. (San Diego, Calif.: Edits Publishers, 1981), p. 193. 27 ten Of the participating organizations. Five of the companies would not submit a list Of middle managers, so they were instructed to select participants based on the Table of Random Digits (Mendenhall, Ott, & Scheaffer, 1971). The total sample comprised 92 middle managers. 0n the basis of 110 returned questionnaires from the princi- pals' group and 71 from the middle managers' group, the following characteristics were Observed about the samples studied. Tables 3.1 through 3.5 illustrate distributions Of the two groups with regard to sex, age, and tenure. Table 3.l.--Frequency distribution for total respondents by sex categories. Posit' /S Fre uenc Cumulative Percenta e 1°" ex q y Proportion g Principals 110 Male 84 1.00 76 Female 14 .24 13 Missing cases 12 .11 11 Middle managers 71 Male 58 1.00 82 Female 10 .18 14 Missing cases 3 .04 4 28 Table 3.2.--Frequency distribution of responding principals by age categories. Age Category Frequency Cumulative Percentage Proportion Over 60 l 1.00 1 55-59 19 .99 17 50-54 20 .82 18 45-59 11 .64 10 40-44 25 .54 23 35-39 25 .31 23 30-34 8 .08 7 25—29 0 .01 0 Missing cases 1 .01 l Table 3.3.--Frequency distribution of responding middle managers by age categories. Cumulative Age Category Frequency Proportion Percentage Over 60 1 1.00 1 55-59 5 .99 7 50-54 5 .92 7 45-49 7 .85 10 40-44 17 .75 24 35-39 16 .51 23 30-34 11 .28 15 25-29 9 .13 13 Table 3.4.--Frequency distribution Of responding principals by years in position. Years in Cumulative Position Frequency Proportion Percentage Over 25 4 1.00 4 21-25 4 .96 4 16-20 2] .92 19 11-15 27 .73 25 6-10 31 .48 28 Under 6 23 .20 20 29 Table 3.5.--Frequency distribution Of responding middle managers by years in position. Years in Cumulative Position Frequency Proportion Percentage Over 25 1 1.00 1 21-25 2 .99 3 16-20 8 .96 11 ll-15 12 .85 17 6-10 19 .68 27 Under 6 29 .41 41 Instrumentation Two instruments were used to gather the data for this study. They are the Short Form Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire and a Psychological Participation Index, perceived and ideal. Following are descriptions Of these instruments plus their reliability and validity measures. Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire The Short Form Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire consists Of the 20 items listed below. Each item refers to a reinforcer in the work environment. The respondent indicates how satisfied he/she is with the reinforcer on his/her present job. Five response alterna- tives are presented for each item: "Very Dissatisfied, Dissatisfied, Neither (dissatisfied nor satisfied), Satisfied, Very Satisfied." The Short Form MSQ consists of three scales: Intrinsic Satisfaction, Extrinsic Satisfaction, and General Satisfaction. 1. Ability utilization. The chance to do something that makes use of my abilities. the job. 3 4. 5 6 3O Achievement. The feeling of accomplishment I get from Activity. Being able to keep busy all the time. Advancement. The chance for advancement on this job. Authority. The chance to tell other peOple what to do. Company policies and practices. The way company policies are put into practice. 7. 8. other. 9. the job. 10. 11. Compensation. My pay and the amount of work I do. CO-workers. The way my co-workers get along with each Creativity. The chance to try my own methods of doing Independence. The chance to work alone on the job. Moral values. Being able to do things that don't go against my conscience. 12. l3. 14. 15. 16. munity. l7. Recognition. The praise I get for doing a good job. Responsibility. The freedom to use my own judgement. Security. The way my job provides for steady employment. Social service. The chance to do things for other people. Social status. The chance to be "somebody" in the com- Supervision--human relations. The way my boss handles his/her workers. 18. Supervision--technical. The competence of my supervisor in making decisions. 31 19. Variety. The chance to do different things from time tO time. 20. Workipg conditions. The working conditions. A copy Of the Short Form MSQ appears in Appendix A. The following information concerning the reliability, stabil- ity, and validity of the MSQ was taken directly from the Manual for the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire. Hoyt reliability coeffi- cients for each norm group and each short-form scale were high. For the Intrinsic Satisfaction scale, the coefficients ranged from .84 (for the two assembler groups) to .91 for engineers. For the Extrin- sic Satisfaction scale, the coefficients varied from .77 (for elec- tronics assemblers) to .82 (for engineers and machinists). On the General Satisfaction scale, the coefficients varied from .87 (for assemblers) to .92 (for engineers). Median reliability coefficients were .86 for Intrinsic Satisfaction, .80 for Extrinsic Satisfaction, and .90 for General Satisfaction. Stability for the General Satisfaction scale may be inferred from data on the General Satisfaction scale of the long-form MSQ, since both scales use the same 20 items. Test-retest correlation Of General Satisfaction scale scores yielded coefficients Of .89 over a one-week period and .70 over a one-year interval. Since the short-form MSQ is based on a subset of the long- form items, validity for the short-form may in part be inferred from validity for the long-form. Other evidence for the validity Of the short-form MSQ is available from two sources: (1) studies of occupa- tional group differences and (2) studies of the relationship between 32 satisfaction and satisfactoriness, as specified by the Theory of Work Adjustment. Group differences in variability were not statis- tically significant for any scale. Data also supported the expec- tation that satisfaction and satisfactoriness are independent sets of variables, and therefore indirectly supported the validity of the MSQ scales as measures of satisfaction. Psychological Participation Index The Psychological Participation Index was derived and first used by Vroom (1960) with first-, second-, and third-line supervisors in two plants of a large delivery company. The test-retest relia- bility of this index over a seven-month period was .61 for 91 super- visors. When 14 supervisors who changed either their position or their superior during this period were removed from this group, the reliability coefficient increased to .63. Because Of the difficulty in objectively measuring partici- pation in decision making, no validity ratings of the index have been established. However, several studies have successfully used this index (see Chapter II). The psychological-participation items used in the question- naire for this study were adapted from those used by Poppenhagen (1977) and Hollon and Gemmill (1976). In these two studies, partici- pation questions were modified forms of Vroom's original test items, which werelisted in Chapter II of this study. Changes were made to better fit the educational setting. The questions from Poppen- hagen, whose four-item scale was a slightly modified version of Hollon and Gemmill's scale, were: 33 How much influence do you have: 1. Over what goes on in your job situation. 2. On the decisions of your immediate superior regarding things about which you are concerned. 3. In having your immediate superior ask your Opinion when a problem comes up that involves your work. 4. In getting your ideas for changing or improving part of your job situation across to your superior. In preparation for this study, a meeting was held with two principals having excellent reputations, two middle managers in busi- ness and industry, and a professor of administration. They looked at and discussed this tool (Vroom's original and Poppenhagen, Hollon, and Gemmill's modified versions). The following changes were recom- mended to make the instrument more readable to the recipients. In Question 1, "over" was changed to "on." In Question 2, "things about which you are concerned" was changed to "actions which affect your job." There were no changes in Question 3. In Question 4, "in" was changed to "on" and "part of" was deleted. The items used in this study are: How much influence do you have: 1. On what goes on in your job situation. 2. On the decisions of your immediate superior regarding actions which affect your job. 3. In having your immediate superior ask your opinion when a problem comes up that involves your work. 4. On getting your ideas for changing or improving your job situation across to your superior. Along with the perceived psychological-participation questions, this study also asked the respondents to indicate their perceived ideal level of participation. The same four questions were used. Therefore, respondents first marked their perceived actual level of 34 participation and then they designated their perceived ideal level of participation of a five-point Likert scale. The range was from "Very Little" (1 point) to "Almost Total" (5 points). A space for optional comments was provided immediately under the participation questions. (See Appendix 8.) Demographic Data The respondents were also asked to indicate the following data. These covariates of sex, age, and tenure were used in the detailed analysis of the descriptive data. Data-Gathering Procedures The data from the two groups, public school principals and middle managers in business and industry, were collected in the fol- lowing manner. Questionnaires along with a letter (Appendix C) were mailed individually to the random sample of 118 principals in the Kent Intermediate School District and the 92 middle managers in the 15 participating businesses and industries. Two weeks after the initial mailing, follow-up letters were sent to the principals and middle managers thanking them for par- ticipating in this study. Those who had not yet completed their ques- tionnaires were asked to return the questionnaire as soon as possible (Appendix D). In the first return, 90 questionnaires had been received from principals and 53 from middle managers. After the second mailing, 20 additional principals' questionnaires were received and 18 additional middle managers' questionnaires. This gave a total 35 of 110 (93 percent) Of the 118 questionnaires from the principals' group that had been returned and 71 (77 percent) Of the 92 question- naires from the middle managers' group. Statistical Treatment In analyzing the hypotheses, three statistical techniques were employed. For Hypotheses l and 2, the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient was used. A t-test for means was done for Hypotheses 3, 4, and 7. Hypotheses 5 and 6 were subjected to a cor- related t-test. The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient is a sta- tistical technique for Showing the degree of relationship between two variables. It is used to test the hypothesis of association: whether or not a relationship exists between two sets of measurements (Sprinthall, 1982). Hypotheses l and 2 deal with the relationship between participation in decision making and job satisfaction. Thus, this statistical test was appropriate for these two hypotheses. The t-ratio is a statistical test used to establish whether or not a significant difference exists between two sample means. It is the ratio of the difference between two sample means to an estimate Of the standard deviation of the distribution of differences (Sprinthall, 1982). Hypotheses 3, 4, and 7 each concern group differences. Hypothe- sis 3 compares the job satisfaction of public school principals to that of middle managers in business and industry. Hypothesis 4 then compares the involvement in organizational decision making of public school principals to that of middle managers in business and industry. 36 The two groups are again compared in Hypothesis 7 with respect to the perceived ideal levels of decisional involvement. The t-ratio, by definition, was the appropriate test to compare these sample groups. The correlated t-ratio is a statistical test of the hypothe- sis of difference between two sample means, where the sample selec- tion is correlated (Sprinthall, 1982). Hypotheses 5 and 6 address the difference between the perceived actual and ideal levels of par- ticipation in organizational decision making. Therefore, the corre- lated t-ratio was the appropriate test for these two hypotheses. The level of rejection of the null hypotheses for this study was set at .05. This is the typical level Of significance for the alpha error in most social-science studies (Sprinthall, 1982). Testable Hypotheses To determine the relationship that may exist between the job satisfaction and participation in organizational decision making of public school principals and middle managers in business and industry, the following testable hypotheses were analyzed. Alternate Hypothesis 1: There is a statistically significant association between the degree to which public school principals perceive that they participate in the making of organizational decisions that affect their positions and their measured job satisfaction. Alternate Hypothesis 2: There is a statistically significant association between the degree to which middle managers in busi- ness and industry perceive that they participate in the making of organizational decisions that affect their positions and their measured job satisfaction. Alternate Hyppthesis 3: There is a Significant difference between the job satiSfaction of public school principals and that of middle managers in business and industry. 37 Alternate Hypothesis 4: There is a significant difference between the perceived decisional involvement of public school principals and that of middle managers in business and industry. Alternate Hypothesis 5: The psychological participation is less than the perceived ideal participation in organizational decision making by public school principals. Alternate Hypothesis 6: The psychological participation is less than the perceived ideal participation in organizational decision making by middle managers in business and industry. Alternate Hypothesis 7: There is a significant difference between the perceived ideal levels of participation in organizational decision making Of public school principals and middle managers in business and industry. Summary The samples for the present study were drawn from the public school principals in the Kent Intermediate School District and a simi- lar number of middle managers from the larger businesses and industries within Regional Grand Rapids, Michigan. A simple random-sampling technique was used to select the principals and middle managers. A self-administered questionnaire was the basic instrument used. The Short Form Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire was used to measure job-satisfaction levels. A two-part psychological-participation index was used to measure perceived actual and ideal levels of organi- zational decisional involvement. Reliability scores were obtained for both instruments. However, validity measures were only available for the MSQ. Data-gathering procedures were outlined. Next, the statisti- cal treatments applied tO the hypotheses were described. The three major statistical techniques used were the Pearson product-moment 38 correlation coefficient, the t-ratio, and the correlated t-ratio. Finally, the testable hypotheses were presented in verbal form. The next chapter presents a detailed statistical analysis of the data. Chapter V contains the conclusions, implications, and the need for further research of this study. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF THE DATA Introduction In this chapter the statistical analyses of the data are presented. Statistical treatments were performed as outlined in Chapter III. First, each hypothesis is examined individually. The null hypothesis is restated along with a paragraph that concludes with the rejection or acceptance Of the hypothesis. Tables are included to clarify the statistical results. In the second section of the chapter, descriptive data are presented to provide additional meaning to the gathered data. Means and percentile ranks for the subpopulations are noted with respect to the three satisfaction scales. Finally, the central findings of this study are presented in tabular form. Each null hypothesis is restated in Table 4.14 along with whether the hypothesis was accepted or rejected. If rejected, the level of significance is noted. A brief interpretive discussion is included for those hypotheses that were rejected. Hypothesis 1 There is no statistically significant association between the degree to which public school principals perceive that they participate in the making of organizational decisions that affect their positions and their measured job satis- faction. 39 40 The Intrinsic, Extrinsic, and General Satisfaction of public school principals held positive correlations to perceived participa- tion in organizational decision making (Table 4.1). The Pearson correlation coefficient for the Intrinsic Scale was .55; for the Extrinsic Scale, .47; and .58 for the General Satisfaction Scale. Each of these coefficients is interpreted as a moderate correlation (Sprinthall, 1982). All three correlations were significant at less than the .001 level; thus Hypothesis 1 was rejected. Table 4.l.--Re1ationship between psychological participation and job satisfaction Of public school principals. Satisfaction Scale Pearson r p-Value Intrinsic .55 <.OOl Extrinsic .47 <.OOl General .58 <.OOl Hypothesis 2 There is no statistically significant association between the degree to which middle managers in business and industry perceive that they participate in the making of organizational decisions that affect their positions and their measured job satisfaction. The Intrinsic, Extrinsic, and General Satisfaction of middle managers suggested positive correlations with perceived participation in organizational decision making (Table 4.2). The Pearson correla- tion coefficient for the Intrinsic Scale was .39; for the Extrinsic Scale, .59; and .53 for the General Satisfaction Scale. The coeffi- cients for the Extrinsic and General Satisfaction Scales are inter- preted as a moderate correlation, whereas the Intrinsic Scale's 41 coefficient barely missed the moderate interpretation according to Guilford, who set the limits at .40-.7O for a moderate correlation (Sprinthall, 1982). All three correlations were significant at less than the .001 level; therefore Hypothesis 2 was rejected. Table 4.2.--Relationship between psychological participation and job satisfaction of middle managers. Satisfaction Scale Pearson r p-Value Intrinsic .39 <.OOl Extrinsic .59 <.OOl General .53 <.OOl Hypothesis 3 There is no statistically significant difference between the job satisfaction Of public school principals and that of middle managers in business and industry. Three t-tests were applied to Hypothesis 3, one for each of the three scales of the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire. The Intrinsic Satisfaction mean for the principals' group was 50.08 and for the middle-management group, 49.56. In the test of significance, the t-value was .66, which was significant at the .512 level. The Extrinsic Satisfaction mean for the principals' group was 20.73 and for the middle-management group, 21.37. The t-value for the two groups was -.97, which was significant at the .332 level. The General Satisfaction mean for the principals' group was 78.74 and for the middle-management group, 78.80. The t-test yielded a t-value of only -.05, significant at the .962 level (Table 4.3). None of the 42 satisfaction subscales proved to be significant at the .05 level; therefore, Hypothesis 3 could not be rejected. Table 4.3.--T-ratios of job satisfaction between public school principals and middle managers. “822i?” Gnnnn Mean 32312213.. n-anne“ prfiglillity mm... 51.12.23.231. 28:22 2:33 ~66 512 Exnnnnsnn 5113:1231. 3%? 2:252 --97 332 General ill-“3.13232... 33133 ifizifi --05 .952 aDegrees of freedom for pooled variance = 179. Hypothesis 4 There is no statistically significant difference between the involvement in organizational decision making of public school principals and that of middle managers in business and industry. The mean for the perceived participation in organizational decision making of the principals' group was 13.84 and for the middle- management group, 14.61. The resulting t-value was -1.54, significant at the .128 level (Table 4.4). When the separate items Of the Psycho- logical Participation Index were compared between the two groups, a significant difference was found at the .013 level for Item 3 ("How much influence do you now have in having your immediate superior ask your opinion when a problem comes up that involves your work?"). The middle-management group perceived greater influence regarding this 43 area of organizational decision making than did the principals. However, since only one item out of four proved to Show a signifi- cant difference, Hypothesis 4 could not be rejected. Table 4.4.--T-ratios of psychological participation between public school principals and middle managers. A11 Elllélfiglr iiigI 3:33 -1.54 .128 ‘ 533333; 3232 233 - 41 .682 2 513323235 3:33 1:32 - -64 .525 3 51.13.3223; 3:33 ‘23? -2-52 .01 3* 4 Elililfiélr 3:25 i232 -l.43 .154 aDegrees of freedom for pooled variance = 179. *Significant at less than .05. Hypothesis 5 There is no significant difference in the psychological participation and the perceived ideal participation in organizational decision making by public school principals. The mean for the perceived psychological participation in organizational decision making was 13.84 out of a possible 20.00. The mean for the perceived ideal participation was 16.13. The t-test of means resulted in a t-value of -8.48, significant at less than the 44 .001 level. The probability for each item in the Psychological Participation Index was significant at less than the .001 level (Table 4.5). This suggests a great difference between the perceived real and ideal degrees of participation. Hypothesis 5 was rejected. Table 4.5.--Correlated t-ratios of actual and ideal levels of psy- chological participation by public school principals. Index Item Variable Mean Dzsggiggn t-Valuea PriDlgiIity A“ 1323i“ 12:1“; izéfi M «001* 1 i322? 22?? :3? -4-63 «001* 2 iiiii‘ 3:32 ‘23 M «001* 3 12:2? :3: 1:9: . ’18:? 2:: ‘z22 aDegrees of freedom = 109. *Significant at less than .05. Hypothesis 6 There is no significant difference in the psychological participation and the perceived ideal participation in organizational decision making by middle managers in business and industry. The mean for the perceived psychological participation in organizational decision making was 14.61 out of a possible 20.00. The mean for the perceived ideal level of participation was 16.51. 45 When these means were subjected to a t-test, the resultant t-value was -5.96, which is significant at less than the .001 level. An item analysis supported a significance level at equal to or less than .001 (Table 4.6). This indicates a strong difference between the perceived real and ideal levels of participation by middle managers in business and industry. Hypothesis 6 was rejected. Table 4.6.--Correlated t-ratios of actual and ideal levels of psy- chological participation by middle managers. A“ 13221] 12:31 i233 -s.95 «om. ‘ 4322i” 2:?2 :23 -3.49 (.00.. 2 4323?] 3233 :3? -5.56 «00,. 3 Igng] 422g :2; -4.33 <.OOl* 4 ISEEI] 2:32 122% -5.72 <.OOl* aDegrees of freedom = 70. *Significant at less than .05. Hypothesis 7 There is no significant difference between the ideal levels of participation in organizational decision making as per- ceived by public school principals and as perceived by middle managers in business and industry. 46 The overall mean fOr the ideal participation levels for prin- cipals was 16.13 andfor middle managers, 16.51. The comparison of these means by way of a t-test yielded a t-value of -l.43, with a resultant p-value of .153 (Table 4.7). However, when an item analy- sis was conducted, Items 3 and 4 showed significance at the .048 and .043 levels, respectively. The middle managers perceived a greater ideal level of influence on having their superiors ask their Opinion when problems arose and on getting their ideas for improvement across to their superiors. However, in light of the general scores, Hypothe- sis 7 could not be rejected. Table 4.7.--T-ratios of ideal participation between public school principals and middle managers. A” 513.115.3123; 122%? 1:33 4 ~43 .153 1 EISEESESLr 4:14 :2; .35 .723 2 fillgélfiélr 3:33 1:? - .50 .618 3 5133:2231... It :29 -1 -99 .0481: 4 51.1.1323; 3:32 :23‘ ~2-04 «343* aDegrees of freedom for pooled variance = 179. *Significant at less than .05. 47 Descriptive Data By using the normative data provided in the Manual for the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (Weiss et al., 1967), observa- tions could be made about the subpopulations within the entire popu- lation of principals and middle managers in this study. The samples are described by position, sex, and tenure with respect to the three satisfaction subscales: Intrinsic, Extrinsic, and General Satisfac- tion. Position, Sex, Intrinsic Satisfaction With respect to Intrinsic Satisfaction, female principals were found to be at the 75th percentile rank and female middle managers at the 60th. The mean of the male principals was at the 55th percentile rank, and the mean of the male middle managers was at the 50th per- centile (Table 4.8). Interestingly, as a group the female leaders derived greater intrinsic job satisfaction than the males. Table 4.8.--Description of subpopulations by position and sex with respect to Intrinsic Satisfaction. Variable Standard . Percentile Category Frequency Mean Deviation VarTance Rank Principal 98 50.22 4.23 17.92 55 Male 84 49.83 4.12 17.00 55 Female 14 52.57 4.42 19.49 75 Midmanager 68 49.53 6.01 36.16 55 Male 58 49.28 6.35 40.34 50 Female 10 51.00 3.30 10.89 60 Missing cases = 15 or 8.3 percent of entire population 48 Position, Sex, Extrinsic Satisfaction With respect to Extrinsic Satisfaction, the mean for the female principals was at the 65th percentile rank, whereas that Of the female middle managers was lower at the 45th percentile. The male principals were at the 35th percentile rank, and the male middle managers fell at the 55th percentile (Table 4.9). According to group means and percentiles, the female principals and the male middle managers derived the greatest extrinsic job satisfaction. Table 4.9.--Description of suprpulations by position and sex with respect to Extrinsic Satisfaction. Variable Standard . Percentile Category Frequency Mean Deviation Variance Rank Principal 98 20.68 4.12 17.01 45 Male 84 20.38 3.99 15.95 35 Female 14 22.50 4.45 19.81 65 Midmanager 68 21.57 4.50 20.28 55 Male 58 21.66 4.54 20.58 55 Female 10 21.10 4.51 20.32 45 Missing cases 15 or 8.3 percent of entire population Position, Sex, General Satisfaction With respect to General Satisfaction, the female principals' group mean put them at the 70th percentile, whereas that of the female middle managers put them at the 55th percentile. The group means for the male principals and middle managers were both lower, putting the principals at the 45th percentile and the middle managers at the 50th (Table 4.10). Thus, the females within each position apparently felt 49 greater general satisfaction than did their male colleagues. It must be noted that of the two sample groups, only 13 percent of the principals and 14 percent of the middle managers were females. Therefore, the reader is cautioned about drawing conclusions from these data alone. Table 4.10.--Description of subpopulations by position and sex with respect to General Satisfaction. Variable Standard . Percentile Category Frequency Mean Deviation Variance Rank Principal 98 78.87 8.04 64.67 50 Male 84 78.12 7.63 58.25 45 Female 14 83.36 9.36 87.63 70 Midmanager 68 78.97 10.13 102.69 50 Male 58 78.81 10.63 112.96 50 Female 10 79.90 6.92 47.88 55 Missing cases = 15 or 8.3 percent of entire population Position, Tenure, Intrinsic Satisfaction By describing the subpopulations by position and number of years in position with respect to Intrinsic Satisfaction, the highest means for both the principals and the middle managers were found to be in the range of 16-20 years in the position. The lowest means were from the 21-25 years-in-position groups in both positions (Table 4.11). The percentile rank for those persons in the position from 16 to 20 years was the 60th. The percentile ranks for those in the position from 21 to 25 years were the 35th (principals) and the 40th (middle managers). 50 Table 4.ll.--Description of subpopulations by position and number of years in position with respect to Intrinsic Satisfaction. Variable Standard . Percentile Category Frequency Mean Deviation Variance Rank Principal 110 50.08 4.58 20.97 55 Over 25 4 50.25 5.85 34.25 55 21-25 4 46.50 5.51 30.33 35 16-20 21 51.43 4.81 23.16 60 11-15 27 49.04 3.56 12.66 50 6-10 31 49.97 5.24 27.43 55 Under 6 23 50.83 3.96 15.70 60 Midmanager 71 49.56 6.00 36.05 55 Over 25a 1 55.00 0.00 0.00 90 21-25 2 48.00 4.24 18.00 40 16-20 8 50.88 6.36 40.41 60 11-15 12 48.25 5.14 26.39 40 6-10 19 49.37 8.71 75.91 50 Under 6 29 49.79 4.20 17.67 55 aSince there was only one case in this classification, the data results are not discussed as a group mean. Position, Tenure, Extrinsic Satisfaction With respect to Extrinsic Satisfaction and number Of years in position, the highest means were calculated from the groups that held the greater number of years in the position. The persons who had been principals more than 25 years ranked at the 75th percentile, as did the persons who had held a midmanagement position from 16 to 20 years (Table 4.12). By contrast, the group at the lowest percentile rank (30th) was the principals who had been in the position from 21 to 25 years. Again, the small number in these categories should offer a caution against drawing broad generalizations. 51 Table 4.12.--Description of subpopulations by position and number of years in position with respect to Extrinsic Satisfaction. Variable Standard . Percentile Category Friquency Mean Deviation Variance Rank Principal 110 20.73 4.10 16.79 45 Over 25 4 23.75 4.86 23.58 75 21-25 4 19.25 6.08 36.92 30 16-20 21 22.62 2.58 6.65 60 11-15 27 20.89 4.30 18.49 45 6-10 31 19.71 3.47 12.01 35 Under 6 23 19.91 4.80 22.99 35 Midmanager 71 21.37 4.62 21.38 45 Over 25a 1 24.00 0.00 0.00 75 21—25 2 22.50 .71 .50 60 16-20 8 23.88 5.38 28.98 75 11-15 12 20.58 5.20 26.99 40 6-10 19 21.41 4.93 24.26 45 Under 6 29 20.79 4.15 17.24 45 aSince there was only one case in this classification, the data results are not discussed as a group mean. Position, Tenure, General Satisfaction With respect to General Satisfaction and number of years in position, the highest group means were found for both positions in the category of 16 to 20 years in the position. The lowest means were in the category Of 21 to 25 years for the principals' group and 11 to 15 years for the midmanagement group (Table 4.13). The principals who had been in the position from 16 to 20 years ranked at the 65th per- centile, and the middle managers with the same tenure ranked at the 70th percentile. However, principals who had held their position from 21 to 25 years ranked only at the 30th percentile. Middle managers with 11 to 15 years experience ranked at the 40th percentile. 52 Table 4.l3.--Description of subpopulations by position and number of years in position with respect to General Satisfaction. Variable Standard . Percentile Category Frequency Mean Deviation Variance Rank Principal 110 78.74 8.28 68.58 50 Over 25 4 82.00 11.75 138.00 65 21-25 4 73.25 12.53 156.92 30 16-20 21 82.05 7.26 52.75 65 11-15 31 77.84 7.75 60.07 45 6-10 31 77.84 7.75 60.07 45 Under 6 23 78.48 8.84 78.08 45 Midmanager 71 78.80 10.18 103.59 50 Over 25a 1 87.00 0.00 0.00 85 21-25 2 79.00 4.24 18.00 50 l6-20 8 82.75 12.33 151.93 70 11-15 12 77.00 10.50 110.18 40 6-10 19 78.58 13.18 173.59 50 Under 6 29 78.31 7.55 56.94 45 aSince there was only one case in this classification, the data results are not discussed as a group mean. As total groups, both the principals and the middle managers ranked at the 50th percentile with respect to General Satisfaction, according to the normative data of the Minnesota Satisfaction Ques- tionnaire. When analyzing just the Intrinsic Satisfaction subscale, both groups were at the 55th percentile rank. However, when looking at the Extrinsic Satisfaction subscale, both groups fell to the 45th percentile. This suggests that the principals and middle managers in Greater Grand Rapids, Michigan, derived greater satisfaction from the intrinsic job satisfiers (ability utilization, achievement, activity, advancement, compensation, co-workers, creativity, independence, moral values, social service, social status, and working conditions) and 53 less satisfaction from the extrinsic job satisfiers (authority, company policies and practices, security, supervision, and variety) than the norm established for professional workers. Summary In summary, Table 4.14 presents the significant findings of this study. The null hypotheses are restated along with whether they were accepted or rejected. If the hypothesis was rejected, the level of significance is shown. A brief discussion accompanies those hypotheses that were rejected. 54 .zsumzvcw can mmmcwmsn cw mammmcme m—vuws do “any can mpmawu:_ga Poosum UPFnza do cowuumwmwpmm now as» cmmzpmn mucwcmmmwu ucmowmwcmmm Arbouwamwu pamuo< imam o: my wsmsh um mwmwsuomx: .mmmuoca mcmxmsicowmwuwu may cw pcmsw>~o>=m Lopmmgm m>mmu .cowpummmwumm non vac: lama ompm cowuummmwumm non Lmummcm mg» immms Ewan» new mcomgwmoa megw m>wmugoa on: mammmcms «poems .appmgmcmm wooden was“ mcowmwumc PecoWHMN .umcp cowmapucoo on» cw warp mucmu iwcmmco mo acwxms mg» c? manure?» -wmwcmwm use .mcvxme cowmwumu PmcowpmN lama amsp wasp m>wmugmn xgpmzucw -wcmmgo cw cowpmawowpgma quwmoposuama new mmwcwman cw mgmmmcme mpvvws one one :o_uum$mwpmm Fmgmcmm can uwm gown: on mmcmmu mg“ cmmzamn comp lcwepxm do mmpnmmgm> mg» cmmzamn pmwxm -mwuommm ucmuwwwcmwm Aphmmwumwp op eczom mam: mcowpmpmgcou mumgouoz Poo. wuwnmm imam o: mm mgmgh ”N mwmwguomx: .mmmuosa mcwxmeicowmvumc mg» cw pcmsm>Po>cw Lmummgm m>wmu .cowuummmwpmm now -Lma ompm compommmwumm non smummgm mgu umgammme gwmzu use mcowummoa m>wmusmafizzsmpmawu=wga .AFFmgmcmm .umcp Ewes“ “comma pug» meowmwomv covmspucou on» cw mmm— mucmuwwwcmwm mg» chowum~w=mmco mo mcwxme ms“ cw .mcwxme cowmwumn Pacowum~wcmmLo cw cow“ mpmgwuwpgma hos» was“ m>wmugma -mavowugma Pmowmoposuzmq mgu ucm sown mpmawucwga Foosom uwpnsa sums: -ummmwumm ngwcmw can .uwmcwcuxm .uwm op mmgmmu on» cwmzpma cowpmwu -=_cucH do mmpnmwgm> on» :mmZHmn pmwxm lemma acmuwwwcmwm APquwumApcpm op uczom «so: mcowumpmgsou mumgmuoz Foo. pumnmm o: mm wedge up mwmmgpoqxz mocmu cowmmzumwa -wmw:m_m \wmwmwm mwmmcpoazz mo Pm>m4 .apnap scasssm--.ep.a a_nm» 55 .cowuaawowu icon do mFm>mF Fawn? use Fem; cm>wou -Lma mgu cmwzumn mmwp aucmaogumpc pcau -wmwcmwm < .mmmuogg mcwxmsicomeumu esp cw mucmzpmcw Lmammcm mgwmmu he» .acpmzccw use mmmcwmsn cw mgmmmcms mpuvws an acwxme cowmpumu Pmcowumecmmco cw cowumawu_ucma puma? cm>wmugma mg» ucm cowpmawowugma PmuwmoFocu uxma msp cw mucmgmmmwv acmuwdwc imaccm new mmmcwmzn cw mcmmmcms w—vvwz Foo. pumnmm umwm o: mw mama» no mwmmspoa»: .mpmawocwga poozum uwpnza an .comumawuwugma mo m—m>mp Fume? mcwxms cowmwuoc pmcowam~wcmmgo can Fem; um>Pmucma grog» :mmmen mmwp cw cowumawuwucma Pmmum um>wmugmg aucmamLUmwu u=86wmwcmwm < .mmmooca mga can coppmawuwugwa Pmquopozu mcwxmsicowmwumv as» :w ucmsm>Po>cw lama mg» cw mucmgmomwc pcmuwmwc .2383 mime—62335.3 poozum 325 So. “comma 5.5 o: 2 29:. "m 3859;: .xgumzucw ucm mmmcwmzn cw mammmcms mFGcwE mo was» vac mpmq_ucwca Poosum uwF iazg mo mcwxms commwumu _mcowum~w -cmmgo cm pcmso>Po>cw any :mwzumn mucmgmmmwu acmuwmwcmwm arrmowpmwu pamuu< imam o: m? mgmzh ”a m_mmguomx: mucmu cowmmaomwo -mecmmm “mwwwm mwmmcuoazz do Fw>mo \» < .uoscwpcoo--.ap.a «Pack 56 .agpmzucw ucm mmmcwman cm mgmmmcms mpuuwe an um>wmo -Lma mm was mpmawocwga Poozom uwpnzq x3 uw>wmusma mm on? ume cowmwumu chowumecmmgo cw :ovpmqwowugma mo mpm>mp Pawn? mg“ :mmzpmn mucmgmwmwu ucmuvww: pamuu< -mwm o: mw mgmch "N mwmmguoqx: mucmu commmsumwo -wmwcmwm \pmwwwm mwmmgpoa»: we Fm>m4 a < .umacwpcou--.¢P.e mpnmp CHAPTER V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Summary This study sought to examine the relationships between job satisfaction and perceived involvement in organizational decision making by public school principals and middle managers in business and industry. The exploratory nature of the study served to compare these two middle-management positions in the public as well as in the private sectors. In so doing, the critical variables of psycho— logical participation in decision making and job satisfaction were related. The Literature Reviewed The literature reviewed addressed the two concepts of partici- pation in decision making and job satisfaction. Studies from the past decade relating to decentralization, administrative/management team, group decision making, leader behavior, and participation were cited. Vroom's (1960) work in psychological participation was dealt with in depth since it formed the theoretical basis for the decision-making aspect of this study. In defining job satisfaction, the Theory of Work Adjustment (Lofquist & Dawis, l969) was reviewed along with related studies. The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire, the 57 58 instrument used to measure job satisfaction, was develOped from this theory. The literature reviewed presented a strong case for attending to the needs for decisional participation and job satisfaction. The studies reviewed included these needs with respect to teachers, principals, managers, and blue-collar workers. Design of the Study Reviewed This exploratory study attempted to determine the possible correlation between job satisfaction and psychological participation in organizational decision making by comparing two midmanagement groups--public school principals and middle managers in business and industry--with respect to these two variables. The population of this study included a sample of the public school principals in the Kent Intermediate School District together with a sample of middle managers from 15 of the larger businesses and industries in Regional Grand Rapids, Michigan. The total population of the present study comprised llO principals and 7l middle managers. The instruments used were the Short Form Minnesota Satisfac- tion Questionnaire, a modified version of Vroom's Psychological Participation Index, and an ideal level of participation index. Demographic data relative to the age, sex, and tenure of the respond- ents were also solicited. The total questionnaire comprised 20 items related to intrinsic, extrinsic, and general satisfaction; 4 items related to psychological participation; 4 items related to the ideal level of participation; and 3 demographic items. 59 The statistical treatments used were the Pearson product- moment correlation (Hypotheses l and 2), the t-ratio (Hypotheses 3, 4, and 7), and the correlated t-ratio (Hypotheses 5 and 6). The questionnaires were computed scored, and the statistical procedures were derived from the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Findings The results of the hypotheses tested in Chapter IV led to the following findings: l. Moderate correlations were found to exist between the psychological participation in decision making and the Intrinsic, Extrinsic, and General job satisfaction of public school principals. These correlation coefficients were significant at less than the .001 level. 2. Moderate correlations were found to exist between the psychological participation in decision making and the Extrinsic and General job satisfaction of middle managers in business and industry. These correlation coefficients were significant at less than the .00l level. 3. The means of the scores for the criterion variables Intrinsic, Extrinsic, and General Satisfaction, MSQ did not reach a level of significance between the two groups under analysis. The p-values were .512, .332, and .962, respectively. 4. A comparison of means employing the t-ratio of the com- posite scores of the Psychological Participation Index did not achieve 60 statistical significance with a derived p-value of .127. The analy- sis of Item 3 did reach a statistical significance with a p-value of .0l3. 5. A comparison of the means of the principals' group for the perceived actual and ideal levels of participation revealed a statistically significant difference at a p-value of less than .00l. 6. A comparison of the means of the middle managers' group for the perceived actual and ideal levels of participation revealed a statistically significant difference at a p-value of less than .00l. 7. The means of the composite scores for the criterion vari- able, ideal participation in organizational decision making, were not significant at the .05 level. Items 3 and 4, when analyzed separately with t-tests, did obtain p-values that were significant: .048 and .028, respectively. Conclusions The Association Between Job Satisfaction and Psychological Participation (Pindings l and 2) The results of the statistical tests applied to the data col- lected for this study presented evidence to support the proposition that there is a positive association between the job satisfaction and psychological participation in decision making by public school prin- cipals and middle managers in business and industry. According to the coefficients of determination (the squares of the Pearson r), 34 percent of the variability of the principals' general job satis- faction scores and 28 percent of the middle managers' scores can be accounted for by the variability among their psychological-participation 61 scores. In the optional "comments" section of the instrument used to measure the psychological participation in decision making, one respondent wrote: My boss is very supportive of my career goals and respects my opinion, often seeking it out. That helps me maintain my job satisfaction and gives me confidence in myself. This comment expresses the positive correlation found to exist between the two variables, job satisfaction and decisional participation. When the subscales of the Minnesota Satisfaction Question- naire for Intrinsic and Extrinsic Satisfaction were analyzed sep- arately, the following conclusions were drawn. The Pearson r for the principals' group with respect to Intrinsic Satisfaction was .55. This transforms into a coefficient of determination of .30, meaning that roughly 30 percent of the variability of the principals' Intrin- sic Satisfaction scores could be accounted for by the variability among their psycho1ogica1-participation scores. The Pearson r for the mid- dle managers' group with respect to Intrinsic Satisfaction was only .39, which narrowly missed the interpretation as being a moderate correlation. This translates to a coefficient of determination of .15, meaning that only about 15 percent of the variability of the middle managers' Intrinsic Satisfaction scores could be accounted for by the variability among their psychological-participation scores. From this calculation, it can be concluded that there is a stronger correlation between Intrinsic Satisfaction and psychological partici- pation within the principals' group than within the middle managers' group. 62 With respect to Extrinsic Satisfaction, the Pearson r corre- lation coefficients again varied slightly between the two groups. In this case, the data from the middle managers reached a higher Pearson r (.59) than did the data from the principals (.47). According to the coefficients of determination, this means that approximately 35 per- cent of the variability among the middle managers' Extrinsic Satis- faction scores can be accounted for by the variability among their psychological-participation scores. About 22 percent of the varia- bility among the principals' Extrinsic Satisfaction scores can be accounted for by the variability among their psychological-participation scores. It may thus be conc1uded that a higher correlation exists between the extrinsic satisfaction of the middle managers and their perceived participation in decision making than exists for the prin- cipals. Job Satisfaction of Principals and Middle Managers (finding 3) With respect to the job satisfaction of public school prin- cipals and middle managers in business and industry, a tenable con- clusion is that there is no significant difference between the two groups according to the results of this study. The general satis- faction scores for each group resulted in means that were so similar that the resultant p-value was .962. The level of significance established for rejecting the null hypotheses of this study was .05. When analyzed with respect to the Intrinsic and Extrinsic Satisfac- tion subscales, the resultant p-values of .512 and .332 still did not reach the level of significance. Therefore, it may be concluded that 63 the public school principals and middle managers in business and industry currently derive similar levels of job satisfaction in Regional Grand Rapids, Michigan. Psychological Participation by_ Principals and Middle Managers (finding 5) No significant difference was found between the two groups with respect to their perceived actual participation in decision making. The instrument contained four questions relating to the amount of influence on one's superior with regard to various aspects of decision making. In an item analysis, Item 3 did reach a statis- tical significance with a p-value of .013. With respect to this item alone, it can be concluded that middle managers perceive greater influ- ence in having their immediate superiors ask their opinions when problems arise that involve their work. However, in general, princi- pals and middle managers perceive a similar amount of influence in the superior-subordinate decision-making process. Actual and Ideal Levels of PartiCipation (Findings 5 and 6) When the perceived actual and ideal levels of participation in organizational decision making were correlated, a significant dif- ference was found to exist within each of the two groups. In other words, public school principals and middle managers from the private sector, according to this study, both desire greater influence in the decision-making process. Illustrative of this conclusion were the respondents' comments: 64 Organizational structure (autocratic leadership) does not allow midmanagement to have much influence. It is often frustrating when involved (or subjected to) in "political" decisions which compromise stated company goals or create double standards. Ideal Participation by Principals and Middle Managers (Finding 7) When the perceived ideal levels of psychological participation were subjected to statistical tests, two of the index items showed no significant difference between the principals and middle managers, while two items did result in a p-value at less than the significance level of .05. The middle managers perceived a greater ideal level of influence in having their superiors ask their opinion when problems arose and on getting their ideas for improvement across to their superiors. This conclusion may be explained by the proximity of superiors to the middle managers. Public school principals are gen- erally working in a physical plant other than that of their immediate superior and therefore may not have as high expectations with regard to the above-mentioned items. 0n the other hand, since middle managers often work in the same physical plant as their immediate superiors, they may expect more influence in these two areas. According to the test of the composite scores, however, it may be concluded that no significant difference exists between the ideal levels of participa- tion in organizational decision making by public school principals and middle managers in business and industry. 65 Recommendations As stated in the Findings and Conclusions sections of this- chapter, a moderate correlation was found to exist between the job satisfaction and psychological participation in organizational decision making by public school principals and middle managers in business and industry. A statistical difference was not found to exist either in the job satisfaction or the psychological partici- pation by the two groups. In addition, each group showed a signifi- cant difference in their perceived actual and ideal levels of influence in the decision-making process. Since no significant difference was found to exist between the two groups, public school principals and middle managers in business and industry, the following recommendations are offered for both the public and private sectors: 1. The existence of a significant, positive correlation between the two variables of job satisfaction and participation in organizational decision making would imply that both public school principals and middle managers in business and industry derive a certain amount of job satisfaction relative to their involvement in the decision-making process. It is recommended that central-office administrators and top corporate managers communicate with their middle managers in a manner that promotes greater involvement in the organizational decision-making process and thus greater job satisfac- tion. The Business Industry study quoted in Chapter I pointed out that not only has little decision-making authority been delegated to 66 middle managers in recent years, but job satisfaction has also dropped significantly. 2. Naisbitt (1982) stated in his research-based book, Megatrends, "People whose lives are affected by a decision must be part of the process of arriving at that decision." In this study, both midmanagement groups perceived a significant difference in their perceived actual and ideal levels of participation in organizational decision making. Therefore, before policy formation, middle managers should be involved in the initial definitions before they go to a corporate board of directors or a school board. This can be accomp- lished through formal and informal methods of soliciting input. Verbal and written contributions should be encouraged. 3. In Chapter I, Knoester (1978) and Karlitz (1979) found that management unionization did not bring about the desired increase in decisional involvement. Therefore, it is recommended that top man- agement seek to create the climate in which participation is both real and perceived. Incentive plans should reward those middle managers who actively seek to influence the decisions of the organization in a positive way. 4. Naisbitt (1982) also addressed the "megatrend" of decen- tralization: "As our t0p-heavy, centralized institutions die, we are rebuilding from the bottom up." In view of this current trend, it becomes imperative to the survival of the organization that middle managers in both the public and private sectors are provided the lati- tude in which to influence company practice and change. Organizations are becoming more horizontal than vertical in structure due to the 67 shift from an industrial to an informational society (Naisbitt, 1982). Therefore, collaborative decision making is the recommendation that best fits a horizontal structure. 5. It is further recommended that involvement in strategic decisions by midmanagement be based on information rather than on "politics." As long as the weight of informational participation is low compared to external political and union pressures, middle manag- ers will see that their contribution is of little value (Dickson, 1977). Recommendations for Further Research The following suggestions are offered as areas in which further research could be conducted. 1. Since Michigan is currently a depressed state, replication of this study in an area with a healthier economic climate may provide different conclusions. 2. A study of certain personality variables in relation to the two variables of this study may add depth to the conclusions reached. 3. The means of the scores of the female and male subpopu- lations of this study presented some interesting descriptive data. An exploratory study that would concentrate on sex differences as they relate to job satisfaction and psychological decision making could provide insights into female and male differences at the mid- management level. Since more women are assuming management roles, further investigation in this area would be appropriate. 68 4. In light of the current emphasis on affirmative-action programs, a similar study could be conducted while controlling for the variable of race differences. APPENDICES 69 APPENDIX A MINNESOTA SATISFACTION QUESTIONNAIRE 70 'P’i 71 I UNIVERSITYOF MINNESOTA Departmentolpsmomgy b TWIN CITIES EIIIoII Hall 75 East River Road aneapohs. anesota 55455 Ms. Marie Smith 142 Alger S.E. Grand Rapids, Michigan 49507 January 19, 1983 Dear Ms. Smith: Thank you for expressing interest in the instruments published by Vocational Psychology Research. Your request for permission to administer, score and interpret the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (Short Form) has been granted. At the completion of your dissertation research, we would appreci- ate receiving a copy of any papers or reports that result from your use of the MSQ. We would like to include the reference in our bibliography of research with instruments of Vocational Psychology Research.' We wish you great success in the completion of you doctorate. If there is any further service we can provide to make the road easier, please do not hesitate to contact me. Sincerely, Nancy Holt Coordinator, Vocational Psychology Research 72 minnesota satisfaction questionnaire The purpose of this questionnaire is to give you a chance to tell how you feel about your present lob, what things you are satisfied with and what things you are not satisfied with. On the basis of your answers and those of people like you, we hope to get a better understanding of the things people like and dislike about their Iobs. On the next page you will find statements about your present iob. ° Read each statement carefully. - Decide how satisfied you feel about the aspect of your job described by the statement. Keeping the statement in mind: —if you feel that your iob gives you more than you expected, check the box under ”Very Sat." (Very Satisfied); -if you feel that your job gives you what you expected, check the box under "Sat." (Satisfied); —if you cannot make up your mind whether or not the iob gives you what you expected, check the box under "N" (Neither Satisfied nor Dissatisfied); —if you feel that your iob gives you less than you expected, check the box under "Dissat." (Dissatisfied); -if you feel that your iob gives you much less than you expected, check the box under "Very Dissat." (Very Dissatisfied). - Remember: Keep the statement in mind when deciding how satisfied you feel about that aspect of your lab. ° Do this for all statements. Please answer every item. Io frank and honest. Give a true picture of your feelings about your present iob. 73 Ask yourself: How satisfied am I with this aspect of my job? Very Sat. means I am very satisfied with this aspect of my job. Sat. means I am satisfied with this aspect of my job. N means I can’t decide whether I am satisfied or not with this aspect of my job. Dissat. means I am dissatisfied with this aspect of my job. Very Dissat. means I am very dissatisfied with this aspect of my iob. On my present lob, this is how I feel about . . . l. omuouxp» N—e-e—e—e-e—e—e—e—e—e oomVQU‘UN-‘o Being able to keep busy all the time . The chance to work alone on the iob The chance to do different things from time to time . The chance to be ”somebody” in the community . The way my boss handles his/ her workers . The competence of my supervisor in making decisions . Being able to do things that don’t go against my conscience . The way my iob provides for steady employment . The chance to do things for other peOple . The chance to tell people what to do . The chance to do something that makes use of my abilities . The way company policies are put into practice . My pay and the amount of work I do . The chances for advancement on this iob . The freedom to use my own judgment . The chance to try my own methods of doing the iob . The working conditions . The way my co-workers get along with each other . The praise I get for doing a good iob . The feeling of accomplishment I get from the iob Very Dissat. D [JUL—JUDGE] DUDDDDDCJUDC} C] Very Dissat. Dissat. Cl DUUDDDDDDDDUDUDDDU Cl Dissat. zDDDUDDDDUDUDUDDDUDUDz Sat. DDUDDDDDDDUDDUDDUUDDEE DDDDDDUDUDDDDUUUDD E] Very APPENDIX B MIDMANAGEMENT JOB VARIABLE INSTRUMENT 74 75 co peso omtmw anion warm: eeroe mmtnm oHaEmm __‘.. AA- :2 fleece nos: poz an: esom mapped wwoea< no an: hpa> mam: anoe cos: p emoea< anmammwocflam Cw mamaz Ho panes: Hapoa smton mNImN mm noun: .mw< Aegeanaocaae same: scene mmmmfiav um>mn 50H Dabomm aocmaahcfl nose Somam nm>mn 302 SON om .a>ac oaaonw no» page away can m>mn zapcmapao :05 page Ham“ ”abommpmo comm p09 wcflaamh mach mmnwpommu pman BzmzmemzH mqm mocmSHMCw nose Bozn< 30> mommsahcfl nose 3 :oz mo:m:a%:w nose 3 “fiancoaeaov mezmzsoo .aowpamam Ado» 0p machom Coapmsefim nan baa» wcfi>opQEH no wcfimcmco pom madam use» wcflppmm co .xaoz 930% mm>ao>cfl page A: mano Eaanopg a Can; Cowcflmo mack xmm mafiaamsw mpmwuoeefi ado» mafi>m£ CH .DOn use» poohgm coma: mcoflpom wzflahawau powummsm opmflmaesw mach mo mnemmfiomc any :0 .CofipMSpHm nan Mao» .N CH Co meow was: :0 .H ox Am smoomeeo 0: A< smoomeo mmtmm entom earns eetoe T mmrmm anion mmtmm mm macs: .mm< aHaEam mam: Amwafipaopmma amass xoaca amaaaav opasfl no wcflmcano Mom mmapfi psoh wcfippmm so .xuos mach ma>ao>cH was» a: masoo Emanopg a Can; aowcflao mach xmm powpmgam apmwvaeefi baa» mcfl>ac CH .QOw pack poakha cows: accepaa wcflapamap powuamam apmflUmEEfi use» no macawflomp any :0 .cOHpmapr nan mach Ca :0 meow was: :0 Hence can: 902 mm: anm mappflq Havoe :05: p02 an: anm aappwq Hmo€a< so has apa> pmosa< no has mpo> na>mc soztmqsomm macadahcfi nose soIAm .a>m; 302 aoh.om mosaaHHCM nose Bomfi< .a>m: aaaocm so» wasp Hash so» aocasamcH 5058 30m Am wmoomeao one a>an zapcouaso mom page Home so» macadamcfl nose 30m A< wmoome mom BZMSMO