THESIS llllfHHlllllllllNI’IMHWIUHHIthlHlUHlHHl 1293 10611 5854 This is to certify that the thesis entitled A Systems Approach to the Human Valuing Process: Exploration of a Theory presented by Elizabeth Ann Olson has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Doctor Ofihjlflmndeey-ee in _Eamfly_£anogy Major professor Date 44/‘r—éé 23/ /ng 0-7639 O 11‘4SU IS an Affirmative Aaron/54W" Opp 0mm”? Insflfuuon . TH,q MATEP.' - -- A'co BE USED BY MANY OTHERc -? s “mum-“- uvc' qgmcs IT, AS " * . .' I35“ ‘ .bViESI.) a' cmi.rs MATERIALS: . l -—— ~ --—-—_... N~ JL .q ' Place in book drop~to LIBRARIES remove this checkout from .A-sazxaall_ your‘record. FINES will ~—— be charged if book is returned after the date stamped*below. s, / f . ' . '1' _,.-_ - I ’ ‘9 JL'v‘ ’1‘] ,. /"7 6L— 4N ’.'(’;/ A SYSTEMS APPROACH TO THE HUMAN VALUING PROCESS: EXPLORATION OF A THEORY By Elizabeth Ann Olson A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Family and Child Ecology 1982 ABSTRACT A SYSTEMS APPROACH TO THE HUMAN VALUING PROCESS: EXPLORATION OF A THEORY By Elizabeth Ann Olson The purpose of this research was to pilot an empirical explora- tion of Ervin Laszlo's valuing process model in a systems philosophy of human values that has not, heretofore, been operationalized. This systems approach to the human valuing process embodies the linkage of environment, percept, code, and response. To operationalize the constructs of the theory, the context of adjustment by women be- tween the ages of 60 and 80 to less energy intensive lifestyles was employed, focusing on one energy conservation strategy within the environmental context of clothing. Perceptions of specific, selected clothing were compared with expectations (code) for the ideal clothing. Of critical concern was the degree of match between percept and code and its relationship to the mode of adaptive behavioral response the subject was likely to pursue. The interview design called for subjects to complete semantic differential instruments to assess percept and code; to wear a specific selected insulative garment for indoor wear for one day at reduced household temperatures; to judge personal satisfaction with the gar- ment; to complete a resources questionnaire; and to indicate a mode of adaptive behavioral response, either self-organizing or Elizabeth Ann Olson self-stabilizing. Exploratory data analysis techniques were employed. Findings provided a basis for formulating specific hypotheses for further research concerning the valuing process model. Specific hypotheses generated concerned the degree of match of percept with code; the change in degree of match with experience with the environmental object; the correlation between degree of match of percept with code and the choice of adaptive behavioral response; the correlation of degree of match of percept with code with the level of personal satisfaction; and the relationship of selected factors (education and locus of control) with the choice of adaptive behavioral response. This research was designed as part of a broader project having a two-fold purpose: to develop instruments and pilot an empirical test of a systems model of human values, and to operationalize the model in the context of adjustment to less energy intensive lifestyles. Copyright by ELIZABETH ANN OLSON 1982 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS My appreciation is expressed to Dr. Jean Schlater for her excellent guidance throughout the research process and the preparation of the manuscript. I am grateful to Dr. Beatrice Paolucci for her thorough reading of the manuscript and suggestions for improvements and clarifications, and to Dr. Margaret Bubolz for her thoughtful questions about the valuing process constructs and for her suggestions concerning resources for exploratory data analysis. I am very grateful to my family, Donald, Jeffrey and David, for the thousands of ways they have expressed their constant support and encouragement. I appreciate the many kinds of support my friends have given me, especially the enthusiasm of Margaret Hatters, the inspiration of Marsha Boratynski, and the kindness of Martha Bristor. Special gratitude is extended to the 35 women who participated in the research and to Dr. M. Suzanne Sontag, co-director of the project. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES . LIST OF FIGURES Chapter I. INTRODUCTION AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Statement of the Problem Purpose Research Objectives Research Questions Scope . Theoretical Definitions . . Operational Definitions . . ‘. Assumptions Theoretical . . Instrument and Research Design Theoretical Framework . Summary of Relevant Systems Concepts Summary of Valuing Process Concepts and Application : Summary of Theoretical Framework II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE Background . Dewey' 5 Theory of Valuation Dewey's Theory of Valuation and Laszlo's Valuing Process Model . Maslow's Theory of Value Maslow's Theory of Value and Laszlo's Valuing Process Model . Graves' Open System Theory of Values Graves' Open System Theory of Values and Laszlo's Valuing Process Model . iv Page viii ix H H . HOUSU'IOOOOWN HO—I b—IO—l w wHo—I 1—n H O-DN H 0000 cut—0 36 37 39 41 42 Chapter Values Clarification Process Values Clarification Process and Laszlo's Valuing Process Model . Laszlo's Systems Philosophy of the Valuing Process. III. PROCEDURES Clearance for Protection of Human Subjects Selection of Variables Variables Explored Control Variables Selection of Sample Volunteer Subjects Response Rate Pretest . . Selection of Instruments Description of Instruments Semantic Differential Resources Questionnaire . Second Behavioral Response Satisfaction Scale Field Procedures Day One Interview Day Two Interview Data Analysis Procedures Data Preparation . Context of Data Analysis Exploratory Data Analysis Procedures Sample Size and Data Analysis Limitations Exploratory Study Sample Procedures Page 45 Chapter IV. DATA ANALYSIS AND REPORT OF FINDINGS. Degree of Match: Percept and Code . Degree of Match: Percept Two and Code Degree of Match: Percept One and Code Degree of Match: Percept Two and Code with Percept One and Code . Degree of Match: Percept One and Percept Two Degree of Match: Choice of Adaptive Behavioral Response Choice of Adaptive Behavioral Response . Degree of Match of Percept Two and Code and Choice of Adaptive Behavioral Response Degree of Match Score Categories of Percept Two and . Code and Choice of Adaptive Behavioral Response Degree of Match Scores for Percept Two and Code, Choice of Adaptive Behavioral Response, and Type of Garment Selected . . Degree of Match: Level of Satisfaction Level of Personal Satisfaction . . Degree of Match Scores for Percept Two and Code with Level of Satisfaction Degree of Match Score Categories for Percept Two and Code with Level of Satisfaction Degree of Match Scores for Percept Two and Code, Level of Satisfaction, and Type of Garment Choice of Adaptive Behavioral Response and Selected Factors . Choice of Adaptive Behavioral Response and Age . Choice of Adaptive Behavioral Response and Education . Choice of Adaptive Behavioral Response and Money Income . Choice of Adaptive Behavioral Response and Locus of Control V. GENERATION OF HYPOTHESES Degree of Match: Percept with Code Degree of Match: Choice of Adaptive Behavioral Response . Degree of Match: Level of Satisfaction vi Page 71 71 73 8O 83 88 91 91 92 95 97 99 99 99 101 103 105 105 107 111 115 119 120 125 127 Chapter Page Choice of Adaptive Behavioral Response and Selected Factors . . . . . . . . 129 Choice of Adaptive Behavioral Response and Age . . . . . 131 Choice of Adaptive Behavioral Response and Education . . . . . . 132 Choice of Adaptive Behavioral Response and Money Income . . . . . 133 Choice of Adaptive Behavioral Response and Locus of Control . . . . . . . . 134 Some Possible Implications . . . . . . . 135 Family Management Teaching . . . . . . . 136 Family Management Theory . . . . . . . 138 Recommendations for Further Research . . . . . 140 Garments . . . . . . 140 Determination of Degree of Match . . . . . 142 Second Behavioral Response . . . . . . . 143 Additional Measurement of Code . . . . . . 144 VI. SUMMARY OF STUDY . . . . . . . . . . 146 APPENDICES Appendix A. Letter to Potential Participants . . . . . . 158 B. Interviewer Training Procedure . . . . . . . 160 C. Letter of Introduction . . . . . . . . . 162 D. Information Sheet and Response Form . . . . . . 163 E. Telephone and Interview Protocol . . . . . . 166 F. Detecting Hypothermia . . . . . . . . . 185 G. Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 LIST OF REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 vii Table 10. 11. 12. LIST OF TABLES Description of Variables Composing the Valuing Process Related Variables Central Tendency and Variability Statistics for Degree of Match Scores of Percept Two and Code Degree of Match Score Categories of Percept Two and Code by Type of Garment Selected Central Tendency and Variability Statistics for Degree of Match Scores of Percept One and Code . Central Tendency and Variability Statistics for Degree of Match Scores of Percept One and Percept Two Descriptive Statistics for Degree of Match of Percept Two and Code by Choice of Adaptive Behavioral Response Distribution of Degree of Match Score Categories for Percept Two and Code by Choice of Adaptive Behavioral Response . . Distribution of Level of Personal Satisfaction Responses. Level of Personal Satisfaction with Garment by Degree of Match Score Category for Percept Two and Code Distribution of Level of Satisfaction with Garment by Degree of Match Score Category for Percept Two and Code and Type of Garment Level of Formal Educational Attainment by Choice of Adaptive Behavioral Response viii Page 50 52 75 79 81 89 94 95 100 103 104 110 Figure comma-boom 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. LIST OF FIGURES Basic Valuing Process Basic Valuing Process of an Individual Through Time . Optimal Value State in the Valuing Process Adaptive Self-Stabilizing Response in the Valuing Process Adaptive Self-Organizing Response in the Valuing Process. Patterns of Adaptive Response in the Valuing Process Flowchart: Application of the Valuing Process Concepts Rank Order Distribution of Degree of Match Scores for Percept Two and Code Distribution of Degree of Match Scores of Percept Two and Code by Category . . . . . Degree of Match Scores of Percept Two and Code by Type of Garment Selected . Rank Order Distribution of Degree of Match Scores for Percept One and Code . . Distribution of Degree of Match Scores of Percept One and Code by Category . . . . . Comparison of Rank Order Distributions of Degree of Match Scores of Percept Two and Code with Percept One and Code . . . . . . . Relationship of Degree of Match Scores for Percept Two and Code with Percept One and Code Degree of Match Scores of Percept Two and Code and Percept One and Code by Category Rank Order Distribution of Degree of Match Scores for Percept Two and Percept One ix Page 14 16 17 20 22 25 26 75 76 78 81 82 84 86 87 B9 Figure Page 17. Rank Order Distribution of Degree of Match Scores for Percept One and Percept Two by Type of Garment Selected . . . . 90 18. Rank Order Distribution of Degree of Match Scores of Percept Two and Code by Choice of Adaptive Behavioral Response . . . . . 93 19. Rank Order Distribution of Degree of Match Score Categories for Percept Two and Code by Choice of Adaptive Behavioral Response . . . . . . 96 20. Rank Order Distribution of Choice of Adaptive Behavioral Response by Type of Garment Selected and Degree of Match Scores of Percept Two and Code . . . . 98 21. Distribution of Level of Personal Satisfaction with Selected Garment . . . . . . . . . 100 22. Degree of Match Scores for Percept Two and Code with Level of Satisfaction . . . . . . . 102 23. Rank Order Distribution of Age . . . . . . . 105 24. Rank Order Distribution of Age by Choice of Adaptive Behavioral Response . . . . . . 106 25. Distribution of Level of Formal Educational Attainment . 108 26. Distribution of Money Income . . . . . . . 113 27. Money Income by Choice of Adaptive Behavioral Response . 114 28. Distribution of Internal Versus External Control Scale Scores . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 29. Distribution of Internal Versus External Control Scale Scores by Choice of Adaptive Behavioral Response . . 118 30. Relationship of Selected Factors to the Valuing Process . 130 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK What is the valuing process? How are choices in human behavior made? What is the context in which values become manifest in everyday life? These questions have been addressed by very few theorists, but have critical meaning for value theory in contemporary phil050phic, sci- entific, and social-scientific thought. It is generally recognized that human values play an important role in human behavior and underlie decision choice and action, impor- tantly affecting the welfare of individuals and society. In view of this, society may benefit from a more comprehensive investigation and understanding of the valuing process as decision making occurs. It is the "basic valuing process that guides choice making and through the de- cisions made, and actions taken, shapes the future of humanity" (Paolucci, Hall, & Axinn, 1977:22). In addition, the present extensive and rapid social, economic, scientific, and human value changes have resulted in a contemporary sit- uation in which traditional rules and customary patterns of behavior do not always apply. This situation requires a rethinking of value problems and solutions, and a rethinking of the process by which values become manifest in everyday life. There is a need for deveIOpment of fresh approaches to conceptualizing the valuing process, and a need for a new, potentially more fruitful, body of concepts through which to view the valuing process. 2 Statement of the Problem Laszlo (1969, 1972, 1973) has proposed a systems philosophy of human values as having potential for being such a conceptual framework. In this framework, employing the concepts and theories of systems research, the process of valuing is the focus, concentrating on the context in which values become manifest. A systems model of human yalug§_is not without precedent. For example, Miller (1965, 1978) identified the determination of values in subject-environment interaction; and Pepper (1958) proposed that the locus of value is found in certain activities of the organism in rela- tion to its environment. Laszlo, however, offers the most complete derivation of the valuing process in a systems context, one which appears to be logically consistent and capable of being Operationalized. The valuing process in the systems model has not, before now, been operation- alized. Of theoretical approaches to the valuing process, this perspec- tive offers a greater potential for understanding the environmental and human influences on judgment and action. Such a model appears to have potential to clarify the adaptive capabilities of individuals and families in a variety of social and ecological contexts. This should eventually have practical significance in determining the importance of character- istics of the environment and of the human being in achieving optimal value states as well as of the dynamics of the valuing process over time. The problem investigated in this research is exploratory in na- ture: to pilot an empirical exploration of Laszlo's valuing process model. Exploratory research attempts to develop an initial, preliminary understanding of a phenomenon, and plays a valuable role in social sci- entific research. As basic research, it provides the foundation in the research process upon which description and explanation of phenomenon are 3 built. This exploration of Laszlo's human valuing process model finds its meaning in contributing to a basic understanding of the valuing pro- cess theory, leading eventually to a test of the theory. Purpose The overall purpose of this research was to pilot an empirical in- vestigation of Laszlo's valuing process model. This systems approach to the human valuing process embodies the linkage of environment, percept, ggdg, and response. Human values direct decision and action and are form- ed and modified by human interaction with the environment. To operation- alize the constructs of the theory, the context of adjustment by older women to less energy intensive lifestyles was employed, focusing on one energy conservation strategy within the environmental context of clothing. Perceptions of specific, selected clothing, measured upon initial viewing of the garment (percept one) and after the subject had worn the garment (percept two), were compared with expectations (code) for the ideal cloth- ing. Of critical concern was the degree of match of percept two with code and its relationship to the mode of adaptive behavioral response the subject was likely to pursue. Research Objectives Specific objectives of the research were as follows. 1. To explore the degree of match between the percept and code measurements. 2. To explore the correspondence between degree of match of per- cept two and code and the choice of adaptive behavioral response. 3. To explore the correspondence between the level of personal satisfaction with a selected garment and the degree of match between percept two and code. 4 4. To explore the correspondence between selected factors and the individual's choice of adaptive behavioral response. 5. To generate hypotheses concerning the valuing process and se- lected related variables. Research Questions Research questions were as follows. Questions for Objective 1 1. What is the degree of match between percept measurement two and code? 2. What is the degree of match between percept measurement one and code? 3. In the valuing process, is there a difference between the degree of match of percept two and code and the degree of match of per- cept one and code? 4. What is the degree of match between percept one and percept two? Question for Objective 2 1. Is there a correspondence between the degree of match of percept two and code and the choice of adaptive behavioral response? Question for Objective 3 1. Is there a correspondence between the level of personal satis- faction with a selected garment and the degree of match between percept two and code? Questions for Objecive 4 1. Is there a correspondence between the age of the individual and the choice of adaptive behavioral response? 5 2. Is there a correspondence between the individual's level of formal educational attainment and the choice of adaptive behavioral re- sponse? 3. Is there a correspondence between money income of an individu- al and the choice of adaptive behavioral response? 4. Is there a correspondence between an individual's locus of con- trol and the choice of adaptive behavioral response? Question for Objective 5 1. What specific hypotheses can be generated concerning the valu- ing process variables and selected related variables? Scope This study examined the valuing process in a systems philosophy of human values. Its exploratory nature bounded the investigation of the valuing process to an individual and one component of his or her environ- ment. As more knowledge emerges in this area more complex units, such as fpmjly;environment interaction in the valuing process, could be in- vestigated. For example, Laszlo (1973:259) states that optimum adapta- tion of the individual to his or her environment may include sets of sys- temic relations, such as family or society. The investigation of individual- and family-environment interaction in the valuing process appears to be particularly appropriate to the field of family ecology. The conceptual framework of family ecology views families from a systems perspective, focusing on the family and its environments. This exploration of a systems philosophy of the human valuing process provides a foundation for a test of the theory and eventually for more complex research relating the valuing process to fam- ily-environment interaction. 6 Theoretical Definitions The following theoretical definitions of concepts were relevant to this study. Valuing process A complex loop of perceptions, interpretations, memory storage and retrieval, and responsive action (Laszlo, 1973:252). Environment The realm of physical events, signalled by perceptions and acted upon through volitions. Perceptions and volitions constitute the cog- nitive system's means of communication with the environment (input and output) (Laszlo, 1972:120). mt An impression of an object obtained by use of the senses (Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary, 1977 ed., s.v. "percept"). Cpgg_ Corresponds to the cognitive system or construct set of a person (one's values, attitudes, beliefs, knowledge, interests). It is a con- trol (C) between input (P) and output (R): P-+C-*R (Laszlo, 1969:2). Response The output or behavioral action (Laszlo, 1969:14). Feedback Circularity of action between the parts of a dynamic system (Ashby, 1956:53). Negative feedback Each variable in a system is having an effect on the other vari- ables such that the situation tends toward an equilibriun1( Kuhn, 1975:22). 7 "Negative" does not necessarily mean "bad” or ”minus," but merely that two things are related in such a way that a change in one induces an opposite or "corrective" change in the other (Kuhn, 1975 22). Positive feedback Each variable in the system is having a positive effect on the other variable(s) (Ashby, 1956:81). "Positive" does not mean either "good" or more-than-zero, but merely that the action set off by a change is not opposite and "correc- tive," but is in the same direction and aggravating(Kuhn, 1975:23). Adaptive self-stabilizing behavioral resppnse Output responses that order the environment.so that it becomes more conforming to the existing code. Through a process of negative feedback, the individual's internal code remains preserved or stabiliz- ed (Laszlo, 1969:4). Adaptive self-organizing behavioral response Adjustments in codes as a result of changes in the environment. Through a process of positive feedback, the individual locates new codes (Laszlo, 1969:5). Value state A state of the system in which its percepts match its constructs. Ifan individual knows his or her own norms and reflects on the degree to which they are approximated in his or her actual situation, the person correctly identifies those of his or her states as the most valued ("good") in which his or her actual perceptual experience is optimally matched by his or her construct sets. The match is a state brought about by the system through self-stabilizing and self-organizing activi- ties representing an adaptation to the factors of change governing con- ditions in the environment. The states with which value correlates for 8 cognitive systems range over a spectrum extending from minimal to opti- mal value (Laszlo, 1972:264). Optimal value state. Conditions or states in which the system can successfully predict and compensate for most of the relevant environ- mental variables. Such an organization maps conditions in the environ- ment with the highest degree of precision attainable by the level of development of the individual. Such systems are optimally adapted to their environment (Laszlo, 1972:264-5). Less value state. States in which experience is not fully matched by cognitive constructs (code) but is within the threshold of adaptabil- ity of the system; for example, when the perception of an unfamiliar ob- ject or event calls for learning by the system (Laszlo, 1972:265). Negative value state. States of the cognitive system wherein a person is unable to meet the challenge of the environment: the experi- ence remains anomalous-~chaotic and unintelligible (Laszlo, 1972:265). Cognitive system A system constituted by mind-events, including perceptions, sen- sations, feelings, volitions, dispositions, thoughts, memories and im- agination. Anything "present in the mind" (Laszlo, 1972:120). Personal satisfaction An indicator of states of value (Laszlo, 1969:95). The realiza- tion of the intrinsic "subjective aim" of each individual (Whitehead, 1929:29). 9 Operational Definitions The following indicators were guides for this study. Valuing process A complex loop of the individual's perception of the insulative clothing alternative, code for the ideal insulative garment, and choice of behavioral response. Environment A group of clothing alternatives comprised of insulative cloth- ing for indoor wear. Insulative clothing for indoor wear Garments employed in this research. For women, the alternatives were tights, midlength brief and undershirt, and thermal pant and shirt. Percept Refers to the perception subjects form of the clothing alterna- tives; for example, their warmth, attractiveness, potential comfort, social acceptability. Cpgg_ An internal construct set of characteristics that insulative clothing for indoor wear ought to have, that is, one's normative expec- tations for the clothing. Response One The subject's choice of one clothing alternative to wear for one day. Response Two The choice of adaptive behavioral response. 10 Adaptive self—stabilizing behavioral response After wearing the insulative clothing for one day, the subject predicted for herself a willingness to continue to wear the garment. The subject predicted she would maintain her environment, thus choosing an adaptive self-stabilizing behavioral response. Adaptive self-organizing behavioral response After wearing the insulative clothing for one day, the subject predicted for herself an unwillingness to continue to wear the garment, thus changing her current environment and choosing an adaptive self- organizing behavioral response. Value state Indicated by the degree of match between the individual's perception of a clothing alternative and her code or expectations for the clothing. Personal satisfaction The subject's evaluation, based on personal judgment, of the chosen garment at the conclusion of the test day. Day One The day of the first interview with the subject, immediately preceding the test day (Day Two). Day Two The tg§p_day during which the subject wore the chosen apparel. The second interview was conducted during the evening of this day. Older women Females between 60 and 80 years of age. 11 Assumptions Assumptions of the study were as follows. Theoretical 1. Adaptive behavior of the individual is a given. The mode of adaptive behavior can be either self-organization or self-stabilization. 2. Feedback will lead to adaptive self-stabilizing or adaptive self-organizing behavior. 3. After wearing the insulative garment each person possesses an internal code of characteristics that insulative clothing for indoor wear ought to have, that is, a construct set of normative expectations for this type of clothing. Instrument and Research Design 4. Laszlo's systems philosophy of human values can be operation- alized in the context of adjustment to less energy intensive lifestyles. 5. A one day test wearing of the alternative garment is adequate for exploratory measurement purposes. 6. "Ideal" has the same meaning as "ought." On the semantic differential instrument for code, the concept "Ideal Insulative Clothing for Indoor Wear" is also identified as "What I think it ought to be." Theoretical Framework The theoretical framework employed in this study to explore the valuing process was Laszlo's (1969, 1972, 1973) systems philosophy of human values, built on the explicit methodological and conceptual foundation of a general theory of systems. The focus of research was an exploration of the valuing process viewed through the adjustments that individuals make to a less energy intensive society and to changing standards of living through modifications of the clothing environment. 12 Summary of Relevant Systems Concepts Systems Perspective Fundamental to the theoretical framework is the concept of "system." One of the most frequently cited definitions of "system" is that of Hall and Fagan (1956:18): "A system is a set of objects together with relationships between the objects and their attributes." In this framework, a systems perspective is one of viewing organisms and environments in interaction. The focus is on the relationships and interactions among the "set of objects"; that is, on how organisms af- fect environments they act upon and how environments affect organisms. Thus, a systems perspective offers a holistic approach to the study of the valuing process. Information-flow Model and the Valuing Process Laszlo employs a basic information-flow model (a systems model) to view the valuing process. In this perspective, it is assumed that each person is a feedback oriented cognitive system that extracts in- formation from the environment. A "cognitive system" is an open system of mind events (an individual) adapting to its environment by bringing about a match between its sets of value constructs and its perceptual input. The relationship of the information-flow model to the valuing process is described as follows. On the basic biological level the amounts of information extracted from the environment are necessary for survival. On higher levels the information extracted from the environ- ment is in the form of invariances or constants discovered from experi- ence and goes into the construction of effective environments, by means 13 of which the person orients himself or herself to his or her surround- ings. The cultured person is information-directed on multiple levels, and requires constants in his or her experience in many respects, in- cluding the normalcy of his or her bodily state, the intelligibility of his or her perceptions, the rationality, the aesthetic harmony, and meaning of the world that surrounds him or her. The discovery of these constants, and thereby the attainment of the corresponding information, is the goal of the feedback oriented transacting system (the person) which defines the vital activities of the human being. When a person obtains these goals, his or her direc- tedness is fulfilled. It follows then, according to Laszlo, that the discovery of constant orders connotes value for the person. Adaptation It is assumed that every system is guided by adaptation. Each person is assumed to be a goal-oriented system, actively striving for successful adaptation to the environment and always in pursuit of "the good." "The good" is that which promotes the continued survival of human beings at various levels of biological, social, and cultural organ- ization. "Adaptation" is "the good" in this meta-ethical context whereas "adaptation" may have different connotations in other disciplinary views. A goal-directed system is one that can respond differently to one or more different external or internal states or conditions and that can respond differently to a particular event in an unchanging environment until it produces a particular state or outcome (Ackoff, 1971:665). Production of this state or outcome is the goal; thus, each system has a choice of behavior. The process is one of deciding, act- ing, and reacting. 14 Summary of Valuing Process Concepts and Application Basic Valuing Process The simplest possible valuipg process is composed of four basic elements and their interactions. Information from E, the environment, is selectively perceived by P, percept, a filter acting as an input which admits some information and excludes other information. Percept or input, P) and output or behavioral response, 3, are mediated by the coding in 95 that is, the system's output depends not merely on the filtered information from §_transmitted by P, but also on the relevance of that information to 9, its construct set of values. Input and out- put are joined by the coding in C, with the result that R_occurs as a specifically coordinated response of the relevance of P_to 9, From 5, the process returns to E, and thus back again through the other elements of the valuing process system, as illustrated in Figure 1. ENVIRONMENT / \ \ / IEHAVIORAL PERCEIVING P nesrouolue (vuluu constructs) (ulut ought to Iu) Figure 1. Basic valuing process SOURCE: Adapted by the researcher from E. Laszlo. System, Structure, and Experience. New York: Gordon & Breach, 1969:5. 15 The basic flow between the individual (the cognitive system) and the environment proceeds in a continuous circuit, providing an ongoing flow of information among the four components: E, E, E, B, The simple two-dimensional figures presented to illustrate the basic concepts do not represent the temporal aspect of the valuing process, as it occurs over time. Figure 2 suggests the temporal extension of the basic valuing process flow. In this study, environment consisted of a group of insulative clothing alternatives for indoor wear, which were worn in households with interior temperatures reduced 5°F below the usual temperatures, but not lower than 65°F. Subjects, when shown the clothing alterna- tives, formed perceptions of them (for example, their attractiveness, potential comfort, warmth). Each person responded by making a choice of one clothing alternative to wear for one day, based on the relation- ship between the individual's perceptions and expectations of the garment. Value States As adaptive systems, cognitive systems (individuals) have an intrinsic norm: adaptation to their environment. The state of the environment is determined through percepts, and thus, a state of the system in which its percepts match its construct sets or codes is a value state. If a person, as a cognitive system, knows his or her own norms and compares the extent to which they are met in the context of a system-environment interaction, the person correctly identifies those of his or her states as the most valued ("good") in which his or 16 \\\\§§\\\\ \\\\\\\\\\ Input: Input: Input: 'purcoptlons' purcuptlons' ‘potcoptlonr' output: output: output: ‘bonavtoral rosponsu' ‘hohuvloral rosponso' rusponro' CODING (vuluu constructs) (III! III“ to II) —’ T l I E Figure 2. Basic valuing process of an individual through time SOURCE: Adapted by the researcher from E. Laszlo. Introduction to systems Philosophy. New York: Gordon & Breach, 1972:121. 17 her actual perceptual experience is optimally matched by his or her construct sets (1972:264). In this study, the person identified the "good" as the clothing alternative in which the actual perceptual exper- ience optimally matched her internal codes. This eventuality is represented in Figure 3. Figure 3. Optimal value state in the valuing process: information perceived from the system-environment interaction "matches" the internal codes of the individual SOURCE: Adapted by the researcher from E. Laszlo. System, Structure, and Experience. New York: Gordon & Breach, 1969:4. 18 The double-shafted arrow signifies that E_matches E, Since this is a goal-directed system, occurrence of this matched flow is not merely a matter of chance or coincidence. The match is, rather, a state brought about by the system through self-stabilizing and self-organizing activities representing an adaptation to the factors of change governing conditions in the environment. Thus such a match considers the future: "it is the outcome of predictive-extrapolative adaptation to the limits of the system's capacities" (1972:274). The match is never one that is perfect, but always an optimum one, "one that is as permanent and perfect as the system can make it" (1972:264). In regard to the value state, Laszlo suggests that the degree of match between percept and code ranges over a spectrum extending from minimal to optimal. Optimal value states exist when systems (persons) can successful- ly predict and compensate for most of the relevant environmental vari- ables. These systems are optimally adapted to their environments, and their states of adaptation signify their states of value. States of less value exist where experience is not fully matched by value constructs ”but is within the threshold of adaptability of the system" (1972:265). An example is when perception of an unfamiliar object or event requires learning by the system. Negative value states refer to those states of the cognitive system wherein the individual is unable to meet the challenge of the environment: "the experience remains anomalous--chaotic and unintelli- gible" (1972:265). In this study, the degree of match between the individual's perception of the insulative garment for indoor wear chosen to wear on 19 the test day and her normative expectations for that type of garment were explored. Degree of match is discussed in detail in Chapter IV. The state in which percept and code optimally match is also one of satisfaction for the individual. Laszlo suggests that "value" and "personal satisfaction" are identical in the sense that "satisfaction" is the realization of the intrinsic "subjective aim" of each person (1972:267; 1969:95). In this research, the degree of the subject's personal satisfaction with the insulative clothing chosen to wear was assessed. The individual can increase the probability of an optimal match between percept and code (value constructs) by responding in self- stabilizing or self-organizing adaptive modes. The theory states that adaptation can occur by means of one (or both) of two systems processes. Adaptation is a dynamic activity through which the system (1) fits it- self to the environment (self-organizing adaptive response) and (2) fits the environment to its expectations (self-stabilizing adaptive response). Adaptive Self-stabilization In adaptive self-stabilization, the system fits the environment to its expectations. It tends toward a "steady state," that is, homeo— stasis. The system is self—regulated and manipulates its environment to stabilize itself in a steady state. The output of the system is chosen so as to minimize the deviation of the input from the system's value constructs or code. These are deviation-reducing negative feed- back processes governed by codes and having as their goal a specific match between percept and code. In other words, adaptive self-stabiliz- ing responses are output responses, 3, that order the environment so 20 that it becomes more conforming to the existing code when perceived by E, Through a process of negative feedback, the internal code remains preserved. An optimal value state is achieved by changing and manipu- lating the environment, as illustrated in Figure 4. Figure 4. Adaptive self-stabilizing response in the valuing process: the individual manipulates and orders the environment to increase the probability of a match between E_and E_ SOURCE: Adapted by the researcher from E. Laszlo. System, Structure, and Experience. New York: Gordon & Breach, 1969:4. In this exploratory study, if after wearing the insulative garment for a day, the subject predicted that she would be willing to continue to wear the garment, then she was assumed to have predicted a self-stabilizing adaptive behavioral response for herself. This is one form of adaptive behavioral response in systems. The second form is that of adaptive self-organization. 21 Adaptive Self-organization In adaptive self-organization the system fits itself to the environment: it reorganizes its value constructs or code and acquires new parameters in its steady states when subjected to the action of a physical constant in its environment. The processes of reorganizing the code are pgsitive feedback deviation-amplification processes acti- vated in response to a need for adaptation to conditions in the environ- ment. Positive feedback explorations locate new codes. A new system appears to emerge, one that is synthesized from one or more older systems. Once the new system has emerged, the negative feedback system stabilizes its flow (adaptive self-stabilization) until further changes in the environment, E, produce a less than optimal match of E_and E, calling for renewed adaptive self-organization. A given code perpetuates itself through the response only if it is matched by the input. Otherwise it is replaced by alternate codes which, through E_and E, affect the input. If any code produces a response which results in a matching input, it is perpetuated. (1969:5) The self-organizing adaptive activity of the system is represented in Figure 5. In this exploratory research, if after wearing the insulative clothing for a day, the subject predicted she would be unwilling to continue to wear the insulative garment, then it was assumed that she made a self-organizing adaptive behavioral response. If E_is subject to ppppgg, a code which functioned adequately at one time may no longer do so at another time. The theory states that the match between percept and code is a state that represents an adap- tation to the factors of change governing conditions in the environment 22 “MISMATCW ED FLOW' CONTROLLED IY c1 A 1 ' MATCNED FLOW ' CONTROLLED BY 02 ——_—_* :::: EXPLORATORY 2 SELF-ORGANIZATION Figure 5. Adaptive self-organizing response in the valuing process: the individual, upon perceiving a mismatch, or less than optimal match, between its code (C1) and its perception of the environment, P, changes its code through positive feedback to C2 in order to achieve a match. The code is then stabilized through negative feedback until the environment changes substantially SOURCE: Adapted by the researcher from E. Laszlo. System, Structure, and Experience. New York: Gordon & Breach, 1969:5. 23 and thus allows consideration of the future. There is a predictive component in the adaptation process: it is the outcome of the individu- al's "predictive-extrapolative adaptation" capacities. In this study, at the conclusion of the test day, subjects were asked whether or not they would be willing in the future to continue wearing the chosen garment (the second behavioral response). An opportunity was presented to subjects to consider a further modification in environment (a different adaptive state) ("Would you like to return to your normal clothing?" Form P: Item 4g). The subject's "predictive" perception of a change or modification in environment was called forth, and an indication was given by the subject as to whether or not, based on the particular modification suggested in the environment, she might consider a different adaptive state. A self-organizing adaptive response indicated that the subject predicted she would consider the different adaptive state. A self-stabilizing adaptive response indicated the subject predicted she would prefer to maintain her current state and to continue to wear the garment as on the test day. Patterns of Adaptive Regponse Once a self-organizing adaptive response has emerged, it is stabilized by the negative feedback system until further changes in the environment produce a less than optimal match between percept and code, calling for renewed adaptive self-organization. Self-organization leads to a higher level of adaptation, which in turn leads to a higher level as the system stabilizes. Adaptive self-organization and self-stabilization continue in this cyclical pattern as illustrated in Figure 6. Adaptation is the optimal value state in which the individual becomes, through normative interaction 24 with the milieu, a fulfilled biological, psychological, and socio- cultural being. Level of adaptation refers to the degree of "fit" between the human being and his or her environment. Level of adaptation "correlates with value and value is always relative to the context of the system-environment interaction" (1973:256). Patterns of adaptive response through time reflect the individual's responses toward achievement of optimal value states. Indications of possible patterns of adaptive response of subjects participating in this research are suggested in Figure 7, a flowchart illustrating an overview of an application of the valuing process model. Overview of the Application of the Valuing Process Model An application of the valuing process concepts introduced in the theoretical framework is presented in Figure 7. A flowchart illustrates a possible continuous chain of events that may have occurred when the subject acted on a modification to her environment, adapting it to her purposes, having gone through phases of sensing, interpreting, and responding. This application represents one interpretation of the valuing process model in this research context. It is possible that alternative views may result in different classifications of response. The explora- tory nature of this study, attempting to provide a preliminary under- standing of the concepts, allowed the assumption of indications of certain modes of adaptive behavioral response that were not actually measured to explicate the continuous chain of events in this model. The assumptions were intended to suggest indications of adaptive response. For example, after being approached concerning participation in the study, the subject made a decision or reponse of whether or not 25 Adaptauou: lullHlol Ilo-—oultural social holng Lovol of adaptation . ,solt—stablllzatlon ...... :olt-—organlzatlon ...... solt-—stablllzatton , , , , Figure 6. Patterns of adaptive response in the valuing process SOURCE: Adapted by the researcher from E. Laszlo. Introduction to Systems EhilOSOphy. New York: Gordon & Breach, 1972:93. ASKED TO PARTICIPATE AGREES TO ARTICIPATE? YES SELF- ORGANIZING ADAPTIVE RESPONSE SELECT GARMENT To WEAR (E) Figure 7. EAR GARMENT SE - STABILIZIN ADAPTIVE RESPONSE PERCE TION ' OF THE SYSTEM ENTRY LIFESTYLE 26 DIFFERENT SYSTEM EMERGES 1 N0 SELF- VORGANIZING ADAPTIVE RESPONSE fl SELF- O decision 0 input/ output [:3 process X merge RESPONSE HE HORMATIVE EXPECTATION FOR THE GARMENT (C) SELF- STABILIZIN ADAPTIVE RESPONSE ILLING TO CONTINUE WEARING ARMENT? ADAPTIVE RESPONSE ILLING TO CONTINUE WEARING ARMENT? MEDIUM DEGREE 0F MATCH (P/C) CONTINUE WEARING Flowchart: application of the valuing process concepts 27 to participate. If the subject chose not to participate, this response could have resulted fromaanumber of reasons, such as health. However, it could be assumed that she made a self-stabilizing adaptive response, choosing to maintain environment and code as they were when an opportun- ity for modification of her environment was presented. It could have been assumed that she predicted a more optimal match between percept and code by not considering a modification in environment. (The reader is referred to page 23 for the theoretical explanation of this predictive component.) If the subject agreed to participate, it was assumed that she made a self-organizing adaptive response, indicating a willingness to consider altering her code when an opportunity for modification of her environment was presented; her code may encompass this modification. The subject selected one of three types of insulative garments for indoor wear (E) to wear on the test day,-thus putting into effect the suggested modification of the input or environment. This was assumed to be a self-stabilizing mode of adaptive response, maintaining the willingness of the subject to consider the modification in environ— ment and the likelihood of a more optimal match. On the test day, by wearing the garment selected, the subject was assumed to have continued in the self-stabilzing mode, further bringing the subject into a relationship with the environmental modification. During the interview on the test day, the subject's perception (E) of the selected garment was measured. This was followed by a measurement of her normative expectations (E) for such garments. A degree of match was indicated from the measurements for the relationship between percept and code. 28 A high degree of match suggested an optimal value state; medium match suggested a less-value state; and low match suggested a low value state. "Mismatches" or pp_matches between percept and code do not appear on this flowchart. According to the theory, the experience in a low match situation, though not "fully matched," may be, however, within the threshold of adaptability of the system. For each of the three categories of degree of match explored, the subject was asked if she would be willing to continue to wear the insulative clothing, or if not, one alternative environment (the cloth- ing formerly worn) was suggested and she was asked if she would prefer that environment. In other words, the subject was asked to predict for herself whether a more optimal match of percept with code would be likely if she maintained her current environment, or if another modification in environment would be more likely to produce an optimal match between percept and code. This response, indicating a change in environment, would lead to the emergence of a system different from the test day system. (The reader is referred to page 21 for the theoretical construct.) The subject's answer to the question indicated the choice of adaptive behavioral response that the subject predicted for herself. A "yes" answer was considered to be the subject's prediction of self-stabilizing adaptive behavior. The subject predicted a willing- ness to continue wearing the garment. Adaptive responses were couched in predictive and indicative terms: adaptation was not measured. If the subject did continue to wear the garment, it is assumed that through negative feedback processes, the subject would eventually stabilize code and environment (resulting in adaptation) until further changes in E_produced a less optimal match of E_and E, calling for renewed adaptive self-organization. 29 A "no" response at the lpy_or pggjpp_degrees of match was considered predictive of a self-organizing adaptive response. A self- organizing reponse would initiate the emergence of a system that is different from the test day system. A "different" system may, in fact, consist of the same environmental components as before the test day, however, information processing and experience of the subject in the course of the test day result in a system that cannot be identical to the system that prevailed before the experimental test conditions were imposed (Figure 6). In the "new" system, if an optimal match between percept and code were accomplished, through positive feedback processes, it is assumed self-stabilizing adaptive responses would follow. A "no" response at the pigp_or optimal degree of match suggested a different meaning. The theory states that optimal match between percept and code signals the attainment of an optimal value state and an optimal degree of match between percept and code. This would be indicative of a self-stabilizing response. A "no" response would sug- gest a less than optimal match between percept and code: prediction of a self-organizing adaptive response here may suggest that the theory is questionable. A self-stabilizing response, the subject's prediction of a will- ingness to continue to wear the insulative garment, would work to main- tain the continuous circuit among E, E, E, 5; illustrated in the flow- chart. A self-organizing response in which the subject predicted an unwillingness to continue wearing the garment may result in a new, adaptive state. 30 Again, it is noted that this interpretation of choice of adaptive behavioral response is set in the context of an exploratory study and is an attempt to provide a preliminary understanding of a very complex process. As the valuing process model is studied further, and as the constructs are more precisely and definitively measured, other inter- pretations concerning choice of adaptive behavioral response are likely. Summary of Theoretical Framework Laszlo has mapped a basic conceptual framework for the valuing process based on a general theory of systems. The model describes the valuing process as a complex loop of environment, percept, code, and response guided by adaptation. Modification of any of the terms in the loop may result in a chain reaction modifying other terms. Response takes two forms: adaptive self-stabilizing response or adaptive self- organizing response. Of all theoretical approaches to the study of the valuing process, this perspective shows promise for understanding the environmental and human influences on judgment, choice and action. CHAPTER 11 REVIEW OF LITERATURE Review of literature focused on literature of theoretical rele- vance to the valuingpprocess. Few theorists have conceptualized the valuing process, and none, before Laszlo, has developed a systems model that appears to be capable of being operationalized. Following discus- sion of background, the work of Dewey, Maslow, Graves, Raths and Laszlo is reviewed. Background Work in value theory has focused almost exclusively on yplpgg viewed as the structure and content of particular value judgments (for example: Rokeach, 1973; Morris, 1956; Kohlberg, 1969, 1975; Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck, 1961; Rescher, 1969; and Williams, 1967). Values, how- ever, do not exist independently, but in a context. As important as structure and content appear to be, approaches need to be considered that more accurately reflect the context of human valuing, that is, the process of person-environment interaction. There is little evidence concerning the way values are related to human behavior and action. This study explored a systems approach to the valuing process developed by Laszlo (1969, 1972, 1973) that offers potential for a more complete perspective on the realities of human valuing. Laszlo's approach is unique: there is no other similar approach to the valuing process. 31 32 A systems model of human yplpgg, however, is not without prece- dent. Miller (1965, 1974) identified the determination of value in subject-environment interaction, mapping out some of the basic concepts of a systems philosophy of value. Miller, a biologist, described organisms as Open systems in steady states and defined the range of stability of the systems as: ...that range within which the rate of corrections of deviations is minimal or zero, and beyond which correction does occur. An in- put or output of either matter-energy or information which, by lack of excess or some characteristic, forces the variable beyond the range of stability, constitutes stress and produces a strain (or strains) within the system. (19787347—_' ‘77—"_— Strains may or may not be capable of being reduced, depending on the adjustment resources of the system. The existing strains are called "values," and the relative urgency of reducing each of these specific strains represents its "hierarchy of values." Miller focuses on values in the descriptive, rather than normative, sense, and not on the valuing process per se. Pepper's (1958, 1970) value theory made the decisive step to a systems theory of values. Pepper proposed that patterns of tension within a selective system give rise to norms formed on the basis of conditions of satisfaction. A "selective system," according to Pepper, is similar to Laszlo's "feedback circuit." The major thrust of Pepper's work appears to be the development of a purposive theory of yplpg_ based on the proposition of an essential similarity in the nature and formation of values in human beings and in other biological species. He identified values with any "purposive behavior," which he defined as "docile adaptive behavior," thus embedding values within the life process wherever it occurs in the natural world. However, he has not shown human action to be governed by sets of normative elements that are 33 distinguishable within the motivational patterns of human behavior from the satisfaction of physiological drives. To summarize, Miller and Pepper have found the locus of values in certain activities of the organism in relation to its environment, and have established a context for a valuing process model. Laszlo's theory agrees in locating the sources of value in nature and in analyz- ing it through systems concepts. Laszlo, however, has refined the basic concepts and proposed a more complete theory, a valuing process model, that appears to be capable of being operationalized. Dewey, Maslow, Graves, and Raths also agree in finding the locus of value in certain subject-environment interactions, and they have developed theories concerning value and process. Review and discussion of their work follows. Dewey's Theory of Valuation Dewey's theory of valuation is based on the assumption that all human activity occurs within a biological matrix which includes the cultural and social. This matrix is comprised of (1) the organism, the environment, and relations between them; (2) continuity of life forms; (3) activity; (4) habit; and (5) emergence or change. The on- going activity of the organism interacting with its environment assures the continuation of life processes (1916:2). Values emerge out of the conditions of human activity. Valuation, the focus of Dewey's theory, is an effort to reduce a problematic situation to a state in which activity can proceed. This is accomplished, according to Dewey, by means of the process of inquiry. The process of observing and collecting facts from which hypotheses are formed, and subjecting them to empirical verification constitutes 34 the "process of inquiry." Dewey perceived the context of valuation as human needs, basic conflicts of societal adjustment. Dewey believed that many of the difficulties regarding value and the valuing process stem from failure or refusal to acknowledge that valuation will submit to the method of inquiry. According to Dewey: Whenever there is valuation there is a factor of inquiry, for the end-in-view is formed and projected as that which if acted upon, will supply the existing need or lack and resolve the existing conflict. (1939:34) Valuation, therefore, is accomplished by means of the process of inquiry, and the conditions are those required for inquiry into any human activity. There are no a priori, absolutes, and universals. "The only ultimate value which can be set up is just the process of living itself" (1916:240). Valuation is separated from the purely sub- jective; values are situational. Valuational propositions are the bases for judgments and require a statement of the end-in-view. "End-in-view" refers to a distinction Dewey made between the use of the term "value" concerning means ("appraising," in the sense of assigning a value to something), as distinguished from "value" concerning ends ("prizing," in the sense of holding dear) (1939:5). While prizing deals with ends, there is no final end, but rather "ends-in-view," that is, proximate ends which arise as ways of organizing and directing persons in their transactional relationship with their environment. The focus of Dewey's theory of valuation is valuation rather than the nature of values. A basic premise of his theory is that "Doubtful values exist which are determined to existence through judg- ment and only through judgment" (1966:273). Values are viewed as tools or instruments for making judgments of worth, and therefore, have meaning only as examined in particular, concrete situations (1966:228). 35 Three kinds of judgment are distinguished within the inquiry process: judgments of practice, judgments of fact, and judgments of value. All three are relative to a problematic situation which is the impetus for initiating the inquiry process and involves activity. All judgments that involve valuation demand a concrete, specific context or situation (1938:66). Dewey stated that there are propositions about valuations, the aim of which is to break up the judgments of choice, or act to be performed, into a number of acts as specific as possible, so that flexible reappraisal can be performed with a minimum of waste. No "ideal" is ever realized offhand or wholesale. "Ideal" is embodied through acts in such ways that its meaning becomes clearer, and there is the possibility of a further intelligent act (1966:282). An intelli- gent act is behavior which is guided by inquiry (1938:34). The basic question the theory of valuation appears to be addres- sing is: What are the conditions that have to be met so that knowledge of past and existing valuations becomes an instrumentality of valua— tion in formulation of new desires and interests--of desires and interests that the test of experience show to be best worth fostering? (1938:60) The answer Dewey offers is: Improved valuation must grow out of existing valuations, subjected to critical methods of investigation that bring them into systematic relations to one another. (1938:60) This result is produced by attention to conditions and consequences. 36 Dewey's Theory of Valuation and Laszlo's Valuing Process Model There are some basic similarities between Dewey's theory of valuation and Laszlo's valuing process model. Among the similarities, both find the locus of value in subject-environment interaction; both recognize the goal-orientedness of human beings; both recognize that individuals do not exist in isolation, but are influenced by the environ- ment, including social situations, in which they function; and both sug- gest there is a systematic procedure for determining choice and action. In addition, neither Dewey nor Laszlo presumes a set of basic values that are fixed or universal. Dewey states: The standard of Valuation is formed in the process of practical judgments or valuation. It is not something taken from outside and applied within it--such application means there is not judg- ment. (Dewey, 1966:231) Laszlo states that the code, or set of value constructs a person pos- sesses, is not fixed but is adaptable to the information transmitted by the individual's percept. The person can adjust his or her codes to the type of input received (Laszlo, 1969:5). Dewey's theory of valuation differs from Laszlo's valuing process model principally in focus. Dewey's concern is with the pro- cess by which valuation occurs. "Valuation" is used to designate re— flection and comparison, to cover judgments about what is right, wrong, obligatory, or just, as well as judgments about what is good, bad, desirable, or worthwhile (Edwards, 1968:239). While Dewey offers a detailed and thorough treatment of valuation, Laszlo offers a model for viewing the process of valuing itself; that is, what it is that happens when the individual is involved in reflection and comparison. Laszlo's model offers potential for understanding the environmental and 37 organismic influences on judgment and action, and potential to clarify the adaptive capabilities of human beings in a variety of social and ecological settings. Maslow's Theory of Value Maslow's theory of value is descriptive, the result of empirical investigation. Maslow believed that values can be discovered from observations of selected human beings assessed as healthy, reasoning that they are, in very real and empirical, and theoretical ways, "most fully human" (1959:126), they are "self-actualizing, mature, productive characters" (1970:138). "Only the choices and tastes and judgments of healthy human beings will tell us much about what is good for the human species in the long run" (1968:151). Value, according to Maslow, is the primary source of all human motivation. He defined “value" as the gratification of a need (1970: 270): basic needs and basic values are one and the same (1968:34). What the human organism "needs" is what it values (1970:270). Values, therefore, are the basis of motivation, the result of need gratifica- tion, and those things that are valued. Maslow considered such basic values species-wide. Fulfillment of such value-needs depends upon the richness or poverty of the physical and social environment. The development of the individual, however, illumines value patterns that are unique. These patterns are related to the potentials of the person but also reflect uniqueness in every- one's environment (1968:152). Values that are to guide human action must be found within the nature of human and natural reality itself (1970:144). Values are dis- covered, not created or invented. The essential condition, in Maslow's 38 theory, for both discovering basic values and satisfying them is choice (1959:128). This condition is based on the assumptions that (1) indi- viduals have genuine opportunities for free choice, and that they are both able and allowed to express preferences (1968:168); (2) persons selected as healthy represent good choosers and provide models for what is good both for other humans and for the development of the species as a whole (1959:121); and (3) a good environment is one which fulfills the basic needs or values (1968:174). According to Maslow, the basic needs are species-wide end values that are "intrinsic in human nature, biologically and genetically based, and culturally developed" (1968:125). These basic needs "supply ready- made a hierarchy of values which are related to each other as higher and lower needs, stronger and weaker, more violent and more dispensable" (1968:172). The higher needs rest upon the lower, and.the lower needs serve as a necessary foundation for the fulfillment of higher needs. The ultimate end toward which all humans strive is self-actuali- zation, described as a need, a "desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming" (1959:126). The hierarchy of basic needs proposed is, in order from lowest to high- est: (1) physiological needs; (2) safety needs; (3) belongingness and love needs; (4) esteem needs; and (5) self-actualization needs. Although the basic needs are hierarchical in structure, "the absolute and ulti- mate value synonymous with life itself, is whichever need in the hier— archy is dominant during a particular time" (1968:172). Basic needs fUnction both as ends in themselves and as steps toward the ultimate end of self-actualization. The whole of Maslow's theory of value is descriptive of the nature of values and their relationship to the 39 process of growth and self-actualization. Maslow's Theory of Value and Laszlo's Valuing Process Model Maslow's theory of value and Laszlo's valuing process model agree in finding the source of value in the nature of human and natural reality. Beyond this similarity, the theories appear to differ con- siderably. The major difference between the theories is the focus of con- sideration. Maslow's theory of value is descriptive of the process of growth and self-actualization. Laszlo's valuing process model describes how valuing takes place; that is, the process of valuing is the focus rather than the relationship of hierarchical order and other dimensions of value. Dimensions of values may be more holistically viewed in a systems context where the process of valuing is the focus rather than description of what is valued. Another major difference concerns the interaction between subject and environment. Maslow's theory of value does not consider an indi- vidual's value development and decisions in regard to social groups. Maslow suggests that culture imposes limitations on choice and is instrumental in satisfying basic needs. He fails to suggest what con- sequences ensue when cultural forces prohibit free choice, which is a prerequisite for satisfying basic needs (1968:180). On the other hand, healthy persons, according to Maslow, transcend their environment, refuse to be enculturated, and maintain their independence from social forces (1968:180-1). Maslow does not suggest what the consequences may be for culture if its healthy members do not participate and cooperate. By not examining the social context or cultural structure, the theory 40 does not appear to account for the relationships between Maslow's pro- posed human values and the valuational process. Human beings do not exist in isolation and their choices may be strongly influenced by the social situations in which they exist, a fact Laszlo recognizes and consistently incorporates into his valuing process model. All activities in Maslow's theory are directed toward the satis- faction of basic needs or values and to the generation of other values. There does not appear to be, however, a systematic procedure for de- termining choice. Rather, what Maslow describes as value-oriented behavior may be neither deliberate, in the sense of predictive, nor conscious. Behavioral components for criteria for choosing and assess- ing outcomes of choices appear to be missing. There does not appear to be consideration of the consequences of what is chosen as "the good" for future activities, other persons, or society, and no attention to a systematic and deliberate process by which judgments are reached. Laszlo's theory offers a systematic procedure for determining choice, one that can consider the person and environment, as well as consequen- ces of what is chosen for the future of the individual and his or her milieu. Finally, much of Maslow's discussion of values and their rela- tionship to the self-actualization process assumes a set of basic values or needs that are fixed and universal. Counter to this position, Laszlo states that the code or set of value constructs formed in the valuing process is not fixed, but capable of change; the individual can adjust to changes in the environment and can adjust the environment, when possible, to fit his or her expectations. Laszlo's valuing process model appears to offer a more holistic view of the valuing process, one 41 that is more participatory for the individual, or society, as opposed to spectatorial. Graves' Open System Theory of Values Graves' (1970) "Levels of Existence: An Open System Theory of Values" resembles Maslow's hierarchy of needs approach. For Graves, human values depend on conditions of existence. Graves views values and value change as going hand in hand with man's development along a hierarchical continuum of eight states or levels of growth based upon eight different existential problems. Process, in this theory, is that of going from level to level of existence, a process of development. Different values seem to emerge at the various levels of existence. According to Graves, values develop: ...from the existential states of man. These states emerge as man solves certain hierarchically ordered existential problems crucial to him in his existence. The solution of man's current problems of existence releases free energy in his system and creates, in turn, new existential problems... As each existential state emerges, man believes that the problems of human existence are the problems with which he is faced at the level at which he has arrived. He develops, therefore, a general way of life, a thema for existence, including a thematic value system appropriate to his current exis- tential state. This thema is specified into particular schema for existence as a result of individual, group, and environmental differences. (1970:133-4) Man's nature is assumed to be an Open system moving from steady state to steady state. Values and resources are directly related in this theory. Envi- ronmental conditions allow existence at varying subsistence levels, and values emerge at different levels of existence as the availability of resources changes. For example, when man's material wants are fulfilled (level five), excess energy allows man's need for affiliation to come to the fore. This is a result of awareness of a new problem. Man has 42 learned to obtain for himself, but he has not learned to live while others still want. He feels a new need to sacrifice some now so that others will have some also. The development of new means and ends values relevant to the newly perceived problem and its solution is necessary. As a result, his end value becomes that of being part of a valued community of others. One of several means values developed is that of relating sensitively to others. These new values are in con- flict with previously held materialistic values, making the change foster instability, if not chaos. Graves believes that much of what is labeled moral and ethical decay is actually a healthy sign of the chaos that fosters transition from stage to stage. As individuals and their social systems change, old values emerge into new values more appropriate to new conditions. Graves suggests that his theory is a sketch, unfinished, and oversimplified: "man does not necessarily move slowly and steadily as described" (1970:155). This theory, according to Graves, explains the problem of ethical and moral decline as being found: ...not so much in the breakdown and discard of "the old" as in the retention of existentially inappropriate values during a period of profound transformation in human existence. (1970:155) Graves' Open System Theory of Values and Laszlo's Valuing Process Model Graves' open system theory of values and Laszlo's valuing process model agree in finding the source of value in organism-environment in- teraction. And they agree, along with Dewey, in their view of the nature of human beings; that is, that a human being's functioning as a biological organism cannot be separated from his or her social, cultur- al, intellectual, and ethical activities. These are all integrated 43 such as to preclude isolation of one activity or function from another. In contrast, Maslow appeared to separate feelings from thinking, physi- cal or biological from emotional or social activity, intelligent or rational from instinctive behavior. There appears to be a similarity in theories between Graves' notion of moving from steady state to steady state and Laszlo's propo- sition concerning self—organizing and self-stabilizing adaptive behavi- or. The similarity is in the concept of reorganization leading to stabilization. However, the underlying assumptions of the two theories may be different. Graves assumes that as an individual moves from level to level, he or she moves to a higher level of organization and thus, a higher level thematic value system: The movement to the new higher level of organization is interpreted by many as Epp_sign of decay because the new values so often reject so many aspects of the values which immediately preceded them. This regressive-progressive reorganization is central to the interpreta- tion of values proposed here. Thus the major signs of decay...be- come...the all important signs of reorganizing growth. (Graves, 1970:142) Laszlo, on the other hand, assumes that normative value corre- lates with levels or states of adgptation and not necessarily with states of increasingly complex organization. "Adapted states may, but need not in every case, be optimally complex or the most highly' organ- ized states" (Laszlo, 1973:255). "The system in the best adapted--hence optimally valuable--state is maximally fitted to the changes and chances of life in his particular environment; he is not necessarily highly organized" (Laszlo, 1972:268). For Graves, the level of organization is the goal. The trend toward higher organization appears also to be the trend toward the 44 higher "good." This appears to be a "final-cause teleology," that is, a goal-oriented system that becomes, finally, the greatest good for the greatest number. While there is a telic (goal-directed) nature of physical and biological systems, as in Laszlo's valuing process model, it is acknowledged, but it is not the final cause. Values of human beings exist in a context and existence depends on adaptation to the surrounding situation. A system that is maladapted is in danger of disorganization; one that is adapted can maintain itself in its sur- roundings. According to Laszlo, The level of organization achieved by existing systems is a roduct of their adaptations in their evolutionary history, and not their goal. Although the two generally go together--a high level of or- gan1zation usually means a high level of intensive adaptation to the environment--organization-level is wrongly viewed as a final cause of the process and hence wrongly attributed teleological value. The basic goal of natural-cognitive systems Ihuman beingsI is their continued existence, and that is assured through adaptation in the a ro riate state of organization--not necessarily the highest one. Tigniés—gr Laszlo asserts that adaptation in the appropriate state and level of organization is the precondition of existence, and thus it is the level of adaptation, and not the level of organization, that correlates with value for the system (1972:270), and value is always relative to the context of the system-environment interaction (1973:256). Adaptation means adaptation to all features of the milieu which are relevant to the system. From a long-range perspective, as features or conditions of the environment change, according to Laszlo, human beings can adapt by seeking the type of organization which is most appropriate for the environmental conditions of the system. The code is not fixed, it can change as conditions change. Both Graves' and Maslow's hierarchical schemes of values assume a static world in which values can actually be satisfied in sequential order and put aside for 45 the next level. Given the contemporary realization of the finitude of Earth and its resources, Laszlo's valuing process model provides a more logical approach to valuing issues. It is a perspective in which the process of valuing is the focus, rather than the process of moving to higher levels of organization. Values Clarification Process The values clarification approach was developed by Raths, Harmin, and Simon in response to their assertion that the nature of technologi- cal society is such that a wide range of values impinge upon the con- sciousness of each individual. In light of the heterogeneity of values, young people are often confused and uncertain about what values to hold. Values clarification was proposed as an approach to moral education to address this problem. In Values and Teaching Raths, Harmin, and Simon contend that students should learn how to think morally rather than what to think morally (1978:38). The values clarification process provides the means to do this. Values clarification provides people with insight into how they look at choices and how they work at making decisions; specifically, it helps people to (1) be more purposeful, (2) be more productive, (3) sharpen their critical thinking, and (4) have better relations with each other (Simon & deSherbinin, 1975:680-1). Many values clarification strategies and techniques have been developed for use, mostlywith school-aged children. The approach has been widely accepted. The values clarification definition of value is synonymous with the prescribed process for obtaining a value. In order for something to pg_a value, it must be: (1) chosen from alternatives, (2) chosen 46 after careful consideration of the consequences of each alternative, (3) chosen freely, (4) prized or cherished, (5) publicly affirmed, (6) acted upon, and (7) acted upon regularly (1978:27-28). "Unless some- thing satisfies pll_seven of the criteria...we do not call it a value..." (Raths et al., 1978:26). Preferences which do not meet all seven cri- teria are relegated to the category of "value indicators." Values, therefore, are embedded in process, the process providing steps for determination of value. Values Clarification Process and Laszlo's Valuing Process Model A major problem concerning the values clarification process is that it is not based upon an integrated conceptual framework, resulting in serious problems in its conceptualization and methodology. One example is that values clarification focuses on content and somewhat on process but neglects the structure of values or valuing, especially structural devel0pment. As a result there appears to be little concern with important questions such as why individuals hold certain values, indicating the underlying cognitive logic on which the content is based. Laszlo has provided an integrated conceptual framework for viewing the valuing process and thus the structure of valuing. Laszlo's approach to the valuing process is holistic and focuses on subject-environment interaction. The values clarification process is a ngppg_for providing persons with insight into how they view choices and work at making decisions. The focus does not appear to be on social, biological, psychological, cultural persons interacting with their surroundings. Laszlo's theory is more complete, stressing the dynamics of the valuing process through time. 47 Laszlo's Systems Philosophy of the Valuing_Process Major concepts of Laszlo's systems phil050phy of the valuing process were presented in the discussion of the theoretical framework in Chapter I. And the review of literature has summarized some of the similarities and differences between Laszlo's theory and other process models of human valuing. Of the process theories presented, Laszlo offers the most com- plete theory of the valuing process, one that appears to be capable of being operationalized. This approach should have practical significance in determining the importance of characteristics of the environment and of the human being in achieving optimal value states as well as of the dynamics of the valuing process through time. A systems approach offers a framework for sorting out all the variables that presently confuse valuing process theories. In doing so it becomes apparent that values do not exist independently, but in a context. Such a model has potential to clarify the adaptive capa- bilities of individuals and families in a variety of social and ecological contexts. CHAPTER III PROCEDURES This study was designed as part of a broader project developed and directed by faculty members of two departments within the College of Human Ecology: Jean Davis Schlater, Ph.D., Department of Family and Child Ecology, and M. Suzanne Sontag, Ph.D., Department of Human Environ- ment and Design. The larger study, "A Systems Approach to the Study of Human Values in the Context of Adjustment to Less Energy Intensive Life- styles," (hereafter referred to as the "pilot study") had a two fold purpose: to develop instruments and pilot an empirical test of a systems model of human values, and to operationalize the model in the context of less energy intensive lifestyles. The specific purposes were to develop and test instruments that measure the major constructs of the model and examine some of the relationships among them. Funds for support of the pilot study were obtained from Michi- gan State University All-University Research Initiation and College of Human Ecology Research Initiation Grants. This investigator served as project manager for the pilot study during spring and summer terms, 1980, and winter, spring, and summer terms, 1981. Clearance for Protection of Human Subjects Application was made to the Michigan State University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects (UCRIHS) for approval to undertake the research. Upon review of the application, the committee advised the 48 49 project directors that the rights and welfare of human subjects appeared to be adequately protected. Approval of the project by UCRIHS was grant- ed on April 7, 1980. Selection of Variables Variables Explored Variables explored were those concerned with the valuing process in the systems model of human values and certain related variables. Table 1 (page 49) describes the variables which constitute the valuing process, the theoretical definitions, and the indicators for the vari- ables. Table 2 (page 51) describes related variables, their theoretical definitions and indicators. The complete set of research instruments that measure these variables can be found in Appendix G. Control Variables Control variables relating to the overall objective were age, geographical location, number of household members, health status, season of the year, ability to control thermostat by degrees, normal interior temperature of housing, and time of day during which the interview was conducted. Age was limited to persons between the ages of 60 and 80 years. Geographical location was the tri-county area of Ingham, Eaton, and Clin- ton counties in Michigan. All subjects lived alone, and indicated they were in good health. Data were gathered during the winter months of January, February, and March, 1981. Subjects were able to control their thermostat settings by degrees, and normally kept their thermostat set— tings above 65°F. All interviews were conducted in the evening, the earliest beginning at five o'clock. 0 5 .m Egon .Amn op “gaze a? pussy com: Loewe? 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Estimated population figures for 1980 for the tri-county metropolitan area (Ing- ham, Clinton, and Eaton counties) for persons between the ages of 60 and 79 years indicate a total of 44,658, about 11 percent of the total population (Michigan Department of Management & Budget, 1978). A total of 35 women between 60 and 80 years of age were included as subjects in this study. Subjects were selected on a volunteer basis. Random sampling was not considered necessary because the purpose of the research was the generation of hypotheses, not the testing of hypotheses. Glaser and Strauss (1970) support this view, contending that it is not necessary to employ random sampling in order to explore relationships among variables. The sample was comprised of older women. An attempt was made to obtain older male participants, however, few volunteered. Some reasons for the greater female response may be related to the fact that womencon- stitute ‘the majority of the elderly population. In addition to larger numbers, women are much more likely to live alone, one of the sampling criteria. And finally, women, according to Rosenthal and Rosnow (1975), are more likely than men to volunteer for research. Volunteer subjects were obtained with the assistance of several sources, such as the "Michigan State University Faculty and Staff Direc- tory (1980)," community organizations offering services or activities for older persons, the city directory, and referrals from individuals. 56 Two procedures were followed to establish contact with potential subjects. For contacts made through directories or referrals from in- dividuals, a letter (Appendix A) from the project directors was sent ex- plaining the purpose and nature of the research in addition to a brief description of the subject's participation. For contacts made through community organizations, the project manager sought and obtained permis- sion from several group leaders to give a brief presentation at regular meetings, during which she distributed information sheets and response forms (Appendix D) for potential subjects to indicate interest in par- ticipating in the research. Both types of contact were followed by telephone calls from the project manager or one of the interviewers to determine the subject's eligibility and to make appropriate arrangements for interviews. A telephone protocol was used to guide this procedure (Appendix E). Volunteer Subjects Volunteer Participation Rosenthal and Rosnow (1975:198-9) have made suggestions for the reduction of volunteer bias based on a review of literature of situa- tional determinants of volunteering. In this researcher's view, the suggestions were more representative of maximizing participation by vol- unteers than of reducing volunteer bias. For the most part, these sug- gestions were followed by this investigator when obtaining volunteers to participate in the research. The suggestions, in outline form, were as follows. 1. Make the appeal for volunteers as interesting as possible, keep- in mind the nature of the target population. LomNOt 10. 57 . Make the appeal for volunteers as nonthreatening as possible so that potential volunteers will not be "put off" by unwarranted fears of unfavorable evaluation. . Explicitly state the theoretical and practical importance of the research for which volunteering is requested. . Explicitly state in what way the target population is particular- ly relevant to the research being conducted and the responsibili- ty of potential volunteers to participate in research that has potential for benefitting others. . When possible, potential volunteers should be offered not only pay for participation but small courtesy gifts simply for taking time to consider whether they will want to participate. . Have the request for volunteering made by a person of status as high as possible, and preferably by a woman. . When possible, avoid research tasks that may be psychologically or biologically stressful. . When possible, communicate the normative nature of the volunteer- ing response. . After a target population has been defined, an effort should be made to have someone known to that population make the appeal for volunteers. The request for volunteers itself may be more suc- cessful if a personalized appeal is made. In situations where volunteering is regarded by the target popu- lation as normative, conditions of public commitment to volunteer may be more successful; where nonvolunteering is regarded as normative, conditions of private commitment may be more success- ful. ' Volunteer Characteristics Based on a review of literature of characteristics of volunteer subjects, Rosenthal and Rosnow (1975:195) drew some conclusions concern- ing attributes in which volunteers differ from nonvolunteers that may be related to subjects' responses on the variables explored. Those conclu- sions upon which Rosenthal and Rosnow placed maximum confidence, based on a large number of studies supporting the conclusions, are presented in outline form as follows. 1. 2. 3. Volunteers tend to be better educated than nonvolunteers.... Volunteers tend to have higher social-class status than nonvolun- teers.... Volunteers tend to be more intelligent than nonvolunteers when volunteering is for research in general but not when volunteering is for somewhat less typical types of research such as hypnosis.... . Volunteers tend to be higher in need for social approval than nonvolunteers. . Volunteers tend to be more sociable than nonvolunteers. 58 Certain aspects of these characteristics had implications for discussion of the findings of this research. Response Rate During January, February, and March, 1981, for two-day interviews for this research, about 1,150 persons from all sample sources (direc- tories, organizations, and referrals) were contacted (or an attempt was made to contact) concerning participation. Many did not meet the sampling criteria (aged between 60 and 80 years; living alone; in good health; able to control thermostat by degrees; having a normal winter household temperature above 65°F; and available for interview during winter months). Since there was no basis on which to sort out eligible subjects who did not volunteer from those who would have been screened out, particularly in regard to those contacted through organi- zations, all persons who did not volunteer were considered refusals. It is impossible to speak about response rate in definitive terms. Pretest A pretest was administered to ten persons during a two-week period in spring, 1980, resulting in minor modifications to the instru- ments and a change in protocol order for the Day Two interview. Modifi- cations that had implications for this research are described. The initial letter sent to potential subjects was refined to more accurately reflect the nature of the study and to provide additional justification for the need for this type of research. The term "energy conserving clothing” was changed to "insulative clothing for indoor wear" to more precisely describe the nature of the garments. 59 Order in interview protocol for Day Two was changed to allow for a more natural flow to the interview. Review and a check for any ques- tions left unanswered in the "Your Lifestyle" questionnaire opened the interview, followed by administration of the semantic differentials. In the pretest the order had been reversed. The second behavioral response measurement was changed from a questionnaire with specific responses to an open-ended question with appropriate probes. Overall, changes in instruments and protocol were minor in extent and content. Selection of Instruments An interview design was employed for the pilot study which included the develgpment of several new instruments by the project directors. Those pertinent to this research were: semantic differentials for actual and ideal insulative clothing for indoor wear; satisfaction (scale) with insulative clothing for indoor wear in general; and the resources questionnaire. Some existing instruments were also employed in the pilot study. One considered in this research was Rotter's Internal Versus External Control Scale. This research employed the specific instruments designed to operationalize the systems model of the human valuing process indicated in the description of valuing process variables (Table 1) and related variables (Table 2). 60 Description of Instruments Instruments employed in this study are presented in Appendix 0.1 The parent pilot project encompassed a multitude of instruments. This research employed selected instruments as follows. Semantic Differential The semantic differential instrument was designed to empirically measure the meaning of concepts and has been commonly used as an atti- tude scale, though it lends itself well to measurement of other closely related constructs. The instrument consists of three components:(1) the concept to be evaluated in terms of its dimensional properties; (2) the polar adjective pair anchoring the scale; and (3) a series of undefined scale positions (Osgood, Suci, & Tannenbaum, 1957). The semantic differential measures connotative meaning. Underly- ing this instrument is the assumption that connotative, or affective, components of meaning can be measured by rating items or ideas with re- spect to bipolar adjectives. It is assumed that pairs of adjectives (such as ”absorbent" versus "nonabsorbent") are continua along which connotative meanings are expressed. Each pair of adjectives constitutes a scale. Construction of the semantic differential instrument included se- lecting appropriate scales or adjective pairs relevant to the garments used in the investigation. Guidelines for inclusion of bipolar adjective 1Only the instruments yielding data used in this study are in- cluded. Those instruments not included in Appendix G are available from the project directors upon request. 61 pairs included the following: (1) definitive in meaning; (2) applicable to concepts being measured; (3) unrepeated in another word pair; (4) re- presentative of known dimensions of clothing; (5) sexually unbiased; (6) true polar opposite pairs; and (7) expressed in common language. Adjective pairs were randomly rotated to vary polarity direction in or- der to minimize the possibility of subjects forming habits in the re- sponse pattern. Content validity was measured by the jury validation method. In this research, the semantic differential was employed to as- sess the subject's perception of certain garments upon initial viewing, and again of a selected garment after wearing at the conclusion of the test day, and of the subject's expectations for the ideal insulative garment for indoor wear (code). Each semantic differential was composed of the same 124 adjective pairs. A seven-step scale was employed; the subject was instructed to place a check mark on each scale to indicate how closely she associated the concept with the end point of that scale. If the bipolar adjectives seemed to her to be neutral on the scale, both sides, equally associated, or unrelated to the concept, she was instruct- ed to place a mark toward the center of the scale (exact instructions are presented in Appendix G). Instruments for garments were: "Tights" (Forms GIW, G2W) (the Opaque, seamless, navy blue tights were constructed of stretch nylon knit); "Thermal Underwear" (Forms H1, H2) (the white thermal underwear consisted of a long-sleeved pullover Shirt and long, cuffed pant con- structed of 100 percent cotton knit); and "Undershirt and Midlength Brief" (Forms 11, I2) (the sleeveless vest and above-the-knee pant were con- structed of white finely knit, 100 percent cotton). The instrument for code was "Ideal Insulative Clothing for Indoor Wear" (Form R). 62 Resources Questionnaire "Your Lifestyle" (Form N) was developed for the pilot study to measure availability of certain resources and other selected factors. Of interest to this research were the subject's age, level of formal education, money income, and score on the Rotter Internal Versus External Control Scale. Second Behavioral Response The second behavioral response (Form P, Items 4a, 4c, and 49) was assessed by asking the subject questions concerning her willingness to respond in a self-organizing or self-stabilizing adaptive mode. Satisfaction Scale The satisfaction scale measured the subject's evaluation of the garment based upon personal judgment. The rater placed the selected garment at some point, to which numerical values were attached, along a continuum between "completely dissatisfied" (1) to "completely satis- fied" (11). It was believed subjects could discriminate satisfaction to this extent. The satisfaction scale flash card was constructed of laminated construction paper, sized twelve by seven inches, and purple in color with black numerals. Field Procedures Trained interviewers, including the investigator, collected data during a three month period of time (January through March, 1981). Interviewers were trained in two extensive sessions conducted by the project directors and manager prior to beginning data collection. Interviewer training procedures are presented in Appendix B. 63 Of the 35 interviews conducted, this researcher conducted six; 29 interviews were conducted by the remaining five interviewers. Subject contact procedures were described in the discussion of selection of sample. An "Interview Protocol" was developed and used as a gpjgg_for field procedures; only the dialogue enclosed in black lines was spoken verbatim (Appendix E). All instruments administered during the interviews are described in the field procedures. Details con- cerning the use and administration of instruments not involved in this particular study are omitted (the reader is referred to the footnote on page 60). Day One Interview At the scheduled appointment time on the day preceding the test day, the interviewer administered a physical screening questionnaire, developed in consultation with a physician who is an internationally renowned expert in hypothermia; the informed consent form (Form C); and an inventory of "Normal Clothing Worn on Winter Days." The interviewer gave instructions for the semantic differential and administered a short practice instrument, "The Weather Today." As each of the three alternative garments was presented to the subject, the semantic differential for that garment was completed. The Cantril Self- Anchoring Ladder Scale was administered and results recorded. One ap- parel alternative was selected to be worn on the test day. Instructions were given for reading the laboratory thermometer used to measure household temperature, and for completing a "Record of Household Temperature." 64 The subject's body temperature was taken and recorded as a base- line temperature for detecting the possibility of hypothermia on the test day. The "Activity Record" was explained and the resources ques- tionnaire, "Your Lifestyle" (Form N) introduced; these two instruments were to be completed by the subject sometime during the test day. Day Two Interview On Day Two, the test day, the subject set the household thermo- stat 5°F lower than normal, but not lower than 65°F, upon rising, and dressed, wearing the chosen garment as an added under layer of clothing. The subject kept a record of, and proceeded with, normal activities. Thermostat and laboratory thermometer temperatures were recorded six times during the day to obtain a measure of variability of temperature in the household. At an appointed time, the interviewer returned, reviewed the resources questionnaire and the activity record for completeness, and completed a form for "Changes in Clothing or Environment." The subject's body temperature was again taken and recorded, the interviewer having observed the subject for symptoms of hypo— thermia (Appendix F). Thermostat and laboratory thermometer readings were recorded for a seventh time and household temperature was returned to normal. An inventory of "Actual Clothing Worn on Test Day" was taken. Semantic differentials for the garment chosen to be worn (Form G2W, H2, or 12) and code (Form R), as well as one for "The Energy Situation," were completed. The eleven point satisfaction scale was administered, followed by the Cantril Self-Anchoring Ladder Scale for comparison of the 65 subject's specific choice of garment with the best insulative clothing for indoor wear she could imagine, and with the best clothing of the type she chose that she could imagine. The second behavioral response (Form P) was administered. The subject was given the item of clothing as a token of appreciation for participation in the study. The flowchart (Figure 7, page 26) with the discussion of the application of the theoretical framework illustrates the relationship of the major field procedures to the theory. Data Analysis Procedures Data Preparation Data processing and analysis began with preparation of the code- book for the variables explored in this research. A trial run by pro- ject staff members resulted in minor revisions in the code. Completed instruments were edited (inspected for accuracy, com- pleteness, logical consistency, uniformity, and comprehensibility) ini— tially by the interviewer as she completed each interview. The project manager carried out a second level edit of the questionnaires as they were returned to the project office. This investigator served as editor for the project. Coding was completed by selected staff members and this investi- gator. Training sessions for coders included orientation and practice sessions. Data were coded onto opscan sheets for computer use. Check-coding, the systematic re-coding of a certain proportion of questionnaires, was carried out to determine the reliability of the cod- ing, as well as to provide a means to reduce errors and to clarify any 66 differences in interpretation found with the code. This investigator participated in check-coding and served as coding supervisor. Procedure required check-coding of the first three questionnaires of each new phase of coding for each coder, and check-coding of every third subse- quent questionnaire. Coding and check-coding information, such as name of coder, date, and number of coding errors, was recorded. The coded opscan sheets were read onto computer tape for analysis. A programmer was hired by the investigator to write the appropriate com- puter programs for analysis, beginning with a computer data listing, which the investigator reviewed for further clean up, such as any stray marks that may have appeared on the printout. Context of Data Analysis The overall objective of this research was to obtain empirical data necessary to explore Laszlo's valuing process model. Emphasis was on formulating an integrated set of hypotheses for further research, and not on prediction based on the findings. Analysis in this context is most appropriately focused on exploring the set of data, viewing and describing its characteristics, and being open to insight and dis- covery. Therefore, the role of statistical analysis in this study was to generate rather than support hypotheses. Hypotheses were generated on the basis of descriptive statistical techniques and exploratory data analysis, procedures suggested by a statistician consulted by this in- vestigator. 67 Exploratory Data Anplysis Procedures Data analysis was based on descriptive statistical techniques and certain exploratory data analysis techniques. Descriptive statistics (measures that summarize the character- istics of a set of data) tabulate, depict, and describe the set of data through measures of central tendency, frequency distributions, percents and percentiles, measures of dispersion (range, standard deviation, and variance), the standard normal curve, and correlation coefficients. A computer program was used to determine the summary statistics for the variables: Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (Nie et al., 1975), V 7.0 program, "Descriptive Statistics and One-Way Frequency Distributions; Subprogram Frequencies: One-Way Frequency Distributions with Descriptive Statistics." All other data analyses techniques were applied manually by the researcher. In addition to descriptive statistical techniques, the investi- gator applied certain exploratory data analysis techniques. Explora- tory data analysis requires a certain perspective or approach to data analysis as well as using certain techniques that facilitate data ex- ploration. Underlying the exploratory approach to data analysis is the assumption that the more that is known about the data, the more effec- tively data can be used to develop, test, and refine theory. Thus, the exploratory approach to data analysis seeks to maximize what is learned from the data, and this requires adherence to two principles: skepticism and Openness. One should be skeptical of measures which summarize data since they can sometimes conceal or even misrepresent what may be the most informative aspects of the data, and one should be open to unanticipated patterns in the data since they can be the most revealing outcomes of the analysis. (Hartwig & Dearing, 1979:9) Thus, an attempt was made to view numerical summaries of the data with a certain amount of skepticism, and with an openness to alternative 68 patterns that might characterize the data. Techniques of exploratory data analysis place major emphasis on visual representations of the data. By combining numerical summaries and visual representations of data a more powerful analytical tool was available to this analyst. This tool was applied to each individual variable and to certain relationships between variables. Sample Size and Data Analysis To find promising leads or alternatives in exploratory research, it is essential to stay close to the data. A sample of the size employ- ed in this research (N = 35) had many practical advantages. It pro- vided a convenient sample size with which to work. This allowed the researcher an excellent "hands on" experience. It provided convenient multipliers and divisors, facilitating calculations. This allowed the researcher the experience of manipulating the raw data, and illuminated the mechanics of statistical analysis. And it provided a sample large enough to suggest possible indicators or relationships, effects, or dynamic processes, yet small enough to facilitate detailed exploration, particularly graphic exploration, of the variables and their relation- ships. Limitations Exploratory Study The major limitation of exploratory studies is that they seldom provide satisfactory answers to research questions. They can provide indicators and insights into research methods that could provide more definitive answers and they can suggest hypotheses for further research. Exploratory studies, for the most part, attempt to develop an initial, 69 preliminary understanding of a phenomenon, which was the objective of this research. Sample The manner in which subjects are selected determines how exten- sively findings can be generalized. Subjects were selected on a volun- teer basis for this research. Isaac and Michael (1971:147) suggest that the major problem with a sample comprised of volunteers "is the likelihood that volunteers differ from non-volunteers, compromising the interpretation and generalizability of the results." However, the object in collecting data for this research was not to be able to generalize the findings, but to be able to reflect upon the data with Laszlo's theory in mind, in the attempt to interpret and understand the meaning of the phenomenon observed. In addition, random sampling, rather than a volunteer sample, was not considered necessary since the focus of the research was on the generation of hypotheses, and not the testing of hypotheses. Glaser and Strauss (1970) contend that at the exploratory level of research it is not necessary to combine random sampling with theoretical sampling to explore the relationship among variables. Procedures Certain procedural factors may influence findings. In this research, some of those factors may have included the following. The sample was comprised entirely of older women. Age or sex of the subjects may influence their responses. Interviews were lengthy and the activities in which subjects were asked to participate were somewhat complex. 70 The type of weather conditions prevailing on the test day may have influenced the individual's perception of the selected garment, even though emphasis was stressed on jpgppp_wear of the garment; for example, very sunny, bright winter weather or very cold, snowy winter weather may have influenced the perception of a particular garment on that particular day. Testing was confined to a short time span. Subjects were asked to wear the selected garments for one day. A one day test may not have been an adequate amount of time to measure adaptation. However, this research concerned the valuing process, a particular series of linked events occurring within a certain time frame. The theory speaks, in the valuing process context, of adaptive behavioral response. "Adap- tive" generally refers to "tending toward, fit for, or having a capacity for adaptation" (Webster's New Collggiate Dictionary, 1977 ed., s.v. "adaptive"). A much longer time span may be needed to measure "adaptation," a long-term ppgplE, according to Laszlo, of the valuing process: this concept is illustrated in Figure 6, page 25. In addi- tion, a one-day test time span may have been adequate to provide the indicators needed for the exploratory nature of this study. CHAPTER IV DATA ANALYSIS AND REPORT OF FINDINGS The essential aim of this research was to obtain empirical data necessary to explore Laszlo's valuing process model, that has not, here- tofore, been operationalized. Emphasis was on formulating an integrated set of hypotheses for further research. The specific objectives were to explore certain aspects of the valuing process and their rela- tionships to one another and selected factors. While the major concepts of this theory were operationalized in a practical context (energy con- servation), the thrust of the specific objectives was to expand know- ledge concerning Laszlo's human valuing theory without regard to practi- cal application at this time; the findings of later research may even- tually be applied to practical problems. Analyses were based on descriptive statistics, measures that summarized the characteristics of these data, and on exploratory data analysis techniques. This chapter presents the analysis of data and report of findings related to each objective and its research questions. Degree of Match: Percept and Code The focus of Objective 1 was to explore the degree of match between the percept and code measurements. "Percept" referred to the individual's perception of a particular garment upon first viewing it (percept one) and after having worn it (percept two). "Code" referred to the individual's expectations for the ideal insulative 71 72 garment for indoor wear (what it ought to be). Percept and code were measured by the appropriate semantic differential instruments. "Degree of match" referred to the amount of correspondence between percept and code. In this study, it was the number of absolute matches between percept and code in response to adjective pairs. For example, an absolute match for the percept two "Thermal Underwear" semantic differential and the semantic differential for the code, "Ideal Insulative Clothing for Indoor Wear," may have appeared as follows: Percept two: absorbent / : : : : : : nonabsorbent 9.4.9.: absorbent / : : : : : : nonabsorbent Following is an example of that which was pp; an absolute match: Percept two: scratchy : : : : : / : smooth Code: scratchy : / : : : : : smooth The number of absolute matches between percept and code con- stituted a "degree of match score." "Score" was defined as an observed value, a calculated numerical quantity, and not in any sense competitive or evaluative. Degree of match scores were determined for percept two and code, for percept one and code, as well as for percept two and percept one, for each subject. Laszlo's theory states that the degree of match between percept and code ranges from minimal to Optimal and is indicative of the 73 individual's value state. In this study, a high degree of match between percept and code was considered indicative of an "optimal value state"; "less value state" referred to a "medium" degree of match; and a mini- mal or very low value state referred to a "low" degree of match. The range of possible degree of match scores in this research, as measured by the semantic differential instruments, was from O to 124 adjective pairs. For purposes of exploring the aspects of the theory described above, the range of adjective pairs was divided into thirds: scores in the range from O to 41 were considered low match; scores from 42 to 82 were a medium match; and a high match were those scores from 83 to 124. This mode of dividing the range of scores facilitated com- parison of the distribution of the degree of match of percept two and code with the degree of match of percept one and code. Degree of Match: Percept Two and Code Research question I asked, "What is the degree of match between percept two and code?" Degree of Match Scores A wide range was observed in the degree of match scores of per- cept two (perception of the garment measured during the Day Two inter- view) and code (expectations for the ideal insulative clothing for indoor wear). Scores ranged from 21, the lowest number of matched adjective pairs, to 102, the highest observed score (possible range: 0 to 124 adjective pairs). Figure 8 illustrates the distribution of these variables. The visual representation in Figure 8 is an exploratory technique developed by Tukey (1977) and is referred to as a "stem-and-leaf" dis- play. The stem-and leaf technique presents all of the observed values 74 (or scores) in rank order as well as conveys the shape of the distribu- tion. To create the stem-and-leaf display, each score was separated into its first digit and the remaining digit. The first digits have been listed vertically in descending order on the left and a vertical line known as the stem has been drawn just to the right of these numbers. The remaining digit for each score has been placed in the same row as the first digit with which it belongs, thus creating the leaves. For example, in Figure 8, the scores at the digit "2" at the right of the stem are read as "21," "23," and "27." Because the number of scores is crucial, whenever two or more cases have the same observed score, the score for gppp_case is recorded. The result is a histogram that retains and rank-orders all of the observed values, losing none of the data, while still providing a picture of the shape of the distribution. An improvement the stem-and-leaf technique makes over the histo- gram is that the stem-and-leaf display can be examined in more detail than the histogram: the bars of a histogram can hide distances between points within them. However, such gaps as these can be detected in stem-and-leaf displays because they retain the numeric values of the data. For example, the "I" and the "3" and the "7" scores (21, 23, 27) in the "2" row in Figure 8 are farther apart than the "3," the "4," and the "5" (33, 34, 35) in the "3" row. Figure 8 shows the distribution of the degree of match scores for percept two and code to be multi-modal. The mean score of 61.49 fell between the two highest peaks in the distribution. Other descrip- tive statistics for central tendencies and variability are presented in Table 3. 75 Scores by 10 O 1 2 1 3 3 4 O 5 O 6 1 7 3 8 O 9 3 10 O 11 12 2 4 5 6 7 O‘N-DQJNWN 01 7 7 HNNwHOO-hw Figure 8. Rank order distribution of degree of match scores for percept two and code (35 cases) Table 3.--Central tendency and variability statistics for degree of match scores of percept two and code (35 cases) Mean Median Mode Range Variance Standard deviation 61.49 55 4O 21 - 102 (81) 627.85 25.06 76 Degree of Match Score Categories When scores were grouped in a frequency distribution of low match, medium match, and high match to correspond with the theoretical minimal value state, less value state, and optimal value state, the result for degree of match of percept two and code was a nearly symetric, uni-modal distribution (Figure 9). Number 20 of cases 15 10 5 .1 J 1 0 1 I 1 Low Medium High match match match Cases 8 18 9 35 Total Figure 9. Distribution of degree of match scores of percept two and code by category 77 Degree of Match Scores of Percept Two and Code with Type of Garment Selected Type of garment selected by the subject to wear on the test day may have influenced the degree of match of percept two and code. The semantic differential for percept two measured the perception of one of three different types of garments: tights, undershirt and mid-length briefs, and thermal underwear (pant and shirt). A scatter plot (Figure 10) illustrates the relationship of type of clothing selected Twith degree of matchscores of percept two and code. Plots for tights appeared close to the extremes of the range. Plots for undershirt and mid-length briefs appeared throughout the range, with slightly over half the scores in the mid-range section. Thermal underwear scores tended to cluster in mid-range, but with "outliers" at the extremes. ("Outlier" is an exploratory data analysis term meaning a value or score that lies outside the normal range of data, such as well above or well below most of the other values or scores in a distribution [Hartwig & Dearing, 1979:271.) At the upper extreme for thermals, two outlier cases appeared, falling nearly two standard deviations (25.06) from the mean (61.49). Table 4 reports distribution of the selection of garments by degree of match score categories of percept two and code. Scores appeared in every cell. The scores for those who selected tights increased as the degree of match increased. For the other two types of garments, perfect, or nearly perfect symetric uni-modal distribu- tions occurred. 78 Ammmee mew eeeeewmm eceewem we maze we eeee ece exp peeewee we meweem mmweem copes we mmwmeo genes we emfi OOH om om ov om w, T e 1 I z oo n o o o o oo oooo o o o eewaeo .oH ewemww Amemee New weezweece weewesw Amemee va mwewwn cweeaw-ews ece ewwemwmeea. “memee my .meneww peeewem we eezw 79 Table 4.--Degree of match score categories of percept two and code by type of garment selected Degree of match score category Type of garment Low Medium High Cases Tights 1 2 3 5 Undershirt and 4 9 4 17 mid-length briefs Thermal 3 7 2 12 underwear Cases 8 18 9 35 80 Degree of Match: Percept One and Code Research question 2 asked, "What is the degree of match between percept one and code?" Degree of Match Scores Percept one was measured during the Day One interview, before the subject selected one of the three types of garments to wear on the test day. An instrument for each of the three types of garments was administered; percept one of only the garment later selected to be worn on the test day was investigated in this research. As with percept two and code, a score was determined for the number of absolute matches between percept one and code. A wide range appeared in the distribution of the scores: from 19, the lowest observ- ed score, to 91, the highest observed score (possible range 0 to 124 adjective pairs). The stem-and-leaf display in Figure 11 suggests a bimodal distribution of the scores. Mean and median for percept one and code degree of match scores were nearly equal. Table 5 presents descriptive statistics for measures of central tendency and variability. Degree of Match Score Categories When grouped by degree of match score categories of low, medium, and high, the result was a somewhat skewed distribution (Figure 12), with most of the scores in the medium and low match categories. 81 Scores by 10 O 1 9 2 O 5 5 3 2 2 4 6 4 O O 1 1 3 3 4 5 7 5 3 5 6 6 7 9 6 2 9 9 7 O O 4 8 O 2 3 4 5 9 1 10 11 12 Figure 11. Rank order distribution of degree of match scores for percept one and code (35 cases) Table 5.--Central tendency and variability statistics for degree of match scores of percept one and code (35 cases) Mean 53.2 Median 53 Mode 25 Range 19 - 91 (72) Variance 409.871 Standard deviation 20.245 82 Number 20' of cases Low Medium High match match match Cases 12 19 4 35 Total Figure 12. Distribution of de ree of match scores of percept one and co e by category 83 Degree of Match: Percept Two and Code with Percept One and Code Research question 3 asked, "In the valuing process, is there a difference between the degree of match of percept two and code and the degree of match of percept one and code?" Dggree of Match Scores A comparison of the distributions of degree of match scores for percept two and code with degree of match scores for percept one and code suggested that, while a wide range appeared in both distributions, the range was greater for percept two and code scores (Figure 13). More high match scores were found for percept two and code, and more low match scores for percept one and code. The multi-modal shapes of the two distributions follow similar patterns, with exception of the extreme ends of the range. Median scores were also similar (percept two and code median was 55; percept one and code median was 53). To further explore the relationship of degree of match scores for percept two and code with percept one and code, a correlation coefficient, a least-squares regression line, and a Tukey line were computed for these data. It is stressed that these computations are reported as descriptive statistics. No assumptions were made about the form of the distribution, the variability of "y" scores within "x" columns, or the true level of measurement represented by the scores. According to Hays: ...as long as there are E_distinct cases, each having two numerical scores, E_and 1, then the descriptive statistics of correlation and regression may be used. In so doing, we describe the data as Epppgp_a linear rule were to be used for prediction, and this is a perfectly adequate way to talk about the tendency for Epg§g_numeri- cal scores to associate or "go together" in a linear way in these data. (1973:636) 84 ‘C O WHOOWOHNOWOOOJNHO so \I NNwOI—ALDOLHOOANOOU'I O‘WN-b-hkowOSNI—IU'I-fiwm (HOMO-4 01 \l-bw 00100 014:- N01 p—a p—a N 11* - Percept one and code scores 12- * Percept two and code scores Figure 13. Comparison of rank order distributions of degree of match scores of percept two and code with percept one and code (35 cases) 85 The result of the detennination of the Pearson product moment correlation coefficient indicated a moderately high relationship (r = .73) between sets of scores for percept two and code with percept one and code. To further explore the relationship between sets of scores, the Tukey method for fitting a line to the data, the Tukey line (McNeil, 1977), was applied. The regression line (R) is based on means and can be sensitive to a small number of values, usually in the tails of the distribution where there are few cases. The Tukey line (T), from an exploratory perspective, may be more useful for summarizing a two-vari- able relationship. In contrast to the regression line, the Tukey line is based on medians and can more accurately describe the bulk of the cases in the middle Of the distribution. In Figure 14 the slopes of both lines are quite similar. Degree of Match Score Categories When scores for each set of data were grouped by degree of match score category (Figure 15), the high match category for percept two and code was twice as large as that of percept one and code. Medium match categories were nearly equal in size. And the low match category for percept one and code was half again as large as that of percept two and code. Percept two and code Figure 14. I: II 100 80 60 40 20 86 20 40 6O 80 100 Percept one and code Relationship of degree of match scores for percept two and code with percept one and code (35 cases) 87 Percept one and code Number of cases 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 /////// //////// Degree of match score category //////////////// Percept two and code Number of cases 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 O //////////////// of percept two and code and percept one and code by category (35 cases) Degree of match scores Figure 15. 88 Degree of Match: Percept One and Percept Two Research question 4 asked, ”What is the degree of match between percept one and percept two?" Percept one of a particular garment was measured upon initial viewing of the garment; percept two was measured after the subject had worn the garment. As with percept and code, degree of match for per- cept one and percept two was determined by the number of absolute matches. Degree of Match Scores Number of matches ranged from 30, the lowest observed score, to 97, the highest observed score (possible range was 0 to 124 adjective pairs) (Figure 16). The mean of 59.77 appeared at the highest peak of the bimodal distribution. Central tendency and variability statistics are reported in Table 6. Degree of Match Score of Percept One and Percept Two by Type of Garment Selected The relationship between the degree of match of percept one and percept two with the type of garment selected was explored. Distribu— tion of these variables varied by garment type (Figure 17). Half of the scores for thermal underwear were found in the "50“ range; and half the scores for tights were between 40 and 43. Scores for under- shirt and mid-length briefs were more evenly distributed throughout their range of from 30 to 85. 89 Scores by 10 6 8 8 9 Swooowosm-wao-ao hmOND—‘Hm \I (”#000001 b U100 01 U101 KC 0101 ...aH NH Figure 16. Rank order distribution of degree of match scores for percept two and percept one (35 cases) Table 6.--Central tendency and variability statistics for degree of match scores of percept one and percept two (35 cases) Mean 59.77 Median 56.33 Mode 56 Range 30 - 97 (68) Variance 296.299 Standard deviation 17.21 9O Thermal Undershirt and underwear mid-length briefs Tights Scores by 10 O O O 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 O 5 5 3 4 3 9 4 5 6 4 O 1 3 5 1 1 5 6 8 9 5 3 5 6 6 8 5 6 2 6 2 4 6 7 O 7 3 4 5 7 O 9 8 8 1 5 8 9 4 7 9 9 1 IO 10 10 11 11 11 12 12 12 Cases 12 17 6 35 Total Figure 17. Rank order distribution of degree of match scores for per- cept one and percept two by type of garment selected 91 Degree of Match: Choice of Adaptive Behavioral Response The focus of Objective 2 was to explore the correspondence be- tween degree of match of percept two and code (the subject's percep- tion of a particular garment after having worn it on the test day, and the subject's expectations for the ideal insulative garment for indoor wear) and the choice of adaptive behavioral response (the subject's willingness or unwillingness to continue to wear that garment). The research question asked, "Is there a correspondence between the degree of match of percept two and code and the choice of adaptive behavioral response?" Choice of Adaptive Behavioral Response Choice of adaptive behavioral response was measured by the subject's replies to two questions: (1) ''Do you think you would con- sider keeping your thermostat lowered as you did today?" If the sub— ject answered "yes," then the subject was asked, (2) "Would you con- tinue to wear the garment you wore today?" A "yes" reply to this question was considered indicative of a self-stabilizing adaptive behavioral response; a "no" reply was considered indicative of a self- organizing mode of adaptive response, since a ppppgp_in the Day Two clothing environment was encompassed by the preference. If the subject answered the first question ("Do you think you would consider keeping your thermostat lowered as you did today?") with a "no" reply, then the subject was asked, (2) "Would you like to return to your normal...clothing?" A "yes" reply here suggested a self- organizing adaptive response; a "no" was considered indicative of a self-stabilizing mode of adaptive behavior, since the subject expressed a desire to maintain the Day Two clothing environment. 92 Of the 35 cases, 20 subjects responded in a self-stabilizing adaptive mode, and 13 responded in a self-organizing mode of behavioral response (there were two missing cases). Degree of Match Scores of Percept Two and Code and Choice of Adaptive Behavioral Response Distributions of degree of match scores for percept two and code by choice of adaptive behavioral response is represented by the stem-and-leaf displays in Figure 18. Both distributions presented bimodal structures, with self-organizing responses clustered at the "40" and "80" levels, and self-stabilizing at'the "40" and "100" levels. Range for self-stabilizing responses was considerably larger than for the self-organizing responses. A large gap appeared in the distribution of self-organizing responses between the score at 50 and the next score at 73; the mean (56.54) fell in this gap. Other measures of central tendency and variability are presented in Table 7. Upon recommendation of the statistician consulted, a point- biserial correlation coefficient was calculated to describe the relationship of the degree of match scores for percept two and code with the choice of adaptive behavioral response. A point—biserial correlation coefficient is a Pearson product moment coefficient for the data when they are such that there are two series of persons being observed on "X" (degree of match score): those who scored "0" and “Y," and those who scored "1" and "Y" ("Y" = the choice of behavioral response) (Glass & Stanley, 1970:163-4). The result of the calculation (rpb = .14) suggested a very low relationship of degree of match scores with the choice of adaptive behavioral response for these data. 93 Choice of adaptive behavioral response Self-organizing Self-stabilizing Scores by 10 O O 1 I 2 3 2 1 7 3 3 4 3 5 4 2 5 6 7 4 O O 2 4 5 O 5 3 5 6 6 1 1 4 7 3 7 3 7 8 2 6 7 7 8 O 9 9 3 10 10 O 1 1 2 11 11 12 12 Cases 13 20 3g Egizlng Figure 18. Rank order distribution of degree of match scores of percept two and code by choice of adaptive behavioral response 94 Table 7.--Descriptive statistics for degree of match of percept two and code by choice of adaptive behavioral response Choice of adaptive behavioral response Descriptive statistic Self-organizing Self-stabilizing Mean 56.5 63.5 Median 47 61 Mode 87 40 Range 23 - 87 (65) 21 - 102 (82) Variance 493.79 656.75 Standard deviation 23.13 26.29 Cases 13 20 Missing = 2 Total = 35 95 Degree of Match Score Categories of Percept Two and Code and Choice of Adaptive Behavioral Response When scores were grouped in a frequency distribution by degree of match score categories for percept two and code (low, medium, and high match) and choice of adaptive behavioral response, symmetric unimodal distributions resulted (Table 8). Table 8.--Distribution of degree of match categories for percept two and code by choice of adaptive behavioral response Choice of adaptive behavioral response Degree of match score category Self-organizing Self-stabilizing Number Percent* Number Percent High 3 9 5 15 Medium 7 21 IO 30 Low 3 9 5 15 Cases 13 39 20 60 Missing = 2 Total = 35 *rounded percentages Distribution of the degree of match score categories employing a back-to-back stem-and-leaf technique (Figure 19) facilitated com- parison of the raw scores. In the high match category, self-organizing scores clustered at 86 and 87; self-stabilizing responses represented the highest scores. 96 Choice of Adaptive Behavioral Response Self-organizing Self-stabilizing Scores by 10 .F.... 0 1 3 2 1 7 4 3* 3 5 4 O 0 Low match (scores 0 - 41) 7 6 5 2 4 2 4 0 5 3 5 6 1 1 4 3 7 3 7 2 8 0 IL) Medium match (scores 42 - 82) 7 7 6 8 9 3 10 0 1 1 2 11 12 High match (scores 83 - 124) Cases = 13 Cases = 20 Missing cases TOtal cases II II 00 U1 Figure 19. Rank order distribution of degree of match score categories for percept two and code by choice of adaptive behavioral response 97 Degree of Match Scores for Percept Two and Code, Choice of Adaptive Behavioral Response, and Type of Garment Selected The type of garment selected and worn on the test day, as well as the degree of match score for percept two and code, may have in- fluenced the choice of adaptive behavioral response. The stem-and-leaf displays in Figure 20 suggested that two- thirds of the subjects who selected tights to wear on the test day chose self-organizing adaptive responses. Of the two self-stabilizing responses for tights, the scores represented the extremes of the range for all tights (35, 101). For the other two garments, scores tended toward higher degrees of match in the self-stabilizing responses, and toward the low and middle range for the self-organizing adaptive behavioral responses. 98 Self-organizing adaptive behavioral response Thermal Undershirt and underwear mid-length briefs Tights Scores by 10 O O O 1 1 1 2 3 2 2 3 3 3 4 3 4 5 4 6 4 2 7 5 O 5 5 6 6 6 7 7 3 7 8 8 2 7 8 6 7 9 9 9 10 O 10 11 11 11 12 12 12 Cases 3 6 4 Self-stabilizing adaptive behavioral response Thermal Undershirt and underwear mid-length briefs Tights Scores by 10 O O O 1 1 1 2 7 2 1 2 3 3 3 5 4 O 4 O 2 4 4 5 5 5 3 5 6 1 1 6 4 6 7 7 7 7 8 8 O 8 9 9 3 9 10 O 1 IO 2 IO 1 11 11 11 12 12 12 Cases 8 IO 2 Total cases = 35; missing cases 2 Figure 20. Rank order distribution of degree of match scores of percept two and code by choice of adaptive behavioral response and type of garment selected 99 Degree of Match: Level of Satisfaction The focus of Objective 3 was to explore the correspondence between the level of personal satisfaction with a selected garment and the degree of match between percept two and code. The research question asked, "Is there a correspondence between the level of personal satisfaction with a selected garment and the degree of match between percept two and code?" Level of Personal Satisfaction Personal satisfaction with the garment selected and worn on the test day was measured by asking the subject to indicate on the Il-point satisfaction scale, a continuum from "I" (completely dissatisfied) to "6" (neutral) to "11" (completely satisfied), her level of satisfaction based on her personal judgment. There were no satisfaction responses of less than "6" (neutral) (Table 9). About 20 percent of all subjects were completely satisfied; over two-thirds of the responses appeared at the "9" and "10" levels; no responses were given at "7"; and one subject indicated "6" as her level of satisfaction. The skewness of the distribution is represented in Figure 21. The peak at “9" also represented the mode (9); mean (9.5) and median (9.5) appeared close to mode. Degree of Match Scores for Percept Two and Code with Level of Satisfaction Laszlo's valuing process theory states that level of satisfaction corresponds to degree of match between percept and code. A scatter plot of degree of match scores for percept two and code with level of personal satisfaction with the selected garment suggested that higher degrees 100 Table 9.--Distribution of level of personal satisfaction responses Satisfaction scale level Responses Number Percent (completely satisfied) 11 7 20 IO 11 31 9 13 37 8 3 9 7 (neutral) 6 1 3 Cases 35 100 Number of 15 cases I 10 l 01 rd L l C31 Level of satisfaction Figure 21. Distribution of level of personal satisfaction with selected garment (35 cases) 101 of match between percept two and code appeared with higher levels of satisfaction, although the "10" level also included the lowest degree of match score. For those expressing complete satisfaction ("11"), scores clustered around "100" and around "50." For those slightly less satisfied ("10"), scores appeared at the extremes of the range, with a large gap in the mid-section (between 45 and 77). Scores appeared throughout the range at the "9" level, and at the lower end of the range for the "8" and "6" levels (Figure 22). A Pearson product moment correlation coefficient was determined to describe the relationship of degree of match score for percept two and code with level of personal satisfaction with the selected garment. The result (r = .32) suggested a moderately low relationship between the two variables for these data. Degree of Match Score Categories for Percept Two and Code with Level of Satisfaction When degree of match scores for percept two and code were grouped in a frequency distribution of low, medium, and high degree of match, high match scores appeared distributed evenly at the "9," "10," and "11" levels of satisfaction, accounting for 26 percent of the responses (Table 10). Medium match scores also tended toward the higher end of the scale, accounting for 51 percent of the total scores. Low match scores (23 percent) were distributed among the "8," "9," and "10" levels. 102 Amemee mmv :eweeewmweem we wm>ew sew: eeee eee exp peeewee wew meweem genes we eewmeo .NN ewemww meweem copes we eewmea QNH OOH cm on oe ON xx 4 \\l I." . o m N O O C m cowuuewmwpem o oo o u u o o o o m www.— oo o o oo o o o OH ._ : . . u . : __. 103 Degree of Match Scores for Percept Two and Code, Level of Satisfaction, and Type of Garment The relationship of type of garment selected and worn on the test day with the level of satisfaction with that garment and the degree of match between percept two and code was explored. A contingency table of these data (Table 11) suggested that no particular garment appeared to receive a consistently higher or lower personal satisfaction score than any other garment(s). There were, however, no "11" (completely satisfied) responses for any garment type for the low degree of match category. Table IO.--Level of personal satisfaction with garment by degree of match score category for percept two and code (35 cases) Degree of match score category Level of satisfaction . Low Medium H1gh Number Percent* Number Percent Number Percent (completely satisfied) 11 4 11 3 9 10 4 11 4 11 3 9 9 2 6 8 23 3 9 8 2 6 1 3 7 (neutral) 6 1 3 Cases 8 23 18 51 9 27 *rounded percentages 104 HH ma memeu me3LmWC: wesw 5w mwmwwe geecew-ews ece uwwgmweeca meceww 2e; me3mecs PMEL 5H fie emerges. meseww sawemz meszWCS wesw 5w mwawwe :eecmw-ews eee uwwcmweecs mezeww HH eewwmwuem aweeeweseu 0H m Feweeez peeswem new; coweeewmwuem wecemwee we we>e4 newswem eeeeewem xwemeeee eweem seeee we eewmeo Amemee mmv ucmswem we ease ece meee ece e3» peeewee wew xwemeeee eweem geees we eewmee we eeeewem sew: coweuewmweem we we>ew we coweeewwemwotn.HH eweew 105 Choice of Agsptive Behavioral Response and Selected Factors The focus of Objective 4 was to explore the correspondence between selected factors and the individual's choice of adaptive behav- ioral response. Certain factors may influence the individual's choice of adaptive behavioral response. Those explored in this study were chronological age, level of formal educational attainment, amount of money income, and locus of control. Choice of Adaptive Behavioral Response and Age Research question I asked, "Is there a correspondence between the age of the individual and the choice of adaptive behavioral response?" Age Distribution Subjects ranged in age from 60 to 79 years. The stem-and-leaf display (Figure 23) reported the sample to be quite evenly distributed throughout the range. Mean age was 69.67; median age was 69; and modal age was 64 years. Age by 10 Cases 6 O 1 1 3 4 4 4 4 5 6 6 7 7 7 8 8 9 9 18 7 O 1 1 1 3 4 4 5 5 5 6 7 8 8 9 9 16 Missing _1_ Total 35 Figure 23. Rank order distribution of age. 106 Choice of Adsptive Behavioral Response and Age of Supject When grouped by age and choice of adaptive behavioral response, self-organizing and self-stabilizing, subjects were distributed some- what evenly throughout the ranges (Figure 24). A point-biserial correlation coefficient (Glass & Stanley, 1970: 163-4) was calculated to describe the relationship of age of subject with the choice of adaptive behavioral response. The result (rpb = .05) suggested a very low relationship between the two variables for these data. Choice of adaptive behavioral response Self-organizing Age by 10 Cases 6 3 4 4 4 8 9 7 O 1 5 6 7 8 9 13 Self-stabilizing Age by 10 6 O 1 1 4 5 6 6 7 7 8 7 1 1 3 4 4 5 5 8 9 19 Missing _S Total 35 Figure 24. Rank order distribution of age by choice of adaptive behavioral response 107 Choice of Adaptive Behavioral Response and Education Research question 2 asked, "Is there a correspondence between the individual's level of formal educational attainment and the choice of adaptive behavioral response?" "Formal educational attainment" referred to the highest level of formal schooling a person completed, as well as current enrollment in educational programs. Distribution of Formal Educational Attainment All subjects in this study completed high school; none reported a level of formal educational attainment of less than "high school graduate" (Figure 25). Over one-third of all subjects had attained an educational level of five or more years of college: When questioned concerning current enrollment in educational programs, one subject reported that she was enrolled part-time in a college program. Concerning past enrollment in educational programs other than high school or college, six subjects had attended vocational schools, and three of the six completed the programs. Four subjects were currently enrolled in nonformal educational programs such as arts and crafts and upholstery classes. Choice of Adapsive Behavioral Response and Level of Formal Educational Attainment When data were explored by level of formal educational attainment with the choice of adaptive behavioral response, either self-organizing or self-stabilizing, subjects were distributed, with two exceptions, evenly among all categories. Subjects with five or more years of college and those who were college graduates (four years) were Number 15 of cases I ///////////// 10 ///////////// ///////////// /////////////*. ///////////// ////////////// ///////////// ////////////// ///////////// ////////////////////////////j ///////////// //////////////////////////// 7//////////// 5 //////////////////////////////////////////////////////// //////////////////////////////////////////////////////// z/////////////////////////////////////////////////////// ///////////////////////////////////////////////////////// /////// ///////////// /////////////////////////////////// ////// ///////////// ///////////// ///////////// ////// ////// ////// ////// ////// ////// ////// ////// ////// Completed 1 - 3 years College 5 or more high school of college graduate years college Level of formal education Missing cases = 1 Total cases I (A) 01 Figure 25. Distribution of level of formal educational attainment 109 nearly twice as likely to choose a self-stabilizing than a self- organizing response (Table 12). A point-biserial correlation coefficient (Glass & Stanley, 1970:163-4) was determined to describe the relationship between level of formal educational attainment and the choice of adaptive behavioral response. To calculate the statistic, the following values were assigned to educational levels: completed high school = 12 years; one to three years of college = 14 years; completed college = 16 years; and five or more years of college = 18 years. The result (rpb = .11) suggested a very low correlation between the variables for these data. 110 Table 12.-~Level of formal educational attainment by choice of adaptive behavioral response Choice of adaptive behavioral response Level of formal education Self-organizing Self-stabilizing Number Percent* Number Percent Completed 2.5 high school 4 12'5 4 1 1-3 years college 3 9 4 12.5 College graduate 2 6 4 12.5 5 or more years 4 12 5 7 22 college ' Cases 13 4O 19 59.5 Missing = 3 Total = 35 *rounded percentages 111 Choice of Adaptive Behavioral Response and Money Income Research question 3 asked, "Is there a correspondence between money income of an individual and the choice of adaptive behavioral response?" Subjects checked a money income category to indicate total money income before taxes in 1980. Sources of money income for most subjects were Social Security, interest, and pensions; about two-thirds of the subjects also received income from dividends. Distribution of Money_lncome Responses were distributed throughout the broad range of money income categories. No subjects indicated a money income of less than $4,000 per year; one individual indicated a money income in the $50,000 and over category; and the largest number of responses (7) were found in the $15,000 - $19,999 category (Figure 26). Median money income category was $13,000 - $13,999. Choice of Adaptive Behavioral Response and Money Income When money income responses were grouped by the choice of adap- tive behavioral response, the self-organizing category contained the extremes of the range of money income; self-stabilizing responses clustered around the median (Figure 27). A point-biserial correlation coefficient (Glass & Stanley, 1970:163-4) was determined to describe the relationship between money income and choice of adaptive behavioral response. The mid-point of each money income category was used to provide a discrete numeral for the arithmetical calculations; for the "$50,000 and over" category, 112 "$50,000" was used. The result (rpb = -.12) suggested a very low inverse relationship between the variables for these data. 113 Money income categories Number of cases Dollars $50,000 and over 3 5 35,000 - 49,000 30,000 - 34,999 25,000 - 29,999 20,000 - 24,999 15,000 - 19,999 14,000 - 14,999 13,000 - 13,999 12,000 - 12,999 11,000 - 11,999 10,000 - 10,999 9,000 - 9,999 8,000 - 8,999 7,000 - 7,999 6,000 - 6,999 5,000 - 5,999 4,000 - 4,999 §§§§§a .¢5> Cases Missing = 3 Total = 35 Figure 26. Distribution of money income 114 Self-organizing Money income Self-stabilizing response category response Percent Dollars DTPercent 15 IO 5 O O 5 10 15 Q $50,000 and over 359000 "" 49,000 30,000 - 34,999 25,000 - 29,999 20,000 - 24,999 it \\ 15,000 - 19,999 it t it \ \\ \\ \\\ \\ 13,000 - 13,999 SS$SSS$SSS 12,000 - 12,999 11,000 - 11,999 ;.¢¢--- Q §§§§§§§§§§ 10.000 - 10,999 9.000 - 9.999 thiiiht \\\\\\\ 8,000 - 8,999 7,000 - 7,999 6,000 - 5.999 tit? \\\\ 5,000 - 5,999 4,000 ' 49999 $5: 45: 12 Cases 18 Missing = 5 Total = 35 Figure 27. Money income by choice of’ adaptive behavioral response 115 Choice of Adaptive Behavioral Response and Locus of Control Research question 4 asked, "Is there a correspondence between an individual's locus of control and the choice of adaptive behavioral response?" "Locus of control" refers to Rotter's (1966) generalized expec- tancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Rotter contends that individuals differ in their tendency to attribute satis- factions and failures to themselves rather than to external causes. In Rotter's theory, when an individual perceives an event as the result of luck, chance, or fate, or as unpredictable because of the great complexities of the forces surrounding him or her, Rotter labels this a belief in external control. On the other hand, "If the person perceives that the event is contingent upon his own behavior or his own relatively permanent characteristics, we have termed this a belief in internal control" (Rotter, 1966:1). Subjects in this study were asked to complete Rotter's Internal Versus External Control Scale to provide an indication of the individu- al's locus of control. Distribution of Locus of Control The Internal Versus External Control Scale measures the number of external beliefs endorsed by the subject. The scale is a 29—item, forced choice test, including six filler items intended to make some— what more ambiguous the purpose of the test. The number of external beliefs endorsed by the subjects ranged from 2 to 17, with most scores at 12 or below. The mean score of 8.39 was close to the median (8.58) and mode (9) (Figure 28). 116 Choice of Adapsive Behavioral Response and Internal Versus External Control Scale Scores When Internal Versus External Control Scale scores were grouped by choice of adaptive behavioral response, nearly three times as many self-stabilizing responses as self-organizing appeared at or below the median (8.58); over two-thirds of the self-organizing responses were found above the median (Figure 29). A point-biserial correlation coefficient (Glass & Stanley, 1970: 163-4) was calculated to describe the relationship of the number of external beliefs endorsed with the choice of adaptive behavioral response. The result (rpb = -.37) suggested a moderately low inverse relationship between the variables for these data: as the number of external beliefs endorsed increased, the difference in scores between those choosing self-stabilizing responses and those choosing self- organizing responses decreased. 117 mm meweem eweem weweceu wecweexm memwe> wecweucw we :ewpaewwpmwo eemweece mwewwee wecweexe we weasez ma o“ _ _ oH .eN ewseww weeew mcwmmwz memeu mummo wo weesez 118 Number of external beliefs Self-organizing response endorsed Self-stabilizing response 4 3 2 1 O 0 1 2 3 4 wooowmmhwmu—a HI-l HO I—lt—I CAIN NNNNHI—II—Io—Io—Io—I wNHOkomeUI-b 13 Cases 18 Missing Total 01-h Figure 29. Distribution of Internal Versus External Control Scale scores by choice of adaptive behavioral response CHAPTER V GENERATION OF HYPOTHESES The overall purpose of this research was to pilot an empirical investigation of Laszlo's valuing process model and to generate hypotheses for future testing of the theory. Analysis of the first four specific objectives of the research and their research questions formed the basis for the formulation of the hypotheses, Objective 5 of this research: to generate hypotheses concerning the valuing process and selected variables. Exploratory and descriptive data analysis procedures were employed to investigate the collected data and to suggest indicators providing a foundation for the hypotheses. Numerous hypotheses could be derived or generated from the valuing process model; those discussed do not represent an exhaustive list. All the hypotheses represent indications suggested by these particular data; all must be tested in order to confirm or deny their actual validity, and therefore the theory from which they originate. Research hypotheses are presented by order of the objectives and their research questions. Each is discussed concerning its rela- tionship to the theory, and the indicators suggested by the findings. Recommendations applicable to testing the hypotheses are offered, as are some implications for family management teaching and theory. 119 120 Degree of Match: Percept and Code The focus of Objective 1 was to explore the degree of match between the percept and code measurements. Laszlo's valuing process theory states that the degree of match between percept and code is indicative of an individual's value state, a state of the system in which its percepts match its constructs or codes. The match is a state brought about by the system through self- organizing and self-stabilizing adaptive behaviors. The states with which value correlates for an individual range over a spectrum ex- tending from minimal to optimal. Research questions for Objective 1 were closely related and are all stated initially. Specific hypotheses and discussion follow. Research question 1: What is the degree of match between percept two and code? Research question 2: What is the degree of match between percept one and code? Research question 3: In the valuing process, is there a difference in the degree of match of percept two and code and the degree of match of percept one and code? Research question 4: What is the degree of match between percept one and percept two? H1: There is a relationship between percept and code. Research questions 1, 2, and 3 were concerned with the relation- ship of percept with code. In the research context, the questions concerned the amount of correspondence (degree of match) between the subject's perception of a particular insulative garment for indoor wear upon initial viewing (percept one) with the subject's normative expectations for the ideal insulative clothing for indoor wear (code); as well as the subject's perception of such a garment after having worn it on the test day (percept two) with code. Percept and code were measured with the appropriate semantic differential instruments. 121 Degree of match was determined by the number of absolute matches of adjective pairs between percept and code. Exploration of the data suggested the hypothesis, that there is a relationship between percept and code. The data indicated a wide range of responses for degree of match of percept (one and two) with code (Figures 8 and 11). There were no responses for either set of data of less than 19 matching adjective pairs (range: 0 - 124); the theory states that when there are very few or no matches, the experience of matching percept with code "remains anomalous--chaotic and unintelli- gible" (Laszlo, 1972:265). At the Opposite end of the range, there were no responses for either set of data of more than 102 matching adjective pairs; an optimal value state is one of a high degree of match between percept and code, but "It is never an absolute match... but always an optimal one--one that is as permanent and perfect as the system can make it" (Laszlo, 1972:264). The theory also states that matches are scaled down from the state of optimum match or value to those which represent less extensive and intensive forms of adapta- tion to the environment. The findings appeared to indicate such a structure. The structure of both percepts with code also suggested bimodality. A characteristic of interest in regard to the bimodal structure of percept two and code was a "gap" between the modal peaks showing a lack of match scores between 64 and 73. The mean for degree of match of percept two and code scores (61.49) fell be- tween the peaks suggesting that the mean may not have represented a typical score. The display in Figure 8 (page 74) could be inter- preted as indicating two rather separate distributions: one from 21 to 64 matching adjective pairs and one from 73 to 102 matching 122 adjective pairs. To a lesser extent this characteristic also appeared in the distribution of degree of match of percept one and code (from 19 to 62 matching adjective pairs and from 69 to 91 matching adjective pairs); however, the mean (53.2) did not fall near or in this gap. The notion of two smaller distributions, lower and higher, may have implications for describing particular characteristics related to the distribution. For example, while the degree of match of percept with code (indicating the value state) ranges over a spectrum from minimal to optimal, a minimal or negative value state, according to the theory, has different implications for the adaptation of the individual to the environment than an optimal value state: "negative yelpgs_attach to those states of the cognitive system wherein he is unable to meet the challenge of the environment," while "optimal yplpp_correlates with the cognitive organization through which the system can successfully predict and compensate for most of the relevant environmental variables" (Laszlo, 1972:264). In this study, the range of degree of match scores was arbi- trarily divided into three categories of low, medium, and high to correspond with and to facilitate discussion of this aspect of the theory in the research context. Degree of match of percept two and code responses, when explored by category, revealed a nearly perfect unimodal symmetric distribution (Figure 9, page 75); however, the same result did not occur with the division of degree of match of percept one with code responses (Figure 12, page 81). It could be speculated that the experience of having worn the garment could influence the distribution of degree of match scores. 123 H2: The degree of match of percept with code increases with experience with the environmental object. Research question 3 concerned the difference between the degree of match of percept two with code and the degree of match of percept one with code; research question 4 concerned the degree of match of percept one with percept two. These questions explored the relation- ship of experience with percept and with percept with code. The valuing process theory states that the match between percept and code "is not a momentary or fortuitous coincidence of some con- structs in the system and the actual patterns of experience," but rather, it is a "state brought about by the system through self- stabilizing and self-organizing activities" which represents an adapta- tion to the factors of change governing conditions in the environment. "Thus, such a match does not ignore the future: it is the outcome of predictive-extrapolative adaptation to the limits of the system's capacities." (Laszlo, 1972:264) Percept one, measured upon initial viewing of a particular insulative garment for indoor wear, included a "predictive" component: each subject was asked to imagine that she was wearing the particular garment as she completed the semantic differential for that garment, that is, to complete the instrument by foretelling in advance what it would be like to wear that garment. A degree of match was determined between this percept and the individual's normative expectations for ideal insulative clothing for indoor wear (code). Percept two, measured after the subject had worn the garment on the test day, included an "experiential" component: each subject had actively participated by wearing the garment and had thus accumu- lated more knowledge about the garment (or concept). (It is noted 124 that this experiential component was new or fresh for all subjects because one sampling criterion for the study was that participants had not been wearing insulative garments for indoor wear prior to partici- pation.) A degree of match was also determined for this percept and code. Exploration of the data suggested that there was a moderately high relationship between the two sets of scores (r = .73), and that the bimodal structures of the distributions were similar. There were more high match scores for the degree of match between percept two and code and more low match scores for percept one and code. Further, when scores were considered by degree of match score category, the high match category for percept two and code was nearly twice as large as that of percept one and code (Figure 15, page 86). The degree of match between percept one and percept two, without their matches with code, was explored. If percept one and percept two matched perfectly, then it could be suggested that there did not appear to be a relationship between percept and experience. Exploration of these data, however, revealed a wide range of degree of match of percept one with percept two responses (from 30 to 97 matching adjective pairs). Exploration of the data appeared to indicate a trend toward more high matches with experience and may make the proposed hypothesis tenable. 125 Degree of Match: Choice of Adaptive Behavioral Response The focus of Objective 2 was to explore the correspondence between the degree of match of percept two with code and the choice of adaptive behavioral response. Research question: Is there a correspondence between the degree of match of percept two and code and the choice of adaptive behavioral response? H3: There is a correlation between the degree of match of percept with code and the choice of adaptive behavioral response. H3a‘ A high degree of match between percept and code correlates with a self-stabilizing mode of adaptive behavioral response. The valuing process theory states that the individual can increase the probability of an optimal match between percept and code, and thus an optimal value state, by responding in self-organizing or self-stabilizing adaptive modes. Self-stabilizing adaptive behavioral responses are negative feedback processes governed by codes and have as their goal a specific (high) match between percept and code. Self-organizing adaptive behavioral responses are positive feedback responses, governed by a need for an adjustment in code, and continued until a response is produced which results in a match between percept and code. Negative feedback then stabilizes the reSponses until further changes in the environment produce a mis- match or less than optimal match between percept and code. In this study, the relationship explored was that of the degree of match of percept two and code (the subject's perception of a particular garment after having worn it on the test day and her normative expectations for the ideal insulative clothing for indoor wear) with the choice of adaptive behavioral response, self-stabilizing 126 (the subject's indication of willingness to continue to wear the particular garment) and self-organizing (the subject's indication of unwillingness to continue to wear the particular garment). The flow- chart on page 26 illustrated this relationship. That there is a correlation between a high degree of match of percept with code and the choice of a self-stabilizing mode of adaptive behavioral response is one hypothesis that provides an empirical test of the valuing process theory. According to the theory, an optimal match between percept and code signals the attainment of an optimal value state, which is maintained or stabilized by self-stabilizing behaviors. A self-organizing adaptive response here would be counter to this proposition, and thus the theory would be questionable. Exploration of the visually represented data (Figures 18 and 19, pages 92 and 95) revealed that there may be a trend toward a relation- ship between degree of match of percept with code and choice of adap- tive behavioral response. The highest matches appeared with the self- stabilizing responses, and there were more high matches for this mode of response. The bimodal structures and the patterns of distribution for both sets of data suggested the possibility of two distributions (lower and higher) within each set. For example, there was a large gap in the distribution of scores for self-organizing responses (from scores 50 to 73) in which the mean (56.5) fell suggesting two separate distributions; a large gap (from score 80 to score 93) also appeared in the distribution of self-stabilizing responses, which did not include the mean (63.5). Finally, the median for self-stabilizing responses (61) was much higher than the median for self-organizing responses (47). 127 The point-biserial correlation coefficient (rpb = .14) suggested a very low relationship between the degree of match of percept with code and the choice of adaptive behavioral response. However, this result could be viewed with a certain amount of skepticism. The exploratory approach to data analysis advocates skepticism of measures which summarize data, at this point in the research process, because they can conceal or misrepresent what may be more informative aspects of the data. This mode of data analysis is open to a wide range of alternative explanations, including alternatives dictated by theoreti- cal expectations. Visual exploration of the data appeared to provide more useful information than the summary statistic upon which to base the proposed hypotheses, and to suggest that these hypotheses may be tenable. Degree of Match: Level of Satisfaction The focus of Objective 3 was to explore the correspondence between the level of personal satisfaction with a selected garment and the degree of match between percept and code. Research question: Is there a correspondence between the level of personal satisfaction with a selected garment and the choice of adaptive behavioral response? H4: There is a correlation between degree of match of percept with code and the level of personal satisfaction. H4a: A high degree of match between percept with code correlates with a high level of satisfaction. The valuing process theory states that personal satisfaction is also indicative of a match between percept and code. If the theory is correct, a high match between percept and code should also result in 128 a high level of personal satisfaction. A low match between percept and code should be accompanied by a lower level of satisfaction. Thus, the satisfaction measure also acts as an empirical test of the valuing process theory. Personal satisfaction with a selected garment was measured by asking the subject to indicate on the 11-point satisfaction scale, a continuum from "1" (completely dissatisfied) to "6" (neutral) to "11" (completely satisfied), her level of satisfaction based on her personal judgment. The relationship between level of satisfaction and the degree of match of percept two and code (the subject's perception of the garment after having worn it on the test day and her normative expectations for the ideal insulative clothing for indoor wear) was explored. All responses, except one at "neutral," were found at the upper end of the continuum. This skewed result in the distribution of responses may be partially accounted for by the initial selection of garments by the project directors for use in the empirical investiga- tion: it may be that the garments selected were those that were particularly pleasing to the participants in this research. Exploration of the data (Figure 22, page 101) suggested a trend toward higher degrees of match of percept two and code with higher levels of satisfaction. This indication also appeared when degree of match score categories were explored (Table 10, page 102). The Pearson product moment correlation coefficient (r = .32) suggested a moderately low relationship between the variables; however, for reasons discussed previously in regard to use of summary statistics at this point in the research process, more credence may be given to the visual exploration of the data for these two variables (other unknown reasons may account 129 for the correlation). The hypothesis that there is a correlation between degree of match of percept with code and the level of personal satisfaction and its corollary, that a high degree of match between percept and code correlates with a high level of satisfaction, appear to be tenable. Choice of Adaptive Behavioral Response and Selected Factors The focus of Objective 4 was to explore the correspondence between selected factors and the individual's choice of adaptive behavioral response. Certain factors may influence the individual's choice of adap- tive behavioral response in the valuing process. For example, self- stabilizing processes (as illustrated in Figure 4, page 20) may be organized in reference to certain data, such as those factors explored in this research which were age, level of educational attainment, money income, and locus of control, that make up part of the environment. These same data, may organize the self-organizing process (as illus- trated in Figure 5, page 22), in the individual's exploration of the environment leading to the envisagement of new codes. An overview of the suggested relationship of these factors to the valuing process is presented in Figure 30. 130 mmeeewe ecwewe> ecu ee mweueew eeeeewem we ewzmceweewem .om ewemwu 1V9». A: 2 ...as. .25 A..::.::o ..:.e «2.96". w, mdwxu “- 2:28.32. & 2:233: ._¢¢c_>_ww f 1 No 2.2b If YES, is that full-time or part-time? [ ] Full-time student [ J Part-time student 2.2c Please specify in which one of the above programs you are now enrolled (such as high school, college). 2.3a IN THE PAST, have you been enrolled in any type of educational program otfier tfian high school or college, such as vocational school? [ J Yes > I 1 No 2.3b If YES. please specify your field of training (such as business, office work, practical nursing, beautician, mechanic, electrician). Field of training 2.3c Did you complete the training program? [ J Yes [ ] No ~—..—_—.-... --.._. .---—- ““a— J 2.4a Are you NON enrolled in any type of educational program other than high school, EETlege or graduate school, such as vocational training program, arts and crafts classes, or religion classes? [ ] Yes > I 1 Yo 2.4b If YES, what type of educational program 4‘ is it? I Field of training or type of program or classes 1S90 12 What was your total income before taxes in l980? Please include income from all sources before taxes, including income from waoes, property, stocks, interest, social security, pension, welfare, and any other money income received by you. Please include any gifts or payments made on your behalf by another person. TOTAL YEARLY INCOME, 1980 ] under $2,000 ] $2,000 - $2,999 [ $11,000 - $11,999 [ $12,000 - $12,999 [ $13,000 - $13,999 ] $4,000 - $4,999 [ $14,000 - $14,999 ] $5,000 - $5,999 [ $15,000 - $19,999 3 $6,000 - $6,999 [ 3 $20,000 - $24,999 I I I I l._l I...) T—J L—.-J'-.—l 1 $7,000 - 57,999 J 525.000 - $29,999 ] $5,000 - $8,999 1 530,000 - $34,999 3 $9,000 - $9,999 1 535,000 - 549,999 1 $10,000 - 510,999 ] $50,000 and over hfififififlf—Iflfih 2191 13 8.2 What are the sources of your income? CHECK as many categories as you need to describe your own situation. INCOME SOURCE ] wages ] Salary ] Pension ] Social Security I Supplemental Security Income ] Alimony 1 Interest ] Food stamps ] Commissions ] Dividends ] Bonuses ] Overtime ] Unemployment compensation 3 Trust funds ] Royalties ] Inheritance ] Rent ] Help from relatives ] Roomers or boarders ] Babysitting 1 Housekeeping ] Selling farm produce or crafts ] Other, please list flfifif—‘fll—Irfiflflflf—Ofiflfififil—‘fif—Bl—‘l—Iflfi 192 24 OPINIONS AND BELIEFS Listed below are a number of statements concerning personal attitudes and traits. Read each item and decide whether the statement is true or false as it pertains to you personally. CIRCLE "1" IF TRUE, CIRCLE "2" IF FALSE. TRUE FALSE 15.1 Before voting I thoroughly investigate the qualifications Of all the candidates. 1 2 15.2 I never hesitate to go out of my way to help someone in trouble. 1 2 15.3 It is sometimes hard for me to go on with my work if I am not encouraged. l 2 15.4 I have never intensely disliked anyone. l 2 15.5 On occasion I have had doubts about my ability to succeed in life. 1 2 15.6 I sometimes feel resentful when I don't get my way. 1 2 15.7 I am always careful about my manner of dress. 1 2 15.8 My table manners at home are as good as when I eat out in a restaurant. 1 2 15.9 If I could get into a movie without paying for it and be sure I was not seen, I would probably do it. 1 2 15. 15. 15. 15. 15. 15. 15. 15. 15. 15. 15. 15. 15. 15. 15. 15. 10 11 12 20 21 .22 .23 .24 25 26 27 28 193 25 On a few occasions, I have given up doing something because I thought too little of my ability. I like to gossip at times. There have been times when I felt like rebelling against people in authority even though I knew they were right. No matter who I'm talking to, I'm always a good listener. I can remember "playing sick" to get out of something. There have been occasions when I took advantage of someone. I'm always willing to admit it when I make a mistake. I always try to practice what I preach. I don't find it particularly difficult to get along with loud mouthed, obnoxious people. I sometimes try to get even, rather than forgive and forget. when I don't know something I don't at all mind admitting it. I am always courteous, even to people who are disagreeable. At times I have really insisted on having things my own way. There have been occasions when I felt like smashing things. I would never think of letting someone else be punished for my wrongdoings. I never resent being asked to return a favor. I have never been irked when people expressed ideas very different from my own. I never make a long trip without checking the safety of my car. There have been times when I was quite jealous Of the good fortune of others. TRUE FALSE 0..) 1194 26 TRUE FALSE 15.29 I have almost never felt the urge to tell someone off. 1 2 15.30 I am sometimes irritated by people who ask favors of me. 1 2 15.31 I have never felt that I was punished without cause. I 3 15.32 I sometimes think when people have a misfortune they only got what they deserved. l 2 15.33 I have never deliberately said something that hurt someone's feelings. l 2 In this part of the questionnaire, we would like to find out the way in which certain events affect different people. Each item consists of a pair of alternatives lettered "a" or "b“. Please select the one statement of each pair (and only one) which you more strongly believe to be more true rather than the one you think you should choose or the one you would like to be true. This is a measure of personal belief: Obviously there are no right or wrong answers. Please answer these items carefully but do not spend too much time on any one item. Be sure to find an answer for every choice. CIRCLE THE LETTER. "a" or "b", which you choose as the statement more true. In some instances you may discover that you believe both statements or neither one. In such cases, be sure to select the ggg_you more strongly believe to be the case as far as you're concerned. 16.1 a. Children get into trouble because their parents punish them too much. The trouble with most children nowadays is that their parents are too easy with them. 16.2 5. Many of the unhappy things in people's lives are partly due to bad luck. People’s misfortunes result from the mistakes they make. 16.3 a. One of the major reasons why we have wars is because people don't take enough interest in politics. b. There will always be wars, no matter how hard peOple try to prevent them. 16.4 a. In the long run people get the respect they deserve in this world. Unfortunately, an individual's worth often passes unrecognized no matter how hard he tries. 16.5 a. The idea that employers are unfair to employees is nonsense. Most employees don't realize the extent to which their evaluations are influenced by accidental happenings. 16. 16. 16. 16. 16. 16. 16. 16. .17 195 27 without the right breaks one cannot be an effective leader. Capable people who fail to become leaders have not taken advantage of their opportunities. No matter how hard you try some people just don't like you. People who can't get others to like them don't understand how to get along with others. Heredity plays the major role in determining one’s personality. It is one's experiences in life which determine what one is like. I have often found that what is going to happen will happen. Trusting to fate has never turned out as well for me as making a decision to take a definite course of action. In the Case of the well prepared employee there is rarely if ever such a thing as an unfair evaluation. Many times employers' evaluations tend to be so unrelated to the job that working hard is really useless. Becoming a success is a matter of hard work; luck has little or nothing to do with it. Getting a good job depends mainly on being in the right place at the right time. The average citizen can have an influence in government decisions. This world is run by the few people in power, and there is not much the little guy can do about it. When I make plans, I am almost certain that I can make them work. It is not always wise to plan too far ahead because many things turn out to be a matter of good or bad fortune anyhow. There are certain people who are just no good. There is some good in everybody. In my case getting what I want has little or nothing to do with luck. Many times we might just as well decide what to do by flipping a coin. Who gets to be the boss often depends on who was lucky enough to be in the right place first. Getting people to do the right thing depends upon ability; luck has little or nothing to do with it. As far as world affairs are concerned, most of us are the victims of forces we can neither understand, nor control. By taking an active part in political and social affairs the people can control world events. 16. 16. 16. 16. 16. 16. 16. 16 16 18 19 20 21 .22 23 .24 26 27 .28 .29 196 28 Most people don't realize the extent to which their lives are controlled by accidental happenings. There really is no such thing as "luck.“ One should always be willing to admit mistakes. It is usually best to cover up one's mistakes. It is hard to know whether or not a person really likes you. How many friends you have depends on how nice a person you are. In the long run the bad things that happen to us are balanced by the good ones. Most misfortunes are the result of lack of ability, ignorance, laziness, or all three. with enough effort we can wipe out political corruption. It is difficult for people to have much control Over the things politicians do in Office. Sometimes I can't understand how employers arrive at the evaluations they make about employees. There is a direct connection between how hard people work and the evaluations they receive. A good leader expects people to decide for themselves what they should do. A good leader makes it clear to everybody what their jobs are. Many times I feel that I have little influence over the things that happen to me. It is impossible for me to believe that chance or luck plays an important role in my life. People are lonely because they don't try to be friendly. There's not much use in trying too hard to please people; if they like you, they like you. There is too much emphasis on competitive sports in schools today. Team sports are an excellent way to build character. what happens to me is my own doing. Sometimes I feel that I don't have enough control over the direction my life is taking. Most of the time I can't understand why politicians behave the way they do. In the long run the people are responsible for bad government on a national as well as on a local level. 197 FORM P Day 2 RESPONSE SHEET Clothing Choice 1. Check specific clothing choice of subject: [ ] Thermal underwear [ ] Tights (women)/Long johns (men) [ ] Undershirt and mid-length brief Scale Responses 2a. Eleven point Satisfaction Scale response: 2b. First Cantril Self-Anchoring Ladder Scale Response: (referent: best/worst insulative clothing for indoor wear) 2c. Second Cantril Self-Anchoring Ladder Scale Response: (referent: best/worst of §fs specific clothing choice) Body Temperature 3a. §fs body temperature °F 3b. Time of day body temperature was taken p.m. CONTINUE ON NEXT PAGE 198 Second Behavioral Response: (Hrite in st exact reSponse) 4a. DO you think you would consider keeping your thermostat lowered as you did today? I If YES:i b. What would you do to keep warm? [ ] Yes [ ] No C. Would you continue to wear the garment you wore today? d. Would you add an additional layer? e. Would you wear different insulative garments? What would you choose? f. Would you consider closing off rooms you don't use and returning thermostat in your living area to the original temperature? 9. Would you like to return to your normal household temperature and clothing? h. Can you think of other ways you might keep warm? 199 12345678911111 COMPLETELY COIPLETELY DISSATISFIED SATISFIED Eleven-Point Satisfaction Scale Reduced in scale for presentation in this report. 200 DESCRIPTIVE WORD PAIRS The purpose of this part of the study is to find out the meaninos that different items of clothing have for people by having them judge them in relation to pairs of adjectives which form a series of scales. In doing this, please make your judgments on the basis of what these items mean to ou. I will give you several pages on which you will find an item to be ju g and beneath it a set of scales. You are to rate the item on each of these scales. Here is how you are to use these scales. Let's practice on the item "The Weather oday." If you feel that the weather today is very_closely related to one end of the scale, you should place your check-mark as follows: comfortable X : : : : : : uncomfortable comfortable : : : : : : X Uncomfortable If you feel that the item is quite closely related to one or the other end of the scale (but not extremely), you Should place your check-mark as follows: cool : X : : : : : warm cool : : : : : X : warm If the item seems only slightly related to one side as opposed to the other side (but is not really neutral), you should place your check-mark as follows: happy : : X : : : : sad happy : : : : X : : sad The direction towards which you check, of course, depends upon which of the two ends of the scale seems most characteristic or descriptive of the item you are judging. If you consider the weather today to be neutral on the scale, both sides of the scale equally associated with the weather today, or if the scale is irrelevant, unrelated to the item, then you should place your check-mark in the miadle space: safe : : : X : : : dangerous IMPORTANT: (1) Place your check-marks in the middle of spaces, not on the boundaries. (2) Be sure you Check every scale for every item. 00 not omit any. (3) Nevergput more than one check-mark on a single scale. (4) Circle any word’whose meaning you do not know. Work at fairly high speed through this test. Do not worry or puzzle over individual items. It is your first impressions, the immediate "feelings" about the items, that we want. On the other hand, please do not be careless, because we want your true impressions. absorbent appropriate impressive serious possible dark calm scratchy repelling sophisticated permanent discordant decorative dull heavy achieving rural stretchy loud insecure useful approving bulky discouraging untidy 201 TIGHTS FORM GIW (or FORM GZW) nonabsorbent inappropriate unimpressive humorous impossible light anxious smooth attracting naive changeable harmonious plain sharp light failing urban taut quiet secure useless disapproving trim encouraging neat loose unusual becoming visible conforming constrained colorful smart dressy faddish elastic inferior leading well made worthless consistent inadequate comfortable curious thin unattractive broad contrary muted cautious 202 TIGHTS tight usual unbecoming invisible individual free drab dowdy casual Classic inelastic superior following poorly made valuable inconsistent adequate uncomfortable indifferent fat attractive narrow agreeable bright bold boring expensive free high status Offensive limiting competent provincial sad rafreshed wavering fussy unimaginativg angular conservative traditional Optimistic PFOgreSSive dry old-fashioned pleasing healthy unfair functional awkward 203 TIGHTS fun ineXPenSive clingy low status Pleasing versatile incompetent cosmopolitan happy weary confident tailored creative rounded extreme contemporary pessimistic regressive Clammy modern displeasing sick fair disfunctional graceful vain hard easy inner layer crude simple rigid powerful interesting undesirable supple friendly willing miserable carefree fashionable passive ordinary romantic wilted virtuous permissive concealed shoddy mature 204 TIGHTS modest soft difficult outer layer refined complex flexible powerless dull desirable firm unfriendly unwilling enjoyable annoying outmoded active distinctive unromantic crisp guilty prohibitive exposed quality youthful short thick cool tasteful masculine conforming Promising laborious energetic frugal rough ‘ 0 0011 n (It obstructive suc-essful rugged artificial poor probable conventional safe isolated negative untimely obvious 205 TIGHTS tall thin warm tasteless feminine deviating disappointing effortless listless extravagant smooth wise helpful unsuccessful delicate natural rich improbable eccentric hazardous sociable positive timely subtle absorbent appropriate impressive serious possible dark calm scratchy repelling sophisticated permanent discordant decorative dull heavy achieving rural Stretchy loud insecure useful approving bulky discouraging untidy 206 THERMAL UNDERWEAR FORM H1 (or FORM H2) nonabsorbent inapprOpriate unimpressive humorous impossible light anxious smooth attracting naive changeable harmonious plain sharp light failing urban taut quiet secure useless disapproving trim encouraging neat loose unusual becoming visible conforming constrained colorful smart dressy faddish elastic worthless consistent inadequate comfortable curious thin unattractive broad contrary muted cautious 207 THERMAL UNDERWEAR tight usual unbecoming invisible individual free drab dowdy casual classic inelastic superior following poorly made valuable inconsistent adequate uncomfortable indifferent fat attractive narrow agreeable bright bold boring expensive free high status offensive limiting competent provincial sad refreshed wavering fussy unimaginative angular conservative traditional optimistic progressive dry old-fashioned pleasing healthy unfair functional awkward 208 THERMAL UNDERWEAR fun inexpensive clingy low status pleasing versatile incompetent cosmopolitan happy weary confident tailored creative rounded extreme contemporary pessimistic regressive clammy modern displeasing sick fair disfunctional graceful vain hard easy inner layer crude simple rigid powerful interesting undesirable supple friendly willing miserable carefree fashionable passive ordinary romantic wilted virtuous permissive concealed shoddy mature 209 THERMAL UNDERWEAR modest soft difficult outer layer refined complex flexible powerless dull desirable firm unfriendly unwilling enjoyable annoying outmoded active distinctive unromantic crisp guilty prohibitive exposed quality youthful short thick cool tasteful masculine conforming promising laborious energetic frugal rough foolish obstructive successful rugged artificial poor probable conventional safe isolated negative untimely obvious 210 THERMAL UNDERWEAR tall thin warm tasteless feminine deviating disappointing effortless listless extravagant smooth wise helpful unsuccessful delicate natural rich improbable eccentric hazardous sociable positive timely subtle absorbent appropriate impressive serious possible dark calm scratchy repelling sophisticated permanent discordant decoratiye dull heavy achieving rural stretchy loud insecure useful approving bulky discouraging untidy 211 UNDERSHIRT AND MID-LENGTH BRIEF FORM II (or FORM 12) nonabsorbent inapprOpriate unimpressive humorous impossible light anxious smooth attracting naive changeable harmonious plain sharp light failing urban taut quiet secure useless disapproving trim encouraging neat loose unusual becoming visible conforming constrained colorful smart dressy faddish elastic inferior leading well made worthless consistent inadequate comfortable curious thin unattractive broad contrary muted cautious 212 UNDERSHIRT AND MID-LENGTH BRIEF tight usual unbecoming invisible individual free drab dowdy casual Classic inelastic superior following poorly made valuable inconsistent adequate uncomfortable indifferent fat attractive narrow agreeable bright bold boring : expensive free high status offensive limiting competent provincial sad refreshed wavering fussy unimaginat‘ve angular conservative traditional Optimistic progressive dry old-fashioned pleasing healthy unfair functional awkward 213 UNDERSHIRT AND MID-LENGTH BRIEF fun inexpensive clingy low status pleasing versatile incompetent cosmOpolitan happy weary confident tailored creative rounded extreme contemporary pessimistic regressive clammy modern displeasing sick fair disfunctional graceful vain hard easy inner layer crude simple rigid powerful interesting undesirable supple friendly willing miserable carefree fashionable passive ordinary romantic wilted virtuous permissive Concealed shoddy mature 214 UNDERSHIRT AND MID-LENGTH BRIEF modest soft difficult outer layer refined complex flexible powerless dull desirable firm unfriendly unwilling enjoyable annoying outmoded active distinctive unromantic crisp guilty prohibitive exposed quality youthful short thick cool tasteful masculine conforming promising laborious energetic frugal rough foolish obstructive successful rugged artificial poor probable conventional safe isolated negative untimely obvious 215 UNDERSHIRT AND MID-LENGTH BRIEF tall _____.thin warm tasteless feminine deviating disappointing effortless listless extravagant smooth wise helpful unsuccessful deliCate natural rich improbable eccentric hazardous sociable positive timely subtle absorbent appropriate impressive serious possible dark calm scratchy repelling sophisticated permanent discordant decorative dull heavy achieving rural stretchy loud insecure useful approving bulky discouraging untidy : 216 IDEAL INSULATIVE CLOTHING FOR INDOOR WEAR (What I think it ought to be) nonabsorbent inapprOpriate unimpressive humorous impossible light anxious smooth attracting naive changeable harmonious plain sharp light failing urban taut quiet secure useless disapproving trim encouraging neat FORM R 217 IDEAL INSULATIVE CLOTHING FOR INDOOR WEAR (What I think it ought to be) loose tight unusual usual becoming unbecoming visible invisible conforming individual constrained free colorful drab smart dowdy dressy casual faddish Classic elastic inelastic inferior superior leading following well made poorly made worthless valuable consistent inconsistent inadequate adequate comfortable uncomfortable curious indifferent thin fat unattractive attractive broad narrow contrary agreeable muted bright cautious bold boring expensive free high status offensive limiting competent provincial sad refreshed wavering fussy unimaginative angular conservative traditional optimistic progressive dry old-fashioned pleasing healthy unfair functional awkward 218 IDEAL INSULATIVE CLOTHING FOR INDOOR WEAR (What I think it ought to be) fun inexpensive clingy low status pleasing versatile. incompetent cosmopolitan happy weary confident tailored creative rounded extreme contemporary pessimistic regressive clammy modern displeasing sick fair disfunctional graceful vain hard easy inner layer crude Simple rigid powerful interesting undesirable supple friendly willing miserable carefree fashionable passive ordinary romantic wilted virtuous permissive concealed shoddy mature 219 IDEAL INSULATIVE CLOTHING FOR INDOOR WEAR (What I think it ought to be) modest soft difficult outer layer refined complex flexible powerless dull desirable firm unfriendly unwilling enjoyable annoying outmoded active distinctive unromantic crisp guilty prohibitive exposed quality youthful short thick cool tasteful masculine conforming promising laborious energetic frugal rough foolish obstructive successful rugged artificial poor probable conventional safe isolated negative untimely obvious 220 IDEAL INSULATIVE CLOTHING FOR INDOOR WEAR (What I think it ought to be) tall thin warm tasteless feminine deviating disappointing effortless listless extravagant smooth wise helpful unsuccessful delicate natural rich improbable eccentric hazardous sociable positive timely subtle LIST OF REFERENCES LIST OF REFERENCES Ackoff, R. 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MICHIGRN STAT I ll”) (Hill 1 £3 13122 531 IV 1 E UN 111)) 0365 . LIBRARIES llllllllllllllll 15854