A STUDY OFTHOW SELECTED PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF COUNSELORS ARE RELATED TO THEIR EFFECTIVENESS 7 AS SEEN BY BLACK COLLEGE STUDENTS ' Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY WILLIAM E. GARDNERJII? - ‘ 1970 ' as, LIBRARY ‘Idkfifigxnfihau: a - University ,f. This is to certify that the thesis entitled A STUDY OF HOW SELECTED PERSONAL CHARACTERIS- TICS OF COUNSELORS ARE RELATED TO THEIR EFFECTIVENESS AS SEEN BY BLACK COLLEGE STUDENTS ” presented by William E. Gardner, Jr. has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph 0 Do degree in Education z/éfi Major professor Due July 15, 970 0-169 7%”(25 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII William E. Gardner, Jr. The study included the following procedures. (1) Each counselor interviewed six different students (three males and three females). (2) At the end of each interview, students were asked to complete the Gross Rat— ings of Dimensions of Facilitative Interpersonal Func- tioning Questionnaire. (3) Recordings of the interviews were rated by two professional judges who used the Inter— personal Processes Scales. The data were analyzed by using the analysis of variance statistical technique to test seven specific hypotheses related to counselor effectiveness as seen by Black students. Additional information was provided by describing pmofessional judges' ratings of counselors as compared to Black students' ratings of counselors to determine the relationship between these two groups' evaluation of effective counselors with Black students. The Pearson pucduct-moment correlation statistic was used to analyze this data. Hypotheses were accepted at the .05 level of con- fidence or above. Significant Findings An overall review of the Black students' ratings of Counselors on the GRDFIF Questionnaire indicates that 33 Per cent of the counselors' responses were rated by Black William E. Gardner, Jr. counselees as functioning below the acceptable level of facilitative conditions and 67 per cent of the counselors' responses were rated as functioning at or above that level. An overall review of professional judges' ratings on the Interpersonal Processes Scales indicate the re- verse to be true; i.e., 33 per cent of the counselors' responses were rated at or above the acceptable level of facilitative conditions while 67 per cent were rated telow the minimum acceptable level of facilitative condi— tions. By using the analysis of variance statistical tech— rdque to test the study's seven hypotheses, three hypo- theses were accepted. Two of the hypotheses were accepted at the .01 level of confidence: H1: Within the variable of race, Black counselors will be perceived as better facilitators than White counselors (.01 level). H2: Within the variable of experience, counselors with more experience will be perceived as better facilitators than counselors will less experience (.01 level). H - Within the variable of education, Ph.D. level counselors will be perceived as better facilitators than M.A. level counselors (.05 level). All but one of the correlations of Black students' ratings and professional judges' ratings of counselors (within the dimensions of race, experience and education) was significant at the .05 level of statistical signifi- Canoe. William E. Gardner, Jr. Conclusions In the eyes of Black college students counselors of different levels of education, experience and race can function as effective change agents. Black counselors will be seen by Black college student counselees as able to function at higher facilitative levels with Black students than White counselors. Experienced counselors will be seen by Black college student counselees as able to function at higher facilitative levels with Black stu- dents than inexperienced counselors. Ph.D. level counselors will be seen by Black college student counselees as able to function at higher facilitative levels with Black stu- dents than M.A. level counselors. The impact of experience and education on the effectiveness of the counselor with Black stu- dents tends not to be due to the effects of the counselor's race. Likewise, the impact of education tends not to be due to the counselor's experience. The impact of race, experience and education tends not to be due to the effects of any of the other two counselor characteriS* tics. William E. Gardner, Jr. Professional judges will be able to predict counselor's facilitative behavior, as seen by Black students, with a degree of reliability. This study substantiated the view which has been presented in the literature regarding the fact that counselors who generate high levels of facilitative conditions have a greater potential to be helpful to Black students than counselors who generate low levels of facilitative condi- tions. A STUDY OF HOW SELECTED PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF COUNSELORS ARE RELATED To THEIR EFFECTIVENESS AS ' SEEN BY BLACK COLLEGE STUDENTS BY x; C (- , ‘5‘ I William E? Gardner, Jr. A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Counseling, Personnel Services and Educational Psychology 1970 Copyright by WILLIAM EURENSTAFF GARDNER, JR. 1971 4 — _..i—. wa ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Appreciation is extended to Dr. James Costar, my doctoral committee chairman, for his continued encourage- Rent, support and guidance throughout my doctoral program. I wish to thank Dr. Robert Green who provided the writer vdth assistance in many areas of his graduate study. Gra- titude is extended to Dr. Donald Nickerson who was es- pecially helpful throughout the writing of this disser- tation. I am also indebted to Dr. William Hinds and Dr. Jehn Useem for their many valuable suggestions and sup- port throughout my graduate program. I wish to extend my thanks to Dr. Thomas Gunnings and Dr. Richard Pierce of the Michigan State University Counseling Center, who acted as Professional judges in this research. I would like to extend my gratitude to the counselors who participated in this study. Thanks is also given to Dr. Joseph McMillan who made certain material and equipment available for the accomplishment of this re- search. The writer appreciated the suggestions and advice Of Dr. Lawrence Lazotte regarding the technical aspects and statistical analysis involved in this study. Last, but by no means least, I owe much to my wife, Dorothy, and children, Kim and William III, for their ii understanding and patience during the time required to write this dissertation. I am appreciative of my parents, Rev. and Mrs. William E. Gardner, for their prayers and general support.. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF FIGURES. . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter I. INTRODUCTION OF THE STUDY. . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . Statement of the Problem . . . . . . Theoretical VieWpoints. . . . . . . Assumptions Upon Which the Study is Based . . . . . . . . . Analysis of the Data . . . . . . Scope and Limitations of the Study. . . Overview . . . . . . . . . . . II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE. . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . Literature Related to the Facilitative Dimensions of Counseling . . . . . Empathy. . . Respect. . . Genuineness . Concreteness . Research Related to the Core Facilitative Dimensions. . . . . . . . . . Early Research . . . . . . . . Later Research . . . . . . . . Literature Related to Effective Counsel- ing with Minority Students . . . . Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . III. DESIGN AND PROCEDURE OF THE STUDY . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . Population. . . . . . . . . . . iv Page ii vi viii U'IU'IH |—' 11 12 14 16 16 16 17 21 23 25 27 27 34 42 46 50 50 51 Chapter Page Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Treatment Group . . . . . . . . . 54 Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . 54 Interpersonal Processes Scales . . . 54 Gross Ratings of Dimensions of Facil- itative Interpersonal Functioning Questionnaire. . . . . . . . 59 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . 60 Design and Hypotheses Testing . . . . 60 Design . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Description of the Design. . . . . 62 Data Analysis. . . . . . . . . 63 Hypotheses. . . . . . . . . . 64 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . 67 IV. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA . . . . . . . . 69 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . 69 Gross Ratings of Dimensions of Facilita- tive Interpersonal Functioning Ques- tionnaire Findings . . . . . . . 70 Findings on the Interpersonal Processes Scales . . . . . . . . . 77 Findings Related to the Statistical Hypotheses. . . . . . . . . . 84 Hypotheses. . . . . . . . 85 Pearson Product-Moment Correlations of Black Students' Ratings of Counselors and Professional Judges' Ratings of Counselors. . . . . . . . . . 87 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . 90 V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . 94 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Background. . . . . . . . . . 94 Hypotheses. . . . . . . . . . 95 Methodology . . . . . . . . . 96 Significant Findings . . . . . . . 98 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . 103 Discussion. . . . . . . . . . 106 Implications for Further Research . . . 109 BIBLIOGRAPHY o o o 0 o o o o o o o o o o 111 APPENDICES o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 117 LIST OF TABLES Percentage distribution of respondents' home— town 5 O O O O O O O O O O I O 0 Black student ratings of Black counselors on the dimensions of empathy, respect, genuine- ness, concreteness and an overall image of the counselor's effectiveness category . . Black student ratings of White counselors on the dimensions of empathy, respect, genuine- ness, concreteness and an overall image of the counselor's effectiveness category . . Black student ratings of experienced counse- lors on the dimensions of empathy, respect, genuineness, concreteness and an overall image of the counselor's effectiveness category . . . . . . . . . . .w . Black student ratings of inexperienced coun- selors on the dimensions of empathy, respect, genuineness, concreteness and an overall image of the counselor's effectiveness cate- gory O O O I O O O O I O O I 0 Black student ratings of Ph.D. level counse- lors on the dimensions of empathy, respect, genuineness, concreteness and an overall image of the counselor's effectiveness cate- gory . . . . . . . . . . . . . Black student ratings of M.A. level counse- lors on the dimensions of empathy, respect, genuineness, concreteness and an overall image of the counselor's effectiveness cate- gory . . . . . . . . . . . . . Professional judges' ratings of Black coun- selors on the dimensions of empathy, respect, genuineness and concreteness . . . . . vi Page 52 71 72 73 74 76 76 78 . .—-_....._.—.—. _C4._____._._________.* ’———y Table 10. ll. 12. l3. 14. 15. Professional judges' ratings of White coun- selors on the dimensions of empathy, re- SPect, genuineness and concreteness . . . Professional judges' ratings of experienced counselors on the dimensions of empathy, respect, genuineness and concreteness . . Professional judges' ratings of inexperi- enced counselors on the dimensions of em- pathy, respect, genuineness and concreteness Professional judges' ratings of Ph.D. level counselors on the dimensions of empathy, re- spect, genuineness and concreteness . . . Professional judges' ratings of M.A. level counselors on the dimensions of empathy, re- spect, genuineness and concreteness . . . Analysis of variance results for the effects of selected personal characteristics of coun- selors as rated by Black students. . . . Black students' overall ratings and profes- sional judges‘ overall ratings of counse- lors facilitative responses. . . . . . vii Page 79 80 81 82 83 87 89 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Graphic description Black counselors in 2. Graphic description White counselors in 3. Graphic description experiment . . . Page of characteristics of treatment group . . . . 55 of characteristics of treatment group . . . . 55 of design of the O I O O O O O O O 61 viii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION OF THE STUDY Introduction In recent years the number of minority students ad— mitted to universities has increased significantly. Fre- quently, when these students enter the university they are at an academic disadvantage because of their negative school histories. They have not performed at the level generally expected by institutions of higher learning. It has been suggested that minority students are limited be- cause of the way they perceive the school relating to them. Frank Reissman tells us that: There is considerable evidence that disadvantaged children and their parents have a much more positive attitude toward education than is generally believed. One factor that obscures the recognition of this attitude is that while deprived individuals value education, they dislike the school. They are alienated from the school and may resent au- thority. These youngsters and their parents feel that they are second class citizens in the school. They want what the school has to offer, but they do not feel in many instances, accepted and involved in the school program. They need the feeling that the school cares about them.1 1Frank Reissman, Programs fo£_the Educationally Disadvanta ed (washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, I923), p. 2. Many universities recognize that special efforts must be made to overcome the perceiving problems of mi- nority students.2 Thus, they are actively implementing special educational programs that focus on the academic and social needs of these students. Counseling is usually an integral component of spe- cial educational programs. Its major reSponsibility is to facilitate satisfactory student adjustment in the univer- sity community. The assumption is that if students can be effectively socialized into college life, the negative effects of perceived school unrelatedness to them will be significantly reduced.' This will allow for greater moti- vation to perform at the level expected of all college students. Certain problems are developing as college counselors attempt to work with minority students. Counselors fre- tmently have great difficulty moving into real helping— relationships with students because of their "self- disclosure/reserve"--students refuse to expose their Privatized selves for fear that revealed information will be used against them. They also protect their privatized 2The terms "disadvantaged student" and "minority student" are not clearly differentiated in the research literature. Since most authorities agree to overlap in the use of these terms, and since frequent references to re- search using these terms will be made in the present study, they shall be used interchangeably. 3 selves by "game playing.” In a discussion of mental ill- ness and treatment among black patients, Grier and Cobb offer a reason for self disclosure/reserve among black students in counseling. They suggest that: He (black patient) must be on guard to protect himself against physical hurt. He must cushion himself against cheating, slander, humiliation, and outright mistreatment by the official repre- sentatives of society. If he does not so protect himself, he will live a life of such pain and shock as to find life unbearable. For his own survival, then, he must develop a ”cultural paranoia" in which every white man is a potential enemy unless proved otherwise and every social system is set against him unless he personally finds out differently. - Norman Hagan also referred to the problems many counselors have functioning as change-agents with minor- ity students. He stated that: Counselors have borrowed from the sociologists. They have translocated their findings into their own sphere of concepts rather than attempting to amalgamate his knowledge with theirs. Tra- ditional sociologists tend to write in terms of modality. The implication is that modal char- acteristics of a group particularly a socio- economic group, is descriptive of each member of that group. After exposure to these texts, coun- selors are prepared to discover certain values, attitudes, and behaviors among their impover- ished or minority group clients and seem always surprised when they don't--there is a sort of middle class ethnocentricity at work here, in . 3"Game playing" is not peculiar to minority students In counseling. Many use this defense when they find it difficult or painful to communicate their problems. 4William H. Grier and Price M. Cobbs, Black Rage (New York: Basic Books Inc, 1968), p. 178. addition to an historic-economic hangover (e.g. lower class children demand immediate gratifi- cation, white children don't).5 Counselors tend to enter into consultation with stu- dents with certain preconceived notions about desirable behavior based on the counselor's life space and value systems. When the students' and counselor's life space and value systems do not coincide the counselor is moti- vated to react in a way that causes the student to pro- tect his privatized self--the student tends to resist the notion that his native background and goals are ille- gitimate. The result is that the student perceives the counselor as an individual whose objectives are not in the student's best interest. This greatly reduces the coun- selor's ability to function as an effective change-agent. The question then becomes what qualities must a cmunselor possess to avoid the problems that mitigate effective treatment with minority students. Paul Smith suggests that: Self-awareness is as important to the counselor as to the counselee, but if we believe that acceptance of one's self and self-direction are prized goals to be learned and achieved by our youth within the cultural restraints of demo- cratic principles, counselors must be skilled, judicious and sensible in focusing their self- image in counseling. This is necessary in order 5Norman Hagan, ”Three Dimensions of Counselor Encap- sulation," Journal of Counseling Psychology, Vol. 11, No. 4 (1964), l§§. T nl to avoid dominating, damaging or destroying the self-cancept of the weaker developing person- ality. The inference is that if counselors are able to control their tendencies to overly inject their self-images in counseling, minority students will begin to view them as individuals genuinely concerned with student needs. Statement of the Problem The purpose of this study is to determine how black s0phomore students at Michigan State University perceive .counselors of different levels of education, experience and race as change agents. The investigator also intends to use the above data to make inferences about the quali- ties of counselors with the greatest potential for success with these students. Theoretical Viewpoints The design of the present study draws heavily upon phenomenological theory. Since the present experimental design is based upon tenets emerging from this school of thought, it is deemed necessary and expedient to discuss at.this time the aspects of phenomenological theory which are related to the variables manipulated by this investi- gation. 6Paul M. Smith, ”A Descriptive Self-Concept of High School Counselors,"I Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 33 (Spring, 1963). 179. One of the chief constructs underlying the present research is that of the self-concept. R. C. wylie states that self-concept theorists believe that: "One cannot understand and predict human behavior without knowledge of the subjects conscious perceptions of his environment and of his self as he sees it in relation to the environment." These theorists are considered phenomenological in orien- tation beCause they accord a "central role to conscious perception, cognition, and feelings."8 The writer would hasten to say that the term "phe- nomenology” is not held by all theorists to refer only to aSpects of ”direct awareness." In fact, most phenome- nologically oriented theorists do not hesitate to give credence to the concept of unconscious motivations and their effects upon the total personality, including the “self-concept.” Thus, with respect to phenomenology theory, the orientation becomes a matter of degree with those persons labeled phenomenological theorists being in- cflined to put most emphasis upon conscious experience and awareness and with those who are labeled nonphenomenol- Ogical theorists tending to be more concerned about un- conscious impulses, prOpensities, and dynamics. ‘ 7R. C. wylie, The Self-Concept (Lincoln: University Of Nebraska Press, 1961). p. 6. 8Ibid., p. 6. 7 n a Carl Rogers, who is generally considered one of the leading phenomenologically oriented self theorists, while gearing his own practice and research predominately to the conscious self-concept, does not attempt to deny the dy- namic, functioning of unconscious elements and factors. He has this to say on the matter: He (the individual) may have some experiences which are inconsistent with this perception, but he either denies these experiences to awareness or symbolizes them in such a way that they are consistent with his general pieture.9 Rogers further says: "While these concepts are nonverbal, and may not be present in consciousness, this is no barrier to their functioning as guiding principles."10 Another major characteristic of phenomenological theory is the consideration for the uniqueness of the ex- perience of the individual. Phenomenological theorists and self theorists hold that the chief motivators of be- havior and attitudes lie within what is termed the indi- vidual's "phenomenal field" and one cannot understand or puedict human behavior in the absence of knowledge of the nature of this field or, as Kurt Lewin puts it, of the LI.__ 9C. R. Rogers, "Perceptual Reorganization in Client-Centered Therapy," in Perception: An A roach to Personalit , ed. by R. R. Blake and G. V. Ramsey (New YerE: Ronald Press, 1951). P. 321. 1°Ibid., p. 327. Hm.- ‘I n u. 11 'individual's psychological environment." Cade states that: The here and now of experience is considered by these theorists to be of utmost importance, that is, it is their contention that historical fac- tors are important, from the standpoint of per- sonal adjustment, only to the extent to which they influence and affect the phenomenal field of the individual.12 These researchers regard empathic ability, or the ability of the counselor or therapist to understand his client, to be axiomatically a determinant of the prac- tioner's ability to act as an effective change agent. Al- though, phenomological theorists have generally not en- deavored to define the dynamics involved in the develoP- ment of empathic ability, Carkhuff and Berensonlé do make suggestions about how the facilitative dimensions of ems pathic understanding, positive regard (respect), genuine- ness, and concreteness or specificity of expression can enhance the student's ability to explore and experience tumself in the counseling relationship. Carkhuff and Berenson state that : 11x. Lewin, "Field Theory in Social Science," in Selected Theoretitcal Papers, ed. by D. Cartwright (New Yerk: Harper, 1931), pp.478—92. 12A. J. Cade, ”The Relationship between Counselor- Client Cultural Background Similarity and Counseling Proqress“ (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1963), p. 5. 13R. R. Carkhuff and B. G. Berenson, Beyond Coun- ielin and Thera (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, ne" ' p. 4. .2; as, There is an extensive body of evidence suggesting that all human interactions between persons des- ignated by society as "more knowing" and "less knowing" may have facilitative or retarding ef- fects upon the "less knowing.” Thus, in signif- icant counseling and psychotherapy, teacher- student, or parent-child relationships, the con- sequences may be constructive or deteriorative on intellective as well as psychological in- dexes. . 15 16 The research of ASPYI Carkhuff, Carkhuff and 18 Tkuax,17 Truax and Carkhuff, indicate that, to a large degree, the facilitative or retarding effects can be ac-‘ counted for by a core of dimensions which are shared by all "interactive human processes,”independent of theo- retical orientation. Patients, clients, students, and Children of persons functioning at high levels of these dimensions improve on a variety of improvement criteria, while those persons offering low levels of these dimen- Sions deteriorate on indexes of change or gain. ¥ 14Ibid., p. 4. 150. Aspy, ”The Relationship between Teacher Func- tioning on Facilitative Dimensions and Student Performance on Intellective Indices" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, lhdversity of Kentucky, 1968). 16R. R. Carkhuff, The Counselor's Contribution to Facilitative Processes (UrEEna, III.: Parkinson, 19677, pp. 13-51. . 17R. R. Carkhuff and C. B. Truax, "Toward Explain- lng Success and Failure in Interpersonal Learning Experi- ences,” Personnel and Guidance Journal, 46 (1966), 723-728. 18C. B. Truax and R. R. Carkhuff, "Significant De- V810pments in Psychotherapy Research,” in Pro ress in clinical Ps cholo , ed. by L. E. Abt and B. F. Reiss New Yor : Grune & Stratton, 1964), Chp. 7. -4 10 Assumptions Upgp Which the Study is Based Basic to this investigation is the assumption that counseling services are needed to assure the satisfactory adjustment of minority students in university communities. ITLis also recognized that counseling personnel can func- thnnon a level that will facilitate maximum degrees of student progress--both socially and academically. It is assumed that counselors, functioning on high levels of empathic understanding, positive regard (re— 8pect), genuineness, and concreteness or specificity of expression will be more capable of helping minority stu- dents work through their problems. By increasing counse- lor understanding of their students and themselves in a counseling setting, counselors will be better prepared to plan and implement approaches in the interview for indi- vidual students. Granted that a better understanding by counselors of their students and themselves is of benefit to»both counselors and students, the facilitative levels cfi’interpersonal functioning which are significant in the acquisition of such knowledge should be described and ana- lyzed in considerable detail. Presuming that the facilitative levels of interper- sonal functioning, that are significant, can be identified, the Interpersonal Processes Scales of Robert R. Carkhuff 11 appear to be suitable instruments to use in the analysis part of this study. AnalySis of the Data The data obtained from the responding students and counselors will be analyzed by the testing of research hypothesis using the analysis of variance statistical technique. The level of significance for all hypotheses to be accepted is the .05 level of statistical signifi- cance . The study's main hypotheses presented in this sec- tion appear in general form. In Chapter III, related re- search hypotheses will be stated and presented in testable fonm. The major hypotheses are: H 1 N so Black counselors will initially be perceived as more effective change agents than White counse- lors by Black students. The more experienced counselors will be per- ceived as more effective change agents than the less experienced counselors by Black students. The Ph.D. level counselors will be perceived as more effective change agents than the M.A. level counselors by Black students. There will be a significant interaction between counselors' race and experience in determining how Black students perceive them as change agents. There will be a signifiCant interaction between counselors' race, and education in determining how Black students perceive them as change agents. There will be a significant interaction between counselors' education and experience in 12 determining how Black students perceive them as change agents. There will be a significant interaction among counselors' race, experience and education in determining how Black students perceive them as change agents. ' \l .0 Scope and Limitations of the Study This study is limited in its scope. Rather than in- vestigating minority students' perceptions of counselors :hia broad or general manner, the study is designed to fo- cus on one specific segment of minority students, Black students'perceptions of counselors' ability to function interpersonally on high facilitative levels. Thus, the in- formation to be gathered is requested to be as specific in this respect as possible. The report form is designed with that purpose in mind. It is recognized that other minority students (American Indian, Mexican American, Puerto Rican) have their perceptions of what constitutes constructive counse- lor facilitative behavior as well as what other variables impact on the counselor's ability to function as an efe fective change agent. Though knowledge of these persons' perceptions would be of value, this investigation is Specifically designed to center on Black students because of their larger numbers at many universities. Another delimitation was to narrow the sc0pe of the research to include only Black sophomore students and . .... .,—-.+..~ -——- — 13 counselors at Michigan State University. More specifi— cally, the respondents are students who have similar aca- demic and social problems and clearly demonstrated the need for'counseling. Limitations of this study are found largely in the analysis procedures. The Interpersonal Processes Scales, timmselves, present many limitations, most obviously a high degree of subjectivity on the part of the raters or judges. Inta discussion of the scale's limitations, Carkhuff and Berenson state that: This subjectivity could not be avoided, even if it were undesirable. In actuality, counseling and psychotherapy are highly subjective exper- iences, and the scales are merely attempts to assess the levels of the dimensions involved in these experiences. In Operation, research em- phasis is placed upon a high degree of relation- ship between the ratings and reratings by the individual raters as well as a high degree of relationship between the ratings of different raters.1 They further state that: Perhaps the major limitation of the scales is a kind of middle class quality. Only the ver- bal material of therapy can be rated, and of- ten unorthodox communications by the therapist may have a constructive impact upon the client.20 Thus, the communications which do not fall within the range of definitions of the scales may not receive as high ratings as those that fall within the range. The scales ‘_ 19Carkhuff and Berenson, Op. cit., p. 5. 201bid., p, 50, .s 14 and those from which they are derived (earlier scales were developed by Truax and Carkhuff),21 with all their limita- tions, emerge as important instruments with repeated rep- lication in the same and different settings.22 Overview A frame of reference for the entire study is devel- oped in Chapter I. Included are the introduction, state- ment of the problem, theoretical viewpoints, basic assump- tions underlying the study, general research hypotheses, and the scope and limitations of the study. In Chapter II, a review of the related literature will be presented. This included a review of the previous Counseling and educational research which used the Inter- Personal Processes Scales, as well as literature which re- fers to facilitative functioning with students in general and facilitative functioning with minority students in particular. The design of the study and the procedures followed in the use of the research technique will be reported in Chapter III. Information in this chapter will include sources of data, the research instrument, develOpment of the report form, and the treatment of the data. 21C. B. Truax and R. R. Carkhuff, AnIgtroduction to Eggnseling and Psychotherapy: Training and Practice (Chi- cago: Aldine, 1966), p. 30. 22Carkhuff and Berenson, op. cit., p. 5. 15 The examination and analysis of the data will be re- viewed in Chapter IV. This chapter will be divided into two major parts: (1) an analysis of the data in accordance with the principles of the Interpersonal Processes Scales, and (2) an analysis of the data as it applies to the test- able research hypotheses. In Chapter V, a summary of the study, conclusions, and implications for further research will be presented. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Introduction The purpose of a survey of related literature is to indicate the investigations into and comments about a sub- ject'which has preceded this study. The purpose is also ‘u3point out certain gaps in the literature which suggest a need for further study. This chapter will include a Survey of materials dealing with the facilitative dimen- sions of counseling to inform the reader of their previous applications in the field of educational and psychological research. Therefore, the following review is presented in two principal sections. The first deals with the litera- ture related to the facilitative dimensions of counseling and the second with literature related to effective coun- seling with minority students. Literatpre Related to;the Facilitative Dimensions of Counseling The greatest part of therapeutic effectiveness can be accounted for independent of the counselor's theore- tical orientation and technique. The clients of those cOunselors offering the highest levels of facilitative 16 17 dimensions improve, while those of counselors offering the lowest levels deteriorate on a variety of indexes; that is, those helping processes involving the highest levels of empathy, positive regard, genuineness, concreteness, and other dimensions, elicit the greatest client "therapeutic process movement," and ultimately, the greatest construc- tive client gains or changes.1 Before the research related to the facilitative di- mensions of counseling are indicated, it is necessary that the core dimensions are discussed in greater detail. It is important because the therapeutic functioning scales used in this study rely heavily on these four core dimen- sions to measure student perceptions of counselor function- ing as a constructive change agent. Empathy Cartwright and Learner suggest that with empathic understanding, where the counselor strives to respond to the client's deeper feelings as well as his superficial feelings, a number of important dynamics appear that emphasize the underlying understanding of the individual therapist for himself and his client, and de-emphasize 1Carkhuff, opt. cit., Chp. l: Carkhuff and Berenson, op. cit., Chp. 2; C.B. Truax and R. R. Carkhuff, "Con- creteness: A Neglected Variable in Research in Psycho- therapy,” Journal of Clinical Psychology, 20 (1964), 264-267. 18 the techniques employed to communicate this understanding. The implication is that ultimately, the counselor's ef- fectiveness is related to his continuing depth of under- standing rather than to his ability to "technique it" during early phases of therapy. In fact, too much em- pathy too early in therapy may have a harmful effect upon client development, because it may create too much tension or anxiety in the client.3 On the other hand, there is a direct suggestion that there exists an optimum amount of empathy beyond which too little psychological tension will exist to initiate a process of constructive change.4 Carlton5 indicates that as the counselor proceeds, with his client to explore previously unexplored areas of "human living" and "human relationships," it is his commu- nication of his "ever-growing awareness" of the client, and of himself in relation to the client, which provides / gg 2R. D. Cartwright and B. Learner, "Need to Change 5 and Improvement with Psychotherapy," Journal of Consult- ing Psychology, 27 (1963), 138-144. NC. B. Truax and R. R. Carkhuff, "For Better of For worse: The Process of Psychotherapeutic Personality Change," in Recent Advances in Behavior Change (Montreal: McGill University Press, 1963), Chp. 8. 4E. S. Bordin, "Ambiguity as a Therapeutic Vari- able,” Journal of Consulting Ps cholo , 19 (1955), 9-15; L. WClberg, TEe Technique of PsycfioEfierapy (New York: Grune & Stratton, 1954), Chp. 2. 58. Carlton, "Counselor Empathy," in The Counselor's Contribution to Facilitative Processes, ed. y R. R. Cafkhuff’(UrBana, Ill.: Parkinson, 1967), Chp. 2. 19 the client with the "experiential base" for change. With communicative skills, the counselor's self—understanding will translate directly to his ability to "tune—in" on the student's "wavelength" and thus overcome the alienation characterizing the person in need of help. The student is helped to clear up distorted perceptions and their under- lying assumptive bases, and hOpefully, to effect corrective action and constructive change. It must be emphasized that empathy is not the client- centered mode of reflection with which it is often con- fused. Truax and Carkhuff6 mention that a convergence of client centered and psychoanalytic thinking has produced the measures of empathic understanding most highly related to the relevant indexes of client change and gain. The measures of empathy most highly predictive of change inte- grate the client-centered notion of the reflection of feel- ings and the psychoanalytic emphasis upon diagnostic ac- curacy. In this regard, according to Bergin,7 there is evidence to suggest that the mode of communicating em- pathic understanding which approximates the depth reflec- tion of the client-centered school and the moderate 6Truax and Carkhuff, "Significant Developments in Psychotherapy Research," Chp. 70. 7A. E. Bergin, "Some Implications of Psychotherapeu- tic Research for Therapeutic Practices," Journal of Abnor- mal Social Psycholggy, 18 (1966), 393. 20 interpretation of the psychoanalytic orientation appears to be of the "greatest demonstratable efficacy." The emphasis, then, is upon counselor movement to levels of feeling and experiencing deeper than those commu- nicated by the client, yet within a range of expression which the client can constructively employ for his own pur- poses. Fox and Goldin,8 and Katz9 note that the thera- pist's ability to communicate at high levels of empathic understanding appears to involve the therapist's ability to allow himself to experience while "suspending his own judgements," "tolerating his own anxiety," and communi- cating this understanding to the client. In sum, Allerand underscores the point that it is the manner of the counselor, not his theory or technique, which communicates understanding and fosters growth: The therapist can best convey his understanding ,JPof the patient's situation by being fully " human himself and not reacting mechanically by reflecting the patient's words or just intellectually understanding problems.10 8R. E. Fox and P. C. Goldin, "The Empathic Pro- cess in Psychotherapy: A Survey of Theory and Re- search,” Journal of Nervous and Mental Disorders, No. 4 (1964),_I38. 9R. L. Katz, Em ath : Its Nature and Uses (New York: Free Press, 196;}, Chp. 3. 10A. M. Allerand, Em ath In and Out of Ps cho- therapy, unpubl1shed manuscript (New YorE: CoIEEEia Teac ers College, 1964), p. 5. 21 Respect Carkhuff and Berenson state that: Respect or positive regard, in turn, has its origin in the respect which the individual has for himself. He cannot respect the feelings and experiences of others if he cannot respect his ' own feelings and experiences. If the signifi- cant adult figures of his early environment did not communicate this respect, often the indi- vidual must, in his adult years, move through a process of therapeutic personality change involving the communication of respect to attain high self-regard. In addition, the communication of respect appears to shatter the isolation of the individual and establish a basis for empathy.11 There are strong indications that the communication of hu— man warmth and understanding are the principal vehicles for communicating respect.12 Raush and Bordin13 suggest that there are three cri- tical components in the communication of warmth: (l) the ”Counselor's Commitment;" (2) "His effort to understand," and (3) "Spontaniety." They indicate evidence to show that it is the counselor's effort to understand which communi- cates respect and is the major tie between the counselor and client. 11 p. 28. 12R. Pierce, "Counselor Respect," in The Counselor's antribution of Facilitative Processes, ed. y R. R. CarkhuffT(Urbana, 111.: Parkinson, 1967), Chp. 3. 13H. Raush and E. S. Bordin, "warmth in Personality Development and Psychotherapy," Psychiatric Journal, 20 (1957), 351-363. R. R. Carkhuff and B. G. Berenson, 0p. cit., 22 _The work of Norvas and Landfieldl4 shows that those therapists whose communications of warmth incorporate un- derstanding have the greatest success in therapy. Deep counselor respect for the client's worth as a person and his rights as a free individual, is often included under such terms as "unconditional positive regard" or "non- possessive warmth." In this regard, Rogers15 has presented evidence to indicate that positive regard accounts for all of the "variability" or "effectiveness of unconditional- ity." 'Unconditionality, then appears to be nothing more than the initial suspension of potentially "psychonoxious" feelings, attitudes, and judgements by the "more knowing" person in all significant interactions with "less knowing" persons. If the counselor does indeed have respect for his own feelings and experience and those of others, he will communicate this respect over a continued period of interaction. Respect can be communicated in many modalities. It is not always communicated in warm, modulated tones of voice. It may be communicated, for example, in anger. In the final analysis, it is the client's experience of the 14M. Norvas and A. Landfield, "Improvement in Psy- chotherapy and Adoption of the Therapist's Meaning System," Psychological Reports, 13 (1963) 97-98. 15C. R. Rogers, "The Interpersonal Relationship: The Core of Guidance," Harvard Educational Review, 32 23 expression that counts, and the client may experience the counselor's attempt to share his own experience fully as an indicator of the counselor's respect for the client's level of develOpment. Genuineness Barrett-Lennard makes the distinction between how a therapist says what he says and how much of his own person- ality he reveals through his statements. He also under- scores the degree to which the therapist's statements ap- pear to reflect his true feelings. The degree to which one person is functionally in- Itergrated in the context of his relationship with another, such that there is an absence of conflict ;or inconsistency between his total experience, his I awareness and his overt communication is his con- .gruence in the relationship.16 In short, the base for the entire therapeutic process is the establishment of a genuine relationship between thera- pist and client.17 The degree to which the counselor can behonest with himself and, thus, with theclient, establishes this _HH- u ‘. base. However, the construct of genuineness must be 166. T. Barrett-Lennard, "Dimensions of Therapist Response as Casual Factors in Therapeutic Change,“ Psy- chological Monograms, 43 (1962), 176. 17J. C. Martin, "The Communication of Genuineness: Counselor Self-Disclosure," in The Counselor' 8 Contribu- tion to Facilitative Processes, ed. By R. R. Carkhuff (UfBana, 111.: Parkinson, 71967), Chp. 3. 'l 24 differentiated from the construct of "facilitative genuine- ness."18 Obviously, the degree to which a counselor is aware of his own experience will be related to the degree to which he can enable his client to become aware of the client's experience. However, many distructive persons are in full contact with their experience, that is, they are distructive when they are genuine. The potentially 1.! deleterious effects of genuineness have been established . . . . 19 in some research 1nqu1r1es. The emphasis upon the counselor's being freely and .n..-_- ._.-_... -11 - .r _l,.' deeply himself in a "nonexploitative" relationship incor- porates one critical qualification. When his only genuine responses are negative in regard to the client, the coun- selor should make an effort to employ his responses con— structively as a basis for further inquiry for the coun- selor, the client, and their relationship. There is evidence to suggest that although low levels of genuineness are clearly impediments to client progress in therapy, above a certain minimum level, very high levels of genuineness are not related to additional 18Carkhuff, op. cit., Chp. 4. 19C. B. Traux, R. R. Carkhuff, and F. Kodman, "Personality Change in Hospitalized Mental Patients during Group Psychotherapy as a Function of the Use of Alternate Sessions and Vicarious Therapy Pretraining," Journal of Clinical Psychology, 21 (1965), 225-228. 25 increases in client functioning.20 Thus, while it appears of critical importance to avoid the conscious or uncon- scious facade of "playing the therapeutic role," the ne- cessity for the counselor to express himself fully at all times is not supported. Carkhuff and Berenson21 note that genuineness must not be confused, as it is often done, with free license for the counselor to do what he will in counseling, es- pecially to express hostility. When working with a very brittle client leading a very tenuous existence, for ex- ample, the counselor may withhold some very genuine res- ponses. Nevertheless, he is continually working toward a more equalitarian, full-sharing relationship. ? Concreteness Concreteness or specificity of expression, a vari- able largely under the counselor's direct control, involves the {fluepyyfl "direct," and complete "expression of spef cific feelipgs apd experiences!" regardless of their emoEional content, by both counselor and client. This di- mension appears to serve at least three important func- tions. First, the counselor's concreteness ensures that his responses do not become too far removed emotionally 20Truax and Carkhuff, ”Significant DevelOpments . . . ,' Chp. 70. 21Carkhuff and Berenson, 0p. cit., Chp. 2. I . m. 0.. . no. a u.« a. .. 26 from the client's feelings and experiences. Second, con- creteness encourages the counselor to be more accurate in his understanding of the client, which allows misunder- standings of feelings and experiences to be clarified and corrections made more easily. Third, the client is di- rectly influenced to attend specifically to problem areas and conflicts.22 In at least one study, concreteness emerged as the most significant contributor to effective therapy, far out- weighing the contributions of empathy, positive regard, and genuineness.23 Perhaps the most significant qualification upon this variable is that the material must be of "per— sonally meaningful relevance" to the client.24 In addition, while concreteness is of significant value during the early phases of counseling and psycho- therapy, it may be of less or little value when unconscious material is later dealt with. In this context, Pope and Siegman25 suggest that counselor specificity may be 22Carkhuff and Truax, 0p. cit., pp. 723-728. 23Truax and Carkhuff, ”Concreteness: A Neglected Variable . . . ," pp. 264-267. 24Carkhuff, op. cit., Chp. 5. 258. POpe and A. W. Siegman, "Effect of Therapist Verbal Activity Level and Specificity on Patient Pro- ductivity and Speech Disturbance in the Initial Inter- views," Journal of ConsultingPsychology, 26 (1962), 489. 27 "anxiety-reducing" when the content is neutral, but "anxiety-arousing" when the material is "emotion-laden." Research Relatedrto the Core Facilitative Dimensions A number of researchers have conducted studies for the purpose of ascertaining the impact that the core dimen- sions of empathy, respect or positive regard, genuineness and concreteness or specificity of expression have on ef- fective counseling and psychotherapy. In an attempt to see how some have investigated certain of the afore-mentioned dimensions, the examination of research approaches of var- ious workers in the field seems warranted. Early Research In order to measure the ability to understand or em- pathize with another, Dymond26 constructed a test of em- pathy in 1949. This test was comprised of four parts. Each part contained the same six items. In part one the subject rated himself on a five point scale for each of the items. In part two the subject rated another person on the same scale. In part three the subject rated an— cmher person as he thought that person would rate himself. In part four the subject rated himself as he thought the other person would rate him. 26R. F. Dymond, ”The Measurement of Empathic Abil- 11%,“ Journal of Consulting Psychology, 13 (1949) , 127- .n' «(H 28 Fifty-three subjects--29 females and 24 males--took part in this experiment. The group of 53 was broken into five groups of seven persons each and three groups of six persons each. Each group met once a week to work on a cflass project. Each subject did all four ratings after Ids group had met three times. It was found that there was a higher than chance (.01 level) correct score in terms of predictability. This procedure was repeated after the groups had met eight times. A slight but in- significant improvement was found with time. It was found, however, that although no difference was found be- tween males and females on the first testing, females were better predictors the second time. It was also found that those groups which functioned less smoothly did somewhat worse the second time than the groups that functioned better. Dymond then took the five highest empathizers (pre- dictors) and gave them T.A.T.'s. She found, in general, that the highest predictors empathized with story char- acters while low empathizers did not. She then had each subject rate himself as to whether he was empathic or not, and she found a poor correlation between this self- rating and the subject's ability to predict, for low empathizers, but a good correlation for the high em- pathizers . 29 In regard to the results of this study Dymond states: It seems that those whose empathic ability is high, as measured by this test, have better in- sights into the fact that they are high, than those who are low have into the fact that they are low.27 [Wmond therefore presents evidence for her view that self- insight and the ability to understand others are posi- tively rated. 28 tried to relate In a later study, in 1950, Dymond personality with empathy. She administered her four part empathy test to a class and found that females were more easily predictive than were males. She further found that it was more difficult to predict a person who had low empathy as measured by the empathy test than a person who had high empathy as measured by this test. She also found that those whose self conception agreed well with the concept others had of them were able to take the role of others as measured by the empathy test. Thus Dymond once again found a positive relationship between insight and the ability to understand others. These subjects were each then given the T.A.T., the Rorschach, the wechsler-Bellevue, and the California Ethno-Centrism Test. Dymond found that the low 27Ibid., p. 132. 28R. F. Dymond, "Personality and Empathy," Journal 5§LConsulting Psychology, 14 (1950), 343-350. Peeww——+emns1 30 empathizers were rigid, functioned best on an abstract level and poorest in concrete situations especially when dealing with other peOple, they were more responsive to promptings from within than from without, were impulsive, were infantile, they possessed little sensitivity and tact, had had difficult family lives, they mistrusted cnmers, were afraid of being hurt, they were ego-centric, (hmunating and were insecure. The high empathizers, as a group, were just the opposite on all counts. Thus, she <fid find a relationship between the ability to empathize, msshown by her test, and various personality descrip- tions. It would seem from these results that the ability Ubempathize would be found only in certain kinds of im0p1e, and tends to be associated with such factors as feeling freedom of self-expression and of being Open to CXperience . 29 Lindgren and Robinson30 revised Dymond's test method SUghtly and got some similar and some different results. The conflicting results led them to conclude: This raises the question of whether the test measures the tendency of individuals to respond 29W. M. Lesser, "The Relationship Between Counseling I’lfogress and Empathic Understanding" (unpublished Ph.D. thesertation, Michigan State University, 1958), p. 15. 30H. C. Lindgren and J. Robinson, "Evaluation of Dflmuui's Test of Insight and Empathy." Journal of Con- WQ psychology. 17 (1953), 172—176. 31 to an interpersonal situation in terms of cul- tural norms rather than empathic promptings.3l The suggestion by these investigators that predic- tion may be somewhat related to cultural expectations is noted also by Gage.32 He suggests that generalized stereotyped responses expected of all people, plus stereotyped responses expected of certain sub-groups (e.g. males, females, Blacks, Spanish-speaking) in addi- tion to one's own expected responses all affect one's prediction of another person. His view therefore is that individual and cultural factors are both important in the process of understanding. Fiedler,33 in 1950, using a Q-sort of 75 state- ments, had trained judges rate the relationship between therapists and clients after listening to a number of tapes. He found that despite the school from which the therapist came (i.e., psycho-analytic, nondirective, or Adlerian), experts of each of these schools showed em- pathic understanding of the patient, that is, were sensi- tive to the patient's feelings, while nonexperts were swayed more by their own needs. 31Ibid., p. 176. 32N. L. Gage, "Explorations in the Understanding of Others,” Educational and Psychological Measurement, 13 (1953), 14-26. . 33F. E. Fiedler, "A Comparison of Therapeutic Rela— tionships in Psychoanalytic, Nondirective and Adlerian gigrzpy," Journal of Consultinggsychology, 14 (1950): " 45. 32 A further study of patient-therapist relationships was done by Fiedler and Senior.34 These authors felt that each of the two persons in a therapeutic situation is unconsciously, and in part consciously, aware of the other's feelings. They indicate that: It is the hypothesis of the investigation that the attitudes which one of the two participants had toward himself and toward the other person will be meaningfully related to the attitudes held by the second person.35 Fifteen therapists and one patient per therapist, com- prised the subjects in this study. Each person did a self sort and an ideal self sort, and each sorted as he thought the other half of his pair (therapist or patient) had sorted himself. Fiedler and Senior here defined self satisfaction as the correlation between the self and the ideal self. Prediction was defined as the correlation between pre- dictive sort and the other person's self sort. Real similarity was defined as the correlation between the patient and therapist self sorts. Real similarity to the ideal was defined as the correlation between one person's ideal and the other's self sort. Unwarranted assumed similarity was identified as the over-estimation of F 34F. E. Fiedler and K. Senior, "An Exploratory Study of Unconscious Feeling Reactions in Fifteen Patient- Therapist Pairs," Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, 47 (1952), 446-453. 351bid., p. 446. 33 similarity by the statistical method of squared differ- ences. Unwarranted assumed similarity to the ideal was defined by a statistical method of finding one person's over-estimation of the other's adjustment. A high un- warranted assumed similarity, by the therapist, suggested to Fiedler and Senior that: The therapist sees the patient as a person with whom he can identify, whom he can understand, like or respect; This presumably is indicative of a good therapeutic relationship.35 Therapeutic competence was then found via super- visor's rankings. Results of this study showed: 1. Better therapists, as ranked by their super- visors, are better able to predict their pa- tient's self sort than are poorer therapists. 2. Better therapists are not as self-satisfied as poorer therapists. 3. The better therapist is seen by the patient as more ideal than he really is. 4. The more self-satisfied the therapist, the poor- er predictor he is. 5. "The greater the similarity of the therapist to the patient's ideal, the less the therapist tends to like, or empathize with, his patients."37 361bid., p. 448. 37Ibid., p. 449. 34 Among other things these results suggest that actual similarity between a therapist and a client is a less im- portant factor in therapist understanding than the ther- apist's feeling of similarity. Furthermore a close rela- tionship between the therapist's ideal self and the cflient's real self seems to result in less understanding on the part of the therapist. It appears that Fiedler and Senior are implying that there is a perception on the part of the therapist of his own self and ideal self concept, and of the client's self and ideal self concepts. Conse- quently, it seems that the therapist's feelings about him— self, his client, and the total situation are of more im- portance than the reality of himself, his client and the situation. A review of the early research on the facilitative dfimensions of counseling and therapy revealed that em- pathic understanding and insight were the indices most investigated. The objective was to see how certain factors related to empathic understanding or the effect these factors had on a person's ability to be empathic. Most of the other facilitative dimensions were not fully studied until the 1960's. Eater Research In order to determine the effects the manipulation 0f therapeutic conditions have on high and low functioning 35 clients, Holder, Carkhuff and Berenson38 designed a study to examine the depth of self-exploration of persons func- tioning at high and low levels of empathy, respect, genu- ineness and concreteness, who are exposed to several different therapeutic conditions. The three highest functioning students and the three lowest functioning students were selected from eleven fe- nmle college students who were cast in the helping role of the counselor. Unknown to each student, an experienced counselor, functioning at high levels of facilitative con- ditions based upon previous research findings, offered high levels of conditions during the first third of the clinical interview, low levels during the middle twenty minutes and again high levels were reinstated during the last third of the interview. Each counselor attempted to standardize the introduction to the initial and third periods, and at- tempted to make as many responses during the middle period as he did during the other periods. The depth of self-exploration of the low functioning students was found to be dependent upon the level of con- ditions offered by the counselor. The depth of self; exploration of high functioning students continued inde- pendent of the level of conditions offered by the counselor, g . 38T. Holder, R. R. Carkhuff, and B. G. Berenson, "The Differential Effects of the Manipulation of Therapeutic Conditions upon High and Low Functioning Clients," Journal wunselinLPsychology, 14 (1967), 63-66. 36 and was significantly higher than that of the low func- tioning students. ‘ Holder, Carkhuff and Berenson39 suggest that, in gen- eral, it would appear that high functioning students make better use of the counseling process than students who are functioning at lower levels of conditions. They further state that: The results support the proposition that follow- ing the establishment of a relatively high level of communication, much of the communication pro- cess with the high level functioning, or level 340 client may remain implicit. A similar study was conducted by Carkhuff and 42 Alexik in which eight experienced therapists were seen by a client who, unknown to the therapists, had a res- ponse set to explore herself deeply during the first third of the interview, not at all during the middle twenty minutes, and then again deeply during the last third of the session. 39Ibid., p. 66. 4OCarkhuff has developed five-point scales to assess the facilitative dimensions related to improved function- ing in all interpersonal processes. On all scales, level 3 is defined as the minimally facilitative level of in- terpersonal functioning. The rating levels will be dis- cussed in greater detail in Chapter III. 41Ibid., p. 66. 42R. R. Carkhuff and M. Alexik, "The Differential Effects of the Manipulation of Client Self-Exploration Upon High and Low Functioning Therapists," Journal of Qggnseling Psychology, 23 (1967), 212-215. 37 Three therapists were found to be functioning above level 3 during the initial period while five therapists were functioning below level 3. The client was able to nunipulate successfully the depth of her self exploration. Those therapists functioning above level 3 all tended to function independently of the client's manipulation, with the highest therapists again moving toward higher levels at the point of manipulation, and the lowest among the three being effected only slightly. Of the therapists functioning below level 3 in the initial period, all dropped significantly in their level of functioning during the experimental period and none returned to their initial levels of functioning. The investigators indicated that the counselors functioned consistently with past ratings of their performance from other studies. Carkhuff and Alexik point out that: the implication is that, at a crisis point in therapy where a client who had been previously exploring herself at deep levels, but then begins to run away from personally relevant material, low level therapists can simply not respond apprOpriately with consistent levels of facilitative conditions while high level therapists continue to offer high levels of conditions. Indeed, there is some tendency for the highest level practioners to function at higher levels following the crisis point.43 431bid., p. 214. ____._ ———-—_———— 38 Martin, Carkhuff and Berenson44 designed a study to assess the facilitative conditions offered by friends and professional counselors. In a counterbalanced design, six- teen volunteer college students were interviewed by both (1) their "best available friends" and (2) a professional counselor. A total of thirty-two interviews were con- ducted, with each of the two experienced counselors seeing eight interviewees, and each counselor seeing four inter- viewees first and four last. Following each interview, the interviewee filled out a fifty-item relationship ques- tionnaire evaluating the interviewer. Randomly selected excerpts of the recorded sessions were rated. On all tape ratings of the levels of facilitative conditions and the "process involvement" elicited in the interview, the counselors performed at significantly higher levels than the "best available friends." The results on the questionnaire were similar. While the two professional counselors together demonstrated significantly higher lev— els of conditions than friends, as a group, the counselors differed significantly from each other, suggesting that while professional experience may be of primary value in the development of "receptor" and ”communicative skills," 44J. C. Martin, R. R. Carkhuff, and B. G. Berenson, ”Process Variables in Counseling and Psychotherapy: A Study of Counseling and Friendship,” Journal of Counseling Psychology, 13 (1966), 441-446. 39 other factors such as the personality and attitudes of the individual counselor may be critical. A study was designed by Banks, Berenson and Carkhuff45 to determine the effects upon eight Black stu- dents in initial clinical interviews of an inexperienced Black counselor and three White counselors of varying de- grees of experience and types of training. In a counter- balanced design the Black counselor and the three White counselors saw eight Black counselees and were assessed on the dimensions of counselor empathy, positive regard, genuineness, concreteness and client depth of self- exploration by taped ratings and a fifty-item inventory filled out by the counselees. The investigators note that all of the counselees indicated that they would return to see the Black counse- lor. Five counselees said that they would return to see the White relationship-trained counselors and three said they would return to see the Black counselor. None of the eight counselees would return to see the traditionally- trained, experienced, Ph.D. counselor. Essentially the same results were obtained on the rank-orderings with the White doctoral level person ranked last by all counselees. The results suggest that counselor race and type of 456. Banks, B. G. Berenson, and R. R. Carkhuff, "The Effects of Counselor Race and Training Upon Counseling Pro- cess with Negro Clients Initial Interviews," Journal of Clinical Psychology, 23 (1967), 70-72. 40 orientation and training are more relevant variables than experience per se. Carkhuff and Pierce46 conducted a study to ferret out the differential effects of (l) the race and (2) the social class of the therapist upon patient depth of self- exploration. Social class was designed by educational and vocational level. Four lay counselors who had completed a lay mental health counselor training program included the following: (1) an upper-class White counselor, (2) an upper-class Black counselor, (3) a lower-class White coun- selor, and (4) a lower—class Black counselor. All lay counselors had (1) similar training (2) similar kinds of therapeutic experience, and all had (3) demonstrated no significant differences in their levels of counselor- offered conditions as measured by ratings of empathy, posi- tive regard, genuineness and depth of self-exploration elicited in patients in clinical interviews. All counse- lors were females. A Latin Squares design was replicated across four dif- ferent groups of four hospitalized mental patients each: (1) four upper-class White patients, (2) four upper—class Black patients (3) four lower—class White patients, (4) four lower-class Black patients. All patients were females. 46R. R. Carkhuff and R. M. Pierce, "The Differential Effects of Therapists' Race and Social Class Upon Patient Depth of Self-Exploration in the Initial Clinical Inter- view," Journal of Consulting Psychology, 40 (1967) 317-319. 41 Each counselor saw each patient in a design counter- balanced to control for the effects of order. Each group of patients was seen a week apart to control for counselor fatigue factors. The patients rotated to the counselors' rooms and each forty-five minute length interview was re— corded. All counselors began each session encouraging the patient in an Open-ended fashion to discuss "whatever is important" to the patient "at this moment in time." Ran- dcmnselected excerpts from the sixty-four clinical inter- views were rated on the depth of patient self-exploration. It was found that the race and social class of both the patient and therapist were significant sources of ef- fect, and the interaction between patient and therapist variable was significant. In general, the ratings of patient self-exploration on the facilitative dimension scales ranged from level 1 to level 3 with an average of slightly under level 2. The patients most similar to the race and social class of the counselor tended to explore themselves most, while patients most dissimilar tended to explore themselves least. There were no significant ef- fects of the order in which the patients were seen and the effects of race were not dependent upon the level of social class in both patient and therapist. Carkhuff and Pierce state the following about the re- sults of this study: 42 as patient depth of self-exploration during early clinical interviews has been highly correlated with outcome indexes of construc- tive patient change, the results have impli- cations for counseling and psychotherapy.47 Literature Related to Effective Counseling with Minority Students When the issue of effective counseling with minority students is considered, one question seems to loom to the forefront. It relates to the principles on which counse- lcus and therapists should base their frames-of-reference when working with these students. The first, and probably more important principle has to do with the similarities or differences in psychological structure between minority students and other students. In a discussion of the uniqueness of Negro mental troubles, Grier and Cobbs indicate that: There is nothing reported in the literature or in the experience of any clinician known to the authors that suggests that Black people function differently psychologically from anyone else. Black men's mental functioning is governed by the same rules as that of any other group of men. Psychological principles understood first in the study of white men are true no matter what the Man's color. To illustrate their point they give the following ex- ample: A graduate student in social work took as his project a study of the principles governing 47Ibid., p. 319. 48Grier and Cobbs, 0p. cit., pp. 154-155. 43 the psychological growth and development of black people. His misguided chauvinism made it difficult for him to see that while the exper- iences of black peOple in this country are unique, the principles of psychological func- tioning are by definition universal. we do not wish to suggest that we are similarly naive, but rather that the unique experience of black men is a constant factor influencing growth and activity and is fre- quently a focal point upgn which basic prin- ciples are seen to act. Supporting Grier and Cobbs' premise that differ- ences in minority students are a result of their unique 50 states that socially disad- eXperiences, Havighurst vantaged students have been denied some social experi- ences that "normal" children have had. They are classified with the following: (1) they are at the bottom of the American Society in terms of income, (2) they have a rural background, (3) they suffer from social and economic dis- crimination at the hands of the majority of the society, and (4) they are widely distributed in the United States. While they are most visable in the big cities, they are present in all except the very high income communities. 51 Stump, Jordan and Friesen, further, allude to the importance of counselor ability to understand and deal with 49Ibid., p. 155. 50R. J. Havighurst, "Who are the Disadvantaged," Education, 85 (April, 1965), 455-457. 51W. L. Stump, J. E. Jordan, and E. W. Friesen, ”Cross-Cultural Considerations in Understanding Vocational Development,” Journal of Counseling_Psychology, 14 (1967) 325. 44 the uniqueness of client experiences in vocational coun- seling. They suggest that to understand vocational devel- opment one needs to consider (a) how a man attains his identity in a given culture, (b) how vocational develop- ment is influenced by institutional forces, and (c) how Cultural changes produce correlated changes in vocational development. They further indicate some basic assumptions which should govern the counselor's approach with minority students. They are: (1) culture provides a context in which the individual validates his vocational self; (2) cultural contexts comprise a variety of institutional forces, each one influencing vocational development to some degree: and (3) cultural forces change with respect to ur- banization and industralization, with consequent changes taking place in the patterns and/or possibilities of an individual's vocational development. Finally, Lardes suggests how the core facilitative dimensions may be operationally instituted in school coun- seling through certain proposed counseling practices--in- cluding cultural factors: 1. Since norms of conduct are taught a child first by his parents, who continue to teach through daily living, the school must de- velop active associations with parents on school grounds and out in their neighbor- hoods and homes through teacher, counselors and social workers. 2. Counselors and teachers must learn carefully the subcultures and perhaps the languages of the groups they counsel and teach. 45 3. Individual counselors and other educators should each learn his own cultural back- ground and family antecedents in syste- matic detail, in order to understand his own behavior with those of other origins. 4. The interest of the child and of his parents should be observed carefully in school recommendations, whether the pro- posals concern study programs or something else. 5. School staff should be clear about boun- deries and modes of evincing responsibility as these are defined by the group from which the pupil comes. 6. The conceptual "normal curve of distribu- tion" should be forgotten in counseling pupils of backgrounds unfamiliar to the particular counselor. 7. Counselors must attempt to personalize and individualize the educational rela- tionship. 8. Counselors and teachers be trained to assume responsibility towards pupils and to manifest this without expressing hos- tility.52 A review of research on the facilitative dimensions of counseling indicates that although attention has been focused on identifying the impact of such counselor char- acteristics as culture, race, experience, training and social class on the therapeutic process: further study of the effect of certain of these characteristics, in coun- seling, with specific client groups is warranted. Thus, an investigation of how selected personal characteristics 52R. Landes, "An Anthropologist Looks at School Counseling," Journal of Counselinngsychology, 10 (1963) 46 of counselors are related to their effectiveness as seen by Black college students is appropriate at this time. Summary Literature related to the core facilitative dimen- sions of counseling were reviewed, as to their importance in therapy and general use in counseling, and ten studies were discussed in which the core facilitative dimensions of empathy, respect, genuineness and concreteness were used in counseling research. A review of the early research on the facilitative dimensions of counseling and therapy revealed that em- pathic understanding and insight were the factors most in- vestigated. A test was constructed and several studies were conducted to determine the relationship between self- insight and the ability of counselors to understand others. It was found that these factors were positively related-- i.e., counselors who showed high levels of self-insight showed greater understanding of others than counselors with low levels of self-insight. A study using an empathy test method slightly revised from that used in the first two studies got some similar and some different results. The different results sug- gested that generalized stereotyped responses expected of all peOple and responses expected of certain sub-groups in addition to one's own expected responses all affect 47 one's empathic understanding and prediction of another per- son. This introduced a new variable, culture, as also having impact on counselor's ability to be helpful to clients. . In another study designed to determine the effect of therapistS' orientations on their ability to show empathic understanding, it was found that despite the schools from which the therapists came--i.e., psychoanalytic, nondirec- tive, or Adlerian--experts of each of these schools showed empathic understanding of the patient (they were sensitive to patients' feelings), while nonexperts were swayed more by their own needs. The inference, here, is that thera- pist's ability to be empathic is not solely a function of his professional orientation. A study conducted to identify the effect of therapist-client similarity in psychotherapy suggested that actual similarity between a therapist and a client is a less important factor in therapist's understanding of the client than therapist's feelings of similarity. Thus, the therapist who can generate feelings of similarity with the client can be helpful regardless of his actual similarity to the client. A review of the later research on the facilitative dimensions of counseling showed that a greater number of these dimensions (empathy, respect, genuineness, and concreteness) were observed. Two studies examined the 48 impact that high and low functioning counselors, on the facilitative dimensions, have on high and low functioning clients' depth of self-exploration. It was found that while high functioning clients continue to be able to ex- perience self-exploration in depth with high and low func- tioning counselors, low functioning clients fail to dis- play deep self—exploration when the counselor does not provide high facilitative conditions. One study assessed the facilitative conditions of- fered by friends and counselors. The findings showed that the counselors performed at significantly higher levels of facilitative conditions than the friends. However, while the counselors demonstrated at significantly higher levels of conditions than friends, as a group, the counselors dif— fered significantly from each other, suggesting that while professional experience may be of value, other factors such as the attitude and personality of the individual counselor may be critical. Two studies looked at the effects of counselor's race, orientation, training and social class on both Black and White students. The results indicate that race, so- cial class, orientation and training are more relevant var- iables than experience per se. The depth of client self- exploration during early clinical interviews has been highly correlated with constructive client change. 0" 49 Finally, the literature indicates that the principles governing psychological development among Whites also apply for minority group individuals. It suggests that counse- lors, therapists, social workers, teachers, and others in helping professions must understand and consider the unique cultural and environmental milieu of minority students if they expect to work with them effectively. CHAPTER III DESIGN AND PROCEDURE OF THE STUDY Introduction This is a study of how selected personal character- istics of counselors are related to their effectiveness as seen by Black college students. The study was designed to identify and describe how Black students perceive coun- selors of different levels of education, experience and race as change agents. Student evaluations of counselors were used to determine how they perceived the counselor's effectiveness. Professional ratings of the counselor's levels of facilitative functioning were also taken to pro- vide additional information about the counselor's ef- fectiveness with Black students. The participants in this study included Black and White counselors with different experiential and educa- tional backgrounds. The respondents were Black students presently matriculated at Michigan State University and classified as sophomores. The research instruments used were Carkhuff's Interpersonal Process Scales and the Gross Ratings of Dimensions of Facilitative Interpersonal Functioning 50 51 Questionnaire.1 These instruments provided a method for gathering the data and a procedure for identifying and evaluating the data. The data were used in testing specific hypotheses regarding the effect of certain coun- selor characteristics upon student perceptions of counse- lor effectiveness. Information which was gathered by using this pro- cedure is reported and analyzed in Chapter IV. Population The population studied in this research was confined to Black sophomore students at Michigan State University. This delimitation was designed to control for the confound- ing variable of diversity in student problems. The res- pondents were students who had similar academic and social problems and had clearly demonstrated the need for coun- seling. An examination of the respondents' hometowns shows that they were drawn from throughout the state of Michigan. Table 1 indicated the range in size of the different cities from which the respondents came. Although the student dis- tribution covers most areas of Michigan, the large per- centage of students from cities with populations above 1R. R. Carkhuff, Helping and Human Relations: A Primer for La and Professional Hel rs - Volume II TNew YorE: HoIt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 69 , PP. 315- 328. 52 TABLE l.--Percentage distribution of respondents' hometowns. Students' Approximate % % % Hometowns Population Males Females Total Benton Harbor, Mich. 17,449 3 4 3 Covert, Mich. 2,490 - 4 2 Detroit, Mich. 1,670,144 41 65 52 East Lansing, Mich. 30,198 ' 3 - 2 Ecorse, Mich. 17,328 - 4 2 Flint, Mich. 196,940 13 - 6 Hamtramck, Mich. 34,137 3 - 2 Highland Park, Mich. 38,063 — 4 2 Inster, Mich. 39,097 - 4 2 Jackson, Mich. 50,720 3 - 2 Lansing, Mich. 113,058 16 4 10 Milwaukee, Wis. 741,324 3 - 2 Mount Clemens, Mich. 21,016 6 - 3 Muskegon, Mich. 46,485 3 - 2 Niles, Mich. 13,842 - 7 3 Saginaw, Mich. 98,265 3 4 3 Vandalia, Mich. 2,118 3 - 2 Total % 100 100 100 ‘n ' I n 53 95,000 people suggests a decided urban orientation among respondents. Sample A sample of 150 respondents was randomly selected from a population of 258. They were stratified according to sex (75 males and 75 females) to control for variations caused by differences in sex. The respondents were then randomly selected within each strata so that there were 32 males in one and 26 females in the other. Although only 24 respondents were actually needed and used in each strata, 32 males and 26 females were finally selected to provide for a certain percentage of respondent mortality or loss. The randomization process involved use of the table of random numbers found in Downie and Heath's statistical text.2 Students were selected based on the last three digits in their Michigan State University student numbers. A form letter (see Appendix A) was sent to each of the students selected to participate in the study. The letter suggested that the period for sophomores to select majors, set up summer course schedules and to discuss aca- demic difficulties had arrived. Students were encouraged to contact the Equal Opportunities Counseling Office for 2N. M. Downie and R. W. Heath, Basic Statistical Mbthods (New York: Harper 6 Row, 1959), pp. 316-317. -fi—fl . _ __ — 9.....- —__ ...._.__ 54 appointments. Then after a reasonable period of time, if no communication was received from a particular student, a follow up telephone call was made to that student to ascer— . tain his desire to utilize the counseling services. Treatment Group The treatment group included eight counselors with different levels of education and experience and from dif- ferent races (Blacks and Whites). Characteristics of all the participants in the treatment group are presented in outline form on the following page. Instrumentation Interpersonal Processes Scales The I.P.S. (see Appendix B) focus attention on the levels of facilitative conditions generated by the counse- lor in therapeutic contacts. Thus in this study of coun— selor's effectiveness as a perceived change agent, the I.p.s. were selected as suitable means of gathering data which identify the levels of facilitative functioning of each counselor. In discussing the validation of the I.P.S., Carkhuff stated it should be emphasized that: This scale is derived in part from "A Scale for the.Measurement of Accurate Empathy," which has been validated in extensive process and outcome research on counseling and psychotherapy (sum- marized in Truax & Carkhuff, 1967), and in part from an earlier version that had been validated in extensive process and outcome research on 55 Participants Education Experience Age Counselor 1* M.A. level 4 1/2 yrs. in Public sch. setting 27 Counselor II Ph.D. level 7 yrs. in sch. & agency counseling 31 Counselor III M.A. level 6 mos. in Tutorial- counseling program 24 Counselor IV Ph.D. level 2 yrs. as counselor 37 *Females Figure l.--Graphic description of characteristics of Black counselors in treatment group. Participants Education Experience Age Counselor V* M.A. level 3 yrs. in 35 counseling Counselor VI Ph.D. level 3 1/2 yrs. in 28 counseling Counselor VII M.A. level 1 yr. in sch. 34 related coun. Counselor VIII Ph.D. level 1 yr. in 26 College Coun. *Females Figure 2.--Graphic description of characteristics of White counselors in treatment group. 56 counseling and psychotherapy (summarized in Carkhuff, 1968; Carkhuff & Berenson, 1967). In addition, similar measures of similar con- structs have received extensive support in the literature of counseling and therapy and edu- cation. The present scale was written to ap- ply to all interpersonal processes and repre- sents a systematic attempt to reduce ambiguity and increase reliability. In the process many important delineations and additions have been made, including, in particular, the change to a systematic focus upon the additive, sub- tractive, or interchangeable aspects of the levels of communication of understanding. For comparative purposes, level 1 of the present scale is approximately equal to stage 1 of the Truax scale. The remaining levels are approx- imately correspondent: level 2 and stage 2 and 3 of the earlier version; level 3 and stages 4 and 5; level 4 and stages 6 and 7; level 5 and stages 8 and 9. The levels of the present scale are approximately equal to the levels of the earlier version of this scale. He indicates with regard to the dimension of respect that: This scale is derived in part from "A Tentative Scale for the Measurement of Unconditional Posi- tive Regard," which have been validated in ex- tensive process and outcome research on counsel- ing and psychotherapy (summarized in Truax & Carkhuff, 1967), and in part from an earlier version that has been validated in extensive process and outcome research on counseling and psychotherapy (summarized in Carkhuff, 1968; Carkhuff & Berenson, 1967). In addition, sim- ilar measures of similar constructs have re— ceived extensive support in the literature on counseling and psychotherapy and education. The present scale was written to apply to all interpersonal processes and represents a sys- tematic attempt to reduce ambiguity and in- crease reliability. In the process many im- portant delineations and additions have been made. For comparative purposes, the levels of the present scale are approximately equal p. 315. 3Carkhuff, Helping and Human Relations . . . , 57 to the stages of both the earlier scales, al— though the systematic emphasis upon the positive regard rather than upon unconditionality repre- sents a pronounced divergence of emphasis and the systematic deemphasis of concern for advice- giving and directionality, both of which may or may not communicate high levels as well as low levels of respect.4 In discussing the genuineness scale Carkhuff states that: This scale if derived in part from "A Tentative Scale for the Measurement of Therapist Genuine- ness or Self-congruence," which has been vali- dated in extensive process and outcome research on counseling and psychotherapy (summarized in Truax & Carkhuff, 1967) and in part from an ear- lier version that has been similarly validated (summarized in Carkhuff, 1968; Carkhuff & Berenson, 1967). In addition, similar measures of similar constructs have received support in the literature of counseling and psychotherapy and education. The present scale was written to apply to all interpersonal processes and represents a systematic attempt to reduce am- biguity and increase reliability. In the pro- cess, many important delineations and additions have been made. For comparative purposes, the levels of the present scale are approximately equal to the stages of the earlier scale, al- though the systematic emphasis upon the con— structive employment of negative reactions re- presents a pronounced divergence of emphasis. He states the following about concreteness or speci- ficity of expression: This scale is derived from earlier work (sum- marized in Truax & Carkhuff, 1967). Similar measures of similar constructs have been re- searched only minimally. The present scale has received support in research on training and counseling (summarized in Carkhuff, 1968; 4Ibid., p. 317. 5Ibid., p. 319. and 58 Carkhuff & Berenson, 1967). The systematic emphasis upon the personally meaningful rele- vance of concrete and specific expressions re- presents a pronounced divergence of emphasis.6 The scoring system is further explained by Carkhuff Berenson when they state that: On all scales, level 3 is defined as the mini- mally facilitative level of interpersonal func- tioning. At level 3 of the empathic understand- ing scale, the verbal or behavioral expressions of the first person (the counselor or therapist, teacher, or parent) in response to the verbal or behavioral expressions of the second person (the client, student or child), are essentially inter- changeable with those of the second person in that they express essentially the same affect and meaning. Below level 3, the responses of the counselor detract from those of the client. Thus, at level 1, the lowest level of inter- personal functioning, the first person's re- sponses either do not attend to or detract sig- nificantly from the expressions of the second person in that they communicate significantly less of the second person's feelings than the second person has communicated himself. At level 2, while the first person does respond to the expressed feelings of the second person, he does so in such a way that he subtracts noticeably from the affective communications of the second person. Above level 3, the first person's re- sponses are additive in nature. Thus, at level 4, the responses of the first person add no- ticeably to the expressions of the second person in such a way as to express feelings a level deeper than the second person was able to ex- press himself. Level 5, in turn, characterizes those first person responses which add signifi- cantly to the feelings and meaning of the second person in such a way as to express accurately feelings levels below what the person himself was able to express or, in the event of ongoing deep self-exploration on the second person's part, to be fully with him in his deepest moments.7 6Ibid., p. 323. 7Carkhuff and Berenson, op. cit., p. 5. 59 Gro§s Ratings of Dimensions of_Facilitative Interper- sonal Functioning Qgestionnaire This questionnaire (see Appendix C) focuses atten- tion on the levels of counselor facilitative functioning as perceived by respondents. Thus, the G.R.D.F.I.F. was selected as a suitable means of gathering data which des- cribes Black students' perceptions of different coun- selors as change agents. Carkhuff8 indicated that this questionnaire was validated by a process similar to that used on the I.P.S. He also noted that the scoring system is similar to that of the I.P.S. One category included in the questionnaire that does not appear in the I.P.S. is: 7. Your experience with counselor suggests that he would be able to help you: 1 2 3 4 5 Never Seldom A good deal Often Always of the time This question was designed to encourage the students to conceptualize an overall image of the counselor and re- spond to their perception of him as an effective change agent. 8R. R. Carkhuff, Helping and Human Relationp: A Primer for Lay and Professional HeI ers - Volume I (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1969), p. 210. 60 Procedure The procedure in this study has four basic steps: 1. An appointment was made for the student and a counselor to meet in the Equal Opportunities Counseling offices. 2. Each counselor interviewed six students (three males and three females). Counselors were in- structed to encourage students to freely explore their problems and that help should be given whenever possible. 3. At the end of each interview students were asked to complete the Gross Ratings of Dimensions of Facilitative Interpresonal Functioning Question- naire, including the statement indicating the level at which they perceived the counselor being helpful to them. 4. Recordings of the interviews were randomly rated by two professional judges. These judges used the Interpersonal Processes Scales in their ratings of counselor's levels of functioning. Design and Hypotheses Testing_ Design A graphic description of the design of this investi- gation is indicated in Figure 3. It should be noted that 61 Black White é 3 yrs. ‘ 3 yrs. § 3 yrs. ‘ 3 yrs. M.A. Ph.D. M.A. PhD. M.A. Ph.D. M.A. Ph.D. BM XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX BF XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX XXX Code: a 3 yrs. = Equal to or more than 3 yrs of experience. ‘ 3 yrs. = Less than 3 years of experience. M.A. = Master's level counselors. Ph.D. Doctoral level counselors. BF = Black female students. BM = Black male students. x = Respondents or replications. / Figure 3.--Graphic description of design of the experiment. g. 62 within each cell there are three male replications and three female replications to meet the equality of vari- ance assumption in ANOVA. Description of the Design The independent variables or the variables that are expected to produce the experimental effect will be: Race = Black and White Experience = Less than 3 years' experience and 3 or more years' experience Education = Ph.D. level and M.A. level Sex = Sex of Black students The dependent variable or the variable that will be a measure of the experimental effects is Carkhuff's Gross Ratings of Dimensions of Facilitative Functioning Ques- tionnaire. This instrument was designed to provide a method of gathering data and evaluating how Black stu- dents perceive counselor's functioning on the core dimen- sions of empathy, respect, genuineness and concreteness. Information which was gathered by using this procedure was used in the testing of the research hypotheses. Additional information was provided by taking pro- fessional judges' ratings of reSponses using the Interper- sonal Processes Scales. The purpose of gathering this in- formation was to determine the correlation between 63 students' ratings of counselors and professional judges' ratings of counselors. Data Analysis An analysis of variance technique was used to test the research hypotheses of this study. It is felt that the design and sample meet the assumptions for ANOVA. l. Randomization - Students were randomly assigned. 2. Independence - Independence between and within cells and units within cells. 3. Normalcy — The population is normally distri- buted. ANOVA is robust to the assumption of normalcy if the independent variables are fixed. 4. Equality of Variance - ANOVA is robust to the assumption of equality of variance as long as there is an equal number in each cell. The analysis of variance technique was followed as out- lined by Hays.9 For this study, an application of the Millman and Glass10 analysis of variance procedure was utilized. The design of the study also equates design 6 9W. L. Hays, Statistics for P5 cholo ists (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1963), p. 315. 10 J. Millman and G. Glass, "Rules of Thumb for Writing the ANOVA Table" (paper presented at the A.E.R.A. Convention, 1967), p. 8. (Mimeographed.) 64 11 which controls for all sources in Campbell and Stanley of internal invalidity and certain sources of external invalidity (allowing for a degree of generalizability of the research findings). The following is a symbolic il- lustration of design 6: Observation Treatment Observation R X 0 R O Hypotheses The hypotheses in this section will be presented in research form for clarity and simplicity. The research hypotheses tested are as follows: H1: Within the variable of race, Black counselors will be perceived as better facilitators than White counselors. Symbolically: H M - M 1‘ 1 2 Legend: M1 = Black counselors M = White counselors 2 The first hypothesis was formulated with the assump- tion that Black students will react to counselors who re- semble them and who, they feel, have similar life style backgrounds as theirs by perceiving the Black counselors as potentially greater change agents than White counselors. 11D. T. Campbell and J. C. Stanley, Experimental and Quasi-Ex erimental Desi ns for Research (Chicago: Rand McNa11y Co., 19637, p. . 65 Within the variable of experience, counselors with more experience will be perceived as better facilitators than counselors with less experience. Symbolically: M3 - M4 Legend: M3 = Counselors with three or more years of experience. M4 = Counselors with less than three years of experience. Hypothesis 2 is based on the assumption that the more experienced counselors have develoPed greater ability to show the qualities and skills associated with high fa— cilitative functioning than the less experienced counse- lors. w 0. Within the variable of education, Ph.D. level counselors will be perceived as better facili- tators than M.A. level counselors. Symb011cally: H1: M5 - M6 Legend: M5 = Ph.D. level counselors M6 = M.A. level counselors The underlying assumption of hypothesis 3 is that the Ph.D. level counselors have had greater training and practice in the many techniques of counseling than M.A. level counselors and that this will influence Black stu- dents to rate them as more helpful change agents. H4: There will be a significant interaction be- tween race and experience. Symbol1cally: H1: M7 x M8 66 Legend: M7 Race of counselors M8 = Experience of counselors The assumption on which this hypothesis is based is that the effects of a counselor's experience will be in- fluenced by the counselor's race. H5: There will be a significant interaction be— tween race and education. Symbolically: H M X M 1‘ 7 9 Legend: M7 = See hypothesis 4 M9 = Education of counselors The assumption on which this hypothesis is based is that the effects of a counselor's education will be in- fluenced by the counselor's race. H6: There will be a significant interaction be- tween experience and education. 1: M8 X M9 Legend: M8 = See hypothesis 4 Symbolically: H M9 = See hypothesis 5 The underlying assumption is that the effects of a counselor's education will be influenced by the counselor's experience and vice versa. H7: There will be a significant interaction between race, experience and education. 1: M7 X M8 X M9 Legend: M7 = See hypothesis 4 Symbolically: H M8 See hypothesis 4 M 9 See hypothesis 5 67 Hypothesis 7 is based on the assumption that the ef- fects of each of the variables of race, experience and edu- cation are based upon the levels of the other variables. The level of significance for all hypotheses to be accepted was the .05 level of statistical significance. Summary This chapter included a detailed description of the methodology of this study so that the reader might have a basis for judging the findings which are found in Chapter IV. A brief introduction reviewed the purpose of the study, respondent types, and the research instruments which were used. Reviewed also were the design of the experi- ment and data analysis procedures. The sample population consisted of 24 Black male SOphomores and 24 Black female sophomores at Michigan State University. The treatment group included four Black coun- selors with different levels of experience and education and four White counselors with different levels of experi- ence and education. Instruments used in data collection were described and the available reliability and validity data on these instruments were given. Finally, the hypotheses were stated. Symbolic re- presentations of these hypotheses were illustrated. Major 68 statistical devices which were employed were described. Analysis of the data involved the analysis of variance statistic. Chapter IV presents the analysis of data. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF THE DATA Introduction The purpose of this chapter is to report the findings of this study and to make some brief comments about them. The data are presented in two sections. The first section contains a report of the research findings arrived at in accordance with the principles of the Gross Ratings of Dimensions of Facilitative Interpersonal Functioning Questionnaire and the Interpersonal Processes Scales. The second section describes an analysis of the same data by statistically testing seven research hypotheses concerning Black student perceptions of counselors (with different levels of race, education and experience) as effective change agents. Described also are professional judges' ratings of counselors as compared to Black students' ratings of coun- selors to determine the relationship between these two groups' evaluations of effective counselors with Black stu- dents. The Pearson product-moment correlation statistical technique was used to analyze these data. Before the results are reported, it should be re- stated that the respondents in the study were 48 Black 69 70 students. The sample was randomly selected from a popu- lation of 258 Black sophomore students at Michigan State University. The treatment group in this study included eight counselors of different levels of education, ex- perience and race. The study's procedure consisted of the following: (1) Each counselor interviewed six students (three males and three females). (2) At the end of each interview students were asked to complete the Gross Ratings of Di- mensions of Facilitative Interpersonal Functioning Ques- tionnaire. (3) Recordings of the interviews were randomly rated by two professional judges who used the Interper- sonal Processes Scales. Gross Ratings of Dimensions of Facilitative Interpersonal Functioning Questionnaire Findings Black student responses were reported on the four core dimensions of counselor facilitative functioning and the category designed to encourage the students to con- ceptualize an overall image of the counselor's effective- ness. A detailed account of these responses is presented in Table 2 through Table 7 on the following pages. Table 2 and Table 3 list the data with regard to the impact of counselor's race. a ., ‘1" I, u .1. "1.. ”fan. :wiu , . w b is bl .m we» as? I... u‘. ., 0:.5 .‘n. .- In.“ n. N! .6 ll 71 Comments The data found in Table 2 indicate the mean scores of Black students when judging counselors on the dimen- sions of empathy, respect, genuineness and an overall image of the counselor's effectiveness category. The mean scores were derived by taking the average of each subject's scores on the core facilitative dimensions and the overall image of the counselor's effectiveness category. In every case but one these mean scores were above level 3; i.e., they were above the level defined by Carkhuff as the minimally acceptable facilitative level of interpersonal functioning. TABLE 2.--Black student ratings of Black counselors on the dimensions of empathy, respect, genuineness, concreteness and an overall image of the counselor's effectiveness category. Counselor Counselor Counselor Counselor Subjects* 1 2 3 4 S1 4.20 5.00 3.80 5.00 82 4.40 5.00 4.20 3.80 83 4.60 4.00 1.60 4.80 84 3.20 4.80 4.00 4.80 85 3.80 5.00 3.40 5.00 56 -4.40 4.80 4.00 4.60 *Each counselor interviewed six different students. 72 Comments The data in Table 3 are the mean scores of Black stu- dent ratings on the core facilitative dimensions and the overall image of the counselor's effectiveness category when judging White counselors. Although 29 per cent of the mean score responses of Black students were below the minimally acceptable level of facilitative functioning, level 3, the majority of responses (71 per cent) were at or above the acceptable level of functioning. TABLE 3.--Black student ratings of White counselors on the dimensions of empathy, respect, genuineness, concreteness and an overall image of the counselor's effectiveness category. Counselor Counselor Counselor Counselor Subjects* 5 6 7 8 S1 3.40 4.20 3.00 3.40 32 3.80 4.60 2.40 3.00 S3 3.20 2.00 1.80 3.40 84 3.40 3.20 1.40 3.60 85 4.20 4.20 3.00 3.00 86 2.40 3.60 2.60 2.60 *Each counselor interviewed six different students. 73 Table 4 and Table 5 list the data related to the im- pact of counselors' experience on their effectiveness with Black students. Comments The data in Table 4 are the mean scores of Black stu- dent ratings on the core facilitative dimensions and the overall image of the counselor's effectiveness category when judging experienced counselors. Although 8 per cent of the mean score ratings of counselors by Black students were below 3, the minimally acceptable level of facilita- tive functioning, a vast majority of the ratings (92 per cent) were at or above the acceptable level of functioning. TABLE 4.--Black student ratings of experienced counselors on the dimensions of empathy, respect, genuineness, con- creteness and an overall image of the counselor's effectiveness category. Subjects* Counselor Counselor Counselor Counselor l 2 3 4 S1 4.20 5.00 3.40 4.20 82 4.40 5.00 3.80 4.60 83 4.60 4.00 3.20 2.00 S4 3.20 4.80 3.40 3.20 S5 3.80 5.00 4.20 4.20 S6 4.40 4.80 2.40 3.60 *Each counselor interviewed six different students. 74 Comments The data in Table 5 indicate the mean scores of Black student ratings on the core facilitative dimensions and the overall image of the counselor's effectiveness category when judging inexperienced counselors. Although 20 per cent of the mean score ratings of inexperienced counselors were below 3, the minimally acceptable level of facilita- tive functioning, a majority of the ratings (80 per cent) were at or above the acceptable level of functioning. TABLE 5.--Black student ratings of inexperienced counselors on the dimensions of empathy, respect, genuineness, con- creteness and an overall image of the counselor's effectiveness category. Counselor Counselor Counselor Counselor Subjects* 5 6 7 8 31 3.80 5.00 3.00 3.40 32 4.20 3.80 2.40 3.00 53 1.60 4.80 1.80 3.40 34 4.00 4.80 1.40 3.60 35 3.40 5.00 3.00 3.00 56 4.00 4.60 2.60 2.60 *Each counselor interviewed six different students. Q I C .1 Q .5 75 Tables 6 and 7 list the data related to the impact of counselors' education on their effectiveness with Black students. Comments The data listed in Table 6 indicate the mean scores of Black student ratings on the core facilitative dimen- sions and the overall image of the counselor's effective- ness category when judging the effect of counselor's training. In this educational level only 8 per cent of the Black student ratings of counselors\were below the mini- mally acceptable level of facilitative functioning. The other 92 per cent of Black student ratings of counselors were at or above the acceptable level of functioning indi- cating that the Ph.D. level counselors were perceived as facilitative by Black students. Comments The figures listed in Table 7 are the mean scores of Black student ratings on the core facilitative dimensions and the overall image of the counselor's effectiveness category when judging the effect of counselor's training. At the M.A. level of education, 25 per cent of the counse- lors were rated as functioning below the minimally accept- able level of facilitative conditions. The other 75 per cent were at or above the minimally acceptable level of facilitative functioning. 76 TABLE 6.--Black student ratings of Ph.D. level counselors on the dimensions of empathy, respect, genuineness, con- creteness and an overall image of the counselor's effectiveness category. Counselor Counselor Counselor Counselor Subjects* 1 2 3 4 S1 5.00 5.00 4.20 3.40 82 5.00 3.80 4.60 3.00 53 4.00 4.80 2.00 3.40 S4 4.80 4.80 3.20 3.60 S5 5.00 5.00 4.20 3.00 56 4.80 4.60 3.60 2.60 *Each counselor interviewed six different students. TABLE 7.--Black student ratings of M.A. level counselors on the dimensions of empathy, respect, genuineness, con- creteness and an overall image of the counselor's effectiveness category. Counselor Counselor Counselor Counselor Subjects* 5 6 7 8 S1 4.20 3.80 3.40 3.00 82 4.40 4.20 3.80 2.40 S3 4.60 1.60 3.20 1.80 S4 3.20 ‘ 4.00 3.40 1.40 85 3.80 3.40 4.20 3.00 36 4.40 4.00 2.40 2.60 *Each counselor interviewed six different students. 77 Summary An overall review of Black student ratings of counse- lors on the Gross Ratings of Dimensions of Facilitative In— terpersonal Functioning Questionnaire indicates that 33 per cent of the counselors' responses were rated as func- tioning below the acceptable level of facilitative condi- tions and 67 per cent of the counselors' responses were rated as functioning at or above that level. Thus, the majority of counselors were perceived as having at least minimum ability to be facilitative with Black students (see Appendix D for a percentage distribution of Black stu- dent ratings on the GRDFIFQ). Findings on the Interpersonal Processes Scales The ratings of counselors by professional judges were reported on the four core dimensions of facilitatiVe func- tioning; i.e., empathy, respect, genuineness and concrete- ness. A detailed account of these responses is presented in Tables 8 through 13 on the following pages. Tables 8 and 9 list the data with regard to the im- pact of counselors' race upon their facilitative function- ing as seen by professional judges. Comments The figures in Table 8 are the mean scores of pro- fessional judges' ratings of Black counselors on the core 78 facilitative dimensions; i.e., empathy, respect, genuine- ness and concreteness. The mean scores were derived by taking the average of each subject's scores on the core' facilitative dimensions. The professional judges rated the majority of Black counselors' responses (70 per cent) below the minimally acceptable level of facilitative func- tioning. Only 30 per cent of the Black counselors' re- ponses were rated at or above the minimally acceptable level of functioning. TABLE 8.--Professional judges' ratings of Black counselors on the dimensions of empathy, respect, genuineness and concreteness. Counselor Counselor Counselor Counselor Subjects* 1 2 3 4 81 2.75 3.12 1.37 2.75 82 2.00 2.37 1.62 2.00 83 3.12 3.00 1.87 3.00 S4 2.50 2.87 1.25 3.25 S5 2.50 2.25 1.62 2.50 86 3.00 3.00 1.75 3.12 *Each counselor interviewed six different students. Comments The data listed in Table 9 indicate the mean scores of professional judges' ratings of White counselors on 79 the core facilitative dimensions. The professional judges rated all of the White counselors below the minimally ac- ceptable level of facilitative functioning. TABLE 9.--Professional judges' ratings of White counselors on the dimensions of empathy, respect, genuineness and concreteness. Subjects* Counselor Counselor Counselor Counselor 5 6 7 8 51 1.62 1.62 1.37 2.00 s2 1.87 2.00 1.50 2.00 53 1.62 2.37 1.87 2.12 54 1.75 1.62 1.37 2.25 35 1.87 2.00 2.00 2.00 36 1.75 ' 2.00 1.37 2.25 *Each counselor interviewed six different students. Tables 10 and 11 list the data with regard to the im- pact of counselors' experience as seen by professional judges. Comments The data in Table 10 are the mean scores of pro- fessional judges'ratings of experienced counselors on the core facilitative dimensions. The professional judges rated 79 per cent of the experienced Counselors' responses _w—Hs I_ 80 below the minimum acceptable level of facilitative condi- tions. The remaining 21 per cent of the experienced coun- selors' responses were rated at or above the minimum ac- ceptable level of facilitative functioning. TABLE lO.--Professional judges' ratings of experienced counselors on the dimensions of empathy, respect, genuineness and concreteness. Subjects* Counselor Counselor Counselor Counselor l 2 3 4 S1 2.75 3.12 1.62 1.62 82 2.00 2.37 1.87 2.00 S3 3.12 3.00 1.62 2.37 84 2.50 2.87 1.75 1.62 S5 2.50 2.25 1.87 2.00 S6 3.00 3.00 1.75 2.00 *Each counselor interviewed six different students. Comments The data in Table 11 show the mean scores of pro- fessional judges' ratings of inexperienced counselors on the core facilitative dimensions. The professional judges rated 88 per cent of the inexperienced counselors' re- sponses below the minimum acceptable level of facilitative conditions. The remaining 12 per cent of the inexperienced 81 counselors'.responses were rated at or above the minimum level of acceptable facilitative functioning. TABLE ll.--Professional judges' ratings of inexperienced counselors on the dimensions of empathy, respect, genuineness and concreteness. Subjects* Coungelor Counzelor Counselor Counselor Sl 1.37 2.75 1.37 2.00 32 1.62 2.00 1.50 2.00 S3 1.87 3.00 1.87 2.12 54 1.25 3.25 1.37 2.25 S5 1.62 2.50 2.00 2.00 86 1.75 3.12 1.37 2.25 *Each counselor interviewed six different students. Tables 12 and 13 list the data with regard to the impact of counselors' education on their facilitative in- terpersonal functioning with Black college students. Comments The data listed in Table 12 indicate the mean scores of professional judges' ratings of Ph.D. level counselors on the core facilitative dimensions. The professional judges rated 75 per cent of the Ph.D. level counselors re- sponses' below the minimum acceptable level of facilitative 82 conditions. The remaining 25 per cent of the Ph.D. level counselors' responses were rated at or above the minimum level of acceptable facilitative functioning. TABLE 12.--Professional judges' ratings of Ph.D. level counselors on the dimensions of empathy, respect, genuineness and concreteness. Subjects* Counselor Counselor Counselor Counselor .' 1 2 3 4 S1 3.12 2.75 1.62 2.00 82 2.37 2.00 2.00 2.00 S3 3.00 3.00 2.37 2.12 S4 2.87 3.25 1.62 2.25 S5 2.25 1.50 2.00 2.00 86 3.00 3.12 2.00 2.25 *Each counselor interviewed six different students. Comments The data ianable 13 are the mean scores of pro- fessional judges' ratings of M.A. level counselors on the core facilitative dimensions. The professional judges rated 92 per cent of the M.A. level counselors' responses below the minimum acceptable level of facilitative condi- tions. The remaining 8 per cent of the M.A. level coun- selors' responses were rated at or above the minimum level of acceptable facilitative conditions indicating that only . ___ V—— 83 a small percentage of these counselors were rated as facil- itative by the professional judges. TABLE 13.--Professional judges' ratings of M.A. level counselors on the dimensions of empathy, respect, genuineness and concreteness. Counselor Counselor Counselor Counselor Subjects* 5 6 7 8 S1 2.75 1.37 1.62 1.37 82 2.00 1.62 1.87 1.50 S3 3.12 1.87 1.62 1.87 84 2.50 1.25 1.75 1.37 S5 2.50 1.62 1.87 2.00 86 3.00 1.75 1.75 1.37 *Each counselor interviewed six different students. Summary An overall review of professional judges' ratings of counselors on the Interpersonal Processes Scales indicate that 33 per cent of the counselors' responses were rated at or above the acceptable level of facilitative condi- tions. The majority of counselors' responses (67 per cent) were rated below the minimum acceptable of facilitative conditions. It should be noted that according to the 84 research of Carkhuff,1 the overall average for experienced counselors and therapists when judged by professional coun- selors falls between levels 1.50 and 2.50; at least one full level below the level 3 criterion established as minimally acceptable on the Interpersonal Processes Scales. Thus, the counselors in this study tended to function on a level equal to that of experienced counselors in general. See Appendix E for a percentage distribution of profes- sional judges' ratings on the I.P.S. Findings Related to the Statistical Hypotheses The analysis of variance statistic was used to test the study's seven hypotheses related to Black students' perceptions of the degree to which different character- istics of counselors are associated with counseling ef- fectiveness. The first three hypotheses (Hl--H3) were de- signed to analyze the effects of counselors' race, experience and education on their effectiveness with Black students. The next four hypotheses (H4--H7) were designed to determine the levels of interaction among the three main variables (counselors' race, experience and educa- tion). 1R. R. Carkhuff, "A Survey of the Levels of Facilita- tive Functioning of Counselors and Psychotherapists" (un- published data, State University of New York at Buffalo, 1967). p. 5. o‘. a v.4. .la n . en‘- t v.1. I. 'g' -»‘ a“ .4 a 85 For this study, an application of the Millman and Glass2 analysis of variance procedure was utilized. The computational procedure followed was based on the general guidelines of Hays.3 Differences were judged as signifi- cant when they reached the .05 level of confidence or above. Hypotheses 0f the seven hypotheses which were tested by an analysis of variance procedure, only hypotheses l, 2, and 3 were supported at the .05 level of significance. Hypo- theses l and 2 had an F-test significance at the .01 level of confidence, and hypothesis 3 was significant at the .05 level of confidence. Hypotheses 4, S, 6, and 7 were not supported. The testing of these hypotheses failed to reveal a significant interaction (.05 level) of counselors' race and experience, counselors' race and education, counselors' experience and education, and counselors' race, experience and education. A summary of these hypotheses and the analysis of variance (Table 14) follow: (s .01) H - Within the variable of race, Black coun- 1 selors will be perceived as better facil- itators than White counselors. 2Millman and Glass, op. cit., p. 8. 3Hays, op. cit., p. 315. F. 'v-‘. 331 17'} 5 ‘H :‘l’? ‘ nup‘ .Gh1 “‘~ 86 (s .01) H2: Within the variable of experience, coun- selors with more experience will be per- ceived as better facilitators than coun- selors with less experience. (3 .05) H3: Within the variable of education, Ph.D. level counselors will be perceived as better facilitators than M.A. counselors. (n. 3.) H4: There will be a significant interaction between race and experience. (n. 3.) HS: There will be a significant interaction between race and education. (n. s.) H : There will be a significant interaction between experience and education. (n. 5.) H7: There will be a significant interaction between race, experience and education. Comments In Table 14 the difference between the student ratings of Black counselors and White counselors is very evident. The difference between the student ratings of experienced and inexperienced counselors and between Ph.D. level counselors and M.A. level counselors is also evident. No significant interaction was found between race and experience, race and education, and race, experience and education. The levels of each of the treatment main ef- fects tended not to be dependent upon the levels of any of the other treatment main effects. In. «J! n I. ‘7‘ 3561 87 TABLE l4.--Analysis of variance results for the effects of selected personal characteristics of counselors as rated by Black students. Ho Source S.S. df M.S. F p H1 Race 14.96 1 14.96 35.62 .01 H2 Experience 3.63 1 3.63 8.64 .01 H3 Education . 6.16 l 6.16 14.67 .05 H4 Race X Experience .48 1 .48 1.14 n.s. H5 Race X Education .49 l .49 1.16 n.s. H6 Education X Experience .86 l .86 2.05 n.s. H7 Race X Experience X .00 l .00 .00 n.s. Education Error 16486, 49_ .42 Total 43.44 48 Pearson_Product-Moment Correlations of Black StudentsTfiRatin s of Counselors and’ProfessionaI'Ju ges' Rat- ings of Counselors Additional information was provided for this study by comparing Black students' ratings of counselors and profes- sional judges' ratings of counselors. The Pearson product- moment correlation statistical technique was used to ascer- tain the relationship of these two sets of ratings of counselors' effectiveness with Black students. Before the findings regarding the relationship be- tween Black students' ratings and professional judges' 88 ratings of counselors are discussed, it should be pointed out that the correlation between the two judges' ratings (one Black and one White) was r = .96 when using the Pearson product-moment correlation statistical technique. Thus, the criteria used by each of the professional judges to rate counselors responses appears to be very similar. The data in Table 15 show that there was a signifi- cant relationship between Black students' overall ratings and professional judges' overall ratings of the effective- ness of counselors with regard to the counselors' race, education and experience. Comments According to the table of Critical Values of Pearson's r Correlation Coefficient for Five Alpha Signifi- cance levels,4 the correlation between the perceptions of Black students and professional judges regarding the effec- tiveness of Black counselors was significant at the .05 level of statistical significance. The correlation of rat- ings regarding White counselors was not significant. Within the dimension of experience, the correlations be- tween ratings of Black students and professional judges for both the more experienced counselors and the less exper- ienced counselors were significant at the .05 level of 4J. L. Bruning and B. L. Kintz, Computational Hand- book of Statistics (Illinois: Scott, Foresman and Com- pany, I968), p. 297. 89 confidence. The correlations within the dimension of edu- cation (Ph.D. and M.A. level counselors) were significant at the .05 level of confidence. The correlation between the overall ratings of Black students and professional judges regarding counselors' fa- cilitative responses was significant at the .01 level of statistical significance. TABLE lS.--Black students' overall ratings and professional judges'overall ratings of counse- lors facilitative responses. PJR + 3 - 3 Black White Yrs. Yrs. Ph.D. M.A. Overall BSR Exp. Exp. Black .40* .50* xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx White .50* .18* xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx + 3 Yrs. xxx xxx .46* .46* xxx xxx xxx Exp . - 3 Yrs. xxx xxx .46* .59* xxx xxx xxx Exp. Ph.D. xxx xxx xxx xxx .53* .44* xxx M.A. xxx xxx xxx xxx .44* .43* xxx Overall xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx .57* *Significant correlations for an N of at the .05 level, is r = .37. 24 pairs of scores, Code: PJR = Professional judges' overall ratings of counselors ~ BSR = Black students' overall ratings of coun- selors 90 Summary In this chapter, the findings of the study were pre- sented in two sections. The first section contained a re— port of the research findings as analyzed aCcording to the procedures for the Gross Ratings of Dimensions of Facilita- tive Interpersonal Functioning Questionnaire and the Inter- personal Processes Scales. The second section contained the results of statistically testing the seven research hypotheses concerning Black students' perceptions of coun- selors (with different levels of race, experience and edu- cation) as effective change agents. Described also are professional judges' ratings of counselors as compared to Black students' ratings of counselors to determine the re- lationship between these two groups' evaluations of effec- tive counselors with Black students. In the first section, an overall review of Black stu- dents' ratings of counselors on the Gross Ratings of Dimen- sions of Facilitative Interpersonal Functioning Ques- tionnaire indicate that 33 per cent of the counselors' responses were rated as functioning below the acceptable level of facilitative conditions while 67 per cent Of the counselors' responses were rated at or above that level. Thus, the majority of counselors were perceived by Black counselees as having at least minimum ability to be facili- tative with Black students. 91 An overall review of professional judges' ratings of counselors on the Interpersonal Processes Scales indicate that only 33 per cent of the counselors' responses were rated at or above the acceptable level of facilitative condition (level 3). The majority of counselors' re- sponses (67 per cent) were rated below the minimum accept- able facilitative level of conditions. It was pointed out, through previous research findings,5 that the average level of facilitative functioning for experienced counselors and therapists is between 1.50 and 2.50. Thus, the counselors in this study tended to function on a level equal to that of experienced counselors in general. In the second section, the three main hypotheses of this study were accepted. Four other hypotheses were re- jected. Two hypotheses were significant at the .01 level of confidence and one was significant at the .05 level of statistical significance. The first hypothesis stated an expected difference between the facilitative functioning of Black and White counselors with Black college students. Black counselors were rated significantly higher than White counselors. This hypothesis was significant at the .01 level of sta- tistical significance. 5Carkhuff, "A Survey . . . ," p. 5. 92 The second hypothesis tested the difference between the facilitative functioning of experienced and inexper- ienced counselors with Black students. Experienced coun- selors were rated significantly higher than inexperienced counselors. The level of significance at which this hypo- thesis was found to be significant was the .01 level. The third hypothesis studied the difference between the facilitative functioning of Ph.D. level and M.A. level counselors with Black students. Persons holding doctoral degrees were judged more effective in this regard at the .05 level of statistical significance than those with only masters degrees. Hypotheses 4, 5, 6 and 7 were related to the inter- actions between race and experience, race and education, experience and education, and race, experience and educa- tion. These hypotheses were all rejected at the .05 level of statistical significance. Additional information was provided by correlating the ratings of Black students with the ratings of profes- sional judges of counselors' facilitative functioning. All of the correlations within the dimensions of race, educa- tion and experience, were found to be statistically signif- icant with the correlation between Black students' overall ratings and professional judges' overall ratings being sig- nificant at the .01 level of statistical significance. 93 Thus, the rank order of Black students' ratings and profes- sional judges ratings appeared to be similar. CHAPTER V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Summary Background The purpose of this study was to determine how selected personal characteristics of counselors are re- lated to their facilitative effectiveness as seen by Black college student counselees. The study was designed to identify and describe how Black students perceive counselors with different levels of education, experience and race as change agents. Literature related to both the methodology of this study (evaluation of counselors' levels of facilitative interpersonal functioning in the counseling process) and the content of the investigation (Black students' percep- tions of counselors with different levels of education, experience and race) was presented in Chapter II. The review of research on the facilitative dimensions of counseling indicates that although attention has been focused on identifying the impact of such counselor char- acteristics as culture, race, experience, training and social class on the counseling process, further study of 94 95 the effects of certain of these characteristics upon spe- cific client groups was warranted. Thus, an investiga- tion of how selected personal characteristics of coun- I selors are related to their effectiveness as seen by Black college students was undertaken. Hypotheses The study's main hypotheses as they were presented in general form: Black counselors will initially be perceived as more effective change agents than White counselors by Black students. The more experienced counselors will be per- ceived as more effective change agents than the less experienced counselors by Black students. The Ph.D. level counselors will be perceived as more effective change agents than the M.A. level counselors by Black students. There will be a significant interaction be— tween counselors' race and experience in determining how Black students perceive them as change agents. There will be a significant interaction be- tween counselors' race and education in determining how Black students perceive them as change agents. There will be a significant interaction be- between counselors' education and experience in determining how Black students perceive them as change agents. There will be a significant interaction among counselor's race, experience and education in determining how Black students perceive them as change agents. Methodology The population used in this study consisted of 258 96 Black sophomore students at Michigan State University. The sample, randomly selected, included 24 Black male stu- dents and 24 Black female students who had demonstrated a need for counseling. F The counselors who participated in the study in- cluded four Black and four White counselors with dif- ferent levels of education and experience. the counselor group 1. Two Black with more with less Two Black with more with less Two White with more with less Two White with more with less included the following: counselors at the Ph.D. level (one than 3 years of experience and one than 3 years of experience). counselors at the M.A. level (one than 3 years of experience and one than 3 years of experience). counselors at the Ph.D. level (one than 3 years of experience and one than 3 years of experience). counselors at the M.A. level (one than 3 years of experience and one than 3 years of experience). The study included the following procedures. (1) Each counselor interviewed six different students (three males and three females). interview, students were asked to complete the Gross Specifically, (2) At the end of each 97 Ratings of Dimensions of Facilitative Interpersonal Func- tioning Questionnaire. (3) Recordings of the interviews were rated by two professional judges who used the Inter- personal Processes Scales. The data were analyzed by using the analysis of variance statistical technique to test seven specific hypotheses related to counselor effectiveness as seen by Black students. The first three hypotheses were designed to analyze the impact of counselors' race, experience and education on their facilitative functioning with Black students. The next four hypotheses were designed to analyze the interaction of counselors' race and experience, race and education, experience and education, and counselors' race, experience and education in their interpersonal functioning with the respondents. Additional information was provided by describing professional judges' ratings of counselors as compared to Black students' ratings of counselors to determine the relationship between these two groups' evaluations of effective counselors with Black students. The Pearson product-moment correlation statistical technique was used to analyze this data, and hypotheses were accepted at the .05 level of confidence or above. 98 Significant Findings The findings are presented in three sections. The first section (1) contains a report of the research find- ings arrived at in accordance with the criteria of the Gross Ratings of Dimensions of Facilitative Interpersonal Functioning Questionnaire and the Interpersonal Processes Scales. The second section (11) reports the findings relative to the analysis of variance testing of the study's hypotheses. The third section (III) contains a report of the research findings related to the relation- ship between Black students' ratings and professional judges' ratings of counselors as effective change agents with Black college students. I. Findings According to the Criteria of the Gross Ratings of Dimensions of Facilitative Inter- personalgunctioning Questionnaire and the Inter- personal Processes Scales. A. Gross Ratings of Dimensions of Facilitative Inter- personal Functioning Questionnaire Black students' responses were reported on the four core dimensions of counselors' facilitative functioning and a category designed to encourage the students to con- ceptualize an overall image of the counselors' effective- ness. The research findings according to the criteria of this questionnaire indicate that within the variable of race, 96 per cent of the Black counselors' responses and 99 71 per cent of the White counselors' responses were rated at or above the minimally acceptable level of facilitative functioning. Thus, suggesting that the majority of Black and White counselors have at least minimum ability to be effective change agents as perceived by Black students. The research findings also indicated that within the variable of experience, 92 per cent of experienced coun- selors' responses and 80 per cent of inexperienced coun- selors' responses were rated at or above the minimally acceptable level of interpersonal functioning. The major- ity of these counselors were also perceived, by Black students, as having the basic ability to be effective facilitators with them. The data included within the variable of education indicates that 92 per cent of Ph.D. level counselors' re- sponses and 70 per cent of M.A. level counselors' re- sponses were rated as being at or above the minimum ac- ceptable level of facilitative conditions. The majority of these counselors were perceived as having the basic skills to be effective change agents as seen by Black students. An overall review of Black students' ratings of counselors on the Gross Ratings of Dimensions of Facili- tative Interpersonal Functioning Questionnaire indicates that 33 per cent of the counselors' responses were rated as functioning below the acceptable level of 100 facilitative conditions and 67 per cent of the coun- selors' responses were rated as functioning at or above that level. Thus, the majority of counselors (on all three of the observed variables) were perceived as having at least basic ability to be helpful to Black students. B. The Interpersonal Processes Scales The ratings of counselors by professional judges were reported on the four core dimensions of facilita- tive functioning; i.e., empathy, respect, genuineness and concreteness. The research findings according to the criteria of the Interpersonal Processes Scales revealed that within the variable of race, 70 per cent of the Black coun- selors' responses and all of the White counselors' re- sponses were rated below the acceptable level of facili- tative functioning. According to the professional judges' ratings, most of the Black and White counselors were seen as functioning below an acceptable level of facilitative conditions. The data included within the variable of experience indicate that 79 per cent of experienced counselors' re- sponses and 88 per cent of inexperienced counselors' responses were below the minimum accepted level of facili- tative conditions. Thus, both the experienced and the inexperienced counselors were seen by the professional 101 judges as not functioning on effective facilitative levels of conditions according to the criteria established by Carkhuff for use with the Interpersonal Processes Scales. The research findings also indicate that within the variable of education, 75 per cent of Ph.D. level coun- selors' responses and 92 per cent of the M.A. level coun- selors' responses were below the acceptable level of facilitative conditions. The majority of these counselors were also seen as not functioning at the acceptable level indicated in the Interpersonal Processes Scales. An overall review of professional judges' ratings of counselors on the Interpersonal Processes Scales indi- cate that 33 per cent of the counselors' responses were rated at or above the acceptable level of facilitative conditions. The majority of counselors' responses (67 per cent) were rated'below the minimum acceptable level of facilitative conditions. It should be noted that accord- ing to the research of Carkhuff,1 the overall average for experienced counselors and therapists falls between levels 1.50 and 2.50; at least one full level below the level 3 criterion established as minimally acceptable on the Interpersonal Processes Scales. Thus, the counselors in this study tended to function on a level equal to that of experienced counselors in general. 1Carkhuff, "A Survey . . . ," p. 5. 102 II. Analysis of Variance Findings Regarding the Hypotheses. By using the analysis of variance statistical tech- nique to test the study's seven hypotheses, three hypo- theses were accepted. These are: H1: Within the variable of race, Black counselors will be perceived as better facilitators than White counselors. (Significant at the .01 level of confidence) Within the variable of experience, counselors with more experience will be perceived as better facilitators than counselors with less experience. (Significant at the .01 level of confidence) N Within the variable of education, Ph.D. level counselors will be perceived as better facili— tators than M.A. level counselors. (Significant at the .05 level of confidence) These findings point out that there is a significant difference in the levels of facilitative functioning be- tween Black counselors and White counselors, between ex- perienced counselors and less experienced counselors, and between Ph.D. level counselors and M.A. level counselors as seen by Black student counselees. In this study Black college soPhomore students saw Black counselors, ex— perienced counselors, or those with Ph.D. level training as more effective in working with them than White, in- experienced, or M.A. level counselors. 103 III. Findings Related to the Relationship of Black Stu- dents' Ratings and Professional Judges' Ratings of Counselors' Responses. Additional information was provided by deriving correlations of the ratings of Black students with the ratings of professional judges concerning the facilitative functioning of counselors. All but one of the correla- tions within the dimensions of race, education and ex- perience were significant at the .05 level of statistical significance. The exception being correlation between Black students' ratings and professional judges' ratings of overall effectiveness which was significant at the .01 level. Thus, the rank order of Black students' ratings and professional judges' ratings appeared to be similar. Conclusions Within the limitations imposed on this investigation and defined in Chapter I, the following conclusions appear to be justified: 1. In the eyes of Black college students counselors of different levels of education, experience, and race can function as effective change agents. A significant number of counselors (67 per cent), with differing char- acteristics, functioned acceptably (they were helpful) according to the ratings of Black students. 2. Black counselors will be seen by Black college student counselees as able to function at higher 104 facilitative levels with Black students than White coun- selors. An analysis of variance statistical testing of the hypothesis related to the levels of facilitative con~ ditions generated by Black and White counselors revealed that there was a significant difference (.01 level of confidence) in the proportion of facilitative responses of Black counselors compared to White counselors when judged by Black students. 3. Experienced counselors will be seen by Black college student counselees as able to function at higher facilitative levels with Black students than inexperi— enced counselors. An analysis of variance statistical testing of a hypothesis in this study related to the level of facilitative conditions generated by experienced and inexperienced counselors showed that there was a signifi- cant difference (.01 level of confidence) between the responses of experienced and inexperienced counselors when rated by Black students. 4. Ph.D. level counselors will be seen by Black college student counselees as able to function at higher facilitative levels with Black students than M.A. level counselors. An analysis of variance statistical testing of the hypothesis related to the level of facilitative conditions generated by Ph.D. level and M.A. level counselors revealed that there was a significant dif- ference (.05 level of confidence) in the proportion of 105 facilitative responses of Ph.D. level counselors when com- pared with M.A. level counselors when rated by Black stu- dents. 5. The impact of experience and education on the effectiveness of the counselor with Black students tend not to be due to the effects of the counselor's race. Likewise, the impact of education tends not to be due to the effects of counselor's experience. The impact of race, experience and education tend not to be due to the effects of any of the other two counselor characteristics. An analysis of variance statistical testing of four hypo- theses, in this study, related to the interaction of counselor's race, experience and education revealed the following: a. There was no significant interaction between counselor's race and experience. b. There was no significant interaction between counselor's race and education. c. There was no significant interaction between counselor's experience and education. d. There was no significant interactions among counselor's race, experience and education. 6. Professional judges will be able to predict counselors' facilitative behavior, as seen by Black students, with a degree of reliability. Pearson r cor- relations computed to determine the relationship of 106 Black students' ratings and professional judges' ratings of counselor facilitative functioning revealed that there was a significant relationship (.01 level of confidence) between these two groups' ratings (although Black stu- dents' ratings tended to be higher than professional judges' ratings of counselors on the core facilitative dimensions. 7. This study substantiated the view which has been presented in the literature regardinggthe fact that counselors who generate high levels of facilitative con- ditions have a greater potential to be helpful to Black students than counselors who generate low levels of facilitative conditions. The results of the Gross Rat- ings of Dimensions of Facilitative Interpersonal Func- tioning Questionnaire and the Interpersonal Processes Scales revealed that counselors functioning on high facili- tative levels were perceived as more helpful than coun- selors who function on low facilitative levels. Discussion The building of client confidence in the counselor or the establishment of a positive relationship between the client and the counselor has been stressed as a key component of good counseling. Although many theoretical orientations place differential emphasis on the rela- tionship factor, it remains basic in all approaches to 107 counseling.2 Truax and Carkhuff point out that a posi- tive counseling relationship is assisted by counselors functioning on high facilitative levels.3 The purpose of this study was to identify and des- cribe how Black college students perceive the effective- ness of counselors of different races and different levels of education and experience as change agents. The approach to this study seemed satisfactory since the clinical contacts were between Black and White counselors of different levels of experience and education, and Black sophomore students at Michigan State University. The Gross Ratings of Dimensions of Facilitative Interpersonal Functioning Questionnaire and the Inter- personal Processes Scales' procedure assume that re- spondents' ratings are significant. Significance is determined on the basis of the respondents' own judg- ment. This study was based on that assumption. Thus the data and findings are assumed to be reliable. From a review of these data, it becomes apparent that the findings have implication for: l. A reconceptualized role of the counselor. 2L. P. Ullmann and L. Krasner, eds., Case Studies in Behavior Modification (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965), Introduction; C. H. Patterson, Theories of Counseling and Ps chothera (New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1966), Chp. 21. 3Truax and Carkhuff, An Introduction to Counseling and Psychotherapy . . . , Chp. 2. 108 2. The goals of counseling with Blacks. 3. Counselor selection. 4. Counselor preparation to work with Black students. The underlying factor which applies to all of the areas mentioned above is-—that effective counseling will facilitate satisfactory Black student functioning in university and college communities. This also applies not only to college settings but to all areas of counsel- ing as it relates to Black students. 1. A Reconceptualized Role of the Counselor: The implication is that by honestly attempting to understand and demonstrate ability to cope with Black students' life stage, life style and life space factors, coun- selors will be able to help these students experience greater self-exploration--which is basic to client problem-solving. Therefore, counselors must be flexible enough to function within the framework of many client orientations. 2. The Goals of Counseling with Blacks: The goals of counseling should be structured so that they can be achieved within the boundaries of the Black students' cultural orientation. 3. Counselor Selection: Greater consideration must be given to the notion that qualities other than 109 just intellectual skills are necessary to become an effec- tive counselor with Black students. 4. Counselor Preparation to WOrk with Black Stu- degte: Counselor preparation to work with Black students should include training with regard to the unique socio- cultural, psychological, and environmental factors that have an impact on their lives. These along with training in facilitative behavior appear to be very significant aspects in the preparation of counselors who work with Black students. Implications for Further Research 1. This study should be replicated in other uni- versity and public school settings to determine the extent of generalizability of the findings of this investigation. 2. Further research should be conducted to include a greater number of personal counselor char- acteristics to ascertain their impact on coun— selor effectiveness with Black students. 3. Similar studies should be conducted with other minority group populations (Spanish speaking, American Indian, poor White), to determine the perceptual factors related to counseling with them. 110 Further research should include study of the extent to which levels of facilitative func- tioning are related to predicting effective counseling with special population groups. The impact of In-service training in facili- tative interpersonal functioning should be investigated to determine its effects upon counselors already practicing with Black students. BIBLIOGRAPHY 111 BIBLIOGRAPHY Allerand, A. M. "Empathy In and Out of Psychotherapy." Unpublished manuscript, Columbia Teachers College, 1964. .Aspy, D. ”The Relationship between Teacher Functioning on Facilitative Dimensions and Student Performance on Intellective Indices." Unpublished Ph.D. disserta- tion, University of Kentucky, 1966. Iianks, 6.; Berenson, B. G.; and Carkhuff, R. 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Chicago: Ran McNa11y c—_o. , 1963. Carkhuff, R. R. "A Survey of the Levels of Facilitative Functioning of Counselors and Psychotherapists.” Unpublished data, State University of New York at Buffalo, 1967. 112 113 Carkhuff, R. R. Helping and Human Relations: A Primer for Lay and ProfesSional Helpersij Vblume I. New York: Holt, Rinehart andiWinston, Inc., 1969. ‘ Carkhuff, R. R. Helping and Human Relations;_ A Primer for Lay and Professional Helpers - Volume II. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1969. Carkhuff, R. R. The Counselorle Contribution to Facilita— tive Processes. Urbana, 111.: Pafkinson, 1967. (:arkhuff, R. R. and Alexik, M. "The Differential Effects of the Manipulation of Client Self-Exploration upon High and Low Functioning Therapist." Journal of Counseling Psychology. 23 (1967) 212-2152 (narkhuff, R. R. and Berenson, B. G. Beyond Counseling and Thera . New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1967. Carkhuff, R. R. anleierce, R. M. "The Differential Effects of Therapists Race and Social Class upon Patient Depth of Self-Exploration in the Initial Clinical Inter- view." Journal of Consulting Psychology, 40 (1967), 317-319. Carkhuff, R. R. and Truax, C. B. "Toward Explaining Success and Failure in Interpersonal Learning Experiences." Personnel and Guidance Journal, 46 (1966), 723-728. Carlton, S. "Counselor Empathy." The Counselor's Contribu- tion to Facilitative Processes. Edited by R. R. Carkhuff. Urbana,Illinois: Parkinson, 1967. Cartmmright, R. D. and Learner, B. "Empathy, Need to Change and Improvement with Psychotherapy." Journal of Con- sulting Psychology, 27 (1963), 138-144. Downiaa, N. W. and Heath, R. W. .Beeic Statistical Methods. Zuew York: Harper & Row, 1969. Dymond , R. F. "Personality and Empathy." Journal of Con- sulting Psychology, 14 (1950), 343-350. Dymond, R. F. ”The Measurement of Empathic Ability." Jour- nal of Consulting Psychology, 13 (1949), 127-133. Fiedler, F. E. ”A Comparison of Therapeutic Relationships in Psychoanalytic, Nondirective and Adlerian Ther- apy.” Journal of Consulting Psychology, 14 (1950), 436-445. 114 Fiedler, F. E. and Senior, K. "An Exploratory Study of Un- conscious Feeling Reactions in Fifteen Patient- Therapist Pairs." Journal of Abnormal Social Psy- cholggy, 47 (1952), 446-453. Fox, R. E. and Goldin, P. C. "The Empathic Process in Psychotherapy: A Survey of Theory and Research." Journal of Nervous and Mental Disorders, 4 (1964), 138. Grier, W. H. and Cobbs, D. M. Black Rage. New York: Basic Books Inc., 1968. (Sage, N. L. "Exploration in the Understanding of Others." Educational and Psychological Measurement, 13 (1953), 14426. ILays, W. L. fiStatistics for Psychologists. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1963. [Holder, T.; Carkhuff, R. R.; and Berenson, B. G. "The Differential Effects of the Manipulation of Thera— peutic Conditions upon High and Low Functioning Clients." Journal of Counseling Psychology, 14 (1967), 63-66. Haxrighurst, R. J. “Who Are the Disadvantaged." Education, 85 (1965), 455-457. Kagan, N. "The Dimensions of Counselor Encapsulation." Journal of Counseling Psychology, 11, 4 (1964), 159. Katiz, R. L. Empathy: Its Nature and Uses. New York: Free Press, 1963. Landes, R. "An Anthropologist Looks at School Counseling." Journal of Counseling Psychology, 10 (1963), 210-214. Lesser, W. M. "The Relationship between Counseling Pro- gress and Empathic Understanding." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1958. Lewin. K. "Field Theory in Social Science." Selected Theoretical Papers. Edited by D. Cartwright. New York: Harper, I951. Lindgzren, H. C. and Robinson, J. "Evaluation of Dymonds' Test of Insight and Empathy." Journal of Consulting 115 Martin, J. C. "The Communication of Genuineness: Counse- lor Self-Disclosure.” The Counselors' Contribution to Facilitative Processes. Edited by R. R. Carkhuff. Urbana, Ill.: Parkinson, 1967. Martin, J. C.; Carkhuff, R. R.; and Berenson, B. G. "Pro- cess Variables in Counseling and Psychotherapy: A Study of Counseling and Friendship." Journal of Counseling Psychology, 13 (1966), 441-446. blillman, J. and Glass, G. "Rules of Thumb for Writing the ANOVA Table." Paper presented at the A.E.R.A. Con— vention, 1967. (Mimeographed.) bkarvas, M. and Landfield, A. "Improvement in Psychother- apy and Adoption of the Therapist's Meaning System." Psycholggical Reports, 13 (1963), 97-98. Puitterson, C. H. Theories of Counseling and Psychother- epy. New York: Harper & Row, 1966. Pcupe, B. and Siegman, A. W. "Effect of Therapist Verbal Activity Level and Specificity on Patient Productivity and Speech disturbance in the Initial Interview." Journal of Consulting Psychology, 26 (1962), 489. Piexrce, R. M. "Counselor Respect." The Counselor's Con- tribution of Facilitative Processes. Edited by R. R. Carkhuff. Urbana, 111.: Parkinson, 1967. Raush, H. and Bordin, E. S. "Warmth in Personality De- velopment and in Psychotherapy." PSychiatric Jour- nal, 20 (1957), 351-363. Reissman, F. Programs for the Educationally Disadvanteged. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 19622 Rogers, C. R. "Perceptual Reorganization in Client-Centered Therapy." Perception: An Approach to Personality. Edited by R. R. Blake and G. V. Ramsey. New York: Ronald Press, 1951. Rogers, C. R. "The Interpersonal Relationship: The Core of Guidance." Harvard Educational Review, 32 (1962), 416-429. Smitrl' P. H. "A Descriptive Self-Concept of High School Counselors.“ Journal of Negro Education, 33 (Spring, 1963), 179. 116 Stump, W. L.;_Jordan, J. E.; and Friesen, E. W. "Cross- Cultural Considerations in Understanding Vocational Development. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 14 (1967), 325. Truax, C. B. and Carkhuff, R. R. An Introduction to Coun- seling and Psychotherepy: Training and Practice. Chicago: Aldine, 1966. Truax, C. B. and Carkhuff, R. R. "Concreteness: A Ne- glected Variable in Research in Psychotherapy." Journal of Clinical Psychology, 20 (1964), 264—267. frruax, C. B. and Carkhuff, R. R. ”For Better or for WOrse: The Process of Psychotherapeutic Personality Change." Recent Advances in Behavior Change. Montreal: McGill University Press, 1963. trruax, C. B. and Carkhuff, R. R. "Significant Developments in Psychotherapy Research.r Prggresslin Clinical Psy- chology. Edited by L. E. Abt and B. F. Reiss. New York: Grune & Stratton, 1964. fFruax, C. B. and Carkhuff, R4 R. "The Experimental Manipu- lation of Therapeutic Conditions." Journal of Con- sulting Psychology, 29 (1965), 119-124. Traux, C. B.; Carkhuff, R. R.; and Kodman, F. "Per- sonality Change in Hospitalized Mental Patients during Group Psychotherapy as a Function of the Use of Alternate Sessions and Vicarious Therapy Pre- training." Journal of Clinical Psychology, 21 (1965), 225-228. UJmeann, L. P. and Krasner, L., eds. Case Stgdies in Be- havior Modification. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965. ‘hYlie, K. C. The Self-Conce t. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press,l961. W0Iberg, L. The Technique of Psychotherapy. New York: Grune & Stratton, 1954. APPENDICES 117 APPENDIX A 118 MICHIGAN STATE UNiVlZRSITY l-‘.‘\S'l' LANSING - MICHIGAN 13823 __.._- ~—--— (ll‘l-lt" m- l'llli uni/\N'l' Pltnvus‘r - mum 'l‘nlt or CENTER FOR URBAN AFFAIRS / Mr _ ___--- 1 The time is rapidly approaching when many students must make decisions regarding the selection of a major, planning for sulllner school and planning strategies to u improve their academic standing. This letter is to inform you that counseling services : to facilitate solution of these problem areas are available. We are inviting you to cm: into our offices on the “Ll! floor of the Union Building and let us help you. we are presently investigating to see what counselors tend to have the qualities necessary to work i I 'l i In the process, you can also help us in our program development. ". effectively with Black Students. | Please contact Bill Gardner or Pat Carter at 353-9500 '50 indicate the times YOU = would like to visit us. We look forward to hearing from you. I ! l l I i f Sincerely, I 64111.5“, : Bill Gardner 119 APPENDIX B 120 SCALES FOR ASSESSMENT OF lN'l‘ERPERSONAL FUNCTIONINC SCALE I EMPATHIC UNDERSTANDING IN INTERPERSONAI. PROCESSES: A SCALE FOR MEASUREMENT" Level! The verbal and behavioral expressions of the first person either do not attend to or t’l'lMt't significantly from the verbal and behavioral expressions of the moral person(s) in that they communicate significantly less of the second ln-rstm's feelings than the sewnd person has communicated himself. rzxssreuzs: The first person cnmmuuicates no awareness of even the most olwious, esprcssrd surface feelings of the second person. The first person may be Irorcd or uninterested or simply operating from a prurmu'ivcd frame of retort-tic: which totally excludes that of the other pcrson(s). In summary. the first person does everything but express that he is listening, nmlr-rstamling. or being sensitive to even the feelings of the other person in such a way as to detract significantly from the communications of the second person. Level 2 \Vhile the first person respomls to the expressed feelings of the second per- son(s). he does so in such a way that he subtracts- noticeable oflcct [mm the ammnmimliom of the sctontl person. nxnwuzsz The first person may cmnmnuicalc some awareness of ohvious surface feelings of the second person. hut his cmnmunications drain off a level of the affect and distort the level of meaning. The first person may communicate his own ideas of what ma ] he going on, but these are not tongrucnt with the. expressions of the second person. In summary. the first person tends to respond to other than what the second person is expressing or indicating. ertrr'f 3 The expressions of the first person in response to the expressed feelings of the St't‘ttltd person! s) are essentially interchangeable with those of the second person in that they express essentially the same affect and meaning. answer: The first person responds with accurate understanding of the sure face feelings of the second person but may not respond to or may misinterpret the deeper feelings. In summary. the first persrrn is responding so as to neither subtract from nor add to the expressions of the second person; but he does not respond accu- rately to how that person really feels beneath the surface feelings. Level 3 tonslitutes the minimal level of facilitative interpersonal fundioning. 121 Leonid The rr-sprmses of the first person add rarticeahly to the expressions d the second person( s) in such a way as to espress feelings a level deeper than the seenml person was ahle to express himself. I-zxaareuz: The facilitator runnmnieates his understanding of the expressions of the second law»: at a level deeper than they were eslm'ssed. and thus enahles the second person to experience and’or express feelings he was unable to express previously. In summary, the facilitator’s responses add deeper feeling and meaning to the calm-saints of the second person. A W5 The first person‘s responses add significantly to the feeling and meaning of .. the extrusions of the second person(s) in such a way as to (I) accurately expo-res feelings lewls below what the person himself was able to express a (2) in the ment of on going deep self-explication on the seeorrd person's part, to he. fully with him in his deepest mornents. mum-s: 11a: facilitator recruit-(ls with accuracy to all of the person's deeper as well as surface feelings. He is 'together' with the second per- son or “tuned in" on his wave length. The facilitator and the other person might proceed together to explore previously unex- plored areas of human existence. In summary. the facilitator is respomling with a full awareness of \\'lm the atlas-r .a‘rson is and a ummrehcusive and accurate empathic understanding of Isis deepest feelings. 122 SCALE 2 THE f.'().\f.\ff'NICATION Of" RESPECT IN INTERPERSONAL PfifXIf'ISSf‘IS: A SCALE FOR thASUREa‘fENT‘i f.” r'f f The verhal and lu-liavioral espressirms of the first person communicate a clear fifl‘h ol respect (or negative regard) for the second person(s). esasn-u-z: The first person communicates to the second person that the second person's feelings and experiences are not worthy of consideration or that the scumd person is not capable of acting constructively. The first person may become the sole focus of evaluation. In summary. in many ways the first person uunmnnicates a total lack of respect for the feelings. esperieru-es. and potentials of the second person. Leer-f2 The first person responds to the seumd person in such a way as to mm- mnnicate little respect for the feelings. experiences. and potentials of the sec- ond person. rzsauru-z: The first person may respond mechanically or passively or ignore many of the feelings of the second person. vs a lack of respect or con- In summary. in many ways the first person displa. cern for the second person's feelings. experiences. and potentials. Level 3 The. first prm communicates a positive respect and com-an for the sec- ond person's feelings, experiences. and potentials. xxAMI'u-z: The first person crunmunicates respect and concern for the second person's ahility to cspress himself and to deal confirm-tively with his life situation. In summary, in many ways the first person communicates that who the second person is and what he does matter to the first person. Level 3 consti- tutes the minimal lesel of facilitative interpersonal functioning. Level 4 The facilitator clearly communicates a very deep respect and concern for the sound person. mass: m: The facilitator’s responses enables the second person to feel f rec to he himself and to experience being valued as an individual. In summary. the facilitator communicates a very deep caring for the feel- ings. experiences. and potentials of the second person. Levels 1hcfau1itatorcommtmicauthewdeqxestrespectforthesocondper- son's north as a pertain and his potentials as a free individual. nations: The facilitator cares very deeply for the human potentials of the semnd person. In summary. the facilitator is committed to the value of the other person as a human being. 123 --. - — - SCALE 3 FACILITATIVE GENUINENESS IN INTERPERSONAL PROCESSES: A SCALE FOR MEASUREMENT“ Level I The first person's verbali'lations are clearly unrelated to what he. is feeling at the moment, or his only genuine responses are negative in regard to the second person( s) and appear to have a totally destructive effect upon the sec- ond person. EXAMPLE: The first person may be defensive in his interaction with the sec- ond person(s) and this defensiveness may be demonstrated in the content of his words or his voice quality. “'herc he is defensive he does not employ his reaction as a basis for potentially valuable inquiry into the relationship. In summary, there is evidence of a considerable discrepancy between the inner experiencing of the first person(s) and his current verbalizations. \Vhere there is no discrepancy. the first person’s reactions are employed solely in a destructive fashion. Level 2 The first person's verbalizations are slightly unrelated to what he is feeling at the moment, or when his responses are genuine they are negative in regard to the second person; the first person does not appear to know how to employ his negative reactions constructively as a basis for inquiry into the relationship. EXAMPLE: The first person may respond to the second person(s) in a “pro- fessional” manner that has a rehearsed quality or a quality con- cerning the way a helper “should" respond in that situation. In summary. the first person is usually responding auording to his prescribed role rather than expressing what he personally feels or means. \Vhen he is genuine his responses are negative and he is unable to employ them as a basis for further inquiry. Leecl3 The first person provides no “negative” cues between what he says and what he feels, but he provides no positive cues to indicate a really genuine response to the second person(s). EXAMPLE: The first person. may listen and follow the second person(s) but commits nothing more of himself. In summary, the first person appears to make appropriate responses that do not seem insincere but that do not reflect any real involvement either. Level 3 constitutes the minimal level of facilitative interpersonal functioning. Level4 The facilitator presents some positive cues indicating a genuine response (whether positive or ru-gative) in a nondestructive manner to the second person(s). EXAMPLE: The facilitator’s expressions are congment with his feelings. al- though he may be somewhat hesitant about espressmg them fully. In summary. the facilitator responds with many of his own feelings, and there is no doubt as to whether he rally means what he says. He is able to employ his responses, whatever their emotional content, as a basis for further inquiry into the relationship. 124 Level 5 The facilitator is freely and deeply himself in a mmcxphritative relationship with the secoml person(s). EXAMPLE: The facilitator is completely spontaneous in his interaction and open to experiences of all types, both pleasant and hurtful. In the event of hurtful responses the facilitator's comments are em- ployed constructively to open a further area of inquiry for both the facilitator and the second person. In summary, the facilitator is clearly being himself and yet employing his own genuine responses constructively. 125 SCALE 4 PERSONALLY RELEVANT CONCRETENESS OR SPECIFIC!" OF EXPRESSION IN lNTERPERSONAL PROCESSES: A SCALE FOR MEASUREMENTs Level I The first person leads or allows all discussion with the second person(s) to deal only with vague and anonymous generalities. EXAMPLE: The first person and the second person discuss everything on strictly an abstract and highly intellectual level. In summary. the first person makes no attempt to lead the discussion into the realm of personally relevant specific situations and feelings. Level 2 The first person frequently leads or allows even discussions of material per- sonally relevant to the second person(s) to be dealt with on a vague and abstract level. EXAMPLE: The first person and the seumd person may discuss the “real" feel-e ings but they do so at an abstract, intellectualizcd level. In summary, the first person does not elicit discussion of most personally rcvelant feelings and experiences in specific and concrete terms. Level 3 The first person at times enables the second person(s) to discuss personally relevant material in specific and concrete terminology. EXAMPLE: The first person will make it possible for the discussion with the second person(s) to center directly around most things that are personally important to the second person(s), although there will continue to be are. s not dealt with concretely and areas in which the second person does not develop fully in specificity. In summary, the first person sometimes guides the discussions into consid- eration of personally relevant specific and concrete instances, but these are not always fully developed. Level 3 constitutes the minimal level of facilitative functioning. Level! The facilitator is frequently helpful in enabling the second person(s) to fully develop in concrete and specific terms almost all instances of concern. EXAMPLE: The facilitator is able on many occasions to guide the discussion to specific feelings and experiences of personally meaningful ma- terial. In summary, the facilitator is very helpful in enabling the discussion to center around specific and concrete instances of most important and person~ ally relevant feelings and experiences. Level 5 The facilitator is always helpful in guiding the discussion, so that the sec- and person( s) may disc-mas fluently, directly, and completely specific feehngs and experiences. EXAMPLE: The first person involves the second person in discussion of specific feelings, situations, and events, regardless of therr emotional con- tent. In summary, the facilitator facilitates a direct expression of all personally relevant feelings and experiences in concrete and specific terms. 126 APPENDIX C 127 GROSS RATINGS OF DIMENSIONS OF FACILITATIVE INTERPERSONAL FUNCTIONINGI ___/___... _ _,..—_.* ._ \ Birections. Below are listed a variety of ways that one person could feel or behave in relation to another person. Please consider each statement with respect to the level of your relationship with the counselor. Mark each state-ant in the space provided below each question according to how strongly you feel it applies to your relationship. Circle 1, 2, 3. (r, or 5 to stand for the following answers: 1. Never 2. Seldom 3. A Good part of the time 4. ‘ Often 5. Always ! , g " 3:“! Counselor responded with an accurate understanding to all of Iy ’ “Per as well as surface feelings. : 1 2 3 '- 4 s '. ue L we: Seldom A Good deal Often Always E of the time r i 2. 2e chmicated a deep respect for ray worth and Iy rights as a free 1 2 3 In S W Seldom A Good deal Often Always of the time 128 filqu 3. He was really himself (genuine), which he employed constructively in his interactions with me ' Never Seldom A Good deal Often Always of the time 4. He was helpful in guiding the discussion with you to fluent, direct and complete expressions of specific feelings and experiences. PL. MM' .4) ~S-"l' 1A.: :-*' ":35, t’“‘.""“" a I to. l 2 3 4 5 Never Seldom A good deal of Often Always the time 5. Counselor volunteered very intimate and often detailed material about his own personality and experiences, in keeping with your needs. 1 2 3 4 5 Never Seldom A good deal of Often —_V Always the time 6. Counselors helped me share important or intimate feelings about myself. l 2 3 6 5 Never Seldom A good deal of Often Always the time 7. Your experience with Counselor suggests that he would be able to help you. l 2 3 4 5 Never Seldom A good deal of Often Always the time l Carkhuff, Robert R., American International College, Springfield, Haas. APPENDIX D 130 131 ooa ooa ooH ooH COH ooa ooa Houos mcficowuocau II II II. II III II. 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