A SOCIQLOGICAL APPROACH TO THE. DEVELOPMENT OF A METHODOLOGY FOR THE CREATION OF TECHNECAL PROGRAMS IN COMMUNITY JUNIOR COLLEGES Thesis for the Daqm of Ed. D. MICMGAN STATE UNEERSETY Richard Earl Wilson 1963 IHESYS MICHI ERS! m LB em . 11111111111111111111111111 3 1293 10575 O487 This is to certify that the thesis entitled A SOCIOLOGICAL APPROACH TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF A METHODOLOGY FOR THE CREATION OF TECHNICAL PROGRAMS IN COMMUNITY JUNIOR COLLEGES presented by Richard Earl Wilson has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Doctoral degree in Education Major professor Date July 29: 196} 0-169 LIBRARY Michigan State University MSU LIBRARIES RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. FINES wiII be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. ABSTRACT A SOCIOLOGICAL APPROACH TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF A METHODOLOGY FOR THE CREATION OF TECHNICAL PROGRAMS IN COMMUNITY JUNIOR COLLEGES by Richard E. Wilson The purpose of this study is to develop a methodology for creating technical programs in community junior colleges. Technical programs are designed to educate a full-time student within two years for an occupational position that requires more cognitive knowledge than manipulative skills. The need for technicians is widely proclaimed. Community junior col- leges are capable of providing technical programs, programs that have the status of higher education. To better understand the community junior college, it is sociologically analyzed from seven perspectives. It is viewed as 1) a comprehensive college, 2) an "open-door" college, 3) an externally authority—oriented organization, 4) a devel- opment organization, 5) a bureaucratic organization, 6) a so- cial organization, and 7) a social system. The analyses indi- cate that the community junior college lacks considerable con- trol over its staff and environment, but it must nevertheless make accommodations with other social systems in order to cre- ate change. The analyses further indicate that the effective- ness of an organization is directly related to the integration of its sub-systems. Richard E. Wilson -2- A brief historical examination of the attitudes and be- liefs of American society toward change reveals a movement from a strong faith in automatic adjustment to esteem for planned change. Books by Ronald Lippitt, g£_gl., and Christopher Sower, g£_§l., preSent models of planned change that the au- thors claim are applicable to all change situations. Both of the models focus attention on a change-agent that is external to the client-system. This study is concerned with a change- agent, the community junior college, that is a part of the client-system, the community. Sower‘s model contains five analytical elements, and these are used as the basis for a znethodology to create technical programs in community junior <3olleges. The methodology has seven analytical elements. They are: 1. Assignment of responsibility for gathering and evaluating possible technical programs. 2. Formation of linkages with external systems. 3. Establishment of an initiating set for a suggested technical program or an area of closely related tech- nical programs. 4. Legitimation and sponsorship for a technical prOgram. 5. Establishment of an execution set for a technical program. 6. Inclusion of the technical program in the curriculum. 7. Evaluation of the technical program. Richard E. Wilson -3- The St. Louis - St. Louis County Junior College District is presented as a case study to provide data for testing and illustrating the analytical elements and properties of a change process. The creation of the college involved four action proc- esses, and these processes are analyzed by using Sower's model. The author of this study was an administrative intern in the St. Louis junior college the first three months of 1963. He participated in the creation of technical programs, attended all of the board, staff and curriculum deveIOpment meetings, and interviewed board members, staff members and citizens who had worked for the creation of the college. Ten technical programs were created during the internship period, and five of the pro- grams provide considerable data that test the analytical ele- ments and properties and illustrate the cellaborative action process. The case study approach is especially valuable for ana— lyzing social systems. A case study points out the interdepend- encies among sub-systems and systems, and it reveals how the consequences of a decision spread throughout a social system and its environment. The methodology provides a tool for planning and analyz- ing the processes that create technical programs. Some action processes may not involve all of the analytical elements, but this does not nullify the value of the methodology. It is Inoped that the experiences of those engaged in creating tech- xiical programs and the theories developed in related Richard E. Wilson -4- disciplines will elaborate and improve the methodology. The methodology is of value so long as it assists in creating suc- cessful technical programs. A SOCIOLOGICAL APPROACH TO THE DEVELOPMENT CF A METHODOLOGY FOR THE CREATION OF TECHNICAL PROGRAMS IN COMMUNITY JUNIOR COLLEGES By Richard Earl Wilson A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF EDUCATION College of Education 1963 (7291‘!st 7/ 8/12 V ACKNCYLEDGMEITS The author feels indebted to many instructors and fellow students who furnished ideas and expressed interest in this thesis. A special debt of gratitude is owed to the members of the advisory committee. Dr. Max 8. Smith was an especially able chairman, and Dr. Cole Brembeck, Dr. A. Martin Eldersveld, Dr. Harold Dillon and Dr. Duane Gibson offered many valuable sug- gestions and considerable assistance. The intern experiences in St. Louis and the data obtained with the help of staff members made this thesis possible. Thanks to the candor and co-operation of people associated with the St. Louis junior college, sufficient data was obtained for the case study. Dr. John E. Tirrell, vice-president for in- istruction, and President Joseph P. Cosand furnished information and offered suggestions after reading the thesis prospectus. The author is also especially indebted to Dr. Robert Jones, James Hobson, Vincent Freeman and Glynn Clark for providing considerable information and many ideas. It is impossible to mention the many ways my wife assisted in producing this paper. Aside from the cbvious examples of typing and proof reading, she provided the more important func- tions of constructive criticism, morale improvement, and en- couragement. Without her assistance, the thesis would never have been written. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM. . . . . 1 II. RELATED STUDIES AND ASSUMPTIONS. . . . . . . . . . 8 III. A SOCIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF THE COMMUNITY JUPIIOR COLLEGE O C O O I O O O O O O O O O O O 20 IV. PLANNED CHANGE: A METHODOLOGY FOR CREATING I TECHNICAL PIIOGRAJIS o e o o o o o e e e e e o o 55 V. A CASE STUDY: THE ST. LOUIS ST. LOUIS COUNTY JUNIOR COLIISGE DISTITICT o o o e o o e o o o e 05 VI. CONCLUSIOIqS. O O O O O O 0 O O O 0 O O O O O O O O 140 BIBLIOGWHY 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 149 iv CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM It is commonplace nowadays to introduce educational papers with references to increasing numbers of social and technological changes and the implications of these changes for educators. This study is no exception, but this study is not concerned with adjustment to such changes. This study is con- cerned with the creation of changes. An argument can be made that activities of educational institutions, rather than causes of change, are essentially consequences of activities in other areas of society. Morris Ginsberg, a British sociologist, of- fers a rebuttal to this argument. Changes in the system of education lead to changes in economic and political structure and these in turn modify the system of education. The "cause" does {not disappear when the "effect" is produced but con- tinues and is modified by its effects.1 Purpose The purpose of this study is to deveIOp a methodology for creating technical programs in community junior colleges. Technical programs are designed to educate a full-time student within two years or less for a position that "places stronger lMorris Ginsberg, "Social Change," The British Journal of Sociology, IX (September, l958), 224. -1- demands on cognitive knowledge and less on manipulative skills."1 The direct and obvious changes would be: 1) the of- fering of programs for entry into technical occupations, 2) the education of students for technical occupations, and 3) the filling of technical positions in organizations. These are only the formal, anticipated changes, changes that can be translated into an economic means-ends chain. That is, a col- lege creates a new product, a technical program, which it fur- nishes to its clientele, students, who use their capital in- vestment, formal education, to obtain a position in an organi- zation requiring technicians of their ilk. These changes are certainly important and the ramifications in only the economic aspect of society are infinite. Because of the integration of society, e.g., occupation helps determine social status, there are other changes, changes that influence many aspects of society, inCIuding the social structure. The influence of higher education on the economic and social aspects of society has been consistently increasing in American society. In the mediaeval and industrial periods the history of the universities in relation to the economy is one of imperfect and usually belated adaptation to the occupational demands of a culture gradually in- creasing in its complexity. In the technological society the system of higher education no longer plays a passive role: it becomes a determinant of economic development and hence of stratification and other aspects of social structure.2 1William P. McLure, "The Challenge of Vocational and Tech- nical Education," Phi Delta Kappan, XLIII (February, 1902), 215. 2A. H. Halsey, "The Changing Functions of Universities in Advanced Industrial Societies," Harvard Educational Review, XXX (spring, l9b0), 119. -5- A methodology is a procedural arrangement. This study will develop a systematic approach to creating technical pro— grams. Procedures will be defined and arranged in a manner most likely to create technical programs that will have suffi- cient support and resources to continue so long as a need for such programs exists. The methodology will do more than de- scribe steps for creating technical programs, it will concom- itantly describe procedures that will furnish access to sources of continuing support for technical programs. Need for the Study Justification for developing the methodology automati- cally implies showing a need for technical programs in commu- nity junior colleges. There is little reason for concern with procedures for creating technical programs, if there is no le- gitimate reason for their creation. There are two broad reasons for needing an increasing number of technical programs in community junior colleges. They are economic and social. Economically, more organizations have been and are requiring a greater number of engineering, industrial, health service and public service technicians. Of all the workers that make up our labor force of approximately 70 million persons, those classified as professional, technical and kindred workers in- creased more percentage-wise during the 1950's than -4- any other group, and within this broad classifica- tion, technicians increased the fastest of all.1 During this period electrical and electronic technicians in- creased 679.2 per cent, other engineering and physical science technicians increased 101.8 per cent, and health service tech- nicians increased 80.2 per cent.2 "The number of professional and technical workers needed in 1970 is estimated to be about 40 per cent greater than the number employed in 1960."3 Many current magazines and newspapers carry accounts of the increasing national need for semi-professional and profes- sional people and the concurrent problem of too many unskilled workers. Localities differ as to their specific numerical needs and types of technicians required. Communities with few industries require technicians in various areas, e.g., food service, medicine and dentistry. Because of the underlying phi1050phy of the community junior college, it is the respon- sibility of the locally controlled and concerned community jun- ior colleges to identify the specific needs of their communities. A widesPread need for technicians does not prescribe more technical programs in community junior colleges. Other 1H. H. London, Technical Education: The Job To Be Done and Means Of Doing It, A paper read at the Midwest Community College Leadership Program (Columbia, Missouri: U. of Missouri, March 26, 1963), P0 20 21bid. 3McLure, p. 212. f" —D- alternatives are available.1 In 1962, proposals for a vast new system of area vocational-technical institutes were submitted to Congress. Professor Harris, the technical education con- sultant at the University of Michigan, points out that the con- struction of such a system of vocational-technical institutes would be extravagant, because hundreds of community junior col- leges already exist, and that postponement of technical educa- tion until such institutions are approved and constructed would endanger our society.2 There would also be a problem of ac— ceptance. Would people accept the educational endeavors of vocational-technical institutes as higher education or would they_disparagingly label such endeavors glorified secondary ed- ucation? The answer to this question would have important con- sequences for the other reason, the social reason for creating more technical programs. The role of formal education in determining social status directly and indirectly, primarily by determining occupation, is becoming increasingly important. In 1939 T. H. Iarshall wrote: Social structure, in so far as it reflects occupa- tional structure, is frozen as soon as it emerges from the fluid preparatory stage of schooling. Mo- bility between generations is increased, but mobil— ity during the working life of one generation is di- minished. That appears to be the direction in which lJ. Chester Swanson, "Education for Occupational Compe- tence," Phi Delta Kappan, XLIV (April, 1963), 325. 2Norman C. Harris, The Community Junior College — A Solution to the Skilled Manpower Problem, A paper read at the Seventeenth National Conference on Higher Education (Chicago: MErCh 5, 1962), P. be -5- things are moving today, toward the transfer of in- dividual competitiveness from the economic to the educational world, from the office and workship to the school and university.1 Ely Chinoy, writing in 1955, stated: The mass of available evidence demonstrates clearly the existence of a high correlation between occupa- tion and the various criteria of class: prestige, income, wealth, style of life, and power. Although there is some disagreement on the relative impor- tance of each of these variables within the total system, there seems ample warrant for concluding that in American society, at least, occupation is probably the most significant, that is, it is more likely to influence other variables than to be in- fluenced by them.2 If education is the primary determinant of occupation and, consequently, social status, access to higher education is necessary for higher occupational and social status. Technical programs offered by community junior colleges are different from, but as demanding as, liberal arts programs. Both types of programs are higher education with the eventual consequences of higher occupational and social status for the graduates of such programs. If the programs are confined to educational in- stitutions with less prestige, the social effects are altered. Community junior colleges lack the clear identity and prestige of senior institutions, but senior institutions have not had the ability or desire to offer technical programs. Community junior colleges do offer college parallel courses and these common offerings place community junior colleges academically closer to four year institutions than vocational-technical 1T. B. Marshall, ManJ Workigand Society, ed. Simond Nosow and William Form (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1962), p. 23#. 2Ely Chinoy, ibid., p. 35h. -7- institutes which may have no course offerings in common with four year colleges.l In a democratic society where opportuni- ties for social mobility are valued, technical programs afford another Opportunity. 1In line with Ginsberg's remarks on the first page, there is a circular arrangement of cause and effect. Occupations with high status often require higher education. Does the prestige associated with high status occupations attach itself to institutions offering prerequisite education to those occu- pations, or vice versa? Regardless of how the cycle origi- nally started, prestige is attached to programs leading to high status occupations and this prestige is generalized in some de— gree to the educational institution and all of its offerings. A comprehensive community junior college has programs leading to many professional occupations whereas vocational-technical institutes confine their offerings to semi-professional areas. The comprehensive nature of community junior colleges may be a status disadvantage when comparisons are made with senior in- stitutions, but it is an advantage when comparisons are made with vocational-technical institutes. CHAPTER II RELATED STUDIES AND ASSUMPTIONS Related Studies A review of periodical literature and books concerned with community junior colleges discloses a dearth of studies concerned with a systematic method of developing and institut- ing technical programs. One article pointed to the need for a study in this area.1 Israel Light is concerned with the grow- ing demand for medical technicians and suggests a survey be made of successful technical programs in an effort to discover "tips" that could help other communities.2 Light's proposal is certainly worthwhile, but a survey with no theoretical frame- work, to be thorough and generalizable, requires considerable time and makes analysis difficult. A methodology is also more refined than "tips," and more systematic in its approach. Most articles concerned with the develOpment of technical pregrams are devoted to discussing what courses should be in- cluded. The determination of courses and course content is a major concern of instructors, so consequently little Space and thought is devoted to other groups. Some articles seem to im- ply that a college is the domain of professionals, instructors lIsrael Light, "Training for Health Occupations," Junior College Journal, XXXIII (March, 1963), 16-21. 21bid., p. 20. -9- and administrators, and little consideration need be given to those individuals and groups outside of a college's organiza- tional boundaries. One article describing the deveIOpment of a two year nursing program almost completely ignored the environ- ment of the community junior college, including professional nursing groups and hospital administrators.1 The authors did mention the importance of appearing before groups to inform people and to recruit students.2 There was always the implica- tion that the public was to be informed but not consulted. Higher education for nurses is expected and required, and lit- 3 tle explanation and discussion is necessary. The same argu- ment does not apply in the case of many other technical pro- grams. Would technical programs in law enforcement and manage- ment of restaurants and hotels be as readily accepted? A recent study by Poland criticizes professional educa— tors for not establishing procedures that would articulate com- munity junior colleges with their communities. Poland surveyed the business programs offered by Michigan community junior col- leges and concluded that "the business programs in the public community colleges of Michigan were not reflecting the changes lGeorgeen D. Chow et al., "Planning and Organizing a Nursing Education Program in the Junior College," Junior College Journal, XXXI (April, 1961), 447-50. 21bid., pp. 449-50. 3This does not include individuals and groups who ad— vocate nursing programs of three years and longer. It will take more than lectures to convince them a two year program is sufficient. ~l0- taking place within the community and society."1 As a source of assistance and support in planning, creating, and updating business technical programs, Poland recommended working with the National Office Management Association, the National Sec- retaries Association, local business advisory committees, and by exchanging information with other community junior colleges in Michigan and throughout the country. Technical programs, being relatively recent additions to educational institutions, do not have wide acceptance and pres- tige.2 This is sufficient reason for cultivating supporting relationships with other community groups. Ralph Wenrich, Pro- fessor of Vocational Education at the University of Michigan, identifies another factor that heightens the need for such re- lationships. Technical programs are generally more expensive than college parallel programs.3 To get support for technical programs, "the community college must maintain and further de- velop community relations, which can be facilitated through advisory committees."l+ Another study is a book by Fields. He examines four com- munity junior colleges and presents their methods of developing 1Robert Poland, "Implications of Certain Social, Econom- ic, and Technical Trends on Business Curricula in the Public Community Colleges of Michigan" (unpublished Ph.D. disserta- tion, College of Education, Michigan State University), p. 153. 2Swanson, p. 324. 3Ralph C. Wenrich, "The Community College and Technical Education," School and Society (February 9, I963). p. 54. Ralph C. Wenrich, "Administration of Technical Education in Junior Community Colleges," Technical Education News, XXII (April. 1963). 17. _]__1_.. programs. One of the colleges, Long Beach City College, places importance on involving lay peeple in technical program devel- opment. For this reason more than forty lay advisory commit- tees assist in developing technical programs.1 These commit- tees are especially helpful in providing "information regarding the need for workers and suggestions with respect to processes and equipment."2 Another college, the Junior College of Con- necticut, uses special committees of lay citizens to assist in planning programs in business, nursing, engineering, and other fields.3 Tyler Junior College in Texas also stresses co— operation between the college and other organizations in the development of programs.u Orange County Community College in New York also works with lay advisory groups in developing pro- grams. Several of the original technical programs established at Orange County Community College failed, perhaps because they were deveIOped without community support and lay co—operation. Since the early failures, lay groups have been intensively used in the develOpment of technical programs.5 Fields considers all four colleges to be illustrations of successful comprehen- sive community junior colleges. Informants at the four col- leges indicate that concern with lay people has contributed to 1Ralph R. Fields, The Community Collegg Movement (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1965), p. 169-70. 21bid., p. 170. 3Ibid., p. 181. “Ibid., p. 218. 51bid., p. 129. -12- the success of their respective colleges. The effects of a college's offerings go beyond its boundaries, it is only rea- sonable that the same boundaries can be breached from the oppo- site side. Control of a college can be maintained by an admin- istrator who uses the breaches to form supporting relation— ships. Ignoring or contesting with those who attempt to in- fluence a college may avoid commitments, but it threatens the objectives of a comprehensive community junior college. The brevity of this review of literature reflects the lack of methodological study in the area of technical program development. There are many studies concerned with general curriculum development, primarily on the elementary and second- ary levels. Most curriculum studios assume community support and legitimation for the courses and programs developed and of- fered. Those are dangerous assumptions to make when planning technical programs in community junior colleges. Assumptions The community junior college is a social system.1 This focuses attention on social processes. Can social processes be scientifically described, explained and predicted? Social processes are composed of individuals' behavior, and individ— uals are idiosyncratic. You can never tell what a person will do, so the argument goes. And yet, most people agree that 1The next chapter will examine the concept of community junior college, including the definition of social system, in considerable detail. For a basis of discussion in this chapter it is sufficient to know that social processes are necessary to a social system. -13- human behavior is usually purposive and rational in terms of the person behaving. Behavior is caused, an individual behaves as he does for specific reasons or causes. There is logic to behavior, and it is capable of scientific analysis because it is determined by a causal order. Another argument attacking the scientific claims of social scientists asserts that only those people who feel deeply, who intuitively understand others, can genuinely explain and predict with any certainty the be- havior of people.1 If this is true, how can the intuitive ap- proach be evaluated? On what basis can"understanding"pwople be identified? On their personal claims? On indiscriminate ob- servation? Only the scientific method can measure the valid- ity and reliability of the intuitive approach. On the basis of these arguments and counter arguments, it is assumed that so- ciology is a science and that individual behavior can be sci- entifically observed and classified under general concepts. Science is sometimes dichotomized into pure and applied science. To clarify the concept, it is best to view pure and applied as Opposite ends of a science continuum. The distinc- tion between the two is not always clear because they blend in- to each other. Pure science develops theories, provides con- cepts, and furnishes interpretations of phenomena, all of which can be utilized by applied science. Applied science initiates new hypotheses, clarifies concepts, and tests theories, all of 1This paragraph is taken largely from the thesis of Gwen Andrew, "Criteria for Systems Models and Their Application to a Sociological Theory of Organizations" (unpublished Ph. D. dis- sertation, Dept. of Sociology and Anthropology, Michigan State University), pp. 13-23. -14- which provide assistance to pure science. Applied social sci- entists are less abstract than pure social scientists and more concerned with the implications of research for a Specific sit— uation or type of situation instead of the implications for highly abstract generalizations. "Applied social science is characterized by an orientation to the values of laymen, as well as of scientists."1 This study will be concerned with one value-foci held by lay people - "The improvement of the effi- ciency or effectiveness with which diverse lay goals are pur- sued."2 Effectiveness can be improved by developing a method- ology that identifies and systematically arranges essential steps. "Methodological advancement is a necessary and produc- tive pursuit for the scientist and concern with methodology is a prerequisite to advance although methodology pggugg does not produce substantive knowledge.”3 Sociological phenomena are complex and it is difficult to identify crucial variables.‘Jr When developing a methodology and attempting to identify significant variables, applied so- cial scientists must be concerned with how accessible to con- trol the variables are, as well as the predictive power of the lAlvin W. Gouldner, "Theoretical Requirements of the Applied Social Sciences," The Planninggof Changg, ed. Warren Bennis, Kenneth Benne, and Robert Chin (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 19o1), p. 83. 21bid., p. 8h. 3Andrew, p. 22. “Ibid. -15- . l _. . . . . variables. Applied SOCial soientists must also conSider values and costs. Management of an independent Variable may violate certain values and the cost may be excessive according to those 2 . . who control the resources. These Circumstances further com- plicate the task. Sociologists are currently devoting considerable atten- tion to models. Models can be divided into analytic and con- crete,3 divisions that are similar to pure and applied science. Models are useful for several reasons. Hills views models of society as sources of many theories. Models focus attention on elements and relations among elements, a necessary prerequisite to understanding.# Gwen Andrew sees models as assistants in deriving hypotheses from substantive social theories.5 Chin emphasizes the analytical usage of models. Models help "the theorist to recognize what factors are being taxen into account and what relationships among them are assumed."6 A "model is a constructed simplification of some part of reality that retains only those features regarded as essential for relating similar "7 processes whenever and wherever they occur. Models focus on lGouldner, p. 86. 21bid., pp. 89-90. 3Chin, ibid., p. 202. 4C. Wright Mills, Images of Man (New York: George Braziller, Inc., 1960), p. 3. 5Andrew, p. 22. 6Chin, p. 202. 71bid. -16- certain elements, processes and relationships, and models ig- nore other possible considerations. Mills points out that the value of a model is determined by its usefulness, not by the testing of theories and hypotheses derived from the model. A model can be useful so long as it provokes thinking and hypoth- esizing, and a model may be altered to more accurately portray reality. This study is somewhat unorthodox in that it attempts to achieve two research goals. The primary goal is the develop- ment of a methodology for creating technical programs in a com- munity junior college and the other goal is to identify some of the properties of the change processes that create technical pr0grams. In connection with the primary goal, it is assumed that the methodology develOped will also have some application for other change processes. The creation of technical programs was selected for a methodological study because of the urgent and continued need for such programs and because technical pro- grams can illustrate how both groups within and without the or- ganizational boundaries of a college can influence change. Although there is a dearth of material directly related to the primary goal of this study, there is considerable data and theory relevant to social systems and the process of change. The following chapter reports some of these results and develops a frame of reference for the community junior col- lege. While this researcher was reading numerous articles and books, and while organizing his notes, he found theoretical, and in many studies empirical, support for the identification -17- of certain properties as being crucial to the change process. This led to a second goal, the examination of several proper- ties that were generated by the frame of reference and the mod- els of planned change. The St. Louis - St. Louis County Junior College is used as a case study for several reasons. The development of a methodology for creating technical programs is a relatively un- explored area. The lack of previous studies indicated an in- tensive study: a study that would focus primarily on seeking or discovery instead of testing.1 Two methods of gathering data for an intensive study are unstructured interviews and participant observation. An intensive study attempts to ex- plain the unique features of a case and the commonalities of a case with other cases. In an intensive study, "cases with 'striking features' are more rewarding."2 For three months the researcher was in an excellent posi- tion to be a participant observer and to have unstructured in- terviews. As part of the Kellogg Junior College Leadership Program at Michigan State University, the researcher was an ad- ministrative intern at the St. Louis junior college for the first three months of 1963. He worked primarily with the vice- president for instruction, who is responsible for the develop- ment of technical programs. As an intern, the researcher 1The type of research described in this paragraph is call- ed "insight-stimulating" and is found in: Claire Seltiz.g£ [al., Research Methods in Social Relations (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1959), pp. 59-60. 21bid., p. o0. -16.. attended all Board, staff and curriculum planning meetings dur— ing the three month period. The researcher kept notes of the meetings he attended and maintained a diary. The researcher also received and saved minutes of Board and staff meetings held during this internship. He collected all of the press releases ever issued by the college, saved neWSpaper clippings, examined all of the Board minutes, saved copies of various re- ports, and read the back issues of neWSpapers. While an in- tern, the researcher interviewed some of the citizens that helped create the junior college, Board members, and members of the junior College staff. From his experiences, interviews and printed sources of information, the researcher has accumulated considerable data concerning the creation of the St. Louis jun- ior college and technical programs that will be offered by the St. Louis - St. Louis County Junior College District. The St. Louis junior college was not only accessible, it was also a new college. The college board had appointed a president only four months prior to the arrival of the re- searcher. Five months after the president assumed his duties, students started attending classes. The community junior col- lege was created by a citizens group that could trace its be- ginnings to a study of higher education completed four years previously. This group of citizens had surprised the observ- ers of Missouri politics by pushing through enabling legisla- tion in record time. The Board of Trustees was infected with the same urgency, and the members transmitted this sense of ur- gency to the staff by the process of selection and by example. -19- There are other ”striking features" to the St. Louis college and they will be discussed in a later chapter. The purpose of these examples is to present another reason for using the St. Louis — St. Louis County Junior College as an intensive case study. Briefly stated, the researcher assumes that: 1. 2. Social processes can be scientifically described, explained and predicted. Applied social science can contribute directly to the improvement of society and to the advancement of pure, research. The deve10pment of a methodology is a valid concern of science. Models are valuable tools of scientists. The community junior college is a social system capa— ble of being scientifically analyzed. Planned change is a consequence of social processes. The creation of technical programs in a community junior college is one example of planned change. An intensive case study is a profitable approach to deve10ping a methodology and identifying properties. The analysis of the St. Louis - St. Louis County Junior College is a worthwhile case study for develop- ing the methodology for creating technical programs in community junior colleges and for identifying prop- erties crucial to the change processes. CHAPTER III A SOCIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF THE COMMUNITY JUNIOR COLLEGE This chapter will examine the ”change agent," the com- munity junior college, from several perspectives. Each per- spective will widen the scene and reveal more factors of pos- sible significance. The community junior college will be sociologically analyzed as l) a comprehensive college, 2) an "open door" college, 3) an externally authority-oriented organ- ization, 4) a development organization, 5) a bureaucratic or- ganization, 6) a social organization, and 7) a social system. Each perspective will present another dimension of the commu- nity junior college. The purpose of this categorical analysis is to gain a better understanding of the organization, and to identify important elements whose variations influence the ability to engender planned change. A Comprehensive College Two year colleges, variously called community junior col- leges, junior colleges, and community colleges, are not a re- cent educational innovation. The "Cay Nineties" of the Nine— teenth Century were still lively when the first junior college started matriculating students.1 The earliest junior colleges 1James W. Thornton, Jr., The Communitngunior College (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1960), p. 47. -20- -21- were "feeder colleges," colleges only offering courses trans— ferable to senior institutions. Every student enrolled in early junior colleges intended to transfer and complete a bac- calaureate degree. This was a major reason for labeling them junior colleges. The concept of the comprehensive community junior college is more recent. It is a consequence of the Great Lepression and World War II, events that fostered adult and technical edu- cation. Comprehensive colleges are usually assigned five func- tions. They are: 1) transfer programs, 2) technical programs, 3) general education, #) community service, and 5) guidance.l Each college is unique in the amount of emphasis it places on each function, but to be a truly comprehensive college it must assume responsibility for providing all five functions. Clark and Selznick, two sociologists currently in Cali- fornia, the leading state in both number of comprehensive com- munity junior colleges and number of students enrolled, have expressed skepticism about the effectiveness2 of comprehensive colleges. In a study of adult education Burton Clark observed that "the more diffuse the goals of action agencies, the more an over-all institutional evolution will tend to be governed by emergent phenomena. Goal specificity, however, contributes to llbid., pp. 59-69. 2Chester I. Bernard's definition of effectiveness will be used throughout this study. Effectiveness is the attainment of a desired end or ends. The Functions of the Executive (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard U. Press, 1900), p. 19. -22- control over change."1 This observation, if generally accurate, poses a serious problem for an organization that views con— trolled change as both ends and means to further development. The inclusion of a program in a college bulletin does not assure wide acceptance, for a priority is usually attached to each program. Programs with low priority will have low status and consequently will be insecure. Whenever funds become short, the austere budget will omit such programs. This in- security adversely affects the morale of employees engaged in low priority programs, makes it difficult to recruit qualified peOple, and discourages long range planning.2 One way of re— ducing insecurity is to make commitments to other groups in ex- change for support. The price often paid is loss of control over offerings and objectives. Another problem associated with the comprehensive nature of a college is the level of course content in a specific 3 class. This is the same problem that has caused some elemen- tary and secondary schools to group students according to abil- ity. Clark may have exaggerated this problem. Students with different objectives, e.g., liberal arts and technical educa- tion, will seldom have more than one-third of their classes to- gether. There is also the Option of having honors classes for students prepared and qualified for more demanding academic work. lBurton R. Clark, Adult Education in Transition (Berkeley: U. of California Press, 1956), p. 146. 2Ibid., pp. 148—49. 3Burton R. Clark, The Open Door College,_A Case Study (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 196o), p. 81. -23- Philip Selznick is not as specific as Clark in pointing to potential problems, but his tentative conclusion as to the feasibility of effective comprehensive colleges is clear. On theoretical grounds, it is hard to believe that, in the long run, we can combine the true transfer student with the true vocational student, and then lump together a serious effort to educate these two classes of students with the entirely different func- tion of counseling. . . . Offhand and for purposes of discussion I wonder whether we will not have to reverse the trend toward the general community college.1 Unfortunately Selznick did not identify the theoretical grounds he had in mind. It is hoped that subsequent perSpectives in this chapter will identify those and other theoretical grounds, some that may lead to different conclusions. An Open Door Collegg The importance of formal education in the determination of social status is evident to most people. Parents who are anxious to see their children "move ahead," i.e., improve their social status, urge them to continue their education. Lipset and Bendix state: "education . . . has become the principal avenue for upward mobility in most industrialized societies."2 In a democratic society the Opportunity to improve one's status is a right. If education is the foremost opportunity, then 1Philip Selznick, "A Sociologist Views Junior College Administration," Journal of Secondary Education, XXXVI (January, 1961), 38. 2Seymour Lipset and Reinhard Bendix, Social Mobility in Industrial Societx,(Los Angeles: U. of California Press, 1959), p. 91. -24- every citizen is entitled to education so long as he may profit from it. How does one determine if a particular person will profit from college education? Jeffersonian philosophy would support restrictive admission standards, e.g., test results and high school grades. Jacksonian philosphy would support the "open door" policy whereby all high school graduates are allowed to enter and remain so long as they do satisfactory work. Jackson- ian philosophy assumes the only fair test is an actual test. In American society it is difficult to say which philo- sophy is currently in ascendancy. With no intention of cyn- icism, the same person will use both viewpoints, but he will use them in different situations. As a tax payer he will criti- cize publicly supported colleges for admitting anyone who has a high school diploma, but as a parent he will criticize publicly supported colleges for not admitting his child and giving his child a chance. Nowadays, with the demand for higher education increasing, the problem of accomodating students has becomeacute. There are several sources of a build-up of a "must go to college" orientation in American youth. The general emphasis in our culture on individual achievement excites a pressing-on through education, because it is now apparently widely perceived that a college education is the main road to upward mobil- ity. For an increasing number of professional, busi- ness, and scientific fields, college is the normal gateway. Aspirations of students, supported by the hopes of their parents, build a general pressure for higher education. Besides, the "equal rights" be- liefs of a general democratic ethos become readily translated, as previously indicated, into a doctrine that all have a right to enter college.l lClark, The QLen Door. 0 e e, p. 1610 -25- Until the last few years, most high school graduates that wanted a chance in college were able to gain admittance to a tax supported college. According to Lipset and Bendix, even this observation of the past is too optimistic for one large group of society, the lower-class. "Increased educational op- portunities have opened the door to mobility for many of the sons of lower-class parents, [bug the larger majority are still not able to attend college."1 Regardless of the number unable to attend in the past, the future is hardly promising unless more colleges with lower tuition and fees are created. State colleges are forced to turn away students and raise their fees. This combination of events reduces social mobility op- portunities and wastes human resources. Some tax supported colleges accept a large number of freshmen, but set extremely high standards in an effort to sat- isfy both philosophical factions. The consequence of this ap- proach is what Clark calls "structured failure." The disjuncture between ends and means, between the open door and standards dooms large number of stu- dents to failure. A basic need is thus created in higher education, the need of knowing how to handle the induced failures. This need exists in varying degrees of intensity in different states according to (l) the magnitude and strength of the social pressure for college entry and (2) the concern for quality and high standards. When both are high, a potentially explosive situation exists for the pub- lic colleges. The community junior college "is a cutting edge of the democratization trend in American education because of its 1Lipset, p. 99. 2Clark, The Open Door, . . ., p. 162. -26- abolition of formal barriers."1 People holding Jacksonian be- liefs hope this college will keep its fees and tuition low and its doors open so that it may furnish the opportunity of self- improvement. One of its primary functions is to give substance to the ideal of equal Opportunity for appropriate edu- cation for all citizens. In carrying out this obli- gation, the community junior college is keenly aware that we do not know how to predict college success with anything approaching perfect accuracy; hence it plans to provide a chance for any applicant who, after competent counseling, insists that he would like to attempt a given course. It does not, of course, guarantee that every student will succeed. Its purpose is to make sure that every person is granted the opportunity to succeed or to fail by his own efforts. An ExternallygAuthority-Oriented Organization This persPective views a portion of a continuum of con- trol - "the mastery of material and non-material resources to 3 realize goals." In his dissertation Preiss elaborated a typ- ology of control to assist in explaining the seemingly incon- sistent ratings given to county agents by their superiors in Cooperative Extension. With the aid of the typology and its theoretical implications, Preiss offered a logical explanation for the phenomenon of agents disregarding directives from 1Ibid., p. 158. 2Thornton, p. 35. 3Jack J. Preiss, "The Functions of Relevant Power and Authority Groups in the Evaluation of County Agent Performance" (Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Dept. of Sociology and An- thropology, Michigan State University, l95#), p. 12. -27.. superiors and subsequently being given high ratings by the same superiors. An explanation of Preiss' typology of control employs two concepts that represent opposite ends of the continuum. It is proposed to treat "power" and "authority" as equi-level concepts which may be looked upon as the opposite ends of a continuum. Both are der the universal idea of control, as previously de— fined. It is realized that this arrangement is somewhat arbitrary, but an elementary arbitrariness is required for any systematization of observably recurrent behavior.1 subsumed un- Power and authority can best be defined by describing their crucial functional and formative factors. The following characteristics, although not claimed to be all of the essen- tial ones, do clarify the concepts.2 Characteristics Ideal Control Group Types Power Authority Roles and inter- Amorphous Specifically de- relationships fined Internal structural Variable and Hierarchical arrangement of fluid and rigid members Area and scope of Fluctuates ac- Fixed and group activity cording to ex- continuous ternal conditions and to desires of current membership Range and choice of Wide Narrow action alternatives 1Ibid., pp. 2Q-25. 21bido’ pp. 50-32. Characteristics Legitimization -28- Ideal Control Group Types Power Self-legitimized Authority Legitimized by the larger so- ciety or ethical code in which groups exists Group Orientation to conflict Intra-group relations Inter-group relations Desire to pro- mote conflict with other groups in areas of self-interest Stress and tension Competition and dominance Conscious avoid- ance of conflict situations Harmony Cooperative and division of labor "In terms of the above characteristics, it can be surmis- ed that the internal and external orientations of groups may vary in terms of power and authority. This means that intra- groups and inter-group behavior will have to be evaluated sep- arately in given situations."1 "It is Ealscfl suggested that if any single characteristic of groups observed in an interactive process can give clues as to the general polarity of each group it will be that of orientation to conflict."2 "The term 'con- flict' may best be described as an opposing action involving incompatibles, or divergent interests, in which the combatants 3 vie for control." Americans are power-oriented because of the "American Ethic." "This is the conviction that the individual human lIbide’ pp. 32-530 21bid., p. 37. 3Ibid., p. 36. -29- being can never be completely understood or mastered by finite methods or agencies. The faith in the free and independent spirit is a kind of fundamental postulate which permeates the entire society, and which is consciously eulogized and fostered as desirable for its own sake."1 This places the community junior college in a precarious situation. The college is ex- pected to be rationally organized and Operated to achieve cer- tain objectives desired by its community. The college is de- pendent on the community and consequently subject to its con- trol. Groups within the community that are self-legitimized feel free to attack the college, but the college has theunenvi- able assignment of attempting to please everyone and of avoid- ing confliCte A Development Organization A development organization is defined as a bureaucrati- cally arranged organization with at least one specifiable goal, a goal that involves developing another social system, e.g., a community. This goal cannot be achieved without the co- operation of at least one individual or organization not con- trolled by the bureaucratic command. A development organiza- tion needs access to other organizations and individuals as requisites for reaching its goals. A development organization is designed to create social changes by develOping resources of various kinds. Since these resources are not controlled by the organization, co-Operative arrangements must be made lIbid., pp. 43-4u. -90- between the development organization and the organizations and individuals that do control the necessary resources. Community junior colleges are normally expected to devel- op the human resources of their communities. The college con- trols course offerings, but the students must apply for admis- sion. Even when students apply, are admitted, and attend classes, the development of their resources, abilities in their case, requires co-operation from students. Students attend class, interact with instructors, and study educational mate- rials because they view the processes as profitable for them. Homan's exchange theory of interaction eXplains this ubiquitous phenomenon. "Interaction between persons is an exchange of goods, material and non-material."1 "Change in behavior is greatest when perceived profit is least."2 Students that see no profit in attending class without learning course material and see profit in learning course material will co-operate by developing their abilities. In the case of technical programs, what factors influence the perceptions of a student? Since technical programs are de- signed for specific occupational areas, the probability of 1George C. Homans, "Social Behavior as Exchange," American Journal Of Sociolqu. LXIII (May, 1958). 597. 2Ibid., p. 605. -31- obtaining a position for which a student is preparing is a ma- jor factor.l Indirectly, such factors as prestige, security, material rewards and Opportunities for advancement would in- fluence a student by furnishing criteria for evaluating and se— lecting an educational program and by determining the value at- tached to completion of the program. All of these factors can be viewed as resources belonging to other organizations and in- dividuals. Community junior colleges will need to co-operate with organizations and individuals if they expect to maintain a high likelihood of their graduates being employed as techni- cians, and if they expect to influence prestige, security, ma- terial rewards and Opportunities for advancement. A Bureaucratic Organization By definition a development organization is a bureau- cratic organization. Blau lists four characteristics of bu- reaucratic organizations. They are: specialization, hierarchy of authority, a system of rules, and impersonality.2 Williams 3 lists eleven characteristics and concludes that "size plus 1This discussion will ignore the social classroom situa- tion which also affects the behavior of students. Students who wish to impress instructors and academically oriented peers will be motivated to learn the course materials. Students who use non-academically oriented peers, i.e., students who place little value on learning the course material, as their refer- ence group will not be motivated to learn the course material. 2Peter M. Blau, Bureaucracy in Modern Sociepy (New York: Random House, 1956). 3Robin M. Williams, Jr. American Society: A Sociological Interpretation (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 19595, pp. 177—78. -32- specialization . . . tend to produce bureaucracy."1 As organi- zations grow larger, informal communications patterns are re— placed by indirect, formal, lines of communication. "Speciali- zation of function complicates the problem Of co-ordination by necessitating both indirect communication and special co- ordinating centers."2 "The notion of bureaucracy is an ideal type, which by definition never exactly fits any particular or- ganizations. . . . There are differing kinds and degrees of bureaucracy."3 Community junior colleges are not identically organized. A large college with many specialized programs would likely have a high degree Of bureaucratization whereas a small college with a few specialized programs would likely have a low degree of bureaucratization. That is, larger and more complex organi- zations will have more hierarchical levels and "action will be increasingly oriented to explicit and impersonal rules." Bureaucratization is not a frivolous process. Bureau- cratic organizations are "the archetype of formal, functionally rational organizations."5 Technological development, by requiring more spe- cialization Of personnel and equipment, adds to the heterogeneity Of an organization. Related skills and knowledge formerly lodged in one person or one group are split. While such devisive develOpments Ibid., p. 180. 3Ibid., p. 177. “Ibid., p. #58. 5Ibid., p. 177. undoubtedly allow for greater precision within an area Of activity, they also intensify the need for, and concern over, integration of the several activities. A bureaucratic organization is rationally structured, staffed, and managed to perform certain functions, to achieve certain goals. However, the "stuff" from which an organization is made, people, is not rational. Individuals'are employed by a bureaucratic organization to perform operations that contri- bute to the achievement of organizational goals. The indivi- duals' "willingness to co-Operate"2 is determined by their goals. More explicitly, individuals work for an organization because of personal goals. Their concern with organizational goals could run the gamut of antagonism to the organization's goals to a missionary zeal for achieving the organization's goals. A community junior college has several technical func- tions, one of them being teaching. For this function profes- sional people are required. Other professional peOple have different technical functions, e.g., administrators are expect- ed to maintain the organization. The ultimate goal is the de- velopment of human resources. An operational goal of the or- ganization could be the preparation of electronic technicians. Representatives of organizations employing electronic ___ 1James Thompson and Frederick Bates, "Technology, Organi- zation, and Administration," Administrative Science anrterly, II (December, 1957), 51+}. 2"Willingness to co-operate" is a phrase used by Chester I- iBarnard. He defines willingness as "self-abnegation, the Stu’I‘ender of control of personal conduct, the depersonalization of.‘personal action," p. 84. 7 U -J4_ technicians may work with instructors and administrators in de- termining what knowledge and skills prepare a student for an electronic technician position. Some of the instructors teach- ing courses included in the electronic technician program may have different Opinions as to what the students need to learn. If an administrator asks the instructor to change his course content, the instructor may argue that the administrator is ex- ceeding his authority and that the administrator is not qual- ified to determine course content. The instructor is not con- cerned with the Opinions Of administrators, his reference group is his profession. This breach, that Often occurs between the goals of an organization, as interpreted by the administrators, and the goals of its professional members, has been amply de- scribed and illustrated by many writers, including Perrowl, 3, 5 Gouldner summarizes Katza, Wilensky Becker“ and Parsons. 1Charles Perrow uses physicians to illustrate this point. Physicians look to the medical profession for validation of their work, not to hospital staff members. ("Organizational Prestige: Some Functions and Dysfunctions," American Journal of Sociology, LXVI Canuary, 1963 , 311:0). 2Solomon Katz noted how this made college instructors in disciplinary fields Of short supply "increasingly restless." (New Frontiers in Administration, papers presented at the 1962 conference for Junior College Administrators, Seattle, Washington, p. 11). 3Harold Wilensky, in his study of labor unions, developed several types of orientations toward a position within a labor union. For example, the "missionary" saw the union as a ve- hicle for social change whereas the "professional service ex- pert" is concerned with his outside professional group. (Intellectuals in Labor Unions; Organizational Pressures on Professional Roles [Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press], 1956). hfioward Becker and James Carper call the process that produces a commitment to occupational title "acquisition of ideology." ("The Development of Identification with an 7 -25- the dilemma in this manner. "There seems to be some tension between an organization's bureaucratic needs for expertise and its social-systems needs for loyalty. The need for loyalty sets certain limits within which the need for expertise is pur- sued and vice versa."1 Blau and Scott succinctly state it: "Although a professional orientation motivates a person to do better work in terms of professional standards, it also gives him a basis for ignoring administrative considerations and thus may lead to poorer performance in terms of the standards of the . . "2 organization. Another characteristic of bureaucratic organizations that significantly influences their ability to achieve their goals is the hierarchy of authority and the rigidity of this struc- ture. The hierarchy of authority is the subordinate-superiordinate relationships within a so- cial system. Functionally, this hierarchy of rela- tionships is the locus for allocating and integrat- ing roles and facilities in order to achieve the goals of the social system. It is here, in these relationships, that the assignment of statuses, the provision of facilities, the organization of Occupation," American Journal of Sociologl, LXI EJanuary, 19563 , 297). 5Talcott Parsons noted that educators who are members of the managerial organization may look to professional peers and colleagues instead of their "boss" in connection with judging their competence. (Administrative Theory in Education, ed. Andrew W. Halpin CChicago: U. of Chicago, 195? , p. 37). 1Alvin W. Gouldner, "Cosmopolitans and Locals: Toward an Analysis of Latent Social Roles - II," Administrative Science Quarterly, II (March, 1958), 466. 2Peter Blau and Richard Scott, Formal Organizations, A Comparative Approach (San Francisco: Chandler Publishing Co., 1962), p. 2L6. -36- procedures, the regulation of activityi and the evaluation of performance takes place. In bureaucratic organizations "every Office is a link in a chain of authority, and as a general rule communications . . . pass through all the offices intermediate to the positions of the communicants."2 "Classical theories of management place primary emphasis on control, chain of command, and the downward flow of orders and influence. There is no corresponding em- phasis on adequate and accurate upward communication."3 Likert believes that management theories leading to rigid bureaucratic structures are based on a questionable assumption and repeti- tive work situations. "They assume that people work only or primarily for economic returns. More Specifically, these the- ories assume that buying a man's time gives the employer con- trol Of the subordinate's behavior."1+ A community junior college does not perform repetitive tasks that can be broken into well organized and precisely de- fined Operational steps. That is why professionals are re- quired. A community junior college needs individuals who, in an effort to understand the nuances of different assignments, have Spent more time learning their occupation. The work of lJacob W. Getzels, Administrative Theory in Education, . . ., p. 151. 2Williams, p. 178. 3Rensis Likert, New Patterns of Management (New York: McGraw—Hill Book Co., 1961), p. 46. hlbid., p. 59. -57- professionals or experts is not amenable to the assembly line arrangement of repetitive, uncomplicated operations. "High performance in varied jobs tends to be achieved more from enthusiasm and a high level of motivation than from better organization of the job."1 Enthusiasm and a high level of motivation can be achieved when members believe the goals of their organization are important, and when they believe their efforts are necessary to achieving the goals. "Communicative and decision-making participation by subordinates with supe- riors"2 is one method of achieving more co-operation, the an- ticipated consequence of high motivation and enthusiasm. It is the interactive processes that hold an organization together and enable it to achieve its goals.3 Obviously, however, in a large organization everyone cannot interact with all others and everyone cannot participate in decision making. Dubin Offers a compromise suggestion for organizational goal achievement. "What is crucial to organization effectiveness is not universal participation in decision making, but rather the adequacy of representation of Operating groups in the decision-making process." lIbid. ZRObert Dubin, "Human Relations in Formal Organizations," Review of Educational;Research, XXIX (October, 1959). 557. BWilliams refers to Stouffer's famous study of American soldiers during W. W. II to show how the military organization, par excellence of hierarchy, was effective deSpite the rigid hierarchy. American soldiers fought because of loyalty to their comrades and because of internalized national goals. Williams, p. elk. ADubin, p. 561. --‘)I\J- Some relevant studies in communication flow have recently been conducted. These studies were designed to test a hier- archical pattern against an equalitarian pattern. Henning, when reporting one such study, noted that "information-flows in an organization can be structured so as to determine who in the organization will become powerful."l Communication patterns not only are determined by authority attached to a position, but control of information reinforces the authority by furnish- ing a source of power to the position incumbent. A star pat- tern, similar to a hierarchical pattern in that all communica- tions are directed to one position, immediately provides high efficiency, close control, and a minimum number of communica- tions to solve simple, repetitive problems. A wheel pattern, an equalitarian pattern in that all individuals communicate with the two peOple occupying contiguous positions, provides creativity, high morale, and adaptability to change.2 A study by Carzo used similar patterns of communication and more prob- lem solving trials. Carzo hypothesized that: In structures that permit all members to participate, the additional skills and abilities applied to prob- lems produce faster decisions than structures that depend heavily on one member for decisions. More- over, the greater amount of participation permitted by loose structures will have psychological value (i.e., ego involvement) to group members.3 1Dale A. Henning, New Frontiers in Administration . . ., p. 18. 2Ibid. 3Rocco Carzo Jr., "Some Effects of Organization Structure CH1 Group Effectiveness," Administrative Science Qparterly, VII (March, 1963) , 401. -39.. As a consequence of more trials, Carzo's findings indi- cated that eventually "all groups, regardless of structure, will reach a level of performance that is approximately the same,"1 if the same types of problems are continuously solved. His findings showed that groups structured hierarchically orig- inally lagged behind other groups in solving complex problems and adjusting to different types of problems. Results of such experiments in communication patterns tend to support Likert's conclusions. A rigid hierarchical structure may be satisfac- tory for repititious work, but it is not as effective in ad- justing to change and handling complex operations. Blau and Scott also spend considerable time discussing the hierarchical structure and its consequences. The following quotations are some of the more interesting and concise state- ments they make in this regard. Comparing the significance of acute and obtuse pyra- mids of control, it appears that the latter exert several constraints on managers that are functional for effective supervision. The increased span of control prevents managers from engaging in certain practices - close supervision, dependence on superi- ors, involvement with subordinates - which may be tempting because of their short-range advantages but which prove to be detrimental to managerial effec- tiveness in the long run. Managerial planning and coordination, the administra- tive staff they necessitate, and continuity of em- ployment are not inherently incompatible with decision-making on the basis of professional expert- ness; only disciplined compliance with orders of 1Ibid., p. #23. 2Blau and Scott, p. 168. -40- hierarchical superiors entails a fundamental conflict with professionalism.1 The data suggest that a supervisor who expresses loy- alty to his superior is less apt than another to command the loyalty of his own subordinates, to be detached in his relations with subordinates, and to exhibit hierarchical independence. If this sugges- tion is generally true, it would imply that a manag- er's ability to command his subordinates' loyalty impedes their effectiveness as supervisors in their own right. This implication, in turn, suggests that effective management can be expected to occur only on alternate levels in the hierarchy. Blau and Scott also see several problems inherent in a hierarchy. They advocate an obtuse pyramid to discourage too much supervision, and they urge less reliance on formal author- ity to obtain co-operation from professionals. The last quota- tion presents another interesting dilemma that may occur in a bureaucratic organization. The conclusion reached by Wilensky after studying several labor unions may be appropriate for this discussion of the com- munity junior college as a bureaucratic organization. Since the community junior college is a comprehensive college, an open door college and a development organization, perhaps it should be wary of bureaucratization and disciplinary profes— sionalization. For the union . . . a low degree of bureaucratiza- tion may spell greater flexibility in the accomplish- ment of organizational goals. Devotion to the lead- er rather than to rules of procedure; partisanship rather than political neutrality; personal loyalty in staff—line-rank-and-file relations rather than depersonalization; loosely defined jobs, rather than lIbido, p. 209. 21bid., pp. 163-64. -nl- airtight spheres of competence - these mean less pressure for conservatism, overconformity and technicism.l A Social Organization It is easy to forget that organizations, despite their legal position in American society, are abstractions. We ob- serve concrete behavior of individuals, who are the components of organizations, from which organizations are abstracted.2 In most organizations interaction occurs among individuals as a necessary process for accomplishing an assigned task. Inter- action among individuals also forms informal organizations. If we consider a formally organized group to be one in which the members interact as occupants of explic- itly defined and interrelated roles, performing pre- scribed functions, we can predict that continuing formal groupings will quickly develOp an informal organization, simply as a by-product of action di- rected toward the formal objectives of the organ- ization.3 Each person in an organization participates in informal groups for different reasons, the reasons being determined by individual backgrounds, perceptions and experiences. As indi- viduals join and leave an organization, different informal groups are formed, persist and disappear. Becker and Geer of- fer one possible determinant of informal group arrangements - lWilensky, p. 278. 2Williams, p. 489. 31bid., p. 457. -42- ”latent culture."l ”PeOple carry culture with them; when they leave one group setting for another they do not shed the cul- tural premises of the first setting."2 Latent cultural items may not be brought into play unless they are in some way mobi- lized in the daily interaction of group members.3 The cultural items, if brought into play, could either support or operate against organizational effectiveness. "Latent identities and latent cultures associated with them are likely to furnish the bases for the formation of latent social structures"4 or in- formal groups. Informal groups cannot be ignored and they cannot be con- trolled directly. Administrators can indirectly control in- formal groups by considering latent cultural items when employ- ing and assigning personnel. This is partially what Selznick had in mind when he wrote about an "institutional core." The creation of an institutional core is partly a matter of selective recruiting, and to this extent overlaps with the task of selecting a social base. By choosing key personnel from a particular social group, the earlier conditioning of the individuals can become a valuable resource for the new organiza- tion. Conversely, of course, just such conditioning is in question when a particular source of personnel is rejected. But core-building involves more than selective recruiting. Indoctrination and the shar- ing of key experiences - especially internal 1Howard S. Becker and Blanche Geer, "Latent Culture: A Note on the Theory of Latent Social Roles,” Administrative Science Quarterly, V (September, 1960), 304-313. ZIbide’ p. 305. 3Ibid., p. 306. h1bid., p. 310. conflicts and other crises - will help to create a unified gioup and give the organization a special identity. The concept of "latent culture" helps explain why certain individuals choose certain other individuals with whom to in- teract, but it does not explain why they interact. Informal groups exist in all organizations,2 regardless of the members' past experiences and the organizational need for interaction among members. Since social interaction requires an expendi- ture of energy and time, individuals must interact because they perceive the process as being rewarding. Social interaction furnishes an opportunity to test their self esteem, to gain group approval and validation, and to reaffirm their individual worth and value. Both formal and informal social interaction furnish such opportunities, and both types of Opportunities are usually exercised in varying degrees, depending on the indi- vidual. Likert has written about work groups and how their goals influence the effectiveness of an organization. In the studies he conducted, work groups were also informal groups and as work groups goals and organizational goals became more consistent, 3 organizational effectiveness improved. Likert places consid- erable emphasis on social interaction, the need to keep lPhilip Selznick, "Critical Decisions in Organizational Development," Complex Organizationsi‘A Sociological Reader, ed. Amitai Etzioni (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1961). p. 357. 2Barnard, pp. 114-123. 3Likert, p. 30. -hq- employees informed, and the value of affording opportunities for proving the worth of employees. The principle of supportive relationships points to a dimension essential for the success of every or- ganization, namely, that the mission of the organi- zation be seen by its members as genuinely important. To be highly motivated, each member of the organiza- tion must feel that the organization's objectives are of significance and that his own particular task con- tributes in an indispensable manner to the organiza- tion's achievement of its objectives. He should see his role as difficult, important, meaningful. This is necessary if the individual is to achieve and maintain a sense of personal worth and importance. When jobs do not meet this specification they should be reorganized so that they do. Likert and Blau appear at first reading to have differ- ent opinions as to the tendency of informal groups to produce conformity to group norms. Likert states that "loyalty to a group produces pressures toward conformity,"2 whereas Blau writes "social acceptance among peers seems not be promote con- formity but to increase resistance against group pressure.”3 Further examination reveals that both men have a qualification to their statements, the qualification being the importance at- tached to the norm by the group. "Norms that pertain to basic values of a group, such as output standards or the taboo on 'squealing,‘ are too significant to permit any member to vio- 4 . late them; hence, only outcasts are apt to do so." ExceSSive conformity to informal group norms could preclude organizational 1Ibid., p. 103. 21bid., p. 162. p. 106. 3Blau and Scott, Ibid. See also Likert, p. 166. a l - . changes. Conversely, an absence of conformity could destroy the organization. Membership in informal groups apparently furnishes social support for both conformity and experimen- tation. Blau also sees three conflicts between the bureaucratic and social aspects of an organization that are deleterious to organizational effectiveness. They are: Explicit status distinctions tend to reduce social interaction and social support. . . . Several studies report a tendency for lower-status group members to direct their friendship choices dispro- portionately to upper-status members. Since upper- status members tend not to reciprocate but to direct theirchoices to others also high in status, lower- status members do not receive their share of the so- cial support that is needed for stimulating thought and making suggestions.2 Formally instituted status differences tend to undermine the process of competition for reapect. Status differences distort the error-correcting function of social interaction. It is not easy to oppose the judgment of a person with superior power or prestige, and most peOple will think twice before doing so. Social interaction is a mechanism for correcting errors, a tool for problem solving, and a source of social support for indi— Viduals 0 Social interaction can promote co-operative, constructive efforts by reducing misunderstanding and developing social 1 . . . The current controversy between railroad companies and unions over the elimination of certain positions is an example of standard conditions too important to change. 2Blau and Scott, p. 122. 3Ibid. ulbid., p. 123. -46- obligations. The degree and duration of social interaction are ' e e a'e o olsene s amolr em‘e s a w a -a dir ctly r l t d t c r su rg m b r s to h t 0 ch . l . , . . person is expected to do. SOCial obligations furnish another incentive for working toward the same goal. Members of the same informal group have obligations to one another“ and these obligations are both.tflm>cause»and effect of co-operative ef- forts. Social interaction reduces alienation — "a feeling of powerlessness over one's own affairs."3 Alienation can lower a person's self esteem, cause a person to show less interest in his work, and generally reduce his contribution to organiza- tional effectiveness. People working alone are more subjected to such feelings. Alienation was found to be most exacer- bated under conditions that minimize interaction between super- iordinates and subordinates and, consequently, that reduce 0p- portunities for the latter to influence informally the former."5 Clark, in his study of adult education, saw the weak, in- formal social structure and the lack of professionalism as the major causes of teacher apathy to educational goals and lNeal Gross et al., Explorations in Role Analysis (New York: John Wiley a Sons, 1958), p. 177. 2Robert C. Hanson, "The Systemic Linkage Hypothesis and Role Consensus Patterns in Hospital - Community Relations," American Sociological Review, XXVII (June, 1962), 204-305. 3Leonard I. Pearlin, "Alienation from Work: A Study of Nursing Personnel," American Sociolggical Review, XXVII (June, 1962), 315. 4 . _ Ibid., p. 325. 51bid. -47- standards.1 Likert theorizes that enthusiasm and interest in organizational goal achievement can be obtained by structuring the organization into functioning groups and linking or over— lapping the groups to maintain communication throughout the organization.2 Linking the groups together would also co- ordinate the various groups and integrate the organization. A Social System Social interaction includes individuals (actors), sym- 3 bolic communication, duration, and objectives. A social sys- tem is composed of systematic or patterned interaction of mem- bers, and identifiable, interdependent parts - a social struc- ture. According to Loomis every social system contains nine elements: 1) belief (knowledge), 2) sentiment, 3) end, goal or objective, 4) norm, 5) status - role (position), 6) rank, 7) power, 8) sanction, and 9) facility. Each of the nine ele- ments is articulated by a different process. There are also six master processes necessary to a social system. They are: 1) communication, 2) boundary maintenance, 3) systemic linkage, 4) socialization, 5) social control, and 6) institutionaliza— tion. "From a sociolOgist's standpoint, the two most important lClark, Adlllt o o 0, Pp. 103-105. 2Likert, pp. 138—181. 3The first paragraph of this section draws heavily on Charles P. Loomis, Social Systems (New York: D. Van Nostrand CO.’ 1960), pp. 3-60 -48- aspects of a 'system' are the 'interdependence' of a number of 'parts' and the tendency of them to maintain an 'equilibrium' in their relationships."1 A community junior college is both a social system and a part of a larger social system, e.g., the community. As a so- cial system it must simultaneously attempt to maintain equilib- rium2 and interact with other social systems while its parts are interacting. The parts of a community junior college can be viewed as sub-systems. Instructors are the components of technical sub-systems, usually designated departments or divi- sions, and they perform the technical functions of the system. Administrators are the components of managerial sub-systems. They mediate between the system and other systems, and they 3 manage or maintain the organization. The administrative sub- system is anxious to maintain the system and therefore is "mar- ket oriented." This "market" orientation is concerned with furnishing a product in demand and the procurement of needed resources. Another need of a social system is legitimation. Legit- imation is the higher level support given by a wider social lAlvin W. Gouldner, "Reciprocity and Autonomy in Func- tional Theory," Symposium on Sociological Theory, ed. Llewellyn Gross (Evanston, 111,: Row, Peterson and Co., 1959), p. 2&2. 2Equilibrium does not mean a return to a fixed level, but a shift to a new level or position to achieve a balance among various internal and external forces. See: Robert Chin, "The Utility of System Models and DevelOpmental Models for Practi- tioners," The Planning of Change, ed. Warren Bennis, Kenneth Benne and Robert Chin (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1961), pp. 204-205. 3 Talcott Parsons, Administrative Theory . . ., p. A}. ' _ - ’- 43 system.1 Community junior colleges derive their support from law and the legal board of control. A college's board of trus- tees is the sub-system that controls the administrative sub- system and the board is one source of legitimation. The tech- nical sub-systems furnish the output, e.g., instruction and counseling, the administrative sub-system obtains the inputs, e.g., instructors and equipment, and the institutional sub- system maintains the legitimacy of the college in the larger social system, the community. Community support, and occasionally board of trustee sup— port, can be jeopardized if the goal expectancies of the com- munity are not satisfied. Etzioni attributes this recurrent problem to unreal expectancies derived from goal models.2 Un- like system models, goal models ignore the necessary expendi- ture of resources for the maintenance of the organization. People that claim only instructors are needed in colleges and that administrators are dead weight, ignore other organization- al requirements. Not all resources can be devoted to technical functions, if the organization is to continue. The allocation of resources to various sub-systems will always be a source of controversy among administrators, instructors and laymen. A study of the effectiveness of a community junior col- lege must "include an analysis of the environmental conditions 1Ibid., p. 44. 2Amitai Etzioni, hTwo Approaches to Organizational Anal- ysis: A Critique and A Ouggestion," Administrative Science gmarterly, V (September, 1960), 259-66. -50- and of the organization's orientation to them."1 ”No organiza- tion is ever wholly independent."2 A community college will have what Gouldner calls "reciprocal exchanges.”3 Social sys- tems exchange resources directly with each other, and indirect— ly through exchange arrangements involving other social sys- tems.# A community junior college is important to industrial concerns as a consumer of goods and a producer of educated peo- ple needed by the industries. Governmental tax collecting sys- tems are involved in the exchange because they collect money from industries and distribute money to community junior col- leges. Organizations that are branches of a parent organiza- tion interact less with local organizations because they are less dependent on the community for resources.5 Some social systems have more autonomy or independence than other systems. (The same can be said for parts of social systems.)6 "One of the many ways of controlling dependency is to create and maintain a favorable image of the organization in 7 the salient publics." The best method of developing a favor- able image is to have a product that can stand public scrutiny. 1Ibid., p. 262. ZParsons, p. 44. 3Gouldner, "Reciprocity . . ., p. 2&9. Sol Levine and Paul White, "Exchange as a Conceptual Framework for the Study of Interorganizational Relationships," Administrative Science Quarterly, v (March, 1961), 583-601. 5Ibid., p. 590. 6Gouldner, "Reciprocity . . ., pp. 258-59. 7Perrow, p. 335. -51- Product prestige can also be improved by obtaining validation from other respected organizations, such as accreditation as- sociations. One product of community junior colleges, liberal arts programs, has prestige and helps create a favorable image, but what about the other functions? Technical programs need more prestige so that they will be valued by the community in- stead of disdained as less rigorous education. Until technical programs have sufficient prestige to be supported by the total community, community junior colleges can obtain support by establishing mutual commitments with other social systems in- terested in technical programs. The disadvantage of this meth- od of obtaining support is reduced autonomy. Commitments tend to accumulate and develop irrevocable patterns and ties to other systems.1 According to Clark the community junior college is con- siderably dominated by its environment.2 Prior perspectives indicate the college is necessarily involved with many other organizations. The two broad "strategies for dealing with the organizational environment . . . are competitive and co- "3 Operative. On the basis of Preiss' theory and assuming the community junior college is externally authority—oriented, com- petition would be an undesirable strategy. This leaves the co- operative strategy which has three sub—types - bargaining, 1Clark, The Open Door, . . ., p. 191. 21bid., p. 175. 3 James D. Thompson and William Mcfiwen, ”Organizational Goals and Environment: Goal—Setting as an Interaction Proc- ess," American Sociological Review, XXIII (February, 1958), 25. -52- co-optation and coalition.1 Bargaining involves direct inter- action with other organizations in an attempt to reach an ar- rangement mutually satisfactory. Co-optation is the process of averting threats to the organization by absorbing new elements into the administrative or institutional sub-systems. Coali- tion is the temporary combination of two organizations in order to achieve a mutual objective. All three co-operative methods will probably be used by the effective community junior C 0119539 0 Summary After examining the community college from seven perspec— tives, the most important element appears to be power, or the lack of it in this case. The community junior college has little control over its environment. Its comprehensive nature creates a blurred image, makes boundary maintenance difficult, and fosters internal strife and resentment. The "open door” denies control over its clientele and further detracts from its prestige. Its authority orientation virtually precludes a "good fight," that might unify its supporters and members, and forces the college to abandon projects or co—operate and sac- rifice some autonomy. As a develOpment organization it cannot afford to abandon many projects and drift with the social tide, it is expected to see problems, mobilize resources, and create changes designed to eliminate the problems. The college's 1Ibid. The following definitions are taken from the same article. f‘ 7 bureaucratic needs for professionals, both instructional and administrative, and a hierarchy diminish loyalty to the organi- zation and lengthen the time needed for adjustment to a new situation. The social needs of individuals were discussed when ana- lyzing the community junior college as a social organization. The resultant informal groups can support the organization, but the consequence is still another loss of organizational control. Instructors and administrators owe allegiance in varying de- grees to numerous professional and informal organizations, be- sides the college. The last perspective exposes many other or- gganizations that have direct control over the college and in- ciirect control via personnel and other organizations. The (:cnmmunity junior college is a social system which has at least ‘tliree sub—systems, technical, administrative and institutional, earld is itself a sub-system, a part, of a larger system. The c:<>llege is one system in a vast web of interdependent systems; thL is truly dependent and devoid of considerable power. And D’ert the community junior college does have a valued product - education. The community junior college may feel powerless, ‘bllt; the tide of technological changes and demands, the desire c>f' individuals for more higher education, and the old democrat- i‘= value of equal opportunities may be enough to give it in— fllaence and a honored place among institutions. This analysis of the community junior college also sup- FWDIts a generalization concerning organizational effectiveness. The effectiveness of an organization appears to be directly related to the integration of an organization. Informal groups based on latent culture, hierarchical differentiations, func- tional sub-systems, and the use of external groups for self- evaluation thwart integration. Two other aspects of the commu- nity junior college operate against integration. The "open door" amplifies the heterogeneity of student interests and ob- jectives. The comprehensive offerings cause a proliferation of functional sub-systems. If the generalization is valid, those who support community junior colleges should be alert for crit- ics both within and without. CHAPTER IV PLANNED CHANGE: A METHODOLOGY FOR CREATING TECHNICAL PROGRAMS Automatic Adjustment Planned change is a recent approach to the maintenance of equilibrium in a system, especially in the system known as American society. For many years the values and beliefs of American society clashed with any proposals implying that the behavior of people could be predicted and controlled, and sug- gmsting that it was desirable to exercise some authority over :individuals. Early Americans, such as Thomas Jefferson, when sadvocating democracy, often employed postulates of social atom— jmsm 1 those being: 1) the individual is a solitary rather than 9 £5<3cial being, 2) governments are based on a social contract for tzlie sole purpose of protecting individual rights, 3) voluntary aizrrangements handle social arrangements outside the narrow £3eristic ways of mobilizing energy, or on correcting its pat- teexfins of communication."5 Change-agents are usually concerned’ “Eit:h two or three of these roles simultaneously. At the beginning of the change process the change forces arwa likely to be rather general in character."6 Perhaps people Wjitkrin the client-system are vaguely dissatisfied and feel Eaasgzggggg should be done. Perhaps they have identified the \ lIbid., p. 13. D 2Ronald Lippitt, Jeanne Watson, and Bruce Westley, The ~41553gics of Planned Change (New York: Harcourt, Brace and company. 1958) 0 3Ibid., p. 47. thid. SIbid., p. 48 61bid., p. 73. I w \~ I problem and are searching for a solution. Perhaps a neighboring system has made recent changes and some members of the client- system want to know how they can create the same changes. ”As the change enterprise proceeds, there is a gradual shift in the constellation of change forces.”l New forces for change are: l) the need to complete a job once it has been undertaken, and 2) the creation of mutual expectations involving people within trie- client-system and change-agent.2 Social interaction creates e)<;uectancies, and the desire of peOple to have satisfying so- c:isal.re1ationships prods them into meeting the expectancies of crtriers and, consequently, earning the reapect and friendship of others. A client-system is often not unanimously in favor of crisinge. A change may satisfy the needs of some parts of the Exysstem, and concomitantly ignore the needs of other parts. ESiJuce a client-system does not have unlimited resources, it is inn§;ossible to meet all of the needs of the different parts si- Irlul‘taneously. For this reason it is exceedingly dangerous for a <3hange-agent to become identified with only one or a small SIWJup of parts. Other parts will be suspicious and inclined to ‘Vorfli against the change process. Change-agents often use mul- tiJDle entries in large organizations to avoid having the change proposal associated exclusively with one part of a client- 83's 12631.3 \ lIbid., p. 74. 2Ibid., pp. 75-76. 31bid., p. 82. .‘ «l‘ :-‘ -50- Multiple entry is a procedure that is designed to avoid being identified with a minority force. Besides being concern— ed with numerical or quantitative strength, change-azents must look for promising leverage points, the qualitative considera- tions of influence. Is a certain part accessible and can the ckuange-agent influence the individuals who form that part of the; client-system? If the change-agent can influence those in- diflliduals, do they have any influence on other parts of the cJ_iant—system? The purpose of a change process will determine two a large extent the amount of influence a particular part may ILaJre. For example, medical groups would be expected to have nuaxre influence in fluoridation campaigns than in school bond caau1paigns. Sometimes a part of a system may be strongly moti— veatzed to create change, but its lack of influence on the other puax‘ts will prevent the desired change. Lippitt and his collaborators identify seven phases of IiLéxnned change. The phases should be familiar because they are eEHSentially the steps in the scientific method plus a few added St43ps to handle the relationship between a client-system and a Change-agent external to the client-system. Phase 1: The client system discovers the need for help, sometimes with stimulation by the change agent. Phase 2: The helping relationship is established and defined. 3: The change problem is identified and clarified. Phase #: Alternative possibilities for change are examined; change goals or intentions are established. Phase Phase 5: Change efforts in the ”reality situation" are attempted. Phase 6: Change is generalized and stabilized. -51- Phase 7: The helping relationship ends or a dif- ferent type of continuing relationship is defined.1 Lippitt's book is one source of information for those interested in planned change. It does, however, lack a certain elegance in its seven phase presentation of planned change, anti, of even more concern to this study, it pays little atten- tixyn to the change-agent that is a part of the client-system. Client-systems often "contain the potential resources for cre- a1:iJng their own planned change prOgrams under certain condi- tions."2 Some writers ”contend that a client-system must build iJltLO'itS own structures a vigorous change-agent function, in oerier for it to adapt to a continually changing environment."3 Another analysis of the change process is found in a book lxy‘ Sower, Holland, Tiedke and Freeman.u Sower points out that all action process is continuous, but this does not prevent "fdreezing" the process and attempting to identify elements that ‘WiJLl aid in analyzing the process. By approaching the process 017 planned change in this manner, Sower identifies five ana- lytical components. They are: l) convergence of interest, 23) testablishment of an initiating set, 3) legitimation and ——.___ t;g;g., pp. 122-23. Bennis, p. 16. 3.1222. 1+Christopher Sower, et al., Community_lnvolvement (Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1957). O—uw—u—uw “an..." III "E -62- sponsorship, h) establishment of an execution set and mobiliza- tion of resources, and 5) fulfillment of charter.1 A convergence of interest of actors2 who have appropriate sentiments, beliefs and goals, with reference to a particular problem, is necessary for action to occur. The motives of the actors may vary considerably, but this does not detract from their mutual interest. The phenomenon of actors, who are nor- mally hostile to each other, co-operating on a particular issue is not uncommon. Change-agents may capitalize on many differ- ent motives in obtaining a convergence of interest. What is necessary for the action process is the achievement of a con— vergence of interest. Without this, the process of change will never start. A convergence of interest leads into, and is the cause of, the establishment of an initiating set. ”The establishment of . . . an initiating set leads to the development of a common :frame of reference from which concrete action flows."3 This x‘equires that the actors who form the initiating set have rela- tdionships which will provide a basis for working together, irwaaching some common agreement, and performing certain tasks. CEllis further requires "that common group ends or goals be es- tzéllflished."4 The common goals are the charter of the initiat- ing set. The fulfillment of the charter is dependent on two \ 1 a 2 , . . . . . . Actors are defined as either indiViduals or organiza- tions. 3Ibid., p. 309. Ibid. .-—-—_.~ QM -63- conditions. Members of the initiating set must believe fulfill- ment is objectively possible and the members must develop just- ifications for attempting to fulfill the charter. Justification provides external security and it may occur before or after agreement on goals. The third component is legitimation and sponsorship. Legitimation is public approval, or the approval of the indivi- dual or social system that has the authority to act on behalf of its public or constituency in certain situations. In some cases the initiating set may be self-legitimized, but this is usually not the case with voluntary, problem-oriented, and lo- cally controlled action. In these cases authority to act is diffused throughout the community. The initiation set must ob- tain access to sources of sponsorship and legitimation. Access may be obtained directly through actors within the initiating set and indirectly through intervening actors. Within the com- rnunity there are sources of support and Opposition. The ssources will vary from complete willingness to co-operate to tzotal opposition. The initiating set ideally wants to obtain £311fficient sponsorship to succeed with the minimum cost to the Ziriitiating set. In obtaining legitimation, members of the iIlitiating set may make commitments on behalf of the initiating ESGBt, and they may obligate themselves to others. Legitimation fIrom some groups may be obtained, but at the cost of altering ‘3116 charter. A wide appeal for sponsorship may alert opposing E;roups, while a more restrained and directed appeal might gain \ llbido, 1.). 310. _Qh_ support without arousing many opponents. From this brief dis— cussion, the intricacies and difficulties of obtaining legiti- mation become apparent. A fourth point of analysis is the establishment of an execution set and mobilization of resources. "The establish— znent of an execution set is analogous to the establishment of all initiating set. While the action process is developing, it ins difficult to make valid empirical distinctions between the £3].ements of that process."1 In retrospect, the different rela- t:j_onships between actors become apparent. Initiation and ex- ee<:ution sets involve different relationships, regardless of the membership overlap. The execution set has several channels available for agaiining assistance and resources. 1) Organizational sponsor- ESIIip can obtain co-operation from members of an organization ‘Nllo may not care about the change goal but who will work on be- Iléllf of their organization. 2) Influentials who support the éicrtion group can use personal ties to persuade people to assist. 35) Friendship cliques can be the cause of some actors helping ‘tllee action group. 4) PrOpinquity or neighborhood can be a ESource of support as actors call on those physically close to tlklemn for assistance. 5) Kinship is another basis for involve- ‘neunt in an action group. 6) There are other reasons for sup- Port, e.g., the desire for social interaction, and all are po- tential methods of obtaining aid. \ 1Ibid., p. 311. -65- The final component, and the most obvious, is fulfillment of charter. This is the ultimate objective of the personal ef- forts and the mobilization of resources. How well and how com- pletely the charter is fulfilled is a matter of individual ex- pectations and perceptions. The model cannot furnish the ans- wer, it can only roughly indicate the objective was or was not aachieved. As in a game, according to the model you either win (Dr'lose. It does not say by how much you win or lose, nor does th indicate how well the available resources were utilized. It ins a tactical view, a one-shot approach. This may be adequate ifor the ad hoc action group, but it ignores the lingering ef- 1Tects of the change process, effects that are strategically im- I>ortant for a permanent change organization that is a part of a C lient-system. Robert Chin suggests analyzing the change process by us- - . l . . . Zing an intersystem model. An intersystem moael is an exten- Sfiion of system analysis and involves two or more systems con- Ileected to each other. The concept of a system with its sub- ESbrstems stresses interdependence, whereas the intersystem model IPJLaces more stress on a system's autonomy. The advantages to Ilssing the intersystem model are: l) a change-agent system with- j.r1 a client-system is more clearly viewed as a system with <3<>nnections to groups, such as professional organizations, out- ESlide of the client-system, 2) intersystem analysis shows the eEstablishing, shifting, and severing of connections between £3313tems, and 3) viewing the change-agent as a separate system \ "‘ -66- reveals its sub-systems and their interactions, interactions that are so important in determining goals and effectiveness. For these three reasons the intersystem model will be used for analysis. The author of this paper believes the intersystem model will clarify his presentation without detracting from the Iisefulness of models and theories associated with systemic analysis. College japd Community: Change-Agent and Client-System A community junior college is a rationally organized, gyurposive social system. It is a change—agent and its major izarget or client-system is its community. The boundaries of :Lts community are determined by the college‘s legal charter. UIhe boundaries may encompass several counties or one city. The IDCNindaries that specify the source of local control and local support do not Specify where the interests and concern of a czcnnmunity junior college end. In various degrees, the client- E3.Ystems of community junior colleges transcend the legal bound- Elx‘ies. Students from outside the college district are enrolled Eirid ex-students find positions outside the boundaries. Since ‘tkle community is also a part of larger systems, states and 1"Lation, these systems feel the effects of community changes, earid the interests of larger systems also require consideration. «A» community junior college can benefit from its cognizance of, 811d willingness to co-operate with, social systems outside of j¥tes community, but there is also a danger. Communities are (:Cfinposed of people and, as in the case of an individual, they -67- can feel slighted and unappreciated. When a community views its college, the one it supports and whose board members it elects, as being overly concerned with external systems, it can make life uncomfortable for the college until the college more nearly satisfies the expectancies of the community. A community usually has a low degree of organizational linity; it is composed of numerous, special-interest groups and specialized organizations. As a client-system it presents two asypecial difficulties. It is slow in recognizing problems and aax:cepting assistance. Secondly, the numerous groups and organ- inzations have narrow social bases which force a change-agent jmnto either forming a new, broader-based group from which to cibtain support, or working closely with a few existent groups 61nd.risk the alienation of a large section of the community. A community junior college works with many individuals Eilui groups in attempting to create various changes. The most (Dirvious change process is the education of students. This is ‘tlie primary function of a community junior college, and the one Hn<>st readily accepted by the community. In this study educa- tifiLon will include teaching and guidance functions. Both func- 13jLons attempt to transmit knowledge, increase understanding Eirld engender thinking. Both functions are almost entirely per- fWDrmed by instructors and counselors, members of the technical SUb-systems. Instructors and counselors are professionals who may be- long to nationally organized, professional associations which \ 1Lippitt, p. 182. -625- furnish support, norms and sources of prestige. Professional associations are used to legitimate the selection of certain methods and objectives. The arrangement is satisfactory so long as the assumptions and objectives of a nationally-oriented, professional organization are applicable in a particular situa- tion. When the assumptions are invalid or the objectives con- flict with the objectives of a particular community junior col- lLege, professional associations may be the cause of controversy sand disloyalty. This discussion does not imply that controversy sand professional associations are undesirable, but it does sug- Egest that national assumptions and objectives are not univer- sally correct and desirable. Another change process is the development of programs. {Phis process is especially interesting and challenging when the <>bjective is not a traditional program, but a program to meet a Ilew'need, a need usually caused directly or indirectly by tech- ILolcgical changes. The need may first be articulated by any lizidividual or group, but the development of the program will fiervolve someone representing the administrative sub-system. r{he administrative sub-system is responsible for obtaining in- }plits, resources required by the community junior college, and ist is the administrative sub—system that attempts to determine tJne outputs needed by the community. Simply stated, the admin- iAstrative sub-system is supposed to maintain the organization. Tune development of programs does not necessarily involve inter- e‘Sted laymen or professionals. The administrative sub-system I"'fiquests the assistance of lay professional people because the éiéhninistrative sub-system sees the involvement of such people 3"»fw- 1-.-.“— a r . -59- as an aid in obtaining needed resources and improving the mar- ketability of the product. Lay peOple and groups could con- ceivably furnish space, tools, money and community influence. Professional people and groups could assist by being more will- ing to co—operate and by affording some legitimation to the program. Both groups could help define the need, identify the characteristics of graduates who would fill the need, and eval- uate the actual graduates in terms of how well they meet the real demands of the position. There are many other possible change objectives of a com— munity junior college. Perhaps there is the desire to elevate the social status of people and reduce the membership in the lower classes. There is the possible objective of improving understanding among the different elements so that the commu- nity will become more integrated. There may be the objective Of informing people so that they know their rights, choices and responsibilities. The change processes involved in these ex- amples all follow the same, rough guide lines, but the broader, deeper objectives take more perseverance, involve more re- sources, and demand more co-operation from more people. The integration of Negroes into an American city is a classical and current example of the broad, deep change objective. The cre- ation of technical programs utilizes the same change process, but the operation is on a much smaller scale. -70- AgMethodology of Planned Change At the beginning of this section it is desirable to re- mind the reader of certain definitions and assumptions. The institution is comprehensive and it affords at least one oppor- turnity to all high school graduates and those with an equiva- lJBIlt education. Technicial programs place more emphasis on c<>£;nitive knowledge and less on manipulative skills. It is as- sninned that most board members of the institution support tech- ruixzal programs and have a fairly clear idea of what a technical program entails. It is further assumed that the board has ob- tained administrators, who have in turn selected other faculty members, most of whom feel the community junior college has a legitimate and valuable role to play in providing technical ed- 11<3ation. The vagaries of language, the multiplicity of "frames (>17 reference," and the consequent confusion make it safe to as- ESIune that the expectancies of different board, administrative Ealld faculty members, concerning what constitutes technical pro- grams and what programs are within the province of the institu- tlidon, will differ on specific occasions. In the planning stage Sllch.differences can be useful because they can provoke thought- flfil analysis and consideration of many options. In the execu- tion stage differences can reduce the willingness of staff mem- ‘bfirrs to co-operate and therefore diminish the effectiveness of tile program. Finally, it is assumed that the complexity of the WTJrk.to be performed prevents regimentation and close supervi- Sion, control processes for obtaining co-Operation, and requires -71- more faculty participation in decision making, an ego- involvement process for obtaining co-operation. In this section seven analytical components or elements will.be identified and described as the procedures which com- pnise the methodology for creating technical programs. Most of true elements are variations of those listed in Sower's book. The added elements take into account the position of the change- agent within the client-system and the strategic concerns of =311ch.a change-agent as compared with an ad hoc group. Each element will be described within the more specific context of czcnnmunity junior colleges. The seven elements are: 1. Assignment of responsibility for gathering and evaluating possible technical programs. 2. Formation of linkages with external systems. 3. Establishment of an initiating set for a suggested technical program or an area of closely related tech- nical programs. 4. Legitimation and sponsorship for a technical program. 5. Establishment of an execution set and mobilization of resources for a technical program. 6. Inclusion of the technical program in the curriculum. 7. Evaluation of the technical program. lkssignment of responsibility for gathering and evaluating pos— szible technical programs. - A community junior college that in- ‘tends to offer needed technical programs cannot rely on chance to identify the areas of need. A well organized college re- <1uires an individual or committee that deliberately gathers and -72- evaluates information relative to technical programs. The dis- covery of needed technical programs is one of the functions of the college, and this function, like other functions, is as- :signed to a certain position or committee in the organization. Ill small colleges, the function can be performed by one man. fie: may be assisted by others in that they pass on information ‘tc: him. He may ask for advice in evaluating possible programs, lotit the decision is still the responsibility of one man. As a <:<>llege grows larger, more potential resources are evident, and Inxare information gathering is necessary. Performance of this :flinction will then require more people. Because of bureau- <217atic and economic concerns with control, one man will normal- 1y head the committee and be held directly responsible, regard- Ileess of how many peOple are members of the committee. The function of discovering needed technical programs is tzhe responsibility of the administrative sub-system. This sub- EBystem is expected to maintain the organization by obtaining Ileeded resources and producing a salable product. Both of these <=onsiderations are crucial to evaluating possible technical Ilrograms. A salable product is a needed technical program, but timers is no product unless requisite resources are available. I"'Ietmbers of the technical sub—systems, instructors and counse- lJDrS, can assist by gathering information, making suggestions, 21nd offering advice. It is to the advantage of the college if Eill sub-systems are represented and consulted. Although com- rnittees are often criticized and sometimes adjudged as power- :less, it is one attempt to involve the various sub-systems and -75.. :uuzegrate the organization. Such a committee would be advisory and the responsibility for decision-making would be given to an administrator. One administrative position well suited to handling the function of discovering needed technical programs is the posi- tian.in the instructional-administrative sub-system directly responsible to the administrator who reports to the board. In a unified K — 14 district it would be the director or dean of instruction who reports to the superintendent of schools. In an independent district it would be the vice-president or dean of instruction who reports to the president. The president or superintendent is often a member of the institutional sub- system. He is primarily concerned with legitimating the total organization and less concerned with the need for Specific technical programs. Determining the need for programs is also of more concern to administrators responsible for instruction than to administrators responsible for business or student af- fairs. This function is important, and it requires constant vigilance to anticipate and prepare for new demands for tech— nicians. A person with the ability to view the total community junior college system and its relationship to other systems, plus a position with considerable authority, this is a desir- able combination for a position incumbent responsible for dis- covering needed technical programs. Formation of linkages with external systems. - Linking with external systems occurs early and continuously. Few technical programs, much less successful tecnnical programs, wlll be . -' *u- .._" -7q- (nwaated without access to other social systems. There are many sources of ideas and suggestions for programs. Members of the technical and administrative sub-systems are often members of professional organizations that are sources of assistance. There are disciplinary associations that cut vertically through educational institutions, there are educational associations that divide educational institutions horizontally, and there are subdivisions of professional organizations bounded by both dimensions. Professional organizations often have local, state and national meetings, and publications which offer opportuni- ties to exchange information and ideas. If a technical program is needed and successful in one location, perhaps other areas have similar needs. One way of exchanging experiences is through professional groups, and this is one reason for urging staff participation in such associations. Professional groups offer an opportunity to tap geograph- ically widespread sources, but this does not necessarily re- flect the local situation. A locally controlled and supported college is hardly in a position to ignore the local setting, even if it so desired, and the character of the institution dictates local concern. How can local resources be developed if a college is not locally oriented? Even when a national goal is the objective of a community junior college, the col- lege must still ascertain the local situation before it can successfully move toward the goal. By assuming conditions in a community are similar to conditions in other communities, staff members of the college may be making a serious mistake. A well -75- re43eived and supported technical program in one community may not be needed in another community, and the local groups and citizens will reject it. Connections or links with local systems can be establish- ed to discover needed technical programs and to exchange infor- mation concerning possible prOgrams. Staff members, eSpecially the administrator responsible for discovering needed programs and members of the advisory committee, can perform the linkage function by joining different associations and obtaining per- mission to attend meetings of groups and organizations that may have an interest in technical programs. To insure that all relevant organizations have representation in the discussion of possibly needed technical programs, the responsible college administrator can establish a special advisory lay group. This lay group could be large, perhaps fifty members, and it would not meet often, perhaps three times a year. The meetings would be concerned with the large picture of technical man power needs and the identification of local areas of need. Members of the committee would represent large employers, ethnic groups, political groups, educational institutions, public employment agencies, labor unions, professional associations, and other large elements of the community. The objective would be to utilize all sources of community interest in technical programs, and to activate new sources by presenting experiences in other areas of the nation and by discussing the local situation. Establishment of an initiatingpset for a suggested technical program or an area of closely related technical programs. - -76- Aj”ter an area of need has been identified, an initiating set is the next step in creating a technical program. The initiating set or committee will be a lay group and one or two staff mem- bers. The responsibile administrator or his substitute will be one of the staff members. The lay members should number about six:to improve the likelihood of all members becoming actively iJmVolved. Desirable lay members would be interested in the area of need and would usually represent organizations or groups concerned with the area of need. The various methods discussed by Sower for persuading citizens to co-operate would be used, e.g., board members could call on friends; organizations and associations could be asked to send representatives. The lay members could be approved by the board of trustees as members of an advisory committee. There are several advantages to giving formal approval and public notice of membership on an advisory committee. The members of an advisory committee obtain some recognition for their efforts and they may view their role as being more impor- tant than they would otherwise. Iublic notice identifies the members, and to some extent the organizations for whom they work or with whom they are associated, with the college, and public notice indicates the college's concern with the commu- nity. The advantages that accrue to the college also attach more value and prestige to technical programs. By formally naming members of lay advisory committees, the board can estab- lish the length of membership and avert a situation where lay people feel they control certain programs and have the final WOrd e -77- The initiating set examines the suggested program or area of need in some detail. This committee identifies the objec- tives of such a program and discusses possible courses. For example, how much mathematics should an electronic technician have or how much laboratory experience should a dental techni— cran have. This committee could gather information about the rumxber of technicians needed in their field, working conditions and salaries graduates could expect, characteristics of current successful technicians, and the preparation peOple in the field think a student should have before entering the program. Mem— bers of advisory committees should be selected with an eye to-. ward the next step, obtaining legitimation and sponsorship. De- sirable members of advisor‘ committees will have access to or- ganizations, besides their own, for purposes of obtaining in- formation and support. When considering possible members, col- lege administrators should attempt to discover a person‘s status within his profession and his organization, and also the status of the profession and organization. This is one approach to predicting how much access a person will have to other organi- zations in his field. From a college's standpoint, the best members of advisory committees are members who are willing to work and who have access to sources of information and support relevant to the technical programs being considered. Legitimation and sponsorship for a technical program. - In general, a community junior college is always concerned with legitimation and sponsorship for technical programs. A Speci- fic program may require special machines or laboratories that a -78- loczal firm can provide, but the receipt of special facilities dwes not eliminate the general concerns. A tax supported in- stitution is legitimized by the larger society, not by a small segment of the society. All of the local industries employing vacuum technicians may publicly support the offering of such a 1n1>gram at the local community junior college, but if most of the people feel industries should train their own technicians, there is little likelihood of a vacuum technology program being offered. One obvious source of legitimation is the board of trus- tees. Board members are elected by the citizens and reflect the feelings of their constituents, and board members influence the feelings of their constituents. To what degree should board members be involved in college affairs?' Administrators differ widely when answering that question. One line of reasoning goes: administrators and instructors are professional educa- tors; professionals are best prepared to Operate a college; board members represent the community; board members are best prepared to identify community objectives. Simply stated, board members determine general policy and professionals operate the college. The less the board members are involved in oper- ating the college, the less they will interfere with profes- sionals. This may give professionals more discretion and re- duce the amount of time necessary for explanations to board members, but it detracts from the effectiveness of board mem- bers as legitimizers of a college. Board members cannot be confident and well-informed Spokesmen if professionals -70.. / discourage their involvement and furnish them with a minimal amoung of information. Having the board approve advisory com- mittees of lay citizens and informing the board of technical programs under consideration are two ways of obtaining more .sup- port from board members. The board is one source of legitima- tion that is readily available, and it seems a wasted oppor- tunity if board members are not given more than the bare essen- tials of information. I_ Staff members of secondary schools, eSpecially counselors and student advisors, are another source of legitimation. Be- ginning in the ninth grade, students are assigned to classes E; and homerooms where attention is focused on vocational oppor- tunities and prerequisite education. If secondary school per— sonnel are not familiar with technical programs and the posi- tions assumed by graduates of technical programs, or if they attach little value to technical programs, many students will a"Cid technical programs in favor of transfer programs. Some Of the students will experience failure in transfer programs and grudgingly enroll in technical programs. There are sever- al undesirable consequences of this arrangement. The failures, frustrations, and bitterness could be avoided in many cases by advising certain students to enroll in technical programs. lIleChnical programs, regardless of their rigor, will be seen as dumping grounds for failures of transfer pregrams and, there- fore, as programs with less prestige. Failures in transfer programs and the forced lowering of expectancies may reduce the Batisfactions derived from completing technical programs and -80- assuming technical positions. This may detract from technical graduates' occupational effectiveness, which can lead to their employers concluding the technical programs are inadequate. This lowers the value of technical graduates and the status of technical programs. The importance of prestige and the status of technical programs cannot be over emphasized. How status is determined is aa subject of controversy. It is a complex process that ap- pears to be circular in arrangement. The previous paragraph discusses one possible series of causes and effects. 1) Coun- SCJJDPB discourage students who might consider enrolling in technical programs. 2) Students, who might otherwise enroll in technical programs, follow the advice of counselors and enroll ill transfer programs. 3) Many of those students fail in trans— fer‘ programs and reluctantly enroll in technical programs. ‘H)1$ome graduates of technical programs still perceive them- selJles as occupational failures and have little reSpect for ttueir occupations. 5) Such graduates become employees who do INDt test their self-esteem in terms of their work, they are not °Ct3;j ectives of a technical program. As more sub-systems are J_j_r1ked together, involved in planning technical programs, and }{62:g>t informed, the college will be more integrated, mutual ob- 3.nggations among faculty members and sub-systems will increase, aarlci technical programs will receive more support from members of t he college staff. Execution sets will focus on course content, organization c>i7 course material, and methods of presentation. Initiation sseets will develop objectives of technical programs and recom- Yneend certain courses for the achievement of the objectives. ESeeldom will a technical program be completely prescribed, stu- dents will have some choices to make. Initiation sets will sug- Egest the number of courses to be taken in various areas, e.g., Eiocial science, physical science and a technical speciality, IDut members of the college staff will make the final decisions. biembers of initiation sets should feel their efforts are impor- tlant and their opinions are valued, but they should also real— j_ze that the responsibility for maintaining the college is IDlaced on the staff and that only members of the staff have Eiuthority to make final decisions. The same questions regarding control also arise in con- Ilection with execution sets. Do execution sets, comprised pri- tnarily of instructors, make the final decision or does the ad- tninistrative sub-system have the final authority? This author contends the final decision is the responsibility of the ad- rninistrative sub-system. The administrative sub-system is ex- Ipected to view the total picture, which includes the -86.. (>1‘ggzanization and its environment, to be sensitive to community demands and needs, to be cognizant of developments in other c:c>rnanunity junior colleges, and to obtain needed resources, in- c:].11ding instructors for technical programs. The technical sub- Esnrsstems are more concerned with their respective disciplines, <>:f”ten on a national level, and are often hesitant to approve Ileevv programs because this may create another sub—system entitl- eaci. to a share of the limited resources. Some relevant disci- I;J.ines may not be represented in execution sets. These would 136: disciplines that currently have no members on the staff, Talit would have members on the staff if certain courses were in- <32Luded in a technical program. This situation is avoided when ‘tlie administrative sub-system obtains professional peOple for (Zertain technical programs after it has been decided to offer a: technical program but before the execution set has been es- tiablished. If the initiating set concludes that a nursing pro- éaram is needed and the program appears to have sufficient sup- Ibort, the next step is obtaining a qualified professional nurs- fi.ng person to work on, and possibly serve as chairman of, the eexecution set. Regardless of who is chairman of an execution {set, the final responsibility and authority for deciding the (:ontent of technical programs is assigned to the administrative sub-system. It is one thing to assign control to the administrative level of the bureaucratic structure, but the exercising of con- trol is another matter. The perSpective of the community jun- iior college as a bureaucratic organization clearly points to -57- t11€3 discrepancy between the ideal construct and an actual or- g;5111:ization. Professionals perform complex operations and their k1r1c>udedge of their discipline usually surpasses the administra- t:c>1>s' knowledge of that discipline. How many administrators of <:c>namunity junior colleges know as much or more about profession- saJ. nursing than professional nurses? There is also the fact t:k1&at what happens in classrooms may be different from what is £5\1}aposed to happen. Suppose a specific course is organized to Eatzit an administrator, and the instructors disagree with the Eiéhninistrator's approach. The instructors may disregard the (:CDurse sylabus and handle the class in accordance with their ;j\1dgements, or the instructors may do a lackluster job of ‘teeaching, perhaps with the intent of embarrassing the adminis- trator. Administrators are considerably dependent on instructors. Iqoamount of authority will give administrators complete con- txrol over what instructors do in the classroom. Successful ad- nlinistrators are those who can obtain co-operation from in- EStructors. Instructor's willingness to co—operate is determin- €Bd by many factors besides salaries, fringe benefits, and fear C>f sanctions. Involvement in execution sets furnishes many (apportunities for instructors to have satisfying experiences, taut these opportunities become meaningless if the instructors 13erceive their contributions as being unimportant. If execu- ‘tion sets are nothing more than rubber stamps for the precon- <=eived notions of administrators, or if administrators appear ‘to’arbitrarily overrule the recommendations of execution sets, -58- the willingness of instructors to co-operate will be diminished. Although the administrative sub-system has the final decision, it would be imprudent to exercise the option very often to ne- gate the recommendations of execution sets. Inclusion of a technical program in the curriculum. - The ore- ation of a technical program is symbolically represented and described in college catalogs and bI‘OCqu‘C’S. In terms of the Objective of the change process, the program is implemented When students enroll in the program and graduates begin to as- sume technical positions. Sometimes there is considerable dif- ference between the written presentations and the actual learn- ing situations. This variation often occurs between course V descriptions in catalogs and the actual courses. Nevertheless, catalogs do offer some accurate descriptions, identify prere- ClI-IL:i.sites, furnish information, and function as salesmen for technical programs. Catalogs are one method of advertizing a College and its offerings. When a technical program is pre- Sexited in a college's catalog, the program has been created. Exvaluation of the technical program. -- The creation of a pro- gram can be defined as a process that ends with the inclusion of the program in the curriculum or as a continuous process so lOng as the program exists. Using the first definition, the eValuation of a technical program can be viewed as the first Starp in creating a revised technical program. Using the second dEfinition, the evaluation of a technical program can be viewed as a last step in a process that will try to maintain the pro- gram’s effectiveness as long as the program exists for . an.“ en...— -89— approximately the same objectives. If the objectives disappear, become more Specialized or more generalized, the technical pro- gram will disappear, be divided into several programs or unified with other technical programs. Either definition provides for an ending of the process1 and uses evaluation as one part of the process. Evaluation has already been discussed in connec- tion with legitimation. Follow-up studies that involve gradu- ates and employers are certainly realistic attempts to measure the effectiveness of a program. Information concerning jobs held by graduates, salaries, and advancement provides another Source of evaluation. The amount of prestige attached to tech- nic al programs indicates that evaluation occurs. It may not be an unbiased approach but people will make judgements about the value of a program. After a technical program has been created and evaluated, it still needs an initiation set to examine the data obtained from evaluating a technical program and to make recommendations for improving a program. The need for legitimation and spon- sOrship does not cease after a program is created, and evidence obtained from objectively evaluating a program is one of the best ways of informing the public and gaining support. Making known the fact a college does objectively evaluate its techni- cal programs will help gain some support. An execution set can also learn much from the evaluation of technical programs, and \ 1It is debatable if any process really ends because the End of a process becomes a means for another process. For pur- Poses of analysis, it is desirable to identify beginning and ending elements in a process. -90- evaluation offers an objective basis for making alterations in course sylabuses and for changing course offerings available to students in a program. When the change-agent is a. part of the client-system and when the change-agent is interested in making numerous changes, evaluation is a necessary part of the action process. People in the community are going to give or withhold support, partially on the basis of how effective a community junior college has been in the past. Evaluation of technical PrOgrams not only furnishes evidence, it provides another in- Centive for members of sub-systems that offer technical pro- grams, it involves graduates and employers, and evaluation of technical programs indicates the desire of a college to provide (2 ffective programs. mperties of the Planned Change Process PrOperties are characteristic qualities, attributes com- mon to all members of a class. Based on the studies, the con- Cepts, the theories, and the definitions discussed in Chapters III and IV, the following properties appear to be common to all Planned change processes to create technical programs in com- l"Il'unity junior colleges. Other properties may exist, and no Claim of exhaustiveness is implied or intended. Property I: A communityfljunior college that desires to .mroduce technical programs will have a positive orientation Qard other sociaLsystems in the community. Technical pro- grams are not traditional educational offerings and lack com- mlmity legitimation. To gain support and defenders of -91- technical programs, a community college can link with other organizations who also appreciate technical programs. A posi- tive orientation could be indicated by the establishment of numerous links with other social systems. It is also possible that other social systems could take the initiative by estab- lishing links with a community college and persuading it to in- troduce technical programs. Property II: A community junior college will find local *rganizations more willing and able to co-Operate than organi- gations that are sub-systems of non-local organizations. Local Organizations are more dependent on the community for resources and legitimation than "branches" of organizations based in an- other community who look to the "home office" for support. Or- ganizations are committed by individuals who have the authority to make such commitments. -’Ianagers of local plants often do not have such authority. Property III: A conxmunityiunior college will make de- Cisions that maL compromise or qualify the "Open door" philos- gghy in an effort to gain more community and organizational Slipport. American society places great value on public expend- itures returning something of equal value. Furnishing education to students who cannot or will not learn is considered a waste 0f money and something to be avoided. Some qualifications and requirements that indicate the "earnestness" of students will Satisfy some potential critics. Property IV: Latent culture will be one basis for in- formal proups and a potential source of opposition to change. All sub-systems of a community junior college Wlll have informal groups. The latent culture of individuals will furnish common- alities that will form a basis for meaningful and satisfying social interaction. If the members of an informal group fear a proposed change will interfere with a rewarding social situ- ation, they will oppose the change and deliberately subvert it in some instances. 1 Property V: The sub-systems of a community junior college gill be a major determinant of informal groups and a communica- . ‘ Lions barrier that will make change more difficult. ,Sub- I} SyStems are arranged both vertically, e.g., institutional, ad- ministrative and technical, and horizontally, e.g., disciplin- ary departments on the technical level and staff functions on the administrative level. Individuals within the same sub- SVstems have similar interests and have the opportunity and need to interact. Interaction across sub—system boundaries is less often and more formal. Iinsunderstandings may arise among Slib—systems, and a proposed change may be su.Spiciously eyed by each sub—system to make sure no one is attempting to usurp SOme authority from that sub-system. .Summary This chapter has examined the evolution of American thought and values related to the process of change. Automatic adjustment has been replaced by planned change. Not everyone Slixxports planned change, and some peeple still profess belief i.r1 the underlying assumptions of automatic adjustment. No proc- esses of change is "good" or "right." Planned change appears to has; more realistic because man does have considerable control (axrer'human relations. Social change is not determined by nat- 111781 laws, it is the consequence of human behavior. According to Lippitt and his co—authors, the process of 133.anned change is similar regardless of how many individuals c:c>nstitute the change-agent and client-system. The doctor- IDEltient relationship is a change process comparable to an eco- ricamic development team - community relationship. Sower and his c:<>-authors tend to agree with this observation. Sower is con- <3£3rned more with community development, whereas Lippitt is InOre interested in change processes involving fewer people. iDCJth authors present general models for analyzing planned 0 hangs . This study presents the community junior college as a ‘311ange-agent with its community as the client-system. Using ‘tlle seven perspectives presented in Chapter III as a frame of IVeference and drawing heavily from Sower's analytical model, 31 methodology for creating technical programs in community jun- jeor colleges is elaborated. Seven analytical elements are :Listed and described. Although the elements are presented in a <3hronological order, it is noted that the actual change proc- eiss does not always proceed in an orderly fashion from one Galement to the next. There is continuous feedback among the "arious elements, and decisions made in regaxd to one element -94- are- shaped by, and partial determinants of, decisions made in regfilrd to other elements. The analytical elements provide a sinrplgified approach for understanding and planning a process of soc ial change . The last section lists five properties that appear to be comnuan.to change processes for creating technical programs in ccmuniinity junior colleges. The properties are derived from the :sociological analysis and the models of planned change, and tliey will be examined in the light of data gathered from the (:ease study. The properties can assist those interested in creaatcix@;technical programs by serving as guides for action. CHAPTER V A CASE STUDY: THE ST. LOUIS - ST. LOUIS COUNTY JUNIOR COLLEGE DISTRICT Cre a 1: ing The College Identifying a certain statement or event as the beginning of a social process is an arbitrary selection. When did the idea of creating a community junior college in St. Louis first appear? When did the convergence of interest occur? What events caused people in St. Louis County and St. Louis to be concerned with higher education? Was it the White House Confer- ence? Was it the realization that the percentage of high school graduates in the St. Louis area who were matriculating into colleges was considerably less than comparable percentages in Other areas of the nation? Was it the realization of citi- zens that higher education is becoming more necessary for the ProS’ress of their country, for the development of their local area, and for the future of their children? It was really all °f these events and the determination of certain peOple to-see the Process through. During the 1950's, some citizens in the city and county or St . Louis started discussing the lack of opportunities for high School graduates to attend publicly supported higher edu- ChatiOncal institutions. Two private universities were located in the area, and the St. Louis public school system was operat- in g Harris Teachers College and a junior college. Those -95- -06- / insrtitutions were effectively meeting their objectives. Wash- ington University and St. Louis University were leading insti- tutions in the Middle West, but tuition costs were considerable. Harztis Teachers College was graduating well qualified teachers for the public schools. Both Harris Teachers College and the juniasr college were furnishing Opportunities with their limited rescnirces, but the city school system was strained for funds to Operwate elementary and secondary schools. The junior college COUJJi :not handle many students. Technical courses, that often reqixiqre considerable outlays of money, were not offered, and the <3<>unty school systems, which graduate more seniors than the St. 1L<>uis public schools, still had no publicly supported high- er etitzcation. Two leaders of the Teamsters Union local were esPecially concerned about this lack of opportunities, and they urgeci .a study of the situation. 'Ihe leaders of St. Louis University and Washington Uni- versity pushed for a study of the St. Louis area in conjunction with. tzhe Governor's Committee on Education Beyond the High SChOOl. In 1958, a sub-committee was named to study the higher educéitzional needs of Metropolitan St. Louis. This sub-committee Of thj—:rteen members engaged a research staff of three to survey the higher educational needs of the area and to present pos- Sibl‘a 'ways of meeting the needs. The director of the research Stajff. Was Edward B. Shils, and the report published by the sub- cornmi‘ttee is commonly called the Shil's Report. The Shil's Re- pozrt; \Nas presented January 22, l960, and it recommended a pub- 13'. cl? supported college district that would include St. Louis -97- aIui St. Louis County. According to the report, the college should be financed by local taxes, state aid and tuition Charges, and the college district should offer a comprehensive Srrnip of programs. Technical education programs were specific- ally mentioned. When the sub-committee started examining alternative methods of providing higher education, no one considered com- Prehensive community junior colleges. Several of the early ad- ‘VTDCates for publicly supported higher education were thinking in terms of a branch of the University of Missouri. When the (Iomprehensive community junior college was first discussed, chree early supporters were the presidents of the University of hfiiseouri, St. Louis University, and the board president of (Seneral American Life, a large insurance company with its home (office in St. Louis. More members of the sub-committee became convinced a community junior college was the most urgently needed type of institution, and they realized state enabling legislation was needed before a comprehensive college, with adequate financial support, could be established. After the Shil's Report was published, members of the sub-committee became the nucleus of a local committee to draft and support a bill to enable the establishment of locally con- trolled, and adequately supported, comprehensive community jun- ior colleges. There was also in existence a state-wide com— mittee with the same purpose, and these two groups joined to form the Missouri Citizens Committee for State Aid for Junior Colleges. When the Hissouri General Assembly convened in -98- JEunaary, 1961, the enabling bill was introduced and supported by"the state-wide committee. According to some of the members of the Committee, polit- icail observers were surprised that the enabling legislation was Passed during the 1961 session. Members of the Committee were <3a-utioned by politically knowledgeable friends that a bill is Seldom enacted into law the first time it is introduced. There Was also Opposition to the bill from three sources. Some state C4311ege supporters felt state funds were already insufficient ‘tca adequately support state colleges, without the added burden C>f contributing some support to community junior colleges. ltnother group of citizens felt public support to higher educa- ‘tion was already excessive, and further demands for higher ed- lication could be satisfied by private institutions. A third group of citizens, who lived in the St. Louis area, believed a ‘branch of the University of Missouri was more urgently needed than a community junior college. DeSpite precedents of lengthy deliberation and opposition from several sources, the bill was passed June 29, 1961, and became effective October 13, 1961. The next step in creating the community junior college was obtaining signatures on petitions to place the question be- fore the voters. Again, some of the same members, who had served on the governor's sub-committee and the legislative com- mittee, formed the nucleus of a committee to collect signatures and campaign for voter support. This was the St. Louis - St. Louis County Junior College Committee, and it included almost forty leading citizens of the area. Members of the committee -99- ‘wexwe representatives of labor, business, education, industry arui other civic groups. Commitments of support were obtained frwnn numerous organizations, the two major neWSpapers, neigh- 130r'hood newspapers, radio stations and leading citizens. On Arnril 3, 1962, the college district was created and six citi- Zens were elected to form the original Board of Trustees. The St. Louis - St. Louis County Junior College Committee (3141 not ignore the importance of having a Board of Trustees tllat was representative of the District and interested in deve- lJDping a comprehensive college. A sub-committee was named to idnvestigate possible candidates and to provide a list of candi- Ciates for the Junior College Committee to support. The six (tandidates named and recommended by the sub-committee were se- ]_ected for their personal qualifications and philOSOphies, and Ibecause they represent different sections and groups within the JDistrict. They represent 1) public school groups, 2) geograph- ical sections of the District, 3) religious groups, h) business and industry, and 5) ethnic groups. The researcher asked about the absence of labor union representation. One of the co- chairman of previously mentioned committees is a labor leader. The nominating sub-committee asked some of the labor leaders if they wanted to recommend anyone to represent the union point of view, but the labor leaders expressed satisfaction with the other nominees and supported their election. From a slate of more than thirty candidates, all of the candidates backed by the Junior College Committee were elected. -lOO- Creating the college involved no less than three action prwx2esses, and a fourth action process was essential to have an Original Board of Trustees who believe in a comprehensive com- fnulnity junior college. The charter of the first action process WERE a study of Metropolitan St. Louis to determine needs for higher education and to make recommendations. Union officials, ofificials of private universities, and other citizens had a Crrtain individuals with experiences in various parts of the ccaiirrtry. This is partially due to the Board's desire to tap trier experiences of other community junior colleges, to obtain linkages with colleges and other sources of assistance outside (>17 ‘the local area. The Board also urges and helps members of ‘tlle: administrative sub-system to serve as linkages with local - o a o l n c CJLxric organizations. By uSing these numerous linkages, sever- éil. specific technical programs were mentioned and discussed E3<>on.after the administrative staff was selected. These link- ages are used for other purposes than exchanging information Eibout technical programs, and these linkages do not form con- Ilections with all relevant social systems. Other linkages are rieeded, linkages deliberately formed to examine the need for ESpecific technical programs. Three organizations in St. Louis did not wait for the col- lege to make the first overtures in creating technical programs. They had already concluded they needed more formally, techni- cally educated people. The three organizations' resLective in- terests are dental technicians, registered nurses, and law en- forcement. Before the junior college was established, the St. Louis Dental Association had appointed a sub-committee to con- tact institutions of higher education and to discuss dental technician programs. The institutions they contacted 1This was a point of discussion at several Board and staff meetings. The Board of Trustees wants the administrative officers to be active members in certain service clubs, and the Board will underwrite those memberships. Memberships in pro- fessional organizations are the concern and responsibility of the individual. M——~. . “44... --_. 4 -107- sympathized with the dentists, agreed the need was real, but felt they could not or should not provide the technical pro- égzzaun. The institutions suggested contacting the junior col- lege, if and when it was established. Soon after the junior <:<>].lege had staff members, the sub-committee did contact the (:cfillege. A linkage was formed with the vice-president for in- struction representing the junior college and the sub-committee rmembers representing the St. Louis Dental Association. The St. Louis Police Department had also been searching Ifor a college to provide formal education in law enforcement. 'Ihe St. Louis Police Department is improving its effectiveness by using modern equipment, efficient techniques, and by care- ful selection of personnel. Surprisingly, effectiveness has improved while the number of police officers has decreased. A major cause of this phenomenon is the quality of the police of- ficers. The police commissioners are anxious to keep the offi— cers informed of the latest techniques and to give the officers an opportunity to obtain more education which can lead to pro- motions and higher salaries. When the junior college was es— tablished, the police commissioners immediately contacted the Board of Trustees and asked that a law enforcement prOgram be considered. After the vice-president for instruction was nam- ed, he met with two of the police commissioners. This linkage is strengthened by the fact one of tne police commissioners is also a senior law partner in the law firm that is representing the junior college. —lOv‘:- The Hospital Association of Metropolitan St. Louis is fsacxing a problem common to most sections of the nation, a short- age of nurses. Some of the hospital administrators see the jun- :chxi college as another source of registered and practical Intixrses. They have heard of two-year nursing programs in other £3t;sates, and one two-year program has recently been started at Southeast Missouri State College. Some members of the Board of TDIWJstees and the president of the junior college were contacted try several hospital administrators before October, 1962. The \rice-president for instruction, the executive director of the Eiospital Association, and a few hospital administrators formed linkages to exchange information about nursing programs. The junior college assumed the initiative in linking with many social systems by establishing the Advisory Committee on Technical Education. This committee has twenty-eight lay citi- zen members who represent social systems which are relevant to creating technical programs. The Board of Trustees, president, and vice-president for instruction discussed which social sys- tems should be represented and who would be desirable represent- atives. The president of the college contacted those who were desired as members, and requested their assistance. In some cases board members used mutual obligations and intermediaries to persuade some peOple to serve on the Committee. All of the members occupied prominent positions in their respective social systems. Because of the members prominence, every effort was made to avoid the appearance of niggardliness and to avoid wasting their time. The first meeting was a dinner at one of -lC9-' ‘tkie leading hotels, followed by a speech stressing the impor- ‘taance and need for technical programs. This meeting was rather :Leengihy, but after the first meeting only two short meetings were held during the next month. This ended the work of this Isairticular committee for a year. The work of the Advisory Committee was identifying local needs for technical programs and attaching priorities to pos- syible technical programs. On January 30, 1963, at the first Ineeting, Norman C. Harris, who was cited in Chapter I, present- ed data that revealed the increasing national need for techni— cians and he described some possible engineering technician programs. After his prepared speech, he and the vice—president for instruction answered questions. The objectives of this meeting were to convince the members that technical programs are needed and to help the members understand what technical programs contain, what responsibilities the graduates are pre- pared to assume, and what is required of students to enter and complete technical programs. The second meeting of the Advisory Committee occurred February 13, 1963, and lasted for approximately two hours. Be— fore the meeting started, information concerning technical pro- grams was distributed to the members. One of the pieces of material given to all members was a list of technical programs found in many community junior colleges. Almost sixty techni- cal programs appeared on the list, and the main objective of the meeting was to attach one of three ratings to each program. The possible ratings were: 1) immediate need, 2) no serious ~116- 118M3d at present, and 3) no need in the foreseeable future. bdeunbers of the committee rated the technical programs on the basis of their knowledge of the local situation, and they also szsflsed questions and made recommendations concerning technical gxrwagrams in general. They suggested getting aid from private czcnnpanies, concentrating on high-level technical programs, and Ilc>t making technical programs too specific. The members were becoming involved, they felt they were being taken seriously. (\fter the meeting, one member commented that he was not origin- zally in favor of the junior college. He visualized it as a vo- cational high school, but now, knowing the technical programs would have college rigor, he was a supporter of the junior col- lege. On February 27, 1963, the Advisory Committee met for the third time. This was the last meeting of this committee until the following year, when it will be time to take another look at the local need for technical programs. The Advisory Commit- tee reviewed the priority list developed during its previous meeting and discussed additional programs. Another objective was to establish initiating sets for specific technical pro- grams, to suggest possible members for initiating sets, and to recommend chairmen for initiating sets. Several members of the Advisory Committee agreed to join initiating sets and to help obtain the agreement of other citizens to serve on initiating committees. The Advisory Committee handled its assignments swiftly and competently. It performed other important functions. It -lll- established linkages between the junior college and other so- cial systems.1 It won supporters for the junior college as a total institution and for technical programs in particular. It answered questions and provided information for members of so- cial systems, influential members who could explain technical programs and the objectives of the junior college to other mem- bers of their social systems. The meetings and membership of the Advisory Committee were publicized. This gave recognition to the members for being interested in education and for being considered sufficiently important to be asked to help. It gave the junior college more prestige and technical programs more legitimacy by being associated with prominent individuals who are members of important social systems. It developed a prior- ity list of technical programs, which was published in the neWSpapers, recommended members for initiating sets, and pro- vided many volunteers for initiating sets. This type of an Advisory Committee appears to be a highly effective approach if it is used sparingly, and if the objectives are clearly under- stood and directly approached. 1The Advisory Committee established a linkage with Famous Barr, a large department store owned by the May Dept. Store Co. On February 25, 1963, the vice-president for instruction and researcher met with the director of the advertizing art sec- tion and learned that her section employed fifty—two commer- cial artists. The director described a critical shortage for advertizing artists that forced her to recruit artists from other cities. This was a need that no one on the college staff was aware existed, until the linkage was established. The di- rector also recommended peOple who might serve on an initiating set for a merchandising program. -115- Establishment of an initiating set for a suggested technical pgogram or an area of closely related technical programs. — Initiating sets have five functions. The first function is to identify the capabilities and characteristics of successful graduates of a technical program and to discuss the objectives of a technical program. Secondly, initiating sets consider what combination of courses is best for achieving the objectives of a technical program. Thirdly, the members discuss ways of obtaining special facilities that are needed for courses in a technical program. The fourth function is to obtain promises of assistance from relevant social systems. The fifth function is publicly supporting a technical program, thereby helping to gain public approval - legitimation. An initiating set can be established by utilizing an ex— tant social system or by bringing together interested people and establishing a new social system. It is usually more ex- pedient to work with a social system already organized and which already has connections with other systems. The extant connections can make it easier to obtain support, but they can also restrict the autonomy of a social system. Another draw- back to using an existent social system is the possibility a low priority will be attached to develOping a technical pro- gram. When time runs short and resources run low, technical programs would be forgotten. In situations where several ex- tant social systems distrust each other, it could alienate some systems if one system was utilized as an initiating set. How- ever, it takes more effort and time to organize a new social -113- system. This is especially true because influential people are those who often have many other commitments, and they are the same peOple who are wanted for initiating sets. By creating a new system, the junior college is sure a technical program will be considered, and the college can invite representatives of many systems to avoid being too closely associated with one so- cial system. In St. Louis, the Technical Engineering Advisory Commit- tee is an example of a new social system. It is concerned with the area of engineering technicians which includes chemical, electric, electronics, mechanical, civil, industrial and vacuum Options. Six lay members and the vice—president for instruc- tion are the regular members.1 The lay advisors are: two pro- fessors of engineering, representatives of Washington University and St. Louis University, a member of the American Society for Engineering Education who is closely associated with the Mc- Donnell Aircraft Corporation, a representative of Emerson Elec- tric Company, a representative of Monsanto Chemical Company, and an industrial consultant who is a native of St. Louis and for- merly an executive with Universal Match Corporation. All of the lay advisors have engineering degrees and among them they have connections with the largest employers of engineering technicians. 1The researcher was a member while in St. Louis and other members of the staff are welcome to attend the meetings. The reader is also reminded that the researcher was a participant - observer in all of the meetings of advisory committees during his internship and that he assisted in planning and preparing for the meetings. -114- At the March ll, 1963, Board of Trustees meeting, the six lay advisors were approved as members until August 27, 196#. The regular term will be one year and expire in late August, but the first members of the committee will serve longer than a year. By the end of August, technical programs that will be implemented during the subsequent academic year will have been organized and included in the curriculum. This affords an op- portunity for the Board of Trustees and college staff to con— sider possible new programs and to appoint members best quali- fied to examine technical programs that may be created during the following year. The first meeting of the Technical Engineering Advisory Committee was held March 21, 1963. All members were present and considerable enthusiasm was shown. The members are all prominent in their respective organizations, their academic backgrounds are somewhat similar, and they seemed to have a common frame of reference. Everyone participated. When un- certain if they correctly interpreted someone's comments, the members did not hesitate to probe for clarification. Because of their positions and knowledge of the local situation, they were confident they knew the local demands or could quickly contact someone who did know the local demands for particular kinds of engineering technicians. They discussed what well educated engineering technicians in different fields should be able to do, and they discussed combinations of technical and liberal arts courses that would best prepare a student for a technical position. The physical needs of laboratories and -115- need for laboratory eXperiences were considered, and thought was given to obtaining equipment and space from local firms. A week later, March 28, 1965, the committee met again with equally satisfying results and participation by all members. This committee contains three volunteers from the larger Advi- sory Committee on Technical Education, one serves as chairman of the engineering committee, and three members recommended by that committee. The Technical Engineering Advisory Committee illustrates the creation of a new social system in a technical area where there is no existent system. The Hotel and Restaurant Kanagement area is a slightly different situation. There is an extant system, but it proved to be unsatisfactory. One of the members of the Advisory Com- mittee on Technical Education is owner and operator of four of the largest hotels and restaurants in the District. After the first meeting of the Advisory Committee, he expressed interest in a hotel and restaurant management program and suggested that he and the vice—president for instruction meet with two of the other managers of leading hotels and restaurants. The meeting created enthusiasm for a technical program. It revealed that a shortage of technically trained people existed and that on most occasions the managers had to recruit technicians in Chicago and other cities to obtain well educated employees. The vice-president learned a Food Service Career Guidance Coun- cil already existed and that one of the hotel managers was a member. It was decided that the vice-president would be invit- ed to a meeting of that group. ~116- It first appeared as if this group might serve as an ini- tiating set for a technical program in hotel and restaurant man- agement. On March 15, 1963, the vice-president and this re— searcher attended a meeting of the Food Service Career Guidance Council. After talking with the members, it became obvious that this group did not represent the relevant organizations and lacked the ability to assist in gaining legitimation for a hotel and restaurant management technical program. This group was authority-oriented and would probably shy away from con- flict. What is needed is a power-oriented initiating set, such as a group of hotel and restaurant owners and managers. After the March fifteenth meeting, the vice-president started creat- ing a new social system that includes owners and managers of prominent local concerns. Establishing an initiating set for dental technicians was a fairly simple operation. As mentioned previously, the St. Louis Dental Association, which represents 1,200 dentists, had established a sub-committee to investigate the possibilities of having a college offer a dental technician program. The sub- committee had talked with officials of the area colleges and had been advised the junior college was ideally suited for such programs. January 22, 1963, two members of the sub-committee met with the vice-president for instruction and the researcher. They could promise facilities and assistance of all kinds, e.g., the Dental Association would go to manufacturers and ask for the latest in dental equipment and supplies. The sub-committee members were already working with the Washington University -117- dental college for the purpose of arranging co-Operative labor- atory experiences between students in the dental college and dental technician program, when and if it was created. This is a ready—made initiating set and the next major concern is em— ploying a professional person to direct the program and work with the initiating and execution sets. The social system interested in a law enforcement program was the best prepared. Before any staff members assumed their responsibilities, it was publicly announced that the junior col— lege would offer such a program. The initiating set that was eventually established consisted of two police commissioners, who have the honorary rank of colonel; a member of the Police Administration Department at Michigan State University, who is on leave to advise the St. Louis Police Department; the vice- president for instruction; and the researcher. The vice- president and the researcher were shown the police academy and headquarters. These facilities would be made available to as- sist the college in providing law enforcement courses. The commissioners were willing to co—operate with the college and publicly support the program. This was a situation where nei- ther side had to persuade the other to co-Operate. Both the junior college and police department saw the need, and an existent social system is proving to be a highly effective ini- tiating set. Establishing an initiating set for nursing is different from the other examples because of the multitude of relevant social systems that need to be involved, but not necessarily as members of the initiating set. Before the vice-president for instruction was obtained, the president of the junior college met with the administrator of the largest hospital in St. Louis. An acute need for nurses is present in St. Louis. The president of the junior college is familiar with two-year nursing pro- grams as a result of his experiences as a member of the Cali- fornia state-wide committee that studies and evaluates two-year nursing programs, and his experiences as an administrator of colleges offering such programs. The hospital administrator and some of his colleagues asked the executive director of the Hospital Association of MetrOpolitan St. Louis to work closely with the incoming vice-president for instruction in an effort to create a two—year nursing program in the immediate future. Several meetings were held in February, 1963, and on March 8, 1963, the executive director, administrators of the largest hospitals, the director of nurses training in Catholic hospitals, the junior college president, vice-president for in- struction, and the researcher met as an initiating set. The director of the two-year nursing program at Southeast Kissouri State College was invited to describe the program at that col- lege and to offer advice. As the meeting proceeded, it became apparent that all favored starting the nursing program in Sep- tember, 1363, provided well—qualified professional nursing ed- ucators could be engaged. It was decided to ask the Hospital Association for support at the next meeting, and, regardless of the decision of the Hospital Association, several of the hos- pital administrators, who were present, pledged continued -119- support and co-operation in providing educational experiences in the hOSpitals. The initiating set also decided to ask the medical and nursing associations for support. After the meeting of the initiating set, the executive secretary and president of the St. Louis Nursing Association were contacted and appointments for a meeting were made. Since the president's term ended in March, the executive secretary suggested the new president also attend. The appointment was never kept by the members of the association. The executive secretary was contacted, she apologized, and she described a situation that was rending the association. The new president was unacceptable to the executive secretary and a bloc of the members. According to the executive secretary, she, the execu- tive secretary, would resign before she would work with the new president. The vice-president of instruction decided to leave that association to its own problems for a time. On March 25, 1963, the president of the junior college, vice-president for instruction, and the researcher met with the president and executive secretary of the State Nursing Board. The prOposed two-year nursing program was discussed and the re- presentatives of the State Nursing Board felt it was needed. They were pleased with the quality of nursing graduates at Southeast Missouri State College, where only one out of twenty- eight graduates had failed the state nursing examination. They felt a satisfactory program could be started in September, 1963, provided an excellent director could be obtained in the near future. They could not commit the other State Nursing Board -lZO- Inembers, but they could help win approval for a nursing protram in.the junior college. By working with representatives of re- levant organizations before the initiating set had publicly made any decisions, relevant social systems were consulted, their advice requested and, hopefully, their support and approv- al obtained. If representatives of all the relevant social sys- tems had been included in the initiating set, the initiating set would have been cumbersome, and some of the members might never have felt involved. If only a few of the relevant social systems will be represented on an initiating committee, it is reasonable to include individuals and associations who will furnish resources and support continuously and in large quanti- ties. The support of medical and nursing associations is cer- ‘tainly desirable, eSpecially during the early stages of crea- tion and operation, but after these associations have given their approval, they will pay less formal attention to the jun- ior college nursing program. Legitimation and sponsorship for a technical_program. - The employers of technicians are potential sponsors and assistants in obtaining legitimation - public approval. Employers, espe- cially those who are members of advisory committees, saw the need for technicians and publicly supported the efforts of the St. Louis junior college to create technical programs. The president of the St. Louis Chapter of National Office Manage- ment Association identified the need for executive secretaries and general business programs. A McDonnell Aircraft Corporation representative cited McDonnell's needs for engineering -121- technicians, technical writers and well-educated supervisors. An executive of Western Printing and Lithograph Company voiced a need for printing technicians. Owners and operators of the largest hotels and restaurants described their nation-wide re- cruiting efforts to employ graduates of two-year technical pro- grams. A representative of Monsanto Chemical stated they need- ed chemical technicians. Representatives of Emerson Electric, Universal Match, Mallinckrodt Chemical Works, and other peOple familiar with the local situation, all identified the pressing need for engineering technicians. The St. Louis Police Depart- ment and suburban police departments asked for a law enforce- ment program. Administrators of the largest St. Louis hospitals warned of the growing need for nurses. Dentists expressed a need for dental technicians. The public was made aware of the need for technicians by publicizing the statements of those best situated to observe the need - the employers of techni— cians. To the statements of employers were added the utterances of those who are conCeded to be authorities. Visits and speeches by professors on the faculties of the Universities of Missouri and Michigan identified the national demand for tech- nicians and urged the develOpment of such programs at the St. Louis junior college. Professors of engineering at St. Louis and Washington Universities confirmed the need and currently serve on committees developing technical programs. The Shil's Report provides evidence of the local need for technical pro- grams. A report of the American Society for Engineering -122- Education is offered as evidence of a national need for tech— nicians, and a member of the steering committee that wrote the report is chairman of the Advisory Committee on Engineering Technology. The president of the Engineer's Club of St. Louis assists in developing technical programs and volunteers the club's facilities for meetings. The area manager of the Mis- souri State Employment Service is on the over-all advisory com- mittee, and current studies by his organization present a clear picture of needs for technicians. The programs of other junior colleges and the evaluations of technical programs can be used to help gain approval and support. One of the functions the researcher performed was to examine publications of other colleges, synthesize the findings, and prepare concise presentations of programs and evaluations. The presentations were primarily used to familiarize advisory committees and as a starting place for discussion. The presen- tations were also given to the general public, including mem- bers of the press. Whenever possible, e.g., the director of the two-year nursing program at Southeast Missouri State Col- lege, peOple familiar with technical programs were invited to meet with advisory committees. Advisory committees serve other purposes besides identi- fying needs and develOping technical programs. By publicizing the purposes and memberships of advisory committees, the public can see evidence of a junior college's concern with its com- munity, and the names of prominent people and social systems are associated with the junior college. The prestige of the advisory committees has been heightened by the Board of Trus- tee's approach to creating the committees and naming the mem- bers. At the December 10, 1962, Board meeting, the vice- president for instruction described the over-all advisory com- mittee that would recommend technical programs and the smaller advisory committees that would develop and evaluate specific technical programs. The Board then established a policy that contains several major points. Upon the recommendation of the college president, the Board will establish advisory committees and appoint the members. All of the advisory committees will serve for a stated period of time. All reports of the commit- tees shall be advisory in nature. A citizen member will serve as the chairman of each advisory committee, and a staff member will generally serve as secretary. Since both major newspapers normally have reporters present at board meetings, and since the junior college makes wide use of press releases, the pub- lic was soon informed of the Board's policy; and the names of all advisory committees, accompanied by the names and positions of the members, have appeared in the new5papers. The quantity and quality of students influence the abil- ity of a junior college to gain sponsors and legitimation. The Advisory Committee on Technical Education includes the adminis- trative leaders of Catholic and Lutheran schools, representa- tives of the St. Louis public schools and county school super- intendents, the executive secretary of the Urban League, poli- tical leaders and labor union leaders. These leaders can in- form their respective organizations and constituents of the -124- demands for technicians and the rewarding occupations that await graduates of technical programs. These people have ac- cess to a vital resource, potential junior college students. The counselors, principals and superintendents of the high schools in the junior college district are on the mailing list of the junior college. They are kept informed of the latest developments, and they are invited to call or visit whenever they have suggestions and questions. All of the high school counselors in the junior college district, who work with high school seniors,1 were invited to a meeting March 14, 1963. The administrative staff of the junior college explained pro- cedures for students wishing to enter the junior college and described the programs that would be available in the summer and fall sessions. There was an informal social hour and a large portion of the formal meeting was devoted to answering ques~ tions. Some counselors offered suggestions for improving com- munication between the junior college and interested high school students. For the most part, the suggestions were im- plemented, and follow-up communications made this known to the counselors. After the meeting ended, the researcher talked with several counselors. The counselors had a better under- standing of technical programs and what was expected of junior college students, and they were satisfied that the junior 1Several studies indicate that most students start giv- ing serious consideration to post-high school education in the ninth grade, and many have made a decision before the senior year. If this is generally true, a community junior college had better devote some time to counselors and instructors of ninth graders. -125- college was really interested in their Opinions, ideas and suggestions. Several of the questions raised by counselors and lay citizens concerned standards of admittance, probation, and the grade point average required to stay in the junior college. This is closely connected to prestige and the status of the junior college. If anyone can be admitted as a full-time stu- dent and continue so long as he pleases, the college is consid- ered suspect, if not inferior. The Board of Trustees was con- fronted with what appeared to be a dilemma. They wanted an "open door” and high standards of achievement. In an attempt to solve the dilemma, the Board established an admission policy at its October 22, 1962, meeting. All high school graduates would be admitted, but those who ranked in the lower one-third of their class would automatically be placed on probation and given one semester to show that they were capable of doing col- lege work in either the academic or technical fields. The Board also pointed out that no degrees would be granted to any- one with an average below "C." The policy was subsequently changed to make the standards for unrestricted admission more stringent and to take into consideration the differences be- tween the academic averages of high school classes. The cur- rent policy places incoming students, who rank in the lower half of their graduating class and whose scores on the entrance tests used by the junior college are in the lower third of the national norms, on restricted status. The objectives of these -126- standards are to simultaneously keep the door Open to all high school graduates and attach more prestige to the junior college. Establishment of an execution set for a technical program. - The St. Louis junior college had a small staff of full-time peOple during the spring semester of 1963. There were six mem- bers of the administrative sub-system and nine members of the technical sub-system. There were also forty-one part—time in- structors and some of them have been offered contracts as full- time faculty members effective August 26, 1963. During the 1963 spring semester, no technical programs were available and the courses offered were liberal arts. Since most technical programs include several liberal arts courses, students could foreseeably include the courses as parts of technical programs that would be develOped in the spring of 1965. The small num- ber of full-time faculty and their primary concern with liberal arts programs reduced the number of potential members of execu- tion sets. Consequently, the vice-president for instruction and the researcher formed a nucleus, and they worked with lay citizens and a few faculty members in creating technical programs. Technical engineering prOgrams were also limited by a lack of permanent buildings. Several programs were considered by an execution set that included: members of the Advisory Committee on Engineering Technology, one instructor with an engineering background, the vice-president for business, who was previously a member of the staff at Lawrence Institute of Technology, the vice-president for instruction, and the -127- researcher. The vice-president for instruction was also inter- viewing candidates for administrative positions during the spring of 1963, and he obtained a person who previously direct— ed a technical institute. his individual and the people who become the assistant directors of technical programs, staff positions scheduled to be filled by the summer of 1963, will also serve as members of execution sets for engineering pro- grams. The members of the Advisory Committee on Engineering Technology recommended that engineering technicians have at least one-third basics or liberal arts courses. For this rea- son, technical engineering programs could be created first and then qualified instructors could be obtained to develop specific technical courses. A somewhat similar course of action was followed in rela- tion to a hotel and restaurant management program. The citizen advisors wanted the program as soon as possible. The vice- president for instruction and the researcher met with a Univer- sity of Missouri professor, who is familiar with hotel and res- taurant management courses, and with the Dean of the Hotel and Restaurant Management School at Cornell University. They of- fered suggestions concerning program offerings and recommenda- tions for the director of such a program. The faculty members employed to direct and conduct the program will be members of the execution set. Technical programs were develOped in law enforcement and for dental assistants by using information obtained from other colleges and the assistance of initiating set members. The -128- execution sets identified required and optional courses, organ— ized them into technical programs, and described the objectives of each course. The next step was obtaining people to direct the programs, develOp course sylabuses, and teach technical courses. As the students progress from basic courses to more technical courses, other staff members will be added. Beginning with the first semester, nursing programs in- volve hOSpital experiences in ever increasing amounts. There- fore, they require a director immediately. Before an execut- tion set was established, a well-qualified director was neces- sary. Fortunately for the St. Louis junior college, a junior college, which had employed a staff of professional nursing instructors, decided not to start a two-year nursing prOgram. The St. Louis junior college obtained sufficient staff members to establish a program by fall, 1963. .A traditional. program area, such as nursing, emphasizes professionals as members of execution sets, almost to the exclusion of laymen as members of execution sets. The employers of nurses, hOSpital adminis- trators and medical doctors, may assist execution sets, but they are not essential. In the rapidly changing fields of en- gineering technicians, employers have more to say concerning the establishment of technical programs. Inclusion of the technical program in the curriculum. - If the description of a technical program in a college catalog indi- cates the creation of a technical program, the St. Louis junior college has created several technical programs. The first cat- alog, which covers the 1963-64 academic year, contains ten -129- technical prOgrams. Some are labeled technical programs, but they are actually combinations of liberal arts courses. An ex- ample is the airline stewardess program which is a liberal arts program emphasizing the social sciences. The five technical programs discussed in previous sections include courses that are specifically develOped for those programs. In the case of the airline stewardess program, there was no change process in- volving lay citizens. The process was brief and involved the co-operation of two people, the vice—president for instruction and the researcher. It does not qualify as a major collabora- tive effort. The five technical programs discussed in previous sections do illustrate the collaborative process of planned change. Evaluation of the technical program. - The St. Louis junior college will not be in a position to evaluate any technical prOgrams for some time. There is certainly evidence that the college staff intends to continually evaluate technical pro- grams by using the different approaches mentioned in the pre- vious chapter. In a speech delivered to the county school su- perintendents and trustees on November 29, 1962, the president of the college promised that technical programs would be evalu- ated in numerous ways, including follow-up studies of ex- students. The Board of Trustees policies concerning advisory committees state that one of the duties of advisory committees is to evaluate technical programs. The vice-president for in- struction will be responsible for evaluating programs and he will have a director of research, a director of technical -130- programs, and other staff members to assist him in making ob- jective evaluations. When devising records systems and plan- ning with the McDonnell data processing firm, which has a con- tract to provide services, the evaluation of programs, courses and instructors was considered. These concerns with evaluation and promises to the public will no doubt result in using evalu- ation as a planning device and as another way of getting approv- al from the public. Examining the Properties Property I: A community junior college that desires to introduce technical‘programs will have ajpgsitive orientation toward other social systems in the community. The St. Louis junior college definitely desires to introduce technical pro- grams. Starting with.the governorhssub-committee that publish- ed the Shil's Report, supporters of the junior college, the Board of Trustees, and staff members have publicly supported technical programs and worked for the creation of technical pro- grams. The willingness of the junior college to co-operate with other social systems indicates a positive orientation. Members of the Board and the junior college staff have formally and informally worked with other social systems for the purpose of creating technical programs. The formal establishment of advisory committees and the publicity given to the work of the committees provide clear evidence of the junior college's posi- tive orientation toward other social systems in the community. Property II: A community junior college will find local organizations more willinggand able to co-operate than organi- zations that are sub-systems of non-local organizations. The study of the St. Louis junior college illustrates this property, with certain qualifications. The following industries and busi- nesses have their home offices in St. Louis, and, usually by having representation on advisory committees, they have co- operated with the junior college in the creation of technical programs. The organizations are: McDonnell Aircraft Corp., General American Life Insurance Co., Mayfair Hotel Corp., Mon- santo Chemical Co., Mallinckrodt Chemical Works, Emerson Elec- tric Co., May Department Stores, Universal Match Co., Nestern Printing and Lithogrph Company, and the Barnes and Allied Hos- pitals Group. The college district contains many other indus- tries, each employing thousands of peOple, including techni- cians, e.g., Chrysler Corp., General Motors Corp., Ford Motor Co., General Electric Co. and Kroger Co. Those are not local corporations, and not one private business or industry, that has its home elsewhere, has representatives on advisory commit- tees. There are also several large local industries that are not represented, e.g., Anheuser-Busch, Inc. Some organizations that are sub-systems of systems based in other cities, such as labor unions, are represented on advisory committees and pub- licly support technical programs as being legitimate junior college endeavors. Why are certain social systems asked for assistance and others not? What are the qualifications of Property II? The property, as originally stated, appears to be appli- cable to industrial and business organizations. The managers of branch factories, stores and offices look to their superiors in the regional and home offices for an evaluation of their work. Managers who want support and high ratings are concerned with position - incumbents above them in the hierarchial struc- ture. If their superiors urged them to become involved in lo- cal affairs, which some private utilities have done, branch managers would run for public offices and volunteer to serve on civic committees. This would still not change one basic fact, the branch managers would usually have very limited au- thority to commit their local sub-system. Labor unions are different. Labor leaders are elected by the members of the locals. If the workers feel their elected representatives are not sufficiently concerned with local problems and active in local affairs, their leaders will be removed from office. Labor leaders look to their constituents for support and high ratings. In a large and heavily pOpulated college district, not all industrial and business concerns can be represented. The trustees and college administrators want prominent men who can provide resources and help obtain legitimation. The trustees often use friendships and intermediaries to persuade certain pe0ple to become members of advisory committees. Branch manag- ers generally move from one location to another, and they are seldom part of the local ”Establishment.” College trustees are often localities and members of the ”Establishment." For this reason, the trustees of the St. Louis junior college were more -135- familiar with officers of local firms, officers who were long- time residents of St. Louis. When the long£time resident of- ficers could not join the advisory committees, they could rec- ommend another member of the local firm and make it possible for him to attend the meetings. In St. Louis, locally based industries and businesses have many managers and officers who are natives or long-time residents of the community. Conse- quently, local industries are represented in more social sec- tors of the community, and they are seen as an integral part of the community. Property III: A community junior college will make deci- sions that may compromise or qualify the "open door" philosophy in an effort to gain more community and organizational support. The first qualification of the "open door" philosophy was the establishment of admission standards. The door was left Open to all high school graduates, but restricted status was as— signed to high school graduates with poor scholastic records. The establishment of tuition and fees closed the door slightly. The Board of Trustees established the rates at ten dollars per semester hour and one-hundred dollars maximum per semester for residents of the District. The paynent of tuition and fees is seen as an indication of the ”earnestness” of students. It also makes it highly difficult, if not impossible, for some people to attend the junior college. The establishment of standards was especially useful in winning supporters among members of advisory committees. Several members of the Advisory Committee on Technical Education stated they were happy to hear that not -154- anyone would be admitted to technical programs. The same feel- ing was expressed by other citizens when specific technical programs were being discussed. The standards for admittance to technical programs do not close the door to the college, but they do require a certain level of work in prerequisite college courses before a student will be admitted to a specific techni— cal program. PrOperty IV: Latent culture will be one basis for in- formal groups and a potential source of opposition to chang_. Before the St. Louis - St. Louis County Junior College District was created, a junior college was operated in conjunction with Harris Teachers College. The St. Louis public schools were usually on restricted budgets, and the colleges were especially hard pressed for funds. The junior college enrollment was small and the courses were inexpensive, liberal arts courses for students who intended to transfer. After the junior col- lege district was created, tle St. Louis public school system closed the junior college and continued Harris Teachers Col- lege. The rumor evidently spread that all of the instructors who had taught in the junior college for the St. Louis public school system would, if they so desired, be employed by the junior college district. Otherwise, they would teach in Harris Teachers College. Several of the instructors were employed by the junior college district, but not all. The trustees and ad- ministrators of the junior college district hesitated to em- ploy too many of the former public school instructors, because they feared the consequences of a large core of instructors -155- with the same latent culture. Of the nine full-time members who taught the spring semester of 19b3, five were ex-instructors of the St. Louis public school system junior college. Talks with some of the other instructors revealed that latent culture was used as a basis for making decisions. During faculty meet- ings, the five instructors, who had taught together before the District was created, would advocate a course of action because that was the way they had done it previously. This annoyed the other instructors, and this could undermine the objectives of the junior college district. When the trustees and administra- tors adVOCate one approach, there is the chance that the "old way," supported by the latent culture shared by five instruc- tors, will be substituted. As the junior college district grows larger, this core may be dissipated by assigning the in- structors to different campuses, or the core may grow larger and stronger by allowing the instructors to remain together and adding other members with similar outlooks. The possible organization of the instructional sub-systems along divisional lines provides another example of latent cul- ture operating against change. Soon after full-time instruc— tors were under contract, the vice-president for instruction asked them to submit possible course titles and outlines. It soon became apparent that the instructors were essentially de- velOping traditional liberal arts courses. In view of the jun- ior college's concern with general education, a concern that is not restricted to two-year colleges, this approach seemed too narrow. The vice—president felt a divisional organization, by -136- axnranging disciplines with a common concern in juxtaposition, ccnild assist the integration of courses into general education cxfferings. On February 15, 1963, the vice-president and the re- seearcher submitted a possible divisional organization to the iiistructors and asked for suggestions. All suggestions, and tliere were not many, were in the direction of traditional, de- pxartmental arrangements. When the researcher left, one and a kualf months later, only outlines of traditional liberal arts ccburses had been submitted by full-time instructors. On the beasis of their educational eXperiences as students and instruc- tcars, prOposed changes in the types of courses to be offered we re resisted. Property Vt Chuasub-systems of a communityujunior college vwill be a major determinant of informalggroups and a communica- jgions barrier that will make change more difficult. When the researcher arrived in St. Louis, the informal organization was, for the most part, the context for discussion and decision- making. There were two sub-systems. The trustees, college president, and board secretary constituted the institutional sub-system. The other members of the organization constituted the administrative sub-system. There was little formality, everyone was usually cognizant of what was happening, and in- formal discussions decided issues before formal staff meetings were held. Within three months, six clearly defined sub- systems replaced the one administrative sub—system. This was partially due to the addition of instructors to the organiza- tion and the expansion of functions. It was also a result of severing some of the informal ties. Before the families of the administrators arrived in St. Louis, the administrators were to- gether more and the difference between the formal work hours and informal hours was barely discernible. When the researcher left St. Louis, besides the institu- tional sub-system, there were the following sub-systems: l) the administrative-instructional, which included the vice-president for instruction and his office staff, 2) the administrative- business, which included the vice-president for business and his office staff, 3) the technical-library, which included the director of educational materials and the librarians, 4) the administrative-campus, which included the campus director, re- gistrar and their office staffs, 5) the technical-instructors (south campus), which included the instructors on the south campus, and 6) the technical-instructors (north campus). Not all communication among the sub-systems was formal, but it was predominantly formal among the geOgraphically separated sub- systems. In the central office, formalism perceptibly increas- ed. Administrators who were previously together several hours a day, would sometimes not see each other for more than a day. Issues that were settled during informal discussions, were dis- cussed and settled during formal staff meetings. Procedures were written and circulated as formal memorandums. The organ- ization was still functioning at a rapid pace, but it was a slower pace at the end of the three months. Not all of the sub-systems were constantly informed, and communication lags became more common. Some informal groups still transcended -196- sub-system boundaries, but these informal groups met less often and for shorter periods of time than they had in previous days. Itvuxsbecoming more difficult for the organization to mobilize itsresourceseud.function in a co-ordinated fashion. Collabor- ative change processes were requiring more formal communication, and the processes were taking more time. In some situations, when speed was viewed as the overriding consideration, members of one sub-system would make decisions without consulting other sub-systems. This became more common during the three month internship. The close ties established by the interaction with- in informal groups, primarily before February, 1963, maintained harmony among the sub-systems and reduced misunderstandings and distrustfulness. As new members are added to the sub-systems, members who will not have close, informal ties to other sub— systems, misunderstandings and distrustfulness will increase unless some measures are taken to link and integrate the sub- systems. Summary Sower's model for analyzing community action or change processes was used to examine the creation of the St. Louis - St. Louis Junior College District. Four action processes were apparent, and each was described in some detail. The respec- tive charters of the change processes were: 1) a study to de- termine the needs, if any, for higher education in Metropolitan St. Louis, 2) the passage of state enabling legislation, 3) the establishment, by referendum, of the junior college, and 4) the 1‘4-- --‘-/ election of trustees committed to an open door, comprehensive institution. The methodology for creating technical programs, that was presented in Chapter IV, was applied to the data gathered from a study of the St. Louis junior college. The analytical ele- ments of the methodology were used to examine the creation of technical programs for providing: 1) engineering technicians, 2) registered nurses, 3) dental assistants, #) law enforcement officers, and 5) hotel and restaurant managers. The last section of this chapter examined five properties of change processes that create technical programs in community junior colleges. The five prOperties were identified and de- scribed in Chapter IV. The data from the St. Louis junior col- lege study tested and illustrated the preperties. The data indicated that a qualification needed to be attached to one of the prOperties. The location of the home or central office of an organization is not the only factor to identify when consid- ering organizations as possible sources of support for techni- cal programs. Where do me executives of an organization look for support and evaluation? How accessible are the managers; do they belong to the "Establishment?” How much authority do the executives of an organization have to make commitments for the organization? Those are some of the other factors to con- sider when a junior college is looking for commitments of sup- port for a technical program or programs. CHAPTER VI CCNCLUdIONS R 'nr th Case Stud The case study presents the total organization and its relationships with other social systems. This provokes insights and leads to possible cause and effect relationships. The in- terdependencies of sub-systems become apparent. When a deci- sion is made, the consequences of a Specific course of action for other systems and parts become visible. The researcher was impressed with the trustees and administrators of the St. Louis junior college. They were especially conscious of such inter- dependencies, and they carefully considered the ramifications of each approach. They were concerned with public relations; they were concerned with legitimating the junior college. This was especially important during the earliest months of the jun- ior college's existence. Few people in St. Louis had a clear concept of the junior college, and some residents, e.g., advi- sory committee members that admitted their original, negative concept of a glorified high school for shiftless juveniles, had misconceptions. The trustees and administrators, being aware of this situation, always made newspaper reporters welcome at meetings, issued numerous press releases, appeared before many groups, and considered the public impact of each possible de- cision. -140- —1u1- The first day of the researcher's internship was spent accompanying the vice-president for instruction while he visit- ed the officials of a state college. The ostensible reason for this visit was to discuss ways of maintaining a satisfactory process for transfer of ex—students of the junior college to the state college. A meeting had been arranged with department chairmen for the purpose of discussing possible sources of fric- tion. Besides wanting to make the transfer process mutually satisfactory, this visit had significance in terms of legitima- tion. The visit indicated the junior college's concern for the Opinions of the staff members at the state college and the will- ingness of the junior college to co-Operate with the state col- lege. This was an attempt to win approval and support from the state college staff. Visits with representatives of other sen- ior institutions were arranged later, with the same objectives in mind. Accreditation by regional and disciplinary associations is another way of gaining the approval of some peOple. In December, 1962, the junior college president and vice-president for instruction viSited officials of the North Central Associa- tion. The visit was arranged to discuss what the junior col- lege should do, if it intended to be accredited at the earliest time. The vice-president of instruction later attended the an- nual meeting in March, 1963. Whenever plans were made that in- volved libraries, buildings, courses and instructors, accredi- tation was always considered and it was often the determining factor. -142- Besides citizen advisory committees for technical pro- grams, other citizen advisory committees have been discussed by the trustees. A committee of financial advisors has been ap- proved and names have been mentioned. This committee is en- visioned as a group of prominent bankers, accountants and busi- nessmen who will suggest ways of investing the junior college funds and methods of financing junior college projects. A larger committee of prominent leaders has also been discussed, and the idea is supported by at least one trustee. This com- mittee would offer advice on major issues that affect the pub- lic,1 and it could be another source of legitimation for the junior college. Six different issues or considerations vividly illustrate how the consequences of a decision made by one sub-system are felt by other sub-systems and social systems. They are: l) the Master Plan, 2) data processing, 3) building utiliza- tion, Q) year-round operation, 5) planning with architects, and 6) legitimation. The president of the junior college prepared a Master Plan, covering the years 1963-1973, and presented it to the Board and staff the first week in January. This pro- vides a philosophical and statistical framework, within which decisions can be made. The Master Plan estimates the number of An ad hoc committee of this type met to discuss methods of financing the junior college building program. This commit- tee supported financing building construction from current rev- enues, and it advocated going to the voters for an added mill. This meeting was not publicized, those present were never pub- licly identified, and few members of the committee actively supported the millage request. The millage increase was de- feated by the voters on April 3, 1963. -143- students that will annually be enrolled in the junior college. This helps determine needs for data processing equipment and buildings. The Master Plan can also be used as evidence to help gain legitimation, and the Master Plan indicates that the staff of the junior college plans for the future. Today, plan- ning is considered an economical and wise procedure. Another valued approach nowadays is the use of data proc- essing equipment to improve efficiency and to cut costs. On October 22, 1962, the Board of Trustees announced that the Mo- Donnell Automation Center had been contracted to provide data processing services. The mapping of flow charts required many decisions concerning admission and registration procedures, grade reports, evaluation criteria, and the arrangement of po- sitions in the organization. In response to these needs, pur- poses and functions of the organization were defined and an or- ganizational chart was drawn. The utilization of classroom space had to be discussed and decided before a logical basis for planning with the archi- tects could be established. With the public concern for reduc- ing educational costs in mind, the administrative staff decided on an eighty per cent utilization for the 6 A.M. - 5 P.M. day. The utilization percentage and the Master Plan projections pro- vided a logical estimate of building needs. The architects used the estimates as guide lines for planning the campuses. There were also weekly meetings between the architects and the administrative sub-system. These meet- ings centered on such things as equipment, room Sizes, -144- laboratories, lecture halls, and the functions of certain buildings. Again, legitimation was always a consideration. Would it be attractive and functional, but not ostentatious? How would the public react to certain arrangements and the use of certain materials? Those were questions often asked and ex- amined during the planning meetings. Year-round operation was adepted by the Board of Trustees, but only on a trial basis. The administrative sub-system pro- posed the year—round operation as a method of getting more uti- lization from buildings, providing education for more students, and making it possible for students to complete their programs sooner. All of these reasons were seen as arguments for public vapproval. The Board of Trustees was disturbed by two things; the salaries of instructors and the length of the semesters. The trustees did not want the salaries to greatly exceed sal- aries offered in other educational institutions. They also felt a sixteen week semester, when compared with the standard eighteen week semester, would lower the prestige of the junior college. When the trustees were told the lengths of semesters at other colleges, the average being fifteen weeks of classes, they felt the advantages might outweigh the disadvantages. The newspaper reporters who were present when the Board decided to try a year-round operation were given considerable information that explained the year—round operation, including copies of the study that contain the average number of weeks in a se- mester. -145- This discussion of legitimation illustrates the value of the case study. The case study reveals interdependencies. It shows how decisions regarding buildings are dependent on philos- ophy, statistical projections and anticipated course offerings. Looking in the other direction, it shows how decisions regard- ing buildings help determine legitimation, philoSOphy, the num- ber of students enrolled, and the courses offered. Case studies lack the statistical sophistication of some other types of re- search, and case studies do not reveal how necessary or suffi- cient the presence of one variable is for the occurence of a certain phenomenon. Case studies do promote discovery, and they do provide a wealth of anecdotal data that can be used for pur- poses of testing and illustration. The St. Louis junior col- lege provided several examples of the phenomena being studied, the creation of technical programs. Regarding the Methodology A methodology for develOping technical programs can be used for planning and analyzing. The analytical elements pro- 'vide guides for action processes, and the analytical elements focus attention on sources of friction - on oversights that may stymie or nullify action processes. To be useful, a methodology does not have to be applic- able to every situation of a given type. No doubt, the crea- tion of many successful technical programs in junior colleges has been accomplished without following the procedures describ— ed in this methodology. Perhaps some staff members read about ~146- a specific technical program, persuaded the administrative sub- system to establish an execution set, and the technical program was soon part of the curriculum. Most curriculum development studies that are described in books and periodicals emphasize the work of execution sets, often disregarding the preceding analytical elements. If a community has high regard for its community junior college, it may concede considerable discretion for curriculum development to the staff of the community junior college. Stat- ed another way, the community junior college has legitimation from the community to provide programs for a broad area of con- cern. Regardless of how much area the blanket of legitimation covers, there are limits to the coverage. When college offi- cials misjudge the area of coverage and venture into areas not covered, the consequence is public criticism. The college is accused of "empire building" - of exceeding its legitimate area of concern and encroaching on the legitimate areas of concern of other organizations. Sometimes criticism is stated another way, especially when directed toward elementary and secondary systems. The schools are accused of Spending public funds on "frills," the so-called non-essentials of educational institu- tions. The forms that criticism takes vary from situation to situation, but the cause is usually the same - educators ignore or misjudge the boundaries of legitimate concern. By following the methodology develOped and described in this study, curriculum planners and analyzers are at least cog- nizant of legitimation and other analytical elements. Erroneous -147- judgements will still be made, but the combination of decreased ignorance and increased concern will lower the frequency of avoidable public criticism. The philosophy of the community junior college makes complete avoidance of criticism impossible and undesirable. Community junior colleges have a responsibil- ity to help improve their communities by creating needed tech- nical programs. Change processes occur within the context of the community, and processes that constantly ignore the commu- nity will soon be ineffective. A community junior college can- not expend its resources for change processes if it is continu- ally defending itself. A methodology does not delineate small, finite steps in an action process. The general applicability of a methodology can be diminished by excessive detail. This does not preclude the reduction of analytical elements to sub-elements. As the methodology is used to plan and analyze different change proc- esses, experiences derived fiwmlthose processes may lead to further refinements and the identification of more properties and approaches to the analytical elements. Theories and studies that pertain to action processes, regardless of the disciplin— ary area, are another potential source of knowledge that could lead to an improved methodology. As this study reveals, socio- logical theories and studies can provide a theoretical frame- work and insights into processes that are of vital concern to community junior colleges. -ll+8- Regarding the Properties The discovery of properties offers another approach to improving the effectiveness of the change process. Properties serve as guides for action and they are capable of being tested by the results of change processes. The properties are derived from theories and results of related studies. Later events may indicate that certain qualifications need to be attached. Preperty II is an example of this. Generally, local organiza- tions are more willing and able to co—operate than organizations that are sub-systems of non-local organizations. Data obtained from the St. Louis junior college study support the property when applied to business and industrial concerns. The property is not applicable to labor unions and other organizations in which the leaders look to their local constituents for consid- erable support and evaluation. BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Barnard, Chester I. The Functions of the Executive. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, l9bO. Bennis, Warren, Benne, Kenneth, and Chin Robert (ed.). The P1anning_of Change. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Nineton, 1.96.]. o Blau, Peter M. Bureaucracy in Modern Society. New York: Random House, 1956. , and Scott, Richard. Formal OrganizationsL_A Comparative Approach. San Francisco: Chandler Publish- ing Co., 1952. Clark, Burton R. Adult Education in Transition. 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