MICHIGAN “I! Y U3 1_ l lllll llllllllllll llllllll lllllllllll 3 1293 10571 390 This is to certify that the thesis entitled An ExPerimental Study to Determine the Feasibility of Using Folk Literature to Teach Select Critical Reading Skills to Sixth Graders presented by I.) Bette Bosma has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph .D. (1931-93 in ElementagL Education _ I « Q 0 gZ/ana/ 91. [4/2/15 (19% v Majo professor Date February 27, 1981 0-7639 2... 1 ‘ OVERDUE FINES: . 25¢ per day per ite- } mm“ {fl * a; f. museums LIBRARY MATERIALS: ‘ ‘3“.‘9y 1 '1‘“ in book "tum to Um “' 4 charge from circulation recur-vs: 'II“ | 0'! 7 . iA . ”an 1 x, Left], L. AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY TO DETERMINE THE FEASIBILITY OF USING FOLK LITERATURE TO TEACH SELECT CRITICAL READING SKILLS TO SIXTH GRADERS By Bette Bosma A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Elementary and Special Education 1981' 11' Copyright by BETTE AGNES BOSMA 1981 To my dealt. husband, John, whose Loving auppomt and amide/Lawton made flu) mojeet poaaiac. ABSTRACT AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY TO DETERMINE THE FEASIBILITY OF USING FOLK LITERATURE TO TEACH SELECT CRITICAL READING SKILLS TO SIXTH GRADERS By Bette Bosma The purpose of this study was to determine if critical reading skills can be taught effectively through guided reading of folk litera- ture. Critical reading was defined as the process of using critical thinking in reconstructing the meaning of the printed message. Folk- tales included traditional narrative which had its origin in oral tradition, written as retold and/or translated legends, fairytales, myths, and animal tales. The study investigated four questions: l. Will there be a difference in the critical reading ability of sixth graders after direct instruction in critical reading through guided reading of folk literature? 2. Will there be a difference in the critical reading ability of sixth graders taught critical reading skills using folk literature and sixth graders taught critical reading skills through other materials? 3. Hill there be a difference within the groups for subjects with low, average, or high critical reading ability after the critical reading instruction through folk literature as compared to critical reading instruction with other materials? Bette Bosma 4. How was the interest of students relative to folk literature affected by the intervention? Procedure “I Subjects were ninety-nine pupils in four heterogeneous sixth grade reading classes taught by the same teacher. Two experimental classes (n==50) received instruction in critical reading skills through guided reading of folktales (a) by the teacher reading aloud to the class. modeling a critical reading process, and (b) by the children reading independently a book of their choice selected from the 120 folktales in the classroom. Instruction in critical reading for two control classes (ha-49) was presented through (a) teacher reading aloud from books, excluding folk literature, to model critical reading process and (b) by children working in skillbooks and assigned practice material. Design All four questions were studied by ethnographic considerations including participant-observation, informant interviews, and analysis of field study data. In addition, questions one and two were subject to statistical analysis using a two by two analysis of variance with pretest-posttest being the two levels of the first within-subjects factor. and folk literaturetconventional reading material being the two levels of the second, between-subject factor. A LOOK AT LITERATURE: The NCTE Coop- erative Test of Critical Reading and Appreciation, Form A (Pretest) and Form B (Posttest) was the evaluative measure. Bette Bosma Question three was measured by an analysis of covariance using multiple regression equations to predict posttest scores, with pretest scores serving as the covariate and the type of reading material used in instruction as the factor. Results and Conclusions Analysis of data obtained from ethnographic consideration led to the conclusion that critical reading did improve as a result of direct instruction in guided reading of folk literature. Direct instruction appeared to be more effective when followed with opportunity for pupils to practice critical reading in self-selected folktales and to share evaluative and interpretive responses. Posttest scores from A LOOK AT LITERATURE as compared to the pretest results showed no significant difference in the critical reading ability after the intervention. The two by two analysis of variance indicated an F (1,96) ratio of l.89 at p> .05. The between group factor measured by the analysis of variance produced an F (1.96) ratio of .017, p> .05. Taking the group as a whole, the two teaching techniques showed no difference as measured by the pretest-posttest means. The subjects in the experimental group with low pretest scores in A LOOK AT LITERATURE improved significantly in posttest scores in comparison with subjects in the control group with low pretest scores. An analysis of covariance produced an F (1,94) ratio of 3.96 due to the group times pretest interaction at a .05 level of significance. The significant gains of the low scoring subjects in the classes using folk literature led to the conclusion that low achieving Bette Bosma readers can learn critical reading skills in the regular classroom through competent instruction with worthwhile and interesting literature. The high level of interest maintained throughout the study by the sixth graders support the conclusion that folk literature provides a feasible means of teaching critical reading. Interest was particu- larly noteworthy among boys. Four hundred one folktales were read by the pupils, with 209 stories read by the boys and l92 read by the girls in the twelve week study. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to express my deep appreciation to the many people who helped to make this study possible. To Dr. Patricia Cianciolo, my major advisor, whose constant encouragement and skillful tutelage was invaluable, and whose friendship I cherish. To Dr. Sheila Fitzgerald, Dr. Perry Lanier, and Dr. Paul Munsell, my committee members, for their exemplary pedagogy, stimulation, and encouragement. To Kathryn Blok, a beloved colleague who has given me confidence through her constant support in my studies. To Myra Bradford. the sixth grade teacher, whose cheerful cooperation made the research in the school an enjoyable and significant experience. ***** iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ......................... LIST OF FIGURES ........................ Chapter I. INTRODUCTION ...................... Purpose of the Study ................. Statement of the Problem ............... The Need for the Study . . .............. Importance of the Study ............... Research Questions .................. Limitations of the Study ............... Definition of Terms ................. . Reading Terms .................. Folk Literature Terms .............. Research Terms .................. Overview ....................... II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ................ Research Pertaining to Critical Reading ....... Critical Reading and Teaching Strategies ..... Use of Materials for Teaching Critical Reading . . Critical Reading Related to Other Factors . Children's Response to Literature ........ Research Using Folk Literature with School Children . Summary of Research Review .............. Overview of Remaining Chapters ............ III. SELECTION OF SUBJECTS, PROCEDURES, AND DESIGN OF STUDY ......................... Sample ........................ Design and Statement of Research Questions ...... General Procedures .................. General Format of the Lessons with the Experimental Group ............... General Format of the Lessons with the Control Group ................. Page vii viii 45 46 47 50 53 55 Chapter Page Selection of the Literature ............. 56 Assumptions ..................... 58 Overview of Chapters III and IV ........... 60 IV. ANALYSIS OF THE EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS .......... 61 Statistical Tests .................. 62 Data Analysis Relating to Each Research Question . . . 63 Teaching Critical Reading through Folk Literature .................. 63 Difference Between Experimental and Control Groups ................ . . . . 73 Field Observations Related to Question Two . . . . 76 Differences in Awareness of Learning ....... 77 Differences in Recall of Story Titles ...... 78 Differences Hithin Groups ............ 80 Interest in Teacher Reading to Class ....... 88 Interest in Individualized Reading ........ 89 Interest Demonstrated Through Sharing ...... 93 Change of Attitude Demonstrated by Readers . . . . 94 Other Findings .................. 96 Summary and Overview of Chapter IV .......... 98 V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ................ 100 Critical Reading of Folk Literature ......... lOl Difference Between Experimental and Control Groups . . lO4 Difference within Groups ............... l09 Interest of Students Relating to Folk Literature . . . llZ Retrospective Conclusions .............. ll6 Problems Encountered in This Research ........ ll7 Recommendations for Further Research ......... llB Appendix A. TEACHING SUGGESTIONS AND TITLES USED IN THE STUDY . . . l20 B. LESSONS IN CRITICAL READING OF FOLK LITERATURE ..... 159 C. LETTER SENT HOME T0 PARENTS .............. 174 D. PERMISSION FROM PUPIL FOR INTERVIEW .......... 175 E. CLASSROOM OBSERVATIONS FROM IMPARTIAL OBSERVER ..... I76 BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................... l84 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF FOLKTALES ................... 189 vi LIST OF TABLES Table Page 4.1 Analysis of Pretest and Posttest Converted Scores for the Experimental Group; Form A and B of A LOOK AT LITERATURE ................... 65 4.2 Analysis of Pretest and Posttest Converted Scores from A LOOK AT LITERATURE for both Experimental and Control Groups . . . . ................ 74 4.3 Two by Two Analysis of Variance ............. 76 4.4 Analysis of Covariance Using Converted Scores from A LOOK AT LITERATURE, Form A (Pretest), Form B (Posttest); Predicted from Group, Pretest, and Interaction Effect .................... Bl 4.5 Converted Scores from A LOOK AT LITERATURE, Form A and Form B, for the Twelve Lowest Form A (Pretest) Scores .......................... 87 4.6 Number of Self-Selected Books Recorded by Boys and Girls, as Having Been Read by that Person During Classtime ........................ 9l vii Figure 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 LIST OF FIGURES Mean pretest and posttest scores from Form A and Form B of A LOOK AT LITERATURE for experimental group and control group ................ Regression lines predicting posttest scores from A LOOK AT LITERATURE for both experimental and control groups ..................... Scattergram of posttest converted Form B scores as related to pretest converted Form A scores for experimental group ................. Scattergram of posttest converted Form B scores as related to pretest converted Form A scores for control group ................... viii Page 75 83 84 85 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The purpose of this study is to determine the feasibility of using folk literature to teach critical reading skills to sixth graders in an elementary classroom. The teaching of critical reading is an important responsibility of the elementary teacher. The genre of folk literature is proposed as literary material particularly appropriate for guidance by the teacher in developing critical reading skill in sixth grade pupils with the wide range of ability found in American public schools. One of the goals of comprehensive reading programs in the American public schools is to develop critical reading ability. The ability to read critically is important for effective citizenship in today's social, economic, and political society. As our society advances in global interaction concerning controversial matters of social and political importance, it is imperative that today's student be prepared to sift, accept, and reject ideas as they confront the ever increasing barrage of both popular and scholarly media. Guiding readers to an understanding of the words on the page is not enough. A reader should also become skillful in distinguishing between ideas and be able to evaluate the points of view being presented. Edmund Huey. a forerunner of today's cognitive psychologists, related that idea to reading when he wrote. If the mind really keeps positively exercising itself and feeding on what may be found worth using, it may deal safely with almost any quantity of any material. But the reader who lets the machinery of reading automatically run through with any and all grists will be found growing to a likeness that is without character.1 Critical reading is a complex skill, a collection of related abilities. It necessitates direct instruction, practice, and experi- ence, plus the ability to sustain a questioning attitude toward the narrative. The word "critical" has its origin in the Greek word Krinen, meaning to judge, to discern. Nila Banton Smith defines it as a third level skill, following the development of literal and interpretative reading, and going beyond those two levels to involve the reader in evaluating and passing judgment on the quality, value, accuracy, and truthfulness of what is read.2 David Russell refers to four levels of reading: (l) word , recognition, (2) a general impression of the paragraph, page,'and passage, (3) reading for exact literal meaning, and (4) critical reading, or going beyond literal details to selection, interpretation, and fresh understanding of the material. Reading at level four, the reader sifts, accepts, and rejects, depending upon his experience and purposes.3 1Edmund Huey, The Psychology and Pedagogy_of Reading(Boston: Macmillan Company, 1980), p. 363. 2Nila Banton Smith, "Reading for Depth," Developing Comprehen- sion Including Critical Reading, ed. Mildred Dawson (Newark, Dela.: International Reading Association, 1971), p. 46. 3David Russell, Dynamics of Reading (Boston: Ginn, 1970), pp. lSZ-l53. Russell states, The critical thinker-reader is involved in a process of examining verbal materials in light of related objective evidence. comparing the given statement with a norm or standard, and concluding or acting upon the judgment then made.1 Neither Smith nor Russell are making a sequential distinction between the level of reading and the developmental progress of the child. They do not imply that the child must achieve a stage of formal operational development before he is capable of being taught critical reading skills. The term "level" distinguishes the depth of thought involved in a hierarchial sense. . Russell does not describe critical reading purely as a cognitive process. He states that strong emotion can stimulate a child to critical thinking and, therefore, teaching critical reading should be directed away from an overemphasis on getting the facts, but not on avoiding an emotional response. Russell advocates recognizing the power of emotion, which he calls the "anchoring stimulus" for judgment, but not allowing it to dominate the process of critical reading.2 Reading critically demands the ability to both direct and to organize the reading-thinking process. The direction is channeled toward a specific goal, with the reader suspending judgment until that goal is attained. The organization is concerned with relating ideas through the stimulus of the written narrative but is influenced by the reader himself based on his background of experience and expertise at 1David Russell, Children's Thinking(Boston: Ginn, 1956), p. 285. 2Ibid., p. 286. suspending judgment and then relating standards or values to the issue or idea presented. This ability to read critically should become as much a part of the reading act as general comprehension or word recognition. Folk literature presents the possibility of developing critical reading skills in an interesting and worthwhile study. Charlotte Huck declares that "traditional literature is a rightful part of a child's literary heritage and lays the groundwork for understanding all literature."1 Such understanding is developed and enriched through presenting folk literature to the children and guiding them in the interpretation of the stories. The most common fairytales and legends become part of the child's repertoire if parents and teachers read to the children. Some folktales appear, often in simplified form, in basal readers and in skill books throughout the grades. However, the rich literary collection of individual stories retold and strikingly illustrated are unknown to many elementary children. The folktale is a multi-leveled story which can be translated at the depth appropriate to the reader. Many of the authentically reproduced stories are easy to read and still contain rich language and content worth reading. Folktales follow a predictable story form which the reader is able to follow with ease. Therefore, with proper guidance from the teacher, the child can direct his thoughts beyond the printed word to interpreting and evaluating the message of the storyteller. 1Charlotte Huck, Children's Literature in the Elementary School, 3rd ed. updated (New York: Holt, Rinehart, 1979), p. l59. Purpose of the Study_ The purpose of this study is to determine the feasibility of using folk literature to teach selected critical reading skills. The critical reading skills selected to teach the sixth graders are (l) the ability to classify types and characteristics of folk literature as a literary genre, (2) the ability to compare relevant information from multiple sources and recognize agreement or contradiction, (3) the ability to discover unstated premises and draw conclusions, (4) the ability to make judgments based on clearly defined standards, (5) the ability to recognize the theme of the story and to evaluate the effec- tiveness of the presentation of the theme, and (6) the ability to recognize and evaluate the use of language to create sensory images and mood, including interpretation of figurative language. The subjects of the study were four sixth grade classes at a. suburban school near a western Michigan city. The subjects in two of the sixth grade classes received instruction in the selected critical reading skills through the guided study of folk literature. The sub- jects in the other two sixth grade classes received instruction in critical reading but not through the study of folk literature. All the classes were taught by the same teacher, but not by the researcher. The Cooperative Test of Critical Reading and Appreciation: A LOOK AT LITERATURE was used as a pretest and posttest for the four classes. The Statement of the Problem David Russell states, Children and adolescents may be sheep following blindly ideas of the printed page and film or they may develop into thinking individuals critical of sources, definitions, assumptions, and techniques.1 If the teaching of critical reading is the responsibility of the classroom teacher, then the means by which this skill should be taught becomes an important consideration. Methods and materials to be used should be apprOpriate for the child's cognitive ability, his general reading ability, and with appeal to the reader. Teaching strategies should be implemented which take into account both the nature of critical reading and appropriate materials. Sara Lundsteen, who has done pace-setting research in critical listening, indicates that too much teaching of critical reading has stopped at the analysis state, and has not included judgmental stands.2 The total process of critical reading is a building of ideas, including a healthy questioning atti- tude, knowledge of the problem, and a willingness to suspend judgment until all available evidence is examined. Therefore, material used to teach must be worth reading. In an extensive study, Nolf, King, and Huck (1967) investigated the teaching of critical reading skills to elementary children in grades one through six. Teaching units developed for the experimental classes 1David Russell, Children's Thinking, p. 30]. 2Sara Lundsteen, "Procedures for Teaching Critical Reading and Listening," Language and the Language Arts, ed. Johanna deStafano and Sharon Fox (Boston: Little 8 Brown, T974), p. 87. consisted of three units based on informational and persuasive materials which were taught sequentially. These were followed by three units based on literary selections. The researchers concluded that children in grades one through six can be taught certain critical thinking and reading skills. These conclusions were based primarily on the first four units because the literature units were not completed by many of the teachers. The literary units were based on prescribed books to be read by all the students. This differed from this researcher's study. All critical reading teaching in the experimental classes was based on guided reading of folk literature. This included teacher reading to the class and students reading self-selected books from an extensive collection chosen to meet the reading ability and interest of the individuals within the class. This researcher believes that literature can be a viable means for teaching critical reading if it is interesting to the children and stimulates them to desire to learn. The genre of folk literature is appealing to children because it contains adventure, humor, and rich language that children enjdy. Through the folktale, the reader can enter into another culture, and recognize wishes, dreams, and problems of other people. The multidimension of the folktale makes it possible for the child to understand it at a depth appropriate to the reader. The reader is drawn into the excitement and action of the story through the rich language used, and, upon contemplation of the story, can sense the universality of the message of the storyteller. The kind of literature chosen should fulfill the child's expectations. Applebee presents an explanation of the child's concept of story that led this researcher to conclude that folk literature fits the expectations of the child. Arthur Applebee studied the child's concept of story from age two to age seventeen through extensive exploration of children's own storytelling and their responses to literature.‘ His studies of the child's interpretation of story give evidence that a child is able to adopt a spectacular role: that of an onlooker who can evaluate the conventions of the story in a detached, and increasingly more compre- hensive manner. A spectator role evokes an objective response in describing the story itself, a factor needed to develop the direction and organization needed for reading critically. This contrasts with a participant role where the response is subjective and concerned with a descriptive reaction or a sense of the effect of the story on the reader. This emerging spectator role is important for the child's acquiring of expectations about what the world is like, and it enhances the probability of developing evaluative and critical reading of the story. Hith the first reading of a captivating folktale, the child may be fully involved as a participant. However, the significant content of a folktale invites the spectator role. The emotion aroused can become the stimulus for critical response. Patricia Cianciolo writes, 1Arthur N. Applebee, The Child's Concept of Story (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978), p. 128. One of the advantages of using literature to teach comprehension skills is that in literature rather than some form of expository writings, fact and feeling are integrated. Knowledge gained becomes more significant, is retained longer and mastered more quickly with less effort. This combination of fact and feeling offers the reader an effective means for satisfying such needs as relaxation, information, vicarious experiences, intellectual stimulation and an understanding of self.1 One area Applebee studied which involved the child's interaction with stories was the mastery of techniques and conventions of literary form. One convention which he found developing very slowly was the notion of fiction, with all stories perceived as true at an early age. Gradually this differentiation is accepted and at the age of nine, less than 10 percent of his subjects persisted in presenting story as fact. Applebee relates, The earliest interpretation seems to be that a story is something that happened in the past, a history rather than a fictional construct. This early interpretation is often accompanied by a belief in the immutability of stories-~a faith which is eventually shaken by the rec- ognition that behind each story there is a human author who has made it up.2 Another literary convention involved in the child's sense of story includes an expectation concerning the behavior of stock characters. By nine years of age, firm expectations have been formed concerning the roles the characters play. Nine-year-olds would respond to the question, "What is a usually like?" with the reply that a wolf is hungry, a fox is sly, a witch is wicked, or a fairy is kind.3 lPatricia Cianciolo, "Using Children's Literature in the Reading Program" (Unpublished paper, Michigan State University, 1978), p. 13. 2Applebee, The Child's Concept of Story, p. 87. 3Ibid., p. 50. TO Folktale characters are depicted as symbols of good, evil, wise, foolish, powerful, or weak. This polarization of characters fits into the expectations of children, which have been developing since age two through both realistic stories and fanciful. Bettleheim argues that this stock characterization is helpful. Presenting the polarities of character permits the child to comprehend easily the difference between the two, which he could not do as readily were the figures drawn more true to life, with all the complexities that characterize real people. Ambiguities must wait until a relatively firm personality has been established on the basis of positive identifications. Then the child has a basis for understanding that there are great differences between people, and that therefore one has to make choices about who one wants to be. This basic decision, on which all later personality development will build, is facilitated by the polarizations of the fairy tale.‘ The predictability of the story structure of the folktale is a factor which assists the reader in being able to understand the tale. These stories are organized in consistent, predictable patterns: The reader, or listener, at an early age anticipates this structure and has difficulty remembering or understanding the story that violates these expectations. This predictable story schema was categorized by Applebee through listening to children tell stories. He found that the complexity of the story form as organized by the child paralleled Vygotsky's stages in concept development, which Vygotsky based upon his observations of children manipulating a number of objects following verbal instructions.2 1Bruno Bettelheim, The Uses of Enchantment (New York: Knopf, 1976). p. 9. 2L. S. Vygotsky, Thought and Language (Boston: MIT Press, 1962). p. 59. 11 Applebee describes the position of story structure in sequence as compared with the Vygotsky concept stages: 1. Heaps--a syncretistic organization of conceptual whole. 2. Sequences--events in the story linked to a center, with the center taking a variety of forms. This parallels Vgotsky's stage labeled thinking in complexes. 3. Primitive narrative--a concrete core, amplified by a collection of events, or items. Corresponds to Vygotsky's collections where structure is based on complimentary rather than similarity grouping. 4. Unfocused chain--Vygotsky's chain complex. Incidents lead directly from one to another, with shifting occurring as story proceeds. S. Focused chain-~Vygotsky's pseudo-concept category. Processes of chaining and centering are linked to the central core. 6. Narrative--Vygotsky's complex formation of true concepts. A story is held together by a core which can be concrete, perceptual, or abstract.1 When the child is using the true narrative stage with consistency s/he increases the complexity of the narrative, following the structuring principles of chaining and centering in his/her under- standing of larger units of discourse. The child's expectation of the narrative unfolding of the tale will be realized in folk literature because of that genre's strict adherence to this story form. Mandler and Johnson (1974), in studying story schema as guides to comprehension and recall, found that constructs of patterns in folktales were helpful in retrieval of content. Since the story is regular in story pattern and the plot is more easily retrieved, emphasis on the subskills of critical comprehension can be the focus of the reader's attention. 1Applebee, The Child's Concept of Story, pp. 57-66. 12 The Need for the Study It is necessary for the young reader to develop critical reading skills. Sara Lundsteen suggests specific reasons for providing instruction in these skills. The presence of mass media in our culture tends to produce conformity in children, not individuality. Abilities in critical reading and listening are seldom acquired automatically. Unless specific provision for suitable instruction is made, children cannot be expected to acquire the critical reading and listening abilities which are essential to good citizenship. Furthermore, Lundsteen maintains that postponing instruction in critical abilities until high school or college may be like "closing the proverbial barn door."1 However, there is evidence that the higher level reading skills are not being learned by many contemporary young readers. The results of the 1975 National Assessment of Educational Progress in reading show that the reading ability of thirteen and seventeen year old readers improved in literal comprehension but declined in inferential compre- hension.2 Nine-year-old readers improved significantly in literal skills and reference skills, but showed no significant improvement in inferential skills.3 The term inferential skills, used in the report referred to the tests in organization of main idea, drawing 1Lundsteen, p. 88. 2Reading Change,g1970-197S: Summary Volume, Reading Report 06-R-21 (Denver, Colo.: National Assessment of Education Program, April 1978), p. xiii. 3Ibid., p. 18. 13 inferences, analyzing and reasoning, and forming an opinion about the passage. Roger Farr, a member of the panel examining and interpreting the reading assessments, predicted that improvement will not be seen unless "we make changes in our present instructional strategy."1 In summarizing the performance on inferential comprehension test items, the panel concluded that the best performance was found when the passages read seemed most relevant. Diane Lapp stated: "Consequently, the curriculum must become relevant to student's interests."2 Although much has been written about the need for teaching critical reading, little research has focused on how to teach it and what materials would be effective for the teacher to use. This researcher believes that folk literature is relevant to student's interests and that direct lessons can be implemented for the teaching of critical reading using folktales. Young, in a'study of folk and fairy literature states that children enjoy the simplicity of the stories and the explanations of ideas which he/she had been wondering about.3 The folktale is a multi- leveled story which can be translated at the depth appropriate to the reader. The relevance of the literature can be found in its 1Reading in America: A Perspective on Two Assessments, Reading Report 06-R-OT(DEnver, Colo.: National Assessment of Educational Progress, April 1978), p. 26. 2Ibid., p. 17. 3Tommie Young, "The Child's Literary Heritage, Folk and Fairy Literature" (paper presented at a workshop in Early Childhood Library Specialist Program, North Carolina Central University, July 1972). 14 relationship to the child's concept of story, its predictability, and its universal appeal, as described in the statement of the problem in Chapter 1. Importance of the Study This researcher hypothesizes that direct teaching with relevant and interesting materials can improve selected reading/thinking abil- ities of the reader. Those critical reading skills chosen to be developed by direct instruction are (l) the ability to classify types and characteristics of folk literature as a literary genre, (2) the ability to compare relevant information from multiple sources and recognize agreement or contradiction, (3) the ability to discovEr unstated premises and draw conclusions, (4) the ability to make judgments based on clearly defined standards, (5) the ability to recognize the theme of the story and to evaluate the effectiveness of the presentation of the theme, and (6) the ability to recognize and evaluate the use of language to create sensory images and mood, including interpretation of figurative language. Teacher involvement in alternative ways of directing the reader can be successful in developing these abilities. The readers must be taught how to get meaning from the cues of the language and to apply their own background of experience to evaluating the story structure. On-site experimentation can demonstrate the degree of effectiveness of the teaching strategies developed for the study of folk literature. Results of this study should provide a better understanding of how children respond to materials used in direct teaching and of whether or not they make measurable growth in learning to read critically. 15 Research Questions Hill there be a difference in the critical reading ability of the sixth graders after direct instruction in critical reading through the guided reading of folk literature? Hill there be a difference in the critical reading ability of the sixth graders taught critical reading skills using folk literature and the sixth graders taught critical reading skills through other classroom materials? Will there be a difference within the groups for subjects with low, average, or high critical reading ability after the critical reading instruction through folk literature as compared to critical reading instruction with other classroom materials? How was the interest of students relative to folk literature affected by the intervention? Limitations of the Study Testing of the experimental group and the control group was limited to one pretest and one posttest. The Gates MacGinitie reading test is given each May, and results were available for the researcher. Form A of A LOOK AT LITERATURE: The NCTE Cooperative Test of Critical Reading and Appreciation was given in September 1980 and Form B was given in December 1980. The school administration denied permission for any further testing. The grouping of the classes was done by the sixth grade team of teachers, not by the researcher. The placement of the 15 students was based on their scores in the Gates MacGinitie reading test given in May 1980. The classes were balanced with an equivalent number of high and low scoring readers, determined by the standard score of the comprehension component of the test. 3. The school required that the experiment be limited to three months. 4. The sixth grade class was departmentalized. The pupils moved from one class to another, with each class scheduled for fifty- five minutes. Each sixth grade teacher taught a different subject. The sixth grade teacher with whom the research took place taught four classes of sixth grade reading. All instruc- tion and follow-up activities took place within this time frame. Definitions of Terms Reading Terms . critical reading is the process of using critical thinking in recon- structing the meaning of the printed message. It is a decision making skill of analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating ideas found in written communication. General reading comprehension is the ability to understand the meaning of the printed word, sentence, and longer discourse. 17 Folk Literature Terms1 Folktale is an inclusive term referring to all kinds of traditional narrative which has its origin in the oral tradition. The literary folktale is translated and retold as based upon the storytelling characteristic of a particular cultural group. myth is a form of folktale that develops a theory of the world and the origin of man. creation myths are concerned with the origin of certain natural phenomena. Legend is a form of folktale told as a fact and presumably believed by the teller. It is connected with a definite time and place, can be explanatory or historic, and concerned with supernatural creatures. Animal tale is a form of folktale about adventures of animals. The animals assume human characteristics. A fable is a specific kind of animal tale with a definite moral, usually stated at the end of the story. Fairy tale is an unbelieveable tale which includes an enchantment or supernatural element that is clearly imaginary. It does not necessarily contain fairies. Such stories are also referred to as household tales or wonder tales.2 1These definitions are based on descriptions found in the Standard Dictionary of Folklore, Mythology,gand Legend, ed. Maria Leach andTJerome Freed (New York: Funk GNEgnalls,—1949). 2Iona and Peter Opie, The Classic Fairy Tales (London: Oxford University Press, 1974), pp. 14, 15. 18 Research Terms Stratiyied random sample is a grouping of the sample in such a way that each subgroup is representative of the group as a whole in some crucial factor. For this study the stratification is based on general reading comprehension. Each class will be equivalent in the number of low-achieving readers, mid-range, and high- achieving readers, as based on the Gates-MacGinitie Reading Comprehension Standard scores. Ethnographic observation is an inquiry process guided by a point of view and developed through field observation, questioning, and analyzing data collected. Overview Chapter I began with an introduction to the importance of developing critical readers in American schools. The premise that critical reading can be and should be taught was substantiated with pertinent research. Rationale for the selection of folk literature for the teaching of critical reading was given. The purpose of the study was stated: namely, to determine the feasibility of using folk literature to teach specific critical reading skills to sixth graders. The statement of the problem and the need for the study was presented accompanied by related research. Research questions were asked, limitations of the study stated, and definitions of the terms given. In Chapter II, literature and research relevant to the present investigation are examined. The two major areas reviewed are teaching of critical reading and using folk literature with school children. 19 Chapter III describes the sample, design, and procedures used to teach critical reading skills to sixth graders. Criteria for the selection of literature and the general lesson format was included. Chapter IV contains the analysis of data which was submitted to a 2)<2 analysis of variance and an analysis of covariance using multiple regression. Data received from ethnographic observations were recorded. Interpretation of the data is given in Chapter V. A summary of findings, implications, and recommendations for further research are given. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE The review of the literature is divided into two major areas which are pertinent to this research study: (1) research pertaining to the teaching of critical reading, and (2) research using folk literature with school children. Research Pertaininggto critical Reading Research in critical reading related to this study is found in four areas: studies focusing on teaching strategies, materials used to teach critical reading skills, studies relating critical reading ability with other factors, and children's response to literature. Critical Reading and Teaching Strategies Louise Rosenblatt describes the role of the teacher in providing literary experiences as fostering an interrelationship between the book or poem and the individual reader. She develops three areas of responsibility of the teacher: 1. To create an atmosphere that offers opportunity for free interaction; 2. To help the reader develop reflective thinking in response to the book; and 3. To create situations where the reader becomes aware of alternative responses. 20 21 The teacher in preparing students for critical reading will set the stage, provide support for the reader, and create an atmosphere that is conducive to thinking. The approach to literature should be dom- inated by the desire to understand before attempting to pass judgment. The teacher must be aware of a responsibility to avoid imposing his own particular bias upon the student, but at the same time accept the responsibility to help the reader make ethical considerations.’ Thomas Bibb, Northwestern University, designed a conceptual schema, which he named Reaction-English, presenting methods, procedures, and strategies for teaching critical thinking skills for grades seven and beyond. The units were based on an in-depth explanation and inter- pretation of various views of critical thinking, the role of the teacher, and the need for developing and improving critical thinking ability. The conceptual schema developed concise interaction strategies between the teacher and student, but did not include guidance in critical reading, although more than half of the teacher strategies required reading and writing by the student within the plan. Preparation for producing the schema included investigating strategies currently being used in the classroom, but Reaction-English was not implemented with students as part of this study.2 lLouise Rosenblatt, Literature as Exploration (New York: Appleton, 1968). 2Thomas Bibb, "Toward a Theory of the Development and Improve- ment of Critical Thinking Skills in a Classroom in English" (Ph.D. dissertation, Northwestern University, 1973). 22 Teaching strategies were devised by Hiser after extensive study of concept formation, child develOpment, and literary concepts of plot, theme, character, and setting. Hiser translated principles derived from academic theory and research findings to the construction of model lessons at primary and intermediate levels focusing on critical reading of four literary concepts. A centering process was used in the prepared questions, followed by expansion based on the anticipated responses. Niser recommended that the models be used in teacher training.1 This researcher believes that the strategies should be implemented in a classroom and modified accordingly before being used as models in teacher training. Experimental research focusing on teaching strategies generally reveals that direct instruction can improve critical reading. Allen studied teaching critical reading through a pupil-team learning approach. Two hundred and ten subjects participated in a six-week study with both control and experimental groups receiving twenty-four lessons with the same story content plus related pictures and maps. Experimental groups one and control group one worked in pupil teams while experimental and control groups two worked as a whole class. The variable between groups was the set of questions of knowledge and comprehension plus application, analysis, and synthesis and/or evaluation, while the control groups received questions only in knowledge and comprehension. Analysis of the results of the Delisle 1Nell Niser, “Teaching Strategies for Enabling Elementary Pupils to Develop Inductively Literary Concepts of Plot, Theme, Character and Setting" (Ph.D. dissertation, Memphis State University, 1975). 23 Test of Critical Reading revealed that the difference in questioning was a significant factor as shown by score gains for the experimental groups. The F value of 22.6 was statistically significant at between the .001 and .0001 levels, affirming that the higher level questions do have an effect on critical reading ability. However, experimental group one using the pupil-team approach did not score higher in critical reading ability than did the experimental groups two which worked as a total group led by the teacher. This study implies that critical read- ing can be taught to a whole class or small groups through effective questioning strategies.1 Another study which investigated the effects of the type of questions used to stimulate critical reading was done by Judith Durham Hampton. She defined elaborative-type questions as those which eval- uated the worth or significance of what the reader has read, generated new ideas, or led to analyzing implication and applications of reading material, and restrictive questions which are closed by intent and restrict the reader to a literal answer. Social studies materials were used for both experimental and control groups, with the type of questions being the variable. The experimental group scored signif- icantly higher than the control group on the first part of the Ohio State University Critical Reading test, which tested critical reading of informational and persuasive materials. Scores from the second part of the test, a literature component, showed no difference between the 'Ruth Jannice Allen, "Teaching Critical Reading Through a Pupil—Team Learning Approach" (Ph.D. dissertation, Boston University, 1972 . 24 experimental group and the control groups. Since subtest reliability and validity was not established for this test, the results were regarded as suggestive rather than conclusive.1 A noteworthy study in direct teaching methods was conducted by Robert Nardelli in 1957 with eight classes of sixth graders in California. With the experimental groups, Nardelli taught ten hours of creative reading lessons during a six week period. He defines creative reading as an attitude of suspended judgment with regard to reading materials, the ability to read beyond the superficial, factual statements of the printed page, the ability to see relationships in verbal materials, and the ability to recognize authors' intentions and propaganda devices.2 Seven of the ten hours was devoted to the study of propaganda, particularly through the use of newspapers and magazines. Three hours was spent in reading exercises prepared for developing the understanding of suspending judgment in the drawing of inferences and conclusions. Based on the gains the experimental groups made, Nardelli concluded that the lesson units developed for the recognition of propaganda devices could be used effectively with similar sixth-grade groups to improve creative reading ability. He recommended that further research be done to determine the effectiveness of instruction spread over a longer time than the duration of his study. lJudith Durham Hampton, "The Effect of Elaborative-Type Questions on Comprehension and Critical Reading Ability" (Ed.D. dissertation, University of Missouri, 1972). 2Robert Nardelli, "Some Aspects of Creative Reading," Journal of Educational Research 50 (March 1957): 495. 25 Use of Materials for Teaching CriticaT’Reading Studies specifically concerned with materials used to teach critical reading include William Coughlin's investigation into the possibility of utilizing children's literature. A field-test was conducted in which children's literature was the sole subject con- sidered in a unit devoted to the instruction of critical reading. The subjects of Coughlin's study were English students in a tech- nological institute and the conclusions were based on a three week study using three children's picture books and one folktale to study elements of form in literature. The text of the four books was given in the appendix but no methodology for the use of the material was presented. The degree of success obtained, given the limited time and extent of the study, led to the recommendation that literature be used for teaching critical reading in a more comprehensive exper- imentation.l Although the target group improved in attitude, knowledge of terms, and use of literary criticism, this researcher sees little correlation possible between performance of college freshmen with juvenile books and that expected from elementary school age children. Higginbotham analyzed the contents of thirty-two primary level books from four different basal reading series to determine whether or not (1) basal reading series provide methodology appropriate for teach- ing critical reading skills, (2) basal reading series provide content appropriate for teaching critical reading skills, and (3) differences 'william Coughlin, "Uses of Children's Literature in Teaching Critical Reading" (Ed.D. dissertation, University of Massachusetts, 1973 . 26 in provisions for teaching critical reading exists among the series. The researcher found a wide range in the appropriateness of content as well as in the types and numbers of questions designed for critical reading in the different series. She concluded that basal reading series do not consistently provide either content or methodology appropriate for teaching critical reading skills.1 The effectiveness of teaching figurative language through the use of commercial materials was studied by Marilyn Pollio. She also studied the developmental pattern of figurative language in the ele- mentary school child of varied socioeconomic,and academic backgrounds. Nithin five schools, one class was the experimental class in which commercial series of booklets, Makingglt Strange, was used for six months to teach figurative language. The control groups had no direct teaching of figurative language in their curriculum, although the materials used were not described in the study. An analysis of the test results of the control group was the basis for generalizations made for developmental patterns of figurative language use. Tests designed by the researcher measured understanding and production of metaphors, which were categorized as fresh or novel uses of language or frozen, a metaphor with meaning accepted in current lexicon. The experimental group produced more fresh metaphors than the control groups, except in the low socioeconomic school, in posttest compo- sitions than in the pretest compositions. In a comparison test, 1Florrie Higginbotham, "An Analysis of Content and Methodology for Teaching Critical Reading Skills in Basal Readers" (Ph.D. disserta- tion, University of Georgia, 1970). 27 choosing similarities between word pairs of frozen metaphors, the experimental group scores higher than the control groups.1 Since the interpretation of figurative language is a subskill of critical reading, implications of this study are favorable toward the assumption that material directed toward teaching use of figurative language will ‘ increase the critical reading ability of the subject. The Berkeley Creativity Project directed by Richard Crutchfield and Martin Covington in the midsixties centered on identifying and teaching a number of cognitive skills which are considered central to creative understanding. The object of the project was to develop curriculum programs to foster creative thinking among elementary chil- dren. "Creative understanding" was defined as action of the reader going "considerably beyond an uncritical cataloging of information and search for an explanation of what he experiences."2 One aspect of the research is described by Covington as a General Problem Solving Program implemented in fifth grades in Berkeley, California involving 481 children. The specific skills measured with a battery of pretests and posttests were the ability to draw inferences from facts, sensitivity to factual discrepancies, and the ability to ask questions relating to situations in which insufficient information is given the reader. Materials used were problem-solving episodes in booklet form. Self-instructional booklets contained directions and 1Marilyn Pollio, "The Development and Augmentation of Figurative Language" (Ed.D. dissertation, University of Tennessee, 1973). 2Martin Covington, "Some Experimental Evidence on Teaching for Creative Understanding," Reading Teacher 20 (February 1967): 390. 28 guidance toward generating ideas and asking questions. The experimental and control groups were carefully matched for general reading ability, sex, race, and intelligence. Analysis of the responses made to post- tests of similar problem-solving episodes indicated that the instructed children were using cognitive skills “common to both creative problem solving and to discerning reflective reading."1 Glenna Sloan, in The Child as Critic, develops a theoretical construct for teaching a child to be a critical reader of literary writing. Sloan bases her theory on Northrup Frye's delineation of the structural principles of literature and his framework for literary criticism. She advocates that the study of literature is cumulative and that significant beginnings can be made in the elementary school with appropriate materials and methods.2 The author translates this theory-into practice with numerous examples of teaching strategies designed to foster literary understanding. The Child as Critic is a valuable source for this researcher in planning the lessons using folk literature in direct teaching of critical reading skills. Critical Reading Related to Other Fitters Several studies have measured the relationship of critical reading with other factors. Gall (1973) found significant growth of critical reading ability from grades four to five to six; a significant 1Ibid., p. 395. 2Glenna Davis Sloan, The Child as Critic (New York: Teacher's College Press, 1975), p. xvi. 29 relationship between critical reading ability and general intelligence and between critical reading and reading achievement. She found no significant difference between boys and girls in critical reading ability. The instruments used were the Intermediate Critical Reading test, developed by the investigator, the California Mental Maturity test, and the California Reading Achievement test.1 Gall does not describe the reading instruction of grades four, five, and six, but the presence of critical reading skills listed in Florida's curric- ulum could imply that some instruction would have taken place. The researcher appears to attribute the increase in critical reading to growth and intelligence without recognizing the role of instruction. This is contrary to the findings of research cited in the previous section of this review, and of Sara Lundsteen who states that abil- ities in critical reading and critical listening are not usually acquired automatically but are a learned skill.2 The Wolf, King, and Huck study conducted in 1967 in Ohio schools was a major investigation of critical reading abilities of 1 elementary school children. This study was unique in that it involved both the reading of fiction and non-fiction, the experimental teaching extended through a complete school year, and data was reported from both test results and field observations. Factors related to the teaching of critical reading which were found significant were 1Stefanie Sevindle Gall, "Investigation of Growth in Critical Reading Ability in Grades 4, 5, and 6" (Ph.D. dissertation, Florida State University, 1973). 2Lundsteen, p. 87. 3O intelligence and general reading ability. Relationship between personality factors and sex differences was low. In general, children of high intelligence levels performed better than middle intelligence children, who in turn performed better than low intelligence children. At all levels of intelligence the mean scores of the children in the experimental groups were significantly higher than the mean scores of the control groups. This implies that children at all levels of normal intelligence can learn to read critically if taught.1 The analysis of data included reports on the feasibility of teaching critical reading, factors related to the ability to read critically and the observation of verbal interaction during critical reading lessons. Children who had systematic instruction in critical reading improved significantly in both critical reading and general reading ability. Special material and instruction influenced the kinds of questions the teachers asked. The experimental teachers asked more analyzing and evaluating types of questions, and children who received instruction in critical reading gave more evaluating responses than did the children who did receive this instruction. The researchers judged the literature sections of the experimental to measure inconclusive results because many of the experimental teachers were unable to com- plete all the literature units, the last of the year's sequence of lessons.2 Therefore, further research in critical reading of literature 1Nillavene Nolf, Charlotte Huck, and Martha L. King, "Teaching Critical Reading to Elementary School Children," Reading Research Quarterly 4 (Summer 1968): 435-497. 2Ibid., p. 492. 31 using special materials and instruction such as proposed in this study is desirable to ascertain the effectiveness of the literary materials with direct critical reading instruction. Gloria Boodt studied the effect of direct instruction in critical listening on the reading progress of children identified as remedial readers. Fifteen subjects listened daily to oral reading of selected literary materials, followed by a group discussion pertinent to critical thinking skills. Fifteen subjects in a control class were not given the above instruction. Posttest means for critical reading were higher in all instances for the experimental group (STEP reading 7.4, A LOOK AT LITERATURE, 5.47) than for the control group (STEP reading 5.33, A LOOK AT LITERATURE 3.27). The analysis of covariance revealed that the experimental treatment was effective in improving the critical listening and critical reading, as well as the general reading comprehension abilities of subjects in the experimental group, with a .05 level of significance.1 These findings support the planned proce- dure for this research with the implementation of teaching strategies which include oral reading by the teacher as an integral part of the critical reading skill lesson. Children's Response to Literature Margaret Meek writes, "For all our preoccupation with children learning to read, we have not fully accepted the implications of the 1Gloria Boodt, "Direct Instruction in Critical Listening: Its Effect on the Reading Progress of Children Identified as Remedial Readers" (Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1978). 32 fact that the real book for our children is the story book."1 Many researchers in the sixties and seventies have studied the response of the reader to literature before making implications concerning teaching methods and materials for reading. The significant and extensive study by Arthur Applebee of children's understanding of and response to the story is described in Chapter I. Applebee's study presents developmental stages in the formulation of response in correspondence with Piaget's developmental schema. Applebee is not concerned directly with the role of the teacher. However, he does draw implications for an attitude towards literature to be emulated by the teacher. The spectator role offers a way to articulate exploring our world, presenting alternative, clarifying dark corners, posing contradictions, reconciling conflicts within the realm of our subjective, personal experience. The teacher's role in this process is one of questioning and cultivating response rather than one of teaching critical principles; the goals should be to illuminate and clarify the order in the world which the work seeks to capture and reflect.2 Janet Hickman, University of Ohio, observed children every day for four months recording the reader's responses to books in an ethno- graphic study of children's responses to literature in a school setting. From her observations, Hickman noted patterns in the mode of response Which were influenced both by the classroom environment and by the developmental level of the child. She found that the role of the teacher made a significant difference in the type of response, and lMargaret Meek, The Cool Web: The Pattern of Children's Reading (New York: Atheneum, 1978); p. 7. 2Applebee, The Child's Concept of Story, p. 134. 33 that within a confirming environment the reader was eager to give public forum to a personal response stimulated by the books heard and read. Hickman provides a description of a learning environment that fosters interaction with literature. The children's use of the information that they gained from the story was demonstrated through producing art expressions, drama, and writing. This use demonstrated to the teacher the critical evaluation skills the children have devel- oped and a note of those that need additional teacher guidance for development.‘ In-depth book discussions by Roy Wilson with selected sixth graders were planned to establish observations concerning reading background of the subjects, test information, response patterns, classroom reading behaviors and literary response. Wilson selected competent readers to participate in book discussions led by the examiner. From the data collected he described the in-depth dis- cussion of specific books categorizing the nature of the response; compared strategies for initiating discussion: discusses the range of personal involvement of the sixth graders: and examined the dis- cussion leader's role. The background information tabulated from questionnaires presented interesting observations of the children's reading interests and attitudes. From the categorization of responses, the researcher concluded that the response was evoked by content and theme rather than upon literary analysis. The evidence for this appeared sparse. The discussions were based on books that had been 1Janet Hickman, "Responses to Literature in a School Environ- ment, Grades K-5" (Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio State University, 1979). 34 read by the teacher to the entire class. The time lapse between hearing the book read and the discussion was not given. Many uncontrollable factors appeared to intervene (length of discussion sessions, inter- ruption of desirable activities, difficulty of the researcher to gain the rapport of the children) which could have influenced the quality of the response. Consequently, the response attained may not adequately reflect the reader's ability to respond. The only recommendation made for teaching was the suggestion that more conscious effort be made to encourage reactions to themes by the readers.1 “Teacher vs. students' perception of a children's book“ was the topic of Schwebel's study of reader's response. Schwebel assessed three areas of consideration.2 1. Understanding and reaction of children at Kindergarten, third grade and sixth grade to the book Bread and Jam for Frances by Tena Hoban. 2. Assessment of the teachers' predictability of the child's reaction. 3. Assessment of the children's ability to make moral judgments based on the reading of the book. Schwebel reported that the responses to the questions by the third and sixth graders did not differ as much as was anticipated, particularly those related to subtleties in the plot development. She anticipated a difference in response would reflect a qualitative difference in 1Roy Wilson, "In-Depth Book Discussions of Selected Sixth Graders: Response to Literature" (Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio State University, 1975). 2Carol Rose Schwebel, "Teacher's vs. Student's Perception of a Children's Book" (Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio State University, 1979). 35 intellectual development at the age levels. To generalize these findings based on reactions to only one book is questionable. Schwebel did find the transfer of understanding to a new situation was consistent with the prediction of the teachers, with sixth graders making more appropriate responses than the third graders or kindergarteners. All twenty-seven teachers involved were members of the researcher's University children's literature class, and con- sequently, had above average preparation for book selection compared to all elementary classroom teachers. Therefore, the assessment of the teacher's predictability does not appear to be indicative of that of the randomly selected classroom teacher, in this researcher's estimation. Research Using Folk Literature with SchooTTChildren The study of folk literature has been pursued historically by both the literary scholar and the anthropologist. Although folktales for the child audience have been acknowledged by educators since the time of John Locke, only in the past few decades has research included implications of use in the classroom. Margaret MacDonald presented an exemplary analysis of children's folktale collections in a study done at Indiana University. Her motif- index for juvenile folktales follows the classic index of tale types by Aarne-Thompson. MacDonald cautions against faulty changes which distort the original tale. The process of translating is a rewriting and should be accomplished with sensitivity and rapport with the 36 contributing culture. Distortion can be caused by alteration of motif through various devices such as omitting or softening the cruelty of the tale, making the ending happier, contaminating inferences through changing the language, and changing adult characters to child charac- ters. Alteration of mood is common in translations when the author lacks knowledge of background of the culture and misinterprets the setting or personality of the characters, and omits or distorts pat- terns of language distinctive to that culture. Mood and motif can be distorted through illustrations where the artist has lacked awareness of the complexities of the story or the time and culture of its origin. MacDonald catalogues and describes eleven points of critical analysis to consider in selecting folktale collections for juvenile reading.1 The standards for juvenile folktales which MacDonald recommends were used as guides in planning the lessons developing critical awareness through comparisons of folktale versions. F. Andre Favat developed a significant analytical study of why children are interested in fairy tales. He examined the nature of the reader and the essence of the stories when he posed the question, "What is it about both children and fairy tales, when they come together at some times and not others, that causes interest to occur?"2 1Margaret Read MacDonald, "An Analysis of Children's Folktale Collections with an Accompanying Motif-Index of Juvenile Folktale Collections" (Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University, 1979). 2F. Andre Favat, Child and Tale: The Origins of Interest (Urbana, 111.: NCTE, 1977), p. 6. 37 Based on several investigations of reading interest (such as Terman and Lima, Norwell, Uhl) and essayists (Arbuthnot, Hadas, Larrick), Favat concludes that interest in fairy tales emerges at a pre-reading age, rises to a peak of interest from six to eight, and declines by the age of ten or eleven. Literary knowledge of the fairy tale was gained through study of tales of Charles Perrault, Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, and Hans Christian Anderson, following Propp's description of the component parts of the tale and the relationships of the parts. Favat develops a correspondence between the characteristics of children as described by Piaget and the characteristics of fairy tales through a parallelism of the magic and animism which suffuses the world of the child and the tale. The fairy tale is a representation of the child's conception of the world. As the child grows older and his view of the world shifts, his interest shifts from the simplistic fairy tale world to interest in realistic literature. Implications for teachers, parents, and researchers are made. A recommendation is made for reading the tales aloud to reinforce the narrative control and the power of the tale that provides the reassur- ance children seek. Favat applies this to older children as well. He expresses the desire of older children to be read to as a "normal and very important means by which children and even young adolescents can maintain a surer footing in their shifting world."1 1Ibid.. PP. 58-59. 38 Caution is given concerning placing the child in a generating mode after hearing the fairy tale. The private nature of the child's reading should be guarded with questions producing tentative exploration rather than implying that a right or wrong answer must be forthcoming. The importance of keeping the book the central experience is necessary for teachers to remember. Implications of this analysis to this researcher's study includes a realization that sixth grade subjects are at the edge of the age level that Favat describes as losing interest in the fairy tale. Observations will be made to ascertain if the child's interest is upheld or if evidence is given of shifting interest to real world stories. The use of oral reading by teacher and the exploratory questions for gener- ating response, as suggested by Favat,_are part of the classroom pro- cedure for this study. A major contribution to understanding the role of myth, legend, and fairy tale in the education of the child is made by Elizabeth Cook in The Ordinary and the Fabulous, first published in 1969 and revised in 1976. She describes her study as an attempt to show that, a grown-up understanding of life is incomplete without an understanding of myths, legends and fairy tales; that the process of growing up would be harder and drearier without them; that there is an abundance of fabulous stories that are enjoyed by children of different ages, and that there are innumerable ways of presenting them so that they become part and parcel of children's lives.1 In addition to arguments concerning the significance and values of reading folk literature, Cook develops practical suggestions for 1Elizabeth Cook, The Ordinary and the Fabulous (London: Cambridge University Press, 1976), p. v. 39 presentation and creation in the classroom ranging from notes on how to deal with the unusual names in the stories to developing the visual images in the historical setting. A significant part of Cook's study is the critical examination of scenes described in different versions demonstrating how different writers have adapted, altered, and trans- lated the same tale. In each of the seven episodes, the original source of translation is given for comparison and contrast. The "Short List of Books"1 includes annotations with careful criticism of the edition and recommendations for age preference. Incorporation of traditional Thai folktales into an elementary English reading program in Thailand was investigated by Chantina Bunvanich. The writer selected twelve Thai tales and translated them into English. Commentaries and analyses were prepared and sug- gested grade placement for grades five, six, and seven were made along with general suggestions for presentations and activities. No field experimentation was done to verify the recommendations.2 Folklore units for the purpose of understanding the culture of others were developed by Nora Belle Mahoney based on her belief that folklore themes are universal. Mahoney proposed these studies for the junior high age following her contention that folklore is much more complex than the literature of young children with which it is some- times equated. The study included preparatory steps for the English teacher to be sure that the nature of the folklore exceeds the 1Ibid.. PP. 123-177. 2Chantina Bunvanich, "An Analysis of Selected Studies of Thai Folktales as Applicable to Elementary English Reading Programs“ (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Northern Colorado, 1976). 4O provincial. The study did not include a field implementation of the writer's contentions, but did include recomendations for teaching based on careful exploration of both the folk literature and the cultural backgrounds represented in the literature.1 A field collection of legendary narratives among Chicano juveniles in Greely, Colorado, by Louise Russell, is anthropological in nature. The stories were analyzed by the researcher in an attempt to explain the Chicano community, religious influences, language, and tradition of the families. Russell was interested in preserving the traditional narrative before the children's language usage yielded to that of the majority culture. Seventh and eighth grade Mexican chil- dren voluntarily joined the researcher's group and shared stories they had heard from their families. Through analyzing the folktales told by the children, Russell charted the range of family acculturation in language use, education, family structure, areas of residence, religion, and traditional food. The researcher confirmed MacDonald's findings that the folktales are interpreted differently by persons outside the culture. These children within the culture were believers of the tales which they related.1 Classroom uses of folk literature have been reported which have not been the subject of controlled research, but have been effective in lNora Belle Mahoney, "Analysis of Selected Studies on Folklore as Applicable to Junior High School English Programs" (Ph.D. disserta- tion, Pennsylvania State University, 1972). 2Louise Russell, "Legendary Narrative Inherited by Children of Mexican-American Ancestry: Culture Pluralism and Persistence of Tradition" (Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University, 1977). 41 action as part of a reading or language arts program. Carol Lauritzen explains the value of oral literature for stimulating creative writing activities. She describes four linguistic patterns in the traditional literature which offer appeal to the young writer: repeated wording, repeated syntax pattern, cumulative structure, and combinations of the three.1 Joy Moss, from the Harley School at Rochester, New York, terms the use of children's responses to literature as a fbcus unit. A model of structuring a long-term experience around literature is used as a framework for developing the practicing language skills and an under- standing of story structure.2 This model is explored further through development of the fable and used for the special needs of the gifted and talented children in a classroom.3 Summary of Research Review In Chapter I, critical reading is defined and the assumption is made that critical reading can be taught and is the responsibility of the elementary teacher of reading. In Chapter II, the review con- cerning critical reading explores teaching strategies and the use of materials used to teach critical reading skills. Critical reading ability is related to other factors such as growth, intelligence, 1Carol Lauritzen, "Oral Literature and the Teaching of Reading," The Reading Teacher 33 (April 1980): 787. 2Joy Moss, "Using the 'Focus Unit' to Enhance Children's Response to Literature," Language Arts 55 (April 1978): 482. aJoy Moss, “The Fable and Critical Thinking," Language Arts 57 (January 1980): 21. 42 general reading and critical listening in a number of studies described in this review. Because children's response to literature is considered as a means of determining whether or not the reader is thinking criti- cally, research has been included that studied response to literature, such as the extensive work of Applebee. In addition, field research in children's response was cited. Research concerning the use of folk literature includes an analysis of folktale collections for children (MacDonald, 1979) and an analytical study of the interest of children in fairy tales (Favat, 1977) and an account of the place of myth, legend, and fairy tale in the education of the child (Cook, 1976). Recommendations were made by researchers for implementing specific studies of folk literature in the classroom (Bunvanich, 1976; Mahoney, 1972; Russell, 1977), but actual implementation in the elementary schoolroom has not been the subject of documented research. Confusion about the terminology of folktales and fairy tales is apparent in much of the literature. In this study the terms are carefully defined. Folktale is used as an inclusive term referring to all kinds of traditional narrative which has its origin in the oral tradition. The definition of fairy tale is limited to one type of folktale: an unbelieveable tale which includes an enchantment or supernatural element that is clearly imaginary. This definition is modeled after the description of fairy tales by Iona and Peter Opie, acknowledged scholars of folk literature.‘ ‘Iona and Peter Opie, The Classic Fairy Tales (London: Oxford University Press, 1974), pp. 14, 15. 43 The assumption made in Chapter I that critical reading can be taught has been upheld by the research reviewed in this chapter. The importance of the role of the teacher and the response of the child is apparent from these studies and is recognized by this researcher in planning procedures for the use of folk literature in teaching critical reading skills. It is apparent that material for teaching critical reading cannot be isolated from the method used to guide the reader. Although the subject of this research focused primarily on the material used, careful attention was given to the role of the teacher and to the development of lesson plans for presenting the materials. Theoretical constructs as developed by Sloan in literary criticism, by MacDonald in folk literature for children, and by Cook in the role of the myth, legend, and fairy tale in the education of children, formed the basis for the development of the procedure fol- lowed in this research. The significance of the above studies calls for implementation of these theoretical constructs in the classroom, and to date such implementation has been limited. At this point an examination of research and literature reveals related but not identical research to this study of critical reading through folk literature. None of the research or literature cited concerning folk literature included implementation in the class- room. None of the studies in critical reading development used folk literature as the material for teaching critical reading. 44 Overview of Remaining Chapters Chapter II contained a review of literature and research pertaining to the teaching of critical reading and use of folk literature with school children. In Chapter III the procedure, design, and methodology is explained for the experimental study in using folk literature to teach select critical reading skills to sixth graders. Chapter IV includes analysis of statistical data and data collected in the classroom. Chapter V contains a summary and discussion of the data analysis, conclusions, implications for teacher education, and suggestions for further research. CHAPTER III SELECTION OF SUBJECTS, PROCEDURES, AND DESIGN OF STUDY This research is an experimental study to determine the feasibility of using folk literature to teach selected critical reading skills to sixth graders in an elementary classroom. The subjects were four sixth grade classes in a middle school in western Michigan. The subjects in two of the sixth grade classes received instruction in selected critical reading skills through the guided study of folk literature. The subjects in the other two sixth grade claSses received instruction in critical reading but not through the study of folk literature. All classes were taught by the same teacher. A LOOK AT LITERATURE: Cooperative Test of Critical Reading and Appreciation of Literature was used as a pretest and posttest for the four classes. In this chapter the researcher will describe the sample selected for the study, the design, and the procedures used to teach selected critical reading skills to the sixth graders through the guided study of folk literature. The criteria for the selection of the literature and the general format for the lessons for both experimental and control groups are included. 45 46 Sample The school district selected for this study is located in a suburban area adjacent to a western Michigan city. The school system is composed of three elementary schools (kindergarten through fourth grade), with a population of 900. The Middle School, population 1,000, is housed in two buildings, with fifth and sixth graders in one building and the seventh and eighth graders in another. There are 1,200 high school students. Approximately 40 percent of the graduating class attend college. Based on income, education, and lifestyle, the community would be considered predominantly middle class with about a 60:40 ratio of lower-to-middle to upper-middle. The school population is 99 percent Caucasian with the remaining 1 percent Asian, Afro-American, and Mexican-American. A total of 130 district elementary pupils are in a Title I compensatory program, but there is no Title I program in the Middle School. The subjects for the study were two heterogeneous reading classes of sixth graders in the Middle School taught by the same teacher. A stratified random sample provided classes where the population in each group was a cross-section of general reading comprehension levels in the entire sixth grade class. Placement in the classes was based on the standard scores of the comprehension section of the Gates MacGinitie Reading Test (Survey D, Form 2) administered to all sixth graders in May 1980. The reading achievement scores generally ranged from a standard score of 30 to a standard score of 70. 47 The control group consists of two sixth grade classes based on the same stratification, and taught by the same teacher. Permission for conducting the research was granted by the curriculum director, building principal, and sixth grade teacher. The in-class instruction began September 15, 1980 and continued through December 16, 1980. Design and Statement of Research Questions The statistical analysis of the data was perfomed on the scores of A LOOK AT LITERATURE: The NCTE Cooperative Test of Critical Reading and Appreciation. Form A of A LOOK AT LITERATURE was adminis- tered before instruction in critical reading skills (pretest) and Form B was administered after instruction (posttest). The basic design of this study was a two by two analysis of variance performed on scores with pretest-posttest being the two levels of the first within-subjects factor, and Folk Literature-Regular Material being the two levels of the second between-subject factor. The following research questions were measured with the two by two analysis of variance. 1. Will there be a difference in the critical reading ability of the sixth graders after direct instruction in critical reading through the guided reading of folk literature? 2. Will there be a difference in the critical reading ability of the sixth graders taught critical reading skills using folk literature and the sixth graders taught critical reading skills through other classroom materials? To respond to the above research questions, the following null hypotheses were tested: 48 Null Hypothesis 1 There will be no significant difference'between the scores of A LOOK AT LITERATURE obtained before and after instruction. Null Hypothesis 2 The students who are taught critical reading skills through the use of folk literature will not differ in terms of the scores of A LOOK AT LITERATURE from students who are taught using other material. Null Hypothesis 3 There will be no significant difference between the pretest scores and the posttest scores of A LOOK AT LITERATURE across the two teaching techniques. An analysis of covariance was performed using multiple regression equations to predict posttest scores with pretest scores serving as the covariate and the type of reading material used in instruction as the factor.. The following research question was measured using the analysis of covariance. 3. Will there be a difference within the achievement groups as a result of critical reading instruction through folk literature as compared to critical reading instruction with other classroom materials? To respond to question three, the following null hypotheses were tested: Null Hypothesis 3:1 The slopes of the regression lines predicting posttest scores of A LOOK AT LITERATURE from pretest scores will be equal to zero for both types of teaching materials. Null Hypothesis 3:2 The slopes of the regression lines predicting posttest scores of A LOOK AT LITERATURE from pretest scores will be the same for both types of teaching materials used in instruction. 49 A LOOK AT LITERATURE is designed to measure the ability to respond critically to specific literary selections. The test was normed on random halves of two fifth grade classes in each of eighteen public elementary schools of middle socioeconomic level. Face validity is reported in the handbook, with no statistical validity cited. Ashley, in a study of the relationships of several test measures, found a significant positive relationship between A LOOK AT LITERATURE test scores and the Gates-MacGinitie Reading Test with a .67 correlation.‘ Correlation of A LOOK AT LITERATURE with the STEP reading scores is .78 for Form A and .79 for Form B. Kuder-Richardson Formula 20 reliabilities are .83 for both forms. Ethnographic data were used in addition to statistical measurements to answer questions one and two. For both questions the field study considered how the learning of critical reading skills was manifested by the students by the following question. 4. How was the interest of students relative to folk literature affected by the intervention? Question four was answered solely by ethnographic study. Data were collected through . participant-observation: The researcher collected field notes taken during the daily observations of the experimental classes. Notes taken included anecdotal data during self-directed activities, and a recording of teacher-led discussions and pupil responses. ‘Catherine Helen Ashley, "A Study of the Relationships of Several Measures of Interpretive Skills in Literature and Achievement in Reading" (Ph.D. dissertation, State University of New York, 1972). SO . weekly teacher interviews: The researcher and the teacher met daily in brief planning sessions. Reactions stated by the teacher at those meetings were recorded as well as planned weekly interviews concerned with the teacher's impressions of the teaching strategies and the pupil responses with relationship to teacher expectation. pupil interviews: The researcher scheduled five pupil interviews from within both experimental and control classes, for a total of twenty interviews. Pupils were selected for the interviews as a cross section of the range of low, average, and high reading ability. These interviews were taped, and the same questions were asked of each subject. . analysis and logging of written work, taped discussions, reading logs, and pupil activities produced as a result of instruction. General Procedures Six critical reading skills were selected from the reading curriculum guide of the school to be taught directly through folk literature to the sixth grade experimental classes. These same six critical reading skills were taught to the control classes. 1. The ability to classify types and characteristics of folk literature as a literary genre. Note: for the control groups, ability to classify types and characteristics of folk literature as a literary genre and ability to classify stories by tepic. The ability to compare relevant information from multiple sources and recognize agreement or contradiction. 51 3. The ability to discover unstated premises and draw conclusions. 4. The ability to make judgments based on clearly defined standards. 5. The ability to recognize the theme of the story and to evaluate the effectiveness of the presentation of the theme. 6. The ability to recognize and evaluate the use of language to create sensory images and mood, including interpretation of figurative language. Three half-days of inservice was spent by the researcher with the classroom teacher planning the critical reading lessons using folk literature in August. Other consultation times were held weekly during the study. The sessions included discussion of how to encourage crit- ical response without losing enjoyment of the story, determining the knowledge base for types and characteristics of folktales, and devel- oping of questioning strategies. The teacher began reading the books fromthe collection in August as well as The Ordinary and the Fabulous by Elizabeth Cook and Chapters Four and Twelve from Children's Lit- erature in the Elementary_School. A handbook was prepared by the researcher for the classroom teacher's use with each of the 120 books that were placed in the classroom annotated and related to one of the particular skill areas. This handbook is in Appendix A. One hundred twenty books were selected so that adequate choices were available for self-selection, based on the reconmendation made by Jeannette Veatch for individualized reading programs.‘ ‘Jeannette Veatch, Reading in the Elementary School (New York: Wiley, 1978), pp. 29, 30. 52 The teacher who participated in this study was a member of a four-teacher team who shared teaching responsibilities for 102 sixth graders. This teacher taught reading to four classes. The reading classes were designated as experimental and control groups and met for fifty-five minutes daily. Four days each week were planned for the study of critical reading for a twelve week period. The other day, usually Friday, included general reading instruction not including critical reading, use of the Instructional Media Center, and non- irective free reading time. Consideration was given to creating an environment for reading for all classes, and displays were changed from the experimental to the control class times. The folk literature books were kept in a bookcase in the back of the room and were not available to the other classes. A large world map on which the pupils flagged the country of the origin of each of the folktales was used in the study by the teacher. A wall hanging with pockets held cards on which each child named and classified each book s/he read. This world map and wall hanging were displayed only when the experimental classes met. When the control group met in this classroom the wall hanging was replaced with a poster appropriate to that class. The world map was removed and a map pertaining to Social Studies took its place. A control for internal validity of procedure was used to offset the possibility of the intervention being carried over into the control classes by the teacher who taught both the experimental and control groups. An impartial observer who was unaware of the nature of the experimental research recorded the teacher behavior and the 53 teacher initiated activities, pupil activities and pupil responses, and materials used in each of the four classes. This observation was made during the fourth and eighth week of the study. The observation form is in Appendix D. This project was approved by the University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects on September 8, 1980. General Format of the Lessons with the Experimental Group Each critical reading skill was developed following a general four-step approach. 1. The skill was stated and briefly explained by the teacher. 2. The teacher read aloud to the class one or more folktale with content or style which would stimulate a critical response related to the particular concept being studied. The discussion of the story was directed through apprOpriate questions. Con- vePgent questions were asked to determine if the listeners had gained common meaning from the story. Divergent questions were asked to develop thinking related to the particular skill intro- duced. The following examples demonstrate the kind of questions asked. These questions were taken from a lesson on drawing conclusions through character portrayal. a. Who is the main character? (Convergent question at translation level since a choice must be made.) b. Describe the personality of the main character. (Divergent question at the synthesis level. Answer must be implied and conclusion drawn from evidence within the story.) 54 c. What conversation or description helped you decide what kind of person he or she was? (Convergent question which leads the reader back to the story.) d. Why does this character do what he or she did in the story? (Divergent question requiring interpretation.) e. Describe a relationship between this character and one other person in the story. (Divergent question at the analysis level.) Each student would select a book from the collection of 120 folktale books identified for use in this study. The pupil would read his/her selection independently or with a partner and be directed to reflect on that critical aspect discussed in class. Response was solicited by a discussion of the.stories that the children had read, comparing and contrasting their story with the story read aloud by the teacher, and with one another. Discussions took place with various forms such as (1) whole class, guided by appropriate questions by the teacher; (2) whole class, guided by written statements that the readers would react to in verbal discussion; (3) small groups, self- guided through written questions; and (4) partners, reading a book together and sharing their responses with the class. When the discussion was conducted in small groups, a pupil reporter recorded the responses given in the discussion. In place of the class discussion, opportunity was given for creative response. Evidence of critical reading was demonstrated through making posters, creatiVe writing, story- telling by the children, and dramatizing. Film versions of the folktales were viewed and evaluated. 55 Variations of these four steps took from four to six class periods for each skill taught. Reference to previously taught skills was part of the lessons as progress was made to provide integration and practice in use of the newly acquired critical reading skill. A sample lesson from each of the six critical reading skill areas used in the study appear in Appendix B. General Format of the Lessons with the Control Group Each critical reading skill was developed following a basic five-step approach, differing from the experimental group in the materials used. 1. The teacher read aloud to the class using written discourse of her choice, excluding folk literature, to demonstrate the skill focus being taught. 2. A verbal and visual explanation of the skill focus followed the reading. Questions appropriate to the materials used and the skill objectives were asked. 3. Each child read stories or articles for evidence of the purpose given by the teacher. This reading was assigned by the teacher rather than selected by the pupil. The material used was a. Be a Better Reader by Nila B. Smith. 6. Stories from Sounds of Distant Drum, edited by Bill Martin. c. Scholastic Scope Magazine. 4. The skill was practiced through whole group discussion, partner work, use of teacher prepared ditto sheets, and 56 skillbooks. The skillbooks used were High Action Reading for Comprehension, Modern Curriculum Press, 1979. Opportunity was given for creative response based on reading material used and ideas expressed in class. The time schedule of control classes matched those of the experimental classes. Selection of the Literature The specific titles of folk literature were selected by considering the reading interest of the ten-to-twelve year old reader, the sixth grade curriculum, and the literary quality of the retold tales. According to survey research, intermediate students like to read adventure, historical fiction, animal stories, mystery, and fantasy. These choices were the common categories found in several studies of children's reading interest (Robinson, 1955; Stanchfield, 1962: King, 1967; Meisel and Glass, 1970: Ashley, 1970).‘ The genre of folk literature covers a wide variety of stories which would fit those categories. The stories chosen for this study were selected with consideration for theme and plots that parallel those categories listed above. The sixth graders at this school study the countries of the Western Hemisphere and in seventh grade study Europe, Africa, and parts of Asia in Social Studies. In the interest of integrating ‘Geraldine Moray,"What Does Research Say About the Reading Interests of Children in the Intermediate Grades?" Reading Teacher 31 (April 1978): 763-769. 57 curriculum as much as possible, legends, myths, animal stories, and fairy tales were selected from representative culture groups which would be studied in the Social Studies classes. Those cultures chosen were regional United States, Native American, Canadian Indian and Alaskan Indian, Mexican, and other cultures of Central America or the nearby islands, China, Russia, Africa, and selected parts of Europe. Regional United States included black folktales, American tall tales, and legendary heroes such as The Leatherman from Maine and Wiley and the Hairy Man from Alabama. The selected parts of Europe were Scandinavian countries and Russian satellite countries. The literary quality of the selections was based on criteria recognized by leading scholars of children's literature, and expressed by Wanda Gag in the introduction to her translations and retelling of the Grimm tales. Wanda Gag writes, I do not believe in "writing down" to children, but since the stories were originally written to include adults, it seemed advisable to simplify some sections in order that the four-to-twelve age group might be assured of getting the full value of the stories.‘ The major references for selection of titles were Picture Books for Children2 and Children's Literature in the Elementary School.3 Par- ticular attention was directed toward preservation of the rich prose ‘Wanda Gag, Tales from Grimm (New York: Coward a McCann, 1936), p. x. 2Patricia Cianciolo, Picture Books for Children (Chicago: American Library Association, 1980). 3Charlotte Huck, Children's Literature in the Elementary School, 3rd edition updated (New York: Holt, Rinehart, 1979). 58 and conversational flavor of the oral storytelling tradition in the retold story, and the aura of authenticity for the country of its origin. Consideration was given to illustrations which heighten and extend the reader's awareness of the story content and strengthen his/her imagination.‘ Assumptions The first assumption is that critical reading_skills are a high-order categpry_of general readingycomprehension skills. Nila Banton Smith proposes that in order to recognize the different cate- gories of meaning-gathering processes in reading, we must break down the blanket term, comprehension. Critical reading is the highest _ category demanding depth reading.2 Hierarchical models of reading comprehension as develOped by various reading specialists consistently list critical reading as the highest level of skill to be developed (Cleland, 1965; Helen Robinson, 1966; George Spache, 1963). This hierarchical placement is not interpreted by this researcher as meaning that such skill cannot be developed until all the other levels of comprehension are mastered. This special distinction means that critical reading is developed in addition to, but concurrently with, general reading comprehension. The second assumption is that critical reading can be taught to e1ementary_school children. In order to develop critical reading, ‘Patricia Cianciolo, Illustrations in Children's Books (Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown, 1976), pp. 24-25. 2Nila Banton Smith, "Reading for Depth," Developing Comprehen- sion Including Critical Reading, ed. Mildred Dawson (Newark, Dela.: Internationil Reading Association, 1971), p. 45. 59 a child must have general reading ability and background knowledge. David Russell asserts that the general reading ability does not necessarily have to be developed to a certain level. If a child can decode the text, he can be taught to read it critically, whether at third grade or sixth grade level.‘ The third assumption is that the teaching of critical reading_ skills is part of the elementary school reading program. The panel of reading specialists who evaluated the results of the 1970-71 and 1974-75 National Reading Assessments were unanimous in suggesting that every reading program should continue beyond the literal level of com- prehension.2 All current basal reading series include objectives for the reading program which include critical reading skills such as drawing conclusions, recognizing the theme of the story, or interpreting figurative language.3 The fourth assumption is that folk literature includes stories of universal appeal to elementary school children. Elizabeth Cook . explains the universality of folk literature is apparent in that the situations and emotions of the fairy tale and legend have a counterpart in children's lives regardless of their background. The appeal is to a ‘David Russell, Dynamics of Reading (Boston: Ginn, 1970), p. 302. 2Reading in America: A Perspective on Two Assessments. Report 06-R-Ol (Denver, Colo.: National Assessment of Educational Progress, April 1978), p. 17. 3These examples were selected at random from the Teacher's Edition of the Holt Basic Reading System, 1977 edition, Level 13. Time to Wonder, senior author, Eldonna Everts. 60 corporate, unselfconscious audience.‘ Molly Hunter refers to the folktale as a "mixture of the known, the remembered, the imagined," with comparable elements in real life.2 Overview of Chapters III and IV Chapter III contained the selection of students, the design, and the methodology used to teach selected critical reading skills to sixth graders through a guided study of folk literature. General procedures included a statement of the six critical reading skills selected for the study, a description of the classroom, and the general format of the lessons for both the experimental groups and the control groups. Criteria for literature selection was given and assumptions stated. Chapter IV contains the statistical data analysis and the findings of field observations. ‘Elizabeth Cook, The Ordinary and the Fabulous: An Introduction to Myth§y_Legends, and Fairy TalesTLondon: Cambridge University Press, 1976), pa 8. 2Molly Hunter, "One World," Horn Book 51 (December 1975): 62. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF THE EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS This chapter contains the analysis of the statistical data received from the pretest and posttest scores on Forms A and B of A LOOK AT LITERATURE: The NCTE Cooperative Test of Critical Reading and Appreciation, and an analysis of the data collected in the classroom by means of participant observation, teacher and pupil interviews, and pupils' written responses to determine the feasibility of using folk literature to teach critical reading skills. The subjects of the study were sixth graders in four hetero- geneous classrooms. The groups were stratified random samples, with each subject assigned to a class on the basis of the individual Gates MacGinitie reading comprehension score to provide an equivalent range of ability in each group. The range was from a standard score of 37 to a score of 74. Two classes were subject to the intervention of. instruction in critical reading through guided study of folk literature. Two control classes received instruction in critical reading through conventional instruction materials described in Chapter III. Of the 103 students involved in the study, 99 completed the entire twelve week instruction and took both pretest and posttest. Four subjects either entered late, moved away before instruction was completed, or were absent more than 50 percent of the time. Form A of A LOOK AT 61 62 LITERATURE was administered in two settings on September 16 and 17, 1980, and Form B was administered in two settings on December 9 and 10, 1980. Statistical Tests The statistical tests used to investigate the first three questions are described in this section. Following the description, the data for each separate question is analyzed. Question 1: Will there be a difference in the critical reading ability of the sixth graders after direct instruction in critical reading through the guided reading of folk literature? Question 2: Will there be a difference in the critical reading ability of the sixth graders taught critical reading skills using folk literature and the sixth graders taught critical reading skills through other classroom materials? These questions were tested with a two by two analysis of variance. Pretest, Form A of A LOOK AT LITERATURE and posttest, Form B of A LOOK AT LITERATURE were the two levels of the within subject factor, and the eXperimental instructional material and the control instructional material were the two levels of the between subject factor. The F statistic, examining the main effect of the pretest-posttest, expresses the ratio of the variance of the means between pretest, Form A and posttest, Form B for both groups, divided by the appropriate within-group variance. 63 The F statistic, examining the mean effect of instructional material, expresses the ratio of the variances across methods divided by the appropriate estimate of within-group error variance. The F statistic, examining the interaction effect of group times pre- posttest expresses the ratio of the interaction of the between subject factor and the within subject factor. Question 3: Will there be a difference within the groups for subjects with low, average, or high critical reading ability after the critical reading instruction through folk literature as compared to critical reading instruction with other classroom materials? An analysis of covariance was performed to investigate other differences that could exist within the group and across the two teaching techniques. A multiple regression test was done to predict posttest scores with pretest scores serving as the covariate and type of reading material as the factor. The multiple regression weights the variables of group, pretest-posttest, and the interaction effect in terms of the importance of each variable in predicting the posttest scores of the subjects. Data Analysis Relating to Each Research Question leaching Critical Reading through Folk Literature Qgestion 1: Will there be a difference in the critical reading ability of the sixth graders after direct instruction in critical reading through the guided reading of folk literature? 64 This question was addressed by statistical data and ethnographic observation and examined for the within group effect of the intervention. To measure the statistical significance of the treatment, the following null hypothesis was measured: There will be no significant difference between the scores of A LOOK AT LITERATURE obtained before and after instruction. The two by two analysis of variance performed with the pretest and posttest as the within subject factor answered this question. Without regard to the group, there was no significant difference of the main effect of the pretest-posttest F (1,96) s 1.89: p>'.05. Further investigation of the experimental group with an a priori planned comparison of pretest-posttest did not produce a significant effect with t (49) = 1.04; p>».05. Therefore, according to the results of the test scores, there is no evidence that the intervention improved critical reading of the experimental subjects. A total of fifty pretest scores were reported for the experimental group. Converted scores showed a mean of 48.7, a standard deviation of 9.0, variance of 82.2, and a range of 39 (68, 29). Post- test scores of the experimental group revealed a mean of 49.7, standard deviation of 8.0, variance of 65.1, and a range of 34 (66,32). These data are reported below in Table 4.1. Considering the group as a whole, the difference between pretest and posttest scores averaged 1.0, which indicates an upward trend. To address Question One using ethnographic data, observations were recorded concerning the learning of critical reading relative to 65 Table 4.1 Analysis of Pretest and Posttest Converted Scores for the Experimental Group; Form A and B of A LOOK AT LITERATURE Standard Variable Mean n Deviation Variance Range Pretest: Experimental group 48.7 50 9:1 83.2 39 (68, 29) Posttest: Experimental group 49.7 50 8.1 65.1 34 (66, 32) folk literature, as affected by the intervention. Each of the six critical reading skills taught to the sixth graders is considered separately, and evidence given that indicated that individuals were learning the critical reading skills. The ability to classify types and characteristics of folk literature as a literarypgenre. Following the introductory lessons to folk literature, the pupils were expected to classify stories in the categories of fairy tales, legend, myth, or animal story. They recorded the title and classification for each book they read. In the first few weeks, children did not appear to trust their ability to identify the category for each of the stories. This attitude of dependence was evident when this researcher observed ten to fifteen readers each day asking the researcher's or teacher's opinion before writing down their choice. Difficulties in selecting the proper category was most apparent in identifying the differences between the categories of the fairy tales and legends. Gradually the children were led to trust their own judg- ments. For example, when the children would ask, "Is it a fairy tale?" 66 the teacher would ask, "Why do you think it is a fairy tale?" In response, they would cite one of the characteristics they had learned about fairy tales: "There's magic in it; There's a hero; There's a task to be done." By the tenth week, only one or two children were asking for help with classifying. Three times during the last two weeks of the study, the researcher picked six readers' choices at random, and asked the pupil why s/he had selected that category. The responses indicated that knowledge of the characteristics had been applied to the individual books. Typical response for the choice of legend was: "It explains why something happened the way it did"; of fairy tale: "It had a task that needed doing and it was done with magic"; of animal tale: "That’s easy. The animals are like people"; and of myth: "It tells how things started. " Each fairy tale, legend, myth, or animal tale would be recorded on a card of a representative color. Correct selection was determined by the color of the card chosen by the pupil to record the story read. Of the 401 stories recorded, 360 were named on cards of the appropriate color. This recording indicated that the children classified correctly 90 percent of the time. The ability to compare relevant information from multiple gggrgg§ and recognize agreement or contradiction. During the teaching sessions directed toward development of this skill, most responses to teacher questions were literal. After the teacher read The Winter Wife and Ring in the Prairie, two similar legends from two different 67 cultures, typical responses to how they were alike were: "they both had wives; they both had sons." Replies to how the stories were different followed the same pattern: "one had a lodge, and one had a wigwam; one was in the prairie and one was in the forest." The cumulative nature of critical reading was apparent in the way that the children gradually demonstrated an ability to draw comparison at an evaluative level. During the following week, reviewing the two stories named above, statements did reflect critical reading. Eric replied newly acquired knowledge of categorizing to comparison when he responded, "The second story is different from the first, because it is more like a myth than a legend; It told how certain stars got there." Amy gave evidence of analyzing the nature of the characters and the mood of the story by her statement: There was more violence in the second story. Killing in Winter Life was just for food and what the hunter needed. In Ring in the Prairie the hunter killed the mice for nothing, andfilater took wings and feet off birds. Ugh! The ability to make evaluative comparisons was demonstrated throughout the following weeks through verbal responses to stories. The following episodes are typical of evidence noted in classroom discussion. During week five, the teacher was reading "The Man Who Married the Snow Goose,” from Baba Yaga's Geese. One reader predicted that "the man, wife, and child will all become snow geese, like in Winter Wife, where they all become moose." Another reader replied, "But this story is different. There's a warning that something bad will happen to the man, and I think he won't get back with his wife again." 68 In the sixth week, the researcher joined a group of students discussing the story Anansi the Spider. A pupil said, "It's like §é£. Chinese Brothers because each son has a special thing he can do." Other children responded with comparing the differences between the episodes in each story. A girl ended the discussion with, "But the important thing was, in both stories they all helped and saved their father from trouble. " A teacher-led discussion in the eleventh week of the study explored the rich language of "One-Horned Mountain Goat" from 9353. Upon a Totem written by Christie Harris and illustrated by Douglas Tait, with the terse narrative of The Mountain Goat of Temalham by William Toye and illustrated by Elizabeth Cleaver. The two stories are different versions of the same legend. A lively exchange of ideas followed. Representative responses from within that discussion are as follows. Reference to the first story indicates "One-Horned Mountain Boat,“ and 'second story' refers to Mountain Goat of Temalham. The way the first story tells about the hunt I know that the way the grandfather brought up the boy was good. The second story doesn't make that so important. In the first story, it really makes you mad, the way the boys treated the baby goat. The second story doesn't so much. In the first story, the prince really tries to get the boy to give up the laws. The second story doesn't say that much. . . . It was hard for Du'as. This led to a discussion of peer pressure, and one boy, referring back to Du'as in the story, commented, "It's not easy, even when you know better." 69 The ability_to discover unstated,premises and draw conclusions. The four lessons related to this skill (recorded in Appendix B) took nine sessions. Children were making inferences at the first sessions from details included in the stories about character, setting, and plot. Their engaging in the more advanced kind of thinking inherent in critical reading became apparent only during the last two sessions. A spontaneous remark was made to the class by a boy: It's hard to learn anything about the country in some of the folktales, because the storyteller is so interested in the moral of’the story they don't tell you much else. Children responded to his remark by checking through the books they had at their desks and affirming his opinion or disagreeing with him. One girl replied, "well, they don't really tell you but you can figure it out by what's happening." Jim said, reh, like that story from Silver Lands. It was so hot when the kids were in, they wanted to go out and when they were out they wanted to go in. That really makes you know what it's like. written responses handed in after the last session demonstrated the pupil's ability to draw conclusions about personality of characters in the story, based on conversations, descriptions or actions from self-selected books. Typical responses were as follows: (Girl, after reading "Vasilissa the Fair") vasilissa was my favorite character because she didn't care really that much about herself; she did want to make people happy- [Girl, after reading Tikki Tikki Tempg] Chang and his brother were very close because they were brothers and the way they acted, they were friends, too. [Boy, after reading Br'er Rabbit] The fox and the rabbit had a very bad relationship because both the fox and the rabbit were out to get the best of’each other. 70 The ability to make Judgments based on clearly defined standards. Evidence of learning this critical thinking skill became apparent weeks after the lessons had been taught. The teacher read The Third Gift, retold by Jan Carew and illustrated by Leo and Diane Dillon, to introduce recognition of theme. In the discussion during the reading of the story, listeners gave evidence that they were making judgments. They discussed the last gift, and ten of the twenty-five in one class had ideas about what it should be like, based on the happen- ings in the story. "Everlasting; happiness; brightness; something to keep the village together, like peace; freedom" were responses given by individuals. When the story was completed, the participants recognized the gift as imagination, based on faith. When asked by the teacher, "Is that gift a good choice?" twenty-one students agreed. Others said they would have chosen "happiness, religion, or peace." Answers to, "Why is imagination the best gift?" included: "You can use it all the time, like when someone reads you a book," "When you have a book without pictures," and "When you draw." Two responses indicated that children sensed a broader scope. Amy said, "You can imagine how peace would be if'you were always good to people, or how work would be if’you always did it right." Alex said, "Imagination gives you an incentive to do something. A new idea can always come up. The ability to recggnize the theme of the storygand to evaluate the effectiveness of the,presentation of the theme. In a taped inter- view a pupil described how he recognized the theme in a story. The 7l answers by the pupil (in italics type) and the questions by the researcher (in regular type): Like, what it's trying to get through to you-~what the author is trying to tell you through his book. Can you give me an example of a theme that was in a story you read? well, like "The Miser and His GoLd." Ybu should use your money, don't save it and go crazy over it, you know, don't just sit there and look at it forever. Do you think learning to recognize the message of the author will help you in reading other books? Yeah, I think so. I’m more conscious of'what I'm reading. I'm kind of'reading and, you know, asking myself’questions on what I‘m reading." Pupils became proficient in recognizing themes in fables. The following are typical explanations written after pantomiming fables. Fables are from Aesop unless designated. fgglg_ Child's Response The Lion and the Rat If'you take your time and do it right, it is easier than getting angry. [scott] The Boy Who Cried Wolf People who want attention sometimes get more than they want and so they are worse off'than they were. [Howard] The Lion and the Mouse You don't need to be big to help someone. [Jill] The Fox and the Stork Don't trick somebody or they may seek revenge and trick you back. [Krissy] The Stream Don't ect more than a regular Fables from L. daVinci share. Tom] 72 The ability_to recognize and evaluate the use of language to create sensory images and mood. Understanding figurative language helps a reader view an idea in a new and unusual way, and sharpens critical reading ability. Figurative language "compresses several levels of thought into one language term."1 The ability to paraphrase indicates the thought has really been understood. Examples of figurative language explained in the readers' own words are recorded here from twelve differ- ent pupils. The figurative language was taken from stories they had read or heard, but the phrases had not been discussed in class. "Fine feathers don't make fine birds," from Aesop's Fables. ' A person may look handsome on the outside but he may have a cruel heart. 0 The way they look doesn't mean that they are nice. 0 They are saying that material things don't make you any better than you are. "I can't whistle with another man's mouth," from Behind the Back of the Mountain. 0 You can't always have other people do everything for you. 0 I have to do things for myself’without help. 0 Face up to what you did, don't have another man fight for you. 0 It means you can't talk or think for another person. 0 That person has to do their own thinking and talking. “The Nightingale said to the Emperor, 'I love your heart much better than your crown,'" from The Nightingale, translated by Eva LeGallienne. 0 It means that she loves him not because he's the EMperor but because he's himself. 0 You are better inside than outside. 0 I love you and I'don't care if‘you're rich or not. 0 It means I love you more than your power. 1James Moffett, Student Centered Language Arts and Reading, K-l3 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1976), p. 44l. 73 Difference Between Experimental and Control Groups Question 2: Will there be a difference in the critical reading ability of the sixth graders taught critical reading skills using folk literature and the sixth graders taught critical reading skills through other classroom materials? To answer this question, statistical analysis was determined for two null hypotheses. Null Hypothesis 1 The students who are taught critical reading skills through the use of folk literature will not differ in terms of the scores from students who are taught using the other material. The two by two analysis of variance measured the main effect of group, using the between subject factor. The pretest scores, Form A of A LOOK AT LITERATURE and the posttest scores, Form B of A LOOK AT LITERATURE were compared between the group receiving the intervention and the control group. The results of the comparison between groups did not indicate that critical reading ability of the experimental group was statistically greater than the critical reading ability of the control group F (l, 96) = .Ol7, p>'.DS. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. A total of fifty pretest scores were reported for the experimental group. Converted scores showed a mean of 48.7, standard deviation of 9.0, variance of 82.2, and a range of 39 (68, 29). Post- test scores of the experimental group had a mean of 49.7, standard deviation of 8.0, variance of 65.l, and a range of 34 (66, 32). The control groups contained forty-eight pretest scores. Converted scores 74 showed a mean of 49.0, standard deviation of 8.3, variance of 69.1. and a range of 36 (68, 32). Posttest scores of the control group showed a mean of 49.8, standard deviation of 9.8, a variance of 96.3, and a range of 39 (71, 32). These data are reported in Table 4.2. Table 4.2 Analysis of Pretest and Posttest Converted Scores from A LOOK AT LITERATURE for both Experimental and Control Groups Standard Variable Mean n Deviation Variance Range Pretest: Experimental group 48.7 50 9.1 82.2 39 (68, 29) Posttest: Experimental group 49.7 50 8.l 65.l 34 (66, 32) Pretest: ~ Control group 49.0 48 8.3 69.1 36 (68, 31) Posttest: Control group 49.8 48 9.8 96.3 39 (71, 32) A comparison of mean scores of the two groups show both groups performing better on the posttest than on the pretest, but not at a level of statistical significance, as shown in Figure 4.l below. The experimental group mean for pretest was 48.7, which was lower than the control group mean for pretest of 49.0. The experimental group mean for posttest was 49.7, which was lower than the control group mean for posttest which was 49.8. and the gain for the control group was 0.8. The gain for the experimental group was 1.0 75 50 “ 50 49 P ------------ 49 48 48 47 47 46 _._.—-- Experimental group 46 45 -—-——-—- Control grOUp 45 E:etest Posttest Figure 4.l Mean pretest and posttest scores from Form A and Form B of A LOOK AT LITERATURE for experimental group and control group. Null Hypothesis 2: There will be no significant difference between the pretest scores and the posttest scores of A LOOK AT LITERATURE across two teaching techniques. The second null hypothesis considered in relationship to Question Two is measured by the two by two analysis of variance between pretest and posttest scores across the two teaching techniques. The criterion for rejecting this hypothesis was that the F statistic for the interaction effect of group times pre-post test would be significant at the .05 alpha level. The F (l, 96) value of .008 reached by measuring the interaction effect was greater than .05, as shown in Table 4.3. Therefore, there is no apparent interaction effect between pretest- posttest scores across the two teaching techniques, considering the groups as a whole. Figure 4.l reflects the absence of interaction effect in the fact that the curves are nearly parallel. Table 4.3 76 Table 4.3 Two by Two Analysis of Variance Source Sum of Squares 0F Mean Square F Ratio Main effect of 2.31 l 2.31 group 12850.25 96 133.86 0.017 Main effect of pretest-posttest 42.19 1 42.19 1.890 Interaction effect of group times 0.19 l 0.19 pre-posttest 2144.44 96 22.34 0.008 shows that the two by two analysis of variance with the F ratio for the main effect of group, main effect of pretest—posttest, and interaction effect of group times pro-posttest, all of which fail to reach alpha level of significance. Field Observations Related to Question Two This researcher visited the control classes to be assured that the intervention taking place in the experimental classes was not carried into the control classes, and so that the children could be interviewed without the researcher appearing as a stranger or be associated only with the testing process. An impartial observer visited each classroom in the fourth and ninth week of the study as a control for internal validity of procedure, to offset the possibility of the intervention being carried over into the control classes by the teacher who taught both the experimental and control groups. Differences were noted in the titles and genre of books read 77 both by the teacher to the class and by the children; in the types of questions asked; and in types of pupil activity and classroom displays. The completed observation forms are found in Appendix B. Ten children in the experimental group and ten children in the control group were interviewed by this researcher during the eleventh week of the study. Two differences were evident in the responses given by pupils in taped interviews. One difference was in the level of awareness concerning what had been taught in reading class. The second difference was in the recall of the titles of books read by the children. Differences in Awareness of Learning One question in the interview was "Mrs. has wanted you to learn certain things while you were reading and listening to stories. Can you tell me what these things are?“ In the experimental group, all ten were able to recall a skill, or an aspect of a critical reading skill taught. In the control group, two were able to relate one or more aspect of a critical reading skill, six answered with a general reading skill or the content of the story. Two stated that they didn't know. Responses from the experimental class: [Rochelle] How to define if it's a legend or fairy tale or animal tale and sort of’try to predict what is going to happen like in a few pages or so. [Classifying, plus one aspect of making judgments from clearly defined standards.] [Max] While you're reading you're supposted to find out when the climax is and how many events lead up to the climax. Then you see if it was written good, if’they use good literature. 78 Interviewer, to Max: "How could you tell that?" [Max] By the words they used; how they did it or said it. [An aspect of drawing conclusions from the plot, and evaluating author's use of language.] [Chris] We had to compare stories and see which differences there are between stories and what's the same about the stories. [Tina] Like, what sayings mean and what they think is the moral of’the story. [Use of figurative language and recognizing theme of fable.] The responses from the control classes follow: [Julie] Fact and opinion and character development. [Critical reading ski11.] [Dawn] Well, just to learn about things that happened in the past and stuf , I guess. I'don't really know. [Story content. [Tom] She wants us to learn strange things that happen, like the Bermuda Triangle. Once you read the story she likes to give you information so you know what's going on and stufjfi [Story content.] [Chris] The main idea and characters and everything. [General reading ski11.] Differences in Recall of Story Titles All ten of the children from the experimental group named three or more books or stories that they had read during the portion of the class when pupil selected books from the group of folk literature available in the classroom. In the control classes, children were given choices from a range of paperback books on various topics, and stories from Sprint magazines or Sounds of Distant Drum from SOUNDS OF LANGUAGE series edited by Bill Martin. There was less evidence that they read as much or remembered the stories as clearly as the experimental group. 79 Responses to the interviewer's question: "What have you been reading during free reading time?" are recorded below. The responses from the experimental group follow: [Rochelle] Magic Brush, Sic: Chinese Brothers, The Terrible Hung Gwana, and The Black Hearted Indri. [Chris] Well, I took White Archer home. I read so many at school, like Luffyiand the Devil, One Trick Too Many, all the Fables of Leonardo daVinci, Toma the Terrible. [Greg] I read Scarface, Winter Wife, and I read, oh, lots of’others. Like Wiley and the Hairy Man. [Tammy] I read Aesop's Fables, Firebird, Tikki Tikki Tombo, mostly books about the animals. I'read all the stories in Firebird. The responses from the control group follow: [Mike] I was reading Pinballs for a while. One I read was Tales of the Fourth Grade Nothing. [Missy] I like to read mysteries and things like that. Now I’m reading Jane Emily. I don't remember what I read before. [Julie] Scholastic stories, like "No'pzace to Run," and ”Ordinary People." [Mark] Oh, I'don't really get that much time--I don't think there are any good books. Interviewer to Mark: "The teacher gives you reading time. What do you do during that time? [Mark] Looking for something to read. I go over the books, and don't find any until class is over. One or more pupils in the control classes would use free reading time daily to complete unfinished work from the reading Skillbooks or requirements for other classes. 0n only four occasions were children observed by this researcher in the experimental class doing other work during the free reading time. 80 Differences Within Groupg Question 3: Will there be a difference within the groups for subjects with low, average, or high critical reading ability after the critical reading instruction through folk literature as compared to critical reading instruction with other classroom materials? An analysis of covariance was performed using multiple regression to predict posttest scores from A LOOK AT LITERATURE, Form B, with pretest scores from A LOOK AT LITERATURE, Form A, serving as the covariate and the type of reading material used in instruction as the factor. Two null hypotheses were tested in answer to this question. Null Hypothesis 1: The slopes of the regression line predicting posttest scores from pretest scores will be equal to zero for both types of teaching materials. The following multiple regression equation was determined using a step-down procedure: Posttest = 5.928 + l4.3336 D - .291 (Pretest x 01) l where 01 a 1 if folk literature is used and D1 = 0 if other materials are used. This equation explained .53 of the variance in the posttest scores. The pretest scores account for .50966 of the variance in post- test scores; the group factor, .00002, the group times pretest inter- action, .0198. An F ratio (3, 94) is 35.26 due to group, pretest, and group by pretest interaction, at the <.Ol level of significance, as shown in Table 4.4, page 81. Therefore, the null hypothesis is 81 .8. A9; .mo. Ana Rm mm.o_- pauou mm No.mm em no.Ommm Acoccmv —m=o_moc mm eom.m m~.~m— _ mn.~mp coeuuecmucw amoewca mws_u macaw cu can mm ._m._o_ m¢.Nmmm P m¢.~mmm asses toe umsmsnss ammumcq cu use mm soo.o ¢m_.o _ sm..o smosmca Law umumsnum azocm cu use mm e«_m.om mv.ooo_ N um.mmmm ummumca new anogm o» can mm eso~.mm mm.pomp m om.mmoc =o_uumcoucw can .ummumga .aaocm cu wan mm o_umu a occacm ecummaa macmzcm cowuapcm> Co oucaom cam: mo mmwgmmo ac 53m powwow copuuaumuc_ use .umwuwua .aaogw sou» uwuu_vmua ammuumoa “Aumwuumoav m seed was Aummuwcav < Egoa .m¢=hcou anew: wucavge>ou mo m_mxpu:< e.v o—nmh 82 rejected. Because the validity of predicting the posttest scores from the pretest scores was established, a second null hypothesis was tested. Null Hypothesis 2: The slopes of the regression lines predicting posttest scores from pretest scores will be the same for both types of teaching materials. The analysis of covariance produced an F ratio (1, 94) of 3.96 due to group times pretest interaction, as summarized in Table 4.4, page 81. The regression equation for the experimental group which used folk literature was posttest . 20.65 + .605 (pretest). The regression equation for the control group using other material was posttest 2 5.929 + .896 (pretest). The F ratio of 3.96 was significant at the .01 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected. The slopes of the regression line for each group differ from each other. Subjects in the experimental group with low pretest scores made sig- nificantly greater gains than subjects with average or high pretest scores as compared to subjects in the control group. Figure 4.2 reveals the difference between the posttest scores of experimental group as compared to the control group (E 20.2, C 5.9) is greater at the end of the regressioh line with low pretest scores than at the end of the regression line with high pretest scores (E 50.5, C 50.7). A scattergram on page 84 pictures the distribution of posttest scores from Form B, A LOOK AT LITERATURE, as compared with the pretest scores from Form A, A LOOK AT LITERATURE, for the experimental group. A scattergram on page 85 pictures the distribution of posttest scores as compared with the pretest scores for the control group. 83 Posttest Converted Scores 10 Experimental group ————— 5 [. Control group I n 1 L 1 4‘4 5 10 20 30 40 50 Pretest Converted Scores Figure 4.2 Regression lines predicting posttest scores from A LOOK AT LITERATURE for both experimental and control groups. 84 Err .D--it'll] byli- be... . 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Figure 4.4 Scattergram of posttest converted Form B scores as related to pretest converted Form A scores for control group. 86 The converted scores of A LOOK AT LITERATURE recorded in Table 4.5 are the twelve lowest pretest scores from both the exper- imental group and the control group. The change in score between pretest mean (37.2) and posttest mean (43.7) of the twelve low scores in the experimental group averages +6.5, with a range from +20 to -2. The change in score between pretest mean (38.8) and posttest mean (40.6) for the twelve low scores in the control group averages +l.8 with a range from +8 to -9. Question 4: How was the interest of students relative to folk literature affected by the intervention? Interest in folk literature was apparent from the beginning. After the first day of class. a pupil asked the librarian for a book of legends. the first such request the librarian had had in that school. While on bus duty on the third day of the study, the teacher involved in this study heard children talking about folktales from different countries on the bus. One child said. "I was the first person in the class to read a story about China." Another child said, "well, I've read three Indian legends from North America." The day folk literature was introduced, the teacher read a Russian fairy tale from The Firebird. A boy sitting near the researcher was overheard muttering, "I'don't want to hear a story about Russia." However, three days later, as he walked past he said, "I just read this neat book from Russia, Three Rolls and a Doughnut." His apparent negative attitude about a Russian story evidently had been dissolved. 87 Table 4.5 Converted Scores from A LOOK AT LITERATURE, Form A and Form B for the Twelve Lowest Form A (Pretest) Scores Experimental Group Control Group Pretest Posttest Pretest Posttest Subject Score Score Change Subject Score Score Change 45 29 37 +8 61 31 35 +4 22 30 4l +11 75 31 35 +4 27 34 32 -2 93 37 42 +5 5 36 44 +8 78 38 39 +l 48 36 56 +20 95 38 44 +6 30 38 38 0 73 40 32 -8 l5 4O 48 +8 63 41 47 +6 24 4o 56 +16 97 41 49 +8 26 40 38 -2 61 42 48 +6 8 4l 49 +8 67 42 3l - -9 17 41 44 +3 74 42 43 +1 38 41 41 0 84 42 42 0 Pretest mean a 37.2 Pretest mean = 38.8 Posttest mean a 43.7 Posttest mean a 40.6 Mean of gain a 6.5 Mean of gain 8 l.8 88 At the end of the introductory lessons, during week two of the study, the teacher gave the classes a written quiz to evaluate their knowledge of definitions given for fairy tale, legend, myth, and animal tales. She also asked, "Why do you think people read folk literature today?" Forty children wrote. "It's fun to read." Other responses that indicated a favorable attitude toward the genre included: 0 People like to know what people hundreds of'years ago used to think about. 0 Fun to listen to and you can understand yourself. 0 People like to hear it and people like to tell it. The closest to a negative response was "It's a may to use up time." On Monday of the last week, the teacher announced that many of the books would be returned to the library on Thursday. An immediate outcry was heard from the pupils: 0 I still want to read . . . some Baba Yaga stories; stories from East of the Sun and west of the Moon; 0 I haven't finishedfiall of’FireEird. - Give us free reading time today. Interest in Teacher Readinggto Class Interest in having the teacher read aloud to the class remained high throughout the twelve weeks. The sixth graders were a lively group of children with a wide variance in ability and behavior. The read aloud time was characterized by undivided attention by most of the pupils. The few pupils who were restless did not distract the other listeners. Daily requests would be made for certain books or another story about Br'er Rabbit, Baba Yaga, or Anansi. Children wanted to share books that they liked. One boy said, "I really liked One Trick Too Many, How about reading it to the class?” 89 One boy said, "Will you read Third Gift to us? I tried it and it's too hard, but it looks so good." One boy checked out the Complete Tales of Uncle Remus from the local public library and practiced a story at home. He read it to the class using the dialect effectively. Matt brought to class a ceramic figurine of Tar Baby his mother had made for him "when I was a little kid," and a well-worn edition of Uncle Remus tales that his parents used to read to him. Eleven to twelve-year-old boys are usually peer conscious. and tend to avoid action that their friends would dub childish. Nonetheless Matt showed the figurine with pride, and he was not teased in class. Interest in Individualized Reading Evidence of interest in reading self-selected folktales from the collection was apparent. Almost daily, one or several would ask, "can we have time to read on our own today?" Familiarity with a book appeared to increase interest, and books the teacher had read were often the self-selected choices. Igg- Loon's Necklace was read by fourteen children after it was read aloud by the teacher. After hearing a story about Baba Yaga from Firebird read by the teacher, twenty-three children read Baba Yaga stories from three different collections: Firebird by Boris Zvorykin; Baba Yaga's Geese and Other Stories, by Bonnie Carey; and Baba Yaga Stories by Katherine O'Connor, and a single volume, Baba Yaga by Ernest Small. The pupils were told that the teacher wanted to keep track of the stories they read, and they recorded each title on cards 90 provided by the teacher. No competition was encouraged nor was emphasis placed on number of stories read by each child. Observation of the pupils during self-directed time revealed that they were honest about recording, with the tendency toward forgetting to fill out the cards rather than filling out more than they had read. From the classroom collection of 120 books, a total of 401 folktales were read by indi- viduals, as indicated in Table 4.6. The range in number of stories read per pupil was from seventeen read by one girl, to three read by three girls and one boy. The classroom folk literature library included fifty books with single folktales and seventy books with a collection of stories within one volume. All the books with single stories were picture books except for three legends by James Houston: Ghost Paddle, Tikta'Liktak, and White Archer. Books with one folktale were more popular than the anthology of tales. The storybooks were read 269 times, and stories from anthologies chosen l32 times. The ten stories chosen by most individuals are listed below. The author named is the person credited with adapting or retelling the literary version. Number of Children Title Author Who Read the Story Anansi the Spider Gerald McDermott l3 Arrow to the Sun Gerald McOermott 15 The First Morning, Margery Bernstein l8 Foma the TerribTE' Guy Daniels (translator) 7 Legend of Scarface Robert San Souci lO [Son‘s Necklace William Toye l4 one Fine Day_ Nonny Hogrogrian 8 Sorcererrs A rentice Wanda Gag 7 likEi-likki-iembo Arlene Mosel l5 Wiley and'the Hairy Mgg_ Molly Bang 9 91 Table 4.6 Number of Self-Selected Books Recorded by Boys and Girls as Having Been Read by that Person During Classtime Number Read by Number of Combined Books Read Boys Girls Total 17 0 l7 l7 l5 3O l5 45 I4 28 14 42 l3 l3 0 l3 12 O 24 24 ll ll ll 22 9 18 l8 36 8 24 24 48 7 2l 7 28 6 36 18 54 5 5 15 20 4 20 20 4O 3 3 9 l2 Total 209 l92 40l aNumber of times folktale anthologies were selected - l32; number of times individual storybooks were selected a 269. 92 The eight anthologies of folktales that were chosen most often are listed below. Unless otherwise indicated, the author cited is the compiler and adaptor of the folktales in the collection. Number of Children Who Read Stories Title Author in the Collection Ae50p's Fables Jacob Lawrence 15 Baba Yaga's Geese Bonnie Carey 12 Firebird Borris Zvorykin, translator and illustrator 7 Fable of Leonardo da Vinci Bruno Nardini 6 The Lazies Mirra Ginsburg 7 One Trick Too Many, Mirra Ginsburg 8 Tit for Tat Mae Durham 5 Whistle in the Graveyard Maria Leach 12 Readers from the low scoring group who measured significant gains in posttest, read a combined total of eighty-three stories during the self-directed reading periods. The range was from one boy reading fifteen, to a girl reading three. Books read by several in that group include Tikki Tikki Tembo by Arlene Mosel, The First Morning by Margery Bernstein, Arrow to the Sun by Gerald McDermott, One Trick Too Many_by Mirra Ginsburg. Winter Wife by Anne Crompton, One Fine Day by Nanny Hogrogian, Duffy and the Devil by Harve Zemach, Anansi the Spider by Gerald McDermott, and several of Aesop's Fables. The children appeared to recommend them to one another, and some of the above titles were on a waiting list. The interest of boys in reading folktales was noteworthy. The boys read 209 stories compared to 192 for the girls. Data summarizing 93 pupil's book selection are found in Table 4.6, page 91. All four categories were chosen frequently by the readers, with the number count as follows: Fairy tales ......... 88 Myths ............ 48 Legends ........... 163 Animal tales ......... 102 Interest Demonstrated Through Sharing Children were eager to share story experiences. Pairs of students made posters to illustrate a folktale appropriate to Halloween. Choices of books for this were Ghostly Folktales by Moritz Jagendorf; Whistle in the Graveyard: Folktales to Chill Your Bones by Maria Leach; One Trick Too Many by Mirra Ginsburg; Wileygand the Hairy Man by Molly Bang; and Baba Yaga by Ernest Small. Nearly all the children showed the poster and then read parts or all of the story to the class, without being asked by the teacher. Many had practiced the story together and read it as a play. A favorite activity was preparing simple masks and, wearing the masks, pantomiming a fable with a partner. Fables from Aesop were chosen such as "The Grasshopper and the Ant," "The Lion and the Rat," ”The Crow and the Fox," "The Mouse and the Lion." The pupils were not required to perform the pantomime for the class, but practiced it to demonstrate by their actions that they understood the theme of the story. All the children chose to perform their fable for the rest of the class. 94 Change of Attitude Demonstrated by Readers Visible excitement for learning was observed in the children as they seemed to be discovering greater depth of meaning to their reading. This was obvious from general classroom behaviors, such as the pupils taking on the task of settling the class down quickly with remarks such as "Hush, we want to get to the books," or "come on, we want to hear a story today." Children who seldom responded in their other classes, according to teacher team members, became active par- ticipants in post-reading discussions, and during reading prediction making. Of the twelve children who had the lowest pretest scores, seven increased in contributions to discussions. Anecdotal observations indicated a change of attitude in particular students. Vicki was having difficulty with the written assignment about drawing conclusions from character portrayal. She was reading Baba Yaga by Ernest Small, and could not answer the ques- tion, "Why does the character do what he or she did in the story?" She was guided with a further probing question, "What did Marusia do that had to happen or else the story would have been very different?" Similar help was given with another question. Then she handed in her paper, she remarked, "This is really fun once you get going. I never really read carefully before." Danny was a boy who was performing very poorly in all his other classes. He frequently volunteered an opinion in class discussions. During the first six weeks he read two folktales on his own, and during the last six weeks, he read six. Dan showed evidence of critical read- ing in his interpretation of the fable, "The Crow and the Fox." He read 95 the story with a partner, made a mask for one of the animals, and pantomimed the story. Before beginning the pantomime, he told the teacher, "This story tells you not to get so greedy that you try to get more and lose what you have." When folk literature was introduced and the teacher was reading "Firebird." Randy disrupted the class by talking aloud during the story reading and poking the people near him. After class when the teacher asked him about his behavior, he said the story was dumb and not real. We liked stories with real meaning. She asked him to give the stories a chance, and see if they would become more sensible, and then talk to her if they still bothered him. The next day, at free reading time, he chose Wiley and the Hairngan. He was soon laughing to himself and sharing it with a friend. Two weeks later when the class made posters. Randy made an elaborate poster of Wiley capturing the Hairy Man, and took it home to hang in his tree house. The following is an interview with Randy near the end of the study (the interviewer's questions and comments in regular type, Randy's in italics). You have been reading folk literature for about ten weeks now. What do you think about that? well, some stories are good. Mbst of’them are pretty good. Do you remember something you said the very first day when we started reading folk literature? No. You said, "These stories are dumb!" Have you changed your mind? Yeah. Why have you changed your mind? I'don't know. I just understand them better when we talk about them more. 96 Randy recorded thirteen stories that he had read, and was an active participant in pantomiming fables. When Brian was chosen to be interviewed he said, "I think I better tell you that I don't like to read." The interview began, as the others had, with the statement, "You have been reading folk lit- erature for about eleven weeks now. Tell me about it." Brian responded, "well, reading isn't one of'my better subjects like I said before, but folktales are okay." He read nine folktales, namely Baba Yaga's Geese, Arrow to the Sun, Duffy and the Devil, The Day Tuk Became a Hunter, "Old Tom Comes Home," "A Shrewd Woman," four stories from Aesop's Fables, Winter Wife, and Anansi the Spider. His favorite was The Day Tuk Became a Hunter because he liked the drama of it. That. book was more difficult than most in the collection, and only one other person read it. When told that he had read nine stories, he said, "I didn't know it was that many. I never read at home.’ I don't even own any books." A boy who was a good reader said, "It's fun to read folk literature. I like to read and it's like I found something new. Like, usually I'just like mysteries and sports, but it's got me into something else. Other Findings Another finding of this researcher was that eleven and twelve year old readers will accept and enjoy picture books. Both teacher and researcher were listening for remarks from the children indicating that they thought the books were for younger children, but no such remarks 97 were made. Fifty-seven of the books in the collection were illustrated, single tales which could be classified as picture books. These books accounted for 269 of the books read by the pupils in self-selected reading time. The sixth graders appeared naive in their understanding and appreciation of book illustration. Questions directed toward evaluating the illustrations received answers such as "they are pretty good illustrations, they are exciting, they are colorful. ” Heightened awareness of the contribution of illustration to text, and evaluation of the effectiveness of the art indicated that interpretation of art could be developed along with critical reading. In the lesson on comparisons, the teacher showed the illustrations from Winter Wife illustrated by Robert Parker and Ringgjn the Prairie illustrated by Leo and Diane Dillon. Children responded with answers directed toward the content of the picture: "Winter Wife shows woods . . moose . . . snow . . . hunter. Ring in the Prairie showa meadouIs, flowers, dancing girls. " After the lesson comparing illustrations (Appendix 8, page 171), the teacher showed the same illustrations from the two books. She asked, "After studying illus- trations yesterday, what can you tell us about these two pictures?" Their responses follow: - Illustrations in Winter Wife are gentle and soft. Colors make it more peaceful. In Ring in the Prairie the art is powerful and colorful. But it’s kind of phony, with Indians dancing around. Yeah, sort of like T. V. Fake! Another finding was the apparent role of creative dramatics as a vehicle for responding both critically and creatively to literature. 98 When offered the opportunity to act out a story, none chose to do so. Later, when the pantomime activity was planned and directed, the pupils participated enthusiastically. The use of the mask appeared to free them from self-consciousness so apparent with the ten to twelve year old age group. Two girls did not want to put on their masks, and were left on the sidelines to observe. Within five minutes, they had donned their masks and joined the group. Time was spent practicing body move- ments wearing the mask before planning the action of the fable. This appeared to free the children for a more complete response when they pantomimed the story. All the pupils chose to perform their pantomime for the group. Summary and Overview of Chapter IV A two by two variance of analysis performed with Form A of A LOOK AT LITERATURE as the pretest, and Form B of A LOOK AT LITERATURE as the posttest, failed to reject the null hypothesis for.question one that there would be no difference after instruction in critical reading. This was rejected without regard to the group, showing the main effect of pretest-posttest as F (l, 96) a 1.89; p> .05. An a-priori planned comparison of pretest-posttest for teaching critical reading through guided folk literature did not produce a significant effect with t (49) - 1.04; p> .05. This question was also answered through analysis of data collected within the classroom during the twelve weeks. Observations concerning each of the six specific critical reading skills were recorded in this chapter. 99 Question Two was answered with the between group analysis of variance indicating that there was no difference in critical reading ability between the experimental group and the control group as tested with A LOOK AT LITERATURE. F (l, 96) 8 .017; p> .05. Furthermore, the analysis of variance revealed no apparent interaction effect between pretest-posttest scores across the two teaching techniques. The F ratio (1, 96) equalled .OOB, p.> .05. Differences were observed between the two groups, and these differences were interpreted with field study data. An analysis of covariance using a multiple regression equation measured Question Three: Was the difference within groups greater for subjects with low, average, or high pretest scores? This test revealed that subjects in the experimental group with low pretest scores made significantly greater gains than subjects with average or high pretest scores as compared to the control groups. F (l, 94) = 3.96, p<=.05. Question Four, how was the interest of students relative to folk literature affected by the intervention, was measured by field study data obtained in the experimental class. The data were related to interest in teacher reading to the class; interest in individual reading; interest demonstrated through sharing; and observable changes of attitude. Other findings were related to the use of picture books with sixth graders. and the effectiveness of creative dramatics. Chapter Five will contain a summary of the findings, conclu- sions, discussion of the findings, and implications for classroom teaching and teacher training. CHAPTER V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS This chapter contains a summary of the findings, discussion of the conclusions, and implications concerning the feasibility of teaching critical reading skills through the guided reading of folk literature to sixth graders. Recommendations for further research in areas related to this study are also presented. Examination of related literature indicated that the teaching of critical reading has been acknowledged by most educators in curric- ulum planning as one of the major goals of reading programs in American- elementary schools. However, results of the 1975 National Assessment of Educational Progress show a decline in critical reading among thir- teen and seventeen-year-olds, along with an increase in general reading comprehension. Although the need for teaching critical reading is apparent, a greater need is evident-~namely, to provide the teacher with materials and methods to be able to teach critical reading. Guided study of folk literature was chosen by this researcher to teach critical reading because this genre of literature has substance worthy of being read critically and has a variety of interesting and amusing stories that appeal to most readers. To explore the feasibility of using folk literature to teach critical reading, two classes of sixth graders were taught six specific lOO 101 critical reading skills by means of lessons guiding the reading of folk literature, and two control classes were taught the same critical reading skills using other materials excluding folk literature. All four classes were taught by the same teacher, with the researcher present as participant-observer. The study investigated four main questions. Each question is presented in this chapter, followed by a summary of the findings, discussion of conclusions, and implications. Critical Reading of Folk Literature Question 1: Will there be a difference in the critical reading ability of the sixth graders after direct instruction in critical reading through the guided reading of folk literature? There was no significant difference in the critical reading ability after instruction as measured by the posttest of A LOOK AT LITERATURE compared to the pretest results. The two by two analysis of variance indicated an F ratio (1,96) of 1.89 at p> .05. An a priori comparison of pretest-posttest measuring the experimental group reveals no significant effect with t (49) - 1.05, p> .05. Therefore, test results do not indicate a statistically significant difference in the group as a whole. Analysis of data obtained from participant—observation, teacher and pupil interviews, and pupil's written work support the conclusion that critical reading ability did improve as a result of direct instruc- tion in critical reading of folk literature. This evidence built up slowly, with pupils gaining an ability and confidence as more teaching lOZ took place. By the tenth week, types of folktales were classified by the pupils with 90 percent accuracy as compared with less than 50 per- cent when the classifying was begun by the pupils. By the eleventh week, children were making evaluative comparisons. Reflective thinking inherent in critical reading was apparent in the final two lessons which dealt with discovering unstated premises and drawing conclusions. The ability to make judgments and to recognize theme were confirmed in responses made to teacher-led discussions, taped interviews, and in written assignments in the final weeks of the study. Pupil responses in the early weeks of the study tended to lack evidence of critical reading as noted by researcher, teacher, and impartial observer. Conclusions drawn from findings for question one are as follows. The improvement in the pupil's ability to demonstrate critical reading as evidence across the whole group was not supported by the results of statistical data measuring performance on A LOOK AT LITERATURE: Coop- erative Test of Critical Reading and Appreciation of Literature. This researcher is of the opinion that two factors influenced this finding. First, the three month time interval was too short, given the nature of critical reading develOpment. Secondly, measuring critical reading needs a more sensitive instrument than that which was used in this study.1 1A third factor that could have influenced posttest scores was the timing of the test. As a result of a teacher strike which delayed school opening, the research study extended into December, ending seven days before Christmas vacation. The evening prior to the posttest, thirty-eight of the subjects were in a choir program. Of that group, twenty-seven scored at or below their pretest scores in the posttest. Of the sixty-one who were not in the program, ten scored below their pretest score in the posttest. 103 Evidence from each of the six specific critical reading skills taught in the sixth grade classroom leads to the conclusion that the ability to read critically develops gradually. Evaluative comparisons were not made until nearly a week after instruction. Readers did not become adept at making judgments until they had practice with recog- nizing the unfolding of the plot, and understanding the theme. This cumulative nature of critical reading became more apparent as each new critical reading skill was introduced. Thus, delaying the posttest and continuing the practicing of the newly acquired skills far another month could probably have given more definitive results. Critical reading in the classroom was evident primarily through verbal interaction with ideas of other readers or in reply to questions from the teacher. Written responses were statements or phrases,. expressed in the reader's own words.- Students indicated that it took time to think about what they read. By contrast, the test required checking an apprOpriate answer with no opportunity for the reader to write his or her opinion. Although the test was not timed, the nature of testing is such that the reader tends not to take time to think through the response. A more sensitive measure may have been more indicative of the student's ability. An implication to be drawn from the evidence of the cumulative nature of critical reading is that teachers should recognize that immediate results may not be expressed by the learner. Direct instruc- tion can be more effective when followed with opportunity to practice critical reading by the individual and with opportunity to share ideas 104 gained from that self-directed reading. In the elementary classroom, critical reading instruction should be an on-going objective, not to be pursued with intensity for a limited amount of time. The teacher who cooperated with this research is continuing to teach critical reading. She asked to retain the collection of folk literature placed in the classroom by the researcher, and introduced the folktales to the control classes to reinforce the critical reading skills taught through other materials. The teacher's attitude toward the children's ability to respond with evidence of critical thinking changed after her involvement in the study. In a final interview, she stated that before the study began she did not think that the low-achieving readers would be able to make critical response based on their own reading. Throughout the twelve weeks the verbal responses of those readers indicated that they were reading critically. After the study was completed, the children read biographies. The teacher stated that reports written by the children who had the instruction in critical reading of folk literature gave evi- dence of critical reading of the biography. She planned to continue using teaching strategies developed in the study with all her classes. Difference Between Experimental afidOControlfGroups Question 2: Will there be a difference in the critical reading ability of the sixth graders taught critical reading skills using folk literature and the sixth graders taught critical reading through other classroom materials? 105 There was no significant difference in the critical reading ability between groups as measured with the two by two analysis of variance using the between group factor. An F ratio (1,96) of .017 failed to reach the .05 level of significance. The amount of improve- ment from pretest to posttest was nearly the same (E a 1.0, C a 0.8) as measured by comparing whole group means. The analysis of variance revealed no apparent interaction effect between pretest-posttest scores of A LOOK AT LITERATURE, across the two teaching techniques. An F ratio measuring the interaction effect was .008, p> .05. Taking the group as as a whole, the two teaching techniques showed no difference as measured by pretest-posttest means. The slopes of the curves for both control groups and experimen- tal groups were similar and,parallel. Both groups had a wide range of scores (C a 36, 39; E - 39, 34) and differences between pretest—posttest means were positive but not great enough to measure significance (E. 1.0; CIIO.8). Therefore, no conclusions can be drawn from the analysis of variance about differences regarding the group as a whole. However, a multiple regression procedure produced significant results of within group differences as discussed in question three. An analysis of field study data indicated a difference between the attitude of the teacher and the pupils towards the folk literature instruction as compared to instruction through other materials. Observable differences between the experimental and control classes led this researcher to conclude that more active learning was taking place in the experimental classes. 106 The impartial observer (described in Chapter Four) who was not aware of the nature of the study, noted that in two of the classes the children seemed to be making judgments on their own more than in the other two classes. Classes two and three were the classes studying folk literature. She reported: In classes two and three the teacher seems to have more opportunity to teach the skill even though children are all reading different books. They are delving into liter- ary skills that will be with them the rest of their lives. They are communicating by writing. The written assignments make them put it in their own words, getting more thought process. In the other classes they are checking answers, but didn't have to come up with them themselves. Interviews reported in Chapter Four exhibited the higher level of awareness that the pupils in the experimental class had concerning the skill that they were learning than the pupils in the control classes. The replies from the experimental group focused on the critical reading skills while the replies from the control group indicated attention to the content of the material. At the same time, the pupils in the control group were unable to recall as many specific books read as the experimental group subjects. This familiarity with the books observed in the group reading folk literature made those readers active participants in the class. In the control classes the children accepted what the teacher had chosen and listened atten- tively, but did not request particular books like the other classes did. One exception to that was a two-week unit with the control group using factual material about the sinking of the SS Fitzgerald on Lake Michigan. Several children asked the teacher to read more about that, and five pupils found other sources themselves to read. This type of 107 involvement was almost constant in the experimental classes, with daily requests for particular books. At the end of the researcher's stay in the school, she showed slides of the events of the past weeks, taken randomly while children were working in all four classes. During the showing, the group who had read folk literature started identifying the books they saw in the slides. All the books were identified, usually with a chorus calling out the title, recognized by the cover. The importance of the type of questions asked by the teacher in eliciting critical response was apparent in teaching critical reading to these classes. Both convergent and divergent questions were neces- sary for developing critical understanding of the material. The diffi- cult part was for the teacher to know when the reader knew enough about the story to give evaluative answers to divergent questions. It is easy to understand why much teaching of critical reading has stopped at the analysis state, as Sara Lundsteen stated (see Chapter One, page 6 of this dissertation). The teacher must work very consciously at asking the right questions. The content of the folktales stimulated more evaluative questions than the other instructional materials. In an interview with the researcher, the teacher related, Part of teaching critical reading is asking the right questions. Folktales led me to more sophisticated thinking questions. I don't think I was really teaching critical reading in the other classes, although the material called it that [Be a Better Reader, by Nila B. Smith]. I used to think it was beyond the kids to answer these kinds of questions, but I found out it's not. Most materials are too shallow to make worthwhile questions. The kinds of questions she referred to are found in the sample lessons, Appendix B. For example, in a lesson on evaluating the author's use of 108 language through making comparisons, two accounts about the same episode are read as written in two different versions of the same folktale. The questions asked were: "Which account gives you the clearest picture of what is happening? Why? How does the storyteller give you a feel for the setting? Explain why it is important to the story?" . The teacher's attitude toward the teaching of folk literature led this researcher to conclude that this genre is not only a viable source for teaching critical reading, but an appealing one for a teacher to use. In the estimation of this researcher, the teacher involved in this study was doing a better than average job of teaching critical reading to her control classes, following her tried and accepted methods and materials used for the past three years. Her reaction to teaching through folk literature agreed with Janet Hickman's con- clusion: Teachers who provide and present literature also inevitably respond to it themselves.1 The teacher asserted that folktales lend themselves easily to teaching skills, because the stories generate ideas. The teacher involved in this study said, It was easier to plan a critical reading lesson with folk literature even though it was new to me. I enjoyed reading the books at home. The vivid language and appealing imagery made interesting reading. I have chosen high interest material for the other classes but they seem rather dull in comparison to folktales. The above conclusions allude to two implications for teacher education. The first is the need for training in the art of questioning, 'Janet Hickman, "Response to Literature in a School Environment, Grades K-5" (Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio State University, 1979), p. 174. 109 and the second is the need to develop a working knowledge of folk literature. Teacher education in questioning strategies should be offered within the larger framework of understanding the nature of critical reading and its importance as part of a reading program. Then the folk literature for developing critical reading should be selected and a working knowledge pursued. The teacher should not be satisfied with versions of folktales in basal readers or anthologies, but should seek out the many well-translated and rewritten single volumes and reputable collections available. The actual forming of questions for teaching critical reading will be generated by the story chosen. In- service programs planned to assist teachers in implementing critical reading of folk literature should include a knowledge base for folk literature as well as methods of evoking critical response from the learners. Differences Within Groups _ Question 3: Will there be a difference within the groups for subjects with low, average, or high critical reading ability after the critical reading instruction through folk literature as compared to critical reading instruction with other classroom materials? An analysis of covariance was performed using multiple regression to predict posttest scores from A LOOK AT LITERATURE, Form B, with pretest scores, A LOOK AT LITERATURE, Form A, serving as the covariate and the type of reading material used in instruction as the factor. The F ratio (1,94) produced due to the group times 110 pretest interaction reached a .05 level of significance (F = 3.96, p<=.05). The subjects in the experimental group with low pretest scores improved significantly in posttest scores in comparison with the subjects in the control group with low pretest scores. The mean of the twelve lowest pretest scores for the experimental group was 37.2. Posttest score mean (n==12) was 43.7, with a difference of +6.5. The mean of the twelve lowest pretest scores for the control group was 38.8. Posttest score mean for the control group (n- 12) was 40.6, with a difference of +1.8. This finding supports the conclusion that folk literature is a viable means of teaching critical reading skills to low achieving pupils. The analysis of covariance tested whether it was possible to predict posttest scores of A LOOK AT LITERATURE from pretest scores of A LOOK AT LITERATURE for both types of teaching materials, measuring group, pretest and interaction. The results showed an F ratio (3.94) of 35.26, p; .01. Therefore, posttest scores can be predicted from pretest for the two groups for both types of teaching materials. The predictive value of the pretest, group factor, and group times pretest interaction accounted for 53 percent of the variance in the posttest scores. This is important to this study in relationship to predicting the differences within groups. This value verifies that an accurate prediction can be made concerning the difference within the groups for subjects with low, average, or high pretest scores. The difference between the scores of the twelve lowest scoring subjects in the experimental classes as compared with the twelve lowest 111 scoring subjects in the control group was a significant statistical result of this study. An explanation for the significant improvement in the group using folk literature could be the high level of interest in the reading material and the freedom given the students to select the book of their choice. It appears that this self-selection helped to maintain the interest, and also made it possible for the low achieving readers to find an interesting book that they were able to read. Thus, they were able to be active participants in reading as well as listening, and to produce their own ideas as well as respond to teacher directed discussion. When the researcher asked a boy from this group if he could find books that he could read, he replied with, "Yeah, there were lots of’books I was comfortable with reading." The average number of books read by this group (seven), with a range from fifteen to three, confirms this researcher's belief that low achieving children will read, if good books are available. The significant gains of the low scoring subjects in the classes using folk literature leads to the conclusion that low achieving readers can learn critical reading skills in the regular classroom through competent instruction and worthwhile and interesting literature. Often an overemphasis on word recognition and literal comprehension teaching for the low-achieving reader keeps that pupil from the act of reading. A commonly held assumption that the low-scoring reader can only read simple, vocabulary-controlled books was not upheld by this research. The achievement of the low scoring subjects supports the research of Gloria Boodt reported in Chapter Two of this study. Boodt's study indicated that direct instruction in critical listening 112 through the teacher reading literary materials improved the critical reading ability of remedial readers. An implication of this finding for teacher education is to recognize that the low achieving pupil can learn in the regular class- room. The children were able to understand the rich language of a well-written folk story and to go beyond word recognition and literal meaning to interpreting, analyzing, and evaluating what they read. Folktales appeal to this group because the tales are interesting and worth reading. The stories are understandable because of their regular story patterns and predictable characters. However this study shows that having the folk literature in the room is not enough. Becoming familiar with the books through teacher reading aloud and direct teaching through critical listening is a necessary component of successful development of critical reading. Allowing time for sharing responses after self-directed reading is equally important for the reading of folk literature to produce critical reading. Interest of Students Relating to TFolk Literature Question 4: How was the interest of students relative to folk literature affected by the intervention? Evidence of readers' interest was analyzed in relationship to interest in listening to the teacher reading to the class, interest in individual reading, interest demonstrated through sharing, and observ- able change of attitude. This evidence supported the conclusion that folk literature provides a feasible means of teaching critical reading which appeals to the sixth grade reader. 113 Interest was generated and maintained at a higher level than anticipated by either the researcher or the teacher in the experimental classes. The researcher was concerned that the length of time spent concentrating on one genre of literature would cause a waning of inter- est. At the end of the study the teacher stated, "Neither I nor the students grow tired of it because of the variety and depth of the stories." The teacher expressed surprise at how well the children settled down to reading books of their choice. Prior to this experiment she had been reluctant to allow free selection during the class period because of the class time spent searching for a book. She did not presume that the children could find books that were suitable in read- ability, content, and topic. After the first week of this study, and continuing to the end, most children appeared to know which book they wanted to read, and made suitable choices for the purpose of the assignments. . Favat's conclusions (as stated in Chapter Two, page 38, of this dissertation) that interest in fairytales reaches a peak at the age of six to eight, and declines by the age of ten, were not verified by the results of this study. Interest was not only evident, but it intensified as more time was devoted to reading the folk literature. This appears to indicate that instruction can help develop or maintain interest in folk literature. This researcher stated in Chapter One that the genre of folk literature is appealing to children and provides a multi-dimension of content that makes it appropriate for a child's understanding. This 114 statement has been verified by the reception the folk literature received by these sixth graders. The assumption of many educators is that boys in the intermediate grades are not as interested in reading as girls. This assumption was challenged by this study. The high level of interest of boys in reading folktales leads to the conclusion that if the reading material is interesting enough, boys will read as much or more than girls. Of the 401 stories read by the children in the two classes using folk literature, 209 were read by boys and 192 were read by girls. Nine of the twelve readers in the subgroup making significant gains were boys. The importance of having the books available in the classroom was apparent in this class. Children would dash back to the bookcase to get the book that proved their point in a discussion, or one they wanted to compare with the book the teacher was reading. When children shared their posters, they wanted the books there to show also. Janet Hickman observed this effect in her study of children's response and named a rule of operation: Talk about a book you can touch.1 Part of the enjoyment of the book was being able to comment about it with another reader. This researcher was grateful to the classroom teacher for stimulating a sharing atmosphere that fostered that interaction. There was more spontaneous sharing done after the planned projects, which suggest that the children grew in the desire to share, and/or became more free to talk about books. Hickman found 1Janet Hickman, "Response to Literature in a School Environment, Grades K-5" (Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio State University, 1979), p. 174. 115 this desire to comment about books with peers in children from kindergarten to fifth grade. The sustained interest shown in the folktales implies that such books should be made available to intermediate grade pupils. One of the boys who was enthusiastic about reading folk literature stated, "It's like I'fbund something new." Folk literature, a genre older than the printed word, could be something new for teachers to use to stimu- late interest in reading and to develop critical reading ability. Ten to twelve-year-old readers respond to folk literature because they are at an age when they are developing a sense of the world. They sense the universality of the message of the storyteller and can relate to the wishes, dreams, and problems of other people. In the setting of' the folktale a distance is kept between the reader and the action because the situations where the problems are met are removed from their own experience. Therefore, a more powerful emotion can be accepted by the reader than in realistic fiction where the similarity to their own situation could threaten their privacy. In addition, the universal need for humor is fulfilled in many folktales. The story may be problem-centered, but often the problem is solved with humor, and many characters possess the admirable trait of being able to laugh at themselves. The children are interested in these books, but they need an understanding teacher who is actively interested in folk literature and can appreciate a good story, to share these tales with them. 116 Retrospective Conclusions The field study observations made during this project led this researcher to the conclusion that the classroom ethos of the folk literature reading classes was superior to that of the control class- rooms. The appeal of the folk literature was a major contributing factor. The content of the books was the focal point of the children's interest. Children came to class eager to read and respond to books' they had listened to or read the previous day. Daily motivation by the teacher was unnecessary, as it appeared that the children generated their own enthusiasm for reading. The instructional strategies contributed to the improved classroom ethos. Responses given in interviews with the researcher indicated that the pupils in the folk literature groups appeared to be more aware of what had been taught in reading class than the pupils in the control groups. Examination of interview responses and written assignments revealed more evidence of applying the critical reading lessons to self-directed reading by the pupils in the experimental classes than in the control classes. Although the teacher expected the children to be able to learn critical reading, she did not antic- ipate the depth of the response she received in the folk literature classes. It could be suggested that the effectiveness of the teaching strategies was directly related to the material used, and to the teacher's attitude as she, along with her pupils, became increasingly enthusiastic about folktales. 117 Problems Encountered in This Research Testing of the experimental group and the control group was limited to one pretest and one posttest, upon request of the school administration. Administering an additional test such as the Sequential Test of Educational Progress could have helped measure the growth of the readers. The STEP test measures both general reading achievement and interpretation and evaluation. A LOOK AT LITERATURE was selected for the one measure because it proported to measure critical reading and appreciation. The grouping of the classes was done by the sixth grade team by the teachers, not by the researcher. The effect of this limitation was negligible because of using two classes for each group. The combined classes offered range and variation among the students comparable to random sampling. The time limitation of three months produced too short a time interval between the pretest and the posttest. Critical reading development probably could be measured more accurately over a longer time interval. The departmentalization of the sixth grade class made follow-up activities difficult to complete and limited critical reading instruction to the time block prescribed. It was not possible to observe whether or not children practiced critical reading in other reading situations. 118 Recommendations for Further Research This study should be replicated over a longer period of time. This researcher recommends developing the knowledge base for folk literature more slowly and allowing for more time for sheer enjoyment of the story before beginning the critical reading instruction. The interval between testing should be increased to a semester or, preferably, an entire school year. This study should be replicated in a self-contained classroom. This would remove confining the activities generated by the instruction to the limitations of the time block allotted in a departmentalized school. There is a need to research and develop a more sensitive measure of critical reading ability. In a search for an appropriate test, this researcher found little choice available. There are no instruments measuring critical reading that have been standardized. Folktales for this study were selected according to the coun- tries that are studied in Social Studies class in the sixth and seventh grade. A follow-up research to determine whether or not the introduction of the pupils to folktales of the country affected their understanding or interest in those countries in Social Studies class would be worthwhile. The format of instruction using the two elements: teacher reading to the class with direct instruction in critical reading, and pupils implementing the instruction through reading in self-selected books followed by sharing responses, could be combined with children's literature covering genres other than folk literature to assess the effectiveness of the method. 119 An exploratory study of the role of creative dramatics in improving creative and critical reading would be a feasible study. The amount of enthusiasm generated by the classes in the limited opportunities for creative drama given in this study indicates that this area should be eXplored. An investigation of understanding and appreciation of art through a study of book illustration with intermediate grade children could help teachers use book illustration more effectively. APPENDICES APPENDIX A TEACHING SUGGESTIONS AND TITLES USED IN THE STUDY APPENDIX A TEACHING SUGGESTIONS AND TITLES USED IN THE STUDY Teaching the Specific Critical Reading Skills Six skills were selected from the elementary reading curriculum guide for direct teaching through folk literature to the sixth graders. 1. 2. The ability to classify ideas into groups and subgroups; The ability to compare relevant information from multiple sources and recognize agreement or contradiction; The ability to discover unstated premises and draw conclusions; The ability to make a judgment based on clearly defined standards; The ability to recognize the theme of the story and to evaluate the effectiveness of the presentation of the theme; and The ability to recognize and evaluate the use of language to create sensory images and mood, including interpretation of figurative language. The teacher's role in developing these skills includes directing the reader's attention to the story for a response, so 120 121 that critical reading does not become equated with personal judgments, such as "I don't like it," or "I wouldn't do that." This necessitated adroit questioning on the part of the teacher to direct the reader's attention to the story and at the same time draw on the background experience of the reader. Questions designed to lead the readers to the above evaluations should also lead the readers to formulating their own questions and discovering their own answers. A brief description of each subskill and the type of questions asked to direct the reader's response follows, with annotations of the books appropriate for applying the special skill. These books are listed in alphabetical order, and are not in the order of use. The multidimensional quality of folk literature made it possible to allow children to select books from the entire selection for their own reading and applying the skill. Including a title in one skill. category did not limit the use of that book to that part of the study. The researcher and teacher were aware that the child's response can be different from that of the adult reader and care was taken not to impose an adult response on the child reader. Classifying Ideas into Groups andTSubgroups The classification of folktales chosen for this study is adapted from Ben-Amosl and applied to children's literature by lDan Ben-Amos, ed., Folklore Genres, American Folklore Society (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1976). 122 Elizabeth Cook.1 Four main categories are introduced: myths, legends, animal tales, and fairy tales, with definitions stated and demonstrated through sample stories by the teacher. The characteristics of each type of story are presented and discussed with the whole group before children are directed to read on their own. After the reader has read a story, s/he is directed to categorize the story, using the criteria given and on display. This procedure was made easier by the use of many titles which included the designation of lgggnd_or mygg, and the reader could focus attention on the elements that cause the story to be so designated. Progression is made to stories that are not so designated. The reader must decide on the category and defend his choice based on answers to the questions: What evidence within the story leads to choosing that category? What is the same in this story as compared to the model story read by the teacher? What is different? Classification within categories was made with animal stories (fables, trickster tales, wisebeast/foolish beast), myths (origins of man or origins of the world), and with recurrent themes, patterns, and structures within the tales. 1Elizabeth Cook, The Ordinary and the Fabulous (London: Cambridge University Press, 1976). 123 Baylor, Byrd. And It Is Still That Way. New York: Charles Scribner, 1976. [American Ihdian] The introduction to this book describes how the legends in the book were collected from Arizona Indian children at school. Baylor has written down the stories exactly as the Indian children remembered hearing them from their parents and grandparents. They are grouped into topics: Why animals are the way they are; Why our world is like it is; Great troubles and great heroes; People can turn into anything; Brother Coyote; Magic all around us. An understanding and appreciation for the heritage of these children can be gained through the reading of their stories as well as recognition of types of stories heard. Belting, Natalie. The Earth Is On A Fish's Back. Illustrated by Esta Nesbitt. New York: Holt,TRinehart, 1965. [World] Twenty-one myths and legends of "how things came to be" are collected here from various countries. Included are explanations of natural phenomena such as "How Men Brought Fire to Earth" (Snake Indians, California), “Why the Sun Is Brighter Than the Moon" (Lilloit Indians of British Columbia), and basic necessities such as "How Spiders Taught Women to Weave" (Chaco Indians of Argentina). The straightforward story line is similar from country to country in these explanatory tales. *Bernstein, Margery, and Janet Kobrin. Illustrated by Anne Burgess. The Summer Makerl An Ojibway Indian Myth. New York: Scribner, 1977} [Canadian IndiaHI' Ojeeg the fisher and his animal friends go to the land above the mountain to find summer. A Manitou tells them to crack open a hole in the sky and let the birds out. They succeed with dif- ficulty and complications arise. How does the storyteller present Ojeeg, the otter? Note the human characteristics, which are typical of a North American Indian tale. Could it also be classified as an animal tale? Give reasons why or why not. *Bierhorst, John. The Ring in the Prairie. Illustrated by Leo and and Diane Dillon. New’York: Dial Press, 1970. [American Indian] Originally set down by Henry Schoolcraft, this legend is in the poetic tradition of American Indian folklore. Hunter Waupee is intrigued by a strange circle in the prairie grass, and the supernatural begins. Legendary motifs include changing from human to animal; marriage of human with supernatural being; use of charms. Poetic language and imagery is exemplary. *The annotations preceded by an asterisk indicate that the book illustrations are worthy of note. 124 Bryan, Ashley. The Ox of the Wonderful Horns and Other African Tales. New York: Atheneum, 1971. [AficaIT Five stories: four trickster animal and one fairy tale. 1. "Anansi the Spider in Search of a Fool." The crow succeeds in making a fool of Anansi. “Frog and His Two Hives." The frog croaks the dilemma of satisfying two wives at once. “Elephant and Frog Go Courting." Frog tricks elephant to make a better impression on the girls. “Tortoise, Hare and the Sweet Potatoes." Trickster hare intends to trick tortoise, but is outsmarted by him. "The Ox of the Wonderful Horns." Mungalo, a chief's son who is mistreated by his father's wives follows the advice of the great white ox. U1 9 (A) N a o e o *Coatsworth, Emerson, and David Coatsworth. The Adventures of Nanabush: Ojibway Indian. New York: Atheneum, 1980. [Canadian Indian] These legends concern Nanabush, one of the most powerful Manitou, or spirit'of the Ojibway world. He is both a provider and a trickster. Tales tell how and why things are as they are today based on either Nanabush's creativeness or his trickery. Each tale is a model of the unique blending of the components of a legend, as handed down by the Canadian Indians. Information about the collectors of the tales and the Indian illustrator are valuable additions to this book. Daniels, Guy. The Falcon Under the Hat: Russian Merry Tales and Fairy Tales. Illustrated by Feodor Rajankovsky. New York: Funk—Z Wagnalls, 1969. [Russian] Explanation of the rich Russian oral tradition in the preface facilitates appreciation of the tales. Daniels defines fairy tale as "a story involving faerie, or enchantment, serious in intent, which most often has a happy ending." The eleven stories are excellent examples of Russian lore. Many of the merry tales are based on the theme of the cleverness of peasants in tricking people in high places, such as "The Miser," "The Monastery of No Cares," and "Shemyaka the Judge." The harsh, cruelty typical of some of ghe Russian fairy tales is evident in "The Magic Ring" and "The nake.“ d'Aulaire, Ingri, and Edgar d' Aulaire. d'Aulaire's Trolls. New York: Doubleday, 1972. [Norwegian] An explanation of the trolls of Norway told in expository style. Within the explanations are exemplary tales of a troll with twelve heads, a lumberjack troll and forest troll, and the boy who caught the eye shared by three trolls. The d'Aulaire's illustrations extend the text and set the mood for understanding these strange mountainfolk. 125 Ginsburg, Mirra. One Trick Too Man . Illustrated by Helen Siegl. New York: Dial Press, 1973. IRussian] The trickster animal of Russia is the fox, and his tales are beautifully told by Mirra Ginsburg as collected and translated from her own childhood in Russia. At times the fox knows when to stop his tricks but at other times his cleverness gets him into trouble. This collection contains stories that fit each of the subgroups of animal tales. The woodcuts, printed in yellow, red, and black, depict scenes from the tales framed with symbolic animal and plant forms. Ginsburg, Mirra. The Proud Maiden, Tungak, and the Sun. Illustrated by Igor Galanin. New York: MacMillan, 1974. ‘[Russian Eskimo] The legend tells how the moon came to live in the sky and why the long arctic night gives way to a long arctic day. A hunter's proud daughter escapes the evil spirit of the tundra and marries the sun. The blending of natural and supernatural beings and the logical but fantastic explanation of natural phenomena make this story a good example of the legend category of folk literature. *Hague, Kathleen, and Michael Hague. East of Sun and West of the Moon. Illustrated by Michael Hague. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1980. [Norwegian] This complex tale was a favorite of the girls in the sixth grade class. It includes many characteristics of a classical fairy tale: broken promise, supernatural feats, a quest. All this is accomplished by a girl who wins the prince rather than the boy who wins the princess. Mystical, yet realistic illus- trations extend the story. Harris, Christie. Mouse Woman and the Vanished Princess. Illustrated by Douglas Tait. New’York: Atheneum, 1976. [North American Indian The library card summary labels these stories legends. However, the reader will find many characteristics of fairy tales in the adventures of the Indian princesses who are carried away by supernatural forces and rescued through great adventures, each one assisted by Mouse Woman. The reader can make a judgment as to which category is the more appropriate label. Lester, Julius. The Knee-High_Man and Other Tales. Illustrated b Ralph Pinto. New York: Dial Press, 1972. [Regional American] Six animal tales from American slave lore include trickster tales of Mr. Rabbit and Mr. Bear, familiar characters in black folktales, and the pourquoi tale, “Why Waves Have Whitecaps.“ A good collection for use in demonstrating the distinctiveness of the animal tales, and to distinguish between the trickster tale, the pourquoi and the fable. The individual readers have a wide choice of other animal tales to read and compare with this model. 126 *Melzack, Ronald. The Day Tuk Became a Hunter and Other Eskimo Stories. Illustrated by Carol Jones. New York: Dodd, Mead 5 Co., 1967. [Eskimo] These short exciting Eskimo tales contain characteristics of legends common to all cultures. They also are distinctively Eskimo and provide a picture of life and beliefs of the Arctic. *Mosel, Arlene. Tikki Tikki Tembo. Illustrated by Blair Lent. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1968. [Chinese] The Chinese have given all their children short names ever since the near tragedy of this "first and honored" son Tikki Tikki Tembo no sa rembo chari bari ruchi pip peri pembo. Blair Lent's finely drawn illustrations add humor to this excellent version of a favorite legend. Elements of this story fit well into the definition of legend without the statement made by the . publisher. Rockwell, Anne F. The Dancing Stars, an Iroquois Legend. New York: Crowell, 1972. [North American Indian] The origin of the Pleiades is told and illustrated by Anne Rockwell as she learned it from the Iroquois Indians as a child. The deep love of the Indian family for one another is shown by the boys staying together, and by the mother telling the six boys to stay up in the sky when little brother falls. Some discerning readers would classify this as a myth because of the creation of the constellation. *Sansouci, Robert. The Legend of Scarface. Illustrated by Dan SanSouci. New York: Doubleday, 1978. [North American Indian] Scarface is ridiculed by his peers for his appearance and his poorness. He loves Singing Rain, and she sees his virtues, but she has promised the Sun that she will never wed. Scarface undertakes an adventuresome trip to the Sun and is successful because of his kindness to all whom he encounters. Read to the class as an example of how the legend unfolds. This story also gives adequate information to lead the reader to draw conclusions through a predictable plot. Beautiful illustrations enhance the story. Tresselt, Alvin, and Nancy Cleaver. The Leggnd of the Willow Plate. Illustrated by Joseph Low. New York: Parents' Magazine, 1968. [Chinese] Having a blue willow plate to show when reading or telling this sprite version of a Chinese legend would heighten the interest in this romantic tale. The mandarin arranges a marriage for his daughter to a powerful, cruel noble. Her beloved Chang snatches her away from the wedding. However, their hiding place is found, and Chang is killed. Koong-se sets fire to her house and perishes in the flames. The two are turned into doves to fly together eternally. The elements found in a legend can be recognized in this story and from the plate design. 127 *Zvorykin, Boris. The Firebird. New York: Viking Press, 1978. [Russian] An exquisitely illustrated and translated version of the classic Russian fairytale which related the high adventure of Prince Ivan in search for a firebird and the ensuing adventures which gained him a beautiful princess. Read by the teacher along with the ballet music to typify the category of fairy tales. Attention is directed to the universal elements of the quest as well as the distinctively Russian setting, personality, and supernatural beings. 128 The Ability to Compare Relevant Ififormation from Multiple Sources andiRecognize Agreement or Contradiction In studying folk literature, comparing and contrasting stories begins when the reader is classifying them into the chosen categories. Direct attention is focused on making comparisons when the reader becomes interested in determining the country of the story's origin. Several folktales from the same country are compared for use of fig- urative language typical of that culture, the recurring characters, and the story structure. Variants of these three elements are noted when comparing stories from different countries. At the same time, the reader's attention is guided toward the presence of universal themes shared by many cultures, universal character traits, and the use of humor. Questions focus on how the same theme is developed in the various cultures. What do the stories have in common? Could you explain the difference based on what you know about the people, or from other stories you have read about that culture? Comparison questions will vary with each set of stories with the reader directed back to the story for the response, verifying response by examples from the narrative or illustrations. The annotations preceded by an asterisk indicate that the book illustrations are worthy of note. A comparison of artistic represen- tation both within the culture and between cultures was part of each critical appraisal of the books. This culminated in a day of viewing several books from a particular country and evaluating the form and content of the illustrations. 129 *Aardema, Verna. .The Riddle of the Drum,yA Tale from Tizapan,_Mexico. Illustrated by Tony Chen. New York: Four Winds Press, 1979. [Mexican] Prince Tuzan meets swift runner, Corrin Corran; archer, Tirin Tiran; hearer, Oyin Oyan; blower, Soplin Soplan; and eater Comin Comon. All help the prince solve the riddle and perform other feats to win the princess. A model of language patterning, as well as a hero tale of enchantment used for winning the princess. Compare Prince Tuzan with the prince in Firebird (Russia), "Mason's Marriage" (China), and with Legend of Scarface (American Indian). *Belpré, Pura. Ote: A Puerto Rican Folk Tale. Illustrated by Paul Galdone. [New York: Pantheon, 1969. [Puerto Rican) Ote's family is under the power of the near-sighted devil, but the tiniest one in the family saves them by remembering the words of the wise woman who weaves magic spells. Could be com- pared with Duffy and the Devil. Illustrations by Paul Galdone capture the humor of[the story and the tropical setting with colorful drawings. Bryan, Ashley. The DancingyGranny, New York: Atheneum, 1977. [Central American]* Spider Ananse uses his clever trickery to feed his family from Granny Anika's garden by getting her to dance away from her field. For individual reading by a child who has already become acquainted with the African folk character of Anansi. This version is from the Antilles, and depicts Anansi as a young man, as compared to African tales where he is a spider man or an old man. Chase, Richard. Grandfather Tales. Boston, Mass.: Houghton- Mifflin, 1948. [Regional American] Tales commonly known through European collections appear here with the local color and dialect of the Appalachian settler. Comparisons for recognizing agreement or contradiction can be made for many of the stories. For example, "The Old Sow and Three Shoats" is similar to Three Pigs; "Ashpet" to Cinderella; and Sody Sallyraytus to Three Billy Goats Gruff. Chase, Richard. Jack and the Three Sillies. Boston: Houghton- Mifflin, 1950. [Regional American] A regional United States tale of foolish Jack whose swapping of his horse led him to owning a rock instead of the $50.00 the horse was worth. His wife bet him that no man in the world was sillier. She does find three sillies, and in the process earns $50.00. Compare with Russian tales: "The Falcon Under the Hat" and "Three Rolls and a Doughnut." 130 Courlander, Harold. The Hat-Shaking Dance and Other Tales from the Gold Coast. Illustrated'by Enrico Arno. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1957. [African] Twenty-one tales from Africa's Gold Coast include many tales about the Sky-God, Nyame. All the stories include Anansi. The first tale relates how all stories belong to Anansi and compares with A Storyy A Story by Gail Haley. The title story tells about Anansi's[dance when he is hiding burning beans under his hat, thereby causing all spiders to be bald. Many stories have counterparts in other cultures. For example, "Anansi Plays Dead" is similar to the Tar Baby story of southern United States blacks. Notes on page 103 and following are helpful for understanding the Ashanti people and their folktales. Courlander, Harold. Olode the Hunter and Other Tales from Nigeria. Illustrated by EnricogArno. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1968. [African] The subject of many tales is an animal trickster called Brother who parallels Brother Terrapin in United States black folklore, and is a counterpart of the Ashanti Anansi. Three of the Ife myths parallel Bible stories. An appendix provides explanations of the tales and gives comparisons with other cultures. The readability of these tales is easy (word rec- ognition) but the concepts are more complex than in the Ashanti tales or King's Drum stories. . *d'Aulaire, Ingri, and Edgar d'Aulaire. East of the Sun and West of the Moon. New York: Viking, 1969. [Norwegian] he magic of Norwegian forests, mountains, and valleys give life to trolls, spirits, and beautiful princesses. In comparing these tales with fairy tales from China, Russia, or Africa, the distinctiveness of the setting stands out along side of the uni- versality of the motifs and types of tales found in this beautiful collection. Durham, Mae. Tit for Tat and Other Latvian Folktales. Illustrated - by Harriet—Pincus. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1967. [South- eastern European] These Latvian tales can be identified by tale types which are found internationally. Many of the stories compare with the Russian The Lazies. The several devil stories can be compared with Duffy and the Devil, Ote, and "Shrewd Woman" from Baba Yaga's Geese. 131 *Hou-Tien, Chieng. Six Chinese Brothers: An Ancient Tale. New York: Holt, Rinehart, 1980 [Chinese]' The strength of the Chinese family is portrayed by the six sons each using their supernatural physical power to save first their father's life, and then their brother's. They win the favor of the kind. This version with the delicate scissor cut illustra- tions by the Chinese artists uplifts the Chinese in contrast to the ethnic demeaning implied in Clair Bishop's version illustrated by Kurt Wiese. *Kirkup, James. The Magic Drum. Illustrated by Vo Dinh. New York: Knopf, 1973. [Chinese] Tenko, "drum from heaven" was the god-given son of an aging peasant couple, Ohaku and 010. They recognized the mysterious nature of this gift, and tried to keep drums away from Tenko, fearing that the promise of the drum that announced his coming would also take him away. Their fears are realized. The story is delicately and simply told based on a drama of the ancient tale performed in Japan. The fate of Tenko could be compared to the chief's son in "The Man Who Married the Snow Goose," from Baba Yaga's Geese. Both stories reveal the helplessness of man against supernatural powers. Lin, Adet. The Milky Way_and Other Chinese Folktales. Illustrated by Enrico Arno. ’New York: Harcourt Brace, 1961. [Chinese] The universal themes in these tales are developed with unique treatment of supernatural events. Many of the stories deal with humans marrying spirits of sky or water, such as "The Milky Way" and “The Boy Who Played the Flute." These stories could be compared with Indian tales collected by Natalie Belting in The Long-Tailed Bear or by the Raskins in Indian Tales. The tales of foolishness could be compared with Russian or United States stories. In this collection, these include "Through the Eyes,“ "The Laziest Man in the World,“ and "Growing Wings." *McDermott, Gerald. Anansi the Spider. New York: Holt, Rinehart, 1977. [African] This story is typical of the multidimensional folktales of Africans which reveal universal beliefs and are paralleled in tales from other countries. Anansi goes on a long journey and is saved from disaster by his sons, each of whom use their special ability as suggested by their names: See Trouble, Road Builder, River Drinker, Game Skinner, Stone Thrower, and Cushion. Anansi didn't know which son to reward with the gift of a beautiful globe of light, so Nyame. God of all things, takes the light to the sky, making it a gift for all, the moon. Suggested use: Tell story without the book. Show film. Elicit children's response to the art style used in film and book. Have the book available for rereading. Compare with Riddle of the Drum and Six Chinese Brothers. 132 *Melzack, Ronald. Raven, Creator of the World. Illustrated by Laszlo Gal. Boston: Little, Brown, a Co., 1970.- [Eskimo] Eskimo explanations of the origin of the world, animals, and people take form in Raven stories told with simplicity and an understanding of Eskimo beliefs. These stories can be compared with Bible stories, North American Indian, and African myths. Imaginative two color drawings help interpret the settings of the stories. *Ness, Evaline. Long, Broad and Quick-Eye. New York: Scribner & Sons, 1969. [Southeastern European] The prince sets off to rescue a beautiful girl who is under the power of a wizard in an iron castle. On the way he meets Long, who will stretch to the sky; Broad, who can make himself wide, and Quick-Eye, who must bandage his eyes because they are so piercing that they destroy whatever he gazes upon. With their help, the prince accomplishes the three necessary tasks to free the princess. Compare with Russian "The Fool of the World" and Mexican "Riddle of the Drum." *Schaltz, Letta. The Extraordinary Tug-of-War. Illustrated by by John Burningham. Chicago: Fullett, 1968. [African] This Nigerian animal tale of the hare outwitting the hippo- potamus and the elephant by engaging them in a powerful tug-of- war is retold in contemporary language. The reader can compare this author's style and the style of Courtlander in his telling of African animal tales in the Cowtail Switch, and of Sturton in Zomo the Rabbit. Burningham's illustrations are vivid and expressive. Sturton, Hugh. Zomo the Rabbit. Illustrated by Peter Warner. New York: Atheneum, 1966. [African] Hausa people of Africa tell stories of Zomo the Rabbit, the trickster who always wins even when he loses. Notes by the pub- lisher explain the changes made in translation from the early sources. Sturton's telling of "The Great Tug-of-War" could be compared with The Extraordinarnyug-of-War by Letta Schatz. *Toye, William. The Loon's Necklace. Illustrated b Elizabeth Cleaver. Toronto: Oxford Press, 1977. [Canadian Indian] A Canadian legend of a blind man whose sight is restored by the loan who leads him into the lake. The man throws his shell necklace to the bird and the beads become the white markings on the black loon feathers. Compare with "The Blind Boy and the Loon" retold by Ramona Mahler, and with the film produced by B. F. Sound Films. In the film version, the man saves the whole tribe from starving, not only his family. In the film the shell necklace is more than a prize belonging, and has meaning as a medicine man's tradition. Which developed the character more fully? 133 Whitney, Thomas. In a Certain Kingdom. Illustrated by Dieter Lange. New York: MacMillan Co., 1972. [Russian] An interesting collection of Russian fairy tales which could be compared with other translator's versions of the same tale and with variants of certain tales from other countries. The "Firebird and Vasilisa" could be compared with Zvorykin's The Firebird, "The Frog Princess" with the Chinese Black Heart of Indri. "The Wonder Working Steeds" and "Marya Moryevna" could be compared with tales from other countries with the theme of breaking taboos such as the Eskimo "The Moon Husband" or the Indian “The Winter Wife." *Zemach, Harve. Duffy and the Devil. Illustrated by Mar ot Zemach. New York: Farrar, Straus, 8 Ciroux, 1973. [English] A Cornish tale retold, similar to Rumpelstiltskin, in which a devil agrees to help Duffy, a lazy and clumsy hired girl, do her spinning and knitting for three years. At that time, the girl must tell the devil his name or be taken away by him. A mixture of original Old Cornish dialect with modern English highlights the text as the old housekeeper helps Duffy through luring the Squire to the devil's hideaway. The illustrations contribute effectively to the character portrayal. Compare with "A Shrewd Woman" from Carey, Baba Yaga's Geese. 134 The Ability to Discover Unstated Premises and’Draw ConClusions This skill focus is developed through literary criticism skills concerning the setting of the story and study of character. Questions based on setting include: what clues are given at the beginning (middle or end) of the story about time and place? How important is this? Could the story have happened in a different place? Time? What changes would take place? How has the (climate, scenery, year) affected the action of the characters (or story action)? Is this stated in the story? If not, what led you to that conclusion? Does the artist help give you a feel of the setting? Do the illus- trations match your idea of what that place looks like? Explain. Questions asked about the characters include: how are many legend characters alike? Animal tricksters? Heroes in fairy tales? Describe (a specific) character. What does the character do in the story that causes you to choose those words to describe him/her? What conversations help you decide what kind of person s/he is? Which phrases of the author best describe the character? Conclusions concerning the developmental or static quality of the folktale character are solicited through questions such as: do the char- acters change throughout the story? Does your opinion of him/her change from the beginning to the end? 135 *Belpre, Pura. Dggce of the Animals. Illustrated by Paul Galdone. New York: Frederick Warne, 1972. [Puerto Rican] This is a single story from Tiger and Rabbit. The dog and the goat outwit the lion who invites them to a dance for the purpose of eating them. The goat loses his tail, and the lion accepts the loss of his meal, telling the goat, "By your stump you'll tell your tale." Lively illustrations help establish the personalities of the characters. Belpre, Pura. The Tiger and the Rabbit and Other Tales. Illustrated by Kay Parker. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1946. [Central American] Tales in this collection include clever animals. The human characteristics given to the animals depict character traits the people either admire or reject. Often the consequence of action are the result of some trait of the animal characters. Examples: "The Wolf, the Fox, and the Jug of Honey," "The Tiger and the Rabbit." Other tales are wonder tales of people with traits such as greediness, stubbornness, and selfishness. They receive their just rewards. Examples: "The Gluttonous Wife," "The Shepherd and the Princess," and "The Albahaca Plant." *Coalson, 610. Three Stone Woman. New York: Atheneum, 1971. [Alaskan] Read to the class to develop the use of setting and visual images for discovering unstated premises in the story. An Eskimo tale of Ana, a starving widow who travels through the harsh Arctic cold to beg for food from her brother-in-law. Her sister-in-law removes the food given her and places three stones in her bag. Two supernatural strangers meet her and leave her a tiny sealskin bag which never empties of meat and blubber. A comparison of the literary version with the filmed version, "Three Stone Blades," Visual Americana, International Film Bureau centers on visual impressions and the differences in story content. Carpenter, Frances. Tales of a Chinese Grandmother. Illustrated by Maithe Hasselriis. New York: Doubleday,'1949. [Chinese] The grandmother of the Ling household is introduced in Chapter I and each chapter following is a tale she tells her grandchildren. Most are fairy tales of dragons and princesses. Some are myths such as "How Pan Ku Made the World, and legends such as ”The Big Feet of Empress TaChen." "Cheng's Fighting Cricket" could be compared with Ziner's Cricket Boy. Conclu- sions concerning Chinese culture can be drawn based on these stories. 136 Carter, Dorothy. Greedy Mariani. Illustrated by Trina Hyman. New York: Atheneum:_1974. [[Central American] In this collection the reader meets some of the same characters met in African cultures, with variations in spelling (Annancy instead of Anansi) and episode, but similar in personality. Personal characteristics of wisdom or stupidity, generosity or greediness, courage or cowardice wins its due rewards or punishment in these tales from Antilles. Chase, Richard. The Jack Tales. Illustrated by Berkely Williams, Jr. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1943. [Regional United States] These stories from Southern Appalachia are variants of English tales with the style and humor of mountain folk. Jack is a human hero who has fantastic adventures and always wins. Familiar themes include Jack and the Bean Tree, Jack and the North West Wind. Conclusions about the character can be drawn from the action of the story. Dobbs, Rose. No Room, An Old Story Retold. Illustrated by Fritz Eichenberg. New York: David McKay, 1944. [Russian] A selfish Russian peasant was cured of his selfishness by following the advice of the Wise Man, ruler of the village. The repetition and suspense of the story will lead the reader to draw conclusions about the characters of the old man and the wise man as well as anticipating the sequence of episodes. *Domanska, Janina. King Krakus and the Dragon. New York: Morrow, 1979. [Polish] A Polish legend tells how the town of Krakow was saved from the dragon through the ingenuity of a shoemaker's apprentice. The shoemaker does not win the princess for his accomplishments, but rather becomes the court shoemaker. A book to read after having read several fairytales and legends. Following the usual pattern of the traditional tale, did you predict a different ending? Why do you think the story ended this way? Striking illustrations include symbols on each page. *Ginsburg, Mirra. Three Rolls and One Doughnut. Illustrated by Anita Lobel. New York: Dial, 1975. [Russian] The varied characters and problems amusingly resolved in the legends, fables, and riddles of this collection depict Russian people as part of the universal heritage of folk culture and as persons with humor and wisdom. These stories were collected and translated from Mirra Ginsburg's childhood in Russia. Her concise direct style provide easy reading. 137 *Haley, Gail. A Story, A Story. New York: Atheneum, 1970. [African] Ananse wants theSky-God's stories and succeeds in accomplish- ing the three feats required to win the treasure. This easy reading version of Ananse's adventures give a less competent reader an opportunity to draw conclusions from the action of the story to understanding the story character. Houston, James. Ghost Paddle. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1972. [Canadian Indian] A character study of Hooits, a fifteen year old prince of the Raven clan evolves quite naturally from reading this dramatic account of his fight in enemy territory with the help of his ghost paddle. From evidence given in the story, the reader can conclude which character traits Hooits possessed to make his mission a success, and the importance of Hooits'and his father's quest for peace. Jones, Hettie. Coyote Tales. Illustrated by Louis Mofsie. New York: Holt, Rinehart, 1974. [North American Indian] Four stories have been selected by the author to show the different aspects of Coyote's character. The reader can draw conclusions about how Coyote is revealed in each story: a hero, a trickster, with supernatural power, or making humanlike mistakes. (1) Coyote steals the summer, (2) Coyote loses his dinner, (3) Coyote rescues the ring girl, and (4) Coyote conquers the Iya. *Jones, Hettie. Longhouse Winter. Illustrated by Nicholas Gaetano. New York: Holt, Rinehart, 1972. [North American Indian] These tales should be told only in the winter, following the tradition of the Iroquois Indians. Longhouse Winter contains four tales of transformation, all in tune with nature and the setting of the story: (1) spring time for the chieftain who becomes a robin, (2) love of the lake for the Princess who becomes a fish, (3) greed for possession of the forest changes dancers into rattlesnakes, and (4) concern for the animals' habitat leads wood animals to revive the life of the hunter. Highly stylized geometric watercolors set the mood for the importance of setting to the stories. Newell, Edythe W. The Resgge of the Sun, and Other Tales from thngar North. Illustrated by Frank Altschuler. Chicago: Whitman & Co., 1970. [Eskimo] The first five stories give information about the children of the Far North and how they lived long ago. The stories that follow give evidence that cold and darkness are important factors in Eskimo explanations and adventures. 138 O'Connor, Katherine. Baba Yaga Stories. Indianapolis, Ind.: Saturday Evening Pose, 1976. [Russian]' After being introduced to Baba Yaga in Zvorykin's collection, Firebird, many readers were eager to read more about the intri- guing witch. Four encounters of humans with Baba Yaga are related in these stories. What kind of people are able to escape Baba Yaga? *Small, Ernest. Baba Yaga. Illustrated by Blair Lent. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1966. [Russian] The character of Baba Yaga is developed through stories about Marusia, a girl sent after turnips who is captured by Baba Yaga, and a hedgehog who is really a boy who has been enchanted by the black sunflower Baba Yaga is seeking. Baba Yaga is portrayed as a horrible but basically harmless witch who is easily influenced but hard to escape from completely. This Baba Yaga should be compared with other author's renditions for evaluation of character develOpment. What basic character type is she? What are the roles of the supporting characters? *Toye, William. How Summer Came to Canada. New York: Walck, Inc., 1969. [Canadian Indian] . When Indians were created, Winter moved from his Far North home into Eastern Canada. Glooskap, creator of the Indians, goes south to find Queen Summer, captures her and returns to his country. Summer overcomes Winter and suggests a compromise. Rich, glowing colors of Elizabeth Cleaver's collage illustrations enhance the mood of the seasonal setting. This was read to the class as an introduction of the importance of setting to many of the legends. *Toye, William. The Mountain Goats of Temlaham. Illustrated by Elizabeth Cleaver. New York: Walck, 1969. [Canadian Indian] This Canadian Indian legend is beautifully illustrated with brilliant collage displaying Indian designs and totem. The law of the hunt from old times has been to kill only what was needed for meat and skin and horn. The Temlaham hunters turn greedy and the children followed their example by torturing a young kid. Raven Feather rescues and releases the kid. Later the Goats of Temlaham revenge the Indian hunters and Raven Feather is saved by the goat-boy. Characters are revealed through action and description, with little conversation in Toye's telling of the tale. A comparison with the same tale told in The Blind Boy_and the Loon demonstrates the difference in the amount of information given about the character and the need for drawing conclusions. 139 *VanWoerkom, Dorothy. The Rat, the Ox and the Zodiac. Illustrated by Errol LeCain. New York: Crown, 1976. [Chinese] A legend that relates how the twelve animals chosen in the Chinese zodiac were placed in the order they are. The Ox and Rat both claimed first place based on their virtues. Conclusions about the character of each of the twelve animals as they are asked about the order of the zodiac can be drawn from their conversations. Illustrations add an authentic visual dimension. Ink and wash drawings depict animals with personalities in an an ancient Chinese background. *Ziner, Feenie. Cricket Boy. Illustrated by Ed Young. New York: Doubleday, 1977. [Chinese] Scholar Hui's pursuit of answers to difficult problems and his loving concern for his son Hu Sing leads him to a study of crickets who were held in high esteem in old China. Hu is called by the Emperor to a cricket fight. Hu Sing is influenced by the magistrate's concerns and great misfortune falls on them. Super- natural forces assist Hu and Hu Sing. Questions Scholar Hu asks, such as "How can great things grow from small ones? can lead to the reader asking, "How can certain people be influenced by others so greatly?" 140 The Ability to Make a Judgment Based on Clearlnyefined Standards This skill is based on the recognition that the reader should understand what the author has said before attempting to pass judgment. Three aspects emerge: Did the author tell you enough to evaluate the outcome of the plot? 00 the characters appear authentic? Is the story believeable? To develop an understanding of the unfolding of the plot, the teacher began by reading a story with a strong plot, such as HIDESE. Wlngby Anne Crompton. Discussion followed about the change in action and its importance to the story. Rereading parts of the story was necessary to note the change in action in the plot develOpment. Predicting was elicited to anticipate probable outcomes. Evaluations made concerning the relationship of the conflict within the story and the suitability of the character's actions in particular episodes result in determining whether or not the character is depicted convincingly. Was the character wise or foolish in his/her actions? To what degree does the action of the character reflect the culture he lived in? Could this have happened in another country? How would it be different? The universality of the story becomes evident as well as the particularity bound by the culture of the story's origin. One of the distinctive characteristics of the folktale is its portrayal of life in a particular culture. Judgments concerning the validity of the tale can be made through noting the presence or absence of information relating to the source. Questioning the veracity of the story's setting, appropriateness of the illustrations, believability of the plot lead the reader to investigating other sources or comparing other versions of the tale. 141 Belting, Natalie. The LongyTailed Bear. Illustrated by Louis F. Cary. New York: Bobbs Merrill, 1961. [American Indian] These American Indian legends explain the origin of animal characteristics. The origin of each tale is credited to a partic- ular Indian tribe. The stories are told briefly and simply, making them easy reading. The reader's attention should be directed to how the storyteller gradually unfolds enough information, often leaving the conclusion as a surprise. Bierhorst, John. The Girl Who Married a Ghost and Other Tales from the North American Indian. Photos by Edward S. Curtis. New York: Four Winds Press, 1978. [American Indian] An authentic collection of North American Indian tales is illustrated with beautifully reproduced photographs from writer- explorer Edward Curtis. Nine stories portray each major region of North American Indians. Types of story include origin myth, wonder story, ghost story, and trickster animal tales. The photo- graphs provide a link between the reality of the Indian's home and activities and the mythical tales. Bierhorst has captured the Indian thought in his narrative and the reading challenges the sophisticated reader. What information in the story led to the conclusions made? Could that lead another person to a different interpretation? Bernstein, Margery, and Janet Kobrin. The First Morning: An African M th. Illustrated by Enid Warner Romanek. New York: Scribner, 1976. [African] A tale of the Sukuma people of East Africa begins with earth animals living in darkness. Lion has seen the light in the sky during a storm. Through outwitting the Sky King, the Mouse, Fly, and Spider take the box of light back, and are surprised to find in it a rooster. Then the rooster "called up the sun." The need to suspend judgment throughout the story, and to add one's own interpretation to the end is evident. Carey, Bonnie. Baba Yaga's Geese. Illustrated by Guy Fleming. Bloomington, Ihdf? Indiana University Press, 1973. [Russian] These Russian folktales are representative of the wide variety of Russian lore. Readers can evaluate the veracity of the stories by consulting the explanatory preface and appendix citing sources. In many of the stories, the theme is stated at the beginning, or at the end, and the reader can be directed to discover how the story unfolds to reveal information needed to reach the stated conclusion. For example, "A Shrewd Woman," a variant of Duffy and the Devil, is built on an unfolding of evidence which answers whether or not she will be successful in releasing her husband from his contract with the devil. In "Don't Foul the Well--You May Need Its Waters," the meaning of the title becomes apparent only after reexamining the episodes in the story and adding one's own interpretation. 142 *Crompton, Anne Eliot. The Winter Wife. An Abenaki Folktale. Illustrated by Robert A} Parker. Boston: Little- Brown, 1975. [North American Indian] The hunter is living alone, lonely and hungry. The events that lead him to take a winter wife. and, later a summer wife, build up very predictably. The reader can make predictions but must wait for all the evidence before making judgments. This is a supernatural tale. How can you use this skill of suspending judgment in evaluating realistic stories or informational reports? *Daniels, Guy. Foma the Terrible. Illustrated by Imero Gobbato. New York: Delacorte Press, 1970. [Russian] Foma, a foolish Russian lad, killed twelve flies and left to prove his fame as a brave warrior. His adventures include con- quering the Chinese army and marrying the Prussian princess. A good example of storytelling revealing a character through story action. Finger, Charles. Tales from Silver Lands. Illustrated by Paul Honore. New York: Doubleday, 1924. [South American] Finger relates the origin of many of the tales which he records. This is the most extensive collection of authentic South American tales presently available. "The Tale of the Gentle Folk" is-a good one to read to the class as an example of how folktales were believed by the natives. One story that deals directly with the results of making judgments based on inadequate information is "The Tale that Cost a Dollar." Heady, Eleanor. Sage Smoke. Illustrated by Arvis Stewart. Chicago: Follett, 1973. [North American Indian] These twenty folktales of the Shoshoni Indians relate their view of the world and how it came to be. Each story is short and can be told for entertainment or fit into the larger group of tales for an evaluation of how the reader gets to understand and appre- ciate the Shoshoni Indians. *Hodges, Margaret. The Fire Bringer. Illustrated by Peter Parnall. Boston: Little-Brown, 1972. [North American Indian] The Paiute Indians tell how Boy was told by Coyote that with the help of one hundred swift runners they could get fire to keep people warm and help them cook their food. They left one person each day and Coyote answered their questions about what fire is. The answers of the questions concerning fire demonstrate the need to suspend judgment. The reader can realize how difficult it is to understand an idea with which you have had no experience. 143 *Hoge, Dorothy. The Black Heart of Indri. Illustrated by Janina Domanska. New York: Scribner, 1966. [Chinese] Indri, the son of a water sprite and the prince of the toads, is the keeper of the water of life. Indri was unhappy because he is ugly and has a black heart. The water sprite tells him that he only thinks his heart is black. "If you will live for nine days in the presence of virtue, your ugliness will vanish." This becomes the task of the story. As the reader follows Indri's adventures, s/he can determine what will lead to the end of Indri's predicament. Can be compared to Frog Prince and Princess stories of Germany (Grimm) and of Russia (Whitney's, In a Certain Kingdom). Houston, James. The White Archer: An Eskimo Legend. New York: Harcourt-Brace,[1967. [[Eskimo] An exciting, dramatically written adventure story tells of Kungo, the twelve-year-old Eskimo, who seeks revenge for the death of his parents and capture of his sister by Indians in Alaska. Kungo's determination to be a great archer leads him to Ittok on a distant island and much more from the wisdom and kindness of Ittok and his wife. The beautiful imagery and language used by Houston make reading this book a literary experience as well as a satisfying adventure. This is recommended for an individual directed reading thinking activity with an advanced reader who would evaluate Kungo's experience and recognize his growth through his adventures and relationship with virtuous people. Malcolmson, D., and D. McCormick. Mister Stormalong. Illustrated by Joshua Talford. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1952. [Regional United States] Stormalong is a created hero from the days of American commercial development like Paul Bunyan and Pecos Bill. Many of the stories with Stormalong as hero are versions of ancient legends from all over the world. After having read many legends the reader can make judgments about these stories. Are they modern talltales or are they adaptations of legends? *Raskin, Joseph, and Edith Raskin. Indian Tales. Illustrated by Helen Siegl. New York: Random House, 1969. [North American Indians] Some of the same legends told in The Long-Tailed Bear appear in this collection in a more detailed narrative. Many of the stories are developed through interwoven episodes that lead to a pointed conclusion. For example, "Why Animals Do Not Talk," present the point of view of each animal in relation to man, and finally the Great Spirit intervenes to settle their arguments. Judgment by the reader must be suspended until near the end of the story when all pieces fit together. Even the shorter tales such as "How the Chipmunk Got Its Stripes" and "Origin of Red Man" are characterized by such episodes. The woodcuts, printed in green, black, and white, are of more subtle design than the woodcuts in One Trick too Many. 144 Robinson, Gail, and D. Hill. Coyote the Trickster. Illustrated by Graham McCollum. New York: Crane Russak, 1976. [Canadian Indian] The trickster character in Indian legend is an animal-god whose powers often help save man and other animals. On the other hand, being a complex character, the trickster can cause problems. The discerning reader of these well-told legends can decide how the storyteller leads them to understand the trickster. The logical unfolding of the plot makes the story believable. How does the storyteller present the character so convincingly? Why do the animals and people return for help when they are so often tricked? ‘ Scheer, George F. Cherokee Animal Tales. Illustrated by Robert Frankegberg. New—York: Holiday House, 1968. [North American Indian This outstanding collection of animal tales can be read by the less able reader in intermediate grades. The interesting, brief stories give clear explanation about why and how certain natural phenomena has come to be. What can the reader know about the Cherokee Indian by reading these Animal Tales? *Singer, Isaac Bashevis. Mazel and Shlimazel or the Milk of the Lioness. Illustrated by Margot Zemach. New York: Farrar Straus, 1967. IRussian] A Russian folktale concerned with the war between good and evil. Mazel would bring happiness to the poorest of the village for one year, then Shlimazel would try to undo what Mazel had done in one second. The prize for Shlimazel: a lifetime supply of the wine of forgetfulness. Mazel lives in Tam, a peasant lad, and arranges for him to become part of the king's household through amazing words and actions. When Shlimazel destroys in one second what Mazel gained, Mazel works things out so that all ends well. The story is characterized by superb use of language and an intriguing weaving of the plot. The use of plot structure will assist the reader in making judgments about the good and evil forces in the story. *VanWoerkom, Dorothy. Alexandra the Rock-Eater. Illustrated by Rosekrans Hoffman. New—York: AlfrEHPKnopf, 1978. [South- eastern European] Alexandra wishes for children, and finds one hundred of them at home. Alexandra and her husband love them but run out of food. She proves that human wisdom can outwit dragons, and Alexandra ends up with a fortune. As the plot unfolds, the dragon is very differ- ent from the reader's expectations and Alexandra's means of winning over him are ingenious. The necessity to withold judgment is apparent in the unusual twist of events. 145 *Young, Ed. The Terrible Nung Gwama. New York: Wm. Collins 8 World, 1978. [Chinese] On the way to her venerable parents to bring cakes, a young woman meets the Nung Gwama. who promises to return that night to eat her. As she sits crying, pondering her fate, she is given weapons by many passers-by. How will they work? Will they be enough to destroy the monster? Predicting the outcome along the unraveling of the story, the reader can see the necessity to suspend judgment until the end of the story. The illus- trations, each a fanshaped album leaf, present unique impressionistic versions of traditional Chinese art forms. 146 Recognize Theme of the Story and Evaluate the Effectiveness of the Presentation With consideration of the theme of the folktale comes the moral and ethical values that are emulated in the stories as part of the tradition of the culture or a universal theme that is common to many cultures. The writer brings to the story certain concepts, images, sensuous experiences that bring to life the people, action, and scenes of the stories. The reader brings his/her own personality, past expe- riences, association, preoccupations, and mood of the moment while contemplating the stories. This produces a unique experience which will be different for each reader. The role of the teacher is to foster an interrelationship between the story and the reader that focuses on the literary work itself. The teacher cannot ignore the particular bias of the story, or the teacher's own ethical bias, but must assist the reader in achieving his/her own rich and humane moral values through understanding the story. Teaching theme with folktales begins with fables, where the themes are stated. Through sharing orally a number of Aesop's fables, the students are directed toward those elements of the story that point to the moral stated. The sixth graders, working in partners, read a fable and restated the theme. They made a mask of their chosen character and gave evidence of their understanding of the story through pantomime. Next, the animal trickster tales and pourquoi present easily recognizable themes, often implied, sometimes stated. When the reader is competent in finding the theme, introduction of the more complex legends and fairy tales can be made, with questions 147 such as: What does this (myth, legend, fairy tale) attempt to explain about life (or about people)? Does the theme give you a clue as to why these stories have lived for so many years? Why did people keep retelling these stories? What does that theme say to you today? 148 Bang, Molly Garrett. Wiley_and the HairyyMan. New York: MacMillan, 1976. [Regional United States][[ If the Hairy Man can be fooled three times, he will never bother a person again. Wiley and his mother work hard to find ways to outwit the Hairy Man. Wiley conquers his fear and confronts the Hairy Man, proving that persons can outwit evil through wisdom and caring for one another. Barbeau, Marius, and Hornejansky. The Golden Phoenix. Illustrated by Arthur Price. New York: Henry WaTCleo., 1958. [French Canadian] Eight beautifully written fairy tales can be enjoyed by the experienced reader. Familiar themes will be recognized from European tales with the kind, beautiful princess and brave, clever prince winning over great obstacles. Bere, Rennie. Crocodile's Eggs for Supper. Illustrated by John Paigl. Londoh: Andre Deutch,41973. [African] Author's note at the end of the book gives a detailed explanation of the place of these animal tales in Uganda and Sudan culture. Many of the stories are tales of trickery and the trickery is punished by death. The style of these stories is stilted compared to Courlander's collections and were less appealing to this group of children. Chapman, Gaynor. Aesop's Fables. New York: Atheneum, 1971. [European] A straightforward version of the fables, this is written in simple, modern English retaining the flavor of the literary. The collection includes sixteen of the more commonly known fables. Many have the moral stated, but in others it is strongly implied and the reader can be helped to extract the theme from the references within the story. Courlander, Harold, and Wolf Leslau. The Fire on the Mountain and Other Ethiopian Stories. Illustrated by Roberthane. New York: Holt, Rinehart,[1950. [African] The wisdom and experience of the African man is related through these favorite tales of the Ethiopians. Most are told for the lessons in human behavior to be learned through the wisdom or foolishness, pride or humility of the animals and men in the stories. The stories reflect the living conditions of the people and their race between floods and droughts. 149 Courlander, Harold. The King's Drum and Other African Stories. Illustrated by Enrico Arno. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1962. [African] These short, pointed tales have specific, usually stated, themes. Some end with a question which is impossible to answer to emphasize the complexity of life, such as in "The Search: Who Gets the Chef's Daughter?" Other tales reveal conflicts settled through wisdom, such as "Past and Future," and "The Elephant Hunters." African storytellers delight in stories of human weakness. “The great tree sees far but it falls loudly." Courlander, Harold. Terrapin's Pot of Sense. Illustrated by Elton Fax. New York: Holt, Rinehart, 1957. [Regional United States] These rich Negro folktales collected from Alabama, New Jersey, and Michigan, are written in Bre'r Rabbit dialect. The themes of the various trickster tales can be recognized by the juvenile readers through statements made by the storyteller or one of the main characters. DeRoin, Nancy. Jataka Tales, Fables from the Buddha. Illustrated by Ellen Lanyon. Thirty fables originally told by the Buddha five hundred years before Christ, according to legend. Similarities to Aesop's Fables are apparent: animals speak and act, life situations require basic decisions, and the solutions are stated with morals. Differences appear in the underlying philosophy. The Jataka tales point to solutions to problems through recognizing the importance of the individual and the need to accept and understand realities of life. Aesop fables point to attempts to manipulate external forces and control or overcome enemies. Emphasis in the Buddha tales is on cooperation, friendship, respect, ecology. and assuming respon- sibility. Comparisons of the fables will enhance a study of theme. Gag, Wanda. The Sorcerer's Apprentice. Illustrated by Margot Tomes. New York: Coward, MCCann, 1979. [European] The boy becomes an apprentice to the evil sorcerer under the pretense of being illiterate. In secret, he reads the sorcerer's books of spells and tricks. The good apprentice is able to win over the bad sorcerer, and prove that sorcery can be used for good as well as evil. The exemplary plot with a quick introduction, suspense, logical development and swift conclusion is a good model story with an easily recognized theme. 150 Ginsburg, Mirra. The Lazies: Tales of the Peoples of Russia. New York: Macmillan, 1973. [Russian] This collection of tales is based on the theme that insolence will bring no reward. The humorous tales include much folk wisdom and humor. By focusing on the variety of ways the theme is pre- sented through content, the reader can be directed to an evaluation of plot structure. For example, in "Who Will Wash the Pot?“ an old man and wife do not talk to each other for days, because the first to break the silence must wash the pot. Harris, Christie. Mouse Woman and the Mischief Makers. Illustrated by Douglas Tait. New York: Atheneum, 1977. [Canadian Indian] As a supernatural being, called Narnauk, Mouse Woman guarded the seas and wilderness of Canada's Northwest Coast. Anyone disturbing the order of this part of the world was a mischief- maker, and Mouse Woman would deal with them! Most of the tales are concerned with humans misusing natural resources desiring what they should not have. The stories end with some variant of :30 good ever comes of upsetting the proper order of the wor ." Hill, Kay. Badger the Mischief Maker. Illustrated by John Hanberger. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1965?] [North American Indian] Glooscap watches over Badger's mischief making, knowing that Badger has a lot to learn. He finally does learn to "be good from choice is the only safe way for then the joy is in the act itself and neither man nor any god can withhold it" (p. 42). Badger learns this lesson the hard way, but he doesn't lose his spirit. Jacobs, Joseph. The Fables of Aesop. Illustrated by David Levine. New York: Macmillan, 1966. [European] This appealing collection of Aesop's fables is written simply enough for the young reader to understand and with enough of the traditional language for them to appreciate. The History of Fable by Joseph Jacobs and the Afterword by Clifton Fadiman add a worthwhile reference for the teacher. Jagendorf, Moritz. Ghostly_Folktales. Illustrated by Oscar Liebman. Morristown, N.J.: Silver-Burdett, 1968. [World] Ghost stories from many places in the world make intriguing reading for Halloween. The ghostly tales were popular, with "The Tale of the Hairy Toe" and "The Coffinmaker's Ghost Party" favorites of the sixth graders. The students made posters of the message of stories of their own choice for Halloween. 151 *Jameson, Cynthia. The Clay Pot Boy. Illustrated b Arnold Lobel. New York: Coward,_McCann E Geoghegan. 1973. [Russian] An easy-to-read story simply told, but with a powerful theme. A childless couple make a boy out of clay. He becomes a monster that gobbles up everything in his way. The story suggests that humanity may be destroyed by that which it creates. Leach, Maria. Whistle in the Graveyard. Folktales to Chill Your Bones. Illustrated by Ken Rinciari'. New York: Macmillan, 1974. [World] Traditional tales about ghosts are collected here from all over the world and classified by the types of ghosts. Intro- duction gives background of the collection. Notes and bibli- ography at the end give sources and motifs. Stories are short, many only one or two pages. Two copies of this book were much in demand at Halloween time. *McDermott, Gerald. Arrow to the Sun. New York: Viking Press, 1974. [North American Indian] A Pueblo Indian tale is a myth analogous with the Bible story of Christ's birth. Mocked by others because Boy doesn't know his father, Boy sets out on a search which leads to the Sun Lord. He passes through four chambers of ceremony to prove his birthright. Colorful, symbolic graphic designs were copied by some of the sixth graders. *Nardini, Bruno. Fables of Leonardo da Vinci. Illustrated by Adriana S. Mazza. [Northbrook, 111.: Hubbard Press, 1973. [European] Nardini collected these fables from Leonard de VinciLs manu- scripts. Nardini attributes their origin to Leonardo, although in the past five centuries many have circulated through story- tellers in Italy and France. The message of the fable is uni- versal and fits today's society as well as the ancients. Fine drawings compliment the tales. Maher, Ramona. The Blind Bo and the Loon and Other Eskimo Myths. New York: Day,’1969. skimo] Survival in the harshness of the Eskimo world is the dominant theme of many of the animal tales and fairy tales in this collec- tion. Specific aspects of survival themes are search for food: "How Thunder and Lightning Came to Be," "The Blind Boy and the Loon," "The Moon Husband"; fighting for existence: "The Man Who Killed the Sea Monster," "The Hardhearted Rich Man"; the breaking of taboos: "Moon Husband" and "Man Who Married a Snow Goose." 152 *Moore, Marianne. The Fables of LaFontaine. New York: Viking, 1954. [European] LaFontaine's fables are based on Aesop's collection. The delicate illustrations add to their appeal and interpretation. The use of conversation makes these versions appealing to the reader. For dramatizing the fable, the readers selected many from this collection. *Ransome, Arthur. The Fool of the World and the Flying Ship. Illustrated by Uri Shfilevitz. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1968. [Russian] Fool is kind to an old man. The old man changes his poor food into a feast, and gives Fool instructions for finding a supernatural flying machine. Fool follows his advice to the letter, and flies over the countryside, picking up people he meets. Each of his passengers possess special gifts that help the Fool perform the necessary feats to win the Czar's daughter. God loves simple folk, and turns things to their advantage in the end. *Reyher, Becky. My_Mother Is the Most Beautiful Woman in the World. Illustrated by Ruth Gannett. ‘New York: [Lothrop, Lee B Shepard, 1945. [Russian] A realistic story telling about Varya who gets lost from her peasant mother and tells all who try to help her that her mother is the most beautiful woman in the world. When her plain-looking mother comes to claim her, the storyteller relates, "we do not love people because they are beautiful, but they seem beautiful to us because we love them." *Sleator, William. The Angry Moon. Illustrated by Blair Lent. Boston: Little Brown, 1970. [Alaskan Indian] Theme: Man and friendly supernatural forces can overcome the strong, angry forces. Lapowinsa laughs at the moon and the moon takes her up to his home. Lupan, through his ingenuity and brave- ness gets to the sky and meets a friendly grandmother. She gives him four magic gifts that he uses to stop the angry moon. He is successful in returning to earth with Lupowinsa. Questions: What elements of the story lead to understanding the theme? How do the illustrations help develop the theme? White, Anne Terry. Aesop's Fables. Illustrated by Helen Siegel. New York: Random House, 1964. [Europe] Forty fables told simply, with conversation between the animals clarifying the action. The elaboration of theme leaves less to the reader's imagination, but is a good version for the less able reader. 153 The Ability to Recognize and Evaluate the Use of Language to CreateiSensory Images and Mood, Including Interpre- tation of Figurative Language The language of the folk storyteller combines both simple statement and rich, expressive figurative language. Developing interest and appreciation of the imagery is an ongoing part of each discussion of the books read by the teacher. The teacher directs the reader's atten- tion to how the folktale contains a minimum of description, and how the richness of the figurative language and vivid words make word pictures. Often understanding the figures of speech is essential to understanding the message the storyteller is conveying. For example, in "The Oldest of Three" from the Jataka Tales, the reader must understand the meaning of "their lives grew topsy-turvy" to have the story make sense. The readers are guided by the teacher to develop an awareness of and a questioning attitude toward the unfamiliar words and phrases in the stories so that they can provide their own interpretation through context and/or background experiences in their individual reading. In addition to giving attention to the imagery in the stories selected for teaching the other critical reading skills, some of the stories are read because of the richness of the language, such as those anno- tated as following. Response by the children takes form through art expression of the ideas the words invoke, pantomiming, and movement to music. 154 Aardema, Verna. Behind the Back of the Mountain. Illustrated by Leo and Diane Dillon. New York: Dial Press, 1973. [African] Ten short tales from various tribes of Southern Africa share an eery quality of explanations that do not fit the anticipated course of events. For example, the earth opens at the command of the Little Hen Eagle and Tusi keeps her treasures in her head, using it like a basket. Figures of speech are abundant, such as in "Winning of Kwelanga," when he concludes, "I can't whistle with another man's mouth“ (p. 35). *Aardema, Verna. Who's in Rabbit's House? Illustrated by Leo and Diane Dillon. New York: Dial Press, 1977. [African] The Masai African tale is told as though African actors were perfonming with masks. The jackal, leopard, elephant, and rhinoceros offer help that is unsuitable as rabbit tries to get the fearful creature out of his house. Finally frog is the hero and all are surprised at the identity of the occupant. Language patterns, use of repetition, and ideophones make this version appealing for oral reading. *Aardema, Verna. Why Mosquitoes Buzz in People's Ears. Illustrated by Leo and Diane Dillon. New York: Dial Press, 1975. [African] When King Lion calls a tribal council to see why Mother Owl doesn't wake the Sun, he finds a chain of blame sent from monkey (who killed baby owl) to crow to rabbit to python to iguana to mosquito. An agreement to punish mosquito satisfies Owl, and the days follow their normal pattern once more. The pattern of language is noteworthy. Use of African ideophones add a rhythm that is quickly picked up by the audience if read aloud. *Belting, Natalie. Calendar Moon. Illustrated by Bernarda Bryson. New York: Holt, Rinehart, 1964. [World] A lunar calendar is based on expressions of various cultures for the passage of time through the moon changes. The poetic expressions originate from Canadian, North American Indians, Oriental, African and Alaskan sources. The illustrations add a dimension of delicate mood-setting for the poetry. A similar collection from Natalie Belting with the theme of explanations of heavenly bodies is The Stars Are Silver Reindeer, illustrated by Esta Nesbitt. New York: Holt, Rinehart, 1966. *Belting, Natalie. Whirlwind Is a Ghost Dancing. Illustrated by Le: an? Diane Dillon. New York: Dutton, 1974. [North American n ian Poetic imagery is enhanced by the decorative Indian motifs drawn with pastels and acrylics. The metaphors make word pic- tures of nature lore of the various tribes. Each poem is iden- tified by the tribal origin of the concepts. 155 *Carew, Jan. The Third Gift. Illustrated by Leo and Diana Dillon. Boston: Little Brown, 1974. [Africa] The Jubas are led by the prophet Amakosa to the foot of Namless Mountain. Here each new leader climbs the mountain to bring the clan a gift. The tribe receives work, beauty, and imagination from three consecutive leaders. In telling the story, Jan Carew demonstrates the gift of language, with each episode filled with metaphors and other image provoking figurative language. Individuals had a difficult time under- standing this book. When read by the teacher in a directed discussion, the children were quick to respond to the ideas in the story. Courtlander, Harold, and George Herzog. The Cow-Tail Switch and Other West African Stories. Illustrated b MadyeLee Chastain. New York: Holt, Rinehart, 1950. [African Many of the African tales in this collection are remarkable for the play-on-words humor. Characters are given names that relate to the action of the story, such as a man named Time and another named Nothing. Elliot, Geraldine. The Long Grass Whispers. Illustrated by Sheila Hawkins. New York: Schocken, 1968. [African] In the huts of the Ngoni pe0ple, grandmothers would tell about how animals live and talk in the long grass. “Her imagi- nation has clothed them in her own speech" (Preface, vii). Word pictures are drawn by Elliot in descriptive language used in animal conversations and actions. *Gackenbach, Dick. The Leatherman. New York: Seabury Press, 1977. [Regional United StateS] The mood is set for this intriguing tale with an opening description of Ben's dream in which a leathercoat floats "like a ship from a fog," and Ben is "drowning in an ocean of molasses. Vivid word imagery characterizes this real life tale based on the travels of the eccentric Jules Bourelay, the Leatherman who wandered the countryside of Connecticut in the mid-18805. The line and wash drawings capture the feelings the boy has as he confronts the strange man. *Goodman, Robert. The Magic Brush. Illustrated by Y. T. Mui. Norfolk 15., Australia: Island Heritage Ltd., 1974. [Chinese] The China of Ma Lien becomes alive through Y. T. Mui's paintings. The beauty Ma Lien saw in everything about him is impressed upon the reader through the “magic brush" of the artist. The complete unity of picture and text create a celebration of Ma Lien;s gift of beauty and his power to work for the good of the peop e. 156 Harris, Christie. Once Upon a Totem. Illustrated by John Frazer Mills. New York: [Atheneum, 1963. A totem pole was usually raised to honor a particular chief, living or dead. The story behind each crest tells how one of the symbols came to be the emblem of a mythical ancestor. The dignity of the honor given the pe0ple is enhanced by the beauty of the language used by Harris. “The One Horned Mountain Goat" is the same story told by Toye in "Mountain Goat of Temleham." The teacher read them for a comparison of the use of language by the two storytellers. Harris, Christie. Once More Upon a Totem. Illustrated by Douglas Tait. New York: Atheneum, 1973. The art form of the symbolic totem comes alive in the expressive imagery of Harris in telling three celebrated stories from the potlatch feasts. The use of figurative language cap- tures the mystery of nature that permeates the Indian beliefs. A discussion of “The People Who Owned the Stories" is a fitting culmination to the study of folk literature. Harris, Joel Chandler. The Complete Tales of Uncle Remus. Compiled by Richard Chase. Illustrated byArthur Frost and others. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1955. [Regional United States] The stories of Br'er Rabbit as told by Joel Harris was a favorite book of the sixth graders. They were intrigued with reading the dialogue and unusual expressions and criticized Rees adaptations as "too ordinary,“ and "not exciting" in comparison. Houston, James. Songs of Dream People. New York: Atheneum, 1972. [Alaskan] The vitality and force of the language of these songs and chants of Indians and Eskimos come from their natural eXpressions at work or in nature. The songs possess "an endless search for the magic of life.“ Should be read to the children with a musical accompaniment. Houston, James. Tikta'Liktak, An Eskimo Legend. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1965. —[Alaskan] A survival tale of a young hunter who is carried to sea on an ice floe. The mood is set in the first few pages through a description of Tikta'Liktak's life and environment. Through skillful and powerful use of language, the author builds suspense as Tikta'Liktak reaches such a state of hunger that he builds him- self a coffin out of rocks and lies down to die. In a dreamlike state he staggers out of the coffin and harpoons a seal, which he sees as a gift from the sea spirits that would give him back his life. With new determination Tikta'Liktak fights his way back to be reunited with his family. The story is developed through description and narrative with no conversation. For the advanced reader. 157 *Jones, Hettie. The Trees Stand Shining. Illustrated by Robert Parker. New York: Dial Press, 1971. [North American Indian] Songs of the American Indians which reveal their feelings about the world and their lives are translated from the various Indian languages by Hettie Jones. Direct poetic statements and impres- sionistic drawings combine to give the reader an understanding of the American Indian. '*LeGallienne, Eva. The Nightingale. Illustrated by Nancy E. Burkert. New York: Harper Row, 1964. Stunning art is presented in a style reminiscent of early Chinese screens. Burkert gives an interpretation of Chinese traditions, mores, beliefs, and symbolism through her meticulous illustrations of this tale. The story relates how man's creation cannot equal nature's own. A mechanical nightingale replaces the real nightingale for the Chinese emperor, but it wears out. When the real bird reappears the emperor is on his death bed, but her lovely song causes Death to retreat. Since the nightingale "loves his heart more than His crown" she agrees to stay with the King and sing for him. Singer, Isaac Bashevis. When Shlemiel Went to Warsaw and Other Stories. New York: Dell, 1968. [Russian]? "Shrewd Todie and Lyser the Miser," "The Elders of Chelm and Genendel's Key,“ and "When Shemiel Went to Warsaw" are stories in this collection that deal wjth amiable fools who convince the town . wisemen that their actions are logical. In addition to enjoying the stories for their humor and the Russian regard for the foolish man, attention should be directed to Isaac Singer's use of figura- tive language and imagery. For example, "It was said of Todie that if he decided to deal in candles the sun would never set." Stoutenberg, Adrien. American Tall Tale Animals. Illustrated by Glen Rounds. New York: Viking, 1968. [Regional United States] The names of the "strange animals lolloping around in the early days of our country" arouse the curiosity of the reader of these fantastic stories collected from throughout the United States. The colloquialisms of the various regions and the pic- turesque language can be interpreted within the context of the story by the discerning reader. *Whitney, Thomas P. The Story of Prince Ivan, the Firebird and the Gray Wolf. Illustrated by Nancy Hogrogian. New York: Scribner, 1968. IRussian] This version of the classical Russian tale contrasts with Zyorkin's The Firebird in the fate of Prince Ivan. In this edition, he is raised from the dead by "water dead" and "water living.“ The beautiful flow of language and figurative expressions are worthy of note. 158 *Zemach, Harve. Salt: A Russian Tale. Illustrated by Margot Zemach. Chicago: Follett, 1965. [Russian] This traditional tale tells of a merchant with three sons who seek their fortune with their father's ships. The youngest foolish brother is the hero of the tale. The amusing figures of speech and rich use of language make the story a delight to read. APPENDIX B LESSONS IN CRITICAL READING OF FOLK LITERATURE APPENDIX B LESSONS IN CRITICAL READING OF FOLK LITERATURE The objective of each lesson is stated and the name of the literary selection read to the class by the teacher is given. The number of the lesson does not indicate the number of class periods. Some lessons took several periods to complete. Skill 1. The ability to classify types and characteristics of folk literature as a literary genre. Lesson #1 To develop a purpose for reading folk literature and an understanding of the genre. Why Mosquitos Buzz in People's Ears, by Verna Aardema Many books introduced but not read. Lesson #2 To recognize characteristics of fairy tales. "Vasilissa the Beautiful" and "Snow Maiden" from Firebird, by Boris Zvorykin. . Lesson #3 To recognize characteristics of animal tales. "Frog and Elephant Go Courting" from Ox of the Wonderful Horns and Other African Folktales by Ashley Bryan. Fables from Aesop's Fables by Gaynor Chapman, and Fables of Leonardi de Vinci, by Bruno Nardini. Three stories from Complete Tales of Uncle Remus, by Joel Chandler. Lesson #4 To recognize characteristics of legends. The Leatherman, by Dick Gackenbush. Thé’Fire Bringer, by Margaret Hodges. Lesson #5 To recognize characteristics of myths. The Summer Maker, by Margery Bernstein. Lesson #6 To provide opportunity to listen to and view examples of above categories. Audio-visual activity day. 159 160 Skill 2. The ability to compare relevant information from multiple sources and recognize agreement or contradiction. Lesson #1 Lesson #2 Lesson #3 Lesson #4 To compare two legends with similar themes and common motifs and recognize similarities and differences. Ring in the Prairie, by John Bierhorst. Winter Wife, by Anne Crompton. To compare characters, setting, and plot in two creation myths from different Indian cultures. Why the Sun and the Moon Live in the Sky, by Blair Lent. "How It Came About that'There Is a Sun and a Moon" from Earth Is on a Fish's Back, by Natalie Belting. To compare two folktales from the same culture or with similar themes from different cultures using the criteria developed in Lesson #2 and applied to pairs of books by a group of four pupils working together. ‘ To compare the film and the book, The Loon's Necklace and to evaluate the effectiveness of portrayal of character, setting, and similarities and differences in the plot. Film from B. F. Sound Films, 1972. Skill 3. The ability to discover unstated premises and draw conclusions. Lesson #1 Lesson #2 Lesson #3 Lesson #4 To draw conclusions based on setting. How Summer Came to Canada, by William Toye. "Tale of Three lails" irom Tales from Silver Lands, by Charles Finger. “Juan Bobo” from The Tiger and the Rabbit, by Juan Belpre. To draw conclusions based on setting applied to Halloween tales, working with a partner and selecting folktale from a subgroup chosen for scary or ghostly content. To share a Halloween story with the group by drawing a poster, telling the story, or acting it out. To draw conclusions demonstrating an understanding of the personality of the characters based on conversation, description, and action of the character in the story. My Mother Is the Most Beautiful Person in the World, by Becky Reyher. Winter Wife, by Anne Crompton. 161 Skill 4. The ability to make judgments based on clearly defined ' standards. Lesson #1 Lesson #2 Lesson #3 Lesson #4 Lesson #5 Lesson #6 To be able to make predictions as to the turn of events in the story, and to be able to recognize the need to know some information in order to make a valid pre- diction. "The Man Who Married a Snow Goose" from Baba Yaga's Geese, by Bonnie Carey. To be able to suspend judgment based on understanding story structure: plot resolution. Reread Summer Maker, by Margery Bernstein. To be able to practice skill learned in lessons 1 and 2 by deciding in a story of reader's own choice when the reader had enough information to determine how the story would end, and to evaluate the storyteller's presentation. To view a film in which the viewer had information the characters do not have and consequently the conclusion is unpredictable. "Reflections--A Japanese Folktale." Encyclopedia Britannica, 1975. To view a film in which the narrator asks the viewers to understand his people better through seeing them enact the Native American myths. "Native American Myths," Encyclopedia Britannica Educational Corporation, 1977. To make judgments about the contribution of illustra- tions to understanding, sensing, and appreciating the story. The Magic Brush, by Robert Goodman, illustrated by Y. 1. Mui. Skill 5. The ability to recognize the theme of the story and to evaluate the effectiveness of the presentation of the theme. Lesson‘#1 Lesson #2 To recognize the same theme developed in a story from different points of view. "Lazy Shedula” and "The Princess Who Wouldn't Work" from The Lazies, by Mirra Ginsburg. To be able to interpret the stated theme in fables. Fables from The Fables of Aesop, by Joseph Jacobs. Jataka Tales, by Nancy DeRoin, and Fables of LaFontaine, by Marianne Moore. 162 Lesson #3 To reveal ability to interpret theme in fables by participating in a masked pantomime with a partner. Lesson #4 To be able to recognize an unstated theme in a story. The Third Gift, by Jan Carew. Skill 6. The ability to recognize and evaluate the use of language to create sensory images and mood, including interpretation of figurative language. Lesson #1 To be able to interpret unusual sayings such as those stated in fables. Lesson #2 To be able to recognize the effectiveness of using figurative and colorful language to make a story more interesting. Mountain Goats of Temalham, by William Toye, compared to "One Horned Mountain Goat" from Once Upon a Totem, by Christie Harris. Lesson #3 To be able to select a colorful passage or figure of speech from reader's choice of story and to interpret the phrase. Review--Overview of all six skills. SAMPLE LESSON PLANS Skill #1. The ability to classify types and characteristics of folk literature as a literary genre. Lesson #2. To recognize characteristics of fairy tales. Literary selection: Zvorykin, Boris. The Firebird. New York: Viking, 1978. "Yesterday we divided folk literature into four kinds of stories that we will be reading. What were they? (Fairy tales, animal tales, legends, and myths). Today, we are going to talk about what makes a fairy tale different from the other three kinds, and we will read a fairy tale from a Russian collection, The Firebird." The teacher presents the following characteristics through making a statement and asking clarifying questions, or eliciting the statement from the group, drawing on previous experience with fairy tales. All the children appeared to know Cinderella and Snow White. Fairytales 1. show how people behave in a world of magic 2. often have brave heroes who rescue a helpless maiden 3. contain some characters who are either all good or all bad 4. often begin with "Once upon a time" and end with “happily ever after." 5. often include a task, which, if completed, brings a reward 6. often includes a magic object to protect or help the main character. After discussing each statement, the teacher writes it using an overhead projector and the children write it in their notebooks. "Now I will read 'Vasilissa the Fair' from The Firebird and Other Russian Tales by Boris Zvorykin. What do we know when we read the name of an author of a folktale? [Review from Lesson 1: the author is the one who retells or translates the story and writes it for others to read.] Boris Zvorykin is a Russian who escaped his country and was given a home in France after World War II. He translated these Russian fairy tales and drew their beautiful pictures to let the world know more about the Russian people. After reading this story we will talk about how this fairytale matches the characteristics we wrote down.“ Questions following reading: 0. Who was human in this story? Q. Was there a brave hero? Explain. Q. Were the characters all good and all bad? Explain. 163 164 What was the task and the reward? Did any event happen three times? Was there any special meaning to this? What was the importance of the magic object, the doll? Does this story tell you anything about the Russian people? 00 OD Skill #2. The ability to compare relevant information from multiple sources and recognize agreement or contradiction. Lesson #1. To compare two legends with similar themes and common motifs and recognize similarities and differences. Literary . Crompton, Anne E. The Winter Wife. Illustrated by selections: Robert Parker. Boston: Little, Brown, 1975. . Bierhorst, John. The Ring intthe Prairie. Illustrated by Leo and Diane Dillon. New York: Dial Press, 1970. "After I read 'Vasilissa the Fair,‘ some of you said, Oh, that's like Cinderella. Others did not agree and thought it was quite dif- ferent. I have heard you talking together about characters that are alike or different. Tom said that Anansi and Br'er Rabbit were a lot alike, but Chris didn't agree with him." "The first day, when folk tales were introduced, we talked about how we find the same type of stories throughout the world. Sometimes they are telling the same message, but the setting is very different. Sam: things about the characters may be the same, and other things di erent." "Today I will read you two stories and we will compare them to see how they are alike and how they are different. Winter Wife is an Indian legend from the Abenaki tribe that lived in the northwest part of the United States, and The Ring in the Prairie is from the Shawnee tribe which lived in central eastern United'States, near where we are living now. Listen for descriptions of the setting and characters to see if that makes a difference in the story." Teacher reads Winter Wife using a directed listening-thinking approach, stopping periodically to ask: Q. What do you think will happen? Q. Why do you think so? .(Later in story) Did it happen the way you expected it to? If not, what changed and why? Before reading the next book, papers are passed out and students are directed to draw a line down the middle. To the left of the line they write "Alike" and to the right of the line, "Different." After reading the next book, the children are given a few minutes to jot down ideas for each column. 165 Teacher reads The Ring in the Prairie following the procedure used for Winter Wife. Discussion follows, based on ideas the children have written. First, likeness is discussed; then difference. The teacher's response to the children's ideas follow these guidelines: If literal response, accept them as stated. If implied, ask, "How did you know that?" or "What part of the story led you to decide that? If little response, direct questions toward likeness and difference; i.e., "Are Waupee's wife and Winter wife alike in any way? How? Illustrations of both books are shown together near the end of the discussion. Q. How do the pictures compare? Q. Which artist tells you the most about the story? Q. Which artist gives you the strongest feeling about the story? Final question: What was more important in this story, the things that were alike, or the things that were different? Using the children's response to that question, reiterate the idea that some folktales will be alike or different in message, characters, and setting. Skill #3. The ability to discover unstated premises and draw conclusions. Lesson #4. To draw conclusions demonstrating an understanding of the personality of the characters as found in conversation, description, and actions of the characters in the story. Literary Reyher. Becky. My_Mother Is the MosEyBeautiful selection: Woman in the World. Illustrated by Ruth Gannett. New York: Lee 8 Shepard, 1945. 166 Poster: Getting to know storybook characters Descriptions Conversations Ask yourself: Actions Which ones tell me about the personality? “Today we are going to think about the character in the book we read, and decide what the author does to help us. When someone new comes to our school, how do we get to know them? What do we mean by personality? What words would you use to describe a person that would give us an idea of personality?" “The author uses words to describe the characters in the book just like you have been using to describe people. There are two other ways the author helps us get to know the story characters. One is through conversations. How can you tell what someone is like by what they say? Another way is through the character's actions. What does the way the characters act tell us about that person or animal? Are the answers you are giving to these questions like the answers to how you get to know someone new at school?" “After I read My Mother Is the Most Beautiful Person in the World, we will discuss how you get to know the mother andVarya through description, conversations, and actions.‘ Q. Can you remember some of the descriptive words for either the mother or Varya? Q. Which conversations helped you get to know these characters? (If limited response, reread some conversations and note the difference between those that do reveal character and those that do not.) Q. Which actions of Varya help you see what kind of person she is? Q. What does it mean when the storyteller writes, 'She sees with her heart as well as her eyes'? “We have seen that you have to decide which descriptions, conver- sations and actions help you get to know the characters. You have to be thinking while you read in order to draw these conclusions. Tomorrow, we will practice this in books of your choice." 167 Follow-Up Lesson: Give pupils a prepared worksheet which they will follow after reading a book of their choice from the folktale collection. Explain questions 4, 5, and 6 by means of example before students work independently. The dittoed worksheet contains the following: Choose a story. Read these questions, then read the whole story. Answer these questions about the main character in your story. Write the answers on a separate sheet of paper. 1. Who is the main character in your story? 2. Describe the personality of the main character. 3. Write two conversations that helped you decide what kind of a person he or she is. 4. Why does this character do what he or she did in the story? 5. Describe the relationship between this character and one other person in the story? 6. Does this character change from the beginning of the story to the end? How? Skill #4. The ability to make judgmentS'based on clearly defined standards. Lesson #6. To make judgments about the contribution of illustra- tion to understanding, sensing, and appreciating the story. Literary Goodman, Robert, and R. Spicer. The Magic Brush. selection: Illustrated by Y. T. Mui. Australia: Islhnd Heritage Ltd., 1974. "We have been making judgments about the way the storyteller has developed the plot in the folktales, and today we are going to make judgments about how the artist interprets the story. We will look for three things: 1. What the picture tells you (content); 2. How the illustration makes you feel about the story (mood); and 3. How the author's style fits the story (style). This book, The Magic Brush, is illustrated by an eighty year old Chinese artist. From this story you will be able to see how important pictures are to him. Before reading the story, let's see what we can learn from these pictures. 168 Q. How does the artist picture the part of China where the story takes place? (Content and mood) Q. What do you think is happening in these pages?" (Select certain pages for answers concerning content.) Show the rest of the pictures without comment by teacher. 0. "What do you think is happening in the story? How do you know that? Q. What do we mean by artist's style?" (Elaborate on answer if it does not include the way the artist interprets the story, shown by choice of media, color, and use of line.) After reading the story: Q. "Did looking at the pictures first give you a feeling for the story? How did the illustrations set the mood for you? Q. Describe artist Mui's style. Q. How important was drawing to MaLien? How did MaLien use his gift?“ "You are sitting in groups of four. Each of your groups will be given four or five books from a particular country which have been illustrated by different artists. Most of the books you have already read or listened to. This time you will be looking closely at the pictures, and making judgments together about the content, mood, and style. Choose a reporter to read the worksheet you will receive with the books. Read the entire page, and then look through the books together following the directions on the sheet." Books for Lesson 6, Skill 4: Children are divided into six groups of four to compare the books and answer questions given them. African Folktales Aardema, Verna. Why Mosquitoes Buzz in People's Ears. Illus- trated by Leo and Diane Dillon. New York: Dial Press, 1975. Carew, Jan. The Third Gift. Illustrated by Leo and Diane Dillon. Boston: Little, Brown, 1974. Dayrell, Elphinstone. Why_the Sun and the Moon Live in the Sky. Illustrated by Blair Lent. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1968. McDermott, Gerald. Anansi the Spider. New York: Holt, Rinehart, 1972. 169 American Indian Tales Bierhorst, John. The Ring_jn the Prairie. Illustrated by Leo and Diane Dillon. New York: Dial, 1970. Crompton, Anne E. The Winter Wife. Illustrated by Robert Parker. Boston: Little, Brown, 1975. Hodges, Margaret. The Fire Bringer. Illustrated by Peter Parnall. Boston: Little, Brown, 1972. Rockwell, Anne F. The Dancing Stars. An Iroquois Legend. New York: Crowell, 1972. Mexican and South American Folktales Aardema, Verna. The Riddle of the Drum. Illustrated by Tony Chen. New York: Four Winds, 1979. Belpre, Pura. 93a, Illustrated by Paul Galdone. New York: Pantheon, 1969. Carter, Dorothy. Greedy_Mariani. Illustrated by Trina Hyman. New York: Atheneum, 1974. Finger, Charles. Tales from Silver Lands. Illustrated by Paul Honore. New York: Doubleday, 1924. Chinese Folktales Goodman, Robert. The Magic Brush. Illustrated by Y. T. Mui. Australia: IsTEnd, 1974f, LeGallienne, Eva. The Nightingale. Illustrated by Nancy Burkett. New York: Harper 8 Row, 1964. Mosel, Arlene. Tikki Tikki Tembo. Illustrated by Blair Lent. New York: Holt, 1968. VanWoerkom, Dorothy. The Rat,,the Ox, and the Zodiac. Illustrated by Errol LeCain. New York: Crown, 1976. Ziner, Feenie. Cricket Boy. Illustrated by Ed Young. New York: Doubleday, 1977. Canadian Indian and Alaskan Folktales Coalson, 610. Three Stone Woman. New York: Atheneum, 1971. Sleator, William. The Angry Moon. Illustrated by Blair Lent. Boston: Little, Brown, 1970. . Toye, William. The Loon's Necklace. Illustrated by Elizabeth Cleaver. Toronto, Canada: Oxford University Press, 1977. Toye, William. The Mountain Goats of Temlaham. Illustrated by Elizabeth Cleaver. Toronto, Canddé: ’Oxford University Press, 1969. 170 Russian Folktales Ginsburg, Mirra. One Trick Too Many. Illustrated by Helen Siegl. New York: Dial, 1970. Ransome, Arthur. The Fool of the World and the Flying Ship. Illustrated by Uri Shulevitz. New York: Farrar, Straus, 1968. Singer, Isaac Bashevis. Mazel and Shlimazel. Illustrated by Margot Zemach. New York: Farrar, Straus, 1967. Zvorykin, Boris. The Firebird and Other Russian Tales. New York: Viking, 1978. 171 Pupil Worksheet for Skill #4, Lesson 6 COMPARING ILLUSTRATIONS First read the artists' names for each book. Look at the pictures together, one book at a time. Talk about the questions. Write down the answers to question numbers 3, 6, and 9. What the_picture tellsyyou. 1. 2. What can you learn about the country through the illustrations? How much of the story can you imagine by looking at the pictures? Which artist tells you the most about the plot? Give a number rating for each book, with number 1 for the one that tells the most. §Spaces given on pupil's worksheet for writing five titles. The mood of the book ' 4. 5. 6. How does the artist make you feel? Which artist gives you the best idea of how that country looks? Which artist gives you the strongest feeling about the story? Give a number rating, with number 1 for the one that you feel the strongest about. (Space given on pupil's worksheet for writing five titles.) Artist's'style 7. 8. Describe the style of the different artists. Why do you think the artist chose that kind of media for the book? Give a number rating for each book, with number 1 for the pictures you like the best. (Space given on pupil's worksheet for writing five titles.) 172 Skill #5. The ability to recognize the theme of the story and to evaluate the effectiveness of the presentation of the theme. Lesson #1. To recognize the same theme developed in a story from different points of view. Literary Ginsburg, Mirra. The Lazies: Tales of the People selection: of Russia. New York: Macmillan, 1973. "Our reading lesson today will be about the theme of the story. In every story there is a message from the author. This message tells us about life in general, which can be applied to ourselves. This message is called the theme. "When we began studying folktales we learned that many of the stories were handed down by tribe leaders and heads of families to direct the behavior of the people. Many were cautionary tales, that would warn against what would happen if children and adults did not do what was expected of them. This message is the theme of those stories and is usually stated quite plainly. In fables the moral of the story is the theme. Even though these are stated, they are often hard to understand. We will figure those out in our next lesson. "This book, The Lazies, is an example of stories passed down from family to family to warn people about bad habits. Judging by the title, which bad habits are all the stories in this book about? Mirra Ginsburg wrote down these stories as she remembered hearing them as a girl in Russia. In each story, the theme is told in a different way. I will read 'Lazy Shedula.‘ Listen for the message the storyteller is giving you. A. "What magical powers are used to point out Shedula's laziness? "We want to decide what message the storyteller is making about laziness. One way to check if you are finding the theme of the story is to make believe that you are a director and are going to make a movie. The theme is the idea that you want to get across to the audience. If you were going to make a movie of 'Lazy Shedula,‘ what would you be warning against? What characters would you have in the story? What important things would the characters do, so that the audience would understand the idea that you want to get across in the movie? "Let's try another story, 'The Princess Who Wouldn't Work.‘ This storyteller used a very different and clever way of giving the message. 0. "How does this story warn against laziness? Q. How is the way this story warns different from the message in 'Lazy Shedula'? Q. Can you tell us the theme of 'The Princess Who Wouldn't Work'?" 173 Skill #6. The ability to recognize and evaluate the use of language to create sensory images and mood, including interpretation of figurative language. Lesson #2. To be able to recognize the effectiveness of using figurative and colorful language to make a story more interesting. Literary Sections of Mountain Goat of Temlaham by William Toye selections: and "One Horned Mountain Goaf“ from—Once Upon a Totem by Christie Harris. "You have been studying similes and metaphors in English class. Today in reading class we are going to look at how two different storytellers of the same legend use language differently to tell their story. I want you to decide whether using figurative language makes the story more interesting or harder to understand. "This story tells about Indian hunters in the village of Temlaham. The law of the hunters required that they kill only what was needed, but the young hunters were forgetting those laws. Listen to how this is described by William Toye. (Read page 5.) Now I'll read how Christie Harris describes the same scene. (Read page 11 and top paragraph of page 12.) Q. "Which storyteller uses the most colorful language? 0. Which phrases tell you the most? "The hunters bring a baby kid home with them, and the children copy their fathers' cruelty by mistreating the kid. Du'as, Raven Feather, rescues the kid. Mr. Toye tells about it like this. (Read page 10.) Now listen to this account: (Read bottom part of page 18 from "One Horned Mountain Goat.) Q "Which account gives you the clearest picture of what is happening? Q. Which words are especially descriptive? "Near the end of the summer, four messengers come with an invitation for the men of Temlaham. I will read both accounts. (Read pages 12-14 of Mountain Goats of Temlaham, and page 20 from "One Horned Mountain Goat.) Q. "Which choice of words gives you the best idea of how the mes- sengers look? Q. Does either account give you a clue as to whom these people might be? Q. Which version is easier to understand? Why? "Which version would you like to have me read so you can see how the story ends? "Read the rest of the story for enjoyment. Allow time for spontaneous response." APPENDIX C LETTER SENT HOME TO PARENTS APPENDIX C LETTER SENT HOME TO PARENTS September 22, 1980 Dear Parents, Your child's sixth grade class has been selected to participate in a study planned to improve the reading instruction in the Middle School. Mrs. Bette Bosma, Assistant Professor of Education at Calvin College, will be providing folk literature and other related materials for use in teaching specific reading skills. Mrs. will be teaching the class, and Mrs. Bosma will be observing, and upon occasion, asking your child to share his/her work and to talk with Mrs. Bosma about the reading material. We are eager to assist in this research project because we believe it will benefit both the children involved and future planning of our reading program. We trust that you will be willing to have your child . ' included in this class. If for any reason-you would prefer that.your child not be included, arrangements can be made to have him/her transferred to one of the other sixth grade reading classes. Sincerely Middle School Principal 174 APPENDIX D PERMISSION FROM PUPIL FOR INTERVIEW APPENDIX D PERMISSION FROM PUPIL FOR INTERVIEW Sixth Grade Middle School I agree to be interviewed by Mrs. Bosma about my work in reading class, and to share taped discussions and my written activities with her. Date 175 APPENDIX E CLASSROOM OBSERVATIONS FROM IMPARTIAL OBSERVER SIXTH GRADE READING CLASSROOM OBSERVATION FORM CLASS 6-3 SKILL FOCUS Stated by teacher: Yes x No ____ What is being taught? Pr-edictions Did teacher read aloud to class? Yes _§__ No.___ Record title: "The Man Who Married a Snow Goose" TEACHER QUESTIONS 1 Q. Which of the predictions we made Cite 3 examples and state yesterday do you think is the best? time of questioning: 2 Q. What do you think he sees in the l. Pre-reading hut? 2. Beginning discussion 3 Q. (Of the revealed plot) Did we have 3. During discussion that down? (Maybe we didn't know enough about it at that point.) PUPIL RESPONSE 2 A. He asked for help. Cite 3 examples 3 Q. Are you going to finish the story? Label as to nature of response We didn't find out what happened to l. Unsolicited observation the man. 2. Answering questions 1 0. You should have stopped when he got 3. Question by student on the eagle. PUPIL ACTIVITY Listening In class Answering questions and discussions Silent reading or writing stories When some finish reading, they walk around room Returning books MATERIAL USED By pupil: Selected books of folktales--each child chooses his own By teacher: Book: The Blind Boy and the Loon by Mahler , Story: "The Man Who Married a Snow Goose” CLASSROOM DISPLAYS 1. The posters, etc. were (same. different) as previous class. 2. Describe displays that related to class period activities. Charts for recording individual books. Charts on World Map of Folktales. 176 177 SIXTH GRADE READING CLASSROOM OBSERVATION FORM CLASS 6-4 SKILL FOCUS Stated by teacher: Yes _§__ No ___, What is being taught? Predicting as one reads Did teacher read aloud to class? Yes _§__ No Record title: "The Man Who Married a Snow aoo's'é1r TEACHER QUESTIONS 1. Which of the predictions we made Cite 3 examples and state yesterday do you think was the best? time of questioning: 2. Can you tell what the barabara was 1. Pre-reading just from what we have read before? 2. Beginning discussion 3. Which prediction ya§_the best? 3. During discussion PUPIL RESPONSE 3. Did the eagle and seagull both drown Cite 3 examples him? Label as to nature of response 1. If you ever go to this island, you 1. Unsolicited observation could see this man there. 2. Answering questions 2. Not really, but I think it's a skin 3. Question by student house. PUPIL ACTIVITY Listening In class Discussion Selecting books for silent reading-- silent reading Marking on map, and looking up places on World Map for Folktales MATERIAL USED By pupil: Selected books of folktales. Self- selected by each child By teacher: Book: The Blind Boy and the Loon, by Maher, containing the story, "The Man Who Married a Snow Goose" CLASSROOM DISPLAYS l. The posters, etc. were (same. different) as previous class. 2. Describe displays that related to class period activities. Chart for recording individual books. World Map of Folktales--marked on map the country the story came from by using flags on pins. Used by several pupils. 178 SIXTH GRADE READING CLASSROOM OBSERVATION FORM CLASS 6-5 SKILL FOCUS Stated by teacher: Yes _x__ No _ What is being taught? Reading story--pay particular attention to the characters and setting of the story Did teacher read aloud to class? Yes _5_. No Record title: "The Quail“ TEACHER QUESTIONS 1. What is the setting of the story? Cite 3 examples and state How would you describe setting? time of questioning 2. Where does this story take place? 1. Pre-reading 3. Does the main character have a 2. Beginning discussion problem? What is the problem? 3. During discussion PUPIL RESPONSE 1. Nice conversation on the telephone Cite 3 examples [in the story the teacher read] Label as to nature of response 2. His father wouldn't get him a gun. l. Unsolicited observation 3. What do we do when we're down? 2. Answering question 3. Question by student PUPIL ACTIVITY Teacher reads--all followed along in In class book Discussion Silent reading of an assigned story Discussion MATERIAL USED By pupil: Sggnds of a Distant Drum edited by Bill Martin By teacher: "How Baseball Began in Brooklyn" and same book-~"The Quail" Also read a chapter, or a few pages from The Pinballs CLASSROOM DISPLAYS l. The posters, etc. were (the same, different from) previous class. 2. Describe displays that related to class period activities: Omits chart for recording individual books Poster: Read--for fun, to explore, to learn Map of Folktales turned. Chart-~Orphan Train 179 SIXTH GRADE READING CLASSROOM OBSERVATION FORM CLASS 6-9 SKILL FOCUS Stated by teacher: Yes _5__ No ___. What is being taught? Pay close attention to the setting and the characters Did teacher read aloud to class? Yes _§_. No ___ Record title: "The Quail" TEACHER QUESTIONS 1. What do I mean by “setting"? Cite 3 examples and state 2. If you were describing this place to time of questioning: a friend, how would you describe it? 1. Pre-reading 3. Do you think this setting fits this 2. Beginning discussion story? 3. During discussion PUPIL RESPONSE 1. We do know the name of this person Cite 3 examples 2. In response to "Can you describe this Label as to nature of response person? He was a nice kind person. 1. Unsolicited observation He cares about animals. 2. Answering question 3. None 3. Question by student PUPIL ACTIVITY In class Children follow along as teacher reads. Discussion--answer teacher's questions. Silent reading of baseball story. MATERIAL USED By pupil: "The Quail" from Sgunds of a Distant Drum, edited by Bill Martin "How Baseball Began in Brooklyn" from the above book. By teacher: Same Book: The Pinballs CLASSROOM DISPLAYS l. The posters, etc. were (same, different from) the previous class. 2. Describe displays that related to class period activities: Chart: Orphan Train--Books they read about orphans, such as Pinballs. 180 SIXTH GRADE READING CLASSROOM OBSERVATION FORM CLASS 6-3 SKILL FOCUS Stated by teacher: Yes x No What is being taught? Mdkihg judghents about plots Did teacher read aloud to class? Yes ____No _5_, Record Title: TEACHER QUESTIONS Cite 3 examples and state time of questioning Lesson qualifies under PUPIL ACTIVITY 1. Pre-reading 2. Beginning discussion 1. What was the climax of the story we 3. During discussion read yesterday? PUPIL RESPONSE Cite 3 examples Label as to nature.of response 1. Unsolicited observation 2. Answering questions 2. When the rooster crowed! 3. Question by student PUPIL ACTIVITY In class Children chose their own story book to read, then they would write a list of important events in the story and underline the most important one. or the turning of the events (climax). Then they would copy the pattern which illustrated their story from the chart. O MATERIAL USED By pupil Choice of many story books. paper, and pencil Chart about climaxes Individual reading pocket chart and cards classified by color as to story type CLASSROOM DISPLAYS l. The posters. etc. were (same, different) from previous class. This was the first class observed today. 2. Describe displays that related to class period activities. Charts: Definitions of setting, plot, and character. How do the events in your story build? Climax Climax Climax AAA 181 SIXTH GRADE READING CLASSROOM OBSERVATION FORM CLASS 6-4 SKILL FOCUS Stated by teacher: Yes _§__ No ___. What is being taught? Making judgments about plots. Did teacher read aloud to class? Yes ____ No _5__ Record title: TEACHER QUESTIONS Cite 3 examples and state time of questioning: l. Pre-reading 1. Which pattern on the chart illus- 2. Beginning discussion trates where the climax was in the 3. During discussion story we read yesterday? PUPIL RESPONSE Cite 3 examples Label as to nature of response 1L Unsolicited observation 2. Answering question 2. The second one. 3. Question by student PUPIL ACTIVITY In class Individual choosing of story book Reading the book Listing important events Underlining the most important one, or turning point of story Copying chart pattern which illustrates own book plot MATERIAL USED By pupil: Book of own choosing, paper, and pencil By teacher: Chart about climaxes Individual pocket chart CLASSROOM DISPLAYS 1. The posters, etc. were (same, different) from the previous class. 2. Describe displays that related to class period activities. Same as for 6-3. 182 SIXTH GRADE READING CLASSROOM OBSERVATION FORM CLASS 6-5 SKILL FOCUS Stated by teacher: Yes_1_ No__ What is being taught: Projects on sinking of the "Edmund Fitzgerald" Did teacher read aloud to class? Yes x No Record title: The Wreck ofLEhe Edmund-Fitzgerdld, section on "Did She Break in Two: Last Words, The Storm; Frustrating Mysteries" TEACHER QUESTIONS Cite 3 examples and state time of questioning: l. Pre-reading 1. When did the Fitzgerald go down? 2. Beginning discussion 3. During discussion PUPIL RESPONSE Cite 3 examples Label as to nature of response 1. Unsolicited observation 2. It went down in November. 2. Answering question 3. There's an AL on one ship (in 3. Question by student picture). What does that stand for? PUPIL ACTIVITY In class Working on reports and projects . Choice of which theory you think is best--write report Tape a radio report on the sinking Draw picture of ship showing nautical details MATERIAL USED By pupils: Newspaper clippings, magazines, pictures of "Edmund Fitzgerald" ship By teacher: Book The Wreck of the "Edmund Fitzgeraldfilby F. Stonehouse CLASSROOM DISPLAYS l. The posters. etc. were (same, different) from the previous class. 2. Describe displays that related to class period activities. A Fact or Opinion Bulletin Board Three theories about the cause of the sinking of the "Edmund Fitzgerald": (1) Faulty hatch cover, (2) the shoal theory, (3) the faulty hatch theory. Chart of nautical terms. 183 SIXTH GRADE READING CLASSROOM OBSERVATION FORM CLASS 6-9 SKILL FOCUS Stated by teacher: Yes _5__ No ___ What is being taught? Research on the sinking of the "Edmund Fitzgerald." Did teacher read aloud to class? Yes x No Record title: The Wreck of the "Edmund—Fitzgehdld" TEACHER QUESTIONS Cite 3 examples and state 1. How would you find which is the time of questioning: correct route of the "Edmund l. Pro-reading Fitzgerald?" 2. Beginning discussion 3. During discussion Class centered on pupil projects PUPIL RESPONSE Cite 3 examples Label as to nature of response 1. Unsolicited observation 2. You'd have to find which route went 2. Answering question nearest to the shoal. 3. Question by student 3. What does "fathom" mean? PUPIL ACTIVITY In class Working on projects Report supporting one of the 3 theories on the cause of the sinking Radio report on the sinking Picture of the ship showing nautical terms MATERIAL USED By pupil: Those necessary for group projects--tape recorder or large drawing paper or reference books, newspapers, etc. for writing report. By teacher: The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald by F. Stonehouse CLASSROOM DISPLAYS 1. The posters, etc. were (same, different) from the previous class. 2. Describe displays that related to class period activities: Same as class 5. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Reference Books Applebee, Arthur N. The Child's Concept of Story. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978. Ben-Amos, Dan, ed. Folklore Genres. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press, American Folklore Society, 1976. Bettelheim, Bruno. The Uses of Enchantment. New York: Knapf, 1976. Cianciolo, Patricia. Illustrations in Children's Books, 2nd ed. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown,'l976: . Picture Books for Children. Chicago: American Library Associationlll981. Cook, Elizabeth. The Ordinary and the Fabulous: An Introduction to Myths,_Legends, and Fairy Tales. London: Cambridge University Press, 1976. Dawson, Mildred, ed. Developing,Comprehension Including Critical Reading. Newark, Dela.: International Reading Association, 1971. deStefano, Johanna, and Sharon Fox. Language and the Language Arts. Boston: Little, Brown 8 Co., 1974. Dorson, Richard M. American Folklore. Chicago, 111.: University of Chicago Press, 1959. Dundes, Alan. Analytic Essays in Folklore. The Hague, Netherlands: Mouton, 1975. . The Study of Folklore. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice- Hall. 19652 Encyclopedia of Educational Research, 4th ed. Edited by Robert Ebel. Toronto, Canada: Macmillan Co., 1969. Estes, Thomas, and Joseph Vaughan. ReadingAand Learning in the Content Classroom. Boston: Allyn 8 Bacon, 1978. Favat, F. Andre. Child and Tale: The Origins of Interest. Urbana, I11.: National Council of Teachers of English,1977. 184 185 Leach, Maria, and Jerome Freed. Standard Dictionary_of Folklore, Mythology, and Legend. New York: FUnk 8 Wagna1ls, 1949. Gag, Wanda. Tales from Grimm. New York: Coward, McCann, and Geoghegan, 1936. Guthrie, John T., ed. Cognition,_Curriculum, and Comprehension. Newark, Dela.: International Reading Association,ll977. Huck, Charlotte 5. Children's Literature in the Elementary School. 3rd ed., updated. New York: Holt Rinehart, 1979. Huck, Charlotte 5., Martha L. King, and Willavene Wolf. The Critical Reading Abilities of Elementary,$chool Childhén. U.S. Office oflEducation Cooperative Research'Project No. 2621. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University, 1967. Huey, Edmund. The Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading. Boston: Macmillan Co., 1908; MIT'Press,'1968. King, Martha, 8. Ellinger, and W. Wolf. Critical Reading, New York: Lippincott, 1967. Meek, Margaret, Aidan Warlow, and Giselda Barton. The Cool Web: The Pattern of Children's Reading, New York: Atheneum, 1978. Moffett, James. Teaching the Universe 6f Discourse. Boston: Houghton Mifflih Co., 1968: Moffett, James, and Betty Wagner. Student-Centered Lan uage Arts and Reading, K-13. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, l9 6. Nathhorst, Bertel. Formal or Structural Studies of Traditional Tales: The Usefulness of Some Methodological Proposals Advanced by Vladimir Propp, Alan Dundes,_C1aude Levi-Strauss and’Edmund Leach. Stockholm, Sweden: Published'Ph.D. dissertation, May 1970. National Assessment of Educational Progress. Reading in America: A Perspective on Two Assessments. Reading Report No. 06-R-Ol. Denver, Colorado, 1976. National Assessment of Educational Progress. Reaching Change, 1970- 1975: Summary Volume. Reading Report 06-R-21. Denver, Colorado, April 1978. Opie, Iona, and Peter Opie. The Classic Fairy_Tale. London: Oxford University Press, 1974. 186 Pearson, P. David, and Dale 0. Johnson. Teaching Reading Comprehension. New York: Holt, Rinehart, 197B. Rosenblatt, Louise. Literature as Exploration. New York: Appleton- Century, 1968. The Reader, The Text. and the Poem. Carbondale, I11.: Southern Illinois University Press, 1978. Russell, David H. Children's Thinking. Boston: Ginn 8 Co., 1956. The Dynamics of Reading. Boston: Ginn 8 Co., 1970. Sloan, Glenna Davis. The Child as Critic. New York: Teacher's College Press, 1975. Smith, Frank. UnderstandingAReading. 2nd ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart,‘1978. Stauffer, Russell G. The Language-Experience Approach to the Teaching of Reading. 2nd ed. New York: Harper 8 Row, 1980. Thompson, Stith. The Folklore. New York: Dryden Press, 1951. Tiedt, Iris. Exploring Books with Children. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1979. ’ Veatch, Jeannette. Reading_jn the Elementary School. 2nd ed. New York: John Wiley, 1978. Vygotsky, L. S. Thought and Language. Boston: MIT Press, 1962. Periodicals Covington, Martin. "Some Experimental Evidence on Teaching of Creative Understanding." Reading Teacher 20 (February 1967): 390-396. EFleSOH. Frederick. “What Makes School Ethnography 'Ethnographic.'" Paper given at American Educational Research Association Research Training Workshop. Harvard University, April 1972. Hickman, Janet. "Children's Response to Literature: What Happens." Language Arts 57 (May 1980): 524-529. Lauritzen, Carol. "Oral Literature and the Teaching of Reading." The Reading Teacher 33 (April 1980): 787. Moray, Geraldine. "What Does Research Say About the Reading Interests of Children in the Intermediate Grades?" The Reading Teacher 31:7. 187 Moss, Joy. "Using the 'Focus Unit' to Enhance Children's Response to Literature.“ Language Arts 55 (April 1978): 482-487. . "The Fable and Critical Thinking." Language Arts 57 (January 1980): 21-29. Nardelli, Robert. "Some Aspects of Creative Reading." Journal of Educational Research 50 (March 1957): 495-508. Smith, Frank. “Making Sense of Reading--And of Reading Instruction." Harvard Educational Review 47 (August 1977): 386-395. Wolf, Willavene, Charlotte Huck, and Martha King. "Teaching Critical Reading to Elementary School Children." Reading Research Quarterly 4 (Summer 1968): 435-497. ERIC Document Young, Tommie. "The Child's Literary Heritage, Folk and Fairy Literature." Paper presented at a workshop in Early Childhood Library Specialist Program, North Carolina Central University, July 1972. ERIC document ED 069 299. Dissertations Allen, Ruth Jannice. "Teaching Critical Reading Through a Pupil-Team Learning Approach." Ph.D. dissertation, Boston University, 1972. Bibb, Thomas. "Toward a Theory of the Development and Improvement of Critical Thinking Skills in a Classroom in English.“ Ph.D. dissertation, Northwestern University, 1973. Boodt, Gloria Marlene. "Direct Instruction in Critical Listening: Its Effect on the Reading Progress of Children Identified as Remedial Readers." Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1978. Bunvanich. Chantina. "An Analysis of Selected Studies of Thai Folktales as Applicable to Elementary English Reading Programs." Ph.D. dissertation, University of Northern Colorado, 1976. Coughlin, William. "Uses of Children's Literature in Teaching Critical Reading." Ed.D. dissertation, University of Massachusetts, 1973. Gall, Stefanie Sevindle. "Investigation of Growth in Critical Reading Ability in Grades 4, 5, and 6." Ph.D. dissertation, Florida State University, 1973. 188 Hampton, Judith Durham. "The Effect of Elaborative-Type Questions on Comprehension and Critical Reading Ability.“ Ed.D. dissertation, University of Missouri, 1972. Hickman, Janet. "Responses to Literature in a School Environment, Grades K-5." Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio State University, 1979. Higginbotham, Florrie. "An Analysis of Content and Methodology for Teaching Critical Reading Skills in Basal Readers." Ph.D. dissertation, University of Georgia, 1970. MacDonald, Margaret Read. "An Analysis of Children's Folktale Collections with an Accompanying Motif-Index of Juvenile Folktale Collections." Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University, 1979. Mahoney, Nora Belle. "Analysis of Selected Studies on Folklore as Applicable to Junior High School English Programs." Ph.D. dissertation, Pennsylvania State University, 1972. Pollio, Marilyn. "The DevelOpment and Augmentation of Figurative Language." Ed.D. dissertation, University of Tennessee. 1973. Russell, Louise. "Legendary Narrative Inherited by Children of Mexican-American Ancestry: Cultural Pluralism and Persistence of Tradition." Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University, 1977. Schwebel, Carol Rose. "Teacher's vs. Stbdent's Perception of a Children's Book." Ph.D. dissertation. Ohio State University, 1979. . Wilson, Roy. "In-Depth Book Discussions of Selected Sixth Graders: Response to Literature.“ Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio State University, 1975. Wiser, Nell. "Teaching Strategies for Enabling Elementary Pupils to Develop Inductively Literary Concepts of Plot, Theme, Character, and Setting.” Ph.D. dissertation, Memphis State University, 1975. BIBLIOGRAPHY 0F FOLKTALES BIBLIOGRAPHY OF FOLKTALES This bibliography is arranged alphabetically according to the author who retold or translated the single tale and/or edited, rewrote, or compiled a collection of tales. Collections of stories are indicated with the code letter C. Aardema, Verna. Behind the Back of the Mountain. New York: Dial Press, 1973. C. . The Riddle of the Drum, A Tale from Tizapan, Mexico. Illustrated by Tony Chen. New York: Four Winds Press, 1979. . Who's in Rabbit's House? Illustrated by Leo and Diane Dillon. New’York: Dial Press, 1975. . Why Mosquitoes Buzz in People's Ears. Illustrated by Leo and Diane Dillon. New York: Dial Press, 1975. Bang, Molly Garrett. Wiley and the Hairy Man. New York: McMillan, 1976. Barbeau, Marius, and Hornejansky. trans. The Golden Phoenix. Illustrated by Arthur Price. New York: Henry Walck Co., 1958. C. Baylor, Byrd. And It Is Still That Way. New York: Charles Scribner, 1976. C. Belpre, Pura. Dance of the Animals, A Puerto Rican Folktale. Illustrated byPaul Galdone. New York: Frederick Warne, 1972. . Ote, A Puerto Rican Folktale. Illustrated by Paul Galdone. New York: Pantheon, 1969. . The Tiger and the Rabbit. Illustrated by Kay Parker. Boston: [Houghton Mifflin, 1946. C. Belting, Natalia. Calendar Moon. Illustrated by Bernarda Bryson. New York: Holt, Rinehart, 1964. . The Earth Is On a Fish's Back. Illustrated by Esta Nesbitt. New York: Holt, Rinehart, 1965. C. 189 190 . The Lonngailed Bear. Illustrated by Louis F. Cary. New York: Bobbs Merrill, 1961. C. . Whirlwind Is a Ghost Dancing. Illustrated by Leo and Diane Dillon. New York: Dutton, 1974. C. Bere, Rennie. Crocodile's Eggs for Supper. Illustrated by John Paigl. London: Andre Deutch} 1973. C. Bernstein, Margery, and Janet Kobrin. The First Morning: An African Myth. Illustrated by Anne Burgess. New York: Scribner, 1977 Bierhorst, John. The Girl Who Married a Ghost and cher Tales from the North American Indian. Photos by Edward 5. Curtis. New York: Four Wihds_Press, 1978. C. . The Ring in thQAPrairie. Illustrated by Leo and Diane lon. New York: Dial Press, 1970. Bryan, Ashley. The Dancing Granny. New York: Atheneum, 1977. . The Ox of the Wonderful Horns and Other.African Tales. New York: Atheneum, 1971. C. Carew, Jan. The Third Gift. Illustrated by Leo and Diane Dillon. Boston: Little Brown, 1974. Carey, Bonnie, trans. Baba Yaga's Geese. Illustrated by Guy Fleming. Bloomington, Ill.: Ihdiana University Press, 1973. C. Carpenter, Frances. Tales of a Chinege Grandmother. Illustrated by Maithe Hasselriidl NewlYork: Doubleday, 1949. C. Carter, Dorothy. Greedy Mariani. Illustrated by Trina Hyman. New York: Atheneum, 1974. C. Chapman, Gaynor. Aesop's Fables. New York: Atheneum, 1971. C. Chase, Richard. The Complete Tales of Uncle Remus. Illustrated by Arthur Frost. Toston: Woughton Mifflin, 1955. C. Grandfather Tales. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1948. C. . The Jack Tales. Illustrated by Berkely Williams, Jr. Boston: 'Houghton Mifflin, 1943. C. . Jack and the Three Sillies. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1950. C. Coalson, Glo. Three Stone Woman. New York: Atheneum, 1971. 191 Coatsworth. Emerson, and David Coatsworth. The Adventures of Nanabush: Ojibway Indian Stories. New York: Atheneum, 1980. C. Courlander, Harold. The King's Drum and Other African Stories. Illustrated by Ehrico Arno. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1962. C. . Terrapin's Pot of Sense. Illustrated by Elton Fax. New York? Holt, Rinehart, 1957. C. Courlander, Harold, and George Herzog. The Cow-Tail Switch and Other African Stories. Illustrated by MadyeLee Chastain. New York: Half} Rinehart, 1950. C. Courlander, Harold, and Wolf Leslau. The Fire_on the Mountain and Other Ethiopian Stories. Illustratedby Robert W. Kane. New York: Holt, Rihehart, 1950. C. Courlander, Harold, and Albert Kofi. The Hat-Shaking Dance and Other Tales from the Gold Coast. Illustrated by Enrico Arno. Newlerk: Harcourt Brace, 1957. C. Courlander, Harold, and Ezekiel Eshugbayi. Olode the Hunter and Other Tales from Nigeria. Illustrated by Enrico Arno. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1968. C. Crompton, Anne Eliot. The Winter Wife, An Abenaki Folktale. Illustrated by Robert Parker. Boston: Little, Brown, 1975. Daniels, Guy, trans. The Falcon Under the Hat: Russian Merry Tales ond Fairy Tales. Illustrated by FEodor RajankovSky. New Ybrk: Funk 8 Wagnalls, 1969. C. , trans. Foma the Terrible. Illustrated by Imero Gobbato. New York: Delacorte Press, 1970. Dayrell, Elphinstone. Why the Sun and the Moon Live in the Sky. Illustrated by Blair Lent. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1968. De Roin, Nancy. Jataka Tales, Fables from the Buddha. Illustrated by Ellen Lanyon. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1975. C. d'Aulaire, Ingri, and Edgar d'Aulaire. d'Aulaire's Trolls. New York: Doubleday, 1972. d'Aulaire. Ingri, and Edgar d'Aulaire. East of the Sun and West of the Moon. New York: Viking, 1969. C. Dodds, Rose. No Room, An Old Story Retold. Illustrated by Fritz Eichenberg. New York: David McKay Co., 1944. 192 Domanska. Janina. King Krakus and the Dragon. New York: Morrow, 1979. Durham, Mae. Tit for Tat and Other Latvian Folk Tales. Illustrated by Harriet Pincus. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1967. C. Elliott, Geraldine. The Long Grass Whispers. Illustrated by Sheila Hawkins. New York: SchoCken, 1968. C. Finger, Charles. Tales from Silver Lands. Illustrated by Paul Honore. New York: Doubleddy, 1924. Gackenbach, Dick. The Leatherman. New York: Seabury Press, 1977. 639, Wanda. The Scorcerer's Apprentice. Illustrated by Margot Tomes. New York: Coward, McCann Geoghegan, 1979. Ginsburg, Mirra, trans. The Lazies: Tales of the Peoples of Russia. New York: Macmillan, 197311 C. , trans. One Trick Too Many. Illustrated by Helen Siegl. New York: Dial Press,’1973. C. . The Proud Maiden, Tungak, and the Sun. Illustrated by Igor Galanin. New York: Macmillan. ’1974. C. . Three Rolls and One Doughnut: Fables from Russia. Illustratedby Anita Lobe]: Newlerk: Dial Press, 1975. C. Goodman, Robert. The Magic Brush. Illustrated by Y. T. Mui. Norfolk Island, Australia: Island Heritage Ltd., 1974. Hague, Kathleen, and Michael Hague. East of the Sun and West of the Moon. Illustrated by MichaélHague. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1980. Haley, Gail. A Story,,A Story. New York: Atheneum, 1970. Harris, Christie. Mouse Woman and the Mischief Makers. Illustrated by Douglas Tait. New’York: Atheneum, 1977. C. . . Mouse Woman and the Vanished Princess. Illustrated by Douglas Tait. New York: Atheneum, 1976. C. . Once Upon a Totem. Illustrated by John Frazer Mills. New York: Atheneum, 1963. C. . Once Morqupon a Totem. Illustrated by Douglas Tait. New York: Atheneum, 1973. C. 193 Heady, Eleanor. Sage Smoke. Illustrated by Arvis Stewart. Chicago: Follett, 1973. C. Hill, Kay. Badger, The Mischief Maker. Illustrated by John Hamberger. Hodges, Margaret. The Fire Bringer. Illustrated by Peter Parnall. Boston: Little, Brown, 19721 Hoge, Dorothy. The Black Heart of Indri. Illustrated by Janina Domanska. New York: Scribner, 1966. Hogrogian. Nonny. One Fine Day. New York: Macmillan, 1972. Houston, James. Songs of Dream People. New York: Atheneum. 1972. C. Ghost Paddle. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1972. Tikta'Liktak,_An Eskimo Legend. New York: Harcourt Brace, """""1 9'67. . The White Archer: An Eskimo Legend. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1967. Hou-Tien, Chieng. Six Chinese Brothers: An Ancient Tale. New York: Holt, Rinehart, 1979. Jacobs, Joseph. The Fables of Aesop. Illustrated by David Levine. New York: Macmillan, 1966. C. Jagendorf, Moritz. Ghostly Folktales. Illustrated by Oscar Liebman. Morristown, N.JI: Silier Bbrdétt, 1968. C. Jameson, Cynthia. The Clay Pot Bo . Illustrated by Arnold Lobel. New York: CowardfiiMcCann 8' eoghegan, 1973. Jones, Hettie. Coyote Tales. Illustrated by Louis Mofsie. New York: Holt, Rinehart, 1974. C. . Longhouse Winter. Illustrated by Nicholas Gaetano. New York: Holt, Rinehart. 1972. C. . The Trees Stand Shining. Illustrated by Robert Parker. New York: Dial Press, 1971. C. Kirkup, James. The Magic Drum. Illustrated by Vo Dinh. New York: Knopf, 1973. Leach, Maria. Whistle in the Graveyard: Folktales to Chill Your Bones. Illustrated'by Ken Rinciari. Neinork: Macmillan, 1974. C. 194 LeGallienne, Eva, trans. The Nightingale. Illustrated by Nancy E. Burkert. New York: Harper Row, 1964. Lester, Julius. The Knee-High Man and Other Tales. Illustrated by Ralph Pinto. New York: Dial Press, 1972. C. Lin, Edet. The Milky_Way and Other Chinese Folktales. Illustrated by Enrico Arno. New York: Harcourt,]Brace, 1961. C. Malcolmson and D. McCormick. Mister Stormalong. Illustrated by Joshua Talford. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1952. C. Maher, Ramona. The Blind Boy and the Loon and Other Eskimo Myths. New York: J. Day Co., 1969. C. McDermott, Gerald. Anansi the Spider. New York: Holt Rinehart, 1977. Arrow to the Sun. New York: Viking Press, 1974. Melzack, Ronald. The Day Tuk Became a Hunter and Other Eskimo Stories. Illustrated by Carol Jones. New York: Dodd, Mead 8 Co., 1967. C. ' . Raven, Creator of the World. Illustrated by Laszlo' Gal. Boston: Little, Brown, 1970. C. Moore, Marianne. The Fables of LaFontaine. New York: Viking, 1954. C. Mosel, Arlene. Tikki Tikki Tembo. Illustrated by Blair Lent. New York: Holt, Rinehart, 1968. Nardini, Bruno. Fables of Leonardo da Vinci. Illustrated by Adriana S. Mazza. Northbrook, I11.: Hubbard Press, 1973. C. Ness, Evaline. Long,_Broad and Quick-Eye. New York: Scribner 8 Sons, 1969. Newell, Edythew. The Rescue of the Sun and Other Tales fromthe Far North. Illustrated bylFran Altschuler. Chicago: Whitman 8 Co., 1920. C. O'Conner, Katherine. Baba Yaga Stories. Indianapolis, Ind.: Saturday Evening Post, 1976. C. Ransome, Arthur. The Fool of the World and the Flying Ship. Illustrated by Uri Shulevitz. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1968. ‘ Raskin. Joseph, and Edith Raskin. Indian Tales. Illustrated by Helen Siegl. New York: Random House, 1969. C.