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SELECTED FACTORS INFLUENCING THE USE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA BY MALE FACULTY MEMBERS AT THE COLLEGES OF EDUCATION IN SAUDI ARABIAN UNIVERSITIES By Bader Abdullah Al-Saleh A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Counseling, Educational Psychology, and Special Education I985 ABSTRACT SELECTED FACTORS INFLUENCING THE USE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA BY MALE FACULTY MEMBERS AT THE COLLEGES OF EDUCATION IN SAUDI ARABIAN UNIVERSITIES By Bader Abdul lah Al-Saleh Purpose The major purpose of the study was to determine the influence of selected individual and institutional factors on the frequency of instructional media use by male faculty members at the colleges of education in Saudi Arabian universities. Procedure Data for the study were collected by the survey method using a questionnaire. Of 558 questionnaires distributed, 467 or 83.7% were returned completed and used in data analysis. Statistical procedures used in data analysis included descriptive statistics, one-way analysis of variance, Pearson coefficients, and multiple regression. Findings I. There has been a low rate of instructional media utilization by faculty members. 2. I There were no significant differences among the colleges surveyed concerning frequency of media use by faculty members. Bader Al-Saleh 3. Other than educational media and Islamic studies, academic fields did not yield significant differences concerning the frequency of media use by faculty members. ll. Significant positive correlations were found between media use and each of the following factors: (a) years of teaching experience, (b) attitude toward media, (c) previous media training, (d) perception of administrative support for media use, and (e) amount of information faculty receive about media resources. 5. A significant negative correlation was found between frequency of media use and perceived deterrents to media utilization. 6. No significant correlation was found between attitude toward media and perceived deterrents to media use. 7. A significant relationship was found between frequency of media use and the independent variables taken together. 8. Major deterrents to media utilization were related to: (a) improperly designed classrooms for media use, (b) more time is needed to prepare for class using media, (c) lack of information about media, (d) difficulty of obtaining media when needed, (e) inefficient or lack of communication between media staff and faculty members, (f) inadequate training, (9) shortage of media materials and equipment, (h) heavy teaching load, (i) materials not organized for easy reference and use, and (j) difficulty of obtaining assistance in selecting media. Major Conclusion Frequency of instructional media use tends to be higher among faculty who have one or more of the following characteristics: l. a greater number of years of teaching experience, 2. more favorable attitude toward instructional media, 3. media training, it. more favorable perception of administrative support for media utilization, 5. more information about media resources, and 6. perceive fewer deterrents to media use. DEDICATION To my mother, my brothers and sisters, and my wife and children ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my deepest and sincere appreciation and gratitude to the members of my committee: Dr. James L. Page, my advisor and chair; Dr. Stephen L. Yelon; Dr. Castelle G. Gentry; and Dr. Lawrence N. Redd; for their valuable and constructive advice, guidance and encouragement. I would also like to thank Dr. James McComb for his assistance in the statistical part of this study and Professors Wilfred Veenendaal, Donald Wilkening, and Robert Martin for their cooperation and help in conducting a face validity study of the research instrument. Thanks is also extended to Ms. Barbara Reeves, the typist of this dissertation, for her patience and cooperation. Special appreciation is due to the Saudi Arabian government represented by King Faisal University (the researcher's sponsoring university) for the scholarship and support I was given. it TABLE OF CONTENTS Dedication Acknowledgements List of Tables List of Figures CHAPTER I: THE PROBLEM Introduction Statement of the Problem Purpose of the Study Importance of the Study Generalizability of the Study Framework for the Study Research Questions Research Hypotheses Limitations of the Study Definition of Terms Summary Organization of the Study CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Introduction Rational for Instructional Media in Higher Education Educational System in Saudi Arabia: An Overview Instructional Media Services at the Colleges of Education in Saudi Arabian Universities Review of Instructional Media Research in Saudi Education Resistance to Instructional Media Innovations in Higher Education Review of Previous Research Studies Faculty Perception of Administrative Support for Instructional Media Utilization Information Dissemination Concerning Instructional Media Resources vi viii Faculty Attitude Toward Instructional Media Prior Training in Instructional Media Teaching Experience and Media Utilization Academic Discipline and Media Utilization Faculty Perception of Deterrents to Media Utilization Faculty Attitude Toward Media as Related to Perceived Deterrents to Media Use Summary CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY Introduction Research Questions Null Hypotheses Target Population and Study Subjects Research Instrument Validation of Research Instrument Pilot Testing the Research Instrument Administering the Questionnaire Percentage of Responses Data Analysis Summary CHAPTER IV: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION Introduction Demographic Information Answers to Research Questions and Results of Hypotheses Testing Extent of Use of Instructional Media Research Question One Research Question Two Null Hypothesis One Research Question Three Relationship Between Media Use and Academic Field Null Hypothesis Two Relationship Between Media Use and Teaching Experience Null Hypothesis Three Relationship Between Media Use and Attitude Toward Media Null Hypothesis Four Relationship Between Media Use and Previous Media Training Null Hypothesis Five Relationship Between Media Use and Faculty Perception of Administrative Support Null Hypothesis Six Relationship Between Media Use and Amount of Information Faculty Receive about Instructional Media Null Hypothesis Seven Relationship Between Media Use and Perception of Deterrents to Media Use Null Hypothesis Eight 1, v 6| 65 66 67 7| 7| I09 ”0 Relationship Between Attitudes Toward Media and Perceived Deterrents to Media Use Research Question Four Null Hypothesis Nine Relationship Between Media Use and the Combined Independent Variables Research Question Five Null Hypothesis Ten Answers to Other Items from the Questionnaire Faculty Members' Interest in Inservice Media Training Discussion Summary CHAPTER V: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary Summary of the Study's Setting Summary of the Findings Conclusions and Practical Implications Long Term Considerations: An Outline of a Proposed Educational Technology Center Recommendations for Further Research Appendices Appendix A: Letter to MSU Faculty to Rate Face Validity of Questionnaire Appendix B: Letter Certifying Translation of Questionnaire Appendix C: Pilot Test Cover Letter Appendix D: Cover Letter for Questionnaire Appendix E: English Version of Questionnaire Appendix F: Arabic Version of Questionnaire Appendix G: Follow up Letter for Questionnaire Appendix H: Letter of Introduction from Researcher's Home University Appendix I: Letters of Introduction from Deans of Colleges of Education, Saudi Arabian Universities Bibliography Ills IIlI Ilh IIlI Hit ”5 II6 II7 II8 I32 I3ll I3h l3lI I36 I42 I49 I53 I56 I56 I57 l58 I59 I6I I7I I8I l83 I89 PPHBY‘FPE"? .5 LIST OF TABLES Distribution of Colleges of Education by University and City Number and Percentage of Respondents from Each College Distribution of Respondents by Age Distribution of Respondents by Academic Field Distribution of Respondents by Teaching Experience Distribution of Respondents by Nationality Distribution of Respondents by Academic Degree Distribution of Respondents by Academic Rank Distribution of Respondents by Administrative/Academically- Related Positions Frequency of Use of Instructional Media by Faculty Members Per Semester Rank Order of Instructional Media by Frequency of Use Mean Frequency of Media Use by Faculty Members at Each College Analysis of Variance Results Comparing Media Utilization by College Analysis of Variance Results Comparing Media Utilization by Academic Field Relationship Between Faculty Use of Instructional Media and Other Independent Variables Mean Frequency of Media Use by Faculty Members in Each Academic Field Mean Frequency of Media Use by Number of Years of Teaching Experience Faculty Members' Perception of Instructional Media (IM) Number and Percentage of Faculty Trained at Each Level of Media Training vi 77 83 88 89 89 90 90 9| 9| 93 94 _ 95 96 97 97 99 I00 I0l l03 20. 2|. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. Number and Percentage of Faculty Acquiring Each Type of Media Skill Number and Percentage of Faculty Responses to Statements Concerning College Administrative Support for Media Utilization Number and Percentage of Faculty Members Receiving Information about Instructional Media Number and Percentage of Faculty Members Perceiving Deterrents to Media Utilization Rank Order of Top Ten Deterrents to Media Utilization Perceived by Faculty Members Multiple Regression Analysis of Relationship Between Frequency of Media Use and the Independent Variables Faculty Members' Forecasts of Their Media Use if Deterrents to Such Use Were Overcome Faculty Members' Degree of Interest in Participating in Inservice Media Training Rank-Order of Faculty Members' Selection of Areas of Interest for Inservice Media Training vii |04 I06 l08 ll2 IIS II6 Il7 II8 LIST OF FIGURES Framework for the Study Educational System of Saudi Arabia A Proposed Educational Technology Center viii 33 ISI CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Introduction As a developing country, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has felt an urgent need for education as a means for social, cultural, and economic development. The Third Development Plan 0980-85) stated that "the development of Saudi‘I human resources stands at the heart of the development process" and that the Plan "aims at the formulation of policies necessary for the development of these human assets" (Ministry of Planning, I980, p. 287). The recognition of this need, coupled with a strong commitment on the part of the Saudi government to quicken the pace of educational development, having available at her disposal adequate financial resources, have played a remarkable role in developing the country's educational system. As a result of state support, this system has witnessed a period of vast and rapid growth in recent years. Presently, the Saudi educational system is highly diversified, with more varied educational training opportunities available than during any time in the history of Saudi education. The present study investigates the use of instructional media by male faculty members at the six colleges of education presently existing in Saudi Arabian universities in an attempt to identify the factors influencing such use. The beginning of organized instructional media services in Saudi Arabia dates back to I954 when an audiovisual section was established at the Ministry of Education.ln I964, this section was expanded into the Department of Educational Aids and Science Laboratories. Presently, the Department of Educational Materials assumes the responsibility of providing boys' public schools with their I I needs in instructional media resources. However, until I973, these schools received limited media supplies (Abu Ras, I979). Further, Bakri (I983) and Abu Ras found limited utilization of instructional media in public schools due to lack of media resources and inadequate training on the part of teachers. The realization of the potential of instructional media in Saudi higher education was evident when educational technology centers came into existence in Saudi universities during the early I970s. During that period, King Abdulaziz University established two educational technology centers, one at the Jeddah campus and the other at the college of education in Mekkah (Hafiz, I976). Recently, the college in Mekkah became part of Umm Al-Qura University. Similarly, King Saud University established an educational technology center at the College of Education in Riyadh during the early I9705. The major objectives of the centers in Mekkah and Riyadh are (a) to provide instructional media courses and training for students; (b) to provide media equipment, materials, and facilities for faculty and students; (c) to provide technical assistance in the use of instructional media; (d) to transmit live lectures to female students via closed-circuit television; and (e) to videotape university activities and ceremonies (Hafiz, I976, pp. ISI, I56-7). Recognition of the importance of instructional media was further demonstrated when King Saud, King Abdulaziz, and King Faisal Universities established media centers at their colleges of education in Abha, Medina, and Hufof, respectively. These centers work toward objectives similar to those mentioned above. Since their inception, these educational technology centers have been playing a considerable role in providing college education for females via closed- circuit television. This situation is unique to Saudi Arabia whose religious traditions require that females be taught by female instructors but who has a shortage of those instructors at the college level, while having an increased demand for college education by Saudi women. However, regardless of the success of educational technology centers in this area, their influence on teaching methods and styles of instruction at the colleges of education where they exist is minimal. Traditional teaching methodology which relies on a combination of lecture, discussion, and print materials still characterizes instruction at these colleges to a large extent. AI-Ismaeel (I98l) criticized teacher-training institutions and colleges for their heavy reliance on lecture methods in the preparation of public school teachers, stating, "A major deficiency of the Saudi Arabian educational system is the lack of preparation on the part of the teachers for the effective utilization of a variety of teaching skills and styles of instruction. Major emphasis is placed on the methods of lectures and discussions . . . " (p. 5). He added: Despite marked progress within the educational system, the quality of the curriculum offerings and methods of instruction present serious problems due to their lack of diversity. Presently, teaching methods do not encourage students to seek answers to questions by consulting a variety of resources. (p. ll) lssa-Fullata (I982) blames the curriculum of teacher training programs in Saudi Arabia for being "insufficiently modernized and not well developed" (p. 5|). He also adds that teacher training institutions "are not able to provide the number of teachers needed either in quantity or in quality" (p. 49), that "modern instructional technology software, hardware, and the process of instruction . . . are not utilized well in Saudi Arabian schools" (p. 49), and that "appropriate instructional media in Saudi higher education are in very short supply and utilization" (p. I04). Nyrop et aI. (I977) described instruction in Saudi Arabian schools, stating, Despite marked progress in the development and provision of curricula, Saudi education generally has been criticized for the quality of instruction which observers believe adversely influences the student. Instruction at all levels emphasizes rote learning and memorization of assigned readings. (pp. Ill-2) Shaker (I980), who worked at the Educational Research Center (ERC) at the College of Education, King Saud University, argued for a wider application of instructional media in Saudi education. He presented his argument when he discussed a proposal of introducing computer assisted instruction (CAI) in Saudi schools: Researchers at the ERC saw this proposal as having considerable promise. First, Saudi Arabia is caught in a chronic teacher shortage and judicious automation of some aspects of instruction would be helpful. Secondly, as befits a traditional society, instructional methodology tends to be traditional with special reliance on rate and recitation. Educational technology is widely perceived in Riyadh as a means to fruitfully vary the tenor of instruction. (p. I0) However, this proposal was not approved. Shaker continued: To the frustration of some, this project was not approved. The college of education's council (made up largely of department heads) rejected it after study . . . . It remains the opinion of this observer that, good intentions aside, a valuable opportunity was missed and that CAI has a place in Saudi education. (p. II) The emphasis being given to traditional teaching methods in Saudi education, generally, has its roots in a profound tradition, a tradition which highly values the teacher as the sole source of information. Within such a context of tradition, alternative means of instruction (i.e., instructional media) have received little attention. Traditions, according to Gooler (l978-79) present an obstacle to instructional development in developing nations because traditions "carry with them certain assumptions about how education is most effectively conducted, how people learn, and what is important to learn" (p. I0). In this vein, Abu Ras (I979), a former supervisor of the Educational Materials Department at the Ministry of Education, wrote: The traditions of the long history of Islamic education which stressed the paramount role of the teacher, form a substantial part of Saudi Arabia's inheritance from the past. Therefore, teachers and students alike have traditionally interacted in an atmosphere of unchallenged teacher authority. The teacher has been and is still viewed as the ultimate and unquestioned source of information. (p. I) He added: The introduction of new learning materials and techniques, i.e., the use of "educational technology," has been extremely difficult because these innovations often disrupt and potentially threaten the teacher's traditional role. This conflict is partially due to the insufficient training of teachers in the use of the newer media and methods as a supplement to the traditional methods. (p. I) The above paragraphs indicate the need for improving methods of instruction in Saudi schools in general and in teacher training programs in particular. Not only do these methods lack diversity, but they also encourage students' passivity. While there are many approaches for improving instruction, the researcher believes, based on research in media, that special consideration should be given to proper utilizations of instructional media as a means of improving the effectiveness and efficiency of teaching and learning in Saudi education. Until recently, the issue of improving the quality of instruction in Saudi Arabia has been given insufficient attention due to the pressing need for infrastructure. This issue must now be given priority as the Third Development Plan 0980-85) explains: Pressures for physical development of the system have impeded adequate qualitative improvement of instruction . . . . Qualitative improvement has been given insufficient attention in the past decade . . . . This issue must now be given priority considering the fact that measures to improve quality takes several years to take roots. (Ministry of Planning, I980, p. 289) Further, the Plan recognizes the role of instructional media in efforts directed toward improving the quality of instruction in Saudi schools: Present conditions, thus, reflect certain opportunities for improvement in qualitative programs, particularly in implementation of major development project such as an educational technology center, educational television, and multi-purpose classrooms. (p. 293) The problem of limited utilization of instructional media in Saudi higher education in general and colleges of education in particular can become more significant for two reasons. First, colleges of education in Saudi Arabia are —‘._. ,...-—-—""‘*-......_ __,_._ em (1 teacher training institutions which primarily aim at preparing intermediate and secondary school teachers in the country. The point to be made in this regard is the researcher's belief that the emphasis being given to conventional instructional methodology with special reliance on lecturing and textbook has a direct influence on teaching styles of prospective intermediate and secondary school teachers. As Moore and Hunt (I980) state: Teacher educators may have created a feeling of resistance in their own teacher trainees for the use of instructional technology for several reasons: (I) many do not properly train new teachers in the use of technologies in their own classrooms, and (2) they may not be good examples themselves in demonstrating good teaching techniques and proper use of media in their own classrooms. The old cliche "teachers teach as they are taught" may be even more valid when the use of media is concerned. (pp. 43-44) In their report "Education in Saudi Arabia: Findings, Recommendations, and Proposed Projects," Egbert and Khan (I974) described teaching methods in Saudi public schools. Teaching is almost entirely verbal with the teacher always in strict control. Learning, in short, is totally teacher-dependent. Teachers tend to give short lectures followed by factual convergent question/answer periods or give lectures interspersed with questions requiring one-word answers. (pp. 4-6) AI-Ismaeel (I98I) pointed to the effect that the traditional instruction employed by teachers at colleges of education in Saudi universities has on secondary school teaching styles. He stated: Social studies teachers in Saudi Arabia at the secondary level have become dependent upon the strategies of lectures and discussions as a result of the encouragement given these strategies by the colleges and universities in Saudi Arabia. Discussion and lecture strategies represent the basic teaching strategies presented to prospective teachers in Saudi Arabia. (pp. 5-6) The second reason is related to the low proportion of Saudi faculty .5..-\ _ members in higher education as compared to foreign faculty members. The Directorate General for the Development of Higher Education (I980) indicated that the increasing demand for higher education in Saudi Arabia has made staffing a serious situation: The rapid expansion of higher education during the decade I970- 80 has made staffing the most difficult problem for the authority. . . There is a heavy preponderance of foreign teachers in the Kingdom. The authorities have been legitimately concerned about this serious situation. (pp. 59-60) The Directorate indicated that in l979-80 the Saudis comprised only 33.6% of the total teaching staff working in all Saudi universities and colleges (p. 60). One of the alternatives to deal with staffing difficulty in Saudi universities according to the Third Development Plan was to increase the number of students per faculty member (Ministry of Planning, I980). This is a situation in which instructional media can hardly be overlooked. During the late I9505 and early to mid-I9605 when a shortage in faculty was expected in colleges and universities in the United States of America, instructional media was seen as a means of spreading education over a larger number of college students (Carnegie Commission, I972). As cited by Stephens (I97I), Ely (I968) described the difficulties which faced American higher education during the I960$ and the role of instructional technology in coping with these difficulties. He stated: Many of the problems which have confronted elementary and secondary education over the past decade have transformed their focus to institutions of higher education. A quick review of the problems will help to show why instructional technology is being considered more seriously today by college administrators than ever before: I. an increasing student population, a decreasing availability of faculty, 2. 3. an increasing concern for the quality of instruction, and he a shortage of funds. (p. I) In fact, many developing countries which face similar situations have seen instructional media as a means of reaching a greater number of students equally, of upgrading education, and of quickening the pace of instructional improvements (Schramm, I977). Statement of the Problem The fact that instructional media resources have been introduced into colleges of education in Saudi Arabian universities does not necessarily assure their acceptance and utilization. Indeed, these resources have been introduced into these colleges without adequate consideration of the individual and institutional factors which encourage or discourage faculty use of instructional media. The mode of instruction at these colleges is still largely traditional with heavy reliance on the lecture method and print materials. Conversely, utilization of instructional media as an alternate means of instruction is limited and far from challenging the prevailing, conventional teaching method. This method is criticized for its "lack of diversity" (Al-Ismaeel, l98l, p. II) as well as its encouragement of students' passivity. "Students reportedly show little curiosity, initiative, or critical ability . . . " (Nyrop, I977, p. II2). Further, as the colleges of education are teacher training institutions, the traditional teaching methodology emphasized at them has a direct influence on teaching styles employed in public schools by their graduates. Based on research evidence, this researcher believes that proper utilization and integration of instructional media into teaching methods at colleges of education in Saudi universities can help improve the effectiveness and efficiency of instruction at these colleges. However, in order to encourage the use of instructional media, an investigation of the factors influencing such use is needed. It is to the investigation of selected individual and institutional factors related to media use by male faculty members at the colleges of education in Saudi universities that this study was conducted. Purpose of the Study The study was designed to: I. determine the extent to which instructional media are being used by male faculty members at the colleges of education in Saudi Arabian universities and the nature of the media used for instruction; and 2. determine the factors which influence the use of instructional media by male faculty members at the colleges of education in Saudi Arabian universities. More specifically, the study was designed to examine the relationship between the frequency of instructional media use by faculty members and each of the following factors: a. faculty academic field of specialization, b. faculty teaching experience, c. faculty attitude toward instructional media, (I. faculty previous media training, e. faculty perception of administrative support for media utilization, f. amount of information faculty receive about instructional media, and 9. faculty perception of deterrents to media use. Importance of the Study This study is important and needed for a number of reasons. First, while the topic of instructional media utilization and factors affecting faculty use of media in colleges and universities in the United States and elsewhere have been investigated by many researchers, research about the use of instructional media in Saudi Arabian education in general and higher education in particular is very scarce. Perhaps of more importance is that no prior study about factors related to the use of instructional media by male faculty members at colleges of education in Saudi universities has been conducted. To confirm that statement, an updated list of all doctoral and Master's theses done by Saudi students majoring in education in the United States was obtained from the Saudi Arabian Educational Mission in Houston, Texas. In addition, a list of doctoral and Master's research in Saudi education was obtained from the Educational Research Center at the College of Education, King Saud University. Further, a computer search about education in Saudi Arabia was performed through the ERIC at Michigan State University. Regarding this scarcity of research in instructional media in the Kingdom, Moshaikeh (I982) states that "there is almost no research in instructional media use in Saudi Arabia" (p. 40). Therefore, among his recommendations, Moshaikeh stressed the need for carrying out research in the use of instructional media in the country when he said, "there are growing needs for more research examining the use of instructional media at all levels of education in Saudi Arabia and more importantly in teacher training institutes" (p. 4I). In this sense, the present study is not only a response to the scarcity of ‘ media research in Saudi education, but also an attempt to provide scientifically derived baseline data about media use at an educational level that has not been investigated. Second, a review of literature related to change in education reveals that successful implementation of instructional innovations requires, among other things, a particular attention to the forces facilitating and those hindering a certain innovation. Ignorance of such forces may lead a promising innovation to failure. Within this general framework, 0 number of studies examined the factors influencing the use of instructional media by college and university teachers (e.g., Hubbard, I960; McIntyre, I963; Stephens, I97l; among others). The results of these studies indicate that there are many reasons behind faculty resistance to the use of instructional media and that the identification of such reasons is the first important step in any effort concerned with optimizing utilization of instructional media in higher education. In this vein, this study is needed to provide data bout the factors influencing media use at the male colleges of education in Saudi universities. By identifying these factors, this researcher believes that educational leaders in the country's higher education system, particularly those concerned with the improvement of instruction at teacher training institutions, will be in a better position to plan, design, develop, and implement instructional media support systems. Therefore, the study's findings can be valuable and beneficial to many individuals in Saudi higher education. Among these individuals are the following: I. deans of all male colleges of education in Saudi universities, 2. heads of academic departments at these colleges, 3. directors of instructional media centers and media staff at these colleges, and 4. various educators at the Directorate General for the Development of Higher- Education in the Ministry of Higher Education in the country. Third, many writers haye. addressed the problems of instructional media in developing countries. Hurst (I980) discussed such problems in his article "Educational Technology in the Middle East," focusing on such countries as Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iran, and others. The most pressing problems or factors of frustration, according to Hurst, are the hardware/software shortage, the shortage in utilization skills, and the lack of evaluation studies. While the present study is not evaluative in focus, it certainly sheds light on the present level of media use at colleges of education in Saudi universities as well as on the factors affecting such use, thus providing data necessary for future action. Finally, the study may serve as a model or guideline for other studies undertaken to investigate the use of instructional media at other colleges in Saudi universities. Generalizability of the Study The study findings can be generalized to male faculty members who teach at the male colleges of education in Saudi Arabia universities. Framework for the Study As indicated previously, this study focuses on factors related to the use of instructional media by male faculty members at colleges of education in Saudi Arabian universities. To put it into perspective, the study is based on models of diffusion of instructional innovations. While there exist a number of change or innovation models, Abedor and Sachs' (I978) model, "Readiness for Instructional Innovation in Higher Education," which has addressed the factors affecting the adoption of innovation in higher education, provides a useful general framework for the study. In their model, the authors have attempted to shed light on the relationship between the concepts of faculty development (FD), organizational development (OD), and instructional development (ID) which have drawn the attention of many educators in recent years. To explain that relationship, the authors emphasize what they call "readiness for innovation." Readiness for Innovation This concept is defined as the "critical combination of characteristics prerequisite to the adoption of an innovation" (p. 5). There are two types of characteristics which affect the adoption of an innovation: individual and organizational characteristics. A combination of individual characteristics contributes to the readiness of an individual for innovation, a combination of organizational characteristics contributes to the readiness of the organization for innovation, and a combination of the individual and organizational characteristics contributes to the overall readiness for innovation. Individual readiness is a combination of the following characteristics: «attitudes which are positive toward self, teaching, and change «values that place importance on teaching and student learning «beliefs that instructional improvement is possible and worthwhile «skills in organizing and delivering information «knowledge of subject matter, innovations, and teaching methods and strategies Organizational readiness is a combination of the following characteristics: «structure which allows open and free communication «rewards for teaching and related activities «norms to support innovations «resources to support innovations «policies that permit trial of innovations The overall readiness is the total combination of prerequisites composed of the individual and organizational characteristics which must be present to facilitate the adOption of a particular innovation. Thus, in order for an innovation to be successfully adopted, both the individual and organization should be ready. The level of readiness needed depends on the innovation itself. Innovations which require a greater departure of the status quo require a greater level of readiness. Thus, innovations which are more likely to be adopted are those which bring change consistent with the existing level of readiness. FD and OD activities can be conducted to increase the level of individual and organizational readiness respectively. That is, if an innovation requires certain levels of individual and/or organizational readiness which do not exist, then FD I4 and/or OD activities are needed to provide readiness for innovation produced by ID. Figure I shows a framework for the study. Individual Factors «Academic field of specialization «Teaching experience «Attitude toward instructional media «Previous media training Institutional Factors «Administrative support for media utilization (resources, rewards, Faculty Use of and policies) Instructional «In formation dissemination about Media instructional media Individual/Institutional Factors «Perceived deterrents to media utilization Figure I: Framework for the study: factors in media utilization. As may be seen, this framework suggests that faculty members' use of instructional media is a function of a combination of individual and institutional factors. Some of these factors were based on Abedor and Sachs' model of readiness for innovation, while others were based on previous media studies. Specifically, the individual factors related to attitudes toward instructional media and previous media training were inspired by certain aspects of individual readiness in the model. Similarly, the institutional factors related to administrative support for media utilization and information dissemination about instructional media were based on certain aspects of the model's concept of organizational readiness for innovation. According to the model, individual readiness for an innovation requires, among other things, a positive attitude toward innovation. Thus, it is hypothesized in this study that the frequency of instructional media use by faculty will be related to their attitude toward instructional media. Research hypothesis number 4 and section C of the questionnaire deal with faculty attitude toward instructional media. In addition, the model indicates that faculty with skills and knowledge about an innovation are more likely to adopt it than those who lack these characteristics. Therefore, it is hypothesized in this study that the frequency of instructional media use by faculty will be related to their previous media training. Research hypothesis number 5 and section D of the questionnaire deal with faculty previous media training and media skills. Further, the model indicates that for an innovation to be successfully adopted, the organization itself should be ready. That is, policies, rewards, and resources should be provided to support an innovation. Based on this proposition, it is hypothesized in this study that the frequency of instructional media use by faculty will be related to their perception of college administrative support of media utilization. Research hypothesis number 6 and section E of the questionnaire deal with faculty perception of administrative support. This section is composed of items related to rewards (item #5), policy (item #IO), and resources (items #I, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9). In addition, the model indicates that the organizational structure should allow open and free communication in order for faculty to become aware of potential benefits of an innovation and obtain accurate information about it. Since communication is a function of information exchange and related literature including the model point to the importance of information as an element in the diffusion of an innovation, it is hypothesized that the frequency of instructional media use by faculty will be related to the amount of information they receive about instructional media. Research hypothesis number 7 and section F of the questionnaire deal with information sources and amount of information which faculty receive about instructional media. In addition, other factors in media utilization have been inspired by previous media studies. They include faculty academic field of specialization and teaching experience as individual factors and perceived deterrents to media utilization which are related to both individual and institutional factors. Research hypotheses number 2, 3, and 8 deal with these factors, respectively. Section F of the questionnaire contained I8 statements representing various types of deterrents to media use. Statements number 2, 3, 5, II, I3, I5, and I7 represent deterrents related to individual faculty members, while statements . number I, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, l0, I2, I4, l6, and I8 represent institutional constraints. Finally, since the model suggests that it is the critical combination of individual and organizational characteristics that affect the adoption of an innovation, it is hypothesized in this study that when taken together, the individual and institutional factors (independent variables) included in the study will contribute to the variation in the frequency of instructional media use. Research hypothesis number I0 deals with this concern. Research Questions This study was directed toward the investigation of selected factors related to the use of instructional media by male faculty members at the colleges of education in Saudi Arabian universities. More specifically, the study attempted to answer the following research questions. I. What is the extent of use of instructional media by male faculty members at the male colleges of education in Saudi Arabian universities? 2. Are there significant differences among the colleges concerning the frequency of instructional media use by faculty members? 3. What is the relationship between the frequency of instructional media use (dependent variable) and eachof the following factors (independent variables): (0) academic field, (b) teaching experience, (c) attitude toward media, (d) previous media training, (e) perception of college administrative support, (f) amount of information about instructional media, and (g) perception of deterrents to media use? 4. Is faculty attitude toward instructional media related to their perception of deterrents to media use? 5. What is the relationship between frequency of instructional media use and the combined independent variables? Research Hypotheses To answer the above research questions, the following research hypotheses were tested. (Hypothesis number I is related to research question number 2, hypotheses 2 through 8 are related to research question number 3, hypothesis number 9 is related to research question number 4, and hypothesis number I0 is related to research question number 5). I. The frequency of instructional media use by faculty members will vary from one college to another. 2. The frequency of instructional media use by faculty members will vary from one academic field to another. 3. The frequency of instructional media use by faculty members will be related to their years of teaching experience. 4. There will be a positive correlation between the frequency of instructionalmedia use by faculty and their attitude toward instructional media. 5. There will be a positive correlation between the frequency of instructional media use by faculty and their previous media training. 6. There will be a positive correlation between the frequency of instructional media use by faculty and their perception of college administrative support for media utilization. 7. There will be a positive correlation between the frequency of instructional media use by faculty and the amount of information they receive about instructional media. 8. The frequency of instructional media use by faculty will be related to their perception of deterrents to media use. 9. Faculty attitude toward instructional media will be related to their perception of deterrents to media use. l0. There will be a positive relationship between the frequency of instructional media use and the combined independent variables. Limitations of the Study This study had the following limitations. I. It did not examine the qualitative use of instructional media by male faculty members at the colleges of education in Saudi universities. 2. It did not examine the use of instructional media by female faculty members at the colleges surveyed. 3. It did not investigate the effect of using instructional media on students' learning. 4. It did not investigate students' attitudes toward instructional media. 5. The data for the study were obtained by means of the questionnaire method and the conclusions are based on such data. Thus, the study is limited to the extent that such a method yields accurate and honest responses. Definition of Terms Academic fields. For the purpose of the study, academic fields are categorized as follows (0) educational studies (education, curriculum and instruction, educational psychology, physical education, art education, educational administration, and vocational education); (b) educational media; (c) mathematics; (d) Islamic studies; (e) science studies (physics, chemistry, and biology); (f) social studies (history and geography); and (9) language studies (Arabic and English). Attitude. This term is defined as the internal state (mental and/or emotional) of faculty members which affect their position (negatively or positively) toward instructional media (Stephens, l97l). Deterrent. This refers to any factor (physical, mental, or attitudinal) that interferes with faculty use of instructional media (Stephens, I97l). Educational technology center. Also referred to as an educational media center, this is an area, room, or department allocated more or less to the following functions related to educational media: consultation, production, storage, maintenance, and distribution. F acultLdevelopment. Faculty development is the process of enhancing the talents, expanding the interests, improving the competence, and otherwise facilitating the professional and personal growth of faculty members, particularly in their roles as instructors (Gaff, I975). Faculty or faculty members. These are the men assigned to teaching positions at the male colleges of education in Saudi Arabian universities. Higher education. As used in this study, higher education refers to university education. Instructional development (ID). This is a systemic design, development, implementation, and evaluation of instructional materials, lessons, courses, or curricula employed to improve teaching and learning (Abedor 8: Sachs, I978). Instructional innovation. Also referred to as educational innovation, this is an instructional idea, technique, content, or process which is new to the adopting individual or group (Abedor 8: Sachs, I978). Instructional media. Also referred to as educational media and audiovisual media, this term refers to materials and equipment used in instruction that does not exclusively depend upon printed word to convey meaning. It includes motion pictures, video and audio tape recordings, graphic materials, overhead 20 transparencies, opaque materials, programmed materials, slides, filmstrips, etc., and associated equipment. Instructional technology. Also referred to as educational technology, this is a complex, integrated process involving people, procedures, ideas, devices, and organization for analyzing problems and devising, implementing, evaluating, and managing solutions to those problems in situations in which learning is purposive and controlled (AECT, I979). Orflizational development. This term describes an effort to create a more effective environment for teaching and learning, to improve interpersonal relationships, to enhance team functioning, and to create policies that support effective teaching and learning (Gof f, I975). Teaching experience. As used in this study, teaching experience refers to the number of years spent in university teaching. Traditional teaching method. Also referred to as conventional teaching, traditional or conventional instruction, etc., is a teaching method which mainly relies on face-to-face lecturing, discussion, and print materials. Summary The realization of the potential of instructional media in Saudi higher education in general and in teacher training institutions in particular was apparent when educational technology or media centers were established at colleges of education in Saudi universities during the past decade. However, at the present, instructional media enjoys little or limited utilization as compared with traditional teaching methodology which still characterizes instruction at those colleges to a large extent. This methodology lacks diversity and encourages students' passivity. It also has an influence on teaching styles employed in public schools by teachers graduating from these colleges. As a 2| first step toward encouraging the use of instructional media by male faculty members at colleges of education in Saudi universities, an investigation of the factors which hinder or facilitate such use should be attempted. This study was conducted for the purpose of identifying these factors. The study is based on literature related to instructional innovation as well as previous research studies in media use in higher education. Abedor and Sachs' (I978) model, "Readiness for Instructional Innovation in Higher Education," was used as a general framework for the study. The need for the study was strengthened by the scarcity of instructional media research in Saudi Arabian education, particularly at the university level. The findings were anticipated to be valuable for media personnel at colleges of education in Saudi universities as well as for heads of academic departments and college deans. The study did not address the qualitative use of instructional media by faculty members and the effect of such use on students' learning. Organization of the Study Chapter II contains a review of literature related to this study. Chapter III contains an explanation of the research methodology and procedures used to collect and analyze the data. Chapter IV presents an analysis of the data and the findings of the study. Chapter V contains a summary of the study, conclusions, and recommendations based on the findings of the study. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Introduction This chapter contains a review of literature related to the present study. The review is organized into sections covering the following topics: I. rationale for instructional media in higher education, 2. an overview of the Saudi Arabian educational system, 3. instructional media services at the male colleges of education in Saudi Arabian universities, 4. instructional media research in Saudi education, 5. instructional media innovations in higher education, and 6. review of previous research studies. Rationale for Instructional Media in Higher Education Currently, there exist numerous research studies which investigated the relative effectiveness and efficiency of utilizing instructional media in the teaching-learning Process. A large number of these studies were comparative in nature, comparing one type of media with another medium or other media, and most often with conventional classroom instruction. While many of these comparative studies reported "no significant difference," reviews and summaries of media research conducted by Hoban and Van Ormer (I950, Scramm (I962), Chu and Scramm (I967), Moldstad (I974), and others suggested that instructional media, selected and used carefully, can contribute to higher education in both quantitative and qualitative measures. 22 23 Quantitatively, some argue that instructional media can be employed to educate a greater number of students in response to increased enrollment and faculty shortage (e.g., Brown & Thornton, I963; Mayhew, I963). The Carnegie Commission on Higher Education (I972) predicts an increase in college enrollment in the United States during the I990s and recommends expanded investment in instructional technology. The Commission stated: By investing faculty resources nOW«when they are in relative abundance«in the development and introduction of instructional programs using expanded technologies, we can reduce to some extent the need in years to come to expand physical facilities and faculties to accommodate rising enrollment in the I9905. (p. 46) The contributions of instructional technology have been described by the Commission on Instructional Technology (I970). Instructional technology, the Commission maintains, " . . . can make education more productive, individual, and powerful, make learning more immediate, give instruction 0 more scientific base, and make access to education more equal" (p. 7). Another argument for using instructional media, according to Miller (I957), is its ability to provide auditory and visual stimuli because learning, he stated, " . . . cannot take place in a sensory vacuum . . . " and that " . . . the student must notice something" (p. II7). Travers (I960) discussed research about learning through audio channels, visual channels, and a combination of audio-visual channels. According to him, research in this area warrants the following conclusions. I. A combined visual and auditory presentation of materials leads to more efficient comprehension than presentation of either auditory or visual materials alone. (p. 6.l2) 2. Such organized and related materials as prose and factual information are better understood with an auditory presentation; materials such as code that is comparatively discrete and unrelated is more efficiently received with visual presentation. (p. 6.l4) 24 3. One of the most significant advantages of the visual type presentation system is the relatively greater referability or opportunity for reviewing the material that it affords. It has been found that the less the referability afforded by a visual presentation, the less is its advantages over an auditory presentation. (p. 6.l4) As early as I949, Dale et al. concluded, based on findings of media research, that using audiovisual materials in the classroom has the following advantages. I. They supply a concrete basis for conceptual thinking and, hence, reduce meaningless word response of students. 2. They have a high degree of interest for students. 3. They supply the necessary basis for developmental learning and, hence, make learning more permanent. 4. They offer a reality of experience which stimulates self-activity on the part of pupils. 5. They develop continuity of thought; this is especially true of motion pictures. 6. They provide experiences not easily secured by other materials and contribute to the efficiency, depth, and variety of learning.. (p. 255). Heinich et al. (I982) indicate that research in instructional media since I949 tends to confirm and expand the above findings. Another argument for using instructional media is their ability to adapt instruction to students of varying abilities, interests, and learning styles. Brown et al. (I983) explain. There is continuing emphasis in schools and industry upon ways and means of individualizing instruction and learning. The goal of this emphasis is to provide all students with experiences and resources they need to work to the best of their abilities and at tasks that interest them and in which they can succeed at their own rates of progress. Educational media of all types play increasingly important role in enabling students to reap benefits from individualized learning. It is fortunate that the potential of modern technology may be combined with educational planning to provide resources needed for this purpose. The desired results of this effort 25 should be a viable system involving purposes, processes, people, materials, machines, facilities, and environments leading to "the best for all"«the cornerstone of a democratic society. (p. I7) In his paper "Learning Theory, Educational Media, and Individualized Instruction," Gagne (l97l), a noted learning psychologist, pointed out that individualized instruction is "the route of efficient learning." Modern studies of learning suggest the clear implication that some idiosyncratic processing of information is done by the learner. This provides a fundamental reason to view learning as individualized process and strongly suggests that individualized instruction is the route of efficient learning. If arrangements for the individual learning are not made by the system, they will presumably be made by the learner himself. In doing so he will presumably use whatever media are available, although some may be better for some purpose than for others. (p. 70) Reviews and summaries of research about learning from different types of instructional media have been done by several educators. In regard to learning from instructional television (ITV), an extensive review of research in this area has been conducted by Chu and Schramm (I967). Based on their review, the authors arrived at the following conclusions. I. Given favorable conditions, students learn efficiently from ITV. 2. Problem solving instruction on television is more efficient than ' lecturing where the materials taught involve the solving of a problem. 3. If saving time is important, television programs can probably be shortened and still achieve the minimum requirement of teaching. 4. There is ample evidence that the new media, particularly television, are effective for inservice training of teachers for developing regions. (p. l79-l82) Schramm (I962) summed up the findings of 393 studies that compared learning from ITV with classroom instruction in schools and colleges. Of these studies, 265 showed no significant difference, 83 were significantly superior in favor of ITV, and 55 were significantly superior in favor of classroom instruction. Based on his review, Schramm stated: 26 There can no longer be any doubt that students learn effectively from instructional television. The fact has been demonstrated in hundreds of schools, by thousands of students, in every part of the United States and in several other countries. (p. 52) Hoban and Van Ormer (I950) reviewed and summarized research findings about learning from instructional films during the period of l9l8-I950. According to the authors, instructional film research warrants the following conclusions. I. People learn from film; they can learn factual knowledge, concepts, motor skills, attitudes, and opinions. 2. When effective and appropriate films are properly used, people can learn more in less time and be better able to retain what they have learned. 3. Instructional films may stimulate other activities, e.g., discussion, voluntary readings, etc. 4. Certain films may facilitate thinking and problem solving. 5. Appropriate films are equivalent to at least an average teacher and sometimes at even an excellent instructor insofar as the instructor's function is communicating the procedures presented in the film. (pp. 9.l-9.2) Moldstad (I974) reviewed instructional media research in various areas, e.g., programmed instruction, multimedia, computer assisted instruction, etc. Among the studies he reviewed were those conducted by Roe (I962), Grubb and Silfridge (I964), Cartwright et al. (I972), and Chance (I960). These studies are discussed in the following paragraphs. Studies on learning from programmed instruction compared its effectiveness with traditional teaching involving lecture, textbook, and discussion. Roe (I962) studied the relative effectiveness of various programming approaches in the teaching of elementary probability to l86 freshman engineering students at the University of California in Los Angeles. When comparing the test results with students' achievements using non-programmed lectures, it was found that all programmed methods proved significantly superior to the lecture approach on criterion measures. 27 Evaluative programmed instruction studies were reviewed by Lysaught and Williams (I963), Schramm (I964), and Silberman (I962). According to Moldstad (I974), these reviews tend to agree on the following conclusions in regard to learning from programmed instruction. I. Students can learn effectively, often more effectively, from all types of programmed materials whether in the form of branching or linear programming, and from programs on machines or in texts, than from conventional instruction. 2. Frequently students learn equal amounts of materials using programmed instruction in far less time than conventional instruction. (p. 396) In regard to learning from computer assisted instruction (CAI), Grubb and Selfridge (I964) used CAI in teaching the first half of beginning descriptive statistics to a small number of students. The midterm mean score of the CAI students was 94.3% as compared to 58.4% for students who received instruction in the traditional lecture-discussion approach. In addition, the CAI students spent a mean of 5.8 hours in instructional and review time, while students in the traditional approach spent a mean of 54.3 hours in lecture, homework, and review time. In another study, Cartwright et al. (I972) compared the relative effectiveness of CAI with conventional classroom instruction in special education at the Pennsylvania State University. The CAI group performed significantly better on the final criterion test (p < .000. Their mean score was 24% higher than that of the conventional instruction group. Further, the CAI students completed the course in I2 hours' less time than the control group. Chance (I960) and two other instructors of engineering and descriptive geometry at the University of Texas examined the effect that an additional use of 200 especially prepared overhead transparencies would have on students' learning. In comparing this approach (lecture-discussion plus transparencies) 28 with their traditional lecture-discussion approach, covering identical content, the researchers obtained the following findings. l. The group having the added transparencies did significantly better on mean final course examination scores and final course grades (p<.05). 2. The three instructors unanimously agreed on the desirability of using these transparencies in their teaching. 3. Use of transparencies resulted in an average savings of IS minutes per class period. 4. Students reported preference for instruction using transparencies. (p. 392) Based on his selective review of media research, Moldstad (I974) concluded the following: Fortunately, 20 years of decision oriented media research has produced significant evidence to justify the following claims when instructional technology is carefully selected and used. I. Significantly greater learning often results when media are integrated into the traditional instructional program. 2. Equal amounts of learning are often accomplished in significantly less time using instructional technology. 3. Multimedia instructional programs based on a "systems' approach" frequently facilitate students' learning more effectively than traditional instruction. 4. Multimedia and/or audiotutorial instructional programs are usually preferred by students when compared with traditional instruction. (p. 390) In a descriptive study of instructional media utilization at the College of Education, Indiana University, Librero (l98l) asked 94 faculty members to evaluate the contribution of audiovisual media they used in the courses they taught. Of the respondents 35 or 37.3% indicated that such contribution was "extremely significant," 28.7% of the respondents said the contribution was "moderately significant," l5.9% regarded the contribution as "minimally 29 significant," and only 6.4% rated the contribution of media they used as "not significant." In Media in Instruction: 60 Years of Research, Wilkinson (I980) reviewed various types of media studies. In the area of multimedia instruction, he discussed a study conducted by Edwards et al. (I968). The study explored the use of multimedia in a beginning typing and business machine operation. The experimental group was taught in an open lab consisting of programmed materials, printed instruction sheets, continuous-loop sound films, tape-slide sets, and drill tapes. The control group was taught by conventional classroom instruction. The results showed that the experimental group learned significantly more as measured by the final examinations (p<.05). Based on his review of media research, Wilkinson concluded: When they are carefully selected and/or produced«taking into account both media attributes and student characteristics-and systematically integrated into the instructional program, educational media have a significant impact on student achievement and self- image. He added: Media are the tools of teaching and learning. These tools must be available when and where they are needed to meet the needs of the teacher and students who must use them. In order to meet the needs of a varied curriculum and individual students, a wide variety and a large number of media are necessary. If the workman is not provided the tools necessary to do his job, he cannot be held accountable if the job is not completed properly. (p. 39) In their Guides for the Improvement of Instruction in Higher Education, Davis and Alexander (I977) described three types of objectives that instructional media can serve in university or college instruction. These are "(I) to facilitate the learning of concepts, principles and perceptual motor skills; (2) to create an emotional response; and (3) to enhance student motivation" (p. 2). Instructional media, the authors maintain, can be used to facilitate student learning in various ways. Media may be used to (0) demonstrate tasks, (b) stimulate an experience, 30 (c) improve student perception, (d) demonstrate a perceptual motor skills, (e) illustrate attributes of concepts, (f) illustrate relationships among concepts, (9) provide feedback, and (h) provide stimulus materials. Educational System in Saudi Arabia: An Overview Before the founding and unifying of the kingdom in I925, education in Saudi Arabia was run by private schools known as the "khuttab." Nyrop et al. (I977) described this early form of education. At first, private teachers received students in their homes. Eventually, however, the custom developed of giving lessons in a special room devoted to that purpose, often within the community mosque; the school was known as the maktab or khuttab from the Arabic root "to write" . . . . In substantial parts of the country, these were the only educational institutions. (p. 97) The first step toward modern education in Saudi Arabia was taken soon after the founding of the kingdom in I925. During that year, the General Directorate for Education was established as part of the Ministry of Interior. The Directorate was the earliest educational organization to be responsible for boys' education. However, the development of education during the l930$ and l940$ was rather slow and limited. By I949 the number of students enrolled in Saudi public schools did not exceed 20,000 students (Nyrop, I977, p. 99). In I953 a major shift in Saudi education took place. In that year, the Ministry of Education, with which modern Saudi education is associated, was founded. In I959 the government undertook to organize girls' education by establishing the General Presidency for Girls' Education. The delay in girls education was due to opposition from some conservative elements in the country. The present girls' educational system is credited to the Saudi government whose determination to provide education for both sexes and the assurance that girls' education would be conducted in accordance with the values and teachings of Islam made girls' public schools an accepted and supported phenomenon. 3| The above statements draw attention to the fact that Islamic religion has a profound impact on education in Saudi Arabia. In fact, religion was described as " . . . the single most important factor in Saudi culture" (Nyrop, I977, p. “3). In the educational policy of the kingdom, the general purpose of Saudi education is described as follows: . . . to have the student understand Islam in a correct, comprehensive manner; to plan and spread the Islamic creed; to furnish the student with the values, teaching, and ideals of Islam; to equip him with the various skills and knowledges; to develop his conduct in constructive directions; to develop the society economically, socially, and culturally; and to prepare the individual to become a useful member in the building of his community. (Ministry of Higher Education, I978, p. I0) Therefore, "Religious education in the kingdom is a basic component in all the phases of general education" and that. . . . "Islamic culture is a basic course in all the years of higher education" (p. 7). Education in the kingdom is almost entirely government-sponsored and is free at all levels including college education. The state provides transportation, meals, textbooks, and other educational materials. The state's commitment to provide free education for all is explicitly stated in the country's educational policy which reads, "It is the duty of the state to provide and spread education within the state's capacity and resources" (p. 7). Since the state took responsibility, Saudi education has expanded gradually, particularly during the past three decades. However, major expansion and development in the system took place during the l970$ with the advent of the national development plans. Having been faced with a critical shortage in qualified manpower needed for national development, education was seen by concerned authorities as the primary solution to this problem; thus, it received top priority in the development process. This concern for trained manpower has continued throughout the third development plan (l980—85). 32 As a result, governmental appropriations for education have increased substantially during the past decade. In its "Statistical Indicator," the Ministry of Finance and National Economy (I982) indicated that while the country's total educational budget did not exceed S.R. 59I.8* million in I969-70, this figure jumped to SR. I2,946 billion in l975-6. Further, the I98l-82 fiscal year's allocation for education was S.R. 25,823,3 billion. Due to this support, the periods of l975-6 and l98l-2 have witnessed an increase in the number of public schools from 4959 to 8652 and an increase in student enrollment from 863,9l8 to |.388,399 (pp. I83, l85-7). Governmental support for education reflects both its ambition to accelerate the development process and the availability of financial resources brought by oil production. The major authorities responsible for education in the kingdom include the Ministry of Education, which administers male education at all stages below the university level; the General Presidency for Girls' Education, which runs female schools at all levels including college education at the university level; and the Ministry of Higher Education, which coordinates higher education in the country. Besides these three educational organizations, there are other ministries and departments«i.e., the Ministries of Defense, Labor, and Social Affairs, etc.« which provide education on a limited basis. There are also some private organizations which maintain a number of schools at the elementary, intermediate, and secondary stages. Due to state support, Saudi education has grown into a complex and diversified system, embracing institutions from preschool to graduate school. Figure 2 highlights the main units of the Saudi educational system. As the figure shows, general education consists of three stages: elementary (six years), 33 (swam 39v .m_ .s .omm_ .mmmze mcwpcpzs “mmcc Pecowsmz "gemxwm .Aowm_-05m.v mgmm> cop cw mwamg< Puzmm co seemcwx on» cw cowumoaem cm; V: we mmmemoea .cowumuaum emgmw: we pcmsqopm>mo on» see «egocmu momsopomgmo "musaom .mwnmg< Peamm Co smumzm chowumoaem .N mszmwu e w J. h N w m mmUMxmm zoahmmm mmuH>mmm Izoumemh onHxmm oh mmpzmu \mopummHo \mOHmeHo \mopummmo \«OhummHo mmm mon->«mem>Hz= mmuH>mmm fit ommmmm mmpzmu >woeozxomk mmHm l52 A diffusion specialist should be among the ID staff. His task involves dissemination, demonstration, and facilitating adoption of innovations produced by instructional development activities. Production Services One of the major barriers to media utilization in higher education is the non-availability of appropriate instructional materials. Since many materials are not easily available from commercial sources, a well equipped production center is a must for any university concerned with optimizing media utilization. The task of production specialists is to produce materials requested by instructional developers, faculty members, and administrators. The associate director of production services would work as a liaison between instructional developers and technical personnel under his direction. The major units in the production center should include audio production, graphic production, and photography production (both still and motion). Utilization Services Major tasks to provide effective utilization services include selection, ordering, acquisition, storage, maintenance, and distribution of instructional materials and equipment. In addition, technical assistance in setting up and operating AV equipment, delivery services of materials and equipment, as well as consultation services in the appropriate application of media in instruction should be provided. An operational policy (e.g., description of clients to be served, goals, criteria for selecting equipment and materials, etc.) should be developed based on a needs assessment. Such policy should guide the overall utilization function including the quantitative and qualitative considerations for building media libraries. I53 Telecommunication Services The major function of the telecommunication services involves the operation and maintenance of an on-campus, closed circuit television (CCTV) system. In most Saudi Arabian universities, CCTV systems are available, but are mainly used for transmitting live lectures delivered by male instructors for female students in segregated facilities. It is suggested that existing CCTV systems be expanded to provide services in the male sections of Saudi universities and colleges. Instructional uses of CCTV include inservice education for faculty members; course offerings; and sharing of curricula, faculty, and other resources among Saudi universities. In addition, telecommunication services should provide local production of videotape programs needed by faculty members for classroom presentations. Such local production should be provided through consultation with ID staff regarding design specifications and other related matters. Col lege-Based Services Decentralized media services should be provided at the individual colleges through satellite media centers. Those centers should be equipped with computer access, basic production, and storage facilities. The major services of an individual satellite media center would include minor production and reproduction of materials as well as housing and distributing materials and equipment most pertinent to formats of instruction, curricula, faculty, and students' needs at the particular college. Recommendations for Further Research The present study addressed only specific aspects related to media use, namely selected factors associated with such use by male faculty members at l54 the colleges of education in Saudi Arabian universities. Further, other than those colleges, the results of this study cannot be generalized to other institutions of higher education in Saudi Arabia. Therefore, other studies dealing with other areas related to media utilization are needed to contribute to the data generated by the present study. Below is a set of recommended studies. I. There is a need for a similar study to investigate factors influencing media utilization by female faculty members at the female colleges of education in Saudi universities so that a comparison can be made. 2. Similar studies are also needed to be conducted at institutions of higher learning in Saudi Arabia, other than at colleges of education. Results of such studies should contribute to the data produced by the present study so that more accurate generalizations about factors affecting faculty use of media can be drawn. 3. There is a need for a study to address the qualitative use of instructional media by faculty members at the colleges of education and other schools of higher education in Saudi Arabia. This need is strengthened by the fact that quantitative studies of media utilization such cs the present study are certainly not enough, because the mere use of media does not guarantee desired results. In other words, an instructor may use a wide range of instructional media but at a low level of qualitative effectiveness. 4. There is a need for a study to examine students' attitudes toward instructional media as well as the influence of media on their learning. 5. Another study is needed to objectively evaluate instructional media services and programs at the colleges of education in Saudi universities. Criteria for planning and evaluating the college and university learning resources center developed by the Association for Educational Communication and Technology (Merrill 8. Drob, I977; ACET, I977) can be used as a base for such a study. The results of this study should contribute to further development of data needed for the improvement of media programs in Saudi Arabia. 6. Since the factors examined by the present study accounted for 59.2% of the total amount of variation in media use, another study is needed to investigate other factors that may explain the remaining variation in media use. The recommended study may address such factors as academic degree, academic rank, sex, age, media attributes, and amount of time spent in teaching, research, and administrative activities. In addition, since I55 respondents in the present study were from different Arab and non-Arab nationalities, with the Saudis comprising only 26.3%, the needed study is recommended to examine media use as related to both nationality and origin of professional training. APPENDICES APPENDIX A LETTER TO MSU FACULTY TO RATE FACE VALIDITY OF QUESTIONNAIRE 1820 Hamilton Rd., Apt. G—l Okemos, MI 48864 February 7, 1984 Dr. Wilfred Veenendaal Dr. Donald Wilkening Mr. Robert Martin Dear Sir: Upon consultation with my major advisor and chairman of my doctoral committee, Dr. James Page, you have been selected as one of three faculty members to rate the validity of the enclosed questionnaire. This questionnaire will be used to collect data for a Ph.D. dissertation about the "factors affecting the use of instructional media by male faculty members at the colleges of education in Saudi Arabia univer- sities". An instruction/answer sheet is attached to each section of the questionnaire. Please use the following scale to indi- cate your degree of agreement or disagreement about the vali— dity of the questionnaire's items. SA = Strongly agree A = Agree U = Uncertain D = Disagree SD = Strongly disagree Please feel free to add any comments about the different sections of the questionnaire. Your cooperation and assis- tance will be greatly appreciated and credited in the dissertation. Sincerely, Bader Al—Saleh Doctoral Candidate ESD Program 156 APPENDIX B LETTER CERTIFYING TRANSLATION OF QUESTIONNAIRE MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ARTS AND LETTERS EAST LANSING ' MICHIGAN ' 48824 DEPARTMENT OF LINGUIST ICS AND GERMANIC. SLAVIC. ASIAN AND AFRICAN LANGUAGES WELLS HALL March 8, 1984 To Whom It May Concern: I hereby certify that Mr. Bader A. Alsaleh has translated into Arabic the English version of the questionnaire used as a tool in his research for his Ph.D. dissertation regarding the use of instructional media by the faculty staff of the Colleges of Education in Saudi Arabia. I hereby verify that the translation is honest, accurate, and valid and con- forms to the style of the Arabic language. I do wish him the best of luck. Sincerely, Abdul Ghaffar A. Eldamatty Arabic Instructor 157 MS U is at Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution APPENDIX C PILOT TEST COVER LETTER HaJJI 0.3).." LL“ 9...... oat-v“ — 4y- M' “A? / L—u—J' L15 Hwy-‘3“ 3:... :4“ any u',_.. ,5ou "ggfism" e.g.,. 31a! VJJ’I Juan”: ”xx .9492.» 9:. 4.1.1 Hi) ind-.99.! LBJ—.94... “,3! Viz—II) “”35.) LIJAqu’Ln 599‘. (45.1.... .J___.1,.JI yWI My ”5..., . yawn 3“! may“ aux... J‘,__.s..\.u “wan 2.2,... up: 25.1,. 9.4.3.1: 4.51.0." (14$qu 13.1.3.4: . “ISL-.995 pflueglsw J——A-IJIJ ¢L,,._..3.uil LIL-I 5,630.0 dSLéLJI ”VJJYI JWSI 9.00.54qu .euruuu 893W! u..." Lat-1.1.3, gs! 0.31.3: wry; 9.415 IJI HydfllwflwbfingLeéail Lug-I uJawI ELI-Lia; '5—JJJ‘JI GIJJYI fIA'AZu-Lg ¢U§J NIJHJI NIJ L_J DJJIJJI 13...?! ° Mere-b" LH— 59 LLL ll "4")? I - (A Mel—Au! “kc-9:...“ 158 APPENDIX D COVER LETTER FOR QUESTIONNAIRE Dear Faculty Member at the College of Educatlon At the present, I am Involved In wrltlng my doctoral dlssertatlon at chhlgan State Unlverslty, the Unlted States of Amerlca. The Study deals wlth ”Selected Factors Related to the Use of Instructlonal Hedla By Male Faculty Members At the Colleges of Educatlon In Saudl Arable Unlversltles". The Study Is designed to determlne the factors tacllltatlng or lnhlbltlng the use of lnstructlonel medla at the Colleges of Educatlon. Based on the flndlngs, recommendatlons wIII be provlded tor Improvlng teachlng methods lnvolvlng the use of Ins- tructlonal nedle. A copy of the questlonnalre used In thls study Is attached.- Please read the questlonnalre carefully, tIlI It out, and pass It wlthln, at the most, one week to the head of your department. Intormatlon obtalned from the questlonnalre wlll be used excluslvely tor the pur- pose of research. Thank you very mach for you cooperatlon. BADR ABDUALLAH AL-SALER 159 160 wflwflmm Mflwwstlmwne-flmfl'w 4‘!) 0‘3ng aJJI b” 95.9.]; 9“ 'oL +34 2.1, Zeal-y 9" “Ms UL.) emu. I...» ”JI :___LL.:..JI 4.1,.» -, ,1. Lost ”6)., .Wm 3M cpl-3!)! HyMJHJm 3:... mm 33.1,. W an”; fugue. a——:»= UJI “yaw, .wamm kflaLrlsviJfiM wmwaWJsufl fuss-.1 u.» 92,21:in m—ie I-i-z hes-13°95 wow-‘3' .3)» Wet»): awash:- .z_,.....|..:JIJ_sL.,.II ”.3th L33." cal—aw ea? I?" ...m 5.3.“ gLIH-Tuil on 35...; 541.; z__..|.°... 5.5.1 aHfi-SI my... 95:4 3.}! . 5,5.” 1.1,.» 4M a,” 91.9.1.4 at... I...» a.» 343,! um: u-l- hm", .HWQIJ‘S faith-3 J,- I...» u_II usual, 9%11 Lap-2.. 05:.» ,5: -, my 5.3;: .uLI but—1,3. WI al.-II 9,.ng 93.4.1.5, ,Img.) aggum .941. APPENDIX E ENGLISH VERSION OF QUESTIONNAIRE Definition: QUESTIONNAIRE In this questionnaire Instructional Media will refer to both materials and equipment e.g. 16 mm films, filmstrips, video tapes, audio tapes, overhead transparancies, graphic materials, slides, etc., and associated equipment. Section A 1. Please complete the following by filling in a. University b. College of Education at c. Department d. Academic Field of Specialization (city) e. Number of years of teaching in higher education f. Your age in years 2. Nationality (Please check (X) one) a. [:1 3. Highest a. [:1 c.D 4. Current 3. [:] c. [:3 Saudi b. [:J Non—Saudi academic degree earned (Please check (X) one) Bachelor's b. D Master's Doctorate d. [:3 Other (Specify) academic rank (Please check (X) one) Lecturer ‘b. [:1 Assistant Professor Associate Professor d. D Professor 5. Administrative/academic related position, if any, (Please check (X) one) a. [:1 c. [:3 College Dean b. [:1 Assistant to the college dean Head of department d. [:1 Other (Specify) 161 162 M Please indicate the average number of times you use each of the following instructional media per academic term. (Please respond to each item by placing a check mark (X) in the appropriate box.) Note: Please indicate your use of instructional media in teaching male students only at the college of education in which you teach. Number of times used per term Zero 1-3 4-6 7-9 10 or more l. 8 mm or 16 mm Instruc- tional films. 2. Film Loop 3. Filmstrips 4. Slides 5. Television/videotapes 6. Overhead transparencies 7. Opague projector and materials 8. Audio tape record- ings. 9. Programmed instructional materials 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Micro computers Charts/graphs Maps/globes Models/specimens Flannel, bulletin, or magnetic boards Other (Please Specify) UCIDDD CI CI DDUDDUD CID CIDEICICI CI Cl UDCIEICIDCI DD DECIDE] CI Cl CIDEICIDDEI DD DECIDE] El E1 UDDDDDU CID DECIDE! III E] DEIDEIDEICI CID 163 Section C The following statements represent varying points of view about instruc- tional media. Please indicate your degree of agreement or disagreement with each statement by checking one of the following responses: SA = Strongly agree A = Agree U = Uncertain D = Disagree SD = Strongly disagree (Please place a check mark (X) in the appropriate box) 1. Instructional media motivate students to learn. 2. Instructional media are more suitable for elementary and secondary education than higher education. 3. Instructional media help to teach a greater number of students equally at the same time. 4. Instructional media help to clarify concepts and impor- tant details of a lesson. 5. The time and effort required to plan to use instructional media are out of proportion to their educational value. 6. Instructional media provide for individual differences in the learning needs of students. 7. Instructional media should be an essential element of the teaching method. 8. The personal relationship between the teacher and the student is lost when instruc- tional media are used. SA CI A CI SD 10. ll. 12. 13. 14. 164 Instructional media help students gain a better under— standing of subject matter. The use of instructional media tends to weaken the teacher's role and control in his classroom. There is a need for a wider use of instructional media in higher education. Instructional technology tends to dehumanize education. Instructional media save time for both teaching and learning. The cost of instructional media is out of proportion to their educational value. SA CI CI CI [III] E] D E] El CID El CI [II E] [ID [I CI DECIDE] E] CI CI CID El 165 Section D Please indicate the highest level of media training which you have previously completed. (Please check one by placeing a check mark (X) in the appropriate box.) a. A degree program in instructional media. b. Two academic courses or more in instructional media. One academic course in instructional media. 1 -7 day workshop in instructional media. Other (Please specify) DECIDED No previous training at any level. If you have completed any media training, please indicate which of the following skills you have acquired from your previous training. (Please check all that apply by placing a check mark (X) in the appropriate box.) a. D Operation of instructional media equipment. Production of instructional materials. Evaluation of instructional media. Other (Please specify) b. [:J c. [:J Selection of instructional media. d. [:1 e. [:] 166 Section E Please indicate the frequency of each of the following types of support which you feel the administration of the college of education is provid- (Please respond to each item by placing a check mark (X) in the appropriate box.) ing to encourage faculty use of instructional media. 10. 11. Very Often Workshops, lectures, or media training for faculty members. Technical assistance in the selection and produc- tion of media materials. Technical assistance in the operation of media equip- ment. Financial support for aca- demic departments to obtain instructional media not available at the college. CI CI CI CI Innovation in teaching methods is accepted as part of the college criteria for the promotion of faculty members. Providing adequate media materials and equipment. Providing delivery service of media materials and equipment. Involving faculty members in decision-making related to media selection. Up-dating faculty members about media related acti— vities. El E] El CID Maintaining flexible rules for gaining access to instructional media resources. D Other (Please specify) El Some Times CI Cl CI Cl C] CIDEICICIEI Don't know D D E] El CI DECIDED Seldom [I D E] CI CI DEIDCIEJCI Never E] El CI CI CI DECIDED Please indicate the frequency with which you obtain information about 167 Section F instructional media resources and services at the college of education from each of the following sources. placing a check mark (X) in the appropriate box.) Newsletter, brochure, or other publications issued by the college media center. Exhibitions or demon- strations carried out occasionally by the college media center. Correspondence from depart- ment head to faculty members. Correspondence from media staff to faculty members. The college bulletin. Personal contact with the media staff at the college. By talking to colleagues within the department or college. Other (please specify) Very Often Cl DC! DD CI CI Some times [I CICI CID CI CI Don't Know [I CID CID CI III (Please respond to each item by Seldom CI DC] CIE] CI CI Never DC] CID CI E] 168 Section G The following statements represent some deterrents that may limit the use of instructional media. Please indicate your degree of agree— ment or disagreement with each statement as it applies to your own teaching experience at the college of education. (For each state- ment, please select one of the following responses by placing a check mark (X) in the appropriate box.) Strongly Agree Agree Uncertain Disagree Strongly disagree SA A U D SD It is difficult to obtain instructional media when I need them. Instructional media equip- ment are difficult to operate. My teaching load does not allow enough time to plan to use instructional media. I do not have information about instructional media at the college. The subject I teach does not lend itself for the use of instructional media. Classrooms are not pr0perly designed or equipped to use instructional media. III CID CI CI CI DUDE] CI El DUDE] E] D DEIEIEI CI CI CI El E] El CI El Instructional media materials at the college are not organized for easy reference and use. CI [1 CI CI CI The college administration is not interested in A/V methods and look at them as frills. D E] CI E] C] There are little or no media materials for the courses I teach. E] D D D D 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. l6. 17. 18. 19. II. 169 The college does not have sufficient quantity of media equipment. I do not have enough training and skills in the use of instructional media. I have difficulty getting assistance in the operation of A/V equipment. It takes much longer to pre- pare for class using instruc- tional media than using traditional methods. Communication between media staff and faculty members is inefficient or lacking. Students look on audiovisual instruction as entertainment and do not study the materials presented. I have difficulty getting assistance in selecting in— structional media for my courses. A/V equipment often breaks down. My colleagues do not support the use of instruc- tional media. Other deterrents (please specify) Assume that the above deterrents will be overcomed, to what extent SA CI EJEI CI CID CI DE] Cl DE] E] El CID III DD CI EI SD CI [I do you think you will use instructional media in your teaching (Please check (X) one). [:1 Much [:J Some D Little D None 1. 170 Section H Are you interested in participating in in-service media training? (Please check one by placing a check mark (X) in the appropriate (box.) a. D Very interested b. D Moderately interested c. D Slightly interested (I. D Not interested If you are interested in in-service media training, which of the following training areas are you interested in? (Please check all that apply by placing a check mark (X) in the appropriate box.) 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('JI‘JI LU!“ J4? lain-J! o W! JfaLuJ—H L," (000 gr 'ilfiunJl.‘ ‘J—l-‘hzs" I I . gaui 1.45 4.... J 4.55%! hue.) 189 BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Abdi, 0980. F. Factors affecting faculty use of instructional media at public universities and community colFeges in Southeastern Michigan. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University OT Michigan. Abedor, A. J., & Sachs, S. G. (I978). The relationship between faculty\5 development (FD), organizational development (OD), and instructional I development (ID): Readiness for instructional innovation in higher I. education. In D. K. Bass, et al. (Eds), Instructional development: The i state of the art. Columbus, OH: Collegiate Publishing. Abu-Ros, A. 5. (I979). Factors affectiniteachers' utilization of elements of educational technology in Saudi Arabia. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Indian University. Al--Debassi, 5. (I983). 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