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I... 5-..: f z}. I 3. 1. - it! .k... 1.3.21. Ethane? K; Z. ..xuuy_vrn«£:..f£ h:?».vtui . . e9!!.7!rl.ltvk.+.v“orrl vsfiw.§_ffluv%..“¢vuu.fij rvfcfiypfi. .1 : 1: viii. 5;? {4.5.5. . .. . . ytltktibifibttfziou’lmufi g . y . ELI). Sag inky . a?!“ k £31.39)! stL.5xunfiwe 1 . .hudpwniiudh’vw #5.. t!!...$.!f4l. if. .a. .. .. .V.sn.»..vz.x5£ r, .h»§+ah.u£w2.2 Th). cgnzg. r? This is to certify that the thesis entitled BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE GREATER FLAMINGO (PHOENICOPTERUS RUBER ROSEUS) IN LAKE REZAIYEH NATIONAL PARK, IRAN presented by MOHAMMAD ALI ASHTIANI ZARANDI has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for M.S. degree in Fisheries and Wildlife Major professor Date September 2, 1977 0-7639 I lllllllfijlfiflllllfllfllljljlfllfllrm 70 Kfiiflfg: W55... 6 l' 4% l h 4128 ION-.747 Jmlmm t ‘ .- Q; o “. . f . fl — . o ‘ 1“" I: .. 3 -‘fi‘.... 0 6wfi .5 an. O} {.4 ‘31-“ . . r' ‘ 9 *5 “OF“ {‘64 I. ’ o I‘ve-i. ‘ o o - L. "--' “u - .. '6.) 4 . ' l: ‘(O 2l§i31.'4‘.%.inf 9V ...... BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE GREATER FLAMINGO (PHOENICOPTERUS RUBER ROSEUS) IN LAKE REZAIYEH NATIONAL PARK, IRAN BY Mohammad Ali Ashtiani Zarandi A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Department of Fisheries and Wildlife 1977 $03.37* ABSTRACT BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE GREATER FLAMINGO (PHOENICOPTERUS RUBER ROSEUS) IN LAKE REZAIYEH NATIONAL PARK, IRAN BY Mohammad Ali Ashtiani Zarandi This study of the breeding biology of the Greater Flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber roseus) in Lake Rezaiyeh National Park, Iran, occurred from June 20th through September 15th, 1976. Lake Rezaiyeh is a salt lake of 5,000 sz. There were breeding and non—breeding flamingos present during the summer of 1976. Breeding birds occupied Jodareh-Bala and Myaneh Islands in the center of the lake, while the non-breeders utilized the estuaries of the five rivers entering the southern part of the lake. Approximately 23,000 breeding, 30,000 non-breeding, and 9,000 chicks were present. Boat censuses showed that the breeding flamingos were concentrated around the breeding islands during the incubation period (June and early July) and the second week after hatching when the chicks began to enter the water. In September the chicks were concentrated in Mohammad Ali Ashtiani Zarandi two creches, and the breeding flamingos were dispersed throughout the northcentral part of the lake, returning to feed the young at daily intervals. Non-breeders occupied the south and southeastern part of the lake throughout the summer. Analyses of esophagus and gizzard samples showed that brine shrimps formed approximately 93 percent of the flamingos' diet. Brine shrimps (Artemia salina) were four times as dense in the south part of the lake as in the north. Although the salt concentration was much higher in the north part of the lake compared with the south, in both cases the salt concentration was too high for the brine shrimp to reproduce. Apparently, brine shrimp reproduce in the estuaries in the southern part of the lake. The flamingo laid one egg on the bare substrate. The incubation period was 29 to 30 days. Both sexes incubate the eggs for at least part of each day, and the rate of nest relief was found to be highest at 4:00—5:00 A.M. and 5:00-6:00 P.M. Hatching occurred between July 8th and 3lst. Nearly 89 percent of the eggs hatched and the number of fledglings was estimated to be 81 percent of all eggs laid. Herring Gulls were the only predators. Eleven percent of the eggs and six percent of the recently hatched chicks were taken by the Herring Gulls. This accounted for 90 percent of all mortality, with the 10 percent due to unknown natural causes . Mohammad Ali Ashtiani Zarandi Chicks entered the water at 16 days of age. Pattern of growth of the chick was described. The chicks with an approximate age of one week were fed by adults between three and four times a day, with each feeding period ranging between one and six minutes. As the chicks became older the frequency of feeding decreased to once or twice a day. The length of the molt for breeders and non-breeders was 36 and 35 days, respectively. Non-breeders began to molt in the first week of July and the breeders at the end of July. Flamingos at Lake Rezaiyeh appear to breed for the first time between four to five years of age. in memory of my mother ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many people were very helpful to me during the course of this study. In particular, I would like to single out the following: I wish to express my deepest appreciation to Mr. Eskandar Firouz, Deputy Prime Minister and Director of the Department of Environmental Conservation for pro- viding me with the opportunity to continue my education in the field of waterfowl management, and to study the biology of the Greater Flamingo. I also thank Dr. Sheibani, Assistant Director of the Iranian Department of Environmental Conservation for his assistance. I am indebted to Dr. Harold Prince, my major professor, for his guidance and support during the entire term of study and for his thorough critique of this manu— script. I also thank Dr. George Petrides and Dr. Donald Beaver, committee members, and my fellow graduate students, Bruce Becker and Tom Butanski, for their suggestions in refining the final draft. Thanks to Dr. Porter, Department of Zoology, Michigan State University, for identification of inverte— brates in stomach samples of flamingos. Thanks are due to Mr. Jamshid Fazel, Director of the Division of Education of the Department of Environmental Conservation in Iran, for his assistance in arranging for this research to be done. Dr. Lindon Cornwallis I thank for his suggestions, company, and assistance with banding operations. Thanks to Professor de Vos, former supervisor in the Department of Environment, Wildlife Division, Iran, for his suggestions while visiting my study area. My research would not have been possible without help from the people in the Environmental Conservation Office in Rezaiyeh whose help was much appreciated during this study. Thanks to Dr. Fred A. Harrington, Wildlife Manager and pilot of the Department of Environment, for his guidance and assistance with aerial censuses. Gratitude is extended to the Iranian Department of Environmental Conservation for providing funds and vehicle for the study, the airplane and boat used in the censuses, water and plankton sampling equipment, and analyses of soil and water samples. Finally, I offer my deep gratitude and respect to my father and brothers who provided encouragement and moral support during the study. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . II. LITERATURE REVIEW. . . . . . . . . . III. STUDY AREA . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV. METHODS AND MATERIALS. . . . . . . . Number of Flamingos at Lake Rezaiyeh National Park. . . . . . . . V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION . . . . . . . Number, Distribution, and Movement of the Greater Flamingos in Lake Rezaiyeh National Park. . . . . . . . Nest Chronology. . . . . . . . . Breeding Colony Observations . . Nesting. . . . . . . . . Feeding of Chicks by the Adults. Growth of Chicks . . . . . Food Preference, Distribution of Feeding Behavior . . . . . . Parasites. . . . . . . . . . . . Molting. . . . . . . . . . . Age of First Breeding. . . . . . Migration. . . . . . . . . . . . VI. MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . APPENDIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Food, PAGE 12 l7 17 28 28 39 39 39 49 50 54 57 58 59 59 64 68 73 TABLE 1. LIST OF TABLES NUMBER OF GREATER FLAMINGOS, WHITE PELICANS, SHELDUCKS, AND HERRING GULLS OBSERVED FROM THE SUMMER OF 1970 TO 1976 IN LAKE REZAIYEH NATIONAL PARK, IRAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NUMBER OF BREEDING FLAMINGOS, FLAMINGOS NOT ASSOCIATED WITH THE BREEDING COLONIES, AND NUMBER OF CHICKS IN TWO AERIAL CENSUSES IN LAKE REZAIYEH NATIONAL PARK, IRAN . . . . . . . . . . RESULTS OF 19 BOAT CENSUSES OF BREEDING FLA- MINGOS AND CHICKS IN LAKE REZAIYEH NATIONAL PARK, IRAN O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O COMPARISON OF MEAN NUMBERS OF BREEDING FLAMINGOS DURING INCUBATION, HATCHING, AND FLEDGLING PERIODS BASED UPON l9 BOAT CENSUSES IN LAKE REZAIYEH NATIONAL PARK, IRAN . . . . . . . . . . PERCENTAGE OF YOUNG FLAMINGOS OBSERVED ON BREEDING ISLANDS AND/OR IN THE WATER DURING THE FIRST AND SECOND MONTH AFTER HATCHING IN LAKE REZAIYEH NATIONAL PARK, IRAN . . . . . . . . . RESULTS OF SIX BOAT CENSUSES OF NON-BREEDING FLAMINGOS IN LAKE REZAIYEH NATIONAL PARK, IRAN . TIME AND APPROXIMATE RATE OF NEST RELIEF OF FLAMINGOS ASSOCIATED WITH THE JODAREH-BALA BREEDING COLONY IN LAKE REZAIYEH NATIONAL PARK, FROM 4:00 A.M. TO 9:00 P.M. ON JUNE 20, 1976 FLEDGLING SUCCESS OF THE GREATER FLAMINGO IN JODAREH-BALA BREEDING COLONY IN LAKE REZAIYEH NATIONAL PARK, IRAN, 1976 O O O O O O O O O O O O LENGTH OF THE FEEDING PERIOD OF JUVENILE FLAMIN- GOS AGES ONE, TWO, AND THREE WEEKS OLD FED BY ADULTS IN LAKE REZAIYEH NATIONAL PARK, IRAN. . . vi PAGE 16 31 33 35 37 38 46 48 51 TABLE 10. 11. LIST OF TABLES-CONTINUED PAGE GROWTH OF JUVENILE FLAMINGOS EXPRESSED BY WEEKLY MEASUREMENTS (X f SD) OF THE BODY WEIGHT AND LENGTH OF BILL, WING, AND TARSUS OF 70 BIRDS RANGING FROM 14 TO 62 DAYS OF AGE IN LAKE REZAIYEH NATIONAL PARK, IRAN . . . . . . . . . . 53 A COMPARISON OF THE PERCENT BY VOLUME OF ANIMAL MATERIAL FOUND IN THE ESOPHAGUS AND GIZZARD OF THE GREATER FLAMINGO COLLECTED IN JULY AND SEPTEMBER IN LAKE REZAIYEH NATIONAL PARK, IRAN . 55 LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE 1. 10. 11. Distribution of the Greater Flamingo in Asia, Africa, and Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sites where Greater Flamingos have been observed in Iran. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The study area, Jodareh—Bala Breeding Colony of the Greater Flamingos and Herring Gulls in Lake Rezaiyeh National Park, Iran . . . . . . . . . . Relationship between the abundance of brine shrimp (Artemia salina), salt concentration, water level, and water temperature in Lake Rezaiyeh National Park, Iran . . . . . . . . . . The aerial routes used to count the number of Greater Flamingos in Lake Rezaiyeh National Park on June 30, 1976 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The aerial routes used to count the number of Greater Flamingos in Lake Rezaiyeh National Park on September 12, 1976. . . . . . . . . . . . . . The boat route used to count the breeding and chick flamingos in Lake Rezaiyeh National Park, Iran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Distribution of flamingos in Lake Rezaiyeh National Park on June 30, 1976 . . . . . . . . . Distribution of flamingos in Lake Rezaiyeh National Park on September 12,1976. . . . . . Distribution of the breeding and chick flamingos observed from the boat along a 35 Km. route in Lake Rezaiyeh during the summer of 1976. . . . . The chronology of nesting activity (incubation and hatching) of the Greater Flamingos in Lake Rezaiyeh National Park, Iran . . . . . . . . . viii PAGE 13 14 18 20 21 29 30 34 40 LIST OF FIGURES-CONTINUED FIGURE 12. A generalized distribution of nests of Greater Flamingos and Herring Gulls on Jodareh—Bala Breeding Island in Lake Rezaiyeh National Park, Iran in 1976 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13. A generalized distribution of nests of Greater Flamingos on Myaneh Breeding Island in Lake Rezaiyeh National Park, Iran in 1976 . . . . . 14. Number of flamingo chicks fed by adults during half—hour intervals in Lake Rezaiyeh National Park on July 11, 1976. . . . . . . . . . . . . l5. Recoveries of Greater Flamingos ringed as pulli in Lake Rezaiyeh National Park . . . . . . . ix PAGE 41 42 52 61 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The Greater Flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber roseus) occurs throughout Africa, Europe, Southwest Asia, and north to Lake Tangiz, Kazakh, U.S.S.R. (Kahl 1975). The breeding range extends north to Lake Tangiz, U.S.S.R., south to Capetown. in South Africa, west to Dakar in West Africa, and east to Abb-e-Istadeh in Afghanistan (Figure 1). The Camargue in France is the only site in Europe where species breed (Johnson 1975). The occurrence of flamingos in Iran was reported by Capito (1925) who obtained a specimen near Ganaweh in southwestern Iran in February, 1925 (Figure 2). Witherby (1926) observed two flamingos in Bushire (southern Iran) in March, 1925. Another Iranian record is that of Buxton (1921) who reported a flock of twelve adults in July, 1921, at Rula Rud, between Anzeli and Astara in northern Iran. The Greater Flamingo occurs on Lakes Neiriz and Parishan in southern Iran. Summer censuses by personnel of the Iran Department of the Environment's Ornithology Unit on Lakes Neiriz and Parishan have ranged between 1,000 and 8,000 birds. According to Scott (1975), small breeding . aka A 8 EUROPE ezaiy‘eh -1an Sea (5% o Capetown A Recent breeding (since 1950) Former breeding D . Occurrence -- Population units 500 Kin. Figure 1. Distribution of the Greater Flamingo in Asia, Africa, and Europe (from Kahl 1975) . N W E S U.S.S.R. U.S.S.R. Lake TU *- Rezaiyeh Caspian Sea 0 Gorgan Bay Tehran . AFGHANISTAN IRAQ . Lake Zarihar Shadegan Lake aweh . . Ne1riz. ‘ L Parisha Lake Bakhteqan o Bushire SAUDI ARABIA ‘ PAKISTAN Persian Gulf Gulf of Oman Km. 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 Breeding Area 0 Observations II Lake A Capital Figure 2. sites where Greater Flamingos have been observed in Iran. 4 colonies also once occurred at Lake Bakhtegan in southern Iran (Figure 2), but there have been no breeding records since 1965. Although Gunther in 1899 (cited by Scott 1975) was the first to report that the Greater Flamingo was present at Lake Rezaiyeh (formerly Lake Urmi) in northwest Iran, he did not find any evidence of breeding. Savage (1964) reported that no flamingos were nesting at Lake Rezaiyeh in 1960. Personnel of the Iranian Department of Game and Fish found Greater Flamingos nesting at Lake Rezaiyeh National Park for the first time in 1964. In August of 1970, the Ornithology Unit of the Iranian Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) initiated a flamingo research program. In that year, 2,280 flamingo chicks were marked at Lake Rezaiyeh with blue neck bands. According to Scott (1975), only two birds have subsequently been recaptured. In 1971, the Ornithology Unit began to use monel metal leg rings, and since that time 3,994 flamingo chicks have been ringed (1,000 in 1971; 1,495 in 1972; 1,499 in 1973) (see Appendix 1). Argyle (l975)reported that of 2,495 chicks ringed in 1971 and 1972, a total of 80 recoveries have been recorded from Iran, Azarbaijan (U.S.S.R.), Persian Gulf states, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Syria, Turkey, Cyprus, Libya, Ethiopia, Pakistan, and India (see Appendix 2). 5 This study was initiated to obtain descriptive information on the activities of the Greater Flamingo at Lake Rezaiyeh National Park. More specifically, this study attempts to estimate the number of birds that were present on Lake Rezaiyeh during the summer; identify which areas on the lake were used by the birds; obtain specific information on breeding activities, including chronology, pattern of incubation, nest success, growth, and the feeding pattern of juvenile birds; document the molt process in regard to its timing and duration; sample plankton, water, and the lake bottom to provide information on flamingo food resources and water quality which might influence distribution of flamingos on the lake. The D.E.C. has been ringing Greater Flamingos at Lake Rezaiyeh for the past six years and the additional data collected since Scott (1975) reported on migration routes and wintering areas is summarized. The combined data might then form a more definite biological basis for the management of the Greater Flamingo at Lake Rezaiyeh National Park in Iran. CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW According to the findings of the International Flamingo Symposium (1975), all flamingos are included in the genus Phoenicopterus. The following systematic names were chosen by the International Flamingo Symposium (1975) to represent the world's species and subspecies: Variety Scientific Name Caribbean P. ruber ruber Greater P. ruber roseus Lesser E. minor Chilean B. chilensis Andean P. andinus James' P. jamesi Poncy (1926) noted that flamingos nest in brackish lagoons of steppes and deltas situated between the isothermic curves of +24OC and +26OC in July in the Palearctic region. The same July curve is mentioned by Poncy (1926) for the lower part of the Caspian Sea. From all of this evidence, Allen (1956) concluded that a July mean of close to 26.7OC provides environmental conditions that are required for 7 successful reproductive activity in this species. Allen (1956) believed that original flamingo breeding sites may have been in favorable environments in southern Spain and France, the brackish lakes of the Nile Delta, and in similar areas in the Caspian region. Scott (1975) reported that, although flamingos are distributed throughout the world, their occurrence is restricted to shallow alkaline lakes and salt lagoons, usually without vegetation. He also noted that the flamingos breed irregularly and unpredictably, and form long—term mating relationships. In regard to pair—bonding, Studer-Thiersch (1975) reported that the pairs remain together during succeeding breeding seasons. Even outside the breeding season the mates are closer to each other than to other birds while sleeping and carrying out other 1 activities. Kahl (1975) reported that courtship displays in 1 all species of flamingos occur in large groups. Although both sexes take part, displays usually are initiated by males. The displays of the male are more pronounced than those of females (Rooth 1968). According to Kahl (1975), ritualized behavior is contagious and when one bird in a group starts a certain type of display, this is often followed by other birds. Displaying flamingos can be observed throughout the year. Periods of high intensity display often occur months before and after actual nesting activities. —————7’ “—7 ‘7' 8 Performing groups are even seen at times and locations where breeding is not likely (Brown 1958). Normally, pair—formation is followed at once by nest building and egg laying. Flamingos usually breed in large colonies on mud flats. They construct nests by building a small mound of mud with a cup in the center to hold the egg. The flamingos at Lake Elmenteita in Kenya (Brown 1958) and Lake Rezaiyeh in Iran (Scott 1975) which breed on rocky islands without making nests appear to be exceptions. The clutch has been reported by Allen (1956), Broekuysen (1975), Brown (1958), Gallet (1950), and Salim Ali (1945) to be a single egg. Chapman (1905, 1908), Drable (1936), Uys and Martin (1961), and Yeat (1950) all determined that both sexes incubate and that the incubation period is between 29 and 31 days. Guichard (1951) reported that the birds relieve each other on the nest early in the morning and again late in the afternoon. Salim Ali (1945) noted in the Great Rann Colony in India that most nest relief changes occurred at night. Chapman (1905) noted that there is no relation between sex and the time of day that a parent incubates the egg, both sexes evidently incubating during the day and, doubtless, during the night also. According to Allen (1956), the pattern of nest relief can be influenced by the relative distance that must be travelled to obtain food. If long distances are involved, nest relief may occur at 24-hour intervals. FIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII[:___________________——7 9 Hatching and the development of the young have been observed and recorded in detail by Chapman (1905), Gallet (1950), Allen (1956), and Brown (1958). Allen (1956) reported that during the first week of life young flamingos have short legs and bill, and that the body is covered with natal down. According to Chapman (1905), the white natal down does not change to the gray of the post-natal plumage until the young are about one month old. Allen (1956) reported that the chick at age of about 10 days begins to take on the appearance of its kind, and the legs gradually become elongated. He also noted that the chicks gather in creches after about two weeks. Chapman (1905) in Allen (1956) determined that the chicks are fed by their parents for three months with regurgitated liquid food. Adult flamingos feed the chicks by standing behind them and reaching over and putting the tip of the upper mandible on the tip of the Chick's lower mandible (Brown 1958). Gallet (1950) reported that adult flamingos do not recognize their young and feed any chick that appears to be hungry. Salim Ali (1945) and Allen (1956) support this View, and the latter authority observed that there is a biological advantage of a creche system where any adult feeds any hungry chick. Nevertheless, Brown (1958) reported that the adults in Kenya feed only their own chicks. According to him, the chicks recognize their parents through their distinctive voices. ./ 10 Flamingos are filter feeders. According to Chapman (1908), when the bird is feeding with its bill under water, the lower portion of the bill remains steady while the upper portion moves rapidly so that the water escapes from each side of the base of the bill and the food remains in the beak. Allen (1956) states that flamingos keep their bills in the mud and move in a steady, btrt irregular, track. Middlemiss (1961) reported that the Gxneater Flamingo feeds while either moving forward or The mechanism of filter feeding has also been béaczkward. deasscribed by Buffon (1781) and Chapman (1905, 1908), (k>c>th in Allen 1956), Clark (1895) and Gallet (1949, 1950). 281.1. seem to agree that the bird's head is submerged and the feeeei: are moved up and down to bring the prey into the beak. (Elreeggoire de Guirtchitch (1936), Gallet (1950), and Ridley (1955) have described how flamingos tip up to feed ‘31: £11. 011 ‘the bottom in water which is slightly deeper than their leifig' length. With regard to food eaten by the Greater Flamingo, Gai<3<3w (1892) noted that flamingos fed on "organic slime" Madon (1932) commented on the rarity of organic and algae . eleflnents in the stomach contents, while Gallet (1950) concluded that the masses of small red worms, mollusca, and gastropoda (Neritina Sp., Cerithium Sp., and Rissoina Sp.) found in bottom sediments were the essential, if not the exclusive diet of the flamingos in the Camargue area. ll Zahl (1949), cited by Allen (1956), reported that flamingos obtain nutrients from small mollusks which inhabit the lake bottoms. Guichard (1951), cited by Allen (1956), believed that the flamingos in the Camargue feed on brine shrimp (Artemia salina). Brown (1958) noted that although the Greater Flamingos in East Africa fed on copepods and chironomid larva, they also obtained blue green algae from the water. Issakov (1948) reported that the winter food of the flamingos consisted mainly of crustacea and small mollusks. He also noted that brine shrimp and their eggs were the main food of the flamingos at Kara—Bogoz Bay and at Urmi Lake (the old name for Lake Rezaiyeh). The molt has been described in the flamingo by Allen (1956), Brown (1958, 1975), McCann (1939, 1947), and Middlemiss (1961). Allen (1956) noted that the flight feathers are shed together and that the birds are incapable of flying for several weeks. Brown (1958) reported that molt occurs before, during, or after breeding, or outside the breeding season altogether. Duplaix—Hall and Kear (1975) state that although wing molt normally occurs after egg laying, it can occur before, and even during incubation in some cases. CHAPTER III STUDY AREA Lake Rezaiyeh is located in the lower part of the Azarbaijan Plateau of northwestern Iran (Figure 2). The lake is approximately 140 Km x 36 Km, which is about 5,000 sz of surface area. There are 56 islands in the lake, but only four islands (Espir, Ashk, Kabudan, and Shahi) have fresh water springs. All the islands except Shahi are uninhabited. Two of the islands (Jodareh—Bala and Myaneh) were occupied by the breeding pairs of the Greater Flamingos during this study (Figure 3). The average and maximum depth of Lake Rezaiyeh in the summer of 1976 was 5.6 m. and 11.0 m., respectively. The north part of the lake was deeper than the south and the deepest part, in the northwestern part of Shahi Island, was found to be 11.0 m. There are no outlets. The main source of water comes from melting snow. The water levels vary as much as 200 cm. each year. The highest water level occurs during the first half of July and the highest water temperature in August (Figure 4). Salt concentrations in the lake vary inversely with the water levels. 12 l3 Lake Rezaiyeh Go lmankhaneh Harbour ' Kamar-Dagh Islands wan? 611mm Espir Baranduz-Chai River Jodareh— o Bela - Ardeshir ‘ Km. .11— o 3.4 6.8 10.2 13.6 17.0 20.4 23.8 o 00 0° 0 0 ‘- A... Breeding colony of flamingo D Douguzlar “lands Godar River Simineh River Mohabad River Figure 3. The study area, Jodareh-Bala Breeding Colony of the Greater Flamingo and Herring Gull in Lake Rezaiyeh National Park, Iran. 14 % In- .- -q 30- -“\ ’f” \ a \\ ”’ ‘ Salt Concentration ..’ -- 25‘Mu‘.‘ 7“ ’l’ ’I’ \\ \ ’ ’1 \ \ ,’ / 20‘ \\ \‘ z’ I, \ \ I / \ s"’ [I \“ Maximum / 15- \ x, \ .x \\ . . x/ 10‘ \\ M1n1mum I, \\\ ’i’ Relative abundance 5 J Dof Brine Shrimp 0C 0‘ CI] U _30 m- .. 200- ’2’ \ -25 II 150. Water Level! Water Temp. -20 ’ \ I \ J Maximum,’ /'\ \\ 1 100 / / \ - 5 ’4’ 50~ -10 0" ”/ \‘\\ ' 5 -4o -""'- “~~ 0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Figure 4. Relationship between the abundance of brine shrimp (Artemia salina), salt concentration, water level, and water temperature in Lake Rezaiyeh National (From Plattner 1955, cited by Savage 1964) Park, Iran. 15 Although no fish are present in the lake, there are large populations of brine shrimp (Artemia salina)1 and blue green algae (Entromorpha intestinalis). Abundance of brine shrimp is correlated with the water level and salt concentration cycle (Figure 4). The blue green algae population becomes numerous in the lake before the brine shrimp become numerous, and disappears in August (Savage 1964). Plattner (1955), cited by Savage (1964), found that in those years when concentrations of salt remain around or below 20 percent, blue green algae becomes very abundant. Brine shrimp provide abundant food for water birds who breed around Lake Rezaiyeh, including Ruddy Shelduck (Tadorna ferruginea), Shelduck (Tadorna tadorna), Greater Flamingo, Herring Gull (Larus argentatus), and Slender- billed Gull (L. genei). The White Pelican (Pelicanus onocrutalus) breeds on the Douguzlar Islands (southern part of the lake), and feeds on the fresh water rivers in the southern part of the lake. The number of Flamingos, Pelicans, Shelducks, and Herring Gulls observed at Lake Rezaiyeh National Park during 1970-1976 are summarized in Table 1. 1Plattner (1955), cited by Savage (1964), reported Artemia salina, but Gunther (1899) reported Artemia urmiana. Dr. Porter, Michigan State University, agrees with Artemia salina. 16 wHQmHHm>m Dos mamaa ooo.mH mem.m Hmm.oa oom.m oom.m ooa.e « HHDO mcaunmm ooo.mm Hem.ma omv.oa omn.em oow.m oom.m * Moppawnm oon.m nma.a omw omm.H oom.m mem.a oom.m saueamm mpflnz ooo.mm . . oom.mm oom.as oom.sa . momcHEmHm mcaemmnm Amcflpmwnnlcoc can .mxoflno .mcflpwmmav ooo.am ooo.nv ooo.mm ooo.mm ooo.om ooo.om ooo.o¢ moosefimam kuoa ohma man_ whoa mbma mhma Head onma mweommm Home vafipm mH£p EOHM mead m0 MDMU paw .U.m.Q EOHH mead AOSOHS“ onma MO mummy 24mH Qm>mmmmo mAHDO GZHmmmm 92¢ rmMUDQAmmm rdeoHAmm MBHmZ .mOOZszflh mm9¢mm0 m0 mmmZDZ H mqm48 rfimfim A420HB¢Z mmefiwmm mM11nting the non-breeding and 19 days for counting the kalreeeeding and chick flamingos). On June 26th, both breeding earici non—breeding flamingos were counted from the boat along tzvvc> different routes (Figure 7). A 45 Km. route, 1 Km. wide ((3 - 55 Km on each side of the boat), was used to count the r111111k>er of breeding and chick flamingos located in the central 5351371: of the lake (Figure 7). Counts of non—breeding flamingos were made along a 85 Km. route with the same strip ”Vi—<33t11 as used for counting the breeding flamingos. Counting VVEiss w , N : O O *00.... o A‘ '. ' . ' . .o/ o . . . O O . . o ' O ' | l 0' 00 ‘ O 0 ‘ .0 k \ 0 ‘. \ ° \ ° . .‘ Shahi \ ' X : Island 0. . \ 0 0. .0 .1 :" . ‘4 "- x ' - C. \ . O . . x 0 ... .‘Q . “ . O . '+ .\‘0.0 .' . _* I o O Q . ) l Golmankhane .. . Harbo ‘ x 3. k Baranduz-Chai X g . v4. I ”J r a— “ K \ I g.- ‘ l 606 x 4 xv," 0 0 K Km. :5 0 O Douguzlar f m2: 1 an Islands 0 5 1o 15 20 25 ‘ H )1 f» "" 2' I - Breeding colony of flamingos \\ * "‘"""" .av . . \ f Simineh Zarineh ' 0* Route 4 (2:00-4:30 P.M.) X Khajaneh River V9!“ ->—)—> Route 3 (10:00 A.M.-12:20 p.14.) \ 4 River Godar River “ 5 Mohabad River Figure 6 . National Park on September 12, 1976. The aerial routes used to count the number of Greater Flamingos in Lake Rezaiyeh —-—- Route used for counting non-breeders — Route used for counting breeders 21 Golmankhane Harbour Myaneh Island Baranduz-Chai River Jodareh- Ba a. 0 Douguzlar Islands ... ... _ ..‘_ ~ ‘ ) —_'_—__._=- o 5 1o 15 20 25 “" "' \_..—>-- Zarineh Rive: Godar Rive Breeding colony of the flamingos Mohabad River Figure 7. The boat route used to count the breeding and chick flamingos in Lake Rezaiyeh National Park, Iran 22 time in the afternoon was 7:30 P.M.). Between 10:00 A.M. and 3:00 P.M. the visibility was poor because of the sun, and it was difficult to see birds at distances greater than 350 m. from the boat. The best distance for observing the flamingos was approximately 500 m. from each side of the boat. Each count of the breeders and chicks along the route was made in an average of three hours. Counts of the number of non—breeders was conducted in an average of six hours. Nest initiation data for 1976 were reported by Abdulah Gahremani from the Environmental Conservation Office in West Azarbaijan Province. I collected the incubation and hatching data during June and July of 1976. One thousand three hundred nests were studied during the incubation period and 1,650 nests during the hatching. The time and approximate rate of nest relief were determined by counting the number of incoming flamingos that flew toward the breeding colony, landed on the water, then swam to the island and finally walked up to their nests. Fifty—four nests located in an isolated portion of the southeastern part of Jodareh-Bala Breeding Island were chosen for detailed study. These data were obtained over 19 days with a 2 hour per day period of observation from a blind. The eggs were not marked, because I did not want to disturb the breeding colony. The clutch size was one and the egg was on bare ground. This situation made it easy to 23 determine the individual fate from the blind on the breeding island. Eggs laid in nests were not included in this study because they were not observable from the blind, and I did not wish to continuously disturb the breeding colony by close observation. The total sizes of the nesting areas of the colonies were measured after adults and Chicks had left the islands. At this time, 38 abandoned eggs were measured with a vernier caliper, and materials from seven nests were collected and identified. Observations of feeding of chicks by adults were made from a blind with a binocular and also on Island No. 79 (Figure 3) with a spotting scope. The feeding frequency of the chicks fed by the adults was measured by direct observation (67 chicks during the first week, 35 chicks during the second week, and 19 chicks during the third week after hatching). These observations were conducted two days a week, starting July 10th and continuing through August 14th, with a total of 1.5 hours per day of observation. Percentages of young flamingos on the breeding island, and/or on the water, were measured during the summer by looking at the young through the spotting scope and counting them on the island and/or on the water. These observations started on July 8th and continued through September 12th. Some of these observations (from July 10th through August 14th) were made at the same time as the observations on 24 feeding of chicks by adults. A total of 15 days, with an average of 1.5 hours per day, was spent during this process. For determining growth rate of the chicks, the body weight and lengths of the bill, wing, and tarsus of 300 chicks were measured at two—week intervals. The first measurement was made when the chicks were around 20 days old. The second, third, and fourth measurements were made at two—week intervals until the chicks were about 62 days old. The length of the bill was measured from the base of the feathers to the tip of the bill (culmen). The length of the wing was measured from the wrist to the tip of the longest primary feather. The length of the metatarsus was measured from the heel to the end of the metatarsus (joint with toes). Measurement of the growth of the chicks began on July 29th and continued until September 5th. The food contents in the esophagus and gizzard of five adult flamingos were collected in both July and September 1976. The 10 samples were measured volumetrically and identified. The volume of the food contents present in the esophagus and gizzard was measured by using a graduated cylinder.. One stomach sample from a flamingo chick was taken on August 16th. The food content of the chick sample was analyzed. The period of molt was studied by capturing 189 flamingos associated with the breeding colonies and 108 flamingos not associated with the breeding colonies at the 25 beginning of the molt. Each bird was marked with a black plastic neck band and metal leg band. Marked birds were recaptured over a six-week period (late July through early September) and growth of the wing feathers was measured. Since few marked birds were recaptured (9 breeding birds and 5 birds not associated with the breeding colonies), the growth of the wing feathers of 70 arbitrarily chosen unmarked birds was measured at weekly intervals during the molting period to find an average growth rate. Observations of molting birds began on July 23th and continued through September 14th. A total of 19 days, with an average of 2.5 hours per day, was spent on these observations. Approximate age of first breeding was estimated by capturing previously banded flamingos that were not associated with the breeding colonies (non-breeders). The age of non-breeding flamingos was contrasted with the age of birds captured from the breeding segment of the population. To obtain information about parasites, five flamingos (the same flamingos which were used to study food preferences) were shot during September. Cestode specimens were collected from the intestines and identified by Bruce A. Lindement, parasitology specialist, Department of Microbiology and Public Health, Michigan State University. Even though some of the specimens were stained, the thickness 26 of the worm did not lend itself to location of internal structures. However, external characters and ova structure- were sufficient to identify the parasite to family. Identification was based on characters used by Wardle et a1. (1952). Water depth was measured at Lake Rezaiyeh during the summer, and at the same time and place brine shrimp and water samples were taken. Those samples were taken to find out if there is any relationship between salinity of the water and number of brine shrimp. Using the 200CC Zemitt samples made it possible to take samples from different depths in the water. To take a sample, first the cover in the upper part of the sampler was kept open by using two springs, then the sampler with the open cover was sent to the selective depth. It was possible to close the top of the sampler by sending a weight along the string to the top of the sampler which closes the cover. The number of brine shrimp in each sample were counted and recorded. Thirteen soil samples from the bottom of the lake were taken with a boat anchor. Concentrations of anions and cations of the water were measured by taking 254 water samples from different parts of the lake with a 100cc plastic bottle. Water and soil samples were analyzed by the Water Pollution Control Unit, D.E.C. 27 Percent weight of salt in the water was measured by taking 60, 300cc, samples dry weight of the salts with dissolved in the water. The was measured by weighing the of water and comparing the total weight of the salts amount of salt in each sample sample and the container, removing the water by evaporation on a 4000C stove, and then subtracting the weight of the salt from the weight of the original and of the sample plus container. CHAPTER V RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Number, Distribution, and Movement of the Greater Flamingos in Lake Rezaiyeh National Park My study of the breeding biology of the Greater Flamingo at Lake Rezaiyeh during June through September 1976 showed that breeding and non—breeding segments of the population occupied separate parts of the lake (Figure 8). Results of 14 returns of 189 banded breeding birds and 108 non-breeding birds during the molting period (July 10th to September 1st) indicate that the segments of the population are isolated from one another. The breeding segment nested on two islands (Jodareh- Bala and Myaneh) in the center of the lake (Figure 3). The non-breeding segment was located along the south shore of the lake more or less associated with the mouths of the five rivers which form the main fresh—water source of the lake (Figure 9). Results of aerial censuses showed about 23,000 breeding and 30,000 non—breeding flamingos were present. The number of breeding and non—breeding flamingos remained approximately the same in the June and September censuses (Table 2). The Jodareh-Bala Breeding Colony Consisted of 14,000 breeding adults and the Myaneh Breeding Colony consisted of 8,500 breeding adults. 28 Distribution of breeding V/l/A flamingos - Distribution of non-breeding flamingos Figure 3. Distribution of flamingos in Lake Rezaiyeh National Park on June 30, 1976. 29 .odareh Es ' pit Mohabad River ~Bala Simineh River 30 Shahi I s l and lmankhan . Harbour " 7/. 91. . Km Ardeshi Distribution of chicks E] W Distribution of breeding flamingos Distribution of non-breeding flamingos Godar Rive Mohabad River Figure 9. A... I w a \ \ \ \ {$85. tax“. 13:». 79;. 727.9% ”@ "If? ”e ”'4, 4: / 0 0 0 O 00 O Douguzlar ' O *I \ Zari eh Khajaneh River Sinineh River Distribution of flamingos in Lake Rezaiyeh National Park, Iran, on September 12, 1976. 31 TABLE 2 NUMBER OF BREEDING FLAMINGOS, FLAMINGOS NOT ASSOCIATED WITH THE BREEDING COLONIES, AND NUMBER OF CHICKS IN TWO AERIAL CENSUSES IN LAKE REZAIYEH NATIONAL PARK, IRAN Number of Flamingos Date Breeding Non—Breeding Number of Chicks Total June 30 22,500 30,000 - 52,000 Sept. 12 23,000 29,000 9,000 61,000 32 Nine thousand chicks were observed on September 12th. Seven hundred and fifty chicks were located at the southern end of the lake and the rest of them in the southeast part of Shahi Island (Figure 9). Since the census flights did not cover the entire surface area of the lake, these data cannot be regarded as absolute counts of the population. However, from observations along the entire north shore of the lake (Figure 5), during which no flamingos were observed, it is likely that the area which was censused was the area with the highest concentrations of flamingos at Lake Rezaiyeh, and that the reported figures included most of the birds found on the lake. Breeding flamingos were concentrated around the two breeding islands (Table 3) (Figure 10, A & B). There was no significant difference in the number of breeding birds in the water surrounding the breeding islands during the incubation and hatching periods (Table 4). The number of breeding flamingos observed along the boat route decreased significantly during fledgling period. The decrease in number was due to the chicks entering the water at the end of July and moving to the north central part of the lake during August. The adult breeding flamingos dispersed throughout the entire central part of the lake (Figure 10, C & D), returning daily to feed the chicks in the creches. 33 TABLE 3 RESULTS OF 19 BOAT CENSUSES OF BREEDING FLAMINGOS AND CHICKS IN LAKE REZAIYEH NATIONAL PARK, IRAN Total Number Number of of Breeding Breeding Number of Flamingos and Date Flamingos Chicks Chicks June 23 9,000 - 9,000 June 26 5,400 — 5,400 July 1 6,000 — 6,000 July 5 5,700 - 5,700 July 8 4,000 140 4,140 July 11 7,000 430 7,430 July 14 5,500 750 6,250 July 19 9,000 700 9,700 July 21 7,500 1,200 8,700 July 24 6,500 1,800 8,300 July 27 7,000 2,800 9,800 Aug. 4 6,000 3,500 9,500 Aug. 7 4,500 4,500 9,000 Aug. 11 4,600 6,300 10,900 Aug. 14 5,000 3,800 8,800 Aug. 20 3,500 3,200 6,700 Aug. 29 3,000 4,000 7,000 Sep. 5 4,000 2,800 6,800 Sep. 8 2,500 2,500 5,000 34 0 Adult (breeding birds) June 26 X Chick 0 Adult (breeding birds) July 27 X Chick . Adult (breeding birds) Aug. 11 C Figure 10. Distribution of breeding and chick f1 Pezaiyeh National Park during the summer of 1976. X Chick . Adult amingos O 5 10 15 20 (breeding birds) Aug. 29 observed along a 35 Km. route in Lake ll... I 35 TABLE 4 COMPARISON OF MEAN NUMBERS OF BREEDING FLAMINGOS DURING INCUBATION, HATCHING, AND FLEDGLING PERIODS BASED UPON l9 BOAT CENSUSES IN LAKE REZAIYEH NATIONAL PARK, IRAN 95% Confidence Interval Date No. Censuses on Mean June 23-July 5 4 6525 i 265 (incubation) N.S = T = July 8-July 27 7 6642 t 1455 0'116 (hatching) S = T = Aug. 4-Sept. 8 8 4137 i 945 2‘963 (fledgling) 36 Observations from a vantage point on Island 79 during July through early September provided information on the movement of chicks prior to the formation of creches at the south part of Shahi Island and in the south part of the lake at the end of August (Table 5). Chicks began swimming at 16 days of age, and returned to the island at night. At 21 days, the juvenile flamingos came together to form creches ranging from 100 to 3,000 individual birds. Each creche was accompanied by from 2 to 27 adults depending on the number of chicks. The creches were found in the water immediately around the breeding islands during late July and August. In September the chicks congregated in two creches, a large one composed of 8,250 young which was located in the southeast part of Shahi Island (Figure 9) and a small creche with 750 young which was located near the mouth of the Simineh River (southern part of the lake) (Figure 9). Results of six boat censuses of the non-breeding flamingos are reported in Table 6. Since these numbers were obviously low due to poor conditions for observation (compared with the results of aerial censuses) and since they fluctuated greatly, no conclusion can be formed about the movement patterns of the non-breeding birds other than that throughout the entire June through September period they remained closely associated with the estuaries of the rivers entering the south part of the lake (Figures 8 and 9). 37 TABLE 5 PERCENTAGE OF YOUNG FLAMINGOS OBSERVED ON BREEDING ISLAND AND/OR IN THE WATER DURING THE FIRST AND SECOND MONTH, AFTER HATCHING IN LAKE REZAIYEH NATIONAL PARK, IRAN Percent of Young Percent of Young Date Observed on Land Observed on the Water July 8 100 0 July 10 100 0 July 14 100 0 July 19 100 0 July 21 100 0 July 23 89 11 July 30 78 22 Aug. 8 67 33 Aug. 13 31 69 Aug. 18 2 98 Aug 23 l 99 Aug 29 >1 100 Sep. 5 3 97 Sep. 9 l 99 Sep 12* 0 100 *Aerial census 38 TABLE 6 RESULTS OF SIX BOAT CENSUSES OF NON-BREEDING FLAMINGOS IN LAKE REZAIYEH NATIONAL PARK, IRAN Number of Non-Breeding Date Flamingos June 29 5,700 July 6 9,000 July 15 4,500 July 26 7,000 Aug. 17 2,500 Sept. 2 4,000 39 Nest Chronology Since I did not arrive 0n the study area until June 20th, data on the beginning of nest initiation and incubation were obtained from Abdulah Gahremani of the Environmental Conservation Office in Rezaiyeh. Nests were initiated approximately between May 28th and July 2, 1976. The dates females began incubating ranged from June 3rd to July 17th, with 68 percent beginning between June 11th and July 1st. Chicks began hatching from July 8th to 3lst, with 78 percent between July 10th and 20th (Figure 11). Breeding Colony Observations Nesting The breeding sites on Lake Rezaiyeh National Park were a series of sandy and stony islands rising from 1 to 5.5 m. above the surface of the lake. Jodareh-Bala and Myaneh Islands were the only nesting sites at Lake Rezaiyeh National Park in 1976. Jodareh-Bala Island was about 60,000 m2, but only 6,000 m2 of the south and southeast part of this island was occupied by the breeding flamingos. This portion of the Jodareh-Bala Island is bare of vegetation (Figure 12). Myaneh Breeding Island is about 2,000 m2 and is located northwest of Espir Island, between Kabudan and Golmankhaneh Harbour (Figure 13). Myaneh Island is completely bare of vegetation and is entirely occupied by breeding flamingos. 4O 20- 15. 10- INCUBATION 25- 20* 15- 10a HATCH 21-27 4-10 18-24 2-9 17-23 31-6 14—20 28-3 11-17 25-1 10-16 24-30 6-13 May June July Aug. TIME Figure 11. The chronology of nesting activity (incubation and hatching) of the Greater Flamingos in Lake Rezaiyeh National Park, Iran. 41 Breeding flamingo m Breeding Herring Gull .‘ Blind Fig 12. A generalized distribution of nests of Greater Flamingos and Herring Gulls on Jodareh—Bala Breeding Island in Lake Rezaiyeh National Park, Iran, in 1976 0 40 80 120 160 200 Lake Rezaiyeh 42 Lake Rezaiyeh reedinq flamingos Figure 13. A generalized distribution of nests of the Greater Flamingos on Myaneh Breeding Island in Lake Rezaiyeh National Park, Iran, in 1976. Golm khaneh 43 According to the observations of the DEC, the flamingos have nested on a total of six islands at various times since 1970. These islands have similar topography in that all are relatively low, with gentle slopes leading to the water. Based on observations beginning in 1970, Myaneh Island supported breeding birds from 1973 through 1976. The southwest part of Kabudan Island was used by breeding flamingos from 1970 to 1972, the northeast part of AsthIsland from 1974 to 1975, and the Jodareh-Bala Island during the summer of 1976. One factor which appears to have caused the shift in breeding colony sites is development of herbaceous vegetation on sites which were previously bare mineral soil. Myaneh Island, which had been used by the breeding flamingos for four years continuously, was bare of vegetation originally and has remained so. All the other islands went from a bare mineral soil condition to a vegetated condition with the exception of Douguzlar Island where competition with White Pelicans appears to inhibit flamingo nesting. Perhaps the development of vegetation is a response to the accumulation of nutrients from the flamingos' guano. The results of this study show that 99 percent of the breeding pairs of flamingos nest on bare rocks , with 1 percent building a low nest made of feathers, feces, small stones, and grasses. This has also been observed by Brown .I I- II..- I... .|.. ‘hul‘s. .. ...l.....l..|| . 44 (1958), in Africa, but is contrary to other flamingo studies (Allen 1956, Dampier 1967, McCann 1939, Maynard 1888, and Seehehm 1882) in which flamingos built their nests with mud. In my study, mud nests could not be made because the islands were rocky and the waters around the breeding islands were too deep to allow construction of nest mounds as occurs in most areas where flamingos nest. Nests were distributed more or less randomly on Jodareh—Bala Island, but showed a definite clumping at the center of Myaneh Island (Figures 12 and 13). The apparent reason for the latter effect was the irregular topography around the rocky margin of Myaneh Island which presumably prevented a secure nesting site. The southeast shore of Jodareh—Bala Island was smooth and sandy, and seemed to be suitable nesting habitat to within about one and a half meters from the water. Observation of 2,000 nests on June 25th showed a clutch size of one. This agrees with most other studies (Allen 1956, Broekhuysen 1975, Brown 1958, and Salim Ali 1945), but differs from Chapman (1884) and Gallet (1954), who reported that two eggs are sometimes laid. A total of 38 eggs from two breeding colonies were measured after the breeding flamingos and the chicks left the islands. Egg length (i f SD) was 88 t 5.05 mm. and width was 52 f 3.31 mm. This is close to measurements reported by Allen (1956), Brown (1958), McCann (1939, 1947), Macleod (1962), and Uys and Martin (1961). '45 The incubation period was from June 3rd to July 17th, with 68 percent of the birds beginning incubation between June 11th and July lst. The average incubation period based on observations of 54 individual eggs was 29 to 30 days. This is within the range of 29 to 31 days reported earlier (Brown 1958, Chapman 1905, 1908, Drable 1936, and Yeates 1950). Both sexes were found to incubate the egg. The egg was touched and occasionally moved by the parent's bill and it was also moved into contact with the brood patch immediately after the birds settled on the nest. Throughout the day, flamingos flew to the breeding colony to relieve their mate that was incubating the egg. They landed on the water about 10-50 m. from the breeding island, swam to the island, and then walked to their nests. When this happened the incubating bird left the nest, walked toward the water, and after staying between 5-20 minutes in the water, flew away toward the Baranduz-Chai River, located in the west part of the lake. According to observations made from 4:00 A.M. to 9:00 P.M. on June 20, 1976, on Jodareh-Bala Island, the rate of nest relief peaked at 1,740 changes per hour between 4:00-5:00 A.M. and 1,200 changes per hour between 5:00-6:00 P.M., with the lowest rate of 60 changes per hour between 1:00-2:00 P.M. and between 8:00-9:00 P.M. (Table 7). This follows most other studies (Allen 1956, Studer—Thiersch 1975, Gallet 1950, .... II..II.| I}... .I .. i Ills I...l..c.l. .. 46 TABLE 7 TIME AND APPROXIMATE RATE OF NEST RELIEF OF FLAMINGOS ASSOCIATED WITH“THE JODAREH—BALA BREEDING COLONY IN LAKE REZAIYEH NATIONAL PARK, FROM 4:00 A.M. TO 9:00 P.M. ON JUNE 20, 1976 Number of Changes Observed Time During Time Period 4-5 A.M. 1,740 5-6 A.M. 1,140 6—7 A.M. 660 7-8 A.M. 480 8—9 A.M. 360 9—10 A.M. 240 10—11 A.M. 240 ll—12 A.M. 180 12-1 P.M. 120 1—2 P.M. 60 2-3 P.M. 80 3-4 P.M. 360 4-5 P.M. 540 5—6 P.M. 1,200 6—7 P.M. 600 7—8 P.M. 300 8-9 P.M. 60 47 and Uys and Martin 1961) except for Brown (1958), who reported that nest relief may take place once a day at night if the feeding grounds are distant. The chicks were observed to eat their egg shells during the first and second days after hatching as reported earlier by Brown (1958), Chapman (1905), and Gallet (1950). The main constituent of one stomach sample from a flamingo chick was partially—digested brine shrimp. Gallet (1950) described it as a "simple viscid mucus". Yeates(l950) describes it as a "white liquid" which may be produced by some form of regurgitation. The individual fate of 54 nests located in a readily visible portion of the Jodareh-Bala Breeding Colony was determined (Table 8). This portion of the breeding island was easily defined by being abruptly about 15 cm. lower in elevation. It is believed that these 54 nests were representative of the whole colony. Nearly 89 percent of the eggs hatched and the number of fledglings was 81 percent of all eggs laid. Herring Gulls were the only predators observed at the flamingo breeding colonies. The breeding colonies of the Herring Gulls were located on Jodareh-Bala, Ardeshir, Kamar-Dagh, and Douguzlar Islands (Figure 3). Eleven percent of the eggs and six percent of the recently hatched chicks were taken by Herring Gulls. This accounted for 90 percent of all mortality, with the other 10 percent due to unknown natural causes. 48 TABLE 8 FLEDGLING SUCCESS OF THE GREATER FLAMINGO IN JODAREH-BALA BREEDING COLONY IN LAKE REZAIYEH NATIONAL PARK, IRAN, 1976 Fate Number Percent Number of eggs 54 100 Predation of eggs by H. Gulls 6 11 Number of eggs hatched 48 89 Number of young killed by H. Gull 3 6 Young lost by other natural causes 1 2 Fledgling success (chicks left the 44 81 breeding island) 49 Fledgling success was high compared with breeding records from other areas. Brown (1958), reporting from Africa, found the breeding success (young reared to egg laid) of the Greater Flamingo averaged 10 percent per annum over a 21-year period. Taking East Africa as a whole, the breeding success of the Greateerlamingos might be about 35 percent of eggs laid and 14 percent overall without the catastrophic predation of the Marabou Stork. The high fledgling success at Lake Rezaiyeh was due to the fact that the Greater Flamingo was largely protected in this area, both from disturbance by man and predation by mammalian predators. Two stomach samples from freshly dead Herring Gulls showed that brine shrimp formed the main food item of their diet. This supports the idea that the gulls are not dependent on the flamingo eggs and chicks for their food. Certainly the Herring Gulls at Lake Rezaiyeh do not have the same disasterous effect as predation of Marabou Storks on the population of flamingos in East Africa, whose primary food source was flamingo eggs and chicks (Brown 1958). Feeding of Chicks by the Adults An adult flamingo fed the chick by standing behind it and reaching over and putting the tip of its upper mandible on the tip of the Chick's lower mandible. Apparently, adults feed the chicks by regurgitation. 50 When flamingo chicks were approximately one week. old, they were fed between three and four times a day with each feeding period ranging from one to six minutes (Table 9). As the chicks became older, the frequency of feeding decreased to once or twice a day. However, the feeding intervals lengthened to 12-18 minutes. Adults fed the young most frequently early in the morning and in the afternoon (Figure 14). Growth of Chicks The newly hatched chick was covered with down and had a straight beak. When the chick was about 17 days old, the upper jaw began to curve downward, and by four to five weeks of age there was a definite curvature in the shape of the bill. This was in contrast with Allen (1956), who found that the upper jaw began to curve at 11 days of age. Flamingo chicks increased in weight from 453 i 187 g. at twenty days of age to 2,920 f 862 g. at 62 days (Table 10). The bill grew faster in the first four weeks after hatching than in the second four weeks. The rate of growth of the wings was low in the first four weeks after hatching, and the maximum rate of wing growth occurred between six and eight weeks of age. Rate of growth of tarsus was higher between four to six weeks than during the two to four-week period after hatching. Based upon the observation of 49 banded young, the fledgling period was estimated to be about 80 days. 51 TABLE 9 LENGTH OF THE FEEDING PERIOD OF JUVENILE FLAMINGOS AGES ONE, TWO, AND THREE WEEKS OLD, FED BY ADULTS IN LAKE REZAIYEH NATIONAL PARK, IRAN Length of Feeding Period One Week Two Weeks Three Weeks Min. Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent 1 8 12 2 9 13 3 13 20 4 14 21 5 11 16 6 12 18 10 6 17 11 5 14 12 4 12 13. 5 26 14 6 32 15 2 11 16 3 16 17 2 10 18 1 5 Total 67 100 35 100 19 100 52 36~ NUMBER ... \9 I 10- J 4:30 5:30 6:30 7:30 8:30 9:307 10:30 11:30 12:30 1:30 2:30 3:30 4:30 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ll 12 1 2 3 4 A.M. P.M. HALF-HOUR PERIODS Figure 14. Number of flamingo chicks fed by adults during half-hour intervals in Lake Rezaiyeh National Park on July 11, 1976. 53 mm H 0mm mm H mmm Hm H «OH New H ommm on mouse Hm H has as H was we H em mes H «mom on meuem as H owe Hm H me mm H ms amp H mama on smuom we H mm m H m OH H as ems H mme on amuse .5 .EE .5 .m venomous Ewe 0mm unmade mafia Hafinm . ”£903 mpuflm mo Hwnfioz mumEonummd 24mg” emmfim .HdZOHB/NZ mme/mmmm mxqu ZH mwd .mO mew/NO mm OH. vH 20mm UZHOZfim QOHm on .mO mDmmANB 02¢ UZHB .HQHm .mO EBOZMA QZxN BEUHMB whom mme ...HO 25 + v3 mezmzmmDm/Nmz MAMMMB Mm Qmmmmmmxm mOGZHZANAm MQHZMPDH .mO mnHzomO o H Hamming. 54 Food Preference, Distribution of Food, and Feeding Behavior The food habits of five adult flamingos collected during July, and five adults in September 1976, were analyzed by examination of eSOphagus and gizzard contents. Ninety-three percent of the food by volume in the gizzard and esophagus (both breeders and flamingos that were not associated with the breeding colonies) was brine shrimp and brine shrimp eggs. Less than 0.5 percent of the food in the samples was Calonoida and Cyclopoida (order Copepoda). About 1.5 percent of the diet was blue green algae. Grit and mud constituted an average 4.5 percent of the gizzard contents. The percent animal matter in esophagus and gizzard samples decreased from 93.3 and 94.1 percent, reSpectively, in July to 91.0 and 89.4 percent in September (Table 11). According to Issakov (1948), the winter food of the Greater Flamingo in Lake Tangiz (U.S.S.R.) consisted mainly of crustaceae and small mollusks. Brine shrimp and its eggs was the main food of the flamingos at the Kara— Bogos Bay (U.S.S.R.) and at Urmi Lake (old name for Lake Rezaiyeh National Park) in northern Iran in the past (Issakov 1948). Brown (1958) reported that although the. Greater Flamingos in East Africa fed on Copepodes and Chironomid larva, they were not exclusively dependent on animal matter for food, but also obtained blue green algae from the water. .ll l.. I .II III. II II....>II All... II £11410... 55 opflomoaomo paw unacconu ma some mmoa pow .QEHHQm edema wmm “songs «.mm om o.am w m Hwnamumwm H.vm mm m.mm 0H m hfiob Hmflnopuz HE aamwuwpmz Hmfificfi HE meQEmm Spcoz Hmfiflqm oEoHo> coo: Dcwouwm coo: oEoHo> coo: mo Hmnfioz ucoonom cow: UHmNNflw momonmomm Z Wm Bzmommm mmfi m0 ZOMHMdeOU < HH mqm wounbmud new: mm.o H.H ~m.m mo.o vv.m o.mma mm .uo>flm annuluzocmumm ooom ~.H om.N ooHN om.~ vvm mw ofizmmonwnmom wwnmuo Hwncma oosu a.m NH.m ooaa oq.o can mN mam: .umnouzoaumz ommv o.vm~ um coon om.m oo>.v~ mm :mNmUIononu can G.H v~.~ comm ~m.m «ma aw uw>am Aarousoflumz mz x or go do moo: H\me o coaunooq + + ++ ++ . I mmocuumz .aEwe Hauoa H\mos :oAumo zH¢Nmm mxAmz< mqmz ooN 0m 0.m usonumm oacmazmm 0H om vm ow 00.0 I coma m I I I v.00 h.» oHN an 0.0 ocmamn Hammm mo bosom on mm mm ma 00.0 I 000 I I I I I 0.» mo 00 o.m mwzmnoIozmom NH mm mm 0v 00.0 I on» 0 I I I mm 0.5 00H 00 0.H :qunmmm umoz 0H om 00 0a no.0 I ooaa 0H I I I 0H 0.0 00H am I namHmH qnmcm no umo3nuuoz Acmcauuo m.m on 00 N0 v0.0 I 000 mH I I I am 0.» mud mv m.H nanny uo>am wmzoInsccmumm ocmamm ma 0N 0m 0 0H.o I 000M 0 I I I on >.> 000 mm 0.0 uwcmwou< mo :uuo: .E 00v ma on on on va.o I owed o I I I an o.h 00m v0 0.m cmZxx mo umezuoom ma on 00 on 00.0 I ovma 0H I I I on 0.5 oHN 0v 0.0 unomcmmmaox mo ummznuzom on mm 00 N «0.0 I oooH I I I I 5H 0.5 >.mh v0 0.0 :MNmoImfloosu wN on «o 0 NN.o I 00o ma I I I cm 0.5 ~.oo hm m.~ coaxed noncommmmm 0N on on N m~.o I ooaa mm I I I ma m.> m.mm om 0.~ cocmnxzmmoIouozIzwcumso .3 a. .... a. m mu .v. mv mu M. o>quo¢ #6qu. .m M. Ms W coflmuoq m. w .... n. u .A .A .A .3 In M o ... A... D e I u I N X .4 % 2 no oo x u. . K 3 P . . . N m I m d d d . 0 . t d d d m, E m m m I 0 0 2.3 .NNIS Son 02200 533 $23.52 :H>H¢Nmm mx¢q 2H zmxte mmm>a<2¢ Auom ho mflqammm v XHozmmm< 72 APPENDIX 5 IRANIAN RECOVERIES CF GREATER FLAMINGOS RINGED AS ADULTS IN U.S.S.R. AND AT LAKE REZAIYEH NATIONAL PARK, IRAN (FROM SCOTT 1975) Ringed at Tangiz Lake, Kazakhstan 50°18'N, 69°00'E Ringed Recovered Locality Coordinates 23.7.67 - 11.71 Gorgan Bay, Mazandaran 36°50'N, 53045'E -.7.68 -. 3.69 Gorgan Bay, Mazandaran 36°50'N, 53°45'E 23.7.69 12.12.69 Hassanlu Marsh, Lake Rezaiyeh 37°03'u, 45°2a's 29.7.70 29.10.70 Zarghan, Fars 29°30'N, 52°40's 16.6.71 3. 9.72 Kaftar Lake, Fars 30°35'N, 52°45's 17.8.71 10. 3.72 Gorgan Bay, Mazandaran 36°50'N, 53°45'z 17.8.71 4. 2.72 Bandar Pahlavi, Gilan 37C30'N, 49°3o'a Ringed at Gasan-Kuli Reserve, Turkmenistan 37°27'N, 53°56'E 10.10.64 24.10.70 Caspian shore near Gomishan 37°05'N, 54°01'E 27.10.65 4. 2.70 Gorqan Bay, Mazandaran 36°50'N, 53°45'E Ringed at Lake Rezaiyeh, Azarbaijan 37°25'N, 45°30'E 17. 8.70 12. 2.72 Lake Tashk, Pars 29C4S'N, 53°30'E BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Akhtar, S.A. 1947. Ab-Istadeh, a breeding place of the flamingo (P. ruber roseus) in Afghanistan. Bombay Natural Society Journal 47:308—314. Allen, P. A. 1956. The flamingo: their life history and survival. New York: National Audubon Society, 285 pp. Allexander, J. E. 1829. Note regarding the Salt Lake Inder in Asiatic Russia. Edinburgh: New Philosophical Journal (October-December):18-20. Argyle, F. B. 1975. Report on bird—ringing in Iran (1970 to 1974). Ornithology Unit Division of Parks and Wildlife, Iran Department of the Environment. Progress report (R.2.54.3). Bauer, K. M., and Von Blotzheim, U. N. Glutz. 1966. Handbuch der vogel Mitteleuropas, Vol. 1. Frankfort am Main: Akademische-Verlagsesellschaft, pp. 78—105. Bent, A. C. 1926. Life history of North American marsh birds. U. S. National Museum Bulletin, pp. 135-146. Broekhuysen, G. J. 1975. South Africa. Flamingos. International Flamingo Symposium. Edited by Janet Kear and Nicoles Duplaix-Hall. The Wildlife Trust, pp. 61—64. Brown, L. H. 1955. The breeding of lesser and greater flamingos in East Africa. Jour. E. Afr. Nat. His. Soc. 22:159-162. . 1958. The breeding of the greater flamingo at Lake Elmenteita, Kenya Colony. Ibis 100:388—403. 1959. The mystery of the flamingos. Country Life 117: 3024: 164- 167. 1966. Greater flamingo in East Africa. Africana 2: 21— 27. 1975. East Africa. Flamingos. International Flamingo Symposium, 1975. Edited by Janet Kear and Nicoles Duplaix—Hall. The Wildlife Trust, pp. 38—48. 73 74 Brown, L. H., Powell-Cotton, D., and Hopcraft, J. B. D. 1973. The breeding of the greater flamingo and white pelican in East Africa. Ibis 115:352—374. Brown, L. H., and Root, A. 1971. The breeding behavior of the lesser flamingo (Phoenicopterus minor). Ibis 113:147—172. Buffon, G. L. L. 1781. Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux. Paris: Imprimerie Royale, pp. 47-69. Buxton, P. A. 1921. Notes on birds from northern and western Persia. Bombay Natural History Society Journal 27:4:875. Capito, A. 1925. Some birds in the n.w. of Fars, Persia. J.B.N.H.S. 34:931—934. Chapman, Abel. 1883. Notes on the breeding of Phoenicopterus antiquorum. Ibis 1:3:397—398. Chapman, F. M. 1905. A contribution to the life history of the American flamingo (P. ruber) with remarks upon specimens. American Museum of Natural History Bulletin 21:7:53-57. . 1908. Camps and cruises of an ornithologist. New York: Appleton, p. 134. Clark, W. Eagle. 1895. On the ornithology of the delta of the Rhone. Ibis 1:2:198—200. Dampier, W. 1697. A new voyage round the world, describing particularly the Isthmus of America. London: James Knopton, p. 230. Duplaix—Hall, and Kear, Janet. 1975. Breeding requirements of flamingos in captivity. Flamingos. International Flamingo Symposium, pp. 131-141. Ferguson, D. A. 1966. Job completion report. Department of the Environmental Conservation, Ornithology Unit. Gallet, E. 1949. Les flament rose de Camargue. Lausanne Payot. Grzimek, M., and Grzimek, B. 1961. Flamingos censused in East Africa by aerial photography. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 24:215—217. 75 Guichard, G. 1951. Les flammants de Camargue. L'Oiseau 21:1:48-54. Guirtchitch, G. 1936. Chronique, ornithologique tunisiennr pouri annee. L'Oiseau (Nouv. Ser.), 1935. Gunther, R. T. 1899. Contributions to the natural history of Lake Urmi, n.w. Persia, and its neighbourhood. Linnean Society. Journal of Zoology 27:345-453. Issakov, J. A., and Formozov, A. N. 1946. Unperiodical migrations of flamingoes in the U.S.S.R. (English summary). Zoological Journal of Moscow 25:5:473-480. Jenkin, P. M. 1957. The filter feeding and food of flamingoes (Phoenicopteri). Trans. Roy. Soc. 240: 401—493. Johnson, B. 1975. Camargue. Flamingos. International Flamingo Symposium, 1975. The Wildlife Trust, pp. 17—25. Johnston, H. H. 1881. Letter, extracts, announcements, etc. Ibis (4th Ser.) 5:17:173—174. Kahl, P. 1975. Distribution and number, a summary. International Flamingo Symposium, 1975, pp. 95—96. Lomont, H. 1953. Sure 1e comportment Nourricur de Ph. ruber roseus pallase. Vie et Miliew, Bull. Lab. Argo, Univ. Paris (English summary) 4:4:713—717. Macleod, Uys, Broekhuysen, and Martin. 1963. Observations on the breeding of the greater flamingo in the Bredardorp district, S. Africa. Ostrich 34:129-154. Madon, P. 1932. Contribution's a letude du regime du element rose. Alauda (2th Ser.) 4:37-40. Maynard, C. J. 1888. Notes on the breeding habits of American flamingo odlogist 5:7:108-110. McCann, C. 1947. Flamingo in Kutch——a comment. Jour. Bambay. Nat. Hist. Soc. 41:12—28. Middlemiss, E. 1953. Flamingoes in Rondevlei Bird Sanctuary. Bokmakkierie 5:9—12. . Notes on the greater flamingo. Bokmakkierie 13:9—14. 76 Niethammer, G. 1953. Zur vogelwelt Boliviens (English summary). Bonn. Zool. Beitr. 4:195—303 Pena, L. E. 1962. Notes on South American flamingoes. Postilla 61:1—8. Percy, D. 1955. Contribution a 1'etude des oi‘seaux de la haute savoie. Alauda 2:7:403. Poncy, R. 1926. Biologie et migration de flamant rose, Phoenicopterus ruber antiquorum. Bulletin de la Societe Zoologique de Geneve 3:5:433. Ridley, M. W. B.; Moss, L.; and Percy, R. C. 1955. The food of flamingoes in Kenya Colony. Jour. E. Afr. Nat. His. Soc. 12:103-118. Salim Ali. 1945. More about the flamingo in Kutch. Bambay Nat. His. Soc. Jour. 45:586—593. Savage, E. 1964. Lake Rezaiyeh, habitat for shelduck and flamingo. Wildlife Trust 67:135-142. Scott, D. A. 1975. Flamingoes in Iran. Flamingo Symposium, 1975, 265 pp. Scott, E. F. 1975. Introduction to the symposium. Flamingo Symposium, 1975, 265 pp. Seebohm, H. 1882. Notes on the birds of Astrakhan. Ibis (4th Ser.) 5:17:173—174. Studer—Thiersch, A. 1975. Flamingo Symposium, 1975, 265 pp. Uys; Broekhuysen; Martin; and Macleod. 1961. The breeding of the greater flamingo in the Bredasdorp District. American Wildlife 15:97-105. Witherly, F. 1939. The handbook of British birds. No. 3, p. 34. Yeates, G. K. 1950. Flamingo city. London: Country Life. Zahl, P. A. 1949. The flamingos of Andros. Scientific Monthly 64:4:277-288. \___ STQTE U “ZIIIZIEIIIIIIIIIII . IIIIIIII +