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[I K /\f:l‘fl':'-’.’C—v;.i L i ‘ kMajgr professor j LU. C Lav / A CONCURRENT VALIDITY STUDY OF THE VOCATIONAL VALUES INVENTORY by Jacob Stein AN ABSTRACT Submitted to the School for Advanced Graduate Studies of Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 'Department of Administrative and Educational Services Guidance and Counseling " / I V ‘ (5’ A . L ' ” _,’. I ‘ .._ ‘ , ‘i' , /’ 2". pp r0 V8 0 : 14 kiflJ " r- I L/{ L'\I‘\ MIL!” 2 JACOB STEIN ABSTRACT Three null hypotheses were advanced relative to the purpose of the study. They were: 1. There are no significant differences in the mean subtest scores of the Vocational Values Inventory among students planning to enter different occupations. 2. There are no significant differences in the mean subtest scores of the Vocational Values Inventory among students coming from different socio-economic levels. 3. There are no significant differences in the mean subtest scores of the Vocational Values Inventory among male and female students. The subjects selected for this investigation were A36 students, 175 women and 261 men. They were enrolled in the Basic College at Michigan State University during the Spring Term of 1959. The instruments used in the study were the Vocational Values Inventory and a specially designed questionnaire. The Vocational Values Inventory consists of seven subtests of 12 paired items each, or a total of 84 items. The subtests are as follows: Altruism, Control, Job-Freedom, Money, Prestige, Security, and Self—Realization. Reliability for the instrument was tested in seVeral ways. Using Hoyt’s method of analysis of variance, reli- ability coefficients were obtained from the subtests that ranged from .69 to .91. The mean of the reliability coef- ficients was .82. 3 JACOB STEIN . ABSTRACT The technique of item analysis using Adkin's short form was used to identify items which might not contribute to the total score of the subtests. Among the men, 6 items were found which did not measure the property for which it was designed, while among the women, 14 such items were found. The differences among the various groups, occupational, socio-economic, and male and female, were tested by the analysis of variance method. Duncan's technique was used to determine which means actually differed. The Vocational Values Inventory was found to be reliable insofar as the limitations of this study is con- cerned. Similar results should be obtained in a retest of the same population. Among the men, Altruism, Money, and Control signifi-. cantly differentiated the stated occupational selections, and among the women, Altruism, Prestige, and Control per- formed the same function. Ginzberg's theory of "Crystallization" appears to hold up for the men, but not for the women. The reality— based occupational selections of the men are fairly con- gruent, but they are not congruent for the women. Except for the subtest of Money for the upper class men and Prestige for the upper class women, students from different socio-economic levels tend to achieve similar scores on the Vocational Values Inventory. 4 JACOB STEIN ABSTRACT It appears that there is a relationship between values and vocational choice. This is not true for all the values of the Vocational Values Inventory, but only for Altruism, Money, Control, and Prestige. Men and women have different values as measured by the Vocational Values Inventory and students coming from different socio-economic levels tend to have similar values or scores on the subtests of the Vocational Values Inventory. Thus, reinforced by the findings of congruence in fantasy and reality—based voca— tional selections for the men and none for the women, the above findings of value differences for men and women seem to indicate a need for separate tests for men and women. A CONCURRENT VALIDITY STUDY OF THE VOCATIONAL VALUES INVENTORY by Jacob Stein A THESIS Submitted to the School for Advanced Graduate Studies of Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administrative and Educational Services Guidance and Counseling 1960 U/v ‘v 19/2 or I Jacob Stein Candidate for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Date of Examination: JUlY 26, 1960, 10200 A.h. Fourth Floor, College of Education Bldg. Dissertation: A Concurrent Validity Study of the Vocational Values Inventory Outline of Studies: Major area—~Administrative and Educational Services (Guidance and Counselor Training) Minor area-~Educational Psychology, Physical Education Biographical Items: Birthdate--December 12, 1923, New York City, New York Undergraduate studies—-College of the City of New York, New York City, New York 19A6-1950 Graduate studies—-New York University, New York City, New York, 1950-1952 Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, 1957-1960 Experience: New York State Employment Service, New York City, New York, 1952-—Employment Counselor and Interviewer Kankakee State Hospital, Kankakee, Illinois, 1952-1953-- Intern in Clinical Psychology East Moline State Hospital, East Moline, Illinois, 1953-195A--Clinica1 Psychologist, Consultant to Rock Island Child Guidance Conference Clinic State Prison of Southern Michigan, Jackson, Michigan, 195A-1957--Clinical Psychologist Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, April—June, l960--Assistant Instructor, Counselor Training, Department of Administrative and Educational Services Membership: American Psychological Association American Personnel and Guidance Association Michigan Psychological Association ACKNOWLEDGMENTS To Dr. Gregory A. Miller, chairman of my doctoral committee and major professor, I offer sincere thanks for the effort and interest shown in my behalf. In addition, I wish to express special thanks to Dr. Buford Stefflre for making available the Vocational Values Inventory and his help in the design and direction of this study. Dr. Wayne Van Huss and Dr. Harry Sundwall, the remaining members of my committee are thanked for their many helpful suggestions and encouragement. Acknowledgment is also due Dr. William Baten and Mr. John Patterson for their helpful suggestions and assistance with the statistical aSpects of this investi- gation. Support for this project was made possible in part by a training grant provided by the Office of Vocational Rehabilitation, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. THE NATURE AND IMPORTANCE OF THE PROBLEM. . 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . 1 Background of the Study . . 3 The Purpose and Importance of the Study . 12 The Problem . . . . 14 Limitations and Scope of the Study. . . 15 Definition of Terms. . . . . . . 16 Organization of the Study. . . . . . 18 II. REVIEW OF SIGNIFICANT LITERATURE . . . . 20 Value Concepts . . . . . . . . . 20 Cultural Values . . . . . . . . 20 Religious Values. . . . . . . . 23 Educational Values . . . . . . . 25 Philosophical Values . . . . . . 27 Scientific Values . . . . . . . 3O Psychological Values . . . . . . 30 Social Values. . . . . . . . . 31 The Problem of Values . . . . . . . 32 Measurement . . . 32 Origin and Development of Values . . 38 The Influence of Values on the Cognitive Life of the Individual. . Al The Integration of Values and Vocational Choice . . . . . . . . . . . 62 III. METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . 6A The Administration and Analysis of the Instrument Used to Measure Values . . 65 Reliability and Validity of the Vocational Values Inventory. . . . . . . . 67 The Construction of a Questionnaire to Elicit Information not Obtainable Elsewhere . . . 73 The Selection of an Appropriate Sample of the Student Population. . . . 76 The Formulation and Organization of Methods of Tabulating and Analyzing the Results of the Study . . . . 79 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . 81 ii CHAPTER PAGE IV. ANALYSIS OF DATA. . . . . . . . . . 83 Hypotheses. . . . . . . . . . . 83 Relevant Problems . . . . . . . . 84 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . 113 V. SUMMARY . CONCLUSIONS, , AND IMPLICATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH . . . . . . . . 117 SUlllnlary. .-o. o - o -o ‘ -o - 0- o - o- -o - o- 117 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . 123 Inuflications For Future Research . . 125 APPENDIX A—-Vocationa1 Values Inventory . . . . . 130 APPENDIX B--Questionnaire. . . . . . . . . . 132 APPENDIX C--List of Coefficients . . . . . . . 135 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 iii TABLE 10. 11. LIST OF TABLES Percentages of the Fantasy and Reality-Based Vocational Objectives of the Subjects. Product Moment Intercorrelations of the Scores of the Total Group on the Vocational Values Inventory Sub-Tests. Means and Standard Deviations of the Scores of the Total Group on the Vocational Values Inventory Sub-Tests. Product Moment Intercorrelations of the Scores of the Men of the Vocational Values Inventory Sub-Tests. Means and Standard Deviations of the Scores of the Men on the Vocational Values Inventory Sub-Tests Product Moment Intercorrelations of the Scores of the Women on the Vocational Values Inventory Sub-Tests. Means and Standard Deviations of the Scores of the Women on the Vocational Values Inventory Sub-Tests. The Sub-Test Reliability Coefficients for the Vocational Values Inventory Using Hoyt's Method . Items Found by the Method of Item-Analysis, of Men, Women, and Total. Which Do Not Measure the Property'rhey Purport to Nunasure Distribution of Z Scores Converted from Rank Order Correlation Coefficients of Vocational Values Inventory Scores and Answers to Question 13 in the Questionnaire in Relation to Tested and Stated Values Means and Standard Deviations of the Z Scores Shown in Table 10 and Differences Between the Means iv 77 85 86 87 88 89 9O 91 93 95 96 TABLE 12. 13. IA. 15. 17. 18. 19. Means and Variances of the Scores of the Women on the Sub-Tests of the Vocational Values Inventory in Relation to Their Fantasy- Based Vocational Selections. Means and Variances of the Scores of the Men on the Sub-Tests of the Vocational Valfieg Inventory in Relation to Their Fantasy- Based Vocational Selections. Means and Variances of the Scores of the Women on the Sub-Tests of the Vocational Values Inventory in Relation to Their Reality- Based Vocational Selections. . . Means and Variances of the Scores of the Men on the Sub—Tests of the Vocational Valfieg Inventory in Relation to Their Reality- Based Vocational Selections. . . Means and Variances of the Scores of the Men on the Sub-Tests of the Vocational ValGEE Inventory in Relation to Their Socio— Economic Status (Their Answers to Question 3 on the Questionnaire) Means and Variances of the Scores of the Women on the Sub-Tests of the Vocational Values Inventory in Relation to Their Socio- Economic Status (Their Answers to Question 3 on the Questionnaire) ‘\ A Comparison of the Means of the Scores of the Men and Women on the Sub-Tests of the Vocational Values Inventory. Comparison of Male and Female Responses to Questions 4 through 10 of the Questionnaire P AGE 98 101 103 105 108 109 111 112 CHAPTER I THE NATURE AND IMPORTANCE OF THE PROBLEM Introduction The entry into a vocational field of endeavor marks an important milestone in the ontogenetic development of the individual. All the years of living, all experiences, both psychological and physiological, are coalesced into the process of vocational decision-making. Truly, it is a most anxiety—provoking situation and rightly so for many people. It is a rare person who has not thought about the irreversibility of some vocational decisions, especially decisions concerning the highly skilled technical and professional vocations. These require many years of prep- aration, not Just at the undergraduate level, but also on the graduate level. The situation is often the same for non-college trained personnel, since technical and many skilled trades often require the same careful long-range planning. It would be a serious waste of money and time to train for some specific profession and then, upon vocational entry, find one is not suited by virtue of dissimilar inter— ests, attitudes, and values. By that time, the years have gone by and retraining is more fearful than accepting the vocation with its concomitant psychological frustrations. Sometimes the psychological manifestations of such decisions 1 2 prove deleterious in the long run. However, at the time of making these decisions, the vocational future with its complications is not always envisioned in its proper perspective. The View that for every man there is a vocation for which he is best suited has often been suggested as the basis for future investigations. However, this observation does not in fact approach the limitations of reality. The concept of vocational selection is dynamic and not specifi— cally fixed or influenced by any one particular factor. As the individual grows, so grows his concepts of life around him. Ideas are superseded by new ones and interests, attitudes, sentiments, values, and motives are modified and changed by the pressures of individual growth and those of society. These shifting changing interests, hobbies, economic upheavals, and other unforeseen influences fore— stall specific prediction of vocational choice. Since these influences make prediction a most difficult task, knowing some constant factors common to personality theory might contribute towards a better understanding of what is involved in vocational choice and consequent rediction. A most important base or constant in the investigation of vocational choice is the values that have helped define, relate, and select the particular vocation. These values are the sources of attitude sets from which societal behavior patterns have evolved. They are the bases for experiential living. They help pave the way for solutions to every-day problems. These values are inherently aspects of personality which, from a global point of view, are complex and often unknown to conscious awareness. They are integral to per- sonality and have to be studied in relation to the entire man. The study of these values involves more than an in— vestigation of a circumscribed area. Values are integral to the world of facts (86) and are everywhere and anywhere. Anything that can be seen, felt, heard, or sensed is valued. They can be and are wherever man can see, hear, relate, com- pare, and judge. They arise out of the life of instincts, interests, sentiments, and motives. Consequently, they arise because of the very existence of man. Background of the Study Individual differences are focal to the study of personality with each organism expressing different percep- tual anchorage points and different patterns of behavior. These different patterns of behavior pose a problem of trying to predict and generalize behavior from a specific theory. However, some personality factors appear to be more basic than others. These factors, perceptual anchorage points in expression, appear to be derived largely from the individ- ual's values and value systems; the major values as drives provide anchorage for all goal-seeking behavior. It is therefore expected that dominant values and the value systems l , surrounding them will be reflected in some manner in the behavior patterns and subsequent decision-making of individ— uals. Although this is not an original point of view and philosophers throughout the years have discussed and postulated theories concerning it, only a few scientists in the area of personality research have tried to measure individual values and value systems. In 1928, Spranger (130) suggested six theoretical constructs in an attempt to formulate a theory of person- ality. He called them the "Six Types of Man," but inherently they could not be distinguished from attitudes, sentiments, interests, and needs. Briefly, the "Six Types of Man" are: Theoretical, Economic, Aesthetic, Social, Political, and Religious. The Theoretical Man is interested in the truth, with a rational and empirical understanding of knowledge as his primary objective. The Economic Man is almost a proto— type of the Pragmatist. He is interested in the world of facts and practicality. Wealth and its ramifications and implications are his main objective in life. The Aesthetic Man is interested in beauty, individualism, self-sufficiency, and self-actualization. The Social Type values people, whether singly or in groups, and regards love, kindness, sympathy, and understanding as the highest types of human functioning. The Political Man conceives power as the only real objective in his life. He wants to be the leader and . . ,Irflllll' 1". r I. V .‘ r—a 5 manipulate people. Personal power, influence, and renown are all hecmmxxsfor. The Religious Man wants to relate himself to God and the Cosmos in a unified totality of beingzys"0ne whose mental structure is permanently directed to the creation of the highest and absolutely satisfying value experience.” These personality traits were merely suggested by Spranger and he did not attempt to measure them objectively. Allport and Vernon (A) in 1931 felt that values are means by which the personalities of men are best known. Agreeing with Spranger, they attempted to test his postulates in an objective manner. They formulated an inventory con- sisting of 120 questions,categorized into six areas repre- senting Spranger's "Six Types of Man." Applying the test to many vocational groups, it is apparent that they can be differentiated on the basis of values inherent within the vocations as measured by the "Allport-Vernon Study of Values."(‘1) Generally, the relationship between values and intel- ligence is still somewhat vague, especially since the con- cept of intelligence is not just specific, but is a global functioning. More importantly, from the atomistic point of view, relationships between values and specific areas of personality have been found positive and meaningful. Pintner (111) found that there were positive relationships between social values and intelligence. Similarly, Shaeffer (121), Thurstone (139), Rothney (139), and others have found 6 a relationship between values and a person‘s intelligence, aptitude, and achievement. Although the Allport-Vernon Study of Values appears to be the most popular among researchers, other researchers in the field have formulated tests which purportedly measure values. Lurie (98) constructed a test also based on Spranger's six values. The content is similar to the Allport- Vernon, but he factors out four instead of six values as basic to personality structure. A basic fault which is evident in the test is the fact that there is a definite lack of consistency in the choice of items and a poor scoring system. Definitions of terms are ambiguous, and often dif- ferent value questions are basically similar in meaning. A similar test was constructed by Van Dusen, Wimberly, and Mosier (154). They called their test the "Standards Inventory," and the items were basically those of Lurie's. Although the test was not reliable for individuals, it was sufficiently reliable to use with groups. They concluded that Lurie's system was not consistent and the economic and political items should be scored separately, similar to the scoring of the same items on the Allport-Vernon. The Interest-Values Inventory constructed by Maller and Glaser (100) is based on the Allport-Vernon Study of Values. However, in certain facets of it, there are significant differences. It measures four of the six Allport-Vernon items, theoretic, aesthetic, social, and economic. Although the political and religious are omitted, 7 the items related to it are included among the four areas listed. The social value in the Maller-Glaser test seems to represent an interest in social welfare, while in the Allport-Vernon test, it also means interest in individual relationships. By the use of 49 traits incorporated into a test called "An Index of Adjustment and Values," Bills (23) attempted to measure the values of a person, his acceptance of self, and the discrepancy which exists between his con- cept of self and his concept of the ideal self. The total of the discrepancies between the self concept and the con- cept of the ideal self would be a measure of adjustment. The "Differential Values Inventory” constructed by Prince (113) attempts to delineate values in a more specific fashion. It is divided into 64 items, each of which can be classified as an emergent value or traditional value. The total group of items is divided into eight subscores, four combined into so-called Traditional Values and four combined into so-called Emergent Values. The Traditional Values are: (l) Puritan morality, (2) Individualism, (3) Work success ethic, (4) Future time orientation. The Emergent Values are: (l) Sociability, (2) Conformity, (3) Relativism, (4) Present time orientation. Although these are some of the investigators who have developed instruments to quantify and measure relation— ships involving values, there have been many other workers in the field who have attacked the problem in a different 8 fashion. Many of them did not use value tests per se, but studied the area of values in an intensive fashion and over a period of time in which the developmental aspects of personality could be accurately observed in relation to values and value systems. Katz (8) in 1931 investigated attitudes of students at Syracuse through the use of a questionnaire administered to all students at the university. He justified his questionnaire on the basis of meeting three general criteria: the kind of information sought, the wording of the questions, and the interpretation of the results. The qUCStionS were, clear and specific and whether the individual answered the questions truthfully or not is sometimes of no more signifi- cance than when one responds to a so-called non-structured test in a manner indicating constriction as a result of extreme defensiveness. In the matter of interpretation the authors felt there was no one particular interpretation that could be used dogmatically for generalization. There- fore, all facets of personality and its concomitant influ- ences must be involved in the interpretation. This study of Syracuse students indicated that definite- ness of vocational choice was a major factor in the students' orientation and adjustment to college life. It greatly influenced values and value systems of all students. There was a significant relationship between definiteness of vocational choice and honesty, academic standing, and the time the student's vocational interests stabilized. They 9 also found that political, social, economic, and religious questions were important in professionally-oriented vocational counseling. Jacob (79) used a similar approach in studying the influence of college life and college courses on the devel— opment of social values in the student's value system. He found that students in all areas have hornogeneous values despite differences in their religious, racial, social, ethnic, and economic backgrounds. Material gratification appears to be primary in their needs and value systems. They want concrete comforts and the things that money will buy, and they expect to get these through the course of study they are pursuing. Although they value honesty and integrity of character on the whole, they do not vehemently denounce those who break this code of conduct. They seem to compartmentalize religion, accepting the guidance of the social code rather than the religious code. The basic values of students in different curricular areas are very similar at the end of four years of college. Fewer seniors than freshmen tend to glamorize and accept beliefs deviant from the commonly accepted norm. This is not to suggest that college specifically influenced basic values, but that conflicting values might possibly have been resolved over a period of four years. The authors felt that many colleges appeared to have little affect on the basic value systems of the students. Some colleges, however, mostly those of small enrollment, 10 appear to greatly influence and modify students' values. These values are internalized and greatly influence the stu- dent in his post-graduate functioning. Although teachers in general do not influence values to any great extent, certain individuals among them do influence and help modify students' value systems. These are the teachers who have openly expressed values to which they seem to be firmly committed. Rosenberg (118) found that students select occupations in line with their values and most enter their chosen field willingly. He differed with the conclusions of the Jacob study concerning vocational decision-making. He found that most people tend to choose an occupation in line with values of self-realization rather than money as the primary reward. He also found a tendency of the student to change his current values in line with those appropriate for his chosen occupation. The importance of values in occupational choice is underscored in Ginzberg's (63) study to develop a theory of occupational choice. He selected four variables to study: (1) Reality factors or the social and economic forces which determine the environment of an individual. (2) The educational process, as this is basic to most of the choices one makes in vocational decision-making. (3) The emotional determinants, as most people are under the influence of emotional needs and desires. (4) Values, because there are many reasons for vocational choosing, and values and value judgments are inherent in all of them. 11 Values are integral to vocational choice and often vocational choice influences and modifies values. This concept, Super CU{1)feels, emphasizes the fact that the individual either adapts to a vocation or leaves it for one more suited to him on the basis of needs and satisfactions. The influence of the vocation on the value system of the individual also involves adequate role playing. When the needs and values of the individual are related to the role which the vocation assumes as satisfactory for proper functioning in that role, then the individual has a greater chance to be vocationally adjusted. To study vocational choice and values, Super utilized an instrument called "The Work Values Inventory." ( 143) the inventory used alone would not achieve the depth neces— sary for proper evaluation, so he proposed that it be used in conjunction with content-analyzed interviews. He also broke values down into three categories: (1) The Work- Itself, or the nature of the work done. (2) The Concomi- tants, supervisors and associates and other situational characteristics. (3) The Outcomes of Work, the rewards such as prestige and money. These values were further categorized and dichotomized into Extrinsic and Intrinsic groups. The Intrinsic Values being designated as values inherent in the work itself, and the Extrinsic Values as those which are the rewards. 12 The Purpose and Importance of the Study That men work just to provide for their basic physical needs is no longer the primary consideration given for occu- pational choice. If this were so, then after satisfaction or satiation occurred, people would stop and retire from work. Progress, which is the lifeline of society, would have stopped long ago and civilization as we know it today might possibly never have existed. Work is important to the individual and the occupation he chooses, of necessity, has to be satisfactory to him in many ways. The training and subsequent functioning of the individual in a vocational situation will occupy him most of the day until he is ready to retire. Thus, his work will have to provide him not only with the means of physical sustenance, but also with psychological stimulation and satisfaction. Without these, other rewards are secondary and soon pall. It is quite evident that vocational choice is a process rather than an event and to be understood more clearly, the developmental aspects of man's personality have to be taken fully into consideration. Factors numerous in nature comprise the concept of personality. Interests, attitudes, sets, sentiments, and values are all interrelated and are integral to personality development. In this frame of reference there is an implication that research in this area should be more Gestalt in nature. However, in light of the means the scientist has at his disposal today, this 13 is often impossible to accomplish and the atomistic or nunzhanistic approach sometimes has to suffice. Out of the multitude of characteristics that are integral to vocational choice, values have been selected for investigation because of the dearth 8f studies in this area. It is true that the Allport-Vernon Study of Values has been used by numerous investigators, but the main purpose of the authors was primarily to test Spranger's hypothesis concerning the so-called "Types of Man," rather than its implications in a practical and applied fashion. The following are the possibilities inherent in the practical applicability of the results of this study: 1. The development of a measure of students' values and their influence on vocational choice which will have demonstrated reliability and validity. 2. The determination to what extent certain values are related to students' vocational choices. 3. The determination of the differences, if any, be- tween the vocational values of students coming from high socio-economic backgrounds and those from low socio-economic backgrounds. 4. The determination of the relationship between the values inherent in the present professional fields or schools that the students want to go into,or are in at the present thne,and their scores on a values inventory and questionnaire. 5. The investigation of students' values and their relationship to the work of the counselor so that he can interpret occupational areas in a more meaningful fashion to the student. 6. Helping students understand their basic value frame of reference concerning their occupational goals in order to more realistically and adequately select their future occupation. The Problem This study is generally concerned with the investi- gation of the values which are related to different vocational and curricular areas. The major instrument involved in the study, The Vocational Values Inventory, 1 is designed to elicit the various stated values that people feel are the basis for their preference or entry into a particular voca- tional area. Since the test has not been validated on this particular group, its validation through the use of a ques- tionnaire2 and other related material will also be consid- ered. Specifically,this investigation was designed to attain the following objectives: 1. To determine whether students planning to enter different occupations tendto vary in the values measured by the Vocational Values Inventory. 2. To determine whether students from different Socioeeconomic levels tend to have different values as measured by the Vocational Values Inventory. A 1See Appendix A. dSee Appendix B. 15 3. To determine whether there will be significant differences between male and female students‘ scores on the Vocational Values Inventory. Limitations and Scope of the Study The study is limited to a population drawn from the Basic Collegelof the Michigan State University .'fhis specific group of students \xas selected Ironithc Social Science 233 class, which is a prerequisite for all students except those who are able to pass a test on the course material in lieu of taking the course. Individual selection of the group was a matter of expediency and convenience, both to the investigator and the authorities of the Basic College who tendered permission to the investigator. In defense of this manner of sampling,it is important to state that this sample is a reasonable representative selection of a sophomore college group because of similar age, education, and intelligence quotients. The manner of response to the Vocational Values Inventory suggests another limitation to the study. The items on the test can only be answered in an "either—or" fashion. Accepting the first premise leaves the second one completely out of the final results of the test. Thus, although in real life situations one may sometimes have two divergent concepts concerning the phase of values, on the Vocational Values Inventory this cannot occur. The state of flux inherent in the population studied limits the area of generalization even more. It is quite l The Basic College iszicxnnpulsory prograni<fl'u broad foundation<flfgeneral educatnnifor aH enterhugfrcshnu“ 16 evident that values and vocational choice are often con- stantly changing in adults who are finished with their training, so that in the population studied this would be even more apparent. This phenomena has been recognized as rather common to Basic College students in specific action by the school authorities. The Basic College students who are indecisive about their areas of specialization can select a non-preference category as their status for a limited time instead of choosing a specific area of study. Finally, the composition of the population under study further circumscribes the area of generalization. This group was selected from the Social Science 233 class, which is a prerequisite for all students except those who are able to pass a test on the course material in lieu of taking the course. Very often these are the students who are in the upper echelon of academic functioning and eliminating ‘them from the group involves another limitation of the study. Definition of Terms flfipcational Values For the purposes of this study, vocational values will 'be those values which will be selected and discriminated by the use of an inventory called the "Vocational Values Inventory," formulated by Johnson, Singer, and Stefflre.l It is designed to measure and explore values which motivate people in choosing their particular vocation. \ w 1See Appendix A. 17 Many authors have postulated values which are important in studying vocations. From this literature the authors of this test have culled seven values with items designed to measure them. These items were subjected to an item- zanalysis, retaining those items with the strongest relationship ‘tO the sub-test scores and rejecting those items which were leass related. A more comprehensive description of this test its given in Appendix A. The following are brief descriptions cxf each of these values as described by Stefflre (132). l. Altruism, the extent to which the student values work in which he helps others and does kind things for them. 2. Control, the extent to which he values work where is is the "boss." 3. Job Freedom, the extent to which he values work in which he can control his own hours and methods. 4. Money, the extent to which he values work with high financial and materialistic rewards. 5. Prestige, the extent to which he values work in which people look up to him, a job which gives him high status. 6. Security, the extent to which he values work he is sure of keeping as long as he desires. 7. Self—realization, the extent to which he values work which lets him express his ideas, interests, and ideals and lets him be creative. ZQEEEEion and/or Occupation These two activities will be defined synonomously in thifiS study. An occupation or vocation will be the way, maruier, or fashion in which a person earns his living. 18 Population The population studied were those students in the Basic College who were enrolled in Social Science 233, a prerequi- site for all Michigan State University students except those who were able to pass a test of the course material in lieu of taking the course. Questionnaire The questionnaire in this study is an instrument specifically designed to elicit information relevant for the concurrent validation of the Vocational Values Inventory. It differentiates students by socio-economic levels, academic curricula, and sex. Organization of the Study Chapter I provides the statement of the problem, a f platitudes. A concern for values does not call for chogmatism or intolerance. It does require selectivity. Ccfilleges and universities must be regarded not merely as exuaonents of methods of how to think and work, those are sensentially the duties of technological schools, but they “NJEst be the bearers, defenders, and critics of the broad Pafige of insights and values which constitute the civilized tradition. Ashbaugh (lO) feels that instead of the schools fur’nishing society with values, society should furnish the Sellcxols with those values which are most important for the filtlxre growth of society. These values must be sought, n£>t in children's interests, but in society's needs and Hc>t in society's needs determined by the majority, but in tkhe ‘highest ideals and finest aspirations of its most thOught ful membe rs . 27 Johnson (80) disagrees with Ashbaugh and feels that the schools are best equipped to furnish people with systems of tested values. He defends this premise with L) K; L.’ the statement that the criteria of values come from the past and the past is best presented by the institution of education. He also feels that values have importance to a growing person only as they become his values, contributory to what he wants to be. Every value is related to every other. It is not an additive process, but must have meaning in relation to the whole self. As a result, these values are Iaot merely instrumental, but are consunmatory. They are eehds in themselves. Stendler (133) feels there are many influences on tkue individual in the ontogenesis of his value process. Scnne are negative and some are positive, depending upon tkme familial background of the individual. When the home vaflltes come in conflict with the teacher's middle class VaLLUes, the conflicts sometimes become unresolveable and arwe a deleterious influence in the psychological develop- Inerlt of the individual. Rejected by both his family and the teacher, the individual sometimes grows up without a full SenSeofbelongingness. EILEQLgsophical Values To the philosopher Repley (114), values are verified gCNDC3s and goods may be recognized as being or having 28 expression in any interest in any object or any object of any interest that is in the responses of sentient creatures toward and away from things and conditions,::xternal and internal. It will be apparent that these responses are not merely subjective and arbitrary. They are responses to and from actual physical, social, and psychological events whose structure and inter-connections in total situations constitute the objective basis or existence of values. The value itself can be ascertained through verification, i.e. through the performance of operations of inquiry and testing. The responses occur in respect to all values, such as those in science and art, through the organically interdependent llrocesses of social discussion, individual reflective trrinking, and interaction in existential events. Values, like facts, are products of free open expres— SiJDH of interests and of careful inquiry into and the thessting of effects. They may be employed in formulating CCDIxrectly or adequately the salient features of our world anfi ourselves. Holtzclaw (76) reminds us that no society has existed Wi’tihout an adequate system of values. The first systematic tkkecxry of values among the Greeks was attempted by Plato who identified "good" with unity or integration. Aristotle deniedauniversal theory of "good” since value differs INDI‘ each society. The Epicureans agree with Plato and AI‘fL-Stotle that value is that which exists for its own sake. :Dj—Séigreeing with these concepts are the Stoics and the 29 Sceptics, who have a divergent opinion of values. Theirs is a vitalistic and purely instrumental theory of value, maintaining that desire determines value rather than value determining desire. Values, according to Axtelle (11), are dependent upon many influencing factors in our society. Class, institutional, and occupational status, all have some effect on value judgments. There are also many questions concerning the specificities of values such as the following: IHow does one know whether a given value statement is true? Thaw can one know which values are better? Is there a liierarchy of values? Are there absolute values and if iflaere are, how can we deal with them? Lastly, he feels ttuat values have to be identified which are common to men in alfil cultures. Dewey (40) would like to have facts on which to base a Esound theory of values, but the views on the subject are "Rieli too diversified and conflicting at the present time 1K3 :formulate an acceptable theory. The views run the gamut frT3n1, "Values are but emotional epithets or mere ejaculations‘ tC’ the belief that "a priori necessary standardized values aIVE the principles upon which art, science; and morals depend for their validity.“ Rugg (119) attributes many of society's problems to the 18‘3ki of a valid philosophy of values. To be more SDeCifiC, he’ stlates many of the problems concerning youth to an in- S. e<3ttbe and inconsistent system of values. 30 Scientific Values The scientists in the new era of automation can explain andrelate scientific phenomena, they can tell us how to attain matter and where we have failed in attaining things, but Scroggs (123) states that they cannot tell what is of most worth to us. This valuing is a matter solely of individual preference or expedience. Kroeber (87) feels that the study of values as a natural science phenomena is a part of the study of culture and should be more than a tabulation of the behavior of a grtnmn values determining behavior are studied in their finictional context, not re-evaluated by other standards. Thorndike (145) agrees with Kroeber and justifies even nmxre the amenability of values to science and scientific Stludy. He acknowledges the difficulty of the task, but doses not feel the task is insurmountable. Efigzglhological Values Allport (3) states that the healthy adult develops UfKiear the influence of value schemata whose fulfillment he regards as desirable. Values are the guide line of decision maJCiJag, because each specific issue fits readily into one of a-ifenw dominant categories of value. A state of valuelessness or' athedonia, causes extreme problems. Although, even the bes3t' of integrated personalities do not consistently act in acreOrdance with their schemata of values. Impulse infantilism a . . . . . . nd Violation oi consc1ence are factors to be reckoned With 111 eV 63 I“?! organism . 1 LU Self-consistency, according to Lecky (90), is the major principle in personality, if we conceive of personality as an organization of values which are felt to be consistent with one another. Behavior expresses the effort to maintain the integrity and unity of the organization. Thus, all of an individual's values are organized into a single system, the preservation of whose integrity is essential. The system nucleus of the system around which the rest of the revolves is the individuals valuation of himself. Weiss (156) feels that the laws He does not think that of learning are im- gxartant in forming value systems. irflaerent values exist. All value is acquired as a series of‘ habits and activities from the social organization in Wkuich the individual develops. The problem of values is inisroduced primarily by those individuals who assume respon- Sit>ility for planning the behavior of others to conform Wit:h.their own plan of life or some hypothetical plan which thugs; believe has universal validity. EEfiiéggl Values Thorndike (146) feels that anything that can be thought Of 153 valued. Human societal valuations usually refer to anii (depend upon satisfactions and annoyances, and desires fOI“ 21nd against. ’Things are good because God wants them, met] meant them, and certain other sentient beings want them. :It 153 quite obvious that we can justify most of our value Judgnnents by satisfactions or annoyances, if they are justified at all. 2 LA) Jacob (79) has investigated student's values in and found that the social effect of life’s influ- colleges, ences are more important in the inculcation and stability of values than the formal course work or the teachers in the colleges. Kay (82) states that social values and personal values are interrelated with no real dichotomy between them. The individual builds up special types of enduring attitudes (or social values) which refer to classes of objects rather than to single objects. It is quite evident that values and value judgments arxe apparent in all phases of human functioning. It is alxso gratifying to note that there are similarities among true values in all the areas, which might possibly lead to a ggeneralizable theory of values. This could then apply to values in relation to vocational choice. The Problem of Values There are many problems involved in the investigation <3f ‘values and the following have been selected as being Senfiearally representative of the major areas: (1) measure- menfit:, (2) origin and development of values, (3) the influ- eTlCEE of values on the cognitive life of the individual. \MeaSUrement Although values have been studied since the first (jaWVrl of civilization, little has been recorded of their 0 'Jiailtfliication and qualification in a formal manner. Many LU have attempted theories and postulates concerning values, but Allport and Vernon (4) appear to be in the forefront of actual measurement. They borrowed six terms which Spranger used to describe six types of men and incorporated them into a test of values. This test enabled them to scale the relative prom- inence of the following six values in each individual: (1) Theoretical, (2) Economic, (3) Aesthetic, (4) Social, (5) Political, and (6) Religious. The traits that were measured, although described as ‘values, closely resembled basic needs, activities, and.goals. Tfilis test was designed mainly for use with college students as a research tool rather than as a practical aid in ccnnnseling. The l2O alternative items on the test are scored the Seine as many of the interest inventories. A higher score <fl1 ‘the one value makes for a lower score on another value. IFI sstandardizing the test, the authors found that all the SGales, with the exception of the Social Scale, were fairly I”eliable and independent. Expected differences were found irl nuast of the curricular groups studied, with occasional deviations that could be explained external to the limi- tai3ixbns of the test itself. Subsequent studies involving the use of the Allport- .VeITFHDn.Study of Values have indicated that it has sufficient reliability and validity to warrant its continued use in t PKE field of personality research. Expecially important has lae earl its use in studying individual differences. 34 The many studies involving sex differences have indicated that men score higher than women on the theoretical, economic, and political values, but women score higher on the aesthetic, religious, and social scales. There have been many explanations for this, but the Biological Deter- minism theory of sex differences has never been applicable in a generalizable fashion. Religious groups have been differentiated by the test, but the explanations concerning these differences are open to discussion and doubt. In many instances the dif- ferences are meaningless because of the misinterpretation of‘ the related material. In differentiating vocational or academic groups, the tesst appears to have been quite successful. People aspiring tC) become businessmen of one sort or another invariably SCCDred above the norm on the economic scale and below the ruorun on the aesthetic scale. Literature and journalism Stlidents were found to be above average on the aesthetic SCElle and low on the economic scale. Science students 'usllaljgrrenked highest on theoretical and lowest on FNDlfiitical. The student wanting to enter the field of medicine scored high on the theoretical and low on the p<311tical. Engineering students fell much below the norm ir‘ lCesponding to the aesthetic scale. According to the results of the test, the authors refill: that Spranger was on the whole justified in regarding t 1353843 values as constituting generalized motives in men. J ( UT ucceeded in determining, «'0 They also felt that the test with some precision, the prominence of each value in any single individual. On the basis of these conclusions, the Allport—Vernon Study of Values has become a popular instrument to measure values. Whether this popularity has dampened the ardor of investigators in this area is a moot question, but it is evident that very few researchers in this area have perfected other standardized means for measuring values. There are a few studies which have utilized different instru- ments for measuring values, but in the main, psychologists have utilized the Allport-Vernon Study of Values as the instrument for value measurement in their research. The plethora of studies utilizing the Allport-Vernon EStudy of Valuesindicatestket not all of them can be iJacluded in this review. However, the dearth of studies illvolving the use of instruments other than the Allport- NRsrnon Study of Values necessitatesthe inclusion of as "Quay studies as could be found in the literature. Brogden (29) administered the Allport-Vernon Study of ‘Valbues to two hundred college students to determine the p0S-Sibility of extracting factors other than the six utilized 93’ Allport and Vernon in their study. Using Tetrachoric intSear-correlations in his factor analysis, he extracted the f0llowing factors:(l) General Aesthetic, (2) Interest in ITirNB Arts, (2) Beliefim1Culture, (4) Anti-Religious Attitude U-) Q“). (5) Anti-Agression, (L) Humanitarian Tendency, (7) Inter- est in Science, (8) Tendency Towards Liberalism, (9) Theoretic Interest, and (10) Rugged Individualism. Lurie (98) reported on a test he constructed using Spranger's "Six Types of Man." He divided his test into four basic groups: (1) Interest, (2) Ideals, (3) Prefer- ences, and (4) Belief-Opinions. He also reduces the types into four clusters of items: (1) Social, (2) Philistine, (3) Theoretical, and (4) Religious. Wickert (160) attempted to develop a test of general desires or "Goal Values." He first collected lists of instincts, wishes, and wants. Then he constructed a test similar in form to the Allport-Vernon Study of Values to measure the relative strength of the nine selected general desires. The item-analysis showed that the HGoal Values," categories set up rationally, revealed 61 considerable degree of internal consistency. Those set 11p by chance were not internally consistent. Although tfue reliability was too low for individual prediction, it: was high enough to ascertain something of group rwslations. Koch (85) felt that values are factors in all levels CDf‘ life's experiences, from childhood to adulthood. He Sthadied a group of seven year old children in a parochial SChool,questioning their likes and dislikes. He found L0 “‘3 that values differ between boys and girls. However, only a small sample was used and the results are not conclusive. Ehrle (51) investigated an even younger age group, from two to seven years of age, and found that they had specific systems of values. Analyzing the responses of the children to normal daily activities, he found that they could be grouped into four categories: (1) Pleasure, J (2) Egoism, (1) Economic, and (A) Social. Mausner (lOl), accepted the postulate that perception is a function of values, and tried to prove it in his eaxperiment with stamp collectors. Stamps were shown to ‘these individuals, and they were asked to later identify tnqem via a tachistoscope. The results showed that the most vsiluable stamps did not show the shortest thresholds of rwecognition. McGinnies (103) studying word association, found tfiaat individuals respond sooner to words symbolizing their hitghest values than those which symbolize their lowest VELLues. He thus concluded that value is a determinant in WCNPd association. People have a general set to respond to telnns of major values and make associations which are CO'l'lgruent with their value orientation. White (157) realizing the complexity of measuring VaJJaes, has attemped a method of describing qualitative 9843a.vwnch.he calls Value Analysis. He postulates that thEVPe is always a tendency for a person to think about what 8 U) is related to his own needs or values and to perceive his world in terms of those values. Thus, Value Analysis is a method of describing quantitatively any sort of free verbal expression, from psychoanalysis to public opinion interviews, with the importance of the value related to the frequency of its verbal expression. The Origin and Development of Values The ontogenetic development of the individual is parallel with the genesis of his values. Thus it is self evident that values are integrated into and part of person- ality development. They have their origin in infancy, and terminate only when life itself is terminated. However, the complexity of values and their inability to be handled in a generalizable theory have deterred most investigators from exploring the interiorization of value systems in the young. Consequently, even the interiorization of value systems in adults has not always been clearly understood. The studies that have been done with children have been subjected to much criticism. The previously reported Study of Ehrle (51) in which he states that children are dominated by specific values implies a higher mental growth to children then their age warrants. Turner (152) found that social values do appear early, 'but that they are not stable and constantly are subjected to environmental influences. In trying to relate adult values with children's values, Thorndike (146) quotes the four elementary value f) < concepts as evolved by Sombart: (1) physical bigness as seen in grown-ups and imagined in giants; (2) quick move- ment in running or bowling a hoop; (3) novelty of changing toys very quickly; and (4) a sense of power which explains why the child pulls out the legs of a fly, makes the dog stand on its hind legs, and fly a kite very high. These values are related by Sombart to the values adhered to by adults in modern society: (1) adults attach importance to quantities or mere size, (2) speed is essen- tial to modern man, (3) adults love novelty or sensation, and (4) a sense of power drives many adults in modern society. Moore (104) found that if the home values come in conflict with teacher's values, then confusion reigns ‘within the child and sometimes detracts from his developing a secure system of values. It also handicaps his developing a sense or feeling of belongingness. Lewin (95) and others, feel that the intensity of group identification indicates how much the values of the individual are influenced. Conversely, he feels that one identifies with the group because of one's values. In the Bennington College Study, Newcomb (108) found Sindlar results. Although, one has to take into consider- Eition that the school was homogeneous as far as social <31ass was concerned and the individuals that attended also lNere in the natural state of growth insofar as building ‘Value systems were concerned. A0 Jacob (79) found that the opposite was true. In his study, the students indicated that four years of college do not necessarily influence divergent changes in their value systems. The studies that did show the effects of four years of college were done at a time when there was social distress and widespread economic changes. The values that were specific to Jacob's study were in effect highly influencedby the times and thus differed from New- comb's findings. There are some changes, but the impetus for change does not come specifically from the educational process per se. Rosenberg (118) found that family and home have a most important effect on the student's value systems. There was distinct relationship between one's economic background and the place of money in the individual's value system. The father's income was most important in the occupational choice of the student. The student usually selected the occupation which would parallel the father's, 'both in economic and social advantage. The self-concept enters into valuation and follows ESpranger's (130) six types of men. Lecky (90) elaborated €FVen further and came to the conclusion that the individ- Llal's valuation of himself was the organizing factor of all This values. Values have been discussed from many aspects and on ‘VEirious levels of development. Many inferences have been Sllggested, but not too many specific and generalizable 41 conclusions. With such inconclusive evidence to support the various theories involving values and value systems,it is obvious that there is a great need for more studies which are adequately designed and controlled. The Influence of Values on the Cognitive Life of the Individual Attitudes, interests, sets, habits, sentiments, and even value systems have often been used to describe similar actionscn~responses to certain stimuli. Consequently, even though the following cognitive areas have been cate- gorized into specifically delineated groupings, it has not been the intent of this writer to perpetuate these ideas oi‘classification. The intent has been to relate in a con- iJenient manner, the studies that have been attempted under tshe following headings: Attitudes.--Woodruff and DiVesta (163) feel that vealues and attitudes cannot exist without each other. If Ccpncepts of objects change so that their effect on values alre altered, attitudes will certainly reflect these con- Ceptual changes. If the nature of values are known, so lNillthey reflect knowledge of attitudes. Nelson and Nelson (107) found that there is a rela- ticbhship between attitudes and vocational choices. Students WIND evidenced conservative leanings chose banking, dentistry, music and government, while those who had professed to ’ Fla"\I'e liberal attitudes chose journalism, social work, and agriculture . 42 Carter (33) finds that vocational attitudes are developed as a result of a complexity of factors that are grouped under growth processes that are both sociological and biological. He also found that those students who did not manifest specific vocational attitudes were more im- mature in interests, less intelligent, and older than the average student. Cantril (31) does not make a differentiation between attitudes and values. He states that attitudes or values are built up within which social norms are interpreted. The following are the steps by which they develop: (1) standards of judgment are developed, (2) these become the leasis for frames of reference, and (3) these determine :specific attitudes toward issues. Arsenian (9) calls Spranger's six values attitudes Etnd.in testing college freshmen found a relationship between tunese attitudes and vocational interests. In another study, Arsenian (8) states that attitudes aare linked in the individual's life with a system of values dEEtermined largely by biologic needs, personal experiences, alld social norms. Attitudes furthermore denote specific OI” general mental-motor dispositions or reaction tendencies WTlich qualify interpretation and give direction to responses PC) new stimuli. Attitudes generally have an affective com- pOIlent, are dynamic, and more or less persistent. Woodruff (162) hypothesizes that attitudes and values Shanswersinflu- ence validity, and (10) lack of internal consistency can invalidate, but the presence of internal consistency does not validate. Although interest inventories have been the most popular instrument for measuring interests, Gage (60) attempted to study them from a different point of View. He had judges predict interests in vocations from the expressive behavior patterns of subjects during interviews. Comparing the judges' estimates with the actual results of the subjects' responses to the Kuder, he found little significant evidence of agreement between them. He did conclude that expressive behavior elicits a performance that is much too general for specific references. The ambiguity of interests and values is partially explained by Benne's (18) statement that interests become values only as they are chosen over other interests and for :Peasons which appear valid to the chooser. A person or a ESPoup can be confident of the validity of its reasons for Ciloosing as it does only as a system of criticized and Jlldged values is developed, used and tested in and through a. Succession of deliberate choices. Duffy and Crissy (45) found that there is a positive r‘elationship between values and interests. The Allport- ‘Vssrnon Study of Values and the Strong Interest Inventory Vkere administered to entering freshmen at Sarah Lawrence 54 College. They found that there were many significant relationships between vocational interest and Spranger's six values. Also, the good students had high theoretical and aesthetic scores, and low economic and political scores. Factor analysis elicited three factors which were similar to those elicited by Lurie: (1) philistine, (2) interest in people, and (3) theoretical. Similar results were found by Arsenian (9) in the study of freshmen at Springfield College. He administered the Allport-Vernon Study of Values and the Cleeton Vocational Interest Inventory to Springfield freshmen. Twenty-four out of the fifty-four correlations between the six evaluative attitudes and the nine occupational categories measured by these scales were significant or at least highly sug- gestive of the direction of the correspondence of the variables. He also found that high theoretical interest was positively correlated with good emotional adjustment. Values and intelligence.--In studying the area of ‘Vocational choice, Feingold (55) realized that little had txeen done to investigate the relationship between intelli- gxsnce,values,and vocational choice. Using Fryer's modified (Dccupational Intelligence Scale, he found that forty-six Fmer cent of high school pupils make proper vocational Cldoices, forty-seven per cent of them made choices above ‘tlaeir ability, and seven per cent underrated their ability. Elven though there are discrepancies concerning the validity 55 and reliability of the intelligence quotients used, this study served as an impetus for other researchers in the area of vocational choice. Schaeffer (121) found significant coefficients of correlation between scores on the Allport—Vernon Study of Values and scores on tha ACE (College Sophomore Test). Hollingworth's (75) studies indicated that highly intelligent students are more keenly aware of their inter- ests and finding work that they will enjoy than students of average or below average intelligence. Similarly, Poull (112) found that the wide variations in intelligence in the same profession indicate that interests rather than intelligence are influential in occupational decision making. Schiller (122) agrees that intelligence has a pro- nounced effect on the choice of vocations. As intelligence decreased, interest in the professions decreased, indicating that people often choose occupations according to their abilities . DiMichael (44) differed with Thorndike and concluded tilat interests are not a reliable method in selecting 8- vocation. Super (142) has observed a close relationship between SLlperior intelligence and interests commensurate with that 'tlype of intellectual functioning. Byrns (30) used the Henmon-Nelson Test of Mental Albility and the Ohio State Psychological Test and the ACE in \ C: ‘ / 0 testing the relationship between intelligence and vocational choice. Of the 34,000 seniors tested, she found that 23 per cent of the boys chose to enter law, medicine, and engineering, while the actual percentage of professionals in that area was only 2 per cent. Although 50 per cent of the men were engaged in agriculture, construction work, and unskilled labor, only 7 per cent of the boys elected those areas as occupational choices. Sixty per cent of the girls wanted to enter teaching, nursing, and secretarial work, but only 20 per cent of the pop- ulation are engaged in that type work. Concluding, she found that there is a great discrepancy between occupational choices and occupational distribution, and although there is some relationship between scholastic achievement, intelligence, and vocational choice, it is not as high as one would expect. Ball (13) investigated the relationship between measured intelligence and occupational level. Five hundred and fifty-nine cases in the Bloomington, Indiana University Clinic were given the Pressey Mental Survey Test, Schedule D, in the period between 1918 and 1923. The current (1938) EStatus of the occupational level was traced through the IBloomington City Directory. Each case was assigned a Barr ESCale Value of Occupational Status. On a gross occupational lxevel, he found a high correlation between measured intelli- gence and occupational level. In investigating values and intelligence among graduate A Eitudents in psychology, Pintner (111) found only a few Ibositive relationships. He found a correlation of .24 with 57 the theoretical value, .38 with the social value, and the rest were either negatively correlated or had zero relation- ship. Crosby and Winsor (38) evolved a unique design in their investigation of values, interests, and intelligence. Accepting interests as an important factor in value systems, they administered the Kuder Preference Record to students at Cornell University and then asked the students to estimate their specific vocational interests. The correlation between self-estimated interests and scores on the Kuder was only fifteen per cent better than chance. However, a breakdown of the academic records of the students, interestingly enough, indicated that the most accurate self-estimators were among the more intelligent segment of the student pop— ulation. Values and sex.——In a study at Temple University, Ford (56) administered the Allport-Vernon as part of an eentrance battery of tests to freshmen. The purpose of the EStudy was to determine the value patterns of those entering ‘Vamflous and different areas of academic endeavor. The dis- tr'ibution of Umsscoresindicated that the evaluative attitude Filayed a small part in the students' choice of specialization. Fhe also found that there were no significant sex differences Glad correlations between intelligence and tests of achieve— nlent were very low. The results of Cantril's and Allport's study (31) Ciiffered with Ford's findings. They found significant 58 differences between male and female groups who took the Allport-Vernon Study of Values. It also successfully differentiated groups of varying occupational interests according to their evaluative attitudes. In passing, it was also observed that the scores on the Allport-Vernon Study of Values do not relate highly to intelligence test scores. Carter and Strong (34) discovered that not only are there quantitative differences among the sexes, but qualita- tive differences are also very much in evidence. The girls were less interested in things and more interested in people than the boys. Administering the men's edition of the Strong Vocational Interest Blank to both men and women, Strong found that the interests of men and women differ significantly. He also found that as people grow older, their interests become more feminine, but there was no indication that the interests of men and women become more or less alike up to forty years of age . Using the Lehman Vocational Attitude Quiz, Lehman and VVitty (92) asked 26,878 boys and girls to check the three rhost preferred occupations, the occupations most likely to 13s followed, the three best money-makers, and the three n”lost respected occupations. The differences in sexes were 1“lighly significant. The girls chose sedentary work and C>ccupations involving aesthetic interests or personal EService. They preferred to receive rather than to give 59 orders. The boys, on the other hand, wanted active work, work which involved travel, movement, physical danger, and opportunity to give commands. Spoerl (129) found similar results in his study of entering freshmen at American International College. The Allport-Vernon Study of Values significantly differentiated between men and women on all six factors or values. The men had their highest scores on the theoretical, economic, and political, while the women conversely held social, aesthetic, and religious values the highest. The results of the Further Educational Intentions Blank, administered by Cunningham (39) to high school seniors, differentiated the sexes, not only in the type of vocation selected, but in the number of vocations selected. The boys selected twice as many vocations as the girls, with Engineering the first choice of the boys, and teaching the first choice of the girls. Almost thirty per cent of the boys chose engineering and forty-four per cent of the .girfls chose teaching. This is extremely unfortunate because Cuily a small percentage of those will ever be able to secure Ennployment in those areas. Values and socio-economic status.—-Ginsberg (62) feels tflnat values are inherently a product of the process of ixdentification and instinctual drives. Consequently, the CDrigins of choice hlvocational selection spring from the S ame source . 60 Caplow (32) theorizes that vocational values and choice can be understood within two limitations, the occupa— tion of the father can determine the son's occupation, or the occupation can be determined by testing and observing. Tyler (153) gave the Minnesota Interest Test to high school seniors with resulting significant relationships. She found that the interest scores were not only related to the socio-economic level of the parents, but also to the educational level of the parents. The selection of vocations of necessity could not always depend on parental identification, especially in circumstances of familial mobility towards the next highest socio-economic level. Thus, Hurlick and Jansing (78) found that seventy-five per cent of the boys in their study did not select vocations similar to those of their parents. Dyer's investigations (49) Showed that vocational choices are made from the earliest years to the end of college. Choices obviously made in relation to family and tradition are not static and subject to change at many points on the continuum of the vocational process. Unfortunately, high socio-economic status seems to have a great influence in selecting a vocation relating to the father's vocation. Most of the previous studies showed that when the father's vocation was professional or in a high socio-economic level, the identification was very high. When the father's vocation was unskilled, semi—skilled, or very low,few students selected their future vocation in re- lation to their father's vocation. 61 Stability of values and vocational choiee.-—Although the question of stability of value systems is not one of the specific issues in this particular study, it is important in the general investigation of values. It serves to focus interest on the age-old question of absolute values and whether the individual has an inherent system of values, unchanging and basic to his psychological functioning. In a long range study, Jacob (79) found that few courses of study have influenced changes in value systems of individuals. Students do change, but the change does not come primarily from the formal educational process. Despite the inability to relate value change with course work, he does feel that values can be both "caught" and "taught." Kemp (84) tested students before and after graduation from college, and found that the majority had changed some of their values as measured by the Allport-Vernon Study of Values. There were significant changes on the theoretical, aesthetic, and social subscales, while the rest remained relatively unchanged. Todd (148) administered the Allport—Vernon Study of Values to students in the senior class in high school and administered the test again tothem in their sophomore year at college and found specific changes in their values. He postulates that the change is not due specifically to the influence of the college, but rather'reflectsthe cultural norms that are dominant in our contemporary culture. 62 The results of Whitely‘s study (158) cause him to suggest the possibility that values do not change. He administered the Allport-Vernon Study of Values to eighty- four students, and found their values fairly stable. Con- sequently, he feels that college does not necessarily change values. The Integration of Values and Vocational Choige From the many points of view that investigators have put forth, it is quite evident that values and vocational choice are integral to the study of human behavior. They are not limited to any specific facet of societal func- tioning, but are everywhere. 'This coincides with'Thorndike's (146) feelings that anything that can be thought of is valued. The salient values in each facet of societal func- tioning appear to be quite similar, leading to a possibility that a generalizable theory of values could be formulated to encompass the existence and function of all values. It also need not be culture bound, as other cultures appear to have values which seem to be common to all. The existence of value systems among all phases of societal functioning imply that they also exist in all levels of ontogenetic development. Many investigators have found this to be true, and the values they have found have been measured in various ways. Quantifying these values through a statistical medium has helped investigators notice re— curring similar value complexes wherever they occur in human experiences. 63 Attempts at measuring values have been few and far between. Only a handful of investigators have actually tried to quantify values in some fashion. It is often evident that many of the interest, attitude, sentiment, and set instruments of measurement have similar bases, but value tests per se have been formulated in the main by Allport-Vernon, Bills, Lurie, Prince, and Stefflre. The inclusion of studies other than those of values per se, have indicated the neenlfor a semantical clarifi- cation of terms which have been used interchangeably. That these terms such as interest, attitude, sentiment, and set, have a delineated relationship with each other is quite obvious and only by studying in total each with the other, will the study of values elicit fruitful results. In this Study, which is pariially.based on the theories of vocatnnuu.choice as expounded by Ginzberg, Super, and Roe, an attenunzudlllxainade to relate selected values to vocational choice. ItivLH.also investigate the values of students conung'fronlchiferent socio-econonfic levels, andtme possibflitycfl’value(hiferencesznnong‘men and women. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY Chapters I and II have been concerned with the purposes or the statement of the problem, the background of the study, and the limitations which are inherent in the research design. In the present chapter, the emphasis is upon the methodology and procedures involved in the gathering and analysis of the data upon which this study is based. This study is generally concerned with the investi- gation of the values which are related to different vocational and curricular areas. The major instrument involved in the study, The Vocational Values Inventory, is designed to elicit the various stated values that people feel are the basis for their preference or entry into a particular vocational area. Since the test has not been validated on this particular group, its validation through the use of a questionnaire and other related material will also be considered. Specif- ically, this investigation was designed to attain the following objectives: 1. To determine whether students planning to enter different occupations tend to vary in the values measured by the Vocational Values Inventory. 64 \ ME: '2 1 ( To determine whether students from different R) socio-economic levels tend to have different values as measured by the Vocational Values Inventory. 3. To determine whether there will be significant differences between male and female students' values on the Vocational Values Inventory. Among the many problems faced in the completion of the study are the following: (1) the administration and analysis of the instrument used to measure values, (2) the determination of the validity and reliability of the instru- ment used for measuring values, (3) the construction of a questionnaire as an instrument to elicit information not obtainable elsewhere, (4) the selection of an appropriate sample of the student population, and (5) the formulation and organization of methods of tabulating and analyzing the results of the study. The Administration and Analysis of the Instrument Used to Measure Values In light of the fact that there appear to be values that are common to many of the studies discussed in Chapters I and II, selecting those which might be specific to vocational choice has not been an easy task. Too many of the authors of value studies have investigated the same area under different names. Very often this has indicated to the naive researcher that specific values are related to different facets of human behavior, when, in fact, there 66 are broad areas of valuing and value systems and the same values are similarly motivating in many areas. The values selectedkurthe authors of the Vocational Values Inventory seem to have the property of values common to many areas of functioning. The authors have reviewed the literature and have selected those values which they feel need investigating for their effect on vocational choice. Despite their different nomenclature,the similarity of these values to values selected and utilized in studies by other researchers seems to justify their selection on an observational basis rather than a statistically processed basis. The Vocational Values Inventory is still in its exploratory state and much work still needs to be done for further establishment of norms. The norms that are available are for the following groups: thirty-five high school females and fifty—four high school males, forty male graduate students in Education and thirty—five female graduate students in Education, and one hundred and twelve high school seniors composed of sixty-one girls and fifty-one boys. In the administration of the test, the students were asked to carefully read the Vocational Values Inventory booklet1 which explained the intent of the test and described the directions in detail. Although there was no specific time limit, they were asked to work as quickly as possible, answering all the questions. For purposes of economy and convenience, answer sheets were passed out and the students 1Appendix A. 67 were asked to put their answers on them, rather than the inventory booklet. To facilitate the gathering of data from the Office of Evaluation ServicesE students were asked to put their name and student identification number on the answer sheet. Unfortunately, out of the 526 tested, only 436 put their namesand student identification numbers on the test answer sheets. Consequently, the sample was limited to 436. The test consists of 168 forced choice items and is scored to yield seven measurements of values. (131) The seven scores of the inventory are indicative of the seven postulated basic values used in the study. 1. Altruism, the extent to which the student values work in which he helps others and does kind things for them. 2. Control, the extent to which he values work where he is the "boss." 3. Job Freedom, the extent to which he values work in which he can control his own hours and methods. 4. Money, the extent to which he values work with high financial and materialistic rewards. 5. Prestige, the extent to which he values work in which people will look up to him, a job which gives him high status. 6. Security, the extent to which he values work he is sure of keeping as long as he desires. 7. Self-realization, the extent to which he values work which lets him express his ideas, interests and ideals and lets him be creative. Reliability and Validity of the VocationalTValues Inventory Reliability The reliability of a test refers to the consistency or stability attained in its measurements. As such, an index of reliability reveals the degree of confidence which may be placed in scores obtained with the test. According 1A.deparnnentin HuaBasic<30Hege which hennsdevelop, coordinate, and administer the program of examination and evaluatnnl. 68 to English and English (54:456), there is no one nieasure of reliability. They state: Reliability is a generic term referring to several types of evidence. When repeated performance of the same act by the same individual is in question, reliability is the opposite of variability and the standard error of measurement is an appropriate index. . . . For testing, there are several distinct correlation measures of reliability, all misleadingly given the one name of reliability coefficient. Several different coefficients are computed, each an answer to a distinct question. There are a number of methods for assessing reliability, each having variations. These are: (1) Equivalent form, (2) Test-retest, (3) Split-half, (A) Kuder-Richardson, and (5) Hoyt's modification of the Kuder-Richardson. Hoyt's modification of the Kuder-Richardson has been selected for this study because of an obvious process of elimination. The equivalent form could not be used because there is no other form of the Vocational Values Inventory. The test-retest method was notfeasible because of the dis- tortion of the results due to the learning influences of the questionnaire and questions asked during and after the administration of the Vocational Values Inventory. The split-half method can only be used in tests where all the items are equally scored and are homogenous. This method might have been applicable to this study if it were possible to obtain a good or equivalent split of the tests. Hoyt's modification of the Kuder-Richardson is acceptable for use in this study because it requires only a single administra- tion of one form of a test. It is not influenced by prac- tice and memory factors, and it can be used with raw data. Validity The validity of a test is the degree to which a test measures what it is designed to measure. In most cases, the difficulty lies in finding a suitable criterion of what the test is trying to measure, excluding the test itself, against which the test may be checked by correlation. It is apparent that certain studies and tests lend themselves to certain kinds of validity determinations. To explain this concept in relation to this study, a few of the more commonly accepted types of validity will be briefly reviewed. These are concurrent, content, and predictive validity. The method involving the determination of Internal Consistency will also be included in this section as its implications for reliability are also relevant in the study of validity. Content validity is also known as logical or curricular. A test is valid in this respect when it adequately covers the content and objectives of whatever area it tests. Predictive validity foretells behavior. For example, if students are given tests to determine admission to college and the scores are correlated with future academic achieve- ment, then it can be assumed the criterion measure, the grade point average, can be predicted within a certain range by the admissions tests. Concurrent validity is similar to predictive validity except that the criterion measures are collected at the time of the administration of the test. An example of this would 70 be whether the tests could differentiate vocational or curricular groups. The inherent features of this study led to the use of the concurrent type of validity. There are few independent measures of the traits in question; it is not possible to predict in such a limited time; an external measure or criterion is not feasible for determining relationships. To investigate the possibility of differences on the Vocational Values Inventory among the various groups studied, the method of analysis of variance was used. According to Lindquist (97:73) the following assumptions have to be made before its use can be justified. They are: 1. All treatment groups were originally drawn at random from the same parent population. After administration of the treatments, each group may then be regarded as a simple random sample from a different (hypothetical) treatment population. 2. The variance of the criterion measures is the same for each of these treatment populations. The distribution of criterion measures for each treatment population is normal. (I) 4. The mean of the criterion measures is the same for each treatment population. Norton's study as stated in Lindquist (97) indicates certain modifications of these assumptions which enable the analysis of variance to be used in this study. They are: l. The distribution need not be tested for normality because of the insensitivity of the "F" test to moderate departures from normality. 71 Only/erft e e -Knr.vtuve3 i“xtw11orm' that c rtlxs ietecfixai by i¢wxrr ti n. trill h've 'ii':ppre*d'l;1e effect on the "r" test. The "F" test permitted the inference, if there are differences, that these differences are significant differ- ences between the groups, but does not specify which group differs significantly from each of the others. To determine whether any particular mean difference was signifi— cant or not, the null hypothesis had to be tested,applied to the mean difference by Duncan's method (48). The problem of internal consistency which deals with the question of reliability has been included in this sec- tion because of its obvious relationship and influence on validity. 0dell(109:100) states: The reliability of a test is an important factor in determining its validity, that is, how well it measures what it purports to measure. No measuring instrument can be more valid that it is reliable: almost all are less. The determination of internal consistency through the Inethod of item analysis is cumbersome and usually not worth the excessive amount of statistical computations required. Iiowever, in this study, its use is justified because it Ineasures the reliability of a test at the time of its adininistration and the inter-correlations between all the itSems on the test are needed to determine which of them 81Would be rejected in the final modification of the test. 72 The Vocational Values Inventory items are answered on an "either/or" basis. Accepting the first question excludes the second and accepting the second question excludes the first. With this fact indicating a dichotomy in the scores, the Pearson Product Moment Correlation could not be used to measure the relationship between the variables since Pearson's basic assumption involves continuous variables. The variables to be correlated are dichotomous, normally distributed and linearly related. Encompassing these assumptions, the tetrachoric correlation technique can be used to describe the relationship between the two variables. The two variables to be correlated are the individual items or questions on the Vocational Values Inventory which are answered either A or B and the total scores of all the items for a particular value which are arranged serially from high to low and then dichotomized by the median into high and low groups. The percentage of the high 50 per cent group and the percentage of the low 50 per cent group are utilized to compute the tetrachoric correlation coefficient according to the chart described in.Adkins (1). In this fashflan, insight can be gained into ‘the characteristics of good and poor items and the feasi- IDility of discarding those items which bear little or no I‘elationship to what they are supposed to measure when COmpared to the total score of the value. Guilford (67) and Lindquist (97) also recommend that tile sample size be approximately 200 for the results to be 73 reliable. Although the tetrachoric technique can be used with a smaller population, its accuracy will not be the same asanh alarger group. In this sample the number of men, 261, was safely within the limits of this assumption. The number of women was somewhat smaller, 175, but still of a size which can be measured in a meaningful fashion. The Construction of a Questionnaire to Elicit Information Not Obtainable Elsewhere The questionnaire, a copy of which is in Appendix B, was designed to obtain information useful in the testing of the various hypotheses stated in Chapter I. This material was not included in the students' records and could only be obtained by directly questioning each of the students through the administration of the questionnaire. The questionnaire that was used in this study was deviSed by the writer who employed the following procedures: a. A Survey and study was made of the various ques- tionnaires used by Rosenberg (118), Jacob (79), Katz-Allport (81), and Allport—Vernon (4), to investigate values which liave appeared in various books and journals published in ‘the United States and Great Britain. b. The questionnaire was then devised, taking into cOnsideration the various conclusions from previous research COnducted in this area. Questions that were applicable were ir1corporated into the present questionnaire. They were then rtevised and refined in light of suggestions offered by Ir'Eiimbers of the advisory committee of this dissertation. 74 The information to be elicited concerned the student's socio-economic status, sex, vocational selections, and aspirations and similar material to provide data for the validity study of the Vocational Values Inventory. c. The reliability and validity of the questionnaire was not tested by statistical procedures, but was accepted on an empirically observable basis. The questions that were used were those that could test the various hypotheses stated in the previous chapters. The name and student number of the student was asked for in order to discriminate between men and women and to facilitate checking the students' records in the Office of Evaluation Services. Question 3 investigated the students' estimates of their socio-economic status and Questions 4 through 10 were designed to empirically observe factors which might be related to those values studied through the ‘use of the Vocational Values Inventory. Questions 4 through 10 were processed to determine the possibility of significant differences of the responses of‘nen.and women. The responses were treated as though ‘they were scores on a test and they were subjected to a "t" 'test to determine the differences, if any, at the 5 per cent lxavel of confidence. Question 11 elicits the vocation the student would 11Jf different age levels would lead to even greater errors cxf estimation. In some respects this error was decreased ‘b2/ the sample group being in the same age range. The Formulation and Organization of Methods of TaEulating and Analyzing the ReSfilts‘o e u y The number of variables in this study necessitated thfa use of machines for tabulating and scoring the instru- merlts used in this study. The Vocational Values Inventory 80 was scored by the International Test Scoring Machine, using Machine Key Form A. The two instruments, the Voca- tional Values Inventory and the specially designed question- naire, were then coded and this code was punched into International Business Machine (IBM) cards. Although the majority of the statistical calculations involved in this study were accomplished by manual effort, the use of the IBM cards facilitated the computation of a few measures of relationship. These measures, Pearson's Product Moment Correlation Coefficients, were directly computed by feeding the IBM cards into the input of the high speed computer, the MISTIC. The data utilized in this fashion were the scores on the sub—tests of the Vocational Values Inventory, with the scores of the men, women, and the total, being intercorrelated separately. The tetrachoric correlation coefficient formula is too cumbersome and lengthy for use in this study. According to Adkins (1), Mosier and McQuitty (105), and Guilford (68), the results computed by the long formula are approximately the same as the results achieved by the use of the short form. Consequently, the short form described in Adkins (l) was used for computing the estimated relationship between each of the items on the Vocational Values Inventory and the total score of each of the subetests of the Vocational Values Inventory. The rationale and description of the method is aptly stated by Mosier and McQuitty (“35:57): 81 It is shown that by making the assumption that the knowledge of the test item and the knowledge of the entire test are both distributed normally, the cor- relation coefficient between any item and the entire test can be expressed as a function solely of two proportions--the percentage of a high scoring group passing the item and the percentage of a low scoring group passing the item. This function is expressed graphically as a family of curves for each of two conditions--where the high scoring and low scoring groups are samples of the highest and lowest quarters respectively and where they are samples from the upper and lower halves. It is shown moreover, that two other common measures of item validity, the upper- lower difference and the critical ratio of the upper- lower difference may be drawn on the same coordinate axis. Summary The methodology involved in the procedures and analysis of this study has been discussed in this chapter. The Vocational Values Inventory and the questionnaire have been described. The population was defined as consisting of the students at Michigan State University who were currently enrolled in Social Science 233, part of the prerequisites for admission to the upper school. The sample was not randomized, in that it was arbitrarily selected on the basis of expediency and convenience. However, no apparent biases were present and the sample would seem to represent the population of this level of students at Michigan State Uni- versity. The Vocational Values Inventory and questionnaire were administered to the students in groups. The Vocational Values Inventory was scored by the scoring service of the Office of Evaluation Services at Michigan State University. 82 The questionnaire was manually scored. The data from both instruments were then punched into IBM cards, enabling the sorting and tabulating to be done by the IBM machines. Some of the data could be processed by the high speed computer, the MISTIC and the rest of the data had to be manually computed. The means and variances were computed on most of the variables and comparisons were made between the different groups. The significance of the variances were determined by the "F" test and where this indicated possible differ- ences between the means, Duncan's method was utilized to determine just what means were different. Reliability was studied by means of Hoyt's test and item validity was determined by the method of inter-item analysis using Adkin's (l) adaptation of the short form of the tetrachoric correlation technique. To determine the possibility of relationships between some of the data on the questionnaire and the scores on the Vocational Values Inventory, various statistical methods were used. Question 3, socio-economic status, was investi- gated to determine differences by means of the analysis of variance method. Questions 4 through 10 were processed by means of the "t" test to determine significant differences between males and females. The analysis of variance method was used to determine differences in Questions 11 and 12, and Question 13 was processed by means of the method of Rank correlation. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF THE DATA The tenability of various hypotheses concerning the relationship of values and vocational choice was examined in this study. Each of these hypotheses and problems relevant to them were examined with statistical techniques .which would provide meaningful treatment of the data. The following are the hypotheses that were tested and the problems relevant to them: Hypotheses A. There are no significant differences in the mean sub—test scores of the Vocational Values Inventory among students planning to enter different occupations. B. There are no significant differences in the mean sub-test scores of the Vocational Values Inventory among students coming from different socio-economic levels. C. There are no significant differences in the mean sub-test scores of the Vocational Values Inventory among male and female students. 83 84 Relevant Problems The determination of the reliability of the II) Vocational Values Inventory. B. The determination of the item validity of the Vocational Values Inventory. C. The determination of the concurrent validity of the Vocational Values Inventory. D. The determination of congruence or incongruence of Question 11 and Question 12, which involve fantasy and reality-based vocational choices. It is difficult to meaningfully interpret data from a testing instrument without understanding some of its limi- ” tations. Consequently, the discussion will begin with the Problems Relevant to the testing of the various hypotheses. Relevant Problems Determination of the Reliability of the vacational values Inventory Before determining the reliability of the Vocational Values Inventory, it was investigated for possible homo- geneity. The sub-tests were intercorrelated according to men, women, and total group and the means and standard deviations of each of the groups were computed. Table 2 shows the intercorrelations of the seven sub- tests of the Vocational Values Inventory for the entire group and Table 3 shows the means and standard deviations of the same group. Using .13 as the minimum correlation .LocwH: so MH. u ooCmCHmcoo mo Ho>oH Ho. ego um oocmonchHm ESEHCHE* 85 mm: u 2 H shear: *qu.u H Homecoo *msm.n mmo.n H omemosm *mmH. *wmm.| 30H.I H COHpmNHHmmmIMHmm :m0.n *mom.| *wbm.: *OmH.| H thhSomm *N®N.i *qu.I HHH.I HNO.| *3:m.n H EOUmmHWIDOb *m©©.| Hdo.i NHH. *mmm.n Hmo.n ©OO.I H hmcoz EmHSth< Hopucoo omemmpm coHumNHHmomuMHom muthoom EocooLMIQOh mocoz mBmmBlmDm Vmoezm>ZH mmbH<> H mIB zo mbomo H¢HOB mmE mo mmmoom mmb mo mZOHEdemmoomMBzH Bzmzoz Boboomm m mHmoH Ho. on» we mocmonHcmHm ESEHCHZ* How u 2 H EmHsppH< smo.u H Hosucoo *mmm.- moo.- H omahnosd rqu. *wwm.u OH.n H coprNHHmomanom smo.- *smm.- *oms.- moo.- H spassoom *mmm.n *me.u *me.u w:o.: *smm.a H EoeoosanOh *mmm.- mso.- mso. *Hmm.- moH.- smo.- H socoz EmHssuH< Hospcoo oprmosm coHumNHHmomIMHom szsSoom EocmeganOh zmcoz mBWMBImDm meBzm>ZH mmbH¢> H mmb mo zmz MES mo mmmoom mmb mo monHmH Ho. onp um moCMonchHm ESEHCH2* msH n 2 H EmHSLuH< Hmo.n H Hospcoo 0/ *mmm.u mmo.u H meummpm no mmH. *mmH.| 000.: H coHpmNHHmmmumHmm smo. *mmm.- *omw.- *wmm.- H spHpSOmm *Hmm.n *mmH.n omo.n ooH. *wom.n H EooommeQOh *mw©.n *wsH.n *sHm. *mmm.n oHo.u 330.: H zocoz EmHSLpH< Hoppcoo omHummLm coHpmNHHwomumHmm %pdeomm EoooopmuQOh zocoz mBmMBnmbm wmoezm>ZH mmDH<> H<20H9 mmb zo zmzoz mmb mo mmmoom mmB mo monfidqmmmoomMHzH Bzmzoz,wobaomm w mHmcationaI Values Inventory In Table 8 it was seen that as a whole, each of the Slab-tests “was reliable. According to Adkins (1), this is innperative for determining item validity. From this infor- Ination follows the postulate that items that measure what true sub-tests measure correlate highly with the sub-tests. (Pkrus, a reason for eliminating items can be Justified. How- €3‘Ienc, the determination of what are the proper levels C>f‘ correlation, those which will give the best items, is (Drllqy related to the test and what it measures. Goodenough (EHS) feels that a value of ”r" that reaches the twenty-five FKEI‘ cent level of confidence is sufficient to justify the itlclusion of the item. Bean (14) stated that he did not 92 know of a well established criterion value for an item— test correlation below which a question would be considered too poor to be retained. He agreed with Guilford (67) and Goodenough (65) that all minus items should be automatically .rejected and felt that low correlations of .10 and .15 are ‘very questionable. Brigham (l9) and Thorndike (147) stated a definite <2ut-off point in their study which proved workable. They :felt that a .40 coefficient of item-test correlation would IDe the best indicator of how good an item is. A correlation czoefficient of .40 is too high as a cut-off point for this Estudy, because it would eliminate items which are fairly EKDOG discriminators of the values measured. Thus, to Iplrevent items which might add to the reliability of the test ffirom being rejected, .18 was designated as a cut-off point, txelow which items were rejected as not adding to the rweliability or purity of the test. 'Ihc itenls which related to sub-scwrrcs with coefficients 16388 Hun1.18 were classflfled as poor discriminators. A coeff- i<:ient 0f.l8 discrinnnates atthe one per cent level according tC) Garrett%sfornufla ((fl3366 ), andthercforc poor discrim - 1Ilators do not bear a strong relationship U3the sub-test scores. Table 9 indicates those items which do not measure the characteristics for which they were designed. Taking the erltxire sample, both men and women together, only six items aITE found which do not measure that which they were designed to fa 93 Honpcoo n o muHLSomm u m Eoommsm now H mm coHpmNHHmoHIMHom H mm mmcoz n z emanated n a amasseHa u a "mmsHm> no mmepmmosm* mm mmnmh .H@ o Qua .ms mm mmn< .ms 0 mIB >meEOME MIR $32.52 FOZ OD EQHmB .HdHOE Dz< qzmzo3 nzmz mo qum>H significant difference between the mean Z scores of the men and women . THE DETERMINATION OF CONGRUENCE OR INCONGRUENCE OF QUESTION 11 AND QUESTION 12 ON THE QUESTIONNAIRE, WHICH INVOLVES FANTASY AND REALITY-BASED VOCATIONAL CHOICES OF MEN AND WOMEN. Table l in Chapter III indicates the percentages of 13hose students selecting vocations based on fantasy, and 97 those selecting vocations based on reality. Except for Entertainment and Teaching, the vocations selected by the men based on fantasy were very similar to their occupations selected on the basis of reality. Entertainment when selected according to fantasy was 6.1 per cent. When sselected according to reality the percentage decreased to 23.06. Teaching when selected according to fantasy was 213.91 per cent, but when selected according to reality ‘the percentage increased to 17.91. Also shown in Table l are the occupations selected lay the women in relation to fantasy and reality. Their aselections were different from the male selections in the taype of vocations selected, the number of vocations selected, 811d the amount of congruence or incongruence between rweality and fantasy-based vocational choices. The only fwairly congruent selection was Selling; the rest of the vwocational selections were different in number. To put it iri other words, many of the women who had selected vocations huased on fantasy, did not select the same vocations when aJSked to do so on a reality basis. ITSCPOTHESIS A. THERE ARE NO SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES IN THE MEAN SUB-TEST SCORES OF THE VOCATIONAL VALUES INVENTORY AMONG STUDENTS PLANNING TO ENTER DIFFERENT VOCATIONS. Table 12 shows the means and variances of the scores C>f' the women on the sub-tests of the Vocational Values IrI‘ventory in relation to their fantasy-based vocational Selections. The "f" scores that have asterisks indicate .mocmoHMGOo mo Hm>oH Rm esp no RH on» pmanm pm pcmonchHm won one mmenmumm pzonqu mopoom.:m: .** an omumoHocH mH mocooncoo ho Hm>mH &H ecu m* hp UmpmoHocH mH mocon :MchHm Rm “mocmHsm> mo mHmszcm ecu CH omcprpo cm: ecu mH m CESHoo .wsHHme 98 m one chng32 u z Mxmoz HmHoom u 3m mwchommp u H «EmHHm2p50fi u 5 “use n a "ocmme o:.mH om.oH mo.HH so.mH os.Hm mm.m > mm.mH om.w em.s Hm.m es.w mm.e e Hopscoo oH.mm m:.m sm.m m©.oH os.0m mA.mH > sm.HH m:.HH mH.HH em.oH am.mH ss.HH e emanated oH.sH Hm.mH om.w mH.m m.: mo.m > om.mH Hm.om mm.mH mm.mH :e.om mm.mw e coHennaHmdm-qum oH.HH sm.mH ms.eH mm.eH om.:H oo.mm > mo.m mm.m oo.m sm.oH sm.© mm.s s Abandomm om.mH oo.sH ms.mH HH.@H ow.mH mm.m > mo.oH ms.HH mm.oH sm.HH mw.mH mo.mH E soebdamunon oH.mq mm.mH m©.mm mm.mm oH.om mm.m > ms.m ms.s wH.m mw.m mm.m mm.m a seed: om.mm mm.mH ::.sH mm.oq oH.mH mm.mm > 6:.mH ss.mH mo.om mm.mH am.mH mm.wH s EnHSLQHa m 2 3m 9 n a nenme-nsm A m. m a m m NH mHm QmmmZH mMDH¢> H 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"UnomoH m:.m om.mH oo.mH mH.mH :m.om mH.mH m©.m HH.wH om.mH R©.m > **Rm.m om.m mm.m mm.mH mm.mH mo.oH Hm.oH R:.w om.m Hm.m HR.m E Honunoo mw.mH mm.m mw.mm mm.mm mo.mm mq.mH Hm.om HH.:m mm.wH om.om > H:.H oo.mH mm.m Rm.oH Hm.mH m:.mH mm.HH R:.mH om.HH oo.HH :H.:H E omemonm om.m mm.m mm.m mo.AH HH.mH wo.mH mH.m ::.© ow.:H No.3 > eoHpmna mm.H o:.mH Hm.mH :w.mH mo.wH mm.mH m:.RH mH.wH om.mH Em.wH mm.mH E nHoomumHom mw.mm mm.om om.mm mm.Hq m:.mH mm.mm mm.mm HH.m ow.mm R©.mH > Am.H om.m mm.oH mo.m wo.w AH.m mm.oH wH.m om.n RH.HH oo.m s Apanzeom mm.mm o:.HH mo.mw ww.HH Rm.RH R0.Rm mm.:H mR.mH mH.om RH.oH > Eoooonm mm.o mR.mH ms.:H R:.mH mm.mH :@.mH mm.mH H:.MH Om.MH Ro.mH :H.HH E unow Hs.mH Rm.om om.Am mR.mm sw.om 3:.mm om.oH as.om mo.mm om.mm > **:m.m mH.mH om.HH mm.oH mm.HH mm.mH m:.mH mm.mH oo.m He.s ow.m e Ammo: EH.Am mm.mm om.am om.qm mm.om mn.sm se.:H mm.mm mm.mm mm.mm > . **RR.m Rw.w mH.m w©.HH mm.m mm.w Ro.m mm.oH om.MH HR.MH m:.HH E EmHsan< m.l, mm m m 2 02m m a: 3m 9 m mpmoBuQSm mH HH 0H m m R m m z m m H '81 JNI 1'1 monHomHmm H.QmmBHHKmm mHmmB OB ZOHBZH mMDH¢> u H mmB mo mEmMBImDm WEB ZO zmz mmB mo mmmoom mmB mo mmoz 92¢ mzcio—economic level had higher mean scores on the Money =SLIb—test than the middle or working class. The remaining six sub-test scores of the men did not sig- rlificantly differentiate those who selected the upper, middle, 8J1Ci working classes, either at the l or the 5 per cent level CDf' confidence. Table 17 shows the means and variances of the women (311 the sub-tests of the Vocational Values Inventory in relation to their socio—economic status. On the l per cent 1eVel of confidence the women selecting the upper class as thEiir socio-economic level had higher scores on the Prestige $311b—test than those selecting the middle and working class. The remaining six sub-test scores of the women did not E3ignificantly differentiate those who selected the upper, Inixidle, and working classes, either at the l or the 5 per QEEUt level of confidence. MEANS 108 TABLE 16 AND VARIANCES OF THE SCORES OF THE MEN ON THE SUB-TESTS OF THE VOCATIONAL VALUES INVENTORY IN RELATION TO THEIR SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS (THEIR ANSWERS TO QUESTION 3 ON THE QUESTIONNAIRE) l 2 3 4 5 Sub-Tests Upper Middle Working F [\ltruism m 8.08 10.39 10.95 1.45 V 31.25 30.62 35.47 Ddoney m 14.23 9.01 10.26 5.67** V 18.25 34.25 31.49 EFOb-Freedom m 11.00 12.73 12.96 1.04 V, 15.00 20.19 22.34 Security m 8.77 9.77 10.34 .62 V 43.58 25.69 29.26 ESealf-Realization m 17.31 18.42 18.61 .74 V 11.75 12.96 12.33 :Pirestige m 13.15 11.52 10.73 1.81 V 22.83 23.49 16.05 Control m 11.46 110.57 9.51 2.41 V 18.67 17.02 14.38 Li‘EBgencl: Upper is the highest designated socio-economic class, Middle is the next highest socio-economic class, and Working is the lowest of the three socio- economic classes. In Column 1 are the means and variances of the sub-tests. Column 5 is the F obtained in the analysis of variance. 5% signifi- cance is indicated by *; and 1% significance is. indicated by **. The "F" Scores without asterisks are not significant at either the 1% or 5% level of confidence. 109 TABLE 17 MEANS AND VARIANCES OF THE SCORES OF THE WOMEN ON THE SUB-TESTS OF THE VOCATIONAL VALUES INVENTORY IN RELATION TO THEIR SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS (THEIR ANSWERS TO QUESTION 3 ON THE QUESTIONNAIRE) l 2 3 4 5 Sub—Tests Upper Middle Working F ALLtruism m 13.00 15.88 16.36 1.22 V 47.60 40.77 23.50 Nkoney m 7.64 8.19 7.20 .35 V 23.10 32.50 32.46 .Icib-Freedom m 12.64 11.18 12.68 1.70 V 14.90 18.11 22.25 ESezcurity m 7.64 9.43 9.20 .88 V 15.10 18.04 23.67 fSealf-Realization m 20.55 19.72 19.40 .72 v 5.50 7.57 4.50 PI‘estige m 14.45 10.85 9.92 5.48** V 19.90 14.47 15.17 Charitrol m 8.00 8.75 7.48 1:29 V 9.80 14.67 14.29 Leégend: Upper is the highest designated socio-economic class, Middle is the next highest socio-economic class, and working is the lowest of the three socio- economic classes. In Column 1 are the means and variances of the sub-tests. Column 5 is the "F" obtained in the analysis of variance. 5% signifi- cance is indicated by %; and the 1% significance is indicated by **. The "F" scores without asterisks are not significant at either the 1% or 5% level of confidence. llO ITYPOTHESIS C. THERE ARE NO SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES IN THE MEAN SUB-TEST SCORES OF THE VOCATIONAL VALUES INVENTORY AMONG MALE AND FEMALE STUDENTS. Table 5 and Table 7, previously mentioned in this claapter, show the means and standard deviations of the men ELnd.women. The data collected in these tables were then prrocessed by means of the "t" test to determine whether ‘briere are significant differences in the sub-test scores cxf the men and women in this study. Table 18 shows the results of the "t" test mentioned iri the preceding paragraph. With the exception of the Silb-tests of Security and Prestige, all the remaining five £311b-tests are significantly different at the 1 per cent . leavel of confidence. The following are the directions these differences téiknn l. Altruism--higher for women. 2 Money--higher for men. 3 Job-Freedom--higher for men. 4. Self-Realization--higher for women. 5 Control--higher for men. Questions 4 through 10 were included in the question- r1airs to aid in the investigation of the possibility of C11if‘ferences in the sub-test responses of the men and women. Since this is an exploratory study, the questions were EtcWeepted on the basis of face validity and the results will be generally speculative . 111 TABLE 18 A COMPARISON OF THE MEANS OF THE SCORES OF THE TEN AND WOMEN ON THE SUB-TESTS OF THE VOCATIONAL VALUES INVENTORY Sub-Tests t Scores Altruism 9.16* W Money 5.63* M Job-Freedom 2.62* M Security .4l** Self-Realization 5.08* W Prestige .92** Control 4.06* M * Significant at the .01 level of confidence. ** Not significant at the .01 or the .05 level of confidence. M: The mean scores are higher for men. W: The mean scores are higher for women. Table 19 indicates the comparison of male and female beSponses to Questions 4 through 10 on the questionnaire VVhtich can be seen in Appendix B. The purpose of Questions it ‘through 10 was to complement Hypothesis B, the testing C>f‘ differences between sexes. Consequently, the questions will not be analyzed in detail; only the similarities and Ciiefferences and the direction of these differences will be be ported . The responses to Questions 4, 9, and 10 were not sig— hiAficantly different for men and women. They both felt the 112 TABLE 19 COMPARISON OF MALE AND FEMALE RESPONSES TO QUESTIONS 4 THROUGH 10 OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE Question t Scores .927*** 2.71* 2.38** 3.56* 3.33* .OO*** \OCIDNO‘iUlt' 10 1.73*** * Significant at the l per cent level of confidence. ** Significant at the 5 per cent level of confidence. *** Not significant. Sainue concerning taking leadership in a grOup, accepting lieaadership more often than rejecting it. Men and women €“lllally agreed that more people are more inclined to help themeelves than help others and they also were similar in their f‘636311ng that they would more often prefer to make decisions for thernselves than have others make it for them. The differences that were evident were in Questions 5, 63: 7, and 8. On Question 5, at the l per cent level, women f‘Ound it more important to be well liked than men. On Q11estion 6, at the 5 per cent level, more men found it easier t3C> make friends than women. On Question 7, at the l per cd3rlt level, it bothered women more then men to give orders 113 to other people. On Question 8, on thel per cent level, it appears that women are more bothered with taking orders 'than men. Summary The analysis of the Problems Relevant to this study 21nd the analysis of the data relevant to the investigation c>f the Null Hypotheses of this study have been presented 111 this chapter. In analyzing the items according to rnen, wornen, zlncitotal, it was founclthatxvonmnlchd not responclto tide sub-test items in the same manner as the men and the ‘tc3tal group. Six items were found for the total group which Ciixd not measure the properties which they were designed to Inesasure. For the women, fourteen items were found which (3143 not measure the property they were supposed to measure, Elrui in a similar fashion, six were found for the men. Reliability of the instrument, the Vocational Values ‘IIANJentory, was tested by Hoyt's technique and found to be aC‘ceptable for meaningful analysis. Concurrent validity was tested by means of Question 13 ‘311 the questionnaire and found to be reasonably adequate. 3751lidity was also incorporated into the testing of the three 1flyipotheses and was found to be reasonably adequate; the test (1543 differentiate various vocational groups according to t3kueir mean scores on the sub-tests. 114 The null hypothesis that there were no significant differences in the mean sub-test scores of the Vocational Values Inventory among students selecting fantasy-based occupations may be rejected for m at the l per cent level of significance for the sub-tests of Altruism and Control. At the 5 per cent level it may be rejected for the sub-tests of Job-Freedom and Security. The same null hypothesis can be accepted for the sub-test scores of Money, Se lf—Realization, and Prestige, since they are not signifi- cantly different among the selected occupations. The null hypothesis that there were no significant differences in the mean sub-test scores of the Vocational Values Inventory among students selecting reality-based Occupations may be rejected for women at the 5 per cent level of significance for the sub—tests of Altruism, Prestige, and Control. The same null hypothesis can be accepted for the sub-test scores of Money, Job-Freedom, Security, and Self‘—Realization, since they are not significantly different among the selected occupations. The null hypothesis that there were no significant differences in the mean sub-test scores of the Vocational values Inventory among students selecting fantasy-based OQClipations may be rejected for men on the sub-tests of A11Cruism, Money, Self-Realization, and Control. The same 111111 hypothesis can be accepted in the case of Job-Freedom, SeCurity, and Prestige, since these sub-test scores among the various occupations are not significantly different. 115 The null hypothesis that there were no significant ciifferences in the mean sub-test scores of the Vocational \falues Inventory among students selecting reality-oeeeo c>ccupations can be rejected for men on the sub-tests of AXltruism, Money, and Control. The same null hypothesis craxlte accepted for the sub-tests of Job-Freedom, Security, fSealf—Realization, and Prestige. The null hypothesis that there were no significant ciinfferences in the mean sub-test scores of the Vocational 'VEalues Inventory among students coming from different S<>cio-economic levels can be accepted for the women on all ‘bkue sub-tests with the exception of the sub-test of Prestige. 1&1: the l per cent level the same null hypothesis can be 1‘8 Jected for Prestige. The null hypothesis that there were no significant differences in the mean sub—test scores of the Vocational ‘fairues Inventory among students coming from different E2219“ eC’onomic levels can be accepted for the men on all the sub- befists with the excpetion of the sub-test of Money. At the 1' IDer cent level the same null hypothesis can be rejected fOI‘ Money. The null hypothesis that there were no significant Cijmfferences in the mean sub-test scores of the Vocational Véllues Inventory among male and female students can be FezJected for all the sub-tests with the exception of Security Eirhd Prestige. At the l per cent level of confidence Altruism 1&3 significantly higher for women than men, Money is higher 116 for men than women, Job-Freedom is higher for men than women, Self-Realization is higher for women than men, and Control is higher for men than women. A further reinforcement of the concept that men and women differ in certain values was suggested by the results of the "t" test between item 4 through 10 of the questionnaire. Significant differences were found in four of the seven items. These seven items which are generally related to the concepts measured by the Vocational Values Inventory are as follows: (1) the frequency of accepting leadership in a group, (2) the importance of being well liked by different kinds of people, (3) the ability to make friends, (4) the effect of giving orders to others on the individual, (5) the effect of accepting orders from others on the individual, (6) the opinions one has concerning helping himself or helping others, (7) the preference one has of making decisions for himself, or having others make these decisions for him. The concept of congruence in relation to Ginzberg's theory of "Crystallization" was explored. The findings were similar to Ginzberg's only in the case of the men. The majority of the women did not exhibit congruence in their fantasy and reality selections of vocations. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS FOR.FURTHER.RESEARCH There were five aspects of the problem of Values and Vocational Choice under investigation in this study: (1) Is the Inventory used in this study to measure values reliable and valid? (2) Are fantasy and reality-based vocational objectives of students congruent? (3) Will stu— dents planning to enter different occupations vary in values as measured by the Vocational Values Inventory? (4) Do male and female students have different values as measured by the Vocational Values Inventory? (5) Will students from different socio-economic levels express different values as measured by the Vocational Values Inventory? Four hundred and thirty-six students, 261 males and 175 females, enrolled in the Basic College oleichigan State University participated in this study. They were administered the Vocational Values Inventory and a specially designed questionnaire in the spring quarter of 1959. Sunnnary The Reliability and Validity of the Vocational Values Inventory Reliability.-- The reliability of the Vocational Values 117 118 Inventory was estimated in various ways, each of which reinforced the viewpoint that the test is reliable. Hoyt's test, which produces a self-correlation coefficient, indicated that the average coefficient of reliability of the sub-tests of the Vocational Values Inventory was.82. The seven correlation coefficients derived from Hoyt‘s formula ranged from .69 to .91. These are within the limits of good estimates of test reliability, with implications that retesting would yield similar results. The responses to the items by the men yielded only six that were not related to the total score. Thus, for the men, the item-validity was good. For the total score it was similarly good. However, for the women, fourteen items were found to be uncorrelated with the total score. This indicates the possibility that women do not respond in the same way as men to the same values or questions on the Vocational Values Inventory. The possibility exists here that a different test should be constructed for women. Validioy.--Exclusive of item-validity, the Vocational Values Inventory was validated by the method of estimating the differentiating power of the test, and correlating the Vocational Values Inventory against an external criterion of similar content matter. 119 Are Fantasy and Reality-Based Vocational SelectiOns of Students Congruent The investigation of Ginzberg's (63) theory of "Crystallization," was facilitated by means of item 11 and item 12 of the specially designed questionnaire,1 which are respectively fantasy and reality-based vocational selections. Empirically comparing men and women, it was found that the fantasy and reality-based vocational selections of the men were generally congruent. The women‘s selections based on reality, were not the same as their selections based on fantasy. The implications related to these findings are many. The men had a more realistic or practical concept of what their future vocation was to be because of the role they are taught to play from childhood to adulthood. The male in our society takes on many roles before he reaches adulthood. The direction these roles take depend on many factors, but they usually culminate in the man taking on the role of breadwinner. This role, being the head of a family,limits the fantasy of men to vocations where they can make a living. Consequently, the men that do go to college, usually go for more materialistic reasons than the women. The women, despite their emancipation,are taught that their roles are ancillary to men. Thus, the 1See Appendix B. l2O idea of being the sole wage earner is secondary to their role as a mother and a housewife. Not bound by earning a living, the women can fantasize in an unlimited fashion. However, since these women are intelligent and aware of reality, they know that there are certain vocations which they can function in without difficulty and in which com- petition is at a minimum. Thus, although they can fantasize entering different vocations, they also know where they can function adequately and realistically. Will Students Planning to Enter Different Vocations Vary in Values as Measured by tReJVOcational VElues Inventory This hypothesis was tested through the statistical processing ofiten112 on thenquestionnaire, which asks the reality-based vocational selections of the men and we men. Among the women, those who selected the vocations of Nursing, Social Welfare, and Teaching had higher Altruism scores than those selecting Selling, Journalism, and Artis- tic work. The women selecting Journalism haxlhigher Prestige scores than those selecting Artistic work, Social Welfare, Teaching, Nursing, and Selling. Those women selecting Selling scored higher on the Control sub-test than those selecting all the other vocations. Money, Job- Freedom, Security, and Self-Realization sub-test scores were not Significantly different among all the selected vocations. Among the men, Altruism, Money, and Control were the sub-test scores that were significantly different for the 121 various vocational areas. The men selecting Teaching and Social Welfare had higher scores on the Altruism sub-test than those selecting Engineering and the Don't Know category. The men selecting Engineering and Business had higher scores on the Money sub-test than those selecting Teaching. Those men selecting Selling had greater Control sub—test scores than those selecting Social Welfare, Forestry, and Medicine. Those selecting Managerial work had greater sub-test scores of Control than those selecting Medicine. The following are the conclusions that can be derived from the above: a. Among the men, only three sub-tests significantly differentiate vocations, that of Altruism“ ldoney, amul<30ntrol. The others,Job-IfircedonnSecurity, Self-Realization, and Prestige are not Significantly different for all the selected vocations. b. Among the women, Altruism, Prestige, and Control differentiate certain vocations. Money, Job-Freedom, Security, and Self-Realization are not significantly different for all the selected vocations. . c. The sub—test scores of Altruism and Control, significantly differentiate the same vocations for men and women. d. Certain sub-test scores differentiate certain vocations, while others do not. 122 Do Male and Female Students Have Different Values as MEasured by the Vocational Values Inventory The mean scores and results of the method of item- analysis indicate that men and women score differently onthe Vocational Values Inventory. Fourteen items were found for the women which do not measure the values the item was supposed to measure. For the men, only six such items were found. Thus it was apparent that women interpret the same items differently than men. The mean scores on the Vocational Values Inventory wereligher for women on Altruism than they were for men. The men had higher mean scores on the Money sub-test than the women. Job-Freedom scores were higher for men than for the women. Self-Realization scores were higher for women than for men. The men scored higher on Control than did the women. Thus, N:can besunnlthatlnen and\.imen.have sumuf- icantlychlferent scores onlflve ofthe sub-Tests ofthe Vocational Values Inventory, but do notchifer.h1their valuation of Security and Prestige. ' Will Students from Different Socio-Economic Levels Express DTFTerenf Values angeasurediEy the VOCatlonalIVaIfies Inventory Only two sub—test scores are different among the dif- ferent socio-economic levels, Money differentiated the upper class for the men, and Prestige differentiated the upper class for the women. No other Sub-test scores were significantly different for any of the other socio-economic values. 123 It may be concluded from the above, that values or sub-test scores are the same for all socio-economic levels, except for the upper class. Except for Prestige for the women, and Money for the nlen,this class also does not have significantly different scores among the sub-tests of the Vocational Values Inventory. This would tend to indicate that people going to college, despite their different economic backgrounds, have similar values. Conclusions The conclusions of this study suggest the following: 1. The Vocational Values Inventory is reliable insofar as the limitations of this study is concerned. Similar results should be obtained in a retest of the same population. 2. The majority of the 84 items of the Vocational Values Inventory are valid in that they correlate well with the criterion of the total score of each of the sub- tests. Six items can be rejected for the men as being poor, and fourteen items can be rejected for the women as being poor. The difference between the number of such items found for men and women would seem to indicate that separate tests should'medcsigned for men and women. 3. The resultscflfa concurrent valnhnflon study showed that among women, Job-Freedom, Money, Security, and Self-Realization were not good differentiators of 124 occupations selected. Only Altruism, Prestige, and Control significantly differentiated the various occupations selected by women. A possible reason for the former might be that these values are integral to the value system of most women in relation to their occupational selections. 4. Among men, Prestige, Job-Freedom, Security, and Self-Realization did not differentiate any of the selected occupations. Altruism, Money, and Control significantly differentiated some of the vocations. A possible reason for the former might be that these again could be the core values which men hold for all selected occupations. The implications of these findings are similar to the findings of Jacob (79) and Rosenberg (118), who also felt that there is a strong core of values that are relatively similar to all men in their selection of their future occupations. 5. Male and female students, within the limits of the occupational areas selected, appear to have similar values for the same occupational choice. This suggests that certain occupations, without regard to sex, require those entering them to have specific valuesikn‘optimal functioning in that occupation. 6. Ginzberg's (03) theory of "Crystallization" appears to hold for the men, but not for the women. The reality and fantasy-based occupational selections of the men are fairly congruent, but for the women they are not. This might reflect the different roles that men and women are taught to accept in society. Men are taught to be wage 125 earners and heads of families, while women are taught to be mothers and housewives. Thus, while men have to be prac- tical and realistic in selecting a vocation, women can fantasize about vocations that need not be financially remunerative. 7. Students from different socio-economic levels tend to achieve similar scores on the Vocational Values Inventory whether they are from the working, middle, or upper class. Only Money for the men and Prestige for the women help to differentiate the three socio-economic groups. The sample of each of the socio—economic groups indicates quite a disparity in size; the upper averaging 5 per cent, the middle averaging 70 per cent, and the working averaging almost 20 per cent of the total group. Thus, these findings of differences among the upper class group are open to question. Implications for Further Research The questions or items on the Vocational Values Inventory that were questionable, should be investigated in a more thorough manner. The six items that added very little to the total test reliability, should be discarded and others should be substituted if the authors wish to keep the number of items the same length as before. Among the twenty items listed as poor, only the lowest correlated ones need be modified. After modifying and changing items to fit each of the values they are supposed O\ 12. to measure, Hoyt's test should be run until there appears to be little improvement in reliability. The present reliability is adequate enough to require only a few test runs. The inadequacy of the sample size of the socio- economic group indicates a need for further study with the test on a stratified group; that is, equal samples of each of the socio-economic levels should be tested to insure more meaningful results. The indication of similar values despite different socio-economic backgrounds among the students in this study point out that more research is needed in this area. Are there values which are similar to all levels of society, or do people who aspire to entering college specifically acquire these values? If they acquire these values as a result of association with other college stu- dents, then these values may be superficially integrated into their personality functioning and they can just as easily be relinquished in favor of other values. The possibility of these students changing values, due to the influence of four years of college, would be clarified with a retest of these students upon graduation. This retesting, together with a replication of the entire study would give some indication of how stable these values are and which values are more deeply integrated into the students' personality structures. 127 The problem of value differences among the sexes is extremely important. Do women manifest different values because of basic differences in personality due to physiological differences, or are societal mores and folkways the primary stimulus for their origin? If the societal influences are predominant, then value changes among the sexes which conform to specific changes in the contemporary mores and folkways of society would be expected. If the physiological influence is stronger than the societal influence, then it is possible to assume the values of men and women will remain in the same com- parative state. This information would involve a long- range program, but would be worth the effort. Long-range vocational prediction would be possible, enabling edu- cational institutions to plan ahead. The possibility that certain vocations satisfy values which are related to that vocation should be explored by investigating the values of successful people in that vocation. Comparing these values with the values of students wanting to enter that particular vocation would enable the counselor to make fairly good predictions concerning vocational adjustment. Since it is difficult to compartmentalize personality characteristics, it is obvious that values, which are personality characteristics also, cannot be viewed out of context. Thus, in observing that individuals have 128 values and vocational aspirations, we can also see that the same individuals manifest similar patterns of behavior in their over-all personality functioning. In effect, since values and vocational aspirations are integral personality characteristics, the mental and emotional homeostasis of the individual can also be studied through the evolution of these values and the concurrence of these values with the value satisfactions inherent in the vocation itself. These values are then a projection of one's personality characteristics, and the values can be utilized in the same way as the projective tests such as the Rorschach and Thematic Apperception Test. It seems apparent that vocational choice is not just a chance occurrence, but dependent upon many factors and influences, among which are values. The recognition of the importance of values accompanied by insights into their origin, should facilitate the process of vocational choice and enable the counselor to function more adequately. The counselor then can help adults toward a greater degree of adjustment through a recognition of the forces affecting vocational choice. Not only must vocational choice and its influencing values be viewed as important elements to be met by the individual in his life's adjustment, but his natural capabilities should be utilized accordingly. The individual who can then adjust his values to his vocational choice will then not only be a consciously whole person, but a valuable and productive member of society. APPENDIX A VOCATIONAL VALUES INVENTORY 130 131 VOCATION VALUES INVENTORY Developed by Leland Johnson, Stanley Singer, Valley Psychologi- cal Consultants, Sherman Oaks, California, and Buford Stefflre. Michigan State University, E. Lansing, Mich. This inventory is given to help you answer the question, ”What Do I Really Want From a Job?" Remember, different people will have different answers to this question. There are no right answers and no wrong answers, and therefore your score will be neither good nor had, neither high nor low. However, your score, if you follow the directions preperly, should help you understand yourself better and understand the meaning that work has for you. This may help you to select an occupation which will satisfy you. In this inventory you must make a choice between each pair of items. In some cases it will be hard to make a choice between the items because you will want to choose both items or neither. But, remember, you must make a choice. Work as rapidly as you can, and do not consider any one item too long. DO NOT MARK THIS BOOKLET 1958 leYou 0 occupclh the semi occupdllI l-JF-P 2-CP 3-CS 4-JF-A S-AM 6-PM 7-M-l l—You are planning your career and must make a decision about the kind of occupation for which you will train. The occupations you are considering are the some in every respect except as noted below. In each case indicate the occupation you would choose by marking A or B on the answer sheet. ‘I-JF-P An occupation where you are free to decide how you should do your job. A An occupation where you will be looked up to because of your work. B l 2-CP An occupation where you will be a leader. A An occupation where you will be famous. B 3-CS An occupation where you will make the final decision on impor- tant iob matters. A An occupation where you are assured of a regular income. B 4-JF-A An occupation where you can work more or less on your own. A An occupation which helps others. B S-AM An occupation that helps people get along well with each other. A An occupation where you select a iob mainly on the basis of in- come. 3 6-PM An occupation where you will receive recognition because of your work. A An occupation that is highly paid. 7-M-JF An occupation where you may obtain many material possessions. A An occupation where you do not have to work under supervision. B 9:: 8-AP 9-SR-C IO-P-SR 'l l-SR-A l2-SC 'lS-SR-M I 4-S-J F 'lS-A-JF I 6-MA I 7-J F-C An occupation which contributes to the public welfare. An occupation which will allow you to become a well-known person. An occupation which makes use of your talents. An occupation where you supervise others. An occupation where you will be given publicity in newspapers and magazines. An occupation which will absorb your interests. An occupation which you find very interesting. An occupation where you make sacrifices in the interests of others. An occupation that provides steady employment. An occupation where you are responsible for seeing that others do their work. An occupation where you can make use of your special talents. An occupation where there is a chance of becoming rich. An occupation where regular employment is guaranteed. An occupation where you can control your own working con- ditions. An occupation that benefits other people. An occupation where you set your own work standards. An occupation where you can become wealthy. An occupation where you can help people with their problems. An occupation where you can decide for yourself what kind of activities you will perform. An occupation where others will follow your example. I B-MC I 9-C-SR 20-P-JF 2l-CA 22-SA 23-PS 24-SR-JF 25-CS 26-M-SR 27-J F-A 28-C-JF An occupation that has good financial rewards. An occupation where you give direction to other peOple. An occupation where you take the lead in solving iob problems. An occupation which allows you to use Your best abilities. An occupation mired. An occupation where you do things for which you will be ad- where you can come and go as you please. An occupation An occupation where you can direct others in their work. that serves humanity. An occupation An occupation munity. where your iob is secure. where you contribute to the good of the com- An occupation An occupation that gives you prestige. that insures year-round employment. An occupation An occupation working. which holds your attention. where you can determine your own method of occupation occuption where you are in charge of the work to be done. that provides a moderate but steady income. occupation occupation that pays a lot of money. which gives you Opportunities for self-expression. occupation occupation where you can be your own boss. that requires devotion to the welfare of others. occupation occupation where you tell others what to do. that does not require the help of others. 29-SR-S 30-MP 31 -M-JF An occupation where you can do creative work. An occupation where people do not lose their jobs even during depressions. An occupation where you can become wealthy. An occupation which may give you high honors. An occupation where you are highly paid. An occupation where you decide when and where you will do your work. ll—You must make a choice between two jobs which have been offered you. They are the same in every respect except as noted below. In each case indicate the iob you would choose by marking A or B on the answer sheet. 32-CM 33-A-SR 34-AC 35-PC 36-AS A job where you persuade other workers to do things in a certain way. A iob where you can achieve financial independence. A job that contributes to the welfare of people. A job where you perform activities for which you have a spe- cial preference. A job where the work is socially useful. A job where you can make decisions on how the work is to be done. A iob where you will be recognized for your accomplishments. A iob where you can reward others for doing their work well. A iob where you help others. A iob that has a good pension plan. O 131 37-SP 38-J F-SR 39-SM 40-JF-S 41-AM 42-S-SR 43-PM 44-PA 45-MC “JP-P A iob which you are sure of keeping. A iob where you are given awards in recognition of your work. A iob where you can control how hard you work. A iob in which the activities are especially satisfying. A iob where permanent employment is guaranteed. A iob where you may acquire considerable personal wealth. A iob where you decide for yourself what you do each day. A iob where there will be no ”lay offs." A iob that provides needed services to the people of the com- munity. A iob that is highly profitable. A iob which provides continuous employment. A iob where you can be enthusiastic about what you are doing. A iob where you are known for outstanding accomplishments in your field of work. A iob that is very well paid. A iob where others are favorably impressed by the work you are doing. A iob where you can help peOple who are less fortunate than yourself. A iob where you can accumulate prOperty as a result of your high earnings. A iob where you decide who is going to be promoted. A iob where people seldom tell you what to do. A iob where you can make a name for yourself. 47-SA A iob which you can keep until retirement. A A iob where you can ”do good” for others. B 4B-PS A iob where you will be admired because of the work you do. A A iob with good retirement provisions. 8 49-SC A iob where you cannot be discharged. A A iob where you supervise others. I B 50-MS A iob where you can make large profits. A iob where the nature of the work is clear for years ahead. B 51-SR—M A iob which requires your creative thinking. A A iob where you have a big share in company earnings. B 52-S-JF A iob where you work for a regular salary. A A iob where you are free to alter your work routine. 8 53-M-A A job that offers a maximum financial return. A A iob that contributes to civic betterment. B 54-SR-S A iob where you can do things for which you have a Special liking. A iob where you never have to worry about being fired. B 55-JF-M A iob where you can decide when you will start and when you will quit work. A A iob that may pay big cash bonuses. B Ill—You are working on a iob where you have been given a chance to select which of two activities you will do. These two activities are exactly the same in every way except for the differences noted below. In each case, indicate which activity you would choose by marking A or B on the answer sheet. - 131 56-SR-C 57-SR-P 5B-SR-A 59-P-JF GO-CA 61-CP 62-AS 63-SP 64-5de 65-SM An activity permitting you to express your feelings. An activity concerned with organizing and assigning the iobs to be done. An activity using your special knowledge and skill. An activity which will make you highly respected. An activity which carries out your own ideas. An activity that helps your fellow man. An activity which will make your opinion sought and valued. An activity which allows you to control your working hours. An activity involving planning work for others to do. An activity which helps other people. An .activity by which you influence the way people do their work. An activity which will make you well—known. ‘ An activity which can assist those less fortunate than you. An activity which makes your iob secure. An activity which assures you of working all year round. An activity which will make you associated with someone who is famous in your own line of work. An activity which gives you opportunity for self-expression. An activity which you perform independently. An activity which has an outlook for continued steady em- ployment. An activity which will pay you good money. 66-J F-S 67-A-JF 68-M-JF 69-AP 70-C-SR 7 I -P-SR 72-A-SR 73-1 F-C 74-S-SR 75-MP 76-PA An activity wish. An activity which permits you to take days off whenever you which protects you from lay-offs. B An activity activity which helps others solve their problems. in which there are few controls over what you do. B activity activity that offers good financial rewards. A that is noted for the independent nature of the work. B activity activity which promotes the general welfare of society. A which will make your name well-known. B An activity zation. An activity where you can manage the affairs of an organi- which uses your highly specialized talents. B An An activity activity which will make you famous. at which you are expert. activity activity that assists charitable causes. where your own personal tastes are valued. activity activity where you are the sole iudge of your work. where you are in control of a group of workers. activity activity where the work is stable from year to year. which lets you express your opinions and ideas. activity activity which will make you rich. which will give you a national reputation. activity activity which may give you high honors. where you can dedicate your life to helping others. u. ‘— ._...__ . ',\u’\.,\u,\w7 131 . use? ; I would rather be: (Mark column A if your answer is yes; ‘5! Mark column B if your answer is no.) 77-CM The boss than the one who makes the most money. yes no 7B-SR-P Talented than famous. yes no 79-AC Of service to others than be the boss. yes no BO-PC Well-known than be the boss. yes no B'l-JF-SR Free from supervision than skillful. yes no 82-MS Well-to-do than be sure of keeping my iob. yes no 83-M-SR The one who makes the most money than the one who does his work best. yes no B4-C-JF Be the leader than be independent. yes no W‘ i‘ . APPENDIX B QUESTIONNAIRE 132 l. 2. 3. h. 5. 6. 7s 8. 9. 10. Name Student Number In which of the four groups do you consider your family to be? Check one of the following: Upper Class Middle Class Working Class Lower Class How often do you find yourself taking a position of leadership in a group you are with? Check one of the following: Often Sometimes Occasionally Rarely Never How important is it to you for you to be well liked by different kinds of people? Check one of the following: Very important Fairly Important Fairly Unixnportant Very Unimportant Would you say that you are the sort of person who finds it easier or harder to make friends than most people? Check one of the following: Easier About the Same—— Harder How much does it bother you to have to give orders to other people? Check one of the following: It bothers me very much It bothers me a little It doesn't bother me at all How much does it bother you to be given orders by someone else? Check one of the following: It bothers me very much It bothers me a little It doesn't bother me at all Would you say that most people are more inclined to help others, or more inclined to look out for themselves? Check one of the follow- ing: To help others To look out for themselves When you are in a group do you prefer to make the decisions yourself, or do you prefer to have others make the decisions? Check one of the following: Usually prefer to make decisions myself Usually prefer to have others make decisions Not sure which I prefer 11. -2.- What business or profession (work or occupation) would you most like to go into? What business or profession (work or occupation) do you realistically think you are most apt to go into? With regard to your answer to humber 12, to what extent do you feel that the following values would be satisfied by that occupation? Number them in the order of how you feel they relate to the occupation you choose, using 1 to indicate the value which would be most satis- fiedbly this occupation, 2 to indicate the value which would be next most satisfied etc., usinE'7 to indicate the value least satisfied. —'Altruism honey Job Freedom. Security Self-Realization or creativeness in work Prestige Control over others If'your answer to number ll is different than 12, then to what ex- tent do you feel that the following values would be satisfied.hy that occupation? Number them.in the order of how you feel they relate to the occupation you chose, using 1 to indicate the value which would be most satisfied by this occupation, 2 to indicate the value which would be next most satisfied etc. , usih'g l to indicate the value least satisfied. Altruism tbney Job Freedom Security Self-Realization or creativeness in work Prestige Control over others .s—* .u...- N»: n K iv v wa‘ .. u .wu APPENDIX C LIST OF THE COEFFICIENTS A list of the coefficients of men, women, and total group derived at through the short-form of the Tetrachoric Correlation method. The coefficients which have the asterisk are those which do not measure the characteristic the item is supposed to measure. They are not significantly different from zero at the l per cent level of confidence. 135 Q mo.i mo.i w:.i mm.i Hm. mm. so. mimm mm mo.n ms.: «0. mo. Hm. mm. mm. halo mm ms. se.: mo. mm. mH. on. i om. UmSCHpCOOIizmz mom mHmNH ow.i oo.: oH.: mm.i mo. on. mo.i mono am so. oH. 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