\‘ HES‘S HIIIWHHTUF W W W! W W ; * 3 1293 10593 4784 LIBRARY Michigan state This is to certify that the thesis entitled Wildlife Response to Whole Tree Harvesting of Aspen presented by Dean Earl Beyer has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for M-S. degree inIifihezias & Wildlife Major professor flimzfiéq fl, ALL/A [hue August 10, 1983 0-7639 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution i _ University ' MSU LIBRARIES RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. WILDLIFE RESPONSE TO WHOLE TREE HARVESTING OF ASPEN By Dean Earl Beyer A THESIS Submittee to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Department of Fisheries and Wildlife 1983 9.) ABSTRACT WILDLIFE RESPONSE TO WHOLE TREE HARVESTING OF ASPEN BY Dean Earl Beyer Increasing demand for wood chips both as a fuel and for chip products has caused an increased use of whole tree harvesting. To determine the effect of whole tree har- vesting on wildlife, 6 experimental plots (X = 5.73 ha) were established. Three plots were clearcut during the first 2 weeks of August 1981, using Whole tree harvesting procedures. Breeding song bird populations were censused using a spot mapping method. Small mammal populations were determined by monitoring densities of woody shrubs and sprouts <5 cm dbh, frequency of grasses and forbs and per- cent vertical cover of vegetation and slash. Whole tree harvesting significantly reduced all cover >30 cm. The diversity of the breeding bird community, including both numbers and species, was reduced. Analysis of the small mammal response was confounded by population flucuations which could not be attributed to the treatment. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This project was funded by the Solar Energy Research Institute, Dow Corning Corporation, and the Ruffed Grouse Society. A special thanks is extended to my major professor Dr. Jonathan Haufler for his support, advice, interest, and friend- ship. I would also like to express my sincere appreciation to my committee members, Dr. William Taylor and Dr. Donald Straney for their support and encouragement. I would like to acknowledge Dana Duryea, Douglas Threloff, David Woodyard, Jack Dingledine, and Elena Seon for their assistance in the field. I would also like to thank David Woodyard, Rique Campa, James Ruhl, and Jack Dingledine for sharing their knowledge and friendship. A special thanks is extended to Patricia Tracey for pre- paring my figures and for her support and enthusiasm through- out the final stages of this project. A final thanks is extended to Susan Hazard for the expert typing of my thesis. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES ...................................... iv LIST OF FIGURES ..................................... v INTRODUCTION ........................................ l OBJECTIVES .......................................... 5 STUDY AREA DESCRIPTION .............................. 6 METHODS AND MATERIALS ............................... ll Vegetation Sampling ............................ ll Breeding Bird Censusing ........................ 14 Small Mammal Trapping .......................... 15 Data Analysis .................................. 16 RESULTS ............................................. 19 Vegetation Sampling ............................ l9 Breeding Bird Censusing ........................ 29 Bird-Vegetation Associations ................... 31 Small Mammal Populations ....................... 34 Small Mammal-Vegetation Associations ........... 44 DISCUSSION .......................................... 46 SUMMARY ............................................. 56 APPENDIX ............................................ 58 LITERATURE CITED .................................... 70 Table LIST OF TABLES Mean diversity and S.E. of vertical cover for bird and small mammal strata on con- trol and whole tree harvested plots and buffer zones in Midland County, Michigan during 1981 and 1982 ........................ 27 Mean relative frequency, relative density, relative dominance, and importance values of trees ( >5cm dbh) common to all control péots in Midland County, Michigan during 28 l 82 ........................................ Mean breeding bird species diversity and S.E. of control and whole tree harvested plots and buffer zones in Midland County, Michigan during 1981 and 1982 ............... 32 Minimum number of small mammals known to be alive on control and whole tree harvested plots in Midland County, Michigan during 1981 and 1982 ............................... 33 Species list of vegetation found on the study plots in Midland County, Michigan during 1981 and 1982 ........................ 58 Absolute and relative frequencies of common herbaceous vegetation found on the study plots in Midland County, Michigan during 1981 and 1982 ........................ 62 Numbers of bird species sighted and territories present for all plots and buffer zones in Midland County, Michigan during 1981 and 1982 ........................ 64 iv LIST OF FIGURES Figure Pa 1 Location of the study area relative to Midland, Midland County, and Michigan ....... 7 2 Mean monthly temperatures and total monthly precipitation during the study period ....... 9 3 Location of plots within the study area in Midland County, Michigan ................. 12 4 Mean vegetative cover and S.E. for bird height strata on control and whole tree harvested plots in Midland County, Michigan during 1981 and 1982 ........................ 20 5 Mean vegetative cover and S.E. for small mammal height strata on control and whole tree harvested plots in Midland County, Michigan during 1981 and 1982 ............... 21 6 Mean slash cover and S.E. for <30cm height strata on control and whole tree harvested plots and buffer zones in Midland County, Michigan during 1981 and 1982 ............... 23 7 Mean vegetative cover and S.E. for bird height strata on control plots and buffer zones of whole tree harvested plots in Mggéand County, Michigan during 1981 and 24 8 Mean stem density and S.E. of woody shrubs and sprouts ( <5cm.dbh) on control and whole tree harvesting on control and treatment plots in Midland County, Michigan during 1981 and 1982 ........................ 26 9 Mean minimum total number of small mammals known to be alive before and after whole tree harvesting on control and treatment plots in Midland County, Michigan during 1981 and 1982 ............................... 36 Figure 10 11 Mean total number of small mammal species captured before and after whole tree harvesting on control and treatment plots in Midland County, Michigan during 1981 and 1982 ................................... 41 Mean small mammal species diversity on control and whole tree harvested plots in Midland County, Michigan during 1981 and 1982 .................................... 43 vi INTRODUCTION The demand for wood, both as a fuel and for wood pro- ducts, has been steadily increasing in recent years (Houghton and Johnson 1976, Arola and Miata 1981). Rising energy prices and unpredictable energy supplies have caused an increased interest in the use of a less expensive, renewable source of energy such as wood. Although wood fuel cannot supply a large percentage of the nation's energy require- ment, it can provide an energy alternative to private industries and individuals (Houghton and Johnson 1976). Bradley et a1. (1980) in a study of the potential for energy independencecflfseveral northern Michigan and Wisconsin pulp and paper mills, have shown the feasibility and cost effec— tiveness of wood fuel. Wood fueled electrical generating facilities in Burlington, Vermont and northern Minnesota have also proven operational. Individuals prefer to use roundwood fuel, particularly hardwoods, to obtain the highest Btu for their money (Blyth and Wilhelm 1975). However, industries can utilize any- thing that burns, including pulpwood portions of trees, branches, tops, rotten trees, and small sound trees (Bradley et a1. 1980). Because of the variability in the form of available wood fuel sources before burning, industries convert all forms into wood chips. Since its introduction in 1971 (Young 1974), whole tree harvesting is the most common cutting technique employed in obtaining wood for fuel. At this date, whole tree harvesting consists of utilizing the entire above ground portions of trees; utilization of the root system is not yet entirely feasible. In most cases the wood is chipped at the cutting site. Areas clearcut using whole tree harvesting techniques have less slash and residue than areas harvested with conventional clearcutting practices. By using whole tree harvesting techniques, the amount of wood obtained from an area may increase by almost 100% (Upper Great Lakes Timber Incorporated 1971). The response of wildlife populations to conventional clearcutting has been investigated. Dimock (1974) reported that the residual slash remaining after conventional clear- cutting enhances the habitat for many small mammals and birds by providing escape cover, and food in the form of insects which are supported by the slash. Several other re- searchers have documented the relationship of protective cover and small mammal populations (Eadie 1953, Morris 1955, Lovejoy 1971, M'Closky and Lajoie 1975). Conner and Crawford (1974) observed 2 species of woodpeckers (Picoidg§_pubescens and P. villosus) feeding extensively on the slash of a 1 year old mixed oak clearcut. Conner and Adkisson (1974) reported extensive use of a 1 year old clearcut by nesting bluebirds (Sialis sialis). The only information to date on wildlife responses to whole tree harvesting was an investigation of small mammal population responses reported by Hahn and Michael (1980). Their study found that whole tree harvesting of a deciduous forest results in a decreased abundance of small mammals. This decrease in abundance persisted until the clearcuts were 6 years old. However, Hahn and Michael could not con- clude that the reduction of logging residue (slash) was the inherent factor for the population decline. They suggested factors such as the amount of soil disturbance or vegetation remaining after conventional clearcutting may have produced the differing results between studies. Another possible explanation offered was that the thick vegetative regrowth may have reduced the value of slash. Information on songbird utilization of whole tree harvested areas is completely lacking. Small mammals and birds were selected for study be- cause of their ecological importance and public interest. Small mammals are usually present in sufficient populations that can be readily sampled and they are often strict habitat selectors. Therefore, changes in species and/or numbers will be indicative of habitat changes. The small mammal community also contains a range of trophic groups (West et a1. 1981). Public interest in songbirds has been steadily increasing in recent years (Zagata 1978). Peterson (1980) has identi- fied 3 roles of birds in western communities. These roles are economical, aesthetic, and ecological. Bruns (1960) and Jackson (1979) have shown the important role of insecti- vorous birds in pest management. The importance of the aesthetic role of birds is difficult to identify because . conclusions are often hampered by intangible and variable results. Because birds have evolved with vegetation they are an integral part of a community (Thomas et a1. 1975). Therefore, birds can be important indicators of environmental quality (Graber and Graber 1976). Because whole tree harvesting is a relatively new tech- nique, little research has been done to determine its effect on wildlife populations. Increasing use of whole tree har- vesting to meet energy demands and the increasing importance of wildlife resources makes it important to determine what effect whole tree harvesting has on wildlife populations. OBJECTIVES The objective of this study was to examine and evalu- ate the response of wildlife populations to clearcutting using whole tree harvesting procedures. Specifically, this study investigated potential changes in absolute population densities of breeding birds, relative population densities of small mammals, and species composition and diversity of the small mammal and breeding bird communities. A second objective was to describe changes in vegetative composition and structure which influenced the small mammal and breeding bird communities. STUDY AREA DESCRIPTION The study area was a 129.5 ha aspen (Populus spp.) stand owned by Dow Corning Corporation, located in the S % of Section 13, T16N, RZE, Mills Township, Midland County, Michigan. The area is approximately 7 km north of Midland (Fig. 1). The site is in the east-central portion of the lower peninsula and lies within the Saginaw Lake-Border Plain physiographic region (Sommers 1977). The area is drained by the Tittabawassee watershed, which empties into Saginaw Bay. . Soils on the study site are of Lenawee, Ingersoll, Pipestone, Wixom, and Kingsville series. The Lenawee series consist of poorly drained silty clay soils. Soils of the Ingersoll series are poorly drained silty loams. Pipestone, Wixom, and Kingsville series are poorly drained sandy soils. Thus, all but the highest areas are wet for most of the year. These soils are best suited for aspen which have grown 17- 20m in 50 years on the site. Topography is gently rolling with slopes ranging from 0-6% (Hutchinson 1979). The continental-type climate at Midland (43°37'N lati- tude, 84°15'W longitude) characteristically has larger daily, ‘ l Stuov S”! Q mount) Figure 1. Location of the study area relative to Midland, 'r-Iidland County, and Michigan. C.) monthly, and annual temperature flucuations than areas which are at the same latitude, but closer to the Great Lakes. The higher plateau region to the northwest shelters the area from the effect of Lake Michigan. Mean annual temperature for the area is 8.8°C, ranging from a monthly low in January (-4.9°C) to the monthly high in July (22°C). The mean annual precipitation is 75.2cm with 58% of the total re- ceived during the crop season of May-October. Mean annual snowfall is 92.2cm, which is approximately half of what is received in the Lake Michigan snowbelt (Michigan Weather Service 1974). Mean monthly temperatures throughout the study period were similar to the long term average, except for lower than normal temperatures in January and February 1982 and higher than normal temperatures in May 1982. Total precipitation received throughout the period was similar to the long term average, although amounts of precipitation received in individual months varied considerably (Figure 2). Overstory vegetation consisted primarily of bigtooth aspen (Populus grandidentata) and quaking aspen (P. tremuloides), with fewer numbers of white birch (Betula papyrifera), swamp white oak (Quercus bicolor), red maple (Acer rubrum), bass— wood (Tilia americana), and green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica). The major understory species were bracken fern (Peteridium aquilinum), red raspberry (Rubus strigosa), blackberry (R. alleghaniensis), dogwood (Cornus spp.), speckled alder (Alnus rugosa), and black cherry (Prunus serotina). Lesser amounts of Viburnum (Viburnum spp.), juneberry (Amelanchier llllllll moan 1940-1969 — study period data from Gladwln H moan 1940-1969 station H study parlod / \ I II" II. I '5 Illll D I / z o m < IIIII ‘/ 5 \ a \ II a < , I I - r - I -I - - 2 9'. 0 V 8 53 o In a i? 2' (ma) uousudioud (3.) sanzsudwu Figure 2. Mean monthly temperatures and total monthly pre- cipitation during April 1981 through September 19 2 in Midland County, Michigan. 10 spp.) and witchhazel (Hamamelis virginiana) occurred in a patchy distribution. METHODS Six experimental plots were established on the study area (Fig. 3). To insure homogeneity of vegetation among study plots, plot locations and shape were based on the species composition and density of the overstory vegetation. Four rectangular plots, 5.65 ha (201m x 281m) and 2 square plots, 5.81 ha (241m x 241m) were selected under this con- straint. Baseline data on these plots were collected from May through July 1981. Plots 2, 4, and 6 were selected for treatment and were clearcut during the first 2 weeks of August 1981, utilizing whole tree harvesting procedures. These plots were selected because of their accessibility by harvesting equipment and tractor trailers. All vegetation 5cm dbh and greater was cut down and chipped, while a ma- jority of the vegetation smaller than 5cm dbh was knocked down by harvesting equipment. Vegetative Sampling Vertical cover was measured by the line intercept method (Gysel and Lyon 1980), on randomly located transects within each study plot. Percent cover of vegetation was measured in 4 strata for small mammals: 0-10cm, 10-30cm, 30-100cm, and greater than 1m. These strata were within the ranges 11 ---‘—z-———— Figure 3. Location of study plots within the study area in Midland County, Michigan. proposed in the literature (Rosenzweig and Winakur 1969) and corresponded to the plant life forms found on the study site. Three strata were used to measure percent cover for birds: 0-1m, 1-7m, and greater than 7m. Percent cover of slash was measured in a 0-30cm stratum. Using 1 edge of a measuring tape for the line, vegetation contacts were recorded down to 1cm with gaps less than 5cm ignored. Slash contacts 3cm and greater were recorded. Numbers and lengths of transects were varied to meet sample size requirements. In addition to sampling the cover of the study plots, a 40m buffer zone around each plot was also sampled using the line intercept method. Nested plots were used to determine density of woody shrubs and sprouts, and frequency of grasses and forbs. Grasses were recorded by genera, while forbs and woody vege- tation were recorded by species. Frequency of grasses and forbs were recorded in 2m x 25m quadrats and woody shrubs and sprouts 5cm dbh and less were counted in 2m x 30m quadrats. Each study plot and its buffer zone were sampled by randomly locating points which represented a corner of the quadrat. Sampling of percent cover, frequency of forbs and grasses, and density of woody shrubs and sprouts were conducted on all plots including their buffer zones during June and July 1981, prior to treatment. In 1982, percent cover was estimated during June and July on both treatment and con- trol plots and their buffer zones. Frequency of grasses 14 and forbs, and density of woody shrubs and sprouts were sampled only on the treatment plots in 1982. Density of trees greater than 5cm dbh was sampled in 10m x 20m quadrats in each of the 3 control plots during May 1982. Species, height, and dbh were recorded for all trees within each quadrat. Relative frequency, relative density, relative dominance, and importance values were calculated for each species (Cox 1976). Breeding Bird Censusing Breeding bird populations were censused using a spot-mapping method (International Bird Census Committee 1980). In 1981, censusing began on 27 May and continued through 15 June. Censusing in 1982 began on 11 May and was completed on 16 June. Each plot, including a 40m buffer zone, was flagged at 20m intervals to form a grid which served as a reference for mapping bird territories. The same 2 observers censused the plots in both years. Several trial runs were made together by both observers in order to standardize techniques as much as possible. Censusing began % hour after sunrise and continued for approximately 3 hours. Each observer censused 2 plots each morning. The sequence of plots to be sampled was alternated to eliminate biases caused by changes:h1bird activity throughout the 3 hour period. Tfimzstarting point within each plot and the observer were also alternated each census. Censuses were not taken 15 on days when it was raining, foggy, or when winds exceeded 32 km/hr. Each plot was censused 8 times in 1981, and 12 times in 1982. Following censusing each morning, in- dividual birds were followed to locate nests and further delineate territories. International Bird Censusing Committee (IBCC) (1970) guidelines were used for data recording, summarization, evaluation, and presentation. One exception to the IBCC guidelines was the size of the study plots, which were less than the recommended 10 ha size for closed habitats. Small Mammal Trapping Live trapping was used to estimate small mammal populations for each of the 6 study plots. Live trapping of small mammals began in May of both 1981 and 1982, and continued monthly through September. A 6 x 6 grid with trap station spacing of 25m was located in the center of each plot. Two Sherman live-traps (H. B. Sherman, Co., Tallahassee, FL) (8 cm x 9cm x 23 cm) were placed at each station and covered with plant material. The traps were placed by logs and other small mammal travel lanes in order to maximize captures. Both treatment and con- trol plots were trapped concurrently for 5 consecutive nights. Traps were set and baited on the first day of each trapping period and remained open during the 5 day sampling 16 period. The bait mixture used in 1981 consisted of oats, peanut butter, beef fat, raisins, and anise extract. In 1932 peanut butter was deleted and packaged dog food was added to the mixture. Traps were checked early each morning of the trapping period. All newly captured individuals were ear tagged or toe clipped. Species, identification number, and location on the grid were recorded for each capture. Data Analysis This study employed a completely randomized design. The linear model for the design was: =u+r.+e.. Y.. 13 1 13 u mean of all observations 1 variability due to treatments 8 variability due to errors Statistically adequate sample sizes for all vegetation sampling were determined with Freese's (1978) required sample size formula: n = t2s2 E t = tabulated t value at the 90% confidence limit 2 _ . s - sample variance E = allowable error (mean multiplied by a maximum of 20%) 17 One—way analysis of variance (p< 0.10) was used to test density of woody shrubs and sprouts, foliage height diversity, frequency of forbs and grasses, breeding bird abundance, number of species of breeding birds, breeding bird species diversity, small mammal abundance, number of species of small mammals, and small mammal diversity with respect to baseline data and treatment effects (Steel and Torrie 1980). All data were subjected to Snedecor and Cochran's (1967) test for the equality of 2 variances. Data with heterogenous variances were transformed by Log (Y+1) (Steel and Torrie 1980). Foliage height diversity, bird species diversity, and small mammal diversity were determined by the Shannon—Weiner diversity index (Ricklefs 1979): H = -2:pi log pi pi = decimal fraction of total individuals or total cover of the ith category Because of a substantial decrease in total numbers of small mammals from 1981 and 1982, standard capture-recapture population estimators could not be used. Consequently, Kreb's (1966) enumeration technique was the best alternative: N = A + P N = minimum number of individuals of a species alive at time t. A = actual number of individuals of a species caught at time t. P = the number of previously marked individuals of a species caught after time t, but not at time t . 18 The minimum number of individuals of each species alive was determined for each study plot during every trapping period. Absolute population estimates were not essential since the emphasis of this study was determining relative differences between control and treatment plots. Product moment correlation (Steel and Torrie 1980) (P< 0.10) was used to describe associations between vege- tation responses and bird and small mammal responses. RESULTS Vegetation Characteristics Analysis of baseline vegetation sampling from 1981 indicated that vegetation in all study plots was similar in composition and structure. A list of all species of vegetation found on the study plots is presented in the appendix (Table A-7). Prior to harvesting in August 1981, there were no significant (p>-O.10) differences in the amount of vertical vegetative cover between control and designated treatment plots in any bird height stratum (Fig. 4). Designated treatment plots, however, had significantly (p<:0.05) more cover in the 30cm - 1m small mammal height stratum than control plots (Fig. 5). There were no signi- ficant (p> 0.10) differences between control and designated treatment plots in any other height stratum. ‘ The amount of cover on control plots significantly in- creased by 53% in the 1m - 7m stratum (p<:0.10), and 28% in the 30cm - 1m stratum (p<:0.05) from.1981 to 1932. There were no other significant differences (p> 0.10) in cover on control plots between years for any strata. Harvesting completely removed the >7m stratum, and significantly (P<:0.05) reduced cover in the lm-7m stratum 19 20 :3 control whols trss harvsstsd t t significantly diiisrsnt (P<0.05) a significantly diiistsnt (p1": 30cm -1 m Stratum 10cm-30cm 0cm -10cm Figure 5. 21 :3 control ._ .- whols trss harvsstsd :- in significantly dittsrsnt (P< 0.05) 1o. 7 .0 to 7 o 8 ’ O 0 E10. 2 8 7 50 1o. 7 o 1982 Mean vegetative cover and S.E. for small mammal height strata on control and whole tree harvested plotiggrzr Midland County, Michigan during 1981 and . 22 on the treatment plots by 86%. Similarly, cover was also reduced on treatment plots in the 30cm-1m and the >lm strata by 34% and 88% respectively. Slash cover in control and treatment plots was not significantly different (p> 0.10) in 1981 (Fig. 6). Whole tree harvesting significantly increased (p< 0.05) slash cover on treatment plots. Vertical vegetative cover in the buffer zones surrounding the treatment plots was not significantly different (p> 0.10) from control plots in 1982 (Fig. 7). The amount of slash cover in the buffer zones was not significantly different than slash cover on control or treatment plots in 1982. Foliage height diversity (H' ) indicies of control FHD and treatment plots were not significantly (p> 0.10) dif- ferent for bird and small mammal strata before harvesting (Table 1). Diversity indicies of control plots were similar in 1981 and 1982. Harvesting reduced (p<:0.05) the foliage height diversity for both bird and small mammal strata. Mean foliage height diversity of the bird strata in the buffer zones was not different (p> 0.10) from control plots. The density of woody shrubs and sprouts in the control and designated treatment plots was similar before harvesting (Fig. 8). Greater densities of wood shrubs and sprouts were found on treatment plots after harvesting. Table 2 describes the composition of overstory (trees >5cm dbh) vegetation of the control plots. 23 N O O p A I) '9 O V O. v E ‘D . O " 3 O o t ’ — a. a I z 3‘ I, .0- 0 I: c ‘9 .0. _ " ;:~2 F a. 5'- ~£:; , 0‘:— o 3 a: o ‘ i b h _4 a .1 :}~ 0 mi 0 mi N asaootusoaad Figure 6. Mean slash cover and S.E. for <30 cm height strata on control and whole tree harvested plots and buffer zones in Midland County, Michigan during 1981 and 1982. Stratum >7n| 1m-7m (in! Figure 7. Psrcsnt covor 24 C control whole tras harvsstsd + 1982 Mean vegetative cover and S.E. for bird height strata on control plots and buffer zones of whole tree harvested plots in Midland County, Michigan during 1981 and 1982. 25 Figure 8. Mean stem density and S.E. of shrubs and sprouts (‘5cm dbh) on control and whole tree harvested plots in Midland County, Michigan during 1981 and 1982. . ...... .......... .......... -.-.. . A m 9 s o V C. v - c . h C - - — t > - a c . o - fi - c a - . o o u a o a b C c o o h a 2 o a: 3 - O b a C O 9 Figure 8. ..... ...,, aL-va-a-a sq /stus:s 11 11.82 1991 1901 27 .maouucou Eoum Amo.cnvav ucouowmwv maucmowmacmfiw mmS muon ucmaumouu co xuwmuo>fip unwwon owmwaomm - «Amo.voH.H AHo.vam.H Amoo.vam.fi Aqo.vmm.H momnom Hmaama HHmEm Amo.voo.H fip ufiwwon UNMwHom .NmmH ecu Hmma wcaose sewage“: .aoesou ecmaea: CH mmcou Humane paw muoHa Umumo>umn mouu «H053 can Houucoo co mumuum HmEEmE Hanan cam than now uo>oo Hmowuuo> mo A v .m.m mam zuwmuo>wp cmox .H oHan 23 Table 2. Mean relative frequency, relative density, relative dominance, and importance values of trees (>5cm dbh) common to all control plots in Midland County, Michigan during 1982. Relative Relative Relative frequency density dominance Importance Species (%) (%) (%) value Bigtooth aspen 13.76 25.61 22.30 61.66 Quaking aspen 10.76 10.73 23.55 45.04 White birch 13.07 10.08 10.40 33.55 Red maple 11.75 13.00 7.50 32.25 Swamp white oak 10.44 11.47 7.57 29.48 Green ash 8.05 7.84 9.77 25.66 Slippery elm 8.79 7.47 6.68 22.94 29 Absolute and relative frequencies of common herba- ceous species found on the study plots are presented in the appendix (Table A-6). In 1981, control and designated treat- ment plots were very similar in species composition. Only 1 species differed significantly (p< 0.10) between control and designated treatment plots. The absolute frequency of violetsvms higher on designated treatment plots than controls. Harvesting caused changes in absolute frequency of only 2 herbaceous species common to both control and whole tree harvested plots. Sedge increased on clearcut plots while the occurrence of violet decreased. Shifts in the frequency of occurrencecflfother species may have been masked by high variability between study plots. Sixteen species were found on the whole tree harvested plots that were not present on any study plot in 1981 (Table A-5). However, these species occurred in low frequency. Of these 16 species, only 1 woody species, pin cherry, was found to invade the clearcuts. Breeding Bird Censusing A total of 44 species of birds were observed on the study plots during the breeding bird census in 1981. Of these 44 species, 11 species were common to all study plots, and 18 species had established breeding territories in at least 1 study plot (Table A-7). In 1982, 49 species were 30 observed on the study plots during censusing. Seven species were common to all plots, and 28 species established breeding territories in at least 1 study plot (Table A-9). Five species were observed in 1981 but not in 1982; redheaded woodpeckers, downy woodpeckers, acadian flycatchers, blue winged warblers, and tree sparrows. However, none of these species had successfully established breeding territories on the study plots in 1981. Species recorded only in 1982 included killdeer, mourning dove, eastern kingbird, tennessee warbler, blackburnian warbler, cardinal, and field sparrow. Of these, only the eastern kingbird successfully esta- blished breeding territories on the study plots. A total of 45 species of birds were observed in the buffer zone surrounding the treatment plots. Twenty-four of these species established breeding territories in the buffer zones. No significant differences (p> 0.10) were found between the mean number of breeding birds on control (Y = 66 i 4.2) and designated treatment plots (R = 75 i 1.8) in 1981. The number of species of breeding birds was also not signi- ficantly different (p> 0.10) on control (2 = 9 i 1.2) and designated treatment (R = 11 i 0.8) plots. Breeding bird numbers on control plots (2 = 64 i 2.3) in 1982 were similar to numbers found in 1981. However, the number of species of breeding birds on control plots (R = 16 i 2.1) was greater (p‘=0.05) in 1982 than in 1981. Harvesting resulted in a 31 significant decrease (p> 0.05) of over 80% in the number of birds found on treatment (X = 13 i 1.2) plots. Similarly, the number of species establishing breeding territories on treatment (Y = 4 i 0.3) plots was 75% less than on control plots. The mean number of breeding birds/Slua in the buffer zones (i == 68 :t 11.2) 'was not significantly different (p=>0.10) from the number of breeding birds on control plots/Slui (X =56 ill) in 1982. Nor was the number of species of breeding birds different in the buffer zones (X==17 : 1.5)- Mean breeding bird species diversity (H'BSD) was similar on control and designated treatment plots in 1981 (Table 3). Species diversity on control plots increased (p< 0.10) the second year. This was attributed to an increase in the total number of species establishing breeding territories rather than an increase in the total number of territories established per species. Harvesting significantly reduced (p<:0.05) species diversity on treatment plots. Breeding bird species diversity of the buffer zones was similar to control plots but different (p<:0.05) than treatment plots. Bird-Vegetation Associations In 1981 there were no significant (p> 0.10) associations between bird species diversity and foliage height diversity, bird species diversity and density of woody shrubs and sprouts, breeding bird abundance and foliage height diversity, 32 Table 3. Mean breeding bird species diversity and S.E. of control and whole tree harvested plots and buffer zones in Midland County, Michigan during 1981 and 1982. Bird species diversity Year Control Treatment Buffer zone 1981 1 86(.20) 2.13(.13)A - 1982 2.39(.25)C 1.13(.13)B 2.56(.20) A Value determined before treatment. BSignificantly different (p< 0.05) from control 1982. CSignificantly different (p< 0.10) from control 1981. ll 33 or breeding bird abundance and woody shrubs and sprouts. In addition, no associations were found between bird species diversity or breeding bird abundance and percent cover of slash, or vegetation in any height stratum. However, the number of species of breeding birds was significantly correlated with foliage height diversity'(p‘<0.05,r==(L86) and percent cover in the lm-7m stratum (p4<0.10, r==0.78). After harvesting, bird species diversity was positively correlated (p <0.05, r=0,99) with foliage height diversity, and percent cover in the <1m stratum (p<:0.10,1:= 0.78), the lm-7m stratum (p<:0.05,1:= 0.95), and the >7m stratum (p<:0.05,17= 0.98). Bird species diversity was negatively correlated (p‘<0.05, r = -0.91) with density of woody shrubs and sprouts and percent slash cover (p<:0.05,rr= -0.94). Breeding bird abundance was positively correlated (p«<0.05, r = 0.99) with foliage height diversity, and percent cover in the <1m stratum.(p‘<0.10,1:= 0.70), the 1m-7m stratum (p < 0.05, r= 0.99), and the >7m stratum (p < 0.05, r= 0.99). However, breeding bird abundance was negatively correlated with percent slash cover (p<:0.05,r'= -0.93). The number of species of breeding birds was positively correlated with foliage height diversity (p<:0.05,rr= 0.98), and percent cover of all strata (p<:0.05, 0-lm;IT= 0.82, 1m-7m;1:= 0.96, >7m41r= 0.98). Both percent slash cover and density of woody shrubs and sprouts was negatively correlated (p< 0.05, r = -0.96;1:=r0.90 respectively) with the number of species of breeding birds. No significant associations (p>-0.10) 34 were found between vegetative characteristics and bird species diversity, breeding bird abundance, or number of species of breeding birds for the buffer zones. Small Mammal Populations A total of 12 species of small mammals were trapped on the study plot in 1981. Of these 12 species, red squirrels (Tamiascuruis hudsonicus), longtail weasels (Mustela frenata), southern flying squirrels (Glaucomys volans), starnose moles (Condylura cristata), and cottontail rabbits (Sylvilagus floridanus) were classified as inci- dental species because of infrequent capture. The 7 other species, white-footed mice (Peromyscus leucopus), short- tail shrews (Balarnia brevicauda), masked shrews (Sorex ginerus), woodland jumping mice (Napaozapus insignis), meadow voles (Microtus pennsylvanicus) and eastern chipmunks (Tamias striatus) were captured in relatively high numbers in both years. Although all positively identified specimens of the genus Peromyscus were white-footed mice, in the field,deer mice (Peromycus maniculatus) may have been mis- takenly recorded as white-footed mice. In addition, long- tail weasels, cottontail rabbits, and opposum (Didelphis marsupialis) were captured in 1982. However, due to low capture success, these species were classified as incidentals. The minimum number of animals known to be alive on control and designated treatment plots during the 3 trapping periods before harvesting were essentially equal (Fig. 10). 35 Figure 9. Mean minimum number of small mammals known to be alive before and after whole tree harvesting, on control and treatment plots in Midland County, Michigan during 1981 and 1982. 36 P02. 5 5 s 1 or man .06 1 3 83!: 32oz... 2.52.32: ._ on 92:22. to... 0.9.30 .0380 o 03:22. 02. 22.! o:- 3550 o um! / can: ulnmupug go qunu noon Figure 9. 37 Small mammal numbers varied after harvesting but not signi- ficantly (p> 0.10). White-footed mice were the most abundant species captured in 1981 (Table 4). Shorttail shrews, eastern chipmunks, woodland jumping mice, masked shrews, meadow voles, and meadow jumping mice were cap- tured in decreasing numbers,respectively. Numbers of small mammal species captured were similar on control and treatment plots in 1981, but varied throughout the sampling period (Fig. 11). Small mammal species diversity (H'SMD) was not significantly different (p> 0.10) on control and treatment plots in 1981 (Fig. 12) before or after harvesting. During the 1982 trapping season there were greater numbers of small mammals on treatment plots during all trapping periods, but only significantly higher numbers (p< 0.10) during June and July. This is partially attributed to a decline in small mammal numbers, especially white- footed mice on control plots. In addition, reductions in numbers of Shorttail shrews and eastern chipmunks observed on control plots may have also contributed to the differences between control and treatment plots. Finally, the increase in small mammal numbers on treatment plots is a result of an increase in numbers of meadow voles and meadow jumping mice. Greater (p<:0.10) numbers of small mammal species were found on treatment plots during only 1 trapping period. However, no differences in small mammal species diversity were found during any trapping period in 1982. 38 ma om ma ma NH om omH Hum NH NmN Nq mm 0') OH mq RAH No HqH mm moa mm m m mwamca mammnommwz m mDHmGHo xmuom u mnswow>mum macumam mm .Qmm msumzaoumm ucmaummne Hq Hmuoe mnumwuum mmHEmH N n msowcm>HmmCCom . mauouowz msoHGOmwun mammm N memecH mDMmNommmwz m msuocHo xmuom N mvsmofi>oum macumam om .mmm mnomNEoumm Houucoo Nwmfl Hmuoe mea H\m o\w m\m m\o oa\m m\m mH\m oH\n qH\o wH\m mmwommm ucoEumopH .NmaH cam Hwaa manusc cmwanoaz .aucaoo acmaea: an muoHa emumm>umn QNHU 0HO£3 UCN HOHUCOU CO Q>HHN GS 0U C3033 mHmEME HHmEm W0 Hmflafiuc EDBHQHZ .¢ mHQmH 39 mmm Now mnumwuum mmHEmH mnowcm>Hchcmm wnuouowz msowcowvzn mummw A.v.ucoov ucosummuH - mm omH a me a mama Hmmfi Hmuoa H\m o\w m\n m\o OH\m m\m mH\w mowommm oa\n ¢H\o wH\m ucmEumoHH A.a.ucooc .s magma 40 Figure 3H1 Mean total number of small mammal species captured before and after whole tree har- vesting, on control and treatment plots in Midland County, Michigan during 1981 and 1982. 41 N02. pump 83!: 2.3:; 3.52:5.- * act-22. on: 0.2.! a .3230 4 J 1 pound” "and: "mus-m nuns so uqumu any. Figure 10. 42 Figure 11. Mean small mammal species diversity on control and whole tree harvested plots in Midland County, Michigan during 1981 and 1982. 43 «map :23! pomp .3303... .2. 0.2.! a .2230 a H) Mmugp "goods "mm-m "nus (CNS Figure 11. Small Mammal-Vegetation Associations Small mammal species diversity calculated at the time of vegetation sampling was positively correlated (p< 0.05, r = 0.84) with slash cover in 1981. No associations between small mammal species diversity and foliage height diversity or percent vegetative cover were found in 1981. Small mammal species diversity for the first 3 trapping periods were not significantly correlated (p> 0.10) with density of woody shrubs and sprouts. The minimum number of animals known to be alive during the third trapping period was only correlated (p‘=0.05, r = 0.78) to the percent cover in the >1m stratum. Foliage height diversity, vegetative cover in the remaining strata, and slash cover did not correlate well with the number of animals known to be alive. However, the number of woody stems/ha was significantly, negatively (p< 0.05, r = -0.90) correlated with animal numbers in the first trapping period in 1931. Small mammal species diversity was negatively corre- lated with foliage height diversity (p<:0.05, r = -0.81) and percent cover in the >1m stratum (p<:0.10, r = —0.78) in 1982. The minimum number of animals known to be alive during the vegetation sampling period (2nd trapping period) was negatively correlated (p< 0.05, r = -0.87) with foliage height diversity and percent cover in the >1m stratum 45 (p<:0.05, r = -0.82). Numbers, however, were positively correlated (p<:0.05, r = 0.93) with slash cover. The density of woody shrubs and sprouts was associated (p<:0.05) with numbers of animals known to be alive in the second and third trapping periods. The trend was positive (r = 0.84; r = 0.79 respectively). DISCUSSION Pretreatment sampling indicated that control and de- signated treatment plots were similar in vegetative compo- sition and structure. Differences such as greater percent cover in the 30cm-lm stratum and higher absolute frequency of violetscxldesignated treatment plots did not seem to have an effect on small mammal or bird communities. None of the measured parameters which characterized the small mammal and bird populations differed between control and designated treatment plots. The year to year increase in cover on the control plots may be attributed to natural succession of the area. The natural thinning occurring in this overly mature aspen stand allowed increased growth in the understory producing increased cover in the 30cm-lm and lm-7m strata. Whole tree harvesting, as with any other clearcutting practice, drastically altered the structure of the vegetation. The amount of cover in all strata >30cm was significantly reduced. Although harvesting resulted in an increased density of woody vegetation, the regeneration had not yet grown high enough to provide substantial amounts of cover in the upper strata. The complete removal of the overstory did not cause as large of a shift in herbaceous species 46 47 composition as expected. Although many species invade the clearcut areas, only 2 species, marsh thistle and New England aster were found in all 3 clearcuts. In addition, these and other invading species occurred in low fre- quencies. This may be attributed to the condition of the stand prior to harvesting. Because the aspen stand was overly mature, many early successional species were already established before harvesting, thus the species shift was lessened. As previously mentioned, the amount of wood obtained by using whole tree harvesting techniques can almost double the amount that is obtained by using conventional clear- cutting practices. This increase is a product of utili- zation of tree tops, rotten trees, and small sound trees which would be left as slash on a conventional clearcut. Although whole tree harvesting increased the amount of slash cover, the increase can not be as large as found on con- ventional clearcuts. The correlations between the response of the bird and small mammal communities and the vegetative structure after harvesting must be viewed with caution. The corre- lations are between 2 widely separated and distinct groups of values, those corresponding to the control plots and those corresponding to the whole tree harvested plots, rather than being formed by a gradient of values. Because of the severity of the treatment any changes in the bird or small mammal communities are likely to be correlated with the 'vegetative changes. 48 The first year response of the bird community to the changes in vegetative structure was a decrease in both numbers and species. This overall decrease resulted in a reduction in bird species diversity. The association of bird species diversity to foliage height diversity in temperate forests has been documented (MacArthur and MacArthur 1961, MacArthur 1964, Karr1968,KarI'and Roth 1971). MacArthur and MacArthur (1961) have suggested that all height strata are equally important to the birds. The hightest correlation between bird species diversity and foliage height diversity would occur when the height classes are divided into the levels which are used by the bird communities (Moss 1978). In this study, the height strata were selected to represent the herbaceous layer, shrub layer, and overstory. It is assumed that these layers have biological significance, how- ever it is not certain (MacArthur 1964). Moss (1978) has suggested that each layer of vegetation contains niches for several bird species. Therefore, increasing the number of layers increases the number of niches, which in turn increases the number of bird species. By removing layers, as whole tree harvesting did, the number of available niches de- creased resulting in fewer bird species. Similar responses of bird communities have been documented in association with conventional clearcuts (Shugart and James 1973, Conner and Adkission 1975, Shugart et a1. 1978, Crawford et al. 1981). The low rate of colonization of the whole tree harvested plots may be partially attributed to 2 factors. The first 49 is the relatively small size of the clearcuts. Studies in several vegetation types have indicated the relation- ship between block size and the number of species present (Sampson 1980). Forman et al. (1976) reviewed biogeographic studies and concluded that block size was the top or near the top predictor of species number. The larger the block of vegetation the greater the rate of immigration (Whitcomb 1977). The second factor, which may have affected colonization of the clearcuts by low shrub nesting species, was the growth form of the first year aspen. Aspen suckers do not branch out until their second year, therefore available nest sites were limited to the patches of vegetation that remained after harvesting. The species that established breeding territories within the clearcuts were typically open or brushy area nesters, with the exception of the veery, which usually nests in the forest. The atypical veery nest was unsucessful due to cowbird parasitisim and eventual destruction by a mammalian predator. Catbirds, which typically nest in brush areas (Bent 1964a) were found nesting in those patches of brush that were not knocked down by harvesting equipment and were within 40m of the edge of the clearcut. Robins and rufous-sides towhees are more general nesters (Bent 1964b, Bent 1968a), occurring in both open and forested areas. The 3 other species nesting in the clearcuts, king- birds, mourning warblers, and song sparrows, typically 50 nest in open areas (Bent 1942, Bent 1963, Bent 1968). Very few snags remained standing after whole tree harvesting. Several cavity nesting species, bluebirds, house wrens, and yellow—shafted flickers, successfully nested in the buffer zones surrounding the clearcuts. Increased use of the whole tree harvested areas by these species may have occurred if the appropriate size snags had been left in the clearcuts. Although whole tree harvesting significantly increased the amount of slash cover, it is unknown if this increase benefited wildlife species which used the slash for food and/or cover. Downy and hairy woodpeckers and yellow- shafted flickers have been observed feeding on logging slash in conventional clearcuts (Conner and Crawford.l974). very low numbers of these species were observed using the whole tree harvested clearcuts. This could either be caused by low populations of these species in the surrounding area or by too small an amount of slash remaining after whole tree harvesting to attract these species. The induced edge created by clearcutting was narrow and of high contrast. As a result, the number of bird species commonly associated with edges did not substantially increase. Species such as the song sparrow which feed and nest close to the ground in open areas, but need high singing perches, may have benefited from the abrupt edge. However, the clearcuts were not complete. Many small trees and shrubs remained after harvesting, providing ample 51 singing perches. Observations of displaying song sparrows on the clearcut support their use of these scattered trees within the clearcut rather than the trees on the edge. The buffer zone is part of the ecotone created by the edge. The species of birds inhabiting this area did not differ from those inhabiting the control plots. The actual size of ecotone produced by the edge is unknown and may not be equal to the width of the buffer zone. Numbers of breeding birds expressed per 5 ha in the buffer zones were not different from those found on control plots. This may be attributed to the variability in the number of birds establishing territories in the buffer zones. 0f the 3 buffer zones censused, 2 had higher population levels than any of the 3 control plots while the remaining buffer zone had fewer breeding birds than any of the control plots.' The source of this variability is unknown. In summary, it does not appear that the first year response of bird p0pu1ations to whole tree harvesting was different from typical response to conventional clear- cutting. However, differences may be noted in areas with different species composition. For example, responses may be different in areas which have higher population levels of woodpeckers or other species which typically feed or nest around or in dead and downed woody material. Another important factor to be considered is the time since clear- cutting. Shifts in the breeding bird community will occur as the structure of the vegetation changes. 52 The effect of conventional clearcutting on small mammal populations has been investigated. The majority of these studies have examined small mammal responses to clear- cutting of conifer stands (Tevis 1956, Gashwiler 1959, Harris 1968, Gashwiler 1970, Hooven and Black 1973, Martell and Radvanyi 1977, Sullivan 1979). Other studies have investigated small mammal responses to clearcutting of hardwood stands (Krull 1970, Lovejoy 1971, Kirtland 1977). However, no specific pattern of response has emerged from these studies. Tevis (1956), Sims and Buckner (1973), Hooven and Black (1976), and Kirtland (1977) concluded that clearcutting resulted in an increase in total small mammal abundance. Harris (1968) found clearcutting to reduce total small mammal abundance as did Hahn and Michael (1980) in their study investigating responses to whole tree harvesting. Other studies concluded that clearcutting had no signifi- cant effect on small mammal abundance (Krull 1970, Lovejoy 1971, Martell and Radvanyi 1977, Sullivan 1979). These variations may be due to regional differences such as geo- graphic location, forest type, climate, and species associ- ations in the small mammal community (Kirtland 1977b). Another potential source of variation is the differences in the post-harvest site preparation treatment each area received. Different sampling techniques and sampling time periods may have also contributed to the differing results. Sullivan (1979) suggested that the higher populations found in clearcuts reported in the literature are a result of 53 the lack of spring trapping and the common practice of trapping after the summer and fall recruitment. Analysis of the effects of whole tree harvesting on the small mammal community is confounded by the decrease in small mammal numbers, most notably deer mice, on control plots in the second year. Population declines were also noted for Shorttail shrews, masked shrews, and chipmunks. Declines in small mammal numbers were not restricted to the study area. Small mammal population declines were also recorded in Cadillac and Atlanta, Michigan (D. Woodyard, pers. comm.). These declines throughout the state may be attributed to the severity of the 1981-1982 winter. Several studies have reported associations between small mammal community characteristics (i.e. species, numbers) and vegetative composition and structure (Rosengweig and Winakur 1969, Miller and Getz 1977, Dueser and Brown 1980). In this study the associations found between vege- tative structure and small mammal numbers and diversity may be an artifact of the shift in the small mammal community which occurred from 1981 to 1982. Because this shift was not a result of the treatment, the results are potentially and probably biased. However, the changes in vegetative composition and structure following whole tree harvesting appeared to benefit 2 species. Both meadow voles and meadow jumping mice increased their populations on the harvested plots. 54 The relationship of relative meadow vole abundance and the amount of grass-like cover has been shown in several studies (Eadie 1953, Mossman 1955, Woodyard 1982). The presence of meadow voles on the study plots before har- vesting is attributed to the mature growth stage of the stand which had allowed substantial ground cover to develop. Getz (1961) concluded that the type of food present was also an important factor influencing the occurrence of voles in an area. In his study in southeastern Michigan, Getz found grasses and sedges to be the preferred food item. Sedges were especially important in the winter. It appears that increases in meadow vole numbers on the whole tree harvested plots were at least partially the result of in- creases in the occurrence of sedge. Meadow jumping mice, although less specific in their habitat preferences than meadow voles, have been found to reach their highest population levels in open moist lowlands and willow-alder thickets (Quimby 1951). The significant decrease in cover >30cm may have produced more favorable conditions for this species. Ahlgren (1966) suggested that food was the primary factor influencing small mammal popu- lations. Whole tree harvesting may have increased the availability of food for jumping mice, which feed on both seeds and insects (Quimby 1951). Increased small mammal pOpulations resulting from increased production after clearcutting has been reported by Ahlgren (1966). Huhta et al. (1967) and Huhta (1976) have found significant in- creases in invertebrate biomass following clearcutting. 55 This was attributed to the organic matter in the form of slash providing good invertebrate habitat. Because whole tree harvesting increased the amount of slash, the increase in meadow jumping mouse numbers may be a response to greater invertebrate availability. However, the length of the invertebrate response to slash may be shortened because of the lesser amount of slash produced by whole tree harvesting relative to conventional clearcutting. Chipmunks were not captured on any of the clearcut plots, although populations on control plots were very low. Kirtland (1977) reported the exclusion of chipmunks on both deciduous and coniferous clearcuts. Friday (1978) found greater chipmunk activity in forest and transition zones and less activity in open fields. He attributed this to the availability of mast and the predatory behavior of chipmunks on nesting birds. Krull (1970) however, concluded that clearcutting had no effect on chipmunk populations. He observed almost equal use of clearcuts and hardwood forests by this species. The relationship between whole tree harvesting and the response of the 4 other species (deermice, shorttail shrews, masked shrews, and woodland jumping mice) can not be examined because of the year to year variability which resulted in low population levels. SUMMARY Whole tree harvesting drastically altered the structure of the vegetation by significantly reducing all cover >30cm. The shift in vegetative species composition following clear- cutting was lessened by the old growth stage of the stand which allowed many early successional species to be esta- blished before treatment. Both the bird and small mammal communities responded to the vegetative changes. The diversity of the bird community, including both species and numbers was significantly reduced. Forest dwelling species were replaced by early successional species. The assessment of differences between whole tree harvesting and conventional clearcutting was hindered by low woodpecker populations. It isrun:known if woodpecker populations in the surrounding area were low, or if there was too small an amount of slash present to attract these species. The effect of whole tree harvesting on the small mammal community was confounded by population fluctuations<flfseveral species which could not be attributed to the treatment. However, meadow voles and meadow jumping mice appeared to have responded favorably to the vegetative changes produced by whole tree harvesting. 56 57 The results of this study suggest the response of wildlife populations to whole tree harvesting was similiar to responses observed on conventional clearcuts. How- ever, differences may be noted in areas which have bird and small mammal communities containing higher numbers of species which depend on slash for food and/or cover. Hahn and Michael (1980) suggested several management options to benefit small mammals and other wildlife on whole tree harvested areas. One option would be to leave all cull logs too large to be chipped in the clearcuts. This would provide cover and foraging areas for both small mammals and birds. These logs could also provide drumming stages for ruffed grouse. A second option would be to leave a predetermined density of snags of a certain dbh standing. Both cavity nesting birds and small mammals would benefit. When the regenerating vegetation grows to a point which closes the canopy and reduces the understory vegetative cover, the large cull logs and the snags which had fallen since clearcutting would still provide cover. Additional research is needed to evaluate wildlife re- sponses to whole tree harvesting of other vegetation types. Furthermore, long term research is necessary to evaluate both potential long term effects such as possible de- creases in soil fertility and the response of naturally fluctuating populations such an; the small mammal popu- lations in this study. APPENDIX Table A-5. Species of vegetation found on the study plots in Midland County, Michigan during 1981 and 1982. American elm Balsam poplar Basswood Bigtooth aspen Black cherry Blueberry Bush honeysuckle Catbrier Choke cherry Currant Elderberry Flowering dogwood Green ash Gray stem dogwood Grey willow Hawthorne Hazelnut Ironwood Maple leaf Viburnum Musclewood Nannyberry Pin cherry* Pussy willow Quaking aspen Red maple Red oak Red osier dogwood Rubus Serviceberry Silky dogwood Slippery elm Smooth alder (Ulnus americana) (Populus balsamifera) (Tilia americana) (Populus grandidentata) (Prunus serotina) (Vaccinium spp.) (Diervillia lonicera) (Smilax glauca) (Prunus virginiana) (Ribes spp.) (Sambucus canadensis) (Cornus florida) (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) (Cornus racemosa) (Salix humilis) (Crataegus spp.) (Corylus americana) (Carpinus caroliniana) (Viburnum aurifolium) (Ostrya virginiana) (Viburnum lentago) (Prunus pennsylvanica) (Salix discolor) (Populus tremuloides) (Acer rubrum) (Quercus rubra) (Cornus stolonifera) (Rubus spp.) (Amelanchier spp.) (Cornus obliqua) (Ulnus rubra) (Alnus serrulata) 59 Table A-5. (cont'd.) Speckled alder Spirea White ash White birch White oak Wild grape Witch hazel Bearberry Bedstraw Black snake root Blood root Bottlebrush Bracken fern Bunch berry Bush honeysuckle Canada lily Carex Cattail Cinquifoil* Common fleabane Dandelion* Dovesfoot-cranebill* Dwarf ginseng False solomon seal Fescue Fringed loose strife Gall of the earth Germanium Hair grass Hairy solomon seal Hog peanut Horsetail (Alnus rggosa) (Spiraea latifolia) (Fraxinus americana) (Betula papyrifera) (Quercus alba) (Vitis spp.) (Hamamelis virginiuna) (Artostaphylos uva-ursi) (Galuim boreale) (Sanicula marilondica) (Sangunaria canadensis) (Elymus hystrix) (Pteridium aquilinum) (Cornus canadensis) (Diervillin lonicera) (Lilium canadense) (9393 SPP-) (Typha latifolia) (Potertilla spp.) (Erigeron philadelphious) (Taraxacum spp.) (Geranium molle) (Panax trifolrus) (Smilacina racemosa) (Festuca spp.) (Eysimachia cilcata) (Prenanthes trifoliata) (Germanium spp.) (Agrostia scabra) (Polyggnatum pubescens) (Amphicorpa bracteata) (Equisetum arvense) 60 Table A-5. (cont'd.) Lesser stichwart* Maple leaf goosefoot* Marsh thistle* Meadow rue Mullein New England aster* New York fern Oak fern Oat grass Orange hawkweed* Ostrich fern Pale corydalis* Poison ivy Rattle snake fern Red baneberry Redtop* Royal fern Rue anemone Sensitive fern Shinleaf Short-toothed mountain mint* Smooth solomon seal Solidago Spinulose wood fern Spreading dog bane Strawberry Sweet cicely Tall meadow rue Tartarian honeysuck1e* Tick trefoil Thimbleweed Trillium Violet (Stellaria graminea) (Chempondium hybridum) (Circium palustre) (Thalictrum dioicum) (Verbascum spp.) (Aster rovae-angliae) (Thelypteris noveboracensis) (Gymnocarpium drygpteris) (Danthonia spp.) (Hieracium aurantiacum) (Matteuccia struthrqpteris) (Corydalis sempervirens) (Rhus rodicans) (Boggychium virginianum) (Actrea rubro) (Agrostis alba) (Osmurda rggalis) (Anemonella thalictroidc) (Onoclea sensibilis) (Pyrolia elliptica) (Pycranthemum spp.) (Polygonatum biflorum) (Solidago spp.) (Dryopteris spinulosa) (Apocynam androsaemifolium) (Fragaria virginiana) (Osmorhiza claytoni) (Thalictrum 4polygamum) (Lonicera taterica) (Desmodium canadense) (Anemona virginiana) (Trillium spp.) (Viola spp.) 61 Table A-5. (cont'd.) Virginia creeper Water hemlock Water parsnip White avens* White clover* White lettuce* Wild sasparillia Wood anenome Yarrow (Parthenocissus guinqgetolin) (Cicuta maculata) (Sium suave) (C3212 Spp.) (Trifolium repens) (Prenanthes alba) (Aralin nudicalis) (Anemone quinquefolia) (Achillea millefolium) 7‘Found only on whole tree harvested plots in 1982. 62 Am.oV¢.o AN.mvo.m Ao.on.H Am.wvm.ow Am.on.H Am.¢avm.mm show @003 mmoanawmm Ao.va.n Am.qu.qm Am.ovq.w Aw.va.oa Am.HVa.w An.mVo.No owmpaaom Ac.ovq.H Aw.mv¢.om A¢.ovw.m Aq.wvm.mm Ao.va.m Am.~mvo.om aumm m>wuflmaom Ac.0vm.o mAm.mvN.mw Am.0vm.o Ao.ovN.Nm A¢¢.vq.q Am.mavq.nm mwpmm AH.oV¢.o Ao.ovm.m Am.on.o A¢.oVH.HH Am.ovm.a Am.¢avq.o~ >>fl GOmwom Aw.ovN.N Am.Hva.mN Am.Hvo.m AH.Hva.wm Am.ovm.a Am.wvm.NN Hflmumwuom Aw.ovH.H Am.Hva.oH Am.Hvo.© Am.~mvm.mm AN.qu.q Am.Hqu.mm uscmma wow I n Amq.vo.a Aq.~vo.ma Am.va.N Ao.mmvo.mm Hmmm coEOHOm %Hflmm Am.ovm.H Ao.wvn.mH Am.ova.a Aw.mvw.qa AH.on.o Aw.an.m Edwamumu u n Ao.avm.a AH.Hva.NN Am.ovm.a ¢.5vq.om zuumm msu mo Hamu Am.ovo.H Am.wva.aa An.HvH.N Ao.mHvN.NN Am.Hvo.N m.mavm.mm humonnocsm Ao.va.c Ao.Hvo.mw Am.ovn.© Am.mvm.mm Am.mva.n Aq.oava.mn cumm coxomum Am.Hva.m Ao.oqu.¢q A¢.Hvo.o Am.mavm.mm Am.va.¢ Ao.wmvm.mm 3muumvom AH.HVa.H Am.cflvm.mfl Aa.HVo.c Am.aavw.mm AN.va.a Ao.Hmvw.am spumnpmmm m m. m \ nmmrmwwli ,mec mm“ hmmplmmw wmmw m mnomomnums coEEoo mo Ammv moflocmdvmum m>wumamu paw Am AH.HVo.~ A~.wavo.am Am.qu.m Am.aavo.~a AH.HVo.H Aa.ofivm.- Hmommuu acme A~.ova.o A~.mvo.m Am.ovo.o Am.avq.a Am.ovm.H Am.~va.- samupu ummsm Am.ovm.o Ao.qvo.am Am.Nvo.m Am.amva.om Am.ov~.¢ Aw.mava.mm suumnsmuum filmy “EN. 58 EN. 88 5Q. E8 mass Ammrmmx G3 “.3. 38QO quEumoHH Nme ucoEummHB Hmma Hopucoo meH A.a.ucoov .o-< magma 64 H\ H\ x H H x H m\x x Aavx x m\ m\ x m\x \x H\x \H m\ m\ m\ Um: m\x N m N AmSuHcHuo manouwflwzv HonoumohHm woummuo ammuu Amsccmuww msccmnmyv eufinwcfix cumummm Amcmommnsm mmpHoonv Hoxomapoo3 chOQ x x x AmsmoHH> mmeHoUHmv meommpoo3 huHmm H AmDHmnmwwoucuNwm wmmuocmHmEv HoxoprOOB pmpmmzuwmm x x Amsumusm mmumeoov meoHHm pmummnmu3oHHm» x x x AmDEDHmnunmdpnuxwm mammooov ooxoso pmHHHnuxomHm x AmscmoHumEm mammoooov ooxoso pmHHH£u3oHHow AmusouomE mpHmCva m>ow wchHDoz Amsumeoo> msHupmumnov ummaaflpx AHV AmHHHOme HmuHmwoo mnmducoov mm3moa p003 cuoummm OH AmsEHaHE meOpHmEmv Honoumome ummoH AmcmommHH> XmCOpHmEmv Homoumome cprmo< H Amnmonm mHCHommmv onoond cumummm meH H oz uOHm mmHooam A.e.ucoov .N-< sassy 66 m\ m\ m\ H\ «\x H\x m\ m\ x \x m\ x m\ H\H N H\ x «\x H m\ m\ m\ H\x H\ H\H AmHHm> wuHHuOchv umHnHmz mqu3 paw xomHm AmDnHHw omHH>V omHH> wGHHQHmS AchHMH>mHm omHH>v ooHH> pmumounuu30HHo> H Amsmom>HHo omHH>v omHH> pmzo pmm x AmHHmeD> macusumv wcHHumum AEDHOHpmo mHHHQNoEomv wcH3xm3 umpmo AmHmSMmmo «HHummeomv Hofioumoumcw thmeHm Ampamflm «Hampmv pHHnden auoummm q AmcmommomSM msumnumov mumo> m AmcHHmumDE mHnoHolomv ammufiu @003 x AmDHuoumuwHE mDpHDHV aHnom Nme I!) aw mi N. meH H 02 uon mmHomdm A.a.uaoov .k-< magma 67 x m\ H x AmHmaoUMHono>oc mSHDHomv nmsunuoum3 cuonunoz m\ o H\ a m\x 0H m a a H OH m AmsHHamaoousm mauspmmv cyan cm>o m\ Amwcmummo mHooupcon HmHnum3 pmummmunnmmm H\ x H\x x m\ x x x x x x x HmUHcm>Hchmm «Huounamnv HmHHHmS pmpHmuuDCummno x m\ Amomsm mHooupCoav HmHnHmB cchudnxomHm m\ AmcHwau mHooupcmav HmHQHm3 mmz mamo \x m\ m\ < x AmHzooumm mHooqumav Hmanmz 3oHHow m\ x m\ x m\ x AmcHmeuom mHo>HEhm>v HmHnums mmmmmaCmH x Amsch mHo>HEHm>v uanHmz pmwcH3um5Hm m\x H m\x H N\x N q H H Hmuoumdwano mHo>HEHm>v HmHnHm3 pmwaH3-CmpHoo w m a m“ m H m m ”N, m [m H, oz uon mmflomam Nme HmmH A.c.ucoov .N-< mHan HmHHmcHeumu mHHmcHuumov Hmchpmo Ammom>HHo mwcmHHmv Hmwcmcmu uoHHmom Aumuw mausuHozv pHHH3oo pmpmmsuczoum AmHmomHnu msHmomHst meomuw coEEoo AmDGHHoumo mswwfiasmv aanxomHn sumsm AmHanmw msumuoHv mHOHHo cnmnuuoz AmnmoHCoonm demHuw mwmnmdummv uumumpmu amoHumE< AmmfioHHu mHQMHLuomUv umousu 30Hwa AmHamHmpmHHnm mHCHouomdv HmHnHm3 wchusoz x x\ x\ H xHx x\x xHx x x\x x\x \x x xHx «\x «\x N m\x H x H\x x x\x H\ H\ x H\ NHx H\ H H\ x\x N\H x o .q lum NI NmmH HmmH oz uon mmHomam H.e.u:ouV .H-< oHan 69 mcou Hmwmdn msu co pouanm mmHomamo uoHa mzu no pouanw mmHommmm HOHQ mnu co unmmmua mmHHouHuumu mo Honesz< mm\m mm mm\m Nm HN\o «m on on on Nm mm mm mmHHouHHHmu wchmmun Hmnemz HHH H H\a H\m x x x H x HmHnOHms muHmonmzv 3ouumam wcom x\x HmHHHma mHHmNHmmv Bouumam pHmHm x x Ammuonum mHHmuamwv 3ouummm mmHH H\N H N\x HHx H x x x x x AwasHmaunmopaumpm oHHmHHV mo£3ou popHmumSOHDM x \x HmHumHuu mHHmncumov sochpHow cmoHumE< x\x x\x x Ammcmmw maHHommmmv wcHuch oprcH N\x m q\x c ¢\x N N o m q N H AmncmHoH>oan wDoHuoDmsmv N\x m «\x o «\x N N o m q N H xmmnmouw poummmupuomom o m .H m m, H o m a m «w H oz UOHH mmHomam Nme meH H.a.ucouv .N-< mHsmH LITERATURE CITED LITERATURE CITED Ahlgren, C. E. 1966. Small manmals and reforestation following prescribed burning. J. For. 64: 614-618. American Ornithologists' Union. 1956. Checklist of North American birds. Fifth ed. Lord Baltimore Press, Baltimore, MD 691 pp. Arola, R. A., and E. S. Miyata. 1981. Harvesting wood for energy. U.S. Dept. Agric. For. Serv. Res. Pap. NC-200. 25 pp. Bent, A. C. 1942. Life histories of North American fly- catchers, larks, swallows and their allies. U.S. Natl. Mus. Bull. 179. 555 pp. . 1963. Life histories of North American wood warb- 1ers. U.S. Natl. Mus. Bull. 203, part 2. 367-734. 1964a. Life histories of North American nuthatches, wrens, thrashers, and their allies. U.S. Natl. Mus. Bull. 195. Washington, D.C. 475 pp. . 1964b. Life histories of North American thrushes, Einglets, and their allies. U.S. Natl. Mus. Bull. 196. Washington, D.C. 452 pp. 1968a. Life histories of North American cardinals, grosbeaks, buntings, towhees, finches, sparrows, and allies. U.S. Natl. Mus. Bull. 237, Part 1. 602 pp. 1968b. Life histories of North American cardinals, grosbeaks, buntings, towhees, finches, sparrows, and allies. U.S. Natl. Mus. Bull. 237, Part 3. 1249- 1799. Blyth, J. E., and S. Wilhelm. 1980. Fuelwood production in rural Minnesota. U.S. Dept. Agric. For. Serv. Res. Bul. NC-47. 6 pp. Bradley, D. P., E. M. Carpenter, J. A. Mattson, J. T. Hahn, and J. A. Winsaver. 1980. The supply and energy potential of forest resources in northern Wisconsin and Michigan's upper peninsula. U.S. Dept. Agric. For. Serv. Res. Pap. NC-132. 21 pp. 70 71 Bruns, H. 1960. The economic importance of birds in forests. Bird Study 7: 193-208. Buech, R. R., K. Sideritos, R. E. Radike, H. L. Sheldon, D. Elsing. 1977. Small mammal population after a wildlife in northeast Minnesota. U.S. Dept. Agric. For. Serv. Res. Pap. NC-151. 7 pp. Byelich, J. D.,.J. L. Cook, and R. I. Blouch. 1972. Management for deer. Pages 120-125 13 J. H. Ohman, F. H. Kaufert, and M. R. Allen eds. Aspen: Symposium proceedings. U..S Dept. Agric. For. Serv. Gen Tech. Rep. NC—l. 154 pp. Connor, R. N. and C. S. Adkisson. 1975. Effects of clear- cuttings on the diversity of breeding birds. J. For. 73: 781-785. Connor, R. N. and H. S. Crawford. 1974. Woodpecker foraging in clearcut. J. For. 72: 564-566. Cox, G. W. 1976. Laboratory manual of general ecology. Wm. C. Brown Company Publishers. Duberque, Iowa. 232 pp. Dimock, E. J. II. 1974. Animal populations and damages. Pages 1-28 in O. P. Warner ed. Environmental effects of forest residues management in the Pacific Northwest. U.S. Dept. Agric. For. Serv. Gen. Rep. PNW-24. 416 pp. Dueser, R. D. and W. C. Brown. 1980. Ecological correlates of insular rodent diversity. Ecology 59: 89-98. Eadie, W. R. 1953. Response of Microtus to vegetative cover. J. Mammal. 34: 263-264. Forman, R. T. T., A. E. Galli, and C. F. Leck. 1976. Forest size and avian diversity in New Jersey wood- lots with some land use implications. Oecologica 26: 1-8. Freese, F. 1978. Elementary forest sampling. U.S. Dept. Agric. For. Serv. Ag. Handbook 232. 91 pp. Friday, G. P. 1978. Vegetative structure and mammalian utilization of a forest-field transition and its adjacent habitats. Ph.D. Thesis. Michigan State Univ., East Lansing, MI 66 pp. Gashwiler, J. S. 1959. Small mammal study in west—central Oregon. J. Mammal. 40:128-138. 1970. Plant and animal changes on a clearcut in west-central Oregon. Ecology 51: 1018-1026. 72 Getz, L. L. 1961. Factors influencing the local distri- bution of Miggotus and Sggoptomys in southern Michigan. Ecology 42: - . Graber, J. W., and R. R. Graber. 1976. Environmental evaluations using birds and their habitats. Biol. Notes. No. 97. Illinois Nat. Hist. Surv. Urbana, IL. 39 pp. Gullion, G. W., and F. J. Svoboda. 1972. The basic habitat resource for ruffed grouse. Pages 113- 119 33 J. H. Ohman, F. H. Kaufert, and M. R. Allen eds. Aspen: Symposium proceedings, U.S. Dept. Agric. For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-l. 15 pp. Gysel, L. W., and L. J. Lyon. 1980. Habitat analysis and evaluation. Pages 305-403 in S. D. Scheminitz ed. Wildlife management teEhniques manual. The Wildlife Society. Washington, D.C. 686 pp. Hahn, B. L. and E. D. Michael. 1980. Responses of small mammals to whole tree harvesting in central Appalachian. Trans. Northeast Fish Wildl. Conf. 37: 32-44. Harris, A. S. 1968. Small mammals and natural refores- tation in southeast Alaska. U.S. Dept. Agric. For. Serv. For and Range Exp. Stn. Res. Note. PNW-75 89 pp. Hooven, E. F., and H. C. Block. 1976. Effects of some clearcutting practices on small-mammal populations in western Oregon. Northwest Science 50: 180-203. Houghton, J. E., and L. R. Johnson. 1976. Wood for energy. Forest Products Journal 26: 5-18. Huhta, V. 1976. Effects of clearcutting on numbers, bio- mass, and community respiration of soil inverte- brates. Ann. 2001. Fennici 13: 63-80. Huhta, V., E. Karppinen, M. Nurminen, and A- Valpas. 1967. Effect of silvicultural practices upon arthropod, annelid, and nemotode populations in coniferous soil. Ann. Zoool. Fennici 4: 87-145. Hutchinson, D. E. 1979. Soil survey of Midland County, Michigan. U.S. Dept. Agric. Soil Cons. Serv. Washington, D.C. 98 pp. 73 International Bird Census Committee. 1970. Recommendation of an international standard for a mapping method in bird census work. Aud. Field Notes. 24: 722- 726. Jackson, J. A. 1979. Insectivorous birds and North American forest ecosystems. Pages 1-7 33 J. E. Dickson et al., eds. The role of insectivorous birds in forest ecosystems. Academic Press, New York, NY. 381 pp. Karr, J. R. 1968. Habitat and avian diversity on strip- mined land in northcentral Illinois. Condor 70: 348-352. Karr, J. R., and R. R. Roth. 1971. Vegetation structure and avian diversity in several New World areas. Am. Nat. 105: 423-435. Kirkland, G. L. 1977. Responses of small mammals and vegetation changes after fire in a mixed conifer- hardwood forest. Ecology 55: 1391-1398. Krebs, C. J. 1966. Demographic changes in fluctuating populations of Microtus californicus. Ecol. Monogr. 36: 239-273. Krebs, C. J., B. L. Keller, and R. H. Tamarin. 1969. Microtus population biology: Demographic changes in fluctuating populations of M. ochrogaster and M. pgnnsylvanicus in southern Indiana. Ecology 50: 587—607. Krull, J. N. 1970. Small mammal populations in cut and un- cut northern hardwood forests. N.Y. Fish and Game J. 17: 128-130. Lovejoy, D. A. 1971. The effect of logging on small mammal populations in the White National Forest of New Hampshire. Ph.D. Thesis. Univ. Connecticut, Storrs, CT. 173 pp. Lyon, L. J., and C. E. Jensen. 1980. Management implications of elk and deer use of clearcuts in Montana. J. Wildl. Manage. 44: 352-362. MacArthur, R. H. 1964. Environmental factors affecting bird species diversity. Am Nat. 98: 387-397. icArthur,Rn H., and J. W. MacArthur. 1961. On bird species diversity. Ecology 42: 594-598. I- v' 3. ~ _ “It— :u. ’2‘. .3?! J"'- fig. ‘—a .A 1.1.34 sun- as i “’ S 7:. A. U“ .- ‘ - ‘lml' ———i 1-.....” n‘fi‘J-I.“ -‘ g 74 Martell, A. M., and A. Radvanyi. 1977. Changes in small mammal populations after clearcutting of northern Ontario black spruce forest. Can. Field Nat. 91: 41-46. Michigan Weather Service. 1974. Climate of Michigan by stations. Michgan Dept. Agric. cooperating with NOAA - National Weather Serv. U.S. Dept. Commerce. East Lansing, MI Miller, D. H., and L. L. Getz. 1977. Factors influencing local distribution and species diversity of forest small mammals in New England. Can. J. Zool. 55: 806-814. Moss, D. 1978. Diversity of woodland song-bird populations. J. Animal Ecology. 47: 521-527. Mossman, A. S. 1955. Light penetration in relation to small mammal abundance. J. Mammal. 36: 564-566. Peterson, S. R. 1980. The role of birds in wester com- munities. Pages 6-12 in R” M. DeGraff, tech. coord. Proceedings of the workghop of management of western forests and grasslands for nongame birds. U.S. Dept. For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-86. 535 pp. Quimby, D. C. 1951. The life history and ecology of the jumping mouse, Zapus hudsonicus. Ecol. Monogr. 21: 61-95. Ricklefs, R. E. 1979. Ecology. Chiron Press, Inc. New York, NY. 966 pp. Rosenzweig, M. L., and J. Winakur. 1969. Population ecology of desert rodent communities habitat and environ- mental complexity. Ecology 50: 558-572. Sampson, F. B. 1981. Island biogeography and the con- servation of nongame birds. Trans. North Am. Wildl. and Nat. Resour. Conf. 45: 254-251. Shugart, H. H., and D. James. 1973. Ecological succession of breeding bird populations in northwest Arkansas. Auk 90: 62-67. Shugart, H. H., T. M. Smith, J. T. Kitchins, and R. L. Kroodsma. 1978. The relationships of nongame birds to southern forest types and successional stages. Pages 5-16 33 R. M. DeGraaf, tech. coord. Proceedings of the workshop on management of southern forests for nongame birds, U.S. Dept. Agric. For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. SE-14. 176 pp. 75 Shugart, H. H., T. M. Smith, J. T. Kitchins, and R. L. Kroodsma. 1978. The relationships of nongame birds to southern forest types and successional stages. Pages 5-16 ig_R. M. DeGraff, tech. coord. Proceedings of the workshop on management of southern forests for nongame birds. U.S. Dept. Agric. For Serv. Gen Tech. Rep. SE-14. 176 pp. Sims, H. P., and C. H. Buckner. 1973. The effect of clear- cutting and burning of Pinus banksiana forests on the populations of small mammals in south- eastern Manitoba. Am. Midl. Nat. 90: 228-231. Snedecor, G. W., and W. G. Cochran. 1967. Statistical methods. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa. 593 pp. Sommers, L. M. 1977. Atlas of Michigan. Michigan State Univ. Press. East Lansing, MI. 231 pp. Steel, D. G. and J. H. Torrie. 1980. Principles and pro- cedures of statistics a biometrical approach. McGraw-Hill Book Company. New York, NY. 633 pp. Sullivan, T. P. 1979. Demography of populations of deer mice in coastal forest and clearcut (logged) habitats. Can. J. Zool. 57: 1636-1638. Tevis, L. Jr. 1956. Response of small mammal populations to logging of douglas-fir. J. Mammal. 37: 189-196. Thomas, J. W., G. L. Crouch, R. S. Bumstead, and L. D. Bryant. 1975. Silvicultural options and habitat values in coniferous forests. Pages 272-287 in D. R. Smith, ed. Proc. Symp. Manage. For. and— Range Hab. Nongame Birds. U.S. Dept. Agric. For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-l. 343 pp. Upper Great Lakes Timber, Inc. 1971. Total tree harvesting report. Report or file. Newberry, MI. 9 pp. West, S. D., R. D. Taber, and D. A. Anderson. 1981. Wild- life in sludge-treated plantations. Pages 115-122 in C. S. Bledsoe ed. Municipal sludge application E5 Pacific northwest forest lands. University of Washington. Seattle, WA. 432 pp. Whitcomb, R. F. 1977. Island biogeography and habitat islands of eastern forests. Am. Bird. 31: 3-5. 76 Woodyard, D. K. 1982. Response of wildlife to land appli- cation of sewage sludge. M.S. Thesis. Michigan State Univ. East Lansing, MI. 64 pp. Young, H. E. 1974. Complete-tree concept, 1964-1974. ForuIProducts J. 24: 30-32. Zagata, M. D. 1978. Management of nongame wildlife - a need whose time has come. Pages 2-4 ig_ R. M. DeGraff, tech. coord. Proceedings of the workshop on management of sourthern forests for nongame birds. U.S. Dept. Agric. For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. SE-14. 176 pp. mmm