i A RY E lIIflillllfl’ljflllllllflllllllllllllll 10612 7172"." V LIBRARY " Michigan State University 7" fi This is to certify that the dissertation entitled FIELD STAFF TRAINING FOR DEVELOPMENT IN EAST AFRICA: A CASE STUDY IN ONE PVO presented by Alemu Beeftu has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph . D degree in TEACHER EDUCATION ejacbfiifi Major professor Ted W. Ward Date ( .MSU is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771 TV‘SSI.) RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to LlanARJEs remove this checkout from your record. FINES will be charged if‘book is returned after the date stamped below. .“mun. l (-a i I" s.‘ £5} FIELD STAFF TRAINING FOR DEVELOPMENT IN EAST AFRICA: A CASE STUDY IN ONE PVO BY Alemu Beeftu .4- 1}; f A DISSERTATION 1 . i Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY . 1-,. ,_ . 1M; _. .943, ignites“ l- I \‘L’if: vjnf Department of Teacher Education I985 -‘ ABSTRACT FIELD STAFF TRAINING FOR DEVELOPMENT IN EAST AFRICA: A CASE STUDY IN ONE PVO By Alemu Beeftu Private voluntary organizations (PVOs) and government organizations (GOs) depend on indogenous staff for impact upon those they assist through the development process. Selecting and training these workers (change agents) is critically important. Planning such training raises two questions. I. What are the distinguishing criteria for identifying effective development workers? 2. What are common concerns in training curricula for maximizing the impact of development activities? This study identified, by congruency assessment, concerns common to development literature and one PVO's personnel at agency and community levels :in reference to purposes of development, effective change agents' roles and ‘I‘E—fikills, and other related issues. Questionnaires and interviews were used with persons at six levels: policy, inmagement, operational, project coordinator, project manager, and project ; I I. Alemu Beeftu The following findings were identified. 2. The agency is viewed as a committed, charitable, Christian organization assisting communities by funding projects. Eight elements were viewed as common to the purposes of development. The most named sources in conceptualizing development were community input, personal experience, and literature. Frequently used means of intro-organizational communication were written memoranda, dialogue, and seminars/ Twenty roles and twenty-two skills were identified as needed in the training of workers. A direct relationship was found between present training emphasis and the activities that occupy most of the workers' time. Local people know the purposes of development and the appropriate roles and skills for development workers. Lack of trained staff and motivation among clientele are the major constraints. The agency's strength seemed to meet the physical and spiritual needs of the community, work with integrated development and different ideologies, and assess project proposals. The reward system, inadequate concern for staff development, and emphasis on office work at the expense of development activities were the major concerns of the respondents. A congruence assessment approach accounting for both quantifiable and non-quantifiable concerns can be used as an educative process without extensive modern technology. DEDICATION to KEBEDE TESSEMA for the valuable and unforgetably precious memories of life experiences I. t we shared in the pursuit of both ,'~.« ‘ spiritual knowledge and formal education ("I I , ' and :.;‘_ ,. to ' gm; , HIRUI' G. O-RISTOS _ . . ' '1‘ A- - . . . . - ., u‘j ; . $9,:- 3 I for the values and conwctIons we hold In common I . . I » «a- I . V332,.,-.;j‘-- g, , , we share in serving the Lord Jesus Christ .- » ,. - . md our fellow human beings in His love and compassion 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My sincere acknowledgements and greatest praise go to God who has made many impossibilities possible and cared for me in every way with unconditional love as He has met all my needs. I also want to extend my appreciation to the agency which opened its doors for me to do the research for this dissertation, had faith and trust In me, and assisted the research undertaking with great interest and total commitment. My appreciation also goes to all the individuals without whose full support and participation in the research process, this project would not have been possible. In many ways, this research belongs to friends who have been instrumental in my educational pursuits and personal growth and development and without whose special assistance and moral support I could not have made it. Since there is no way I can adequately thank all of them enough for their contributions in their own special ways, it must suffice to mention the names of a few and leave the rest to the Lord Jesus Christ who is able to reward abundantly and without measure: my dear parents, W. Giorizis and Beeftu Belachew; Karin and Mulatu Belachew; Aster and Getachew Chuko; Yerusalem and Kebede Daka; Nona and Mamo Dibaba; Ruth and Bob Hirsch; Sofie and Betta Mengistu; Lisa and Bryant Myers; Hana and Tekle Selassie; Sara and Tesema Ta'a; Aster and Sebhet Tenna; and Margaret and Ted Word. I could go on listing many names who deserve to be mentioned, friends whose support meant so much to me, but I am forced to refrain from listing all of them by the reality and purposes of publication. All I can say is that l have been priviledged to be ‘ " ,.,~surrounded, supported, and assisted by so many committed and supportive The interest, guidance, and encouragement my doctoral committeenF rank Fear; Assefa Mehretu; Richard McLeod; and committee chair, Ted Ward-- provided Is greatly appreciated and has been essential in producing this research. The Chair's contribution, particularly, has been far beyond mere academic interest. Dr. Ted Word has influenced my whole personal development for more than he would imagine. ’1 '5 TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables viii List of Figures x CHAPTER I: THE PROBLEM I Background to the Problem 3 Private Volunteer Organizations (PVOs) 3 Purpose of the Study 8 Research Questions 8 Conceptual Framework 9 Assumptions ll Importance of the Case Study l2 Definition of Terms l3 Delimitation of the Study l5 Overview of the Study I5 Overview of the Chapters l6 CHAPTER II: THE CONTEXT [8 Private Voluntary Organizations l8 Historical Background of the Case Study Agency 25 Philosophy and Objectives of the Agency's Ministries 28 Organizational Structure and Partnership 34 CHAPTER III: PRECEDENT LITERATURE 36 Relief 36 Rehabilitation 37 Development 38 Conceptual Development 39 Four Dominating Emphases, Definitions of CD, and Orientations of Conceptual Development 4| Product 42 Process 43 Change of Political Structure/Liberation MI Spiritually Oriented #5 Contemporary Concepts of Community Development 46 Integrated Development 48 Major Approaches to Community Development Self-Help Approach Social Action or Conflict Approach Technical Assistance Approach Issues and Concerns Related to the Technical Assistance Approach Training and Staff Development Need for Training Formal Education Versus Training Rationale for Training Types of Training Pre-training Inservice Training Summary Development Workers/Change Agents Skills Needed by Change Agents Summation of the Research: a Tentative Taxonomy Purposes of Development The Role of Change Agents The Skills Field Workers/Change Agents Need CHAPTER IV: METHODOLOGY Instrumentation Procedures Identifying Sources Data Gathering Procedure Policy Level Management Level Operational Level Project Coordinators Project Managers Project Committees Organizing and Analyzing the Data Summary CHAPTER V: ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS Perceptions of the Agency Committed Christian Development Organization Relief Organization Development Assistance Organization Conceptual Differences Between Relief and Development Not a Partner, but a Charitable Organization Purposes of Development The Sources Most Used in Conceptualizing Development Intro-organizational Communication Role of Change Agents Skills Needed by Change Agents Problems in Implementing Development Activities vi General Strengths and Concerns of the Agency Strengths of the Agency Some Concerns about the Agency Concerns about Role of Project Coordinators Summary of the Findings CHAPTER VI: CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND SUMMARY Conclusions Commonality of Issues Relief vs. Development Purposes of Development Roles of Development Workers Commonly Valued Skills Training Skills Summation of the Training Taxation Constraints to Implementation Strengths of and Concerns about the Agency Reward Balancing Between Office Work and Development Staff Development Lack of Theology of Development Change of Policy Summary Appendix A Appendix B Appendix C Appendix D Appendix E Bibliography |24 |24 |25 l29 l3l I34 I34 I38 I38 I39 |4l I43 I45 l5l |53 l54 l54 l55 I56 I62 I73 I74 I75 I76 I77 2.| 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 3.| 3.2 3.3 4.l 5.l 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 LIST OF TABLES Breakdown of Private Foreign Assistance in the Early l9005 Income Sources for Foreign Relief, l939—l953 Total Revenue Summary Child Sponsorship Program Sources of Income and How It Was Spent: I982 and I983 Relief and Development Characteristics Motives of Providers and Recipients Differences Between Training and Education Study Subjects by Levels, Offices, and Numbers Responses to "Do you feel the agency is best known for assisting communities to plan and carry out long term development projects?" Activities That Best Characterize the Agency Congruence Between What the Agency "Is" and What It "Should Be" Most/Least Used Sources of Input Intro-organization Communication Percentage of Responses to the Question, "Do you consider project coordinators change agents?" Answer to the Question, "To what extent are development field workers required to fulfill the following roles?" Skills Considered by Personnel at Six Levels to Be a Necessary Part of Change Agents' Training Curricula Change Agent Skills Considered to Be Essential for Successful Development Work by Project Coordinators from Five African Countries viii 23 24 26 30 33 47 59 63 82 98 98 99 l05 l07 l08 IIS ”7 Areas of Most/Least Competence as Identified by Project Coordinators from Five African Countries Duties That Take Most of a Change Agent's Time Duties That Take Most of a Change Agent's Time [20 I2l I23 LIST OF FIGURES Relationships Within the Agency Conceptualization of Variables ‘Conceptualization of Variable Overlap IE4 "Categorization of Major Variables 2d“ ‘ "TheOrganizational Structure . 6.14 Planning, Processing, and Outcomes of Evaluation CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Relief and development agencies depend upon recruited national field workers to bring about planned change through development processes. The kind of impact these agencies have upon clientele very much depends upon their national field workers-«making the selection, training, and development of those field workers critically important. Pre- and inservice training, which will enable field workers to facilitate effective clientele development, needs to be based upon sound curriculum theory and practice. Accordingly, one of the issues for which relief and development agencies seek resolution is inservice training. Agencies that concern themselves with assisting in relief and development, particularly in cross—cultural settings, are searching for relevant research that brings together theory and practice in training development workers--both research as conducted in social sciences and as experienced by their own field workers and clientele. The theoretical concepts which have been identified in development literature are drawn largely from Western research and experience concerning the role of development workers, skills needed for effective community development workers, and the purpose of development itself. On the other hand, relief and development agencies that recruit national leaders for field work‘in the Third World have their own conception of the roles that development workers play, the skills they need, and the nature of development. Development field practitioners also have their own perceptions of the roles they play, the skills they need, and the purposes of development, as do the clientele, within the context of a given political structure and cultural milieu. However, the similarities and differences among these viewpoints have not been identified for building the curriculum foundations to train development workers. Therefore, the need for sound curriculum necessitates the identification of common denominators, by congruency assessment, from among theoretical concepts of development, field experience, and the reality of the needs expressed by development assistance recipients. A case study approach was the main avenue chosen for the assessment of these relationships. An agency was used in the case study to demonstrate replicable scientific analysis of development that can be used by private agencies to design sound curriculum for the training of field workers. The main concern of the study, then, was to identify the common denominators among four sources: development theory in research literature, agency development policy conceptualizers, the experience of field workers, and desires of local people within the framework of a given political structure. These main resources further break down into six major levels within the agency hierarchy. The results of a congruency assessment of these sources will provide a basis for the design of pre- and inservice training curriculum for development field workers. The study focused primarily on two interrelated questions: I. What are the distinguishing criteria for identifying effective development workers, according to precedent research, relief and development agencies, their field workers and target populations? 2. What are the common concerns that can be used as bases for training curricula in order to maximize the impact of development activities? Background to the Problem Many organized activities of relief and development have come into existence as a result of humanitarian responses to war and other disasters (e.g., earthquakes, floods, droughts). The practice of many agencies concerned with such activities is to expand the scope and magnitude of their work after the disaster and to move from relief work to rehabilitation or other forms of integrated development activities (for rural or urban communities). Agency administrators who are concerned with such relief and development activities in the Third World have a duty to identify effective pre- and inservice training curricula for national field workers, based on development theory and field practice, in order to maximize the worth of their impact on clientele. Some organizations have expressed need for the identification of qualitative criteria for selection and training of their field workers. Private Volunteer Organizations (PVOs) The agencies of relief and development can be categorized into two groups. The first category is composed of voluntary, private agencies (non- governmental), while the second category includes agencies of one or more governments. The private agencies are those which raise their own funds for their work, without depending directly upon government resources. The government agencies are those who depend on United Nations funds or direCNY upon specific government support to carry out their relief and developmenf activities. According to Boyness (I980) there are 490 United States nonprofit organizations providing development assistance abroad. A voluntary agenc)’ is defined by the American Council (I979, l98l) as " . . . a nonprofit organlzoilo . d established by a group of private citizens for a stated philanthropic purpose. on supported by voluntary contributions from individuals concerned with the realization of its purposes." They include IO foundations, 208 religious organizations, and 87 other nonprofit organizations, including professional associations. Private voluntary organizations (PVOs) are of two major types. First are the non—religious-oriented agencies. In other words. those PVOs which are concerned with human needs out of humanistic concern, not because of their religious values. They include highly professional and less professional agencies. Their organizational structure may vary from informal to very highly organized. According to t-bveman (l98l), the period of their major expansion was from I900- l939. Curtis (I963) gave them credit for saving tens of thousands of lives in all quarters of the globe (t-bveman, l98l). The second type of PVOs are those which came into existence out of religious convictions and based their values on their religions. The majority of these PVOs, if not all of them, were brought into being directly or indirectly by the Christian missionary movement (t-bveman. l98l). They were some of the early PVOs involved in international relief, rehabilitation, development, and other forms of aid assistance. The major difference between religious PVOs and secular PVOs is that the former integrate religion and development. In other words, religion is one of the motivating factors in their work. In spite of the increase of relief and development agencies, both in number and magnitude, which have arisen to meet basic human needs and to assist in development activities, so far the impact has not been as expected (I-bveman, l98l). The major concerns about their development works are of two types. I. concern with external criticism. A given agency does not know what others are doing, since each organization conceives its own work in isolation. There is no effective communication network among them to share information and eliminate gaps in and duplication of services. In other words, there is not enough joint planning and too little working together (Bolling, I982, p. l82); and 2. concern with internal reality. The failure of many so-called community development activities and other relief and development projects (t-bldcraft 8. Jones, I982) has raised many questions. PVOs try to guard against further failure and meet existing human needs in more effective ways. It seems, then, that it would be more natural to raise concerns with practical questions, such as: --What works best in relief and development and why? urbw should the success or failure of relief and development projects be judged? --Because the success of projects depends on recruited national field workers, what constitutes sound curriculum of both pre-and inservice training? --Of what should cross-cultural field workers' training curricula consist? --Do field workers and clientele perceive the purposes of development the way agency administrators do? -—t-bw should administrators prepare field workers for their roles as change agents? --What are some of the appropriate skills needed to maximize the effectiveness of development? --t-bw do field workers translate into practice the model administrators give them to work with? Scientific research that has been used to answer the above and related relief and development questions has been mainly quantitative. t-bwever. it has not provided the results desired for relief and development work, possibly because of the emphasis, or the context of the research, or because of the agencies' fear of being evaluated. The emphasis in quantitative research has been on generalizability of the findings. As a result, its focus has been on establishing acceptably large data bases--without sufficient emphasis on the dynamics of human relations. In an effort to be general, there is a tendency to A overlook subtle or hidden root problems. The context in which research for relief and development is conducted is often less than ideal for obtaining valid information. In most cases, the major concern of the recipient of relief and development assistance is survival. People who are in that situation do not easily provide valid information to outsiders or experts visiting for a short time, since they do not know what might be done with the information. The researcher lacks credibility in their eyes. Fear of being evaluated arises because the major emphasis of evaluation research is frequently to show the shortcomings or failures of projects or programs without providing valid solutions, no matter how much they need the insights which the research might provide. A few agencies, at least, are open to research. Even here the research must seek answers to M problems by looking into thiir specific concerns in depth, possibly uncovering hidden problems and suggesting possible solutions. The study at hand represents a response to the above situation and attempts to develop a model for research that addresses the above concerns in different situations. Agencies (both government and private voluntary organizations) have many unanswered questions and expressed needs for research and training (World Bank, l98l). The primary focus of the study was on the PVOs. In the case study, the PVC that has been chosen is represented as "the agency." The selection of one PVO for the case study is mainly based on the following assumptions about PVOs. l. Their work is target group-oriented, less hierarchical, of a manageable size, and their services are valued (cf. Rolling, I982, p. I89; Haveman, l98l, p. l58). 2. They are generally welcomed and recognized as being apolitical (rhveman, l98l, p. l58). 3. "PVOs are particularly active in fostering self-help initiative among the poor" (t—bveman, l98l, p. l58; Rolling, I982, p. I89). 4. They are viewed as well-organized (Haveman, l98l, p. l58). A 5. They are in popular demand-~their development workers are usually considered to be "better" (Haveman, l98l, p. l58). 6. Their program is considered to be exemplary, "the multinational sector looks to the NGO sector to help translate program ideals into reality" (thveman, l98l, p. l58). 7. They encourage the development and strengthening of "indogenous participation institutions" (Rolling, I982, p. l89). 8. They are considered to be more related directly to their clientele-—open to negotiations (l—bveman, l98l, p. l58). 9. They are open to experimenting with new programs or approaches (t-bveman, l98l, p. l58). l0. Their program is more indogenous right from the beginning. This is considered to be true, particularly with missions and church- related agencies, since their work and activities are implegnented through indogenous local churches (l-bveman, l98l, p. I58 . ll. They have a good reputation for flexibility and efficiency in responding to need (t-bveman, l98l, p. l58). The agency used for the case study is among the relief and development agencies that have expressed a need for such study. To make the result of the case study more practical and replicable, the use of a specific location and particular organization was preferred. This international agency‘s development work in East Africa was chosen for the case study. In addition to the above assumptions, the agency was chosen for the following reasons. I. The researcher chose the case study, not to make generalizations about the results, but to create a research model replicable in other situations. 2. The agency's development work in East Africa provided a context for raising some of the questions the study has been concerned with. 3. The access point was amenable with the agency because of the confidence and trust already developed. T_____,fi Purpose of the Study To have maximum desired impact upon communities they assist in a process of development, both government organizations ((305) and private voluntary organizations (PVOs) depend on their local or national field workers who are expected to play the role of change agents in their respected communities. Therefore, having selection and training criteria that include community people is critically important. Therefore, two purposes guided this research: I. to identify concerns common to development research literature, persons at policy, management. operation, project coordinators, project managers, and community people, concerning the purposes of development, the role of change agents and the skills they need to be effective, and other related issues by means of case study; 2. to identify the common denominators or concerns from among the above views that serve as core elements and supportive elements for the design of curricula for pre- and inservice training as well as selection criteria of field workers/change agents; and Research Questions In the proposed study, the researcher sought to answer eight basic questions. I. Do people at different levels within the organization have similar perceptions on main issues? 2. Do agencies' personnel at different levels make distinctions between relief and development? 3. What are some of the purposes of development assistance that are commonly valued by development literature and by persons at policy management operation, project coordinators, project managers, and target population levels? 4. What are some of the roles development workers are expected to presume in fostering community development and which ones are common to the above mentioned (#3)? 5. What skills are needed by development workers and which ones are commonly valued at all levels of the agency's hierarchy? 6. What are the major constraints in implementing development projects? 7. What are the strengths and weaknesses of private development agencies? 8. Which of the common concerns claimed by the literature do persons at different levels provide for selecting and constructing training curricula for development workers/change agents? Conceptual Framework The conceptual models from which the research questions are derived provided the context for the study and the framework for identifying the common concerns that serve as a basis of training curriculum. The following three conceptual models are supplied to provide a framework for the congruency assessment undertaken by the study. The first model (Figure H) is used to conceptualize the relationships within the agency. Key to the Figure PP = policy-level personnel MP = management-level personnel FW : field workers l = relationship between FW and PP 2 = relationship between PP and MP 3 = relationship between MP and FW 4 = relationship among PP, MP, and FW Figure l.l. The major focus of the study at this stage was to determine the flow of communication and the translation process that takes place prior to the implementation of development models. The second model (Figure l.2) was used to conceptualize the way exogenous variables relate to the agency (indogenous) variables in the study. SOURCES AGENCIES GOVERNMENT (Literature) (At Policy and Principles Managerial and Guide Level) Lines Figure |.2 The third model (Figure l.3) was used to conceptualize the overlap among indogenous variables to identify their common concerns for training curricula. Key to the Figure L : Literature concept of purpose, role, and skills of development workers/ change agents PL = Concept of persons at policy levels ML : Concept of the persons at manage- ment levels 0 = Organization level PC = Concept of project coordinators PM = Concept of project managers CP = Concept of project committees CA : Change agents ' C = Common concern or denominator to all indogenous variables Figure l.3. The conceptual framework provided in Figure l.4 suggests use of the overlapping variables in Figure L3. The major variables in the case study were categorized as follows. Key to the Figure I : Core concern of the curriculum (always important) II = Major supportive elements (frequently important) Ill : Less crucial issues for curriculum design but can be used as background information (occasionally supportive) Figure l.4. l. indogenous variables: the variables which formed the core concerns of the study. In the study indogenous variables were the agency's personnel at the policy level, management level, operation, project coordinators, project managers, target population, and development theory as illustrated on the conceptual model in Figure |.2; and 2. exogenous variables: the variables that related to the study at a secondary level, yet might influence the outcome. In the study these are government policies and literature (sources that influence the development model at policy level), illustrated on the conceptual model of Figure |.3. Assumptions The kind of impact relief and development agencies have on the clientele depend greatly upon their nationally recruited field workers. Therefore, the selection and training of those field workers is an integral part of the development process. The study was based on the following assumptions: (0) training which will maximize the desired effects of development upon the clientele should reflect sound curriculum theory; (b) the training should be based upon culturally meaningful practices of pre- and inservice training; (c) common concerns can be identified from the research literature, the development agency, its field workers, and target population for the design of a curriculum for such training; and (d) if the target population are given a chance of expressing their view. They could help the development assistance agencies in identifying purposes and development and criteria for selecting and training persons work with them. Importance of the Case Study As in most disciplines, the major problem here is not a lack of concepts but a lack of field-tested theory to serve as a basis for improved praxis. Particularly in the rapidly expanding field of relief and development work little, if any, research has been done to bring together theory identified in precedent literature; to identify the models of development that the agency, within its government guidelines. seeks to implement; the issues with which field workers are concerned; and the ends that the target population would like to see accomplished. l. The importance of the study lies in seven things it attemptsed to do: a. to identify the problem and bring together the problems and possible solutions; b. to facilitate the effective training of field workers and maximize the impact of relief and development activities; c. to do replicable research that has depth and provides answers to the existing problems; d. to identify the relationships between the above mentioned indogenous variables; e. to identify the translation process that takes place from the intended ideas, practicalized ideas, and operationalized ideas; f. to identify the nature of communication that takes place among the indogenous variables; and g. to identify whether total congruency exists and whether maximizing of the congruency is desirable for relief and development and/or the training of field workers. (The study has open avenues to such research.) 2. The findings of the study have immediate application for the improvement of appropriate new curricula for the agency. 3. The principles that were identified in the study can be applied without doing replicability studies for private agencies that are in similar situations. it. The research has immediate and practical replicability for the some agency or other private agencies that would like to do it in East Africa or other places. 5. The research provides a model for other research efforts that can be managed at a relatively low technical level in many organizations and regions of the world; that is, research common people can understand and replicate in their own context—- research that has practical relevance. Definition of Terms Terms are used in the research report with the following stipulated meanings. Relief is the process of providing essentials for survival (food, medicine, clothing, etc.) during a disaster. Rehabilitation is the work that follows relief in restoring an individual or community to normalcy. Emphasis is usually placed on the restoration of the infrastructure and productivity. Development is the process of removing constraints that hold a society back from being free to be fully human--economically, politically, culturally, spiritually, and socially--and of bringing about desirable changes which promote a better standard of living and more integrated personhood. Change agent/development field worker is an individual whose primary goal is to assist and facilitate the development process with the ultimate purpose of enhancing the quality of life. BgLe is "a socially recognized pattern of behavior within accepted boundaries in determined situations" (O'Gorman, I978, p. l). w refers to general qualifications 0 person needs to possess in order to be effective in a given situation and specific skills required of specific task performance. Training is an educational process that facilitates individuals in developing their potential for effectiveness. Curriculum is "the concern for decisions about what should be taught, why, to whom, and under what conditions" (Ward, unpublished material). Private voluntary orggnization (PVO) is used to denote agencies engaged in relief and development work that are not financed by any national or international government. Volunteer is used by the American Council as "a nonprofit organization established by a group of private citizens for a stated philanthropic purpose, and supported by voluntary contributions from individuals concerned with the realization of its purpose" (Boyness, I980). lndogenous variables are the four variables that are the focus of the study identifying common denominators for training curricula. These four variables are the agency, field workers, target population, and development theory. Exogenous variables are the variables that have influence on the agency personnels' view of relief and development and the work of the agency in the field. The two exogenous variables in the study are sources (development literature) and principles of government about relief and development work. The W is a private voluntary relief and development international organization whose development activities in East Africa were used for the-case study. Delimitation of the Study The approach of the research was to analyze a case study in depth for the dynamics of the process of translation of the development model. As a result, the primary concern of the study is its replicability in different contexts, not its generalizability. Therefore, it has limited potential for generalization beyond application in various contexts. Second, because the study placed greater emphasis on both formal and informal face-to-face interviews and observation, it was difficult, if not impossible, to do perfect interpretations of the dynamics of the situation, as well as of the data. A third limitation was due to the dynamics of social interaction and the changes that take place as a result. It was not possible to quantify the processes that took place. Finally, to maximize its effectiveness, such research requires more than a one-time investigation with more than one type of research. The recognition of such limitations forced the researcher to be extra conscientious to make every effort to minimize limitations of this nature. Overview of the Study The concern of the study was the identification of qualitative criteria for selecting and training relief and development field workers/change agents. The major research questions that were the focus of the study are the following: I. What are the distinguishing criteria for identifying effective relief and development workers, according to research literature, the relief and development agency, its field workers, , and target population? 2. What are the common concerns that might be utilized as bases for training curricula in order to maximize the impact of development? _ ,_z- ._‘ In seeking answers to the above and related questions, the approach was a scientific analysis of a case study to identify common denominators. This was done by (a) scientific analysis of relief and development work using the method of case study, (b) analyzing the translation process of development model flow of communication at different levels within the agency, and (c) analyzing the similarities and differences in the concepts and indogenous variables about the role of field workers/change agents, skills they need, and purpose of development. During the study, emphasis was given to congruency assessment to determine relationships between the indogenous variables and the dynamics of the translation process of the development model at different levels. Both indogenous and exogenous variables were analyzed. The target population for the study was comprised of the agency workers and clientele in East Africa. Overview of the Chapters Chapter I has presented the problem with which the study is concerned: the identification qualitative criteria for selection and training of relief and development workers to maximize the effectiveness of relief and development activities. Specific research questions and historical background were provided. In Chapter II, a brief historical view of PVOs is discussed in general, with special emphasis on the work of the agency used in the case study, to provide a context. In Chapter III, precedent literature is presented in several major sections: (0) concepts of relief, rehabilitation, development, technical assistance, and training; and (b) the purposes of development, the ;role of field workers, and the skills they need to be effective as change agents. ,, I 7 In Chapter IV, the research methodology that was employed in the study is identified, the research design outlined, and data sources and procedures are described. In Chapter V, data from the main sources are analyzed. On-site subject matter, the common concerns, and the extent overlap are determined; and the findings and analysis are summarized. In Chapter VI, conclusions are drawn and recommendations are made, based on the answers to the research questions and the findings of Chapter V. CHAPTER II THE CONTEXT Private Voluntary Organizations The term private voluntary organizations (PVOs), when loosely used, includes all private agencies for foreign aid. Hstorically, the term PVO "was applied to those non-governmental agencies that received grants or contracts from AID to help carry out certain United States' objectives in development assistance" (Bolling, I982, p. l53). Since then, PVO has assumed a broader meaning; present use of the name applies to "all manner of private and public entities, domestic and international, financed by or wholly independent of government" (p. l53). " . . . institutions ranging from some of the world's leading educational and cultural institutions to local garden clubs, from politically powerful national associations to local block associations" (Summer, I977, p. l3). Another term coined by the United Nations and used interchangeably with PVO is non-governmental organization (NCO). Bolling and Smith (I982) argue that there is a difference between PVOs and NGOs. " . . . the NGOs have a recognized status as consultative to the U.N. and are primarily engaged in study and advice on international issues. The PVOs are oriented more toward action and service" (p. I53). PVOs are the oldest nonprofit organizations in existence for the purpose of helping in overseas relief and development. "United States' private and voluntary organizations (PVOs) have been active in humanitarian work overseas for more than a century (AID Policy Paper, I982, p. I). Some of them focus on immediate alleviation of human suffering while others focus on root causes of [8 this suffering (Summer, I977). (relief) and long range problems (development). their work as relief and development assistance. combine relief and development, their organizational objectives are both varied and broad. Summer (I977) provided a variety of objectives that represent the major PVOs as follows: to help the less fortunate peoples of the world in their struggle against hunger, ill health, ignorance and low productivity by converting as effectively as possible the voluntary, people-to- people contributions of American and Canadians and the support of host governments into various forms of relief and development assistance (Care); to undertake activities in the field of development, sponsor nutrition education programs, distribute relief supplies (food, medicine, clothing, etc.) and meet emergency needs due to natural and manmade disasters (earthquakes, floods, civil strife, etc.) (Catholic Relief Services); to serve the common interest of U.S. protestant and orthodox churches in works of Christian mercy, relief, technical assistance, rehabilitation and interchurch aid (Church World Service); to give assistance to desperately needy families, with the emphasis on aid to the children in these families, to equip (their) children with the intellectual and physical tools necessary for the development of full and productive lives in their own countries; to help parents make the most of their individual talents and abilities, so they can support their families without the aid of any welfare organization (Foster Parents' Plan); to bring financial assistance and expertise to bear on the problems of population and hunger, the quality of the environment and the development of universities in Asia, Africa, and Latin America (Rockefeller Foundation); to assist low-income people in developing countries to initiate to expand locally—owned, viable, self-help enterprises and cooperatives which directly benefit the communities in which they are located, selecting projects on the basis of maximum social and economic impact (Technoserve); to adapt and transmit technical information and to provide solutions to technical problems for individuals and organizations who do not have access to appropriate technical resources; to assist people with technical assistance appropriate to their needs, Still others try to deal with both immediate Because of this, they refer to As a result of trying to A 20 resources, and local conditions (Volunteers in Technical Assistance); and 8. to share resources in the name of Christ and proclaim Jesus as Lord; to establish and preserve an identity as free as possible from those nationalistic, cultural, and ideological interests which are contrary to our understanding of faithfulness to Christ, and to seek to meet human need in any nation regardless of political identity or affiliation; to participate in a developmental process based on local capacity and self-reliance, by which persons and societies come to realize the full potential of their human, natural, and spiritual resources; to follow the example of Christ in striving for justice, in identifying with the weak and oppressed and in reconciling the oppressor and oppressed; to provide relief for victims of disasters in ways which encourage their maximum initiative, dignity, and participation (Mennonite Central Committee). In their diversity and broad objectives, PVOs are considered to be a crucial link between people from the "developed" countries and the "Third World" countries. "At their best, they provide very convincing demonstrations both of private initiatives for public service and of disinterested, popular goodwill" (Bolling, I982, p. I53). PVOs have gained popularity and legitimacy as linkages between diverse peoples in the eyes of governments, private contributors, and aid recipients. PVOs have been increasing numerically and in the scope of their work in recent years. According to the Yearbook of International Organizations of l98l, there are about Ill,784 registered and international organizations, based on the criteria used in the book. The Commission on Private Philanthropy estimated that, in I975, there may have been as many as six million organizations in the U.S. voluntary sector (Summer, I977). Bolling (I982) elaborated further on the U.S. PVOs that are engaged in humanitarian work, noting that they have expanded the scope of their activities and a good percentage of aid is channeled through them. According to Summer (I975), out of $l5 billion in foreign assistance in I974, $l.ll billion was channeled through private organizations. As a result, in recent years, PVOs' yearly budgets have been increased. USAID had 2| made available its resources to PVOs: Total AID-administered resources available to the PVOs for overseas programs in FY I983 is expected to exceed $600 million. During the previous l5-year period, funding of such activities rose 2 from 54 million in I964 to $448 million in I979. (AID Policy Paper, I982, p. I) Some of the reasons AID and other government agencies prefer to work through PVOs have been discussed in this chapter. chapter, AID provides the following reasons for making available its resources to PVOs: PVOs are a heterogeneous universe-—diverse in their expertise, size, bases of support and modes of operation. PVOs bring unique skills to the job of Third World development. In addition to the above list of reasons, the objectives or goals some of the leading U.S. PVO executives working on international development set for By virtue of their links with private institutions in the Third World, PVOs can be a means for effectively engaging the rural and urban poor in their nation's development. By virtue of their support within the United States, PVOs can be a means for mobilizing among the general public not only a broader awareness of the pressing needs of developing Third World counties, but also for generating private resources for international development. As a heterogeneous group of agencies reflecting the diverse nature of American society, PVOs active in developing countries embody the basic American values of pluralism, voluntary action and concern for others. At a time when AlD's own resources, both human and financial, are severely limited, PVOs can extend AID's own effectiveness, particularly with respect to matters such as community level involvement. (AID Policy Paper, I982, pp. l-2) themselves are attractive to AID. These objectives include the following: 1 our programs must be of demonstrable benefit, on a small or large scale, to a group that is part of the so-called "poor majority" (group is a deliberately broad term here); In addition to the list given in the 22 2. a program must take due account of the needs, aspirations, and operational constraints of the local group as well as the program criteria of the PVC; 3. PVC programs should help build and inform an American constituency for development as well as seek its support; and 4. PVOs have an obligation to share resources and results with other development agencies, to their mutual benefit. (Summer, I977 PVOs vary widely, not only in the size of their programs, in their purposes, and their methods, but also in their motives. Some activities are motivated by agencies' concerns for human needs, others by religious convictions, and still others by political and personal interests. Foreign aid has been used for such varied purposes as defense against communism, the economic development of the U.S. or another particular country, commercial interests, and political interests, as well as for humanitarian purposes (Ferkiss, I965; Mosley, I982; Davis, I975; t-bveman, l98l). Because of its various motives, the aid from donor governments doesn't necessarily go to the poor countries or the the "poorest of the poor" (Mosley, I982; l-hveman, I98l), but is channeled according to the interests of the donor country. If that is not so, says Haveman, "Why, for example, should Niger receive twice as much per capita as Upper Volta? Is there a reasonable rationale for Somalia to receive more than six times the aid of Ethiopia?" (I98I, p. 59). historically, the growth and expansion of international aid has had four major periods of development. "The first period began shortly after the founding of the republic and spanned the l9th century" (l-bveman, I98I, p. 37). It began as a response to natural disasters. Some of the early responses were to such phenomena as " . . . the Venezuelan earthquake of l872 killing 50,000 persons, drought and starvation in the Cape Verde Islands in l832, tornado disasters in Maderia Islands in I943, and flood sufferers in France in I856" (p. 32). 23 The second period, from I900 to I939, saw an increased number of international development assistance and overseas programs, but these were formed slowly and very sporadically with hesitation, and they were inadequate. r'bwever, the programs did save many lives (Corti, I963; l-hveman, I98l). U.S. government started sending scientists and technicians to foreign countries with projects--Liberia, Cuba, Haiti, Panama, Japan, etc.--according to Corti and Birr (I954). In addition, during this period, "the U.S. government began to use aid as an instrument of national policy for the first time" (Haveman, I982, p. 40). After World War I, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and private volunteer organizations (PVOs) rapidly increased both in number and magnitude, and many relief agencies came into existence. The results of World War I encouraged giving for relief work. t-bveman provided a summary of private foreign assistance in the early l900$ (see Table 2.0. Table 2.l Breakdown of Private Foreign Assistance in the Early l900$ Dollars in Millions Directed Toward Catholic 5 89.6 Europe and China Jewish l49.3 Poland, Germany, Palestine Non-sectarian 43l.4 Educational/scientific and Eastern Mediterranian Protestant 599.8 India, China, Japan, Latin America, Africa, China source: t-bveman, l98l, p. 43 The’ third period was from I940 to I959 and was marked by multinational sectors and well-supported bilateral aid programs which increased in magnitude and numbers of PVOs. During this period, the emphasis started changing, moving away from relief activities toward development. 24 After the Second World War, foreign assistance shifted its emphasis from relief to development (to some kind of technical assistance) and from specific ethnic to broader human needs (Domarque, I968; Curti, I963). During this period, PVOs' activities " . . . on a number of continents and in a range of program areas . . . have shown a marked upswing" (AID, I982, p. I). Table 2.2 shows the shift in emphasis. Table 2.2 Income Sources for Foreign Relief, I939 - I953 (in millions of dollars) m Religious 93m T_otgl_ I939-4| 50.4 9.6 L9 6l.9 I942-45 l79.5 ll6.7 l40.8 437.| I946-53 I25.0 7I0.0 l69.9 l003.9 source: Curti, I963, in Haveman, I98I, p. SI In the fourth period, from the l9605 to the l9805, the major change was that new, independent countries started playing a role in directing and controlling the manner and types of aid and strategies and approaches to development promulgated within their borders. The approach to development shifted away from the U.S. model of community development. New concepts such as applied research, economic and technical assistance, self help, green revolution, integrated agricultural development, citizen participation, social transformation, reaching the poorest of the poor, small farming system did research, and partnership in development arose. Thus, 25 Many PVOs reoriented themselves toward development work during the I9705, in contrast to relief. This has qualified them to be seen by donors as alternative conduits for development assistance-- particularly for projects directed to the poor. Throughout the I9705, AID has had the explicit goal of encouraging PVOs to move out of relief and into development. (t-hveman, l98l, p. 50) Since then, many of the PVOs have evolved some kind of activities they refer to as development assistance. t-bwever, each PVO holds its own concept of development. Bolling (I982) said in explaining, one of the widely recognized PVOs, "It is an organization that very much marches to its own drum" (p. I76). marching to their own drum is applicable to most of the PVOs in their concepts and definitions of development assistance. Hstorical Background of the Case Study Agency In the early history of the church, Western world churches were best known for sending missionaries to preach the gospel and establish churches in other parts of the world. However, since the early 20th century, the involvement of social services in Western world churches has increased. Western churches' social services are of two kinds. The first kind is the service provided by missionaries; many of the Western mission organizations have opened schools (usually elementary schools) Bible schools, and training centers and built health centers and hospitals. In most cases the main objective of these institutions is to relate to a community people to teach the gospel. Such activities are usually referred to as holistic ministry by missionaries and their organizations. The second type of involvement has been through Christian private volunteer organizations (CPVOs). Most of the CPVOs have come to existence as the result of World Wars I and II. Many of them have traditionally focused on the following areas: childcare programs, i.e., "each family sponsors a child in a program of a large, evangelical relief and development organization"; relief programs, i.e., 26 bring to an end the suffering and other effects of a disaster or crisis; rehabilitation, i.e., return the community to the stable circumstances prevailing before the crisis (a term used both for the entire field and for the final stages of activity); and developmen , i.e., reach the final stage in the process of enabling the community to better itself and attain a new self-sufficiency (Youngren, I982, pp. I8, 40). The list of some of the well recognized CPVOs in this category includes WorldReIief, Food for the HJngry, World Vision International, World Concern, MAP International Compassion, etc. The amount of income of PVOs varies as indicated in Table 2.3. From among the above mentioned, the agency is well recognized with a large number of support offices (nine), continental offices (three), country-based offices (34), and number of child sponsorships (3I3,082 children). Table 2.3 Total Revenue Summary (in Millions of Dollars) Organization I_9__7§ fl fl World Relief I.S 4.2 l3.7 Food for the HJngry 2.9 3.9 6.7 World Vision International 39.3 46.7 80.0 World Concern I.8 2.6 3.9 MAP International 9.6 l3.8 27.9 Compassion 7.5 (est.) I0.9 source: Youngren, I982, p. 40 Hstorically, the agency came into existence as the result of what one concerned evangelist had seen in the far east when he was invited to hold 27 evangelistic rallies or preach the gospel. The process of bringing the agency into existence is explained as follows: A young American evangelist, went to China in I947 under the auspices of Youth for Christ. Suffering and sorrow engulfed him-- Iepers being killed when they dared to beg for food, Lutheran nursing sisters caring for 53 blind children with nothing to feed them but minced weeds, starving beggars dying by the roadside. On the island of Amoy, the Reformed Church had a school for 400 Chinese girls. The headmistress, Miss Tina I-blkeboer of l-blland, Michigan, shared her noontime bowl of rice with six girls. A seventh, White Jade, followed Miss t-blkeboer everywhere. The child wore a ragged dress. Across her back were welts from the beating her father had given her for attending the mission. (The Story of WVI, I983, p. I) Besides preaching the gospel, during the summer of I947, the evangelist was taking pictures and gathering footage for the motion picture China Challenge. He traveled from church to church, sharing his concern and China's need by showing the film to Christians. By doing this, "in nine months time he had raised $65,000 which he channeled through Youth for Christ International" (WVI: audio, I983). In I947 he also visited the mission's situation and held evangelistic crusades in Korea just before the Korean War began in which "armies from I7 nations responded to fight a United Nation's police action war" (The Hstory of WVI: A Look Back, I982). Three months after the Korean War began in September, I950, a Christian service organization was established to handle contributions that resulted from the evangelist's appeals. The agency opened its first office in Portland, Oregon, as an organization with the main purpose of relieving people's physical suffering as well as telling them about Christ. The founder became the first president of the agency. In the early years, particularly during the Korean War, the agency's effort was devoted almost exclusively to meeting needs in Korea. In I953 when the Korean War was over, thousands of orphans left were without much hope but with a great need for food and clothing. By responding to the needs of these orphans, the agency began an individual child sponsorship program. Through this program, "people A 28 were linked to individual children in a caring, helping relationship" (WVI: Audio, I983). The program became an effective fund raising instrument for a number of CPVOs . . . an approach that led to a high level of emotional involvement. This approach has remained essentially unaltered by the passing years. Confronting the donor with the plight of a lone child is still the main method fund raisers use for all parachurch relief activity in the U.S., whether or not the appeal is to sponsor a child directly. (Youngren, I982, p. 39) After I953, the agency's work continued to grow, both in magnitude and types of work, beyond the scope of child sponsorship programs in Korea. As a result of such growth and expansion: The agency had moved from Portland to the Los Angeles area in I956. In I964 it was operating out of rented offices . . . when it decided to take a large step in faith--property was bought . . . began to build its own offices. (WVI: Audio, I983) Philosophy and Objectives of the Agency's Ministries The philosophical basis of the agency service rests on a holistic ministry to human needs or meeting the total needs of hurting humanity (both physical and spiritual needs) by following the example of Jesus Christ and in H5 love. Such philosophy (meeting people's total needs) is expressed by the organization's board of directors: We are stirred and driven by unmet needs of countless millions of human beings caught in the tails of poverty, hunger, disease, loneliness and despair. Our approach to this staggering need is holistic. It is the whole person in the wholeness of his or her relationships that we want to see redeemed through the one Savior, Jesus Christ our Lord. (WVI: Partngs in Sharing, l98l, p. 2) According to the philosophy of the agency, the services carried out through the agency are flexible and interdependent. This international agency responds to local felt needs as they are presented by local Christians. Although the projects assisted and implemented by the agency are different in nature, the ultimate goal of the projects is similar: "To enable people to fulfill their God- A 29 given potential and to bring them into the body of Jesus" (WVI: Partners in Mtg, I98l, p. 4). Even though the motive of helping is Christian love, the service is not limited to Christian communities. "Because a nation is not Christian and doesn't have a political system in accordance with some arbitrary standards, that will not prevent WVI from helping people of that nation" (WVI: Mangge_ment Manual, I979, p. 3). Within the above highlighted philosophy of ministry, the agency also has stated objectives of the ministry. In earlier history of the agency, the founder had the following four objectives for the organization: I. strengthening the national churches, 2. using contemporary technology for world evangelization, 3. developing the ability to respond immediately to any need anywhere in the world, and 4. arousing the Western Christian church to its role and responsibility in the world. (The Story of WVI, I983, p. 6) Even though the above objectives were reaffirmed in I966, since then the objectives of the organization have been modified. Today the agency has six interdependent yet identifiable objectives. I. Assistance to Children and Family "The agency's longtime commitment to caring for the world's needy children--a burden which propelled the organization into existence in I950-- remained a high priority on the I982 agenda" (WV: I982 Annual Report, p. 4). Hstorically, the childcare program was started when the founder of the organization sponsored a child for $25 a year in I947. Since then, the child sponsorship program has been expanded every year (see Table 2.4). The main goal of ministering to children and families is "assisting needy children through orphanages, schools and family—aid programs by feeding, clothing, nurturing, 30 healing and spiritual ministries" (Objective of WVI, I983, p. n.). Table 2.4 Child Sponsorship Program Number of Countries m Number of Children I953 75l I954 2,2I6 I956 7,96l I957 9,622 I959 I3,2l5 I963 |9,24l I966 23,522 I967 23,648 I969 30,735 |97I 40,l46 I973 54,000 I974 75,869 I976 l23,360 334,590 393,082 342,000 . 342,000 source: The Story of WVI, I983 25 29 45 In I982, 334,59I people around the world supplied the resources necessary for such programs. 3| Through 2,I26 projects, comprehensive assistance was provided to participating children, their families and communities. These services included food, clothing, schooling, clean water systems, health care, vocational training., Christian education and other forms of aid. The agency's U.S. support office designated $22,334,000 toward childcare work in I982. (WVI: I982 Annual Repgr , p. 4). II. Providing Emergency Relief and Rehabilitation Through this program, the agency is committed to provide the most timely and appropriate response to sudden and catastrophic human needs. Therefore, the aim of relief and rehabilitation programs is "providing food, medical aid and immediate housing programs for people suffering as a result of war or natural disasters" (Objectives of WVI, I983, p. N). In this context the following definitions are important. Relief--the urgent provision of resources (financial, material, and/or human) to alleviate or mitigate suffering and distress resulting from natural or man-made disaster. Relief activities will be viewed as immediate and temporary, being prolonged only where prevailing conditions continue to preclude the achievement of any progress toward self-reliance. Rehabilitation--the provision of resources (financial, material, and/or human) in an effort to restore a community to its former condition or former capacity to provide for its own needs following a natural or man-made disaster. Rehabilitation efforts will be viewed as transitional and temporary. (WVI: Relief and Rehabilitation, n.d., p. I) According to its I982 annual report, this international relief and development agency provided assistance to nearly two million people in 39 nations through I73 projects started in those countries. III. Developigg Self-reliance "Helping people to produce adequate food, earn income, and create a community life resulting in long-term survival and growth" is one of the agency's objectives (I983, p.n.). This is done through community development projects, 32 health care instruction in hygiene, childcare, farming, family planning, and vocational training assistance provided. This international relief and development agency's commitment to fostering self-reliance through community development in I982 manifested itself in 488 projects in 57 nations. Americans gave a total of $34,5I7,538 for relief, development, evangelism, and leadership projects last year. (WV: I982 Annual Reflrt, p. 5) This $34,5I7,538 represented 36.4% of its total I982 expenditure. IV. Reaching the Unreached "People do not live by bread alone" (WVI: Partners in Sharigg, I982, p. 6). The purpose of such a project is "assisting indigenous evangelistic efforts to reach the lost for Jesus Christ" (Objectives of WVI, I983, p.n.). This is usually referred to as evangelism work--helping people deal with the questions of spiritual life after their physical needs are met. V. Strengthening Leadership "t-blping Christ's leaders throughout the world attain a more effective Christian ministry" (Objectives of WVI, I983, p.n.) is mainly carried out by holding pastor conferences. In the past 25 years, more than I30 such conferences have been held in different parts of the world. VI. Challefging to Mission "Calling Christians around the world to carry out the work of Christ wherever opportunity presents itself" is another objective (WVI: Objectives, I983, p.n.). According to the annual report of I982, WVI spent $l2,067,959 or l2% of its total expenditure, on this objective. Above listed objectives, the agency's income, according to its I982 annual report, was $94,932,333. As shown in Table 2.5, the main sources were individual and family contributors. Table 2.5 Sources of Income and l-bw It Was Spent: I982 and I983 33 Where the Money Came From Individuals and families Churches Gifts-in-kind Corporations, foundations Planned giving programs Government Investment income and other TOTALS: How the Money Was Sgnt Program services Relief, development, evangelism, and leadership Childcare Mission challenge U. S. domestic ministries Supmrting services Management F undraising Other expenditure adjustments Miscellaneous ministry commitments Annuity and trust payments Realized and unrealized loss on investments Excess of support to expenditures TOTALS: 92.5 $ 82,9I0,57S 5,233,l82 944,767 98,579 2,854,482 870,000 2,020,748 $ 94,932,333 $ 34,5I7,538 22,334,000 |2,067,959 825,448 9,I I4, 526 I3, 978, 788 490, 842 50 7,890 |,095,342 $ 94,932,333 source: WVI: I982 and I983 Annual Reart L 87.49 5.5 LG .I 3.0 .9 2.: 100.0 36.4 23.5 I2.7 9.6 l4.7 I.2 l00.0 I983 $ 78,403,447 5,l86,496 l6,457,832 4,029,674 2.025,000 2,267,650 $I08,352,099 $ 42,632,484 28,932,500 l2,90l,555 229,972 8,500,l69 I4,l62,759 992,660 $I08,352,099 i 72.3 4.8 I5.2 3.7 L9 2.| l00.0 39.4 26.7 ”.9 7.8 I3.I r—____ 34 Organizational Structure and Partnership The Christian international relief and development agency started as one of the many Christian private volunteer organizations in the United States. But as a result of worldwide expansion of the agency's ministries, the agency legally internationalized in I978 as supporting countries became partners. The partnership incorporated each of the various entities: the supporting countries of Australia, Canada, Europe, t-bng Kong, New Zealand, South Africa, and the United States of America as well as international office. Structurally, the agency divided into three parts: the international office plans and conducts the ministry programs--those mentioned earlier. This worldwide effort is coordinated and funds are disbursed from the international office in the USA." (WVI: Partners in Sharng, l98l, p. 3) In the organization's structure, the office partnership countries are referred to as support offices. Regional offices (the regional office is primarily an extension of the international office closer to the field situation) are three in number: (a) the Africa office (established in Kenya, I977), (b) the Latin America office (established in Costa Rica, I977), and the Asia office (established in Philippines in I979) (WVI: Field Organization, I980, p. I). The field office is the basic operating unit in the agency's organizational structure. The main functions of the field office include the following: --representation of the agency within the country to churches, government, other agencies, and the community at large; --project design and management; --training of staff and project workers; --development of country strategy and plans; «recruitment and maintenance of an effective staff team; and --efficient management of the the agency ‘ operation as a whole. (WVI: Field Organization, I982, p. 2) 35 Figure I summarizes the way the international office, supporting offices, and field offices relate to each other structurally and shows the organizational structure of the agency as of I983. Elflflflafi _ .eflhufiaaalflfififl "In Ilka—a rug: an I — pal—8 o a _ “Std-5a.. _ «Una: Siédsw' w 82 :35. 3a.: fl __J N L—l E 5 5 wIOuHEu‘o \ . km: SE“ muuukmuzg 309.“ a .350 m.‘0km mu ~¢hnu¢~l ad: gnuwuin uuH> sunk—5380 . reflux; an.— rmuduulsrfl a .85me ”Us: i ‘25:: can—m3: no: baa—mus.— 8E So u may uu~> gar—El muu—uuo «co—bug:— zu>um «on: u a z _ a a o » 0.30:2...“ Evozoficameo 0:... CHAPTER III PRECEDENT LITERATURE The humanitarian act of reaching out to help needy fellow human beings has many motives, purposes, and goals--some of which are entirely unrelated to kindness. It is often difficult to know the motives or reasons for kindness in any given situation, but in international humanitarian activities, the motives generating aid are usually political (Morris & Davis, I975). It should also be noted that, in these situations, the motives of the recipient are also directly related to politics most, if not all, of the time. International altruism and humanitarian activities are directed to one of three types of needs: relief, rehabilitation, or development. Relief Relief is defined as the process of providing a solution(s) to meet an urgent need. In social action, relief usually refers to the giving of food, medicines, and other essentials needed for survival of people affected by a disaster (Macagba, I977). Relief, in most cases, is directly or indirectly related to external disasters, such as drought, war, flood, earthquakes, or famine caused by human beings or nature. Therefore, the term pelif does not apply to the alleviation of day-to- day hardships, but is reserved for abnormal, usually temporary, circumstances. Relief activities are emergency responses to human needs, usually not pre- planned, and involve some emotional components. Because of this, "Rarely are the motives of relief work challenged, since the giver seems to have so little to 36 37 gain" (Ward & Graham, I977, p. 6). Relief workers have assumed that people in disaster need charity. Therefore, methods of relieving immediate problems are relief programs instead of being directed to study or determining causes. The above authors view relief as therapeutic: " . . . procedures to apply to situations that need restoration to normal" (Ibid). Since relief can't be an end in itself, it should be evaluated to determine whether it leads to rehabilitation (Ward & Graham, I977). The following are some specific characteristics of relief: -- is self-justifying -- may create dependency -- is external to recipients -- alleviates distress - is usually transitional - is non-self actualizing - is done for people (Ward, l98l) Rehabilitation Rehabilitation is defined as the work that follows relief to restore on individual or community to health. Webster's dictionary says that to rehabilitate is " . . . to restore physical, mental, moral health through treatment and training" (I979, p. I523). Ward and Graham's (I977) explanation says, Rehabilitation is sometimes a long painful process, but it always moves forward in terms of the increasing capacities of the one being rehabilitated. True rehabilitation is not a display of the resources and power of the therapist; it is a demonstration of the involvement of the wounded and the needy in their own restorative process. (p. 6) In the context of development, rehabilitation has frequently been used to refer to resettlement (particularly of refugees) after war or natural disaster. Kozlowski (I982) proposes rehabilitation to resolve refugees' problems, and the T_____—_____——- 38 United Nations' th Commissioners for Refugees (I982) refer in their M M to resettlement of refugees as rehabilitation. Fbwever used, it is crucial that rehabilitation be seen only as a means to an end. Rehabilitation is restorative and can't be equated with development. Rehabilitation, 0 process of return to a normal state, enables one (or a community) to resume the natural process of further development, to take full responsibility for development without depending on external forces. The specific characteristics of rehabilitation, as identified by Ward (I98l), include the following: -- is self-justifying -- may create dependency -- is external to recipients -- is usually to repair/install -- is used with an individual/community —- is usually transitional Development Growth, progress, and development of individuals and societies are natural processes (Myers, I982; O'Gorman, I977; Sanders, I970; Goulet, l97l; Stoesz, I977; and Bennett, I973). Throughout human history, however, these processes have been impeded by greed and selfishness, as well as by natural conditions--such as lack of water, lack of arable soil, disasters, and drought. People have advanced themselves at the expense of others with the result that, at this stage of human history, a great gap exists between the privileged and under-priviledged classes (Sommer, I979, in Elliston, l98l). People suffer from lack of freedom, daily bread, and basic medical services (Sider, I982). At the same time, others deliberate between types of foods and veterinarian services for their pets. The 39 dichotomy between the rich and the deprived classes is generally accepted as normal. Such terms as "poor countries versus rich countries," "developed countries versus underdeveloped countries," and "First World versus Third World" not only have come into existence as the result of such a gap, but have become accepted as normal and scientific classifications. Conceptual Development In existing literature, individuals or organizations concerned for the poor and interested in bringing about planned social change have used words such as development, rural development, urban development, community development, appropriate development, etc., to explain the process of their activities. The word development, however, as it is used, " . . . is a very imprecise term for a variety of activities" (O'Gorman, I978, p. 2). In the study, the words community development and/or development are used to refer to planned social change. Social change in this sense "is the process by which alteration occurs in the structure and function of a social system" (Rogers & Shoemaker, l97l, p. 7). Social change can be either "progressive" or "regressive." Progressive and regressive need a context and criteria for definition since they cannot be defined without making value judgments. Planned social change is "a deliberate effort with a stated goal on the part of the change agent to create a modification in the structure and process of social system" (Zaltman 8. Duncan, I977, p. IO). While unplanned change is "non-purpose, non-directive change that simply evolves over time" (Rogan, I98l, p. I0). Social change, particularly planned social change, occurs at different levels of a given social system: international, national, religious, community, family, and personal. 40 Community development in the study refers to planned social change at the community level. A planned community development is perceived as one or more of the following: as a process, as a method, as a program, or as a movement (Sanders, I970). The last three . . . . . . involve goals and procedures decided outside the area of local action and which are implemented as a cause or crusade introduced into the area. Community development as a process, however, presupposes doing what the community wants, with the change agent acting primarily as the catalyst in the process. (O'Gorman, I978, p. 2) Community development (CD) as a process aims to achieve particular goal(s) to alleviate existing problems by the means of the participation of the community in the process of change. Educating and motivating people through logical and sequential procedures by involving them in democratic participation is considered an important aspect of the community development process. The emphasis of CD as a method is on the procedure to reach specific desired goal(s). CD in this sense is a means to an end (desirable goals). the important question in this procedure is not whit, but M. Because of that, CD is used interchangeably both as a method and process (Sanders, I970; Rogan, I98l). CD as a program, according to Sanders (I958), is defined in the following quotation. The method is stated as a set of procedures and the content as a list of activities. By carrying out the procedures, the activities are supposedly accomplished. When the program is highly formalized, as in many Five Year Plans, the focus tends to be upon the program rather than upon what is happening to the people involved in the program. It is a prpgram that CD comes into contact with subject-matter, specialities such as health, welfare, agriculture, industry, recreation, etc. Emphasis is upon activities. (p. 5) The last one is CD as movement. Sanders explains this phenomenon: 4| CD is a crusade, a cause to which people become committed. It is not neutral (like process) but carries an emotional charge; one is either for it or against it. It is dedicated to progress, as a philosophic and not a scientific concept, since progress must be viewed with reference to values and goals which differ under different political and social systems. CD as a movement tends to become institutionalized, building up its own organizational structure, accepted procedures, and professional practitioners. It stresses and promotes the idea of community development as interpreted by its devotees. (in Christenson & Robinson, I980, p. II) The issue is not only how development (CD) is perceived, but also how it is defined. The conceptual definition reflects the theoretical concept one carries. In the study community development is used to provide a specific target group for the development concept without any attempt to make differences between urban or rural communities. Therefore, it is assumed that the use of development or community development doesn't change the theoretical concept at the definitional level. The only difference would be the use of community development to provide specific frames of reference or concrete target groups for the theoretical concept. Community is described by the following elements: (a) people, (b) within a geographically bounded area, (c) involved in social interaction, and (d) with one or more psychological ties with each other and with the place they live (Christenson & Robinson, I980). Four Dominating Emphases, Definitions of CD, and Orientations of Conceptual Development The major conceptual definitions of development can be categorized in four general areas according to their major orientations of key emphases. The categories also encompass the major focus of international organizations in development assistance. The categories don't suggest clear-cut differences without overlap among the categories. 42 Product Product is defined by Hammock (I973) as a process of creating special community organizations throughout society which will be responsible for channeling demands to centers of power as distributors of benefits. Lotz (I970) defines product as the involvement of people and the coordination and integration of all efforts directed at bettering conditions. It is defined by Ploch (I976) as the active, voluntary involvement in a process to improve some identifiable aspect of community life; normally such action leads to the strengthening of the community's pattern of human and institutional interrelationships. According to Voth (I975), product is a situation in which some groups, usually locally based such as a neighborhood or local community which attempts to improve its social and economic situation through its own efforts by using professional assistance and perhaps also financial assistance from the outside and involving all sectors of the community or group to a maximum. Another definition is community-based planned changg in which residents of a community are actively involved in developing, in a broad-based manner, both the social and physical environments so that the potential for developing human resources (i.e., skills, competenties) is optimized (Rogan, l98l). In product— oriented planned social change, the emphasis is placed on concrete outcomes. Dickinson (I975) provided two examples for such approaches: I. a capitalist approach that proposes to generate development primarily through "free market" forces of supply and demand. Its major assumption is that prosperity trickles down in a widening circle to eventually involve everyone in participating more and more directly in the economic life of a nation; and 2. a United Nations' approach that views national governments as prime agents of change. It assumes that "the primacy of economic growth, capitalization, technological applications, and industrialization are comparable to those in a capitalist model. (p. 6|) 43 Process Process is defined as a method, a program, a movement, or a set of purposes (t-buswald, I97l); local decision-making and the development of programs designed to make their community a better place to live and work (HJie, I976); and that which basically initiates and develops structure and facilitates program development that includes users of the program (Miles, I974). Long (I975) calls educational process that which is designed to help adults in a community solve their problems by group decision making and group action. Most community development models include broad citizen involvement and training in problem solving. According to Matagba (I977), development is the continuous process of improving the methods people use to achieve the cpality of life which they want to achieve. In social action, development usually refers to efforts made to provide alternatives which can be adopted by communities to improve their health, income, and education, and ways of living. Sinclair (I980) calls process an uncovering; it speaks of a gradual unfolding, a fuller workifl 921. In its Spanish equivalent, it suggests the unrolling of a scroll. Process-oriented development is planned social change. A key element is education or lessons learned with a specific goal in mind during the development process. It's a conscientious approach in which the major emphasis is on the participation of local people. It holds that development is motivated by the oppressed and poor. Its assumption is that development initiated by government leaders, whether left or right, is not trustworthy. Such an approach was popularized by Paulo Freire (l97l) in his action and reflection process. People are the core of the development. Their culture and historical development should respect people's past history and their cultural heritage as well as their present capacities (O'Gorman, I979). O'Gorman further stated this conception: 44 Development is more than growth in riches and levels of well being. It has to be appraised from an ethical dimension of human values. The process of change must be subordinated to the common good. People develop when they grow in liberty and participation, when their rights are respected, when; they can choose freely to whom they give authority. Development promotes active, conscious, and responsible participation of the people in social, economic, political, and cultural processes. (pp. 37-38) The core emphasis is people's participation in development processes (O'Gorman, I978, I979; Myers, I982; Stoesz, I977). Change of Political Structure/Liberation Liberation is defined as an educational approach which would raise levels of local awareness and increase the confidence and ability of community groups to identify and tackle their own problems (Darby & Morris, I975) or as a public- group approach to achieving the goals of the total body m (Weaver, l97l). Christenson and Robinson (I980) defined it as (a) a group of people, (b) in a community, (c) reaching a decision, ((1) to initiate a social action process (i.e., planned intervention), (e) to change, (f) their economic, social, cultural, or environmental situation. According to Ewert, I975), liberation is eggjppipg individuals to better deal with their world, ending exploitive social relationships, providing equal access to the product resources of a society, returning the focus of decision making to people themselves and creating a situation in which the benefits of socio-economic transformation are available to all. It has also been called the process by which persons and societies come to realize the full potential of human life in a context of socialjustice. It is essentially a pgople's strpggle in which the poor and oppressed are the active participants and beneficiaries (Stoesz, I977). The focal issues of this category are a total transformation of a society and change of political structure. Dickinson explained such an approach as a change-political-structures approach that holds that "the present government is 45 incapable of genuine development and social injustice, a new political and social structure is essential for effective political and economic action" (I975, p. 65). Spiritually Oriented Spiritual orientation implies a thoughtful attempt to assist the community of persons to achieve an existence in which the economic, social, and spiritual domains are brought together at a level benefitting the giggly of the individual as one made in the image of God. It has to do with the quality of people's lives. It means doing something with whatever means are available and appropriate. Development is people. It seeks to help people become all that God wants them to be. Christian development will be carried out by Christians who are spiritually mandated, motivated, and oriented and who act with God's love toward all people (Myers, I982). Spiritually oriented development or planned social change adds a spiritual dimension to product, process, and change of structures when it is needed. It advocates holistic development that incorporates economic, social, and spiritual aspects of deveIOpmentnin which the emphasis is placed on a total concept of human needs--devel0pment is for all people and for the whole person (Goulet, I974). Therefore, development is an ongoing process that leads to product as well as a measuring stick for all kinds of humanitarian activities. Development is continuous desirable change toward maturity that comes about in individuals or communities as a natural process of growth. Hence, the role of private or governmental agencies is not to develop people or communities, but to facilitate or assist this natural process by removing the limitations that hold them back from generating their own fulfillment (Chukiath, I974). Whatever emphasis or 46 orientation of development one might choose as a focus of a given development activity, it seems crucial (a) to remember that People cannot be developed; they can only develop themselves. For while it is possible for an outsider to build a man's house, an outsider cannot give the man pride and self-confidence in himself by his own actions. he develops himself by making his own knowledge and ability and by his own full participationuas an equal--in the life of the community he lives in . . . he is not being developed if he is herded like an animal into a new venture (Myerere, I967, p. 2); and (b) to differentiate between a work of clarity and characteristics of development. The dominating characteristics of relief and development are summarized in Table 3.l. Contemporary Concepts of Community Development In recent years, historical concepts of development have been challenged. Emerging concepts emphasize not only the products of development, but also its processes. People are a central focus of development activities which "involve a wider social transformation, political action, and recognition of impinging forces, especially international and economic restraints" (O'Gorman, I977, pp. 7- 8). Some of the characteristics that contemporary concepts exhibit are the following: I. equitable distribution--eliminates poverty, inequality, and unemployment; 2. concern for quality of life: a. life-sustaining ability to provide for basic needs (food, shelter, etc.), b. self-esteem: to be a person (sense of worth and self- respect), and ' c. freedom from servitude to be able to choose (includes all social servitudes of men and women); 3. independent, rather than dependent; 4. integration of traditional and modern systems in a country; 47 Table 3.| Relief and Development Characteristics Relief Characteristics Respond to disasters Temporary Usual emotional response to human needs Therapeutic in its nature Giving to helplessness Doing for the people Relief pain Encourage dependence External giving to or doing for recipient No self-actualizing process involved Limited to meeting physical needs "I know what you need" approach Focuses on sympathy for problem(s) Doesn't lead to autonomy One-way communication-giver to receiver Charity giver or donor Doesn't deal with justice of the situation Focused on distribution of food Development Characteristics Respond to natural process Long term Pre-planned social change Sharing with others To release natural ability Seek answer to the problem with the people Encourage independence External and internal working together to reach toward goal Internally generated rather than externally applied Encourages self-actual ization Includes human development "I don't know what is best for you; let's find out" Focuses on root of problem(s) Leads community to autonomy (i.e., social justice, adequacy of re- sources, responsibility to deal with problems, etc.) Two-way communication-dialogue Community holds on to growth and development; outsider is collaborator Deals with injustice of a society as part of development process Focused on teaching how to grow food for themselves Capacity building Emphasis on intermediate-level and labor-intensive technology; popular participation in decentralized self-development planning 5. holistic and integrated in concept; 6. 7. internally generated rather than externally applied; 8. and execution 9. includes human development; 48 IO. a bottom-up approach-~learn from local people; ll. building the capacity of local communities to deal with problems l2. external participation in decentralized self-development planning and execution: 0. international structure, b. neocolonial structure, and c. false paradigm; l3. increased development incentives for people at grassroots; and I4. self-reliance in development activities (citizen participation). (Rogers, I979; Todaro, I977; Ward, l98l; O'Gorman, I979; Chukiath, I974; Korten, I980). The above characteristics summarize the key concepts of contemporary views of development. In summary, the concept of development (community) in this paper is a process of removing the limitations (constraints) that hold any given society back from being free to being fully human-.economically, politically, culturally, spiritually, and socially-~and of bringing about desirable change to promote a better living standard. Development facilitates the gain of additional skills, training, knowledge, and freedom. The gaining of these things leads, in turn, to personal growth (as a result of self-actualization) and economic improvement, to allow a group of people to become what they want to be, as individuals and as members of a society determining their own destiny. Such development involves every aspect of a given community, and it requires an integrated concept of development. Integated Development As has been pointed out in the previous discussion, development is growth in maturity in all aspects of all people and the whole person (Ward & Graham, I977; Goulet, I974). This natural unfolding from stage to stage involves all aspects of community life and is, therefore, holistic (Myers, I982). Emphasis, 49 upon one or two aspects of the whole will not effectively do the job. That makes integrated development a very crucial approach in development. Another principle of development is integrated planning to include all aspects of a society's needs. Food production may seen the most immediate requirement, but it may run parallel with a need for better understanding of nutrition. Programs of health care and preventative medicine are essential, including provisions for are air and water. Education must be improved so command of community enterprise. All components must work together. (t-bines, I980, p. 9|; emphasis added) Therefore, integrated development of all societies involves all aspects of human endeavor; that is, food, shelter, nutrition, health, water, education, etc. Integrated development requires an interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary approach. Those who favor such approaches argue that development needs to be guided by philosophical, historical, and practical components to create unity in diversity, rather than putting emphasis upon one discipline, such as geography, economics, or agriculture (Toye, I980). Integrated development is not merely concerned with human or economic inputs and raising farm production statistics, but involves far-reaching transformations of social and economic structures, institutions, and relationships (Goulet, l97l, I979), with the goals of . . . generating a new employment, more equitable access to arable land, more equitable distribution of income, widespread improvements in health, nutrition and housing, greatly broadened opportunities for individuals to realize their full potential through education, and a strong voice for rural people in shaping the decisions and actions that affect their lives. (Coombs, I974, p. l3) Thus, a multidisciplinary or an interdisciplinary approach is far more effective in dealing with complex processes which require more than a single method or means. Coombs emphasizes a similar point: Given these circumstances, there is no single formula for achieving rural development in all situations, nor is there a standard formula for the kinds of education needed to promote that development. (p. I5) 50 Even in the same country, needs differ widely, according to people's historical backgrounds, traditions, culture, language, religious and social patterns, political structure, socio-economic background, and total environment (Coombs, I974; Forster, l973;). To find all these issues amenable to a single discipline is, at best, unlikely. If it is believed that change is inherent in development, the educational aspects of integrated development are very important. Integrated development is both process and product; neither can be separated from educational process (Esayas, l98l). That is why training is needed in both design and implementation of integrated development. Furthermore, the approach one chooses in assisting on—going development is a crucial aspect of development. Major Approaches to Community Development There are a variety of approaches or emphases to development that are influenced by ideological and religious beliefs, perceptions, and conceptions of development, purposes, and goals of a given development project, outlook on humans and society, personal and organizational interests of a given development project or discipline and training. Therefore, development assistance can take one or more orientations (process, product, change of political structures, and spiritual) to teach its goal. Within the context of the general orientation of one or more of the above approaches to development (communication), there is also variety. Whether the general focus of development is clear or not, the major theme is the "betterment of people" (Batten, I973). The emphasis is on how a community can be assisted to facilitate the betterment of the people (Christenson 8. Robinson, I980). These two authors have identified three general approaches. SI Self-Help Approach The concept has been popularized by Littrell 0970. It emphasizes the facilitation of reliance, independence, and democratic problem-solving (Littrell, I97l; Christenson, I980). It is non-directive in its approach and locally based in its orientation, and its focus is on people (Logan, I98l). It is process-oriented more than task-oriented. "In terms of emphasis, the self-help approach is the one which most closely parallels to the process perspective" (p. l5). Process in this sense is the "approach whereby people arrive at group decisions and take actions to enhance the social and economic well-being of the community" (Christenson 8. Robinson, I980, p. 43). It is based on some of the following assumptions: «people have basic rights and abilities to work together to improve their situations «the process they go through is more important than the subject matter «teaching people the process of how to improve their situations has significant impact on their long-range development «development is people «people are the subjects of their development «development is the liberation process «generally, development can only be defined by the people «people learn how to improve their situations and make decisions by self-directed decision making «development is a process as well as a product «people's participation in development enables them to overcome economic, political, social, and cultural oppression «"participation vitalizes the helping relationship: solidarity, critical awareness, joint endeavors, organization, and articulation" (O'Gorman, I979, p. 39) «the primary role of change agents is to provide education and organizational skills by playing the role of stimulator, organizer, 52 enabler, facilitator, and catalyst (Christenson 8. Robinson, I980; Logan, l98l; Myers, I982; Stoesz, I977; O'Gorman, I979) Therefore, "the advantage of self-help is that people themselves determine what is to be done and in the process learned both how to achieve this specific task and the process through which they may accomplish future goals" (Christenson 8. Robinson, I980, p. 44). The self-help approach is criticized for not being able to bring about tangible and concrete change. Because of it, ". . . emphasis on the process for action often thwarted the attainment, the actual goal intended to relieve suffering" (Stafford, I982, p. 7). Emphasis on a democratic consensus approach to decision making is not necessarily compatible with local ways of decision making. The process of self-help is usually slow in meeting the immediate needs. In the self-help process, it is rather difficult to control motivation and group action that often leads to either political danger or increased frustration of the truly powerless. Self-help requires both material and human resources for a given community to be self-reliant or self-sufficient, but that is not the case for most of the Third World communities. The limitation in resources and skilled humans means that the self-help approach concept is limited (Stafford, I982). Furthermore, change involves conflict (Warren, I974); without it, there cannot be effective change. It is also criticized for being more the philosophy of development rather than the theory of development (Christenson 8. Robinson, I980). Those who criticize self-help on these grounds raise questions such as how self-help works, when, why, and with what types of results. In spite of the above challenge to the concept of self-help, there are some who are convinced that self-help is key to meeting basic human needs in the l980s. "The l9805 may well come to convince most policy-makers that they key S3 to meeting basic human needs in the Third World is the participation of individuals and communities in local problem-solving" (Van Dam, I980). In summary, the self-help approach is the internally-initiated development process by the people, with the people, and for the people. Educational awareness of the capability of local people to deal with their problems within their historic and cultural context is considered to be the main avenue to effective self-help. Social Action or Conflict Approach The major thesis of this particular approach is to the organization of oppressed community people to take "social action" to overcome exploitation (Rothman, I974; Rogen, I980; Christenson 8. Robinson, I980). The emphasis is on confrontation to overcome injustice in secure equal distribution of resources. It focuses on the oppressed, disadvantaged groups of society or those who are considered the poor or minorities and excluded from the power structure. The core point is liberation by changing political structure. The major change strategy is identification of the problem and confrontation (Rogan, l98l). The extent of confrontation varies anywhere from identifying the issues and discussing them with opposing groups (in capitalist context) to complete change of power structure by the means of a revolution (in mild socialism or ideal communism context). The operation procedure is not very much different from that of self-help« to get people together, to articulate the problems, to develop indigenous leadership, and to help organize viable groups (Christenson, I980). The self-help and conflict or social action modes differ in their emphasis and orientation. Self-help emphasizes working together to achieve development goals while "the confrontation then emphasizes polarization of groups based on salient issues and 54 confrontation between opposing sides" (Christenson, I980, p. 44). While self-help is process and long-term oriented, conflict is product or particular normative goals, such as justice or equality and short period oriented. The role of a change agent in conflict approach is mainly to organize community people, activate them, advocate change, and to make them aware of the issues of concern and political power they face as an opponent. "however, the change agent usually doesn't lead the group; he only organizes and presents them" (Rogan, l98l, p. I6). The conflict approach is based on some of the following assumptions: «oppressive political structure is the main hindrance for community development «community people or oppressed groups can organize themselves to confront opposing group(s) «the major aspect of development is to overcome injustice and establish equality «community development can be achieved in a short period of time by changing the power structure «defines issues «leads to resolution of issues «increases group cohesion «leads to alliances with other groups «keeps group alert to members' interests (Robinson, I980, p. 77) The above assumptions and related ones are based on Coser's (l97l) assumptions of function and conflict. These were summarized by Robinson (I980): I. conflict permits internal dissention and dissatisfaction to rise to the surface and enables a group to restructure itself or deal with dissatisfactions; 2. conflict provides for the emergence of new norms of appropriate behavior by surfacing shortcomings; 3. conflict provides means of ascertaining the strength of current power structures; 55 4. conflict may work to strengthen boundaries between groups-- distinctiveness of groups; 5. conflict has the effect of creating bonds between loosely structured groups--unifying dissident and unrelated elements; and 6. conflict works as a stimulus to reduce stagnation; conflict may alter society. (p. 76) Some of the weaknesses or negative aspects of conflict approach to development that have been identified in precedent literature include the following: «the uncertainty of whether such change can be sustained. If the change can't be sustained, those who hold power would make it worse for the poor who wanted change (Christenson, I980) «it increases bitterness among social groups «it leads to destruction and bloodshed in the process of revolution «it disrupts members' attention from group objectives «it also has the following negative effects on individuals: inactivity, confusion, stress, violence, and diversion (Robinson, I980) «it lacks established theory that analyzed systematically and showed when to use it, why, how, and with what expected outcomes «the focus of the conflict approach is for those who are outside of the power structure; what is its application for the middle class of a given society? (Christenson, I980) In summary, the thesis of conflict approach says that since continuity development is viewed as planned social change, it often leads to power conflict. Therefore, using conflict purposefully for social intervention is appropriate (Robinson, I980; Alinky, I969, I972; Coser, I97l). The purpose is to overcome injustice in a society by changing power structure. The conflict approach is unavoidable because of a widening and inevitable economic gap between the developed and developing nations of the world and a scarcity of resources leads to conflict (Robinson, I980) and a widening gap between the rich and the poor in 56 a society. If conflict is the result of the existing economical and political power structure of the world, there are only three alternatives to choose from as far as the strategy is concerned: (a) utilize it to bring needed planned social change, (b) prevent it as much as possible, or (c) use it in the most manageable and appropriate ways possible. The major differences between self-help and conflict or social action approach is the degree of confrontation or action by the oppressed people. Technical Assistance Approach The technical assistmce approach to development is a very popular concept with the Western countries as they seek to assist the Third World countries in the process of development. It puts more emphasis on what can be given to the client than on what the client can do for him/herself. It is based on the idea that the rich and developed or technologically advanced nations might aid the less developed countries. This approach accepted "internationalism" and "since I948 the United Nations has allocated a part of its regular budget to technical assistance" (Sutton, I968, p. 566). Hstorically, the U. S. involvement in such an approach is based on President H. S. Truman's assumption that said that greater production was the key to prosperity and peace. And the key to a greater production is a wider and more vigorous application of modern scientific and technical knowledge. In recent years, foreign aid in the form of loans decreased while technical assistance aid increased by I596 between I965 and I966 (Tickner, I958). In most cases, advocates of this theme end up working 195 people rather than 3% them (Christenson, I980). Technical assistance by definition is "programs, activities, and services--to strengthen the capacity of recipients to improve their performance with respect 57 to an inherent or assigned function" (Wright, I978). Therefore, traditional assistance is defined as TA can most simply be defined as nonfinancial assistance to an individual or an organization which has the resolution of organizationaIIy—related problems as its goal. Though TA comes in a variety of sizes, shapes, and packages, it generally falls into two areas: management support and program support. Its provision should be characterized by mutual problem identification between provider and consumer, a time-limited focus, and specific goal- setting (Lehman, I980, p. 7). Supplying of expert and professional personnel to the developing countries, the training of nationals of these countries at home and through fellowship aid abroad; and research on scientific and technical problems undertaken by the aiding countries for the developing ones. (Sutton, I968, p. 566) The major thesis of the approach the poor countries or communities will enable them to overcome their problems by providing technical assistance that will allow them to be efficient. The core concern is technological transference through change agents or "experts" who come from outside to solve the problem of the client. It is assumed that needy people are incapable of or unwilling to solve their own problems (Stafford, I98l). The popular term change agent has its roots in such philosophy of development. The change agent suggests to the residents the course of action that would be appropriate based on his/her expertise to solve the problem. "The decision on which course of action is most appropriate is usually based on the agent's occupational expertise" (Rogan, I982, p. I6). Because the central theme placed on projects or technology transfer is the key concern of community development, the technical intervenor provides services more efficiently. H/She is "to assess the situation in a community, county, or region and, based on the best technical information (such as cost-benefit analysis), to suggest the most economically feasible and socially responsible approaches for improving the situation" (Christenson, I980, p. 45). The satisfaction is based on task accomplishment. 58 The technical assistance approach reflects the following assumption according to precedent literature: «the technical assistance or planning theme philosophy is that structure determines behavior (Christenson, I980) «transfer of scientific knowledge could bring economic development to the poorer part of the world «the more modern technological assistance a community gets, the better off it will be «modern technical assistance is that body of technical and scientific knowledge which can be effectively transferred across national boundaries, to the benefit of the receiving countries (Sutton, I968, p. 568) «someone knows about something that another does not «someone decides (the provider, the recipient, and/or someone else) that the potential recipient needs assistance «there exists a climate within which a provider-receiver relationship can be established «someone provides assistance and others receive (Gamin 8. Fisher, I980) «needy people are incapable of or unwilling to solve their own problems and the intervention of experts to provide material and skilled labor will provide solutions to their problems (Stafford, I982) Like any other giving and receiving relationship, " . . . technical assistance efforts at the international level suggest a variety of motives that might be attributed to providers and to recipients" (Gamm 8. Fisher, I980, p. 50). Some of these motives are summarized below in Table 3.2. Issues and Concerns Related to The Technical Assistance Approach A number of writers expressed the following concerns about the technical assistance approach to community development. I. It advocates working 331 the people more than with the people. (Christenson, I980) Table 3.2 Motives of Providers and Recipients 59 Provider Motives Seek to promote the development of recipient out of altruistic motives Self-interest: (a) political advantage, (b) raw material trade, (c) to establish relationship for market It represents symbolic concern on the part of the provider for the interest of the recipient To counteract demands on the part of the recipient for more tangible aid To win friends and allies Religious conviction«share faith or belief To transfer ideologies To closely monitor the situation for political interest (this is particularly when ideology is the concern; e.g., Cuba and USSR in Ethiopia) To open door for private investment Recipient Motives To advance its efforts toward social and economic development For a country to advance, its own security through economic development and military upgrading To establish a good relationship with assisting country or organization To increase its capacity to handle its own development to move toward dependence To move fast toward modernization 2. It largely ignored public input or community participation. (Melvin, I972; Koneya, I975) 3. Technical assistants and planners are mainly used for designing and developing physical projects (Rogan, I982). But the concern that is expressed by Christenson (I980) is real«who does this benefit? Who are the clientele? What is the relationship between the elites and the community who use assistance? What is the participation of the local people in the technical assistance process? (Dunlap, I980) 4. The relationship concerns a. giver versus recipient, b. "know how" versus "don't know how," and c. outsider expert versus insider non-expert. 60 5. The emphasis of technology transfer, "transferring advanced Western skills to local counterparts sometimes proved to be neither a ver urgent requirement nor a very manageable undertaking." Dunlap, I970, p. 6) 6. Developers' preoccupation by capital flow problems-«according to Kaplan, technical assistance suffers from a lack of constructive criticism and evaluation. 7. The growth institutions in number for transfer skills created overlap of activities. 8. The expensiveness of having outside experts means that, according to Mustapha (I983), 60% of the aid loans are for wages and transportation of outside experts who come as technical assistants. 9. Problems relate to inappropriateness of the technical assistance for a community. (Gamin 8. Fisher, I980) I0. " . . . financial aid and technical assistance tend to bypass the rural people who constitute the majority of the Third World population." (Van Dam, I950), p. 2|) Training and Staff Development Because the aim of the Third World countries is to accelerate their own development, propelled in that effort by their own people who understand the complex socio-cultural and political situations of their countries, education and training are an unavoidable issue. Training, in this sense, is the preparation for a particular functional rule and presumably has to be based on some minimal level of general education and experience (Geer, I968). "Training outside the formal school system covers a vast set of activities, from inservice classes for civil servants to nutrition education for mothers in well-baby clinics" (The World Bank, I98l, p. 85). This quotation points out the importance of training to accelerate development in Africa: "Since trained people remain scarce in most of the continent, large tasks remain for technical assistance and large requirements for training" (p. l3l). 6| Need for Training Training needs cannot be separated from educational needs which are related to the need for human and economic development. Vaccaro (I98l) refers to this concept in saying that "the purpose of education is simple and straight forward: to enable the person to emerge, to come forth, to develop to his greatest potential" (p. 25). Other researchers have pointed out specific problems hindering the African education system in meeting the needs of African people which also have implications for training. Waga (I977) argued that a serious drawback of African education was that its curricula were based on the Western education system rather than on the needs of Africans. ". . . the foreign education is a sinister design to undermine the time-tested traditions and values . . . . In general, the programs of the school were mostly irrelevant, misdirected, or unrelated to the cultural heritage . . . " (pp. 3-5). Adegbola (I978) suggests not only a new definition for education, but also new curricula which reflect: . . . the process by which persons as individuals and as communities are helped to acquire and develop desirable attitudes, knowledge, and skills, and are thus enabled to be who they ought to be, to what what they need to know and do what may need to be done fore their own good and the good of the world community at large. Education embraces all the processes by which the heart, the head and the hands are developed in mutual support of one another and for the mutual good of all. The way (they) respond to educational challenge can influence the whole of education in society. (p. 4) According to him it is crucial to " . . . move with the winds of change which continue to blow through Africa," to bring about the total social transformation which he feels is both necessary and possible. Chanting a demand for "radical change" is not enough without educating or re-educating, training or re-training whole communities for effective social change. Training communities for effective social change is hardly possible without trained and effective change agents. Thus, their training-formal, 62 informal, and non-formaI-«as change agents is necessary and important in the development of society. "The aim is to awaken a conscience, to build up an awareness of social realities and to develop the skills needed to effect change" (Adegbola, I978, p. l2). Dewey's (I977) definition of education also reflects these concepts: "Education is that reconstruction or reorganization of experience which adds to the meaning of experience and which increases ability to direct the course of subsequent experience" (p. 22). In this, education is a process of learning that an individual or group of people can undertake. "Learning is a process that includes acquisition of knowledge, of new social skills" (Dewey, I977). Albert Schweitzer defined education as a process leading to an integrated outlook on life and the world which can give each person and, ultimately, humankind in its entirety, meaning, purpose, and significance. Education consists of absorbing and utilizing principles of "the entire domain of human knowledge" to understand our environment, other persons, and ourselves. To understand life, ourselves, and others in a life-affirming way that motivates us to serviceable action on behalf of the individual person and the community of mankind, as well as the natural environment, is the beginning, the center, and the end of education. (Abrell, I980, p. 390 For some, education is tangible only when it is organized in a formal classroom situation. Others realize the influence of informal education and confirm that learning can take place in nonformal ways. Blakely's definition of education reflects its nonformal aspects. It is a process of self-initiated and self-directed learning. It is engaged in spontaneously and naturally, without even the necessity of conscious awareness. Hence, the goal of education is for self- realization, self-assertion, self-help, and critical consciousness and as tool for development. Formal Education Versus Training The differences between formal education and training have been areas of concern. One school of thought recognizes that differences exist between 63 schooling and education (Ward, n.d.), but it doesn't emphasize those differences. The second school of thought carefully differentiates between education and training. Lynton and Pareek (I978), for instance, identify the points in Table 3.3 as differentiating factors. Table 3.3 Differences Between Training and Education Education Training «personal maturation and growth «improvement in the performance of predetermined tasks «it's primarily concerned with «it's primarily concerned with pre- opening the world to students paring participants for certain so they can choose models of lines of action which are deline- Iiving and life careers ated by technology and the organi- zation in which s/he works «it deals mostly with knowl- «it deals mostly with understanding edge and understanding and skill The criterion for good training is similar to that for education, in spite of the many forms of the educational process-~formal, nonformal, and informal-- and its particular goals and emphases. The basic question is whether training meets the needs. If not, why not, and what can be done? These questions are basic to curriculum in making training relevant to both human and economic development. Training in this study refers to an educational process that facilitates individuals in developing their potential for effectiveness. As a comprehensive program, training is " . . . desigted to enhance staff members' competencies in meeting clientele needs, their own needs, and the organization's needs" (Rogers 8. Rames, I983, p. 4). As an education process, staff training encompasses attitude and program: " . . . an ongoing process that affects every aspect of an 64 organization's functioning and is concerned with the entire range of staff members' effectiveness and potential as these people translate the organization's goals into action" (p. 8). Lynton and Pareek (I978) categorized assumptions underlying concepts of training into two. In their view, the prevailing concept of training has not been effective and a new concept is replacing it. In the new concept of training, the training must lead to practical action and the trainees share responsibility for the training. Numerous lists of goals and objectives of training are provided in literature; however, the one provided by Beeler and Penn (I983) seems to encompass most of the concepts. Some of the goals and objectives they listed follow. «to provide for the continuous upgrading of staff which is expected of all professions «to be representative of, and responsive to, the increased interest in adult development «to provide for staff renewal at a time when there is a reduced mobility of personnel between jobs and reduced influx of new professionals «to represent a commitment to the development of individual potential «to be responsive to issues of relevance, innovation, and change «to represent the valuing of the human resource as the single greatest resource of an organization «to bring professional development to the immediate situation at a time when budgets are reduced for personnel attending conferences --(for the employee) to provide opportunities for upgrading knowledge, improving skills, and being easier to promote «(for the administrator) to provide clearer understanding of individual goals and performance, a more stable work force, increased group morale, better internal communication, and improved efficiency In 65 «to provide opportunities to acquire new skills/knowledge, to exchange information, renew staff, and gain exposure to new approaches «to provide the staff application of the philosophy espoused in student development (to practice what we preach) «to develop a commonality of purpose «to develop knowledge, insight, and skills «to develop knowledge about the organization and how it functions «to provide a climate in which personal growth can occur «to prepare staff for future professional advancements «to reduce staff dissatisfaction by being responsive to needs Rationale for Training addition to goals and purposes of training, many of those who are concerned with training staffs have provided rationale. The following sets of rationale for training seem to be fairly representative. The first set, from the Union Graduate School (I980), includes the following: 7. to create understanding of the economic, political, and social systems of African countries or societies; to apply this understanding to the complex problems of African societies; to discover staff learning needs; to develop workable plans; to use the best available resources within or outside academic institutions; to use learning processes and human networks suited to trainees' abilities and opportunities; and to achieve excellence in the trainees' chosen fields. The second set is provided by the Commonwealth Foundation (I980): l. 2. to develop leadership potential, to develop skills related to the art and science of management, 66 to develop an encourage cultural interests, to develop healthy and happy family life, to develop moral and spiritual values, to develop physical skills and prowess, and . to acquire good health and good health habits. Additional components of the rationale for community development training are based on an agency's recognition of: l. the need for community development activities as a means of improving citizens' well being, 2. the need for community development activities as a prerequisite to adequate implementation of agency programs, 3. the additional responsibilities and needs for skills experienced by field personnel whose job responsibilities now include providing assistance to community development activities, and 4. the changing expectations of clientele and agency administrators regarding work activities of field personnel. (Community Development: on Intensive Training Manual, I978) As far as training curriculum is concerned, both general and specific cookbook approaches have been identified by such researchers as King (I964), t-brdman (I963), I-bvelock (I972), Lynton and Pareek (I967, I978), and Gardner (I976). Many training manuals suggest that training for effective development should take into consideration basic needs, communication skills, cultural values clarification, community needs assessment, the environmental impact of development, problem-solving strategies, and political issues (The Farollones Institute Rural Center, Training Manual, I98l, I982; Developing an Effective Model of Nonformal Education for Rural Development, I980; From the Field, World Education, I980; and Community Development: An Intensive Training Manual, I978). For staff development through training, particularly in Africa, 67 Chao (n.d.) said, "Leadership training programs should be developed according to local, indigenous cultural situations." Adegbola (I978) calls for efforts to build up an awareness of social realities and develop the skills needed to effect change. Elliston points out the importance of social reality and local values in leadership training (l98l). Types of Training Types of training vary according to the purpose, goals, and philosophy of a given course of training. One type could not accomplish all training needs. Therefore, the determinant of training types is capacity to meet the needs for which it is intended. Even though many types of training have been identified by researchers (Lynton 8. Pareek, I967, I978; l-hvelock, I972; hbrdman, I963), for the purposes of this study, the types have been limited to. pretraining and inservice. Pre-training Pretraining refers to training individuals for future work or leadership prior to the beginning of the job or work they are intended to undertake. It usually has two purposes: (a) to introduce new workers, the agency, and the agency staff (Stoesz, I972); and (b) to prepare a person for a specific job by providing him/her with needed minimal skills. Pretraining is usually done by nonformal education. Many private agencies, including mission organizations, train future leaders by sending selected individuals to institutions (high schools, colleges, universities, graduate, and post-graduate schools). In the case of Africa, this has most frequently been done by sending individuals overseas. ' The need for training is usually perceived by the sending agencies, but trainees go because they are given an opportunity to study abroad, not necessarily because they have committed themselves to fulfilling an existing need for trained leaders. Neither the 68 curriculum nor the patterns of change agents taught reflects the indigenous culture of the trainees. Berqquist (I974) feels foreign training is thus inadequate to meet the leadership training needs of autonomous Third World countries. In addition, sending leaders overseas for training presents such problems as the following: I. financial burdens«too expensive, 2. wasted time«four to six years is too long to wait for one trained person, 3. potential personnel loss--some who go abroad for training do not return, and 4. cultural dislocation«not fitting into one's culture upon return. Inservice Training Inservice training involves skill improvement through on-the-job training. This kind of training aims to help persons who are already in working positions. It is also known as staff development training. The main purposes of such activities are to supply personnel with additional information or skills to make them more productive and to retain personnel to cope with new situations or directions. This is usually done by short-term training or work shop training sessions or seminars. This approach is often termed adult education and is extremely important for individuals, society, and nations, particularly for African countries where adult education is vital for those with inadequate childhood and/or preservice education. President Nyerere made this point when he said that Africa (Tanzania) cannot wait to train its young people for leadership in development; it must concentrate on training adults now for leadership to go forward in development (paraphrased). Stoesz (I972) also argues that "inservice training has the advantage«realism" (p. l05). 69 Summary Some of the intent of staff development training is to respond to the needs of already trained personnel. Such needs are usually identified by policy-makers, field workers, staff, or through project evaluation. Some means used to identify training needs are assessment and formal or informal evaluation research and workshop seminars. Both pre- and inservice training promote self-reliance by assisting personnel to learn skills that enable them to bring about their own development and assume the role of change agents in assisting a given society to bring about needed or desired change. Africa's shortage of effective trained leaders who can be catalysts for needed social change and economic development is the result of an educational system which was established to meet the needs of Western colonial powers, not the needs of local people. The formal education system which separates knowing from doing also serves to produce a few elites who manage to keep the system as it is for personal gain. Present development training institutions also need to examine the basic components of their change agent, training curricula. Training institutes that are concerned about social change need to make sure that (0) their training is holistic and based on the needs of the local people, (b) the needs and training curricula are congruent, (c) the definition and theory of change agent are based on change agent practice in Africa, and (d) the need for change agent training is not defined by training institutes without involving both trainees and local people. Therefore, it is crucial not only to evaluate the training process, but also to plan for effective and efficient methods of training and retraining with a curricula that takes into serious consideration economic, political, environmental, social, and spiritual issues. The underlying principle needs to be the creation of indigenous change agent who will serve indigenous people at a grass roots level with an understanding of the complex nature of 70 human society. The input is one measurement of the output in economic systems, so it is in curricula for training change agents. Development Workers/Change Agents Development field workers are perceived as agents of change in a given community. A change agent is an individual or group whose primary goal is to bring about a transformation in attitudes, behavior, and social organization through planned change. It can be defined as follows: A change agent, as broadly conceived, is a person whose primary role is to achieve a transformation in attitudes, behavior, and social organization. (O'Gorman, I978, p. l) A change agent is any individual or group operating to change the status quo in the client's system, such that the individuals involved must re-learn how to perform their roles. (Zaltman 8. Duncan, I977, p. I86) "The instigators" of social change have often been conceptualized as change agents--those individuals or groups attempting to bring about change or giving aid to those attempting to accomplish change. (Beal, I960, p. 233) Their ultimate purpose is to improve quality of life by helping others to improve their economic conditions. There are both external and internal change agents. External change agents are those who come from outside the clients' system to assist the community in a change process that relates to development. They are sent and supported by an outside agency, organization, or government. On the other hand, internal change agents are as follows: Community based change agents, usually temporary or permanent residents in the locality of action or closely related to it, linked to the area of the job to be done, but not always with the some historical or other commitments as the residents toward whom the change is directed. (O'Gorman, I978, pp. I-2) Zaltman and Duncan (I977) cite further dimensions of change agents by referring to internal versus external, single versus team, and homophilous versus 7| heterophilous characteristics. After they analyzed ways the role of change agent has been defined, they provided the following summary: Rogers' definition tends to put the change agent outside the client system, representing some third party attempting to communicate something to the client system. Jones, Bennis, and Argyris all focus on collaboration between client system and change agent, with the change agent working at the "pleasure of" the client system. This latter formulation neglects many change situations in which someone is operating either inside or outside the client system without the latter's desire to change. (p. I7) The role a change agent plays in development work varies according to the goals of that work, according to the client's norms and needs. The norms change«the agent's personality traits, and his/her status in society, his/her world view (Beal, I960). A change agent who is concerned with change, whether s/he is an outsider or insider, needs appropriate attitudes toward others in order to play his/her role effectively. Fessler (I976) suggested nine basic attitudes, among them: «accepting the fact that there are people in the group who possess relevant information s/he does not have «his/her ultimate purpose is to bring change, not to gain popularity «s/he helps people s/he works with to accept unpleasant situations they cannot change «s/he accepts his/her limitations and helps others do the same Roberts pointed out the importance of attitudes as being effective as change agent. Rogers and Shoemaker 0970 argue about the importance of establishing the sequence of change agent roles, getting credibility, and relating the change to clients' needs. In the change process, both the role and basic skills of change agent are important parts of that process to fulfill the purposes or reach the goals of development. In this context, role, by definition, " . . . is a socially recognized pattern of behavior within accepted boundaries in determined situations. . . " (O'Gorman, I978, p. I). 72 O'Gorman sorted roles of change agents into two categories: manifest roles denote the manifest actions of an agent in interaction with a client. Latent roles denote those " . . . which are derived from the underlying currents that give direction to the change agent's action" (pp. I-4). Manifest roles change agents expect to play are identified in summation. For the definition of key words, relate to role and summary in the way roles of change agents interrelated. Skills Needed by Change Agents Training, role, goals, or purposes of development are interrelated concepts- -each affects all the others. The term gm is usually used in the literature in three ways: (a) to refer to behavior of a person coping with change. Robinson and Clifford (I972) call it "process skills," which they define as "understanding, structuring, and developing personal, group, and organizational behavior" (p. 4); (b) to refer to general qualifications 0 person needs to possess to be effective in a given situation; and (c) to refer to specific skills required for specific task performance. The first usually includes attitudes, behavior, and motives, and is used in the social sciences more than in other disciplines. The three usages usually refer to technically-oriented disciplines. In community development literature, "Skills" refers to the latter two concepts (Macagba, I977; Zaltman 8. Duncan, I977; Havelock 8. t-tlvelock, I973). The Development Training Forum by the University of Denver (I979) categorized "skills" into conceptual skills, human skills, and technical skills. HJman skills include behavior and interaction skills involving knowledge on how to get along with people, how to control oneself, how to cope with change and fear, and how to understand and cope with anxiety and prejudice (Robinson 8. Clifford, I972). Behavior skills are leader skills and can be developed through orientation, team activities, feedback, self-analysis, and goal 73 setting (Skinner, l97l; Robinson 8. Clifford, I972). Specific skills that are considered to be important for a change agent to possess are identified in summation. Summation of the Research: a Tentative Taxonomy Purposes of Development Purposes of development, according to precedent literature, include the following: I. to achieve a democratic kind of participation in deciding on and carrying out political aspects of community action; 2. to bring about equitable distribution«eliminate poverty, inequality, and unemployment; 3. to enable a community to be self-reliant; 4. to enable people to overcome constraints and reach specific objectives; 5. to facilitate economic development; 6. to foster social transformation that includes social, economic, political, and psychological elements (Goulet, I979; Rogers, I979; Todaro 8. O'Gorman, I979; Stoesz, I977; Morris, I970; Edwards 8. Jones, I976). 7. to improve the quality of life«to meet basic needs (food, shelter, etc.), self-esteem (sense of worth and self-respect), and freedom to choose for one's self; 8. to inject long-range considerations to determination of short- range actions; and 9. to liberate people/overcome injustice; ID. to make the physical environment more function, healthful, beautiful, interesting, and efficient; II. to promote concern for the community as a whole; 74 The Role of Change Agents In precedent literature the role of change agents or development field workers are identified as follows: PFPP administrator (Beal, l98l; Sanders, I975); activist (Grosser, I967); advisor/guide (Gallaher, I967; Ross, I967); broker (Grosser, I975, I976; Brill, I978); analyzer/interpretor (O'Gorman, I978; Gallaher, I967; Sanders, I975; Spergel, I969, I975; Brill, I978; Ross, I967); applied researcher (Beal, l98l; Franklin, I976); consultant (Beal, l98l; Morris, I970; Franklin, I976); coordinator (Fisher 8. Romanofsky, I98l); dealing with resistance (Zaltman 8. Duncan, I977); determining change objectives (Zaltman 8. Duncan, I977; Ross, I967h developer (Speges, l96l, I975); educator (Beal, I98l; O'Gorman, I978; Brill, I978; Franklin, I976); evaluator (O'Gorman. I979; Spergel, I969, I975; Ross, I967). facilitator (Beal, l98l; O'Gorman, I978); informer (O'Gorman, I978; Ross, I967); innovator, starter, or initiator (Gallaher, I967; O'Gorman, l978;l Rogers 8. Shoemaker, I976; Ross, I967); Iegitimizer (Rogers 8. Shoemaker, I976); maintainer of change (Zaltman 8. Duncan, I977); model (Brill, I978); motivator (Brill, I978); organizer (Beal, l98l; O'Gorman, I978; Sanders, I975; Spergel, I969, I975); planner (Sanders, I975; Spergel, I975; Morris, I970; Fisher 8. Romanofsky, l96l); ‘ 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 75 problem identifier or diagnostician (Spergel, I975; Zaltman 8. Duncan, I977; Ross, I967); relationship builder (Zaltman 8. Duncan, I977); stimulator (Rogers 8.,Shoemaker, I976; Morris, I970); therapist (Brill, I978; Ross, I967); advocate (Beal, I98l; Gallaher, I967; Grosser, I975, I976; Morris, I970; Fisher, l98l; Robinson 8. Clifford, I972); The Skills Field Workers/Change Agent Need In addition to purposes development aimed to accomplish and the role change agents are expected to play, there are skills believed needed to ensure effectiveness. Some of the skills a change agent needs include the following: administrative/managerial skills (Zaltman 8. Duncan, I977; Rogers 8. Raines. I983), including a. planning b. organizing c. coordination d. motivating e. directing f. controlling, and g. decision making (all from Roberts, I979); basic research including 0. information collection, use, and dissemination skills (Kilaguni, I979); b. assessing the need for change and its impact on those affected (Rogers 8. Raines, I978); c. conducting need analysis (Rogers 8. Raines, I983); and I d. writing program proposals (Rogers 8. Raines, I983); communication skills (Macagba, I977; Kilaguni, I979; Zaltman 8. Duncan, I977; t-bvelock 8. l-bvelock, I973; Brill, I978; Roberts, I979; Rogers 8. Raines, I983) including 76 a. ability to communicate (the knowledge, values and skills s/he possesses), express oneself clearly; and b. listening; project or program development technical skills including a. conceptualizing (Rogers 8. Raines, I983); b. implementing plan of action (Kilaguni, I979; l-bvelock 8. t-bvelock, I973; Zaltman 8. Duncan, I977; Rogers 8. Raines, I983); c. organizing and designing a presentation (Rogers 8. Raines, I983); and d. managing and maintaining (Kilaguni, I979; l-bvelock 8. l-bvelock, I973; Zaltman 8. Duncan, I977); relational skills (rtivelock 8. l-bvelock, I973; Zaltman 8. Duncan, I977), including a. confronting difficult issues (Rogers 8. Raines, I983); b. conflicts and misunderstandings solving skills (Havelock 8. Havelock, I973; Zaltman 8. Duncan, I977); c. letting others be who they are (Rogers 8. Raines, I973); d. giving positive reinforcement that is consistent overtime (Rogers 8. Raines, I983); e. influencing others (Rogers 8. Raines, I983); and f. supporting others (Rogers 8. Raines, I983); specific skills relating to a given project or operation, including a. leadership/facilitative skills (Zaltman 8. Duncan, I977; Rogers 8. Raines, I983); b. discovering and mobilizing human energy (Rogers 8. Raines, I983); and c. increasing others' awareness of the need for change (Rogers 8. Raines, I983); training skills (Kilaguni, I979; O'Gorman, I978), including 0. creating learning opportunities, b. implementing learning theory, 77 c. making appropriate interventions into learning process, d. utilizing feedback, and e. program outline (all from Rogers 8. Raines, I983); and 8. evaluation and replanning skills (Kilaguni, I979). C HAPTER IV MET t'ODOLOGY The purpose of the study was to identify concerns common to development research literature, development agency personnel (at policy and managerial levels), agency field workers, and the target population within a given political structure that could serve as a basis for designing pre- and inservice training curricula for field workers. The descriptive study was guided by two major research concerns. I. What are the distinguishing criteria for identifying effective relief and development workers, according to research literature, the relief and development agency, its field workers, and the target population? 2. What are the common concerns that can be utilized as bases for training curricula in order to prepare change agents to maximize the impact of development? The research approach was a case study, done to assess the extent of congruency among the indigenous variables mentioned in earlier chapters, in an effort to identify common denominators. The case study served as a means to (a) collect detailed, factual information that described existing relief and development workers, (c) identify rationale for the existing practices and related concerns and problems, and (c) make comparisons between the ideal model and existing reality (Isaac 8. Michael, I980). To maximize the practical application of the outcomes of the study and its replicability, a specific development assistance agency at a specific location in East Africa was chosen for the case study. The choice of the agency from among PVOs was based on its being an international organization with several 78 79 years' experience in relief and development work. Both the choice of the agency and the location were purposeful selections. Instrumentation Because the importance of the study lies more in its replicability than its generalizability, attention was given to the dynamics of the development model and the communication process at various levels. The importance of qualitative information was apparent from the focus on the dynamics of the process. The importance of the quantitative information based on the identification of the role and skills needed to be part of or basis for change agent training curricula. Therefore, the main instruments used in this sequence were questionnaires (see Appendix A for instrument) and/or both formal and informal face-to-face interviews and observations. The research questions, assumptions, conceptual framework, research literature, and the input of experts in the field of social science and field practitioners were used to validate the data gathering instruments. The instrument was improved during the process to make it more effective. Also, it was necessary to make the questionnaire reasonably simple and more appropriate to the target population, and that was done during the process. For the reasons mentioned earlier, research interviews were carried out in addition to written questionnaires. The choice had the advantages stated by Gordon (I980). l. The interview provides more opportunity to motivate the respondent to supply accurate and complete information. 2. The interview provides more opportunity to guide the respondent in his/her interpretation of the questions. 3. The interview allows a greater flexibility in questioning the respondent. The more exploratory the purpose, the greater the need for flexibility in determining the wording of the question, the sequence of the questions, and the direction and amount of probing used. ' 80 4. The interview provides a greater opportunity to evaluate the validity of the information by observing the respondent's nonverbal manifestations of his/her attitude toward supplying the information. (pp. 6l-62) The validity of each item on the interview schedule was tested by asking questions such as who? why? when? where? how? (Payne, I95I). All the face-to- face interview cpestions used in the study followed one of two styles: (0) questions that were open-ended and led to specific points and (b) questions that started with choices and concluded as open-ended questions. In Gordon's (I980) classification, this is to start with non-scheduled and move to scheduled material. Procedures Prior to selecting an agency for the case study, both the PVOs and NGOs' development activities were examined through the literature review as discussed in the context chapter. The researcher reached a decision to use one of the international PVOs for the case study, based on the criteria that were identified in Chapters l and Il. After the agency and location of the study were selected, the relief and development agency used in the case study was approached, and a research agreement was made. The research plan, the previously identified data sources, and the roles of both indigenous and exogenous variables int he study were shared with agency personnel. An agreement was made that precluded any direct or indirect control by the agency that could have biased the results. The researcher was satisfied that there were no "hidden agendas" for the research on the part of the agency. To provide an historical context for the case study, a brief historical background of PVOs in general and of the specific agency has been provided. During the research process, the four major procedures included identifying sources, gathering data, and organizing and analyzing data. 8| Identifying Sources By consulting with a person who is considered to be very knowledgeable about the organizational structure of the agency, particularly as it relates to overseas development activities, and by carefully studying the organizational chart, personnel were identified as data sources at six major levels within the organization. These levels are referred to in the data analysis chapter as policy (international office), management (regional office), operational (management for field office/country level), project coordinators (change agents hired by field office to implement development activities), project managers (change agents hired by a community/recipient of the development assistance), and project committees (community level persons who represent the recipients). Subjects at the these organizational levels were used as primary data sources. In addition, related issues were identified in development literature, agency development conceptual papers, training manuals, and other relevant documents. Also, the informational input of project coordinators in the study area and in four other countries in East Africa was utilized to validate the data. An exemplary supervisor for development activity was identified at policy, management, and operation levels. Each individual was asked to identify others who shared the responsibility of conceptualizing or managing or interpreting or implementing development activities or projects. At the project coordinator level, all project coordinators were used as one of the major data sources, I3 in number in the country in which the case study was done. Twenty-six project managers and project committees were selected, with the guidance of some criteria, to yield a purposive sample. Babble (I979) explains purposive sampling. To the extent that you consciously sample at all, you are more likely to employ what is called a purposive sample. You select a sample of observations that you believe will yield the most 82 comprehensive understanding of your subject of study, based on the intuitive feel for the subject that comes from extended observation and reflection. (p. 2IS) To select the project managers and project committees, 26 projects were identified, the project managers and committees of which were used as data sources. In the project selection process, criterion used as a guideline, whenever possible, was to obtain a representative sample including new projects, older projects, urban projects, rural projects, family development projects, community development projects, and a varied representation of project coordinators' involvement. Therefore, the primary data sources for the study were (a) the literature (i.e., development literature, development policy or conceptual papers, and development workers' training manual); (b) the agency personnel who were directly involved in developing or had the responsibility of conceptualizing and/or shaping development assistance; (c) development field workers or development project implementors; and (d) the representatives of the target population (recipients). The total number of the research subjects in the country in which the research was done and the personnel by levels, offices, and numbers are shown in Table 4.l. Table 4.| Study Subjects by Levels, Offices, and Numbers Level Office Number of Subjects Policy International 5 Management Regional 7 Operational Field (Kenya) 7 Project Change Agents l3 Coordinators . Project Managers Change Agents 26 Project Committees Community People 2g TOTAL SUBJECTS: 84 83 In addition to the total subjects identified, the commonly perceived roles they thought training should prepare them for and the skills they needed to learn from the training to equip them for development work in their respective countries and localities were considered. The total number of project coordinators outside the case study country was I9. Those who responded to the questionnaire came from the following countries: Ethiopia: 6 Malawi: 2 Zambia: 4 Zimbabwe: 7 Finally, it should also be remembered that the number of project committees refers to 26 different groups of committees, not to number of individuals. Data Gathering Procedure The main instruments used for data gathering were written questionnaires and scheduled face-to-face interviews, personal observations, and informal face- to-face interviews. In most cases more than one instrument was utilized to maximize the validity of the information, the data gathering phase was divided into six levels. Policy Level At the policy level, personnel responsible for overseas development activities were asked to identify other individuals who contributed to conceptualizing development activities. One person at the policy level identified six individuals who worked directly with overseas development activities, some in conceptualizing development models, others in managing and evaluating development, and so forth. In addition to the individuals, development policy and related materials were provided. Of the six identified individuals, one was not able to participate; consequently, one woman and four men spent from one-half 84 hour to one hour each with the researcher as he explained the purposes of the research and the context of the questionnaire. The questionnaire was then administered, and policy level personnel responded to the items before their next meeting with the investigator. Upon the completion of the questionnaire, the respondents were asked for additional input, in face-to-face interviews whenever possible. This input was used to further clarify and improve some of the questions. Management Level Similar procedures were followed at the management level. With the help of regional directors and management and training personnel, six men and one woman were identified; all worked in areas directly related to development activities. Through a memorandum from the development department manager for the region, the researcher and the purpose, focus, and usefulness of the research project were formally introduced to these people; their full cooperation was sought. Individual appointments were held with each of the seven respondents, at which time the researcher spent approximately an hour explaining both the purposes of the research and research instrument and establishing a friendly relationship so as to gain acceptance. At this level, it took more time and effort to assure individuals that the research was not about individual performance, but about development training concerns. Following the explanation, each subject was given a questionnaire to complete according to his/her time schedule. After administering the questionnaire, the researcher conducted face-to- face interviews with each individual again, these lasted from IV: to 2 hours. This interview focused mainly on the areas of training, purposes of development. role of change agents, skills needed for effectiveness, and overall views of, and 85 concerns about, development. The major purpose of the face-to-face interviews was to make sure, by means of open-ended questions, that, first, the respondents had a chance to discuss any concerns that might not have been included in the design of the questionnaire. Second, the interview provided individuals with an opportunity to express their opinions without being limited by the questionnaire format. Third, it gave them a chance to emphasize concerns that they felt needed more attention. Therefore, the following questions were used as guidelines. I. Are there issues or concerns you would like to discuss that are not dealt with adequately on the questionnaire? 2. As an agent, how do you define development policy(ies)? 3. WW often do you use or refer to the policy of development designed at international office in conceptualizing, designing, or modifying development activities for country-based offices? 4. What are the major purposes of development assistance designed to accomplish? 5. What are the main emphases of the present training seminars for project coordinators? 6. What are some of the roles you think change agents should assume to enhance development work? 7. Are there skills on which you think the training curriculum for project coordinators should focus? @erational Level While the management level refers to the regional office which is overseas from the offices in several countries, in this case study the operational level refers to the main office in each country in which the agency is working, or a country-based office. This office is usually divided into two areas: loperational and implementation groups. The operational group deals with conceptualizing and shaping development policy, while the implementation group deals with the practical aspects of development work. Most of this group's personnel are 86 referred to as project coordinators, those people referred to in development literature as practitioners or change agents. After the researcher moved to the country-based office, he was introduced formally to the administrators and implementors by the director of the Kenya- based operation of the agency. The director was very supportive of research related to development and training for appropriate development. After being welcomed, the researcher spent most of his first day in the field with management personnel asking questions and visiting offices to understand the organizational structure of the country-based office. After more than a week of such activity, he participated in a formal talk of several hours during which he explained the details of the study (e.g., purposes, method, expected outcomes, and so forth) and how the results would benefit not only the overall work related to training, but also development at the field level. After a clear understanding was established, the researcher asked the director to identify persons whose work directly related to conceptualizing, managing, modifying, or directing development projects. Seven persons (two women and five men) were so identified. The researcher spent several weeks creating a friendly and non-threatening atmosphere before beginning the data collection process. In the data gathering process at the operational level, methods similar to those at the management level were used with minimum modifications and variations in the focus of the face-to-face interviews. The researcher spent relatively more time with people at the operational level than at the management level. People at the operational level were friendly and raised ‘ practical questions and concerns. 87 Project Coordinators Each country-based office of this development agency had individuals referred to as project coordinators. The major role of the coordinators was to implement development activities or work with communities by representing the agency and its work in communities. They were the major contact personnel for the agency and acted not only as development project supervisors, but also as change agents, development experts, the agency's policy implementors, advisors to communities on bookkeeping or accounting procedures, trainers of project managers and project committees, both formally and nonformally, and in other roles as needed. Therefore, to a great extent, these people are the ones who try to reconcile the Western way of doing things, particularly community development approaches, and communities' views and felt needs for development. The communities and their project workers' understandings of development work, motivation, clear vision about the goals or purposes of development, understanding of what the agency is and stands for, and their mastery of the agency's methods of office work (writing proposals, reports, bookkeeping, etc.) and of project managers and project committees make or break the organization. Each project coordinator has the responsibility for coordinating many projects, the exact numbers varying from country to country. t-bwever, in the country in which this case study was done, each project coordinator was responsible for an average of IO projects. There were l3 active project coordinators here, all of whom were used as major data sources for this research. Therefore, in this study, p_roject coordinators always refers to these l3 people, although it should be clear that after he completed his detailed case study in this country, the researcher visited five other countries in East Africa to observe the 88 similarities and differences in patterns of development assistance used by the same agency in those countries. In these five countries the researcher had an opportunity to visit projects and consult with project coordinators. Because the focus of his research was to identify training curricula primarily for project coordinators, the researcher also administered the questionnaire to project coordinators in these countries for purposes of comparison for common concerns, particularly in the area of training. In the country in which the research was done, the researcher was introduced to the project coordinators by the operational field head in addition to the formal introduction he had been given by the director. He also spent the same time as he had with others, explaining details of the project and establishing rapport before administering the questionnaire and conducting face- to-face interviews. Therefore, both the questionnaire and two or three hours of formal and informal face-to-face interviews were used to gather the data on this level. The major procedural difference at the change agent level was that the wording of the questionnaire was changed to make it easier and more practical; in addition, the interviews were longer. Project Manggers A project manager in this case study referred to a person whom a community hired to work on a development project sponsored by the agency. The major roles of the project manager included office work (proposal writing, bookkeeping, report writing, accounting, etc.), management or administration of project work in the community, the role of the change agent in the community (carrying out development policy), serving as a communication link between the community and the agency, among others. Every project has one project 89 manager who is supervised by a project committee. Hence, the major duty of the project manager is to execute the development activities agreed upon between the agency and community. Even though the project manager is paid directly by the project committee as a community employee, his/her wages are included as part of the project funding agreement. The researcher was first introduced by letter or telephone contact from the project coordinators or committees to the project managers. After 26 projects were selected by the criteria mentioned earlier, the project coordinators and committees were contacted for visit schedules. The data gathering phase was then carried out. The data gathering procedure at the project managers' level was different from the rest because, in the reality of the field situation, it was not possible to use both the questionnaire and three hours of face-to-face interviews. Therefore, the researcher conducted interviews based on the questionnaire giving specific examples when the need was indicated. Project Committees In this study, project committees refer to groups of people selected by communities to provide guidance for development projects sponsored by agencies. A project committee typically consisted of a chair, treasurer, secretary, and five to ten members, all of whom worked directly with the agency as its partner and as final authority on community development activities. The data gathering approach was different at the community level in two ways: (a) only face-to-face formal and informal interviews were used, and (b) these interviews were conducted with a group of persons rather than individuals. In this context, what was considered meaningful was not individual opinions, but the consensus of community leaders or representatives. Individual opinion was validated only when it was accepted and approved as a community's idea(s) in a 90 group meeting or discussion, not when it was suggested privately or in isolation from the group. This is particularly true for those things that affect or concern a community as a whole in East African cultures. To reach this conclusion, the researcher consulted with a social science research expert in Kenya, in addition to his own personal experience growing up in a similar culture. The group interviews were used to asses the consensus that 26 groups or project committees who represented 26 different communities in different parts of Kenya. The number of persons in each group varied from five to ten or more, with an average of six members. Therefore, the total number of persons on the committees who had the opportunity to contribute to their group's consensus was aboutl56. A project committee or community representative interview took an average of three hours. The focus of this face-to-face interview was to identify the committee member's (a) perception of the agency, (b) goals/purposes of development, (c) feelings about the agency's development assistance, (d) perception of the roles and skills needed by change agents, (e) perception of the strengths and weaknesses of the agency's development assistance, among other things. Several specific questions were used as guides in obtaining the desired information. I. t-bw long have you been working with the agency as a partner agency? 2. If one of the community persons would ask you what the agency is, how would you explain it to him/her? 3. How or in what ways does the agency help you as a community? 4. What are some of the development goals you have been trying to accomplish as a result of such assistance? 5. What are some of the problems you have faced in implementing development activities in your community? 9| 6. What are some of the skills project coordinators and managers need to help you develop these activities more effectively? 7. What are some of the things you would like the agency to do differently or change whenever it is possible? 8. After your project with the agency is completed or phased out, if another agency came to assist you in development activities, what would you do differently because of the experiences you have had with the agency? In addition to the above questions, the researcher raised other ones if he sensed that a group was trying to give him information they thought he wanted. He also used other techniques to overcome this problem with the project committees: to get them to relax by establishing a friendly atmosphere and trust; showing them genuine interest in their affairs; identifying with them not as a researcher, but as a concerned African; using concepts and cultural context they could easily identify with; discussing common interests, whenever possible; and treating them genuinely as the best experts about their needs and situations. Organizing and Analyzing the Data The major purposes of the study were to identify common concerns among personnel at different levels which is different from trying to identify overall policy without regard for its perceptions by personnel at varied levels. This was seeking for common concerns whether they resulted from guiding policies of development or ideological conviction. These common concerns provided some references for training curriculum, as well as for developing new policies or retraining existing ones. One way of identifying such common concerns without going into an evaluation of the system is by means of congruence assessment to determine the overlapping concerns among personnel at different levels. Therefore, the precise concern of data analysis was to identify the commonly perceived concern by using congruence assessment, to determine the extent of the congruence of 92 findings categorized under six major headings or categories, to identify common concerns under each. The six categories were as follows: I. perception of the agency, purposes of development assistance, roles of change agents, 899:9 skills change agents need, 5. problems in implementation of development projects, and 6. strengths and concerns about the development assistance agency. Therefore, data under the above major categories were analyzed to find the common denominators in each category as perceived by agency personnel at six levels. The major focus of the data analysis was to identify generalizable patterns in each category, first by analyzing the data to find the common concerns among the persons at each level, and then making comparisons among all levels to determine common denominators. To make the reporting process easier, enhance readability, and make generalizations more precise, the first stage of the analysis is not shown in the chapter. The second and final part is shown, with examples and statistical tables and graphs where needed. Analysis of the data was both qualitative and quantitative to bring out the social dynamics of the situation by supporting the statistical data whenever possible, without sacrificing one for the other. Both are instruments with inherent strengths and weaknesses that complement and supplement each other. Where there was a similar pattern or a common concern, appropriate generalizations were made and examples provided of the data reported by personnel at each level. 93 Summary The major instruments used in data gathering were questionnaires and formal and informal face-to-face interviews. The major data sources were persons at the six policy, management, operational, project coordinator, project manager, and project committee levels. The data were categorized and analyzed under six subject matter categories: perceptions of the agency, its purposes, community development, roles of change agents, skills change agents need, problems in implementing development projects, and strengths of and concerns about the agency. The focus of the analysis was to determine common concerns about the personnel at different levels about the six subject categories. In the analysis, both qualitative and quantitative approaches were utilized. Generalizations were made according to general patterns and common concerns revealed through data analysis. CHAPTER V ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS The focus of the study was to identify issues and concerns that could serve as a basis for preservice and inservice training of development workers or change agents (project coordinators and project managers). Answers were sought to two basic research questions. I. What are the distinguishing criteria for identifying effective development workers, according to precedent research, relief and development agencies, their field workers, and their target populations? 2. What are the common concerns that can be used as bases for training curricula in order to optimize the impact of development activities? In doing this, the following questions were used to guide the research. I. Do people at different levels within the organization have similar perceptions of main issues? 2. Do agency personnel at different levels make distinctions between relief and development? 3. What are some of the purposes of development assistance that are commonly valued in development literature and by persons at policy, management, operational, project coordinator, project manager, and target population levels? 4. What are some of the roles development workers are expected to assume in fostering community development and which ones are common to the above-mentioned personnel? 5. What skills are needed by development workers and which ones are commonly valued at all levels of the agency hierarchy? 6. What are the major constraints in implementing development projects? 7. What are the strengths and weaknesses of the private development agency? 94 9S 8. Which of the common concerns claimed by the literature and agency personnel at different levels provide criteria for selecting and constructing training curricula for development workers or change agents? Therefore, the core concern in the analysis of the data was to identify the concerns common to agency personnel used in this case study, at mlicy, management, operational, project coordinator (implementation), project manager (implementation), and project committee (community) levels and compares these with the dominant views in the development literature on the purposes of development, the role of change agents, and the skills they need to be effective. The focus of the analysis of the findings was both to determine the dominant view at each level and to identify the common denominators that could be used in designing training curricula for change agents. Unless otherwise specified, in this case study, the phrase change agent applies to both project coordinators and project managers. Perceptions of the Agency The respondents were given an opportunity to express their perceptions of the organization, not in the sense of evaluation, but to determine their understanding of what the agency stands for. Explanations are given below, under the section on general perceptions. Committed Christian Development Organization The agency was perceived at all levels as a committed Christian organization which reflected Christian values. To determine the above generalization, the respondents were asked to rate Likert-scaled items on a written questionnaire, with the exception of the respondents at community level, who were asked the same questions in face-to-face interviews. Of 84 respondents, 78 (93%) indicated that they agreed or strongly agreed with the 96 generalizations. The perceptions of the people at the community level about the agency were also surveyed in face-to-face interviews by questions such as, "t-bw do you describe what the agency is in your view?" The overall responses of community people are summarized as follows: «The agency is a Christian organization which is trying to help the less fortunate people, both spiritually and physically, with the compassion and love of Christ. «The agency is a Christian organization whose members are from different cultures and societies with a common goal of assisting the needy, both Christians and non-Christians, to improve their living standards. «The agency is a Christian organization that is providing funds through local churches to help communities to help themselves without being limited by denomination or nationality or political ideology. «the agency is a Christian aid organization that works through the local church. Therefore, both responses to the questionnaire and to face-to-face interviews strongly suggested that the agency is a committed Christian organization that cares for the needy. Thus, its motivation is not based on political interest, but on religious conviction and the love and compassion of Christ. Relief Organization The agency is best known for reaching out to needy communities to help solve their immediate problems. Sixty-six or 78% of the respondents support (most of them strongly) the above statement in their responses to written questions and in face-to-face interviews. By ranking in a priority order the major activities of the agency and face-to-face interviews and observations, the response to "what the agency looks like at present" also confirms the same idea. Relief and rehabilitation are among issues that were highly ranked to show what the agency looked like as it related to its priority list. During the interviews, similar perceptions were expressed in statements such as "helps our poor 97 children," "it is an organization that helps the needy," "charitable Christian organization which helps the poor," "it is an organization which helps the needy both spiritually and physically," "it is a Christian organization which gives money to help needy communities," "a Christian organization which does relief work in a community," and so forth. The results of both the questionnaire and the face- to-face interviews suggest that the agency is best known for reaching out to needy communities to assist in solving their immediate problems, which makes it a good Christian relief organization. Development Assistance Organization The agency is also known for helping communities to plan and carry out long-term development projects. According to the response to a written questionnaire, about 60% of the respondents supported the statement. t-bwever, when the data are broken into the six levels, the questionnaires from personnel at the policy level indicate that "assisting communities in planning and carrying out long-term development projects" is not the agency's strong point. The people closer to the field felt more strongly that the agency was best known for its long-term development activities. People farther from the field seemed less convinced about the agency's strength in planning and undertaking long-range development activities. For example, Table 5.I summarizes responses to the question, "Do you feel the agency is best known for assisting communities to plan and carry out long term development projects?" The responses to statements "what the agency looks like at present" and "what it should look like" also confirmed the need for additional attention to long-term development activities, as did personal observation and informal interviews. 98 Table 5.l Responses to "Do you feel the agency is best known for assisting communities to plan and carry out long term development projects? Livglg Disagree _N£u_t_r_al Agree/Strongly Agree Policy 60% 40% 0% Management 42% -« 57% Operation 29% l4% 57% Project coordinators 0% 8% 92% Project managers I5% I2% 73% .——_-.__ Training for long-term development work and applied research are areas that should be among the agency's serious concerns. The responses to what the agency looks like at present indicate that the agency is primarily characterized by relief/rehabilitation, development, and evangelism activities, as shown in Table 5.2. Table 5.2 Activities That Best Characterize the Agency Activities in Order of Priority Level F irst Second Third Policy Relief Rehabili- Evange- tation lism Management Deve lop- Rehabi l i- Evange- ment tation lism Operation Develop- Relief Rehabili- ment tation Project Deve lop- Rel ief Evange- Coordinator ment lism 99 The findings also show a lack of congruence between "what the agency is" and "what it should be," according to the perceptions of the respondents (see Table 5.3). Table 5.3 Congruence Between What the Agency "Is" and What It "Should Be" Levels "What Is" "What Should Be' Policy l. Relief agency I. Development 2. Rehabilitation agency 2. Strengthening local church 3. Evangelism 3. Research 8. training Management I. Development l. Evangelism 2. Rehabilitation 2. Development 3. Evangelism 3. Strengthening local church Operation l. Development I. Development 2. Relief 2. Evangelism 3. Rehabilitation 3. Strengthening local church People at the community level also talked about immediate and urgent needs of a relief nature, not about development activities. The community response to the question "how does the agency help you as a community?" does not indicate that the agency's strength is perceived to be in long range development activities. In fact, one of the major complaints of the people at the community level was that the agency does not prepare them to carry on development activities beyond the agency's project phase-out. Therefore, the findings suggest that the agency is not best known for assisting communities in planning and carrying out long term development activities. Responses to "what the agency should be" and communities' complaints seem to suggest that the agency needs to place more emphasis on development IOO work and strengthening local church evangelism as an integrated part of relief and rehabilitation. Conceptual Differences Between Relief and Development At all levels, with the exception of project committees, the respondents perceived conceptual differences between relief and development activities. Respondents at all levels used the phrases below most frequently to designate conceptual differences between the two: Relief Development Short-term involvement to help a Long-term involvement to help a community community An answer to the immediate and A planned undertaking to solve circumstantial problems problems Dole-out approach to need Promotes self-reliance among the people Encourages dependency Encourages interdependence Deals with a temporary social Process people take to identify and situation solve their problems Not self-sustaining Self-sustaining F ix-it approach Enabling approach Not a Partner, but a Charitable Organization The agency was perceived at the community level not as a development agency working with local churches as partners, but as a charitable Christian organization that provides funds through local churches to help needy communities and preaches the good news of the gospel through action, without being limited by denominational, national, or political ideology. Its major role was perceived as a funding agency (i.e., Christian agency that funds projects believed to benefit communities). People at the community level expressed their views in statements such as the following: The agency gives to community representatives so that they help the needy in a community with necessary material. |0| The agency gives financial aid so that we can help the needy people in our community both spiritually and physically. A welfare organization that looks into the spiritual and physical well- being of the needy. The agency helps us by giving us money or funding us. The agency helps us by providing funds for school fees, irrigation, office buildings, and relief«seeds, food, fruits, animals, etc. The agency helps us by providing funds for development projects, sponsoring children, training social workers, paying school fees, etc. Our relationship with the agency has been a funding relationship. Therefore, according to the statements given and information interviews and observations, the relationship between the agency and communities is based on giving and receiving. The agency is the "giver" while the communities are the recipients. To be full partners, criteria such as concepts of sharing versus giving have not been developed yet. The respondents expressed such concerns in statements such as those below. We don't have a clear partnership policy. The agency "tells" the partner agencies what they can do and what they can't do by the way it accepts or rejects budget proposals. The requirements of the agency do not reflect the partnership concept. The agency's centralized activities have to be decentralized by involving the resources closer to the community. Recommendation by the committees are usually neglected. The agency is not strong in using locally available material. Purposes of Development In order to identify some of the major (core) purposes of. the agency's development assistance, the respondents were asked to (a) rank some of the identified objectives of development, (b) mark phrases that characterize the agency's activities, (c) respond to a written questionnaire related to the agency's |02 projects, (d) respond to written value statements, and (e) participate in face-to- face interviews at the community level. According to the findings, several identifiable common purposes are desired of development assistance at all levels. l-bwever, there are basic differences between the major purposes of development identified at the community level and those identified by the rest of the levels. The purposes expressed at the community level were practical remedies for immediate problems while the issues identified as the purposes of development assistance by personnel at other levels were more theoretical principles or concepts of development. For instance, the following five principles of development were identified by personnel at the first five levels: (a) to meet basic human needs (both physical and spiritual), (b) to improve living standards by improving production systems, (c) to help communities to identify and deal with root problems, (d) to motivate communities toward positive change, and (e) to educate communities by using projects for self-reliance. At the community level, the purposes of development assistance were seen as more specific and practical rather than conceptual. Several examples and their explanations are listed below. We want to improve our agriculture. (This includes the improvement in coffee and/or tea, fruit trees, vegetables and forestry, planting, cash crops, farming, food production systems, and erosion control.) We want skilled training for our community's young people. (In their view this could be done by establishing training centers such as village polytechnics, vocational training, adult education with emphasis on functional literacy, nonformal education, health education, and extension center for working adults.) We want the development assistance project to help us in improving small skill businesses, creating income, generating business, and effective use of revolving funds. l03 We need to build health centers or mobile clinics for preventative care, for teaching concepts of family planning, and for basic hygiene. We want the improvement of animal farming (improving types of animals). We want the project to help us in water improvement in our communities. (This involves installation of water pipes, building water dams, and improvement of irrigation systems.) We want to improve houses in our communities. Others said that one of the purposes of development projects is to assist the most needy people of the community by giving them animals like cows, goats, or chickens; seeds; and school fees for their children. What the project committees would like to see happening in their respective communities, as a result of the development assistance, varies according to the needs of a given community. The major purpose of the development assistance and of the agency doing the assisting, according to the community representatives, are three-fold: (a) to create self-reliance in needy communities, (b) to preach the gospel by actions, and (c) to assist local churches to fulfill their responsibilities in representing both the physical and spiritual needs of a community. Therefore, the following principles were commonly identified by respondents as the main purposes of development assistance: «meeting both physical and spiritual needs of a community «90% of the respondents viewed this as the purpose of development assistance «increasing the living standards of a community by increasing] improving production systems «by 7l% of the respondents |04 «facilitating communities in identifying problems and dealing with them «by 85% of the respondents «meeting basic human needs «by 90% of the respondents «helping communities to make positive changes to reach their goals, including changing values that are reinforced by life example «motivating local communities to participate in the process of development «educating communities in the process of development «creating self-reliance in the target population In general terms, the development activities have a tendency to over-emphasize giving money as their main purpose. Especially at higher levels of the agency, giving money seems to be equated with development work, according to the perceptions of the majority of the respondents. Respondents at the management level and lower expressed such concerns in face-to-face interviews as well. For instance, the expression of some of their concerns can be summarized by such statements as «giving money is considered to be development, not people «the agency offers only funds, not development ideas «the agency views development as only money «as a christian agency, we have great potential for enhancing the ministry; but we dissipate our energies and skills an urgent, but not important, matters as far as people/development are concerned Therefore, the purposes of development assistance were perceived to be meeting the basic need of communities in practical ways to improve living standards, educate them in identifying their problems, bring positive change in their community people, and motivate them to move toward self-reliance. IOS The Sources Most Used in Conceptualizing Development Persons at policy, management, operation, and project coordinator levels were asked, in addition to the purposes of development assistance, to identify what they use as primary sources in conceptualizing and/or shaping development activities. The three sources most used were (a) input from residents of the community, (b) personal experience, and (c) development literature. Regional and field directors' input was the least used source as indicated in Table 5.4. Table 5.4 Most/Least Used Sources of Input Personnel Levels Manage- Opera- Project Co- Total Input Sources Policy ment M ordinators $993 _% Develop. literature 3 4 I 3 II 34 Colleagues' input 2 2 l 3 8 25 Regional and field directors - - I I 2 6 Project coordinators - l 2 2 5 I6 Community people input I 4 5 7 I7 53 Project reports - - 3 2 5 I6 Personal experience 2 4 2 6 I4 44 As shown in Table 5.4, the higher individuals were in the organizational hierarchy, the less they used community input in conceptualizing development activities. In contrast, the closer personnel were to the field, the more they used community input in conceptualizing or shaping development activities. Therefore, for persons at the policy level, the primary source was development I06 literature, while for persons at the operational and project coordinator levels, the primary source was community people input. Development literature, community input, and personal experiences were equally utilized at the "MM M Ir operational level. Intro-organizational Communication The communication of development activities from one level to the next within the organization, showed no consistent pattern. For instance, persons at policy level used written policy as a primary means to communicate development activities to persons at the management level who, in turn, communicated development activities primarily through dialogue with persons at the operational level. These individuals used the some means in the communications with project coordinators, while project coordinators communicated to project managers and committees primarily through short seminars (emphasis on teaching new concepts). Therefore, the means most used for communicating development activities from one level to the other in the organizational hierarchy was written policy, dialogue, seminars, and staff conferences as shown in Table 5.5. l-bwever, face-to-face interviews and observations suggest that the most frequently used means of intro-organizational communication is the written memo. At times it seemed that the only trustworthy communication method within the organization was the written memo. Short seminars were used more at the field level as a means of communicating new concepts than at higher levels in the organization._ l07 Table 5.5 Intro-organizational Communication Personnel Levels Manage- Opera- Project Co- Total Means Policy ment tional ordinators Usage Pre-field orienta- tion (pre- assignment) 0 3 0 l 4 Short seminar presentation 3 3 5 7 l8 Dialogue back and forth 2 5 7 4 l8 Written policy 2 5 0 4 Il Staff conference I 3 3 7 l4 TOTAL RESPONSES: 8 l9 IS 23 Role of Change Agents One of the most important points of the study was to determine who were considered to be change agents. In this context, a change agent is a person who is responsible for assisting and facilitating communities in the implementation and process of carrying out development projects, with the ultimate purpose of seeing desired change take place in the lives of community people. In the case of this agency, the potential change agents are project coordinators and project managers. Prior to determining the role of change agents, the respondents were asked if project coordinators were qualified to be change agents in their view. According to the responses shown in Table 5.6, project coordinators were considered change agents at the policy, operational, project coordinator, and project committee levels. Responses at the |08 management level suggested they were not seen as change agents by personnel at that level. Table 5.6 Percentage of Responses to the Question, "Do You Consider Project Coordinators Change Agents?" _Y__<_e§_ _Np Not Sure Policy level 40 20 40 Management 28 42 28 Operational 86 I4 0 Project Coordinators 84 TOTAL PERCENTAGE: 66 I9 I6 At the management level, some of the reasons for denying project coordinators the status of change agents were the following: Even though the project coordinators are considered to be change agents, the system the agency is working with at the present time doesn't allow project coordinators to play the role of change agents. If they are to be effective change agents, they need to (a) be with and in the community, (b) spend most of their time in facilitating change in the community (instead they are required to spend most of their time doing office work or paperwork such as filling out forms or bookkeeping), and (c) be given appropriate training for this role. Some of the roles that change agents working in the field were expected to play and the significance or importance assigned to each role were determined by asking respondents to answer written questionnaires and/or participate in face- to-face interviews to determine the value of some of the major roles. According to the findings, at all levels there were roles perceived as always required, frequently required, and occasionally required for a change agent to play. In the analysis of these data, the roles that were always required and frequently required were considered important or core roles, particularly for the I09 training curriculum of change agents. On the basis of such analysis, the following generalizations were made. Roles considered, by personnel at all levels of the organizational hierarchy, to be always/frequently required for change agents to play to enhance development activities included the following (with the percentage of respondents who agreed to each role): % of Respondents Bo_lp§ Who Agreed I. Educator 68% 2. Building relationships 77% 3. Identifying problems 67% 4. Adviser/guide 70% 5. Administrator 68% Roles considered, by personnel at all levels of the organizational hierarchy except project committees (people at the community level), to be always/frequently required for change agents to play for effective development work include the following (with the percentage of respondents who agreed to each role): % of Respondents @332 Who Agreed I. Facilitator 8l% 2. Informer 66% 3. Coordinator 79% 4. Innovator/starter/initiator 66% . 5. Analyzer] interpreter 7I% Some roles were perceived by personnel at the policy level as unimportant or as unrequired for change agents to play, but were perceived by others as IIO required roles. For example, the roles of developer, planner, maintainer of change, and applied researcher fall into this category, as shown in both Table 5.7 and Figure S.l (see Appendix B). In the research questionnaire, 22 of the roles identified in development literature as change agent roles were listed. The way the research subjects at different personnel levels viewed each role is summarized in both Table 5.7 and Figure I (see Appendix B). Table 5.7 provides the percentage of persons who said that each role is required for development practitioners to play more than occasionally as effective change agents. As can be seen from Table 5.7, the role that was uniquely important to project managers and not important to others was that of dealing with resistance. the roles of applied researcher and maintainer of change were not viewed as significantly important at policy, management, and project committee levels, while the opposite was true at the other levels. The data show the management role was valued more highly than other roles by personnel at the policy leVel (i.e., role of organizer, 80%; consultmt, 80%; advisor, 80%; administrator, 80%; and analyzer, 80%). The roles of activist and developer were the least favored by personnel at the policy level. In project coordinators' views, the role of dealing with resistance was the one least required of change agents. Project coordinators from five East African countries who see their own roles as change agents identified the following roles as those always required of effective development workers in their countries. Table 5.7 (Part I) Answer to the Question, "To What Extent Are Development Field Workers Required to Fulfill the Following Roles?" (Percentages of persons who said "frequently" or "always required" are given.) A .0 .9 Policy level 60 60 60 Management 86 57 7| Operation IOO I00 IOO Project coordinator 85 IOO IOO Project manager 73 88 85 Project committees° 50b 50 I00 KEY: A = facilitator B = educator C = relationship building D = developer E = problem identifier F = informer G = planner H = activist l = organizer J = coordinator K = innovator/starter]initator a = the number used is an estimation for face-to—face interviews and observations. The data are not quantifiable to be exact. b = indicates more than the given number favored the role 9 20 7| IOO 85 8| 50 g 60 57 IOO 92 69 50° E. 60 57 86 77 65 (c) g 60 7| .00 92 77 75° 5 0 43 86 69 69 (C) 60 7| IOO 92 77 50 c = it is difficult to quantify the data for the particular role A 40 43 :00 77 92 75° 5 40 7| 57 77 73 75° ll2 Table 5.7 (Part II) ll" I3 .N_ 9. E 9. B s .T. u 2 Policy level 80 60 6O 80 20 20 80 60 80 40 40 Management 7| 86 7| I00 43 43 29 57 86 I4 57 Operational 7| 86 5| 7| IOO 86 86 43 7| 86 IOO Project coordinator 85 85 62 85 62 77 92 23 77 69 IOO Project manager 58 8| 50 88 46 65 65 65 73 77 62 Project committees° 750 50 50d IOO (c) 50 :00 50 (c) 50 50 KEY: L = consultant M = motivator/stimulator N = advocator O = advisor P = legitimizer G = maintainer of change R = administrator S = dealing with resistance T = analyzer/interpretor U = applied research V = evaluator a = the number used is an estimation for face-to-face interviews and observations. The data are not quantifiable to be exact. b = indicates more than the given number favored the role c = it is difficult to quantify the data for the particular role (I = percentage of group who favored the roles is less than the given number ll3 Number of Number Rplep Respondents Possible Percentagg Facilitator 20 32 63 Relationship builder . 26 32 8| Problem identifier 20 32 63 Coordinator 22 32 69 Those identified appeared to be human relationship rather than technical roles. They also seemed to be roles of generalists rather than of specialists. Therefore, the findings indicated that development field workers in this case study highly valued relationship roles and general, unspecialized roles. Skills Needed by Change Agents The focus of the questionnaires and face-to-face interviews was to identify skills needed by project coordinators to effectively accomplish the purposes of development assistance and to play meaningful roles as change agents. The following generalizations summarize the findings in this regard. Personal qualities are viewed as more important than specific skills or knowledge in being an effective change agent, when the two are inconsistent. This view was supported by 66% of the total subjects at all levels within the organization. Face-to-face interviews and general observations also strongly suggested that personal qualities or behavior were important in working with community people as change agents. The primary concern of a community seemed to be who a given person was, not what skills s/he had. General skills are considered to be more important than specific skills (i.e., having basic knowledge in various fields or disciplines versus being a specialist in one area.) This view was held by 67% of the respondents. l-bwever, when the data were broken down by the six major levels of personnel in the research, l|4 project coordinators were neutral on the issue. At the community level (project committees), the question was asked indirectly, and the conclusion was reached through general requirements enumerated by community people and the observations of the researcher. Responses of project coordinators from five countries working with the agency confirmed that general skills were more important than specialized skills in development activities; I9 of 32 or 59% of these project coordinators held such views. Some skills that personnel at all levels considered to be key or always important for change agents to possess for the success of development activities and that should be part of a training curriculum are listed in Table 5.8 with the corresponding percentage of respondents. Project coordinators from five East African countries working with the agency felt that the following skills (in descending order) were always important to have in order to be effective change agents in community development work: «communication «coordinating «motivating «planning «listening «using community feedback for better training «assessing the need for change «information collecting and using «directing «conducting need analyses «organizing «decision making IIS Table 5.8 . Skills Considered by Personnel at Six Levels to Be a Necessary Part of Change Agents' Training Curricula @1292 Key Skills A B _C Q E E TOTAL % Project planning 5 7 7 I3 25 25 82 97 Giving positive reinforcement 5 7 7 I2 25 23 79 94 Project organizing 4 6 8 l2 25 25 79 94 Listening 5 7 7 I2 26 20 77 9| Communication 5 7 7 I3 25 20 77 9| Implementing plan of action 3 5 7 ll 23 26 75 89 Using community feedback 5 7 S I I 20 26 74 88 Creating learning opportunities 5 7 7 I l 24 20 74 88 Assessing need for change 5 5 7 l2 24 20 73 86 Evaluation 4 3 7 l2 24 20 70 83 Information collect- ing, use of and sharing research 5 7 7 IO 23 I6 68 80 Motivating 5 5 7 l2 2| 20 70 80 Conceptualizing development 3 5 6 I I I6 I8 59 70 KEY: A = personnel at policy level B = personnel at management level C = personnel at operational level D = project coordinator E = project managers F = project committees II6 As shown in Table 5.9, the skills least favored by the same project coordinators included implementing learning theory, conceptualizing development activities, influencing others, and conflict resolution. For a more detailed description of the above findings, see Figure 5.2, Appendix C. A major difference between the kinds of skills emphasized by people at the community level and other personnel is that people at the community level placed greater emphasis on practical skills, while others emphasized conceptual skills. For instance, people at the community level emphasized the types of skills that enable a person to deal with immediate problems such as basic health care, solving a community problem, farming, running community projects, while personnel at other levels emphasized such skills as implementing learning theories, discovering needs, organizing, designing, and presenting development activities. One of the main weaknesses of the present training curriculum of change agents was found to be its emphasis on training change agents to work within the system instead of equipping them with development skills to help community level people. In supporting this view, the respondents identified the following as the emphasis of the present training curriculum on report writing, filling out forms, "the agency's system and ethos," system skills of the agency, and so forth. Trainees from five East African countries also expressed their concern about the present training curriculum in stating the following concerns: «The agency lacks concern for training. The so-called training is not in line with communities' desire or not related to the needs of the area where the project is located. --. . . it is important for project coordinators to be trained more frequently in administration and social work in order to work with the theories in the communities we are and will be involved in. «My complaint is with training: very little basic training is done during orientation and after. ”7 Table 5.9 (Part I) Change Agent Skills Considered to Be Essential for Successful Development Work by Project Coordinators from Five African Countries _A.. 9. .9 Q _E_ E .6. r: 1 2 5. Ethiopia IOO IOO 83 IOO IOO IOO 50 83 SO IOO IOO Kenya IOO 93 50 85 92 77 50 85 93 77 85 Malawi IOO IOO IOO SO 50 IOO O IOO 50 IOO IOO Zambia IOO IOO IOO IOO 50 75 25 75 SO 75 IOO Zimbabwe IOO IOO 57 7| 7| IOO IOO l00 57 7| IOO KEY: A = communication 8 = listening C = conflict resolution D = giving positive reinforcement E = influencing others F = creating learning opportunities G = implementing learning theory H = conceptualizing development activities I = influencing plan of action J = information collection and usage ll8 Table 5.9 (Part II) E m m 9 E 9 3 § 1 u 2 Ethiopia IOO 83 8.3 83 IOO IOO IOO IOO IOO 83 IOO Kenya 85 92 92 92 IOO 92 lOO IOO 7O 85 92 Malawi IOO IOO SO 50 IOO 50 IOO lOO IOO IOO IOO Zambia IOO IOO 75 75 IOO IOO lOO IOO IOO IOO IOO Zimbabwe IOO IOO 8| IOO lOO lOO IOO IOO IOO 86 86 KEY: L = assessing need for change M = conducting need analysis N = writing program proprosal O = evaluating the program P = planning 0 = organizing R : coordinating S = motivating T = Directing U = controlling V = decision making |l9 --There is a need for training the project coordinators in all aspects of development work. --Effective training is needed. As I have observed so far, the agency gives short—term training. It is not bad, but long-term training is also very essential . . . --The training doesn't adequately prepare us. It lacks a theory of development and doesn't prepare us for goal setting, information inquiry, evaluation techniques, and so forth. --We need a lot of training in development. --The training in the agency system should not be considered as the only means to achieve effective development. There should be training, and so forth. Alternative or additional curriculum elements were suggested for training (equipping) change agents for meaningful development work. Some of the curriculum elements identified by personnel at all levels included how to utilize community feedback for better development assistance, effective ways of building relations with community people, skills for creating learning opportunities for community people (using nonformal education), skills to identify community needs and problems with communities and to seek solutions with them, skills in methods and techniques of innovating development concepts, skills in effective interpersonal communications, etc. Again, such alternative suggestions seem to indicate dissatisfaction with the existing training curriculum. To define further change agents' skill training curriculum elements, respondents at all levels except project committee were asked to indicate the skills in which change agents showed the most and least competence. According to the findings, there were no significant common elements in this category because various area change agents have demonstrated varying levels of competence in all skills. t-bwever, analysis of the responses of project l20 coordinators from five East African countries yielded the results shown in Table 5.l0. Table 5.|0 Areas of Most/Least Competence as Identified by Project Coordinators from Five African Countries Country of Area of Most Area of Least Change Agent Competence Resp. Competence Resp. Ethiopia Relationship Analyzer 50% builder 67% Applied Coordinator 67% researcher 67% Planner 50% Kenya Planner 54% Applied Administra- researcher 69% tor 6l% Maintainer of change 38% Malawi Educator] Organizer/ informer 50% maintainer of change 50% Zambia Educator 75% Evaluator 75% Administra- Analyzer 75% tor 50% Applied researcher 50% Zimbabwe Facilitator 7l% Administra- Organizer 57% tor 57% Educator 57% Respondents were also asked to indicate what duties take most of the change agent's time. As shown in Table 5.“, most of the change agent's time was taken by servicing the agency's system, i.e., writing reports, filling out applications, and attending meetings. The next responsibility taking change agent's time was trying to achieve development goals. According to the findings, change agents spend little time evaluating development activities or reflecting on their work. l2l Table 5." Duties That Take Most of a Change Agent's Time A. a 9 Q g 5 9* Policy level 20 40 20 20 60 o -- Management 0 0 29 29 29 0 86 Operation 7| 57 43 86 86 29 86 Project coordinator 46 53 53 38 6| 38 77 Project manager 88 62 62 69 8| 92 50 Project committees** -- -- -- -- -- -- -- KEY: A = building a relationship with a community 8 = diagnosing a common problem C = choosing a solution to a problem D = implementing the solution to a problem E = trying to achieve development goals F = evaluating development activities G = serving the system * = This item was added after personnel at the policy level responded to the questionnaire. ** = The information at the community level was unquantifiable. l-bwever, there was a great concern about the amount of time a project manager spends on office work instead of doing developmental work. Table 5.” suggests that most of the change agent's time is not spent on being a "catalyst for change" or facilitator to meet desired development goals, but in fulfilling clerical requirements in response to the agency's needs. As one of the respondents expressed in his comments about the same issue, "The change agents (project coordinators) are considered only on paper and in name. The actualities are very different. They are expected to perform miracles while risking the danger of going against the system they work in . . . " In summarizing the skills change agents need to be effective, there seems to be a relationship between the present training emphasis (understanding how l22 the agency's system works) and the activities that take most of the change agents' time (clerical work) as shown in Table 5.” and Figure 5.3 (in Appendix D). Problems in Implementing Development Activities Project committees have different perceptions about the rest of the major problems in the implementation of development activities. In the project committees' view, the main problems include lack of community participation (lack of motivation), limitations of funds, delay of funds, and transportation. In contrast, lack of trained people in development was perceived as a major problem in the implementation of development projects by the rest of the respondents. Except for project committees, respondents were asked to answer a written questionnaire. Of 58 respondents, 40 (70%) said that lack of trained people was a problem or a serious problem in implementing development projects. In investigating the reasons for a lack of trained persons, some of the reasons given by personnel at different levels within the organization included the following: --agency training focuses on systems and management rather than on fundamentals of development --the agency used, almost exclusively, young urban people as project coordinators who had no experience in development, little understanding of‘rural environments, and almost no sound technical expertise --it is hard to get properly trained people with experience in development --the agency is driven by money and reasons related to planning and accountability to donors, not to identify knowledgeable or skilled local people --the agency doesn't have a cohesive training "strategy" l23 «trained and qualified persons demand high salaries which the agency is reluctant to pay and local churches can't afford --it is hard to get trained local people who are willing to sacrifice for the benefit of their own communities by working for a lower wage than they could make elsewhere Seven issues that could be constraints on the development activities were identified in the research instrument. The extent to which each issue was perceived as a problem or a serious problem is shown in Table 5.l2. (For the graphic presentation of the same data, see Figure 5.4 in Appendix E.) Table 5.l2 Duties That Take Most of a Change Agent's Time implementation of A E Policy level 20 l00 Management 57 l00 Operation l4 1:3 Project coordinators IS 76 Project managers 3| 58 Project committees* KEY: A = political constraints 8 = lack of trained people C = lack of resources D = lack of commitment E = infrastructure F = value conflict G = rule of local government 9. 0 57 54 50 58 as“ 80** 90M 90M 40 43 29 3| 46 75 * = Data were unquantifiable due to a lack of precise numbers. ** = The percentage of people who said a problem/serious problem is an estimation based on interviews and observed data. In 29 25 l24 Political constraints and/or rules and regulations of local governments were not perceived as problems in the implementation of development activities or the training of development workers in Kenya. General Strengths and Concerns of the Agency The summary of responses to Likert-scaled value statements, open-ended questions, and face-to-face formal and informal interviews showed that the agency had both commendable strengths as a relief and development agency as well as some areas that needed attention or improvement. Areas of strength and those of concern were identified by respondents. Strengths of the Agency Generally speaking, the agency was viewed positively by personnel at all levels. lts greatest strengths include those summarized in the following statements. «commitment to Christian values and moral standards, particularly at the field level «effort and commitment to meet both physical and spiritual needs of the community «approach to community development is holistic, i.e., it makes an effort to deal with integrated development«hea|th, agriculture, education, water, etc. «effort to meet the needs of the community at the grassroots level «effort to create self-reliance in its target population «effort to work with local people, not for them «willingness to use material resources generously to meet communities' needs «effort to co-manage and supervise community development projects with local persons «effort to increase or improve living standards by increasing productivity l25 «relation to local churches is positive and supportive «effort to have moral and spiritual impact on its target population Some Concerns about the Agency At policy, management, operation, project coordinator, and project committee levels, several things were identified as areas that need improvement. t-bwever, the issues identified as major concerns or even weaknesses vary in area of focus for personnel at each level. In other words, there were no issues perceived with equal emphasis as weaknesses by all levels of personnel. Project managers did not identify any areas that needed special attention or improvement, while the others pointed out a number of concerns in their responses to the written questionnaire and face-to-face interviews. The major concerns identified by research subjects are summarized below. Respondents felt that the agency doesn't show adequate concern for the professional development of its personnel at all levels within the organizational hierarchy. At policy, management, operation, and project coordination levels, 55% indicated this concern on their responses to the written questionnaire. The some concern was expressed during face-to-face interviews in various statements such as "the agency never shows enough concern for the professional development of its personnel" and "the agency doesn't show enough concern about professional development of its personnel." Findings suggest that at all levels respondents felt that intra- organizational communication was not effective, particularly in encouraging two-way communication and input from development workers, as well as valuing I26 their input. In face-to-face interviews, statements such as the following also referred to a lack of effective intro-organizational communication. «communications between agency and community are not effective «ideas from the community are usually rejected at the office without understanding the situation. The office staff should try to understand the situation before they refuse the idea or suggestions «recommendations by the project committees are usually neglected and should be taken more seriously in order to make improvements Serious concern was expressed regarding the agency's policy of development. First, the lack of a well-defined policy of development was reflected in the following statements «development policy is not clear and there are inconsistencies between what is stated and what is practiced «we don't have a theology of development «the present development policy is difficult to implement for practical purposes «we don't have a clear partnership policy «we usually work with imported ideas of development from other places without visibly studying them. In the process, some of the relevant things are neglected «the agency doesn't have specific guidelines for development «the agency doesn't have the same goals in relation to the community's needs; we lack a clear partnership policy «giving more is considered to be development, not people «the agency offers only funds, but not development ideas «the agency views development as only money A second concern about frequent policy changes was expressed in the following statements. I27 «the philosophy of development for some years was an emphasis on rural development excluding urban development, but now there is great emphasis on urban development «too many changes in policies without convincing reasons or need for change «constant policy change without satisfactory explanation «since the system changes so fast a lot of time is wasted on learning a new approach every time. That also creates inconsistency in the minds of the local people The third concern expressed was about training curriculum and focus, as shown by the following statements. «training emphasis is on systems and management rather than on fundamentals of development «training lacks technical elements«people are not being motivated in their field by training; it is systems training, not development training «training doesn't address needs; we make too many assumptions about peoples' training and abilities, but still we have no cohesive training strategy «training by the agency has two foci: first, objective performance«do as the system requires--the concern is getting into the systems. Second, ideological training «the focus of the training is to meet the system's demands «the change agents are not equipped with the theoretical foundations of development «a lot of time is spent in training the field director for the sake of the system, at the expense of people at the operations level «training lacks clear, sound, defined need«oriented training curricula for project coordinators beyond orientation «training time is very short and limited «training is aimed to satisfy the international office, not local needs ' «training is not localized to deal with the reality of local development process l28 «training provides a lot of information with little practical experience «the project committees should be trained Respondents, particularly personnel at the development field workers level, expressed a serious concern about spending time on fulfilling office work requirements which they call "the system's demand" at the expense of development work. The following statements by respondents highlight such concerns. «the system does not allow project coordinators to spend time within the community to understand the people and to be accountable to the community by creating trust relationships «the system demands too much paperwork «people are trying to serve the system instead of having the system serve them «the demands of the system for paper work are very heavy «the demands of the office work do not allow us to practice what we learn «the system doesn't have time to practice the policy of development «too much documentation, but little implementation «the accounting system is complex and demanding and it should be changed «a lot of time is wasted by report writing. Fifth, concerns about the program's lack of flexibility were expressed. Respondents felt that in most cases the development programs that change agents work with at community level don't allow enough flexibility to adapt to the situation. These concerns were stated as follows «everybody is forced to follow the same procedures «there is no space for modification of the American management system l29 «communities should be given permission to make changes in the development plans if there is a need to do so «program lacks flexibility and should be made more flexible, particularly in implementation and budgeting; more opportunity should be given for decision making by grassroots level people «system requirements overpower the community's requirements. Concerns about Role of Project Coordinators Some of the concerns that surfaced related to the role of project coordinators were asked to play; that is, a double role, i.e., representing the agency to communities as well as representing the communities to the agency. «project coordinators are responsible for both development and accounting. This needs to be changed so that they can concern themselves entirely with development work «some project coordinators' visits have been limited to looking at the account book and reports. Their visits should focus on assisting the project managers in development activities «instead of being change agents the project coordinators are expected to be policemen for the system «project coordinators' visits frequently are not sufficient and need to be improved «project coordinators should live among the people to understand them and to be effective facilitators. The reward system was one of the serious concerns of respondents at the field level. The major complaint is that, in their view, the rewards primarily go to people who satisfy the system best, i.e., submitting reports on time, attending meetings, and doing other office work at the expense of development work. The following statements summarize such concerns. «wrong reward system«reward is given to the person who satisfies the system's controls the best not for doing the best development work «for ideological kinds of things there is no reward. As a matter of fact, if a person is people-oriented, s/he is out I30 «rewards are based on satisfying the organization's system and management needs (management reigns supreme)«rewards do not encourage creativity Respondents indicated a three-fold concern in relation to funds for development. First, dissatisfaction was expressed with the way funds were raised, particularly for taking pictures for fund raising which was not considered the best approach. It was felt that "using children's pictures for fund raising was not a correct method of operating; trying to do development using the names of sponsored children is confusing. The focus should either be on direct help to the children or community development, not both." The second and related complaint is about delay of funds at the community level. Of the 26 project committees interviewed, 25 felt that delay of funds was one of their major concerns. In their view a quarterly funding schedule instead of monthly funds payment might resolve problems related to the delay of funds. The final concern related to money was that too much was spent unnecessarily. Since individual expressed concern about renting expensive office facilities, it is suggested that "cheaper office space should be rented so that money can be used for development work." Another stated that unnecessary travel and accommodations in expensive hotels not only cost a great deal of development money, but created incongruence between the philosophy of the organization and its practices. "Agency philosophy is to be identified with the poor, but because of the philosophy of self-image«personnel stay in the best hotels and refuse guest houses or cheaper hotels." " . . . trying to be a good steward, but wasting a lot of ;money an unnecessary travel . . . " Therefore, a strong suggestion was expressed by statements such as "the agency needs to decrease spending for unnecessary travel and expensive hotels." |3| Summary of the Findings Perceptions of the agency at all levels seemed positive. According to the findings, several generalizations seemed true of the agency. I. The agency is a committed Christian organization which reflects Christian values. 2. It is known for reaching out to needy communities to help solve their immediate problems as is well characterized by the agency's relief work. 3. Even though the agency helps communities plan and carry out long-term development projects, that is not its strong point and needs more attention. 4. The agency defines conceptual differences between relief and development activities. Some of the criteria that characterize both relief and development are identifiable conceptually. 5. Communities see the agency primarily as a charitable Christian organization that funds community development projects. the agency's role is viewed more as a funding agency and less as a partner agency by communities. As far as the purposes of development assistance as concerned, common goals have been identified. l-bwever, a basic difference was found between the purposes of development indicated by the project committees and the rest of the respondent groups. The purposes expressed by the project committees stressed practical applications to solve immediate problems, while other personnel expressed more theoretical principles and concepts of development activities. The three most influential sources in conceptualizing development activities were found to be (0) input from the people in the community, (b) personal experience, and (c) development literature. The higher personnel were in the organizational hierarchy, the less they used community input and vice Versa. lntra-organizational communication processes seemed to have no specific patterns. t-bwever, in communicating development activities from one level to I32 the next, the most frequently used means of communication were written memoranda, dialogue, seminars, and staff conferences. In determining the role of change agents in this context, project coordinators were viewed as change agents by all but management level personnel. Analysis of the findings showed that there were commonly valued roles change agents were expected to play to enhance development work. The roles considered to be crucially important by change agents were characterized by human relationships. A list of skills commonly perceived to be important for change agents and needing to be part of the training curriculum were also identified as were other qualities considered more important than the skills or knowledge of a person, when there were inconsistencies between the two. General skills were valued more by the respondents for the success of development activities than were specific skills or highly specialized skills. The skills on the priority list of respondents at all levels and change agents from five East African countries included communication, listening, assessing need for change, and motivating community. People at the community level placed greater emphasis on practical skills than on theoretical skills, while the opposite was emphasized by personnel at other levels. The present training curriculum was considered to be weak in skills training since it placed emphasis on equipping the staff to do effective office work rather than effective development work. Alternative or additional curriculum elements were recommended for the training curriculum to better prepare change agents for development work. According to the findings, most of the change agents' time was taken up by fulfilling office work requires such as report writing, filling out forms, bookkeeping, attending meetings, and other activities not considered to be I33 development work. There was found to be a direct relationship between the present training emphasis and what takes up most of the change agents' time. In implementing development activities, the issues viewed as major problems at the community level and by personnel at the other levels were not the same. Communities see a lack of motivation in community people and limited resources as the major issues. l-bwever, statistically, the lack of trained development workers was considered to be the major problems, according to the perceptions of the rest of the groups. Political constraints were not perceived as problems either for development or for the training of development workers, in this case. Some areas that were identified as concerns for the agency varied according to the specific area of focus of personnel at each level. In other words, there was no issue that was pointed out as a weakness which was common to personnel at every level. t-bwever, the reward system and inadequate concern for professional development of the agency's personnel at all levels seemed to be the major concerns of the respondents. Some of the strengths of the agency included the effort it makes to meet both the physical and spiritual needs of community, its efforts to deal with integrated development, and its ability to work without being limited by differing ideologies or denominational doctrines. CHAPTER VI CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND SUMMARY Conclusions The purpose of the study was to describe the common concerns of development theory as they are expressed in the research literature; the agency's development policies; the perceptions of the agency's development administration, change agents, and recipients of development assistance; the roles of development workers and the skills they need; and the purposes of development. The overlap among the above sets of theories was identified for the purpose of curriculum building for pre- and inservice training of development workers, change agents for community development. Common concerns expressed by the persons at policy, management, and operation levels, the project coordinators, project managers, and project committees are used to suggest the core elements for training curriculum while overlap among four or five was suggested as evidence of supporting elements, as discussed in Chapter I. In the analysis of the findings, in order to detect general patterns among the six levels (policy, management, operation, project coordinators, project managers, and project committees), the findings were categorized under six major subject headings; namely, perception of the agency, purposes of development assistance, role of change agents, skills change agents need, specific implementation problems, and the strengths and weaknesses of the agency. Since the focus of the conclusions section is to build testable hypotheses and to provide practical suggestions for development assistance, the research questions were utilized as a guide for this section. I34 I35 The first of the two questions with which the research was concerned follows: What are the distinguishing criteria for identifying effective development workers or change agents according to precedent research (theories of development), the agency's development assistance administration, field workers (practitioners), and target populations? The distinguishing criteria for identifying effective development workers or change agents are two-fold. First are the specific skills an individual needs to possess to play expected roles in development activities. The second one encompasses personal qualities. The specific skills that distinguish effective development includes skills such as planning, organizing, communication, listening, evaluating, conceptualizing development activities, educating, administering, problem identification, building relationships, and providing guidance. Such skills are not only identified in the development literature and by development conceptualizers or administrators, but also by community representatives at the grassroots' level. Therefore, the assumption which seems to say that people at community levels, particularly in rural areas, are unlikely to know what a person needs to work effectively in development is not true in this case. People at the community level not only know what they want to have happen in their communities, but also the role change agents need to play and the skills they need to have to be effective. The distinguishing criteria for effective development workers are not only identifiable skills, usually called quantitative skills, that enable a person to play expected roles, but personal qualities such as honesty, dependability, enthusiasm, respect, commitment, ability to get along with others, and adaptability and identification with community people. Such qualitative skills or personal qualities, however, are not the emphasis of the development literature, nor administrators within the agency, but only the community people. In fact, I36 people at the community level give more importance to personal qualities than to specific skills or roles that distinguish effective change agents from less effective ones. The acceptance of a change agent by the communities depends more on personal qualities than on specialization in a given area. Therefore, the priority question of community people is not what skills a person possesses, but what personal qualities s/he has. t-bwever, the problem of the agency is not lack of emphasis on specific learned or learnable skills as distinguishing criteria in the ' selection and training of development practitioners, but in the over-valuing of those skills at the expense of personal qualities or traits. In this regard there is a gap between the communities and the agency. At the community level, greater emphasis was placed on personal qualities while the agency emphasized specific quantifiable skills. The reward system also favors persons with these sorts of skills. Therefore, the agency's personnel refer to skills and quantifiable criteria (Type I) when they talk about distinguishing criteria, while community people primarily refer to personal qualities or traits (Type 2): Type I Skillsé : $Type 2 Personal Qualities Some of the problems in this difference is that it produces an ever-widening communication gap between the agency and communities. Since the agency has more influence in selecting and training, Type 2 criteria can easily be overlooked. The agency can thus result in having staff well qualified in Type I criteria but lacking the Type 2 criteria needed to relate to life in the community. Conversely, if Type 2 criteria are over-emphasized, the community may end up having people they like, but who are limited in their contributions to long-term and well-planned development activities. I37 Even if the agency puts equal emphasis on Types l and 2 criteria, it would not have the holistic development it likes to see without the addition of spiritual criteria (Type 3). Therefore, the three types of criteria need to be utilized in a balanced way in selecting and training change agents. This may be conceptualized as follows when designing training curricula: Type 2 Type | Skills Personal Qualities Criteria for effective development work have the following importance: l. to determine preservice and inservice training curriculum elements of development workers, 2. to know the criteria the target population believes to have maximum impact on the recipients, 3. to have common criteria between the development assistance agency and the communities in hiring and training development workers, 4. to encourage effective intro-organizational communication and communications between the agency personnel and the community, and 5. to avoid conflicts and mistrust between the agency and community people. The second research question inquired about the the common concerns that can be used as bases for training curricula in order to maximize the impact of development activities. What are the common concerns that can be used as bases for training curricula in order to maximize the impact of development activities? I38 In seeking a satisfactory answer to the above research concerns and to reach meaningful and practical conclusions, seven related questions were helpful in defining the pertinent issues. Commonality of Issues First, it was asked whether people at different levels within the organization have similar perceptions on major issues. In seeking answers to this question, the researcher looked at the organizational structure at six levels from policy level to grassroots in six subject areas. People at different levels in the organization do not have enough similar perceptions on the major issues, but they do express similar concerns. Most importantly, they use similar language and similar justifications for their activities, but not necessarily with the same meaning. People at different levels within the organizational hierarchy have common concerns or denominators regarding their perceptions of the organization, purposes of development assistance, the role of project coordinators and project managers (change agents), skills change agents need, and the strengths of the agency as development assistance. t-bwever, the perceptions of community personnel are different from the rest of the personnel at other levels regarding the role and relationship of the agency with local churches. The agency is viewed by the project committees as a charitable, Christian organization that funds community development projects through local churches. The relationship is perceived as that of funding agency or giver and recipient or receiver, not as partners in development work as is believed at the rest of the levels. Relief vs. Development The second questions was whether agency personnel at different levels make distinctions between relief and development? The agency personnel at all I39 levels define operational differences between relief and development activities conceptually. Fbwever, in practice, in the agency strength lies in meeting immediate needs/relief activities more than long term development activities. In this regard, the research findings and the agency's publications were not in perfect agreement. While the findings suggest that the strength of the agency is in relief-oriented activities or meeting immediate needs of a community, the publications suggest that a high percentage of the agency's work is development. Therefore, it seems that the difference was between the conceptual definition and operational practice. In other words, the distinction between relief and development was made more at the conceptual level than at the practical level. Purposes of Development The third question concerned the purposes of development assistance according to the development literature and research subjects at different levels. In the development literature, the agency policy of development and the research subjects' specific purposes (goals) of development assistance have been identified. These elements provide guidelines or direction not only in long term development plans, but also in curriculum design for development project implementors. Some of the dominating purposes which could be utilized both in planning of development work and in training include curriculum design follow: I. meeting both physical and spiritual needs of a community; 2. increasing the living standards of a community by increasing/improving production systems; 3. facilitating communities in identifying problems and dealing with them; . 4. meeting basic human needs; 5. helping communities to make a positive change to reach their goals; this includes change of values that is enforced by life example; I40 6. motivating local communities to participate in the process of development; 7. educating communities in the process; and 8. creating self-reliance in the target population. l-bwever, even though the above concerns were common to the subjects mentioned earlier, there is a distinction between the communities' view and the rest. The communities used the above elements in practical ways to solve their immediate problems while others had a tendency to use them as ideal development goals or purposes. Therefore, the crux of the matter is not to have these elements as development assistance policy, but as implementation. For people at the community level, these concepts were not real when they are written in a book or a policy paper, but when they were implemented and produced results since the main concern was the "how" question. For instance, it was not enough to convince community people that the purpose or goal of development was meeting basic community needs; it was necessary to tell them in concrete terms how that could be done where and when. Therefore, commonly perceived purposes of development assistance should be used, both as guides for training curriculum and as a fundamental part of the training outcome. In other words, the purpose of development activities should be to answer the basic yet crucial question«what should trained development workers be able to do? The findings suggest that project coordinators should be trained to use their roles and skills to (a) meet basic community needs, (b) utilize the project effectively to teach the community how to identify problems and see possible solutions, (c) motivate community people for positive .change, and (d) use improve income, productivity, and self-sufficiency of the community. The roles they are trained for and skills they get from the training and experience should l4l enable them to interpret the above goals for practical purposes. The above list could also be used for self-evaluation purposes. Roles of Development Workers What are some of the roles development workers (change agents) are expected to assume in fostering development that are common to the above mentioned? About 22 roles that would have significant importance for change agents were identified from a variety of development research literature. Of these, the following I2 were given high value by personnel at all levels within the agency and community. Therefore, the training curriculum should be designed primarily to prepare development field workers for the following roles: relationship builder, facilitator, planner, consultant, problem identifier, advisor/guide, educator, informer, coordinator, innovator/starter]initiator, and analyzer/interpreter. If not the central core of the training curriculum for development field workers, the following roles should be treated with importance for additional information for training curriculum support: organizer, legitimizer, administrator, motivator, developer, activist, dealer with resistance, and evaluator. In this case study, surprisingly enough, the roles of developer, planner, maintainer of change, applied researcher, and evaluator were not found to be considered important at the policy level. t-bwever, the roles of organizer, advocator of change, administrator, analyzer, and consultant were highly valued. Therefore, it seemed that people at the policy level were more concerned with the administrative success of development activities than long term, well- grounded development activities which involved long term planning, research, and both process and product evaluation to maintain ongoing change. Development field workers' views seem to hold an opposite view as their main I42 concern was to play effectively the role of maintainers of change. The communities favored the role that kept the funding channel open; for instance, the roles of accountant, bookkeeper, etc. Their reason seems obvious: the development projects cannot function without the required funds, and regular funding doesn't come in unless the bookkeeping is straight. Therefore, the project committees were more concerned about the smooth flow of funds than what the funds might accomplish for the community, in the long-range plan. Therefore, the training should, as a primary goal, prepare development workers for the types of roles related to the following facets of their work: (a) human relationships, (b) learning and teaching (sharing insights), (c) assistance, (d) leadership and administration, and (e) office management. The reason for project committees' concern about the smooth flow of funds was that they were dissatisfied with the policy and finding. That is the reasons why community people strongly suggest change or improvement in funding policy. According to the present policy, after a project is approved, a community receives a fixed amount every month to operate that development project. As discussed in the conclusions section, this has three problems that need to be resolved: (a) a delay of monthly funds, (b) a complex accounting system which is hard for community persons to follow, and (c) a lot of paper work which takes most of the change agent's time that could be better used for development work. The favored recommendations, therefore, include (a) simplifying the accounting system wherever possible, (b) changing the funding period from monthly to quarterly, and (c) changing the monthly financial reporting system-to quarterly. It is believed that these will resolve the problems of delays in funds and unplanned or hurried usage of development money in order to secure the next month's funds. t-bwever, the major issue Western PVOs need to determine is the extent to which they can use a management system based on I43 Western research and experience to do effective, well managed, and organized development work in Third World countries. The problem goes beyond delays in the flow of funds. Ideal management policy should take into consideration the realities of the situation at the community level. Commonly Valued Skills The next question concerned some of the skills commonly valued to be part of the training curriculum. In the area of skills, even though the development literature based on Western experiences and research tends to emphasize specific or highly specialized skills for the success of development activities, general knowledge or a combination of basic skills with personal qualities were found to be more important for change agents. In addition, both the development literature and the research subjects at all agency levels have a tendency to emphasize theoretical and conceptual skills (i.e., the m skills), while persons at the community level tend to emphasize practical skills (i.e., the [1231 skills). Therefore, in skills' training, the curriculum needs to balance the conceptual skills and the how-to skills. In training curriculum design, in addition to the goals of the development project and the role the trainees are expected to play, the following skills were considered to be the core of the inservice training curriculum for change agents: «communication «listening «creating learning opportunities for communities «giving positive reinforcement «project planning «information collecting, use, and sharing research «assessing need for change I44 «implementing plans of action «project evaluation (plan, process, and product) «conceptualizing development concept «motivating the community «using community feedback In addition to the above core curriculum elements, skills such as conflict resolution, influencing others, implementing plans of action, conducting needs analyses, writing program proposals, organizing development activities, coordinating, directing, controlling, and decision making were highly valued by project coordinators from five East African countries. The above 22 specific skills could thus be utilized as a basis for training curricula. The rest of the skills identified in Table 5.9 could be used as supportive curriculum elements. About the present training curriculum, there were major differences between the agency training policy and the people who are being trained. In the agency approach at present, training is used as orientation to help the change agent to understand the system and know how to work within it. The trainee's expectation is to be trained, not only to understand the system, but also to be equipped as a development worker. The agency concept of training is inservice, nonformal training (i.e., not for credentials, but to impart needed skills or upgrade knowledge or help trainees to understand new concepts/changes.) On the other hand, the change agents' expectations are for formal training that upgrades their skills for the present work and leads to attaining credentials for future reference. Hence, the trainees have a two-fold complaint: (0) they are given basic system orientation and expected to be both system and development experts, and (b) the training received from the agency through nonformal education (training) will not be recognized outside of the agency circle for future use. I45 To balance the existing orientation training and to equip the change agents for more effective development work, the present training curriculum should focus on preparing the development workers in better ways of using community feedback, effective ways of building relationships with the target population, use of the nonformal education principle to educate community people, effective methods of identifying communities' real needs or problems,-effective ways of facilitating communities to identify their own problems and seek solutions to solve those problems, techniques of innovating new development concepts, and effective interpersonal communications. Training Skills Curriculum for training development workers should focus on the following areas of skills: (a) interpersonal skills, with an emphasis on communication skills to optimize human relations; (b) educational process skills, facilitating learning processes in others; (c) leadership and administrative skills; (d) practical research skills; and (e) program development skills with basic theoretical concept of development work. In summarizing the issue of skills, since there is a direct relationship between the emphasis of the training curriculum and the activities that take up the change agents' time, there is a need for cohesion between the curriculum emphasis and the desired outcome. Summation of the TrainingTaxonomy As indicated, there is a strong relationship among development purposes, roles, and skills of change agents. A training curriculum should be based on the commonly valued elements of the taxonomy. First, it is recommended that common concerns be used for designing appropriate development training. In designing the curriculum, common I46 concerns about the purposes of development would provide directions (goals) for training, while the commonly perceived roles and skills of change agents provide bases for appropriate development training. A recommended taxonomy is seen as follows: Purpose of Training to know how to meet basic needs to know how to assist a community to sort out basic problems and solve them to know how to motivate communities for positive change to know how to assist a community to improve its income and productivity to know how to educate community persons to be self-reliant Content of Training Skills to equip trainees with interpersonal skills 2. to equip trainees with educational skills 3. to equip trainees with leadership skills 4. to equip trainees with research skills 5. to equip trainees with a development conceptualizing skills I. to prepare trainees to play effective roles in human relationships 2. to prepare trainees to learner and educator's roles 3. to prepare trainees for assistance roles 4. to prepare trainees for leadership/administrative roles 5. to prepare trainees to play effective roles in office work duty Appropriate training of the change agents undoubtedly will have great impact not only on the development workers, but also on the project committees I47 and the community people. The important point that needs to be remembered is that a key to the success of development projects is not in the hands of the change agents, but in the hands of the project committees. l-bwever, the change agents directly influence the project committees. The Ichange agents cannot equip the community representatives unless they themselves are well equipped. Therefore, the goal of training should be to equip those who go out to equip others to fight their own wars. Therefore, the concerns should be arming the communities through the change agents, not only the change agents. For both pre- and inservice training, the guiding fact should be the real problems or needs of communities. In other words, the training curriculum should not be divorced from the problems of communities. In addition to the elements suggested for training curriculum bases, the curriculum should take into consideration technical skills, personal qualities, and spiritual qualities, particularly in the area of interpersonal relations. Furthermore, it seems that the trainees would benefit more if the focus of pre-training is to give the general concepts and theory of development, along with basic skills in important areas. The inservice training focus should be more technically oriented by way of responding to the concerns and questions of the change agents. The training needs to be designed in such a way that it provides a total picture of the training process. Of course, that includes training in foundations; content; practice; expected outcome with plan, process, and outcome evaluation built in, as shown in Figure 6.l. It seems that one of the problems of the existing training is that it seeks to provide instant solutions to help the trainees deal with immediate problems or meet immediate needs. Hence, the training lacks theoretical foundations. The training foundation needs to answer questions such as how do people learn? what I48 ORIENTED TOWARD THE PRACTICAL ‘ I 98:, ,’K°§' .\ o, / .. z The Real \V, ‘0 , '0'“ . x95 .66 as / Training C3 ' 0 «5‘ a? ‘b N e ,4 World With .9 ’6? [255 ’4x ’V9 ,5 Outcomes '— its needs: of, " ‘b 3 < v Bwhere _--4_»---._-____ ;E trainees “‘ expect E to be at L 53 graduation How - Method Training *5 Where — Place Practice c: , When - Time and , \ content] ~ \ (Con- / \ l cept), I “ / Z / 53 ;— ‘3‘ §E What Under Training ‘” t0 what Content 3 teach? condi—. “4 tions? 8 To whom? 05 .. \ \ , Training K Goals 55 \, Training H ~ - _ _. i _ _ _ _ k . g: g .. J6 {T "2, Foundation _j (o g 66 O). éo} \ )‘ 2). \\ < 9". 045.006 L\0'(‘)‘ -. i: ‘) ¢...2 a 97.2. 1? a, o z 402 toga/“((999 %\/OO/ <1 94$) 15 0’ ’ \él —’ (A O. \ «. / \ \ ORIENTED TOWARD THE IDEAL Figure 6.1. I49 kind of knowledge do we want to provide? what is the socio-cultural background of the trainees? who are these persons as individuals? what is or should be the ideological basis of our training? Such questions should provide not only foundations for training curricula, but also shape the goals of the training and influence the training content (see Figure 6.l). Based on the foundations and goals of the training, to determine the content question such as what to teach, why to teach it, under what condition, for what, and to whom, seeking sincere answers to such concerns should help to shape training practices. The method of training, time limitations, and questions of place and situation are important. Determination of adequate training foundations should affect the training outcomes shown in Figure 6.l. Such a training process requires a built-in evaluation of training foundation and goals, training content, and training practices and expected outcomes of the training exercise. Without evaluating the foundations and the processes, evaluation of the training outcomes cannot be comprehensive. Admittedly, training curriculum foundations tend to reflect the ideal. Fbwever, that ideal needs to have an impact on or influence the practical aspects of training and its outcome. Because of this relationship, it is crucial for change agent training curricula to have social foundations, valid content, and meaningful practical applications, and outcomes. A second concern is congruence between agency policy and inservice training outcomes. The improvement of development training seems to be one of the critical elements of the success of development activities. If it is believed that the training of change agents is important, the agency needs (to examine the relationship between desired training outcome and its development policy. From the findings of the research and the personal observations of the researcher, it seems that, without dealing with some of the policy issues, it would be very l50 difficult, if not impossible, to solve the training concerns. Therefore, for this particular agency, the primary problem is not the training, but seeking appropriate answers to some basic questions such as (a) whom to train for what, (b) adequate time for the trainees to implement what they are trained to do, and (c) what kind of persons the agency wants to see after the training; that is to say, to determine if the aim of the training is to produce development experts or technical bookkeepers or both. Both are important, but have different functions. For instance, if the policy of the agency is both to fund projects proposed by the communities and also to be involved in the development activities as experts to provide guidance, this requires double roles. Therefore, the policy issue in the first place is whether the agency wants to play both roles at the same time. Secondly, whether the agency wants the same person to play both roles or different persons to play different roles is important, because those are two different functions that demand different training emphases. One is a system function; the other a felt need function. Two Pulling Forces System Need Function* Function** *«requires a lot **--requires a lot of time of paper work or «includes complex office work human system-- «understands only economics, politics, certain language culture, history, and specific ways sociology, etc. of doing things «many ways of ~ doing things If the agency wants to play both roles, how can it balance the two? Or does the agency prefer to play the funding role and let the partner agency play the ISI development role? And what kind of implications would it have for training? Such questions are policy questions that affect training. A third recommendation concerns the varied nature of the agency projects. At this stage the agency doesn't specialize in a specific area of development (e.g., health, agriculture, education, etc.). As a funding agency, it accepts (or rejects) development projects that are proposed by a given community. As a result, one project coordinator may be responsible for l0 different kinds of activities. This creates a major problem if a change agent is expected to provide expertise and guidance for all of them. Therefore, another policy concern is to determine whether it would be more desirable to specify the agency's area of development activitiesm-agriculture, health, water, education, farming, etc., and try to accommodate other development concerns according to the situation. this might provide a better framework for the training curriculum as well as is shown in Figure 6.l. A further related would be to determine the advantage and disadvantage of focusing the training on the major areas of development and how that might affect partner agencies or local churches. In summarizing training concerns, training development field workers to understand the management system of the agency and expecting them to become development experts at the same time, without training them for that end, seemed to be an area of incongruence that needs improvement. Therefore, the training issue is more than knowing the training needed; it is a policy concern. In other words, training concerns cannot be solved apart from policy or theology of development. Constraints to Implementation The major constraints in implementing development projects were examined, and there were found to be major differences between the project l52 committees and the rest of the subject groups in their perception of problems in the implementation of the development projects. I-bwever, the problems of implementation that need the attention of the development assistance agency relate to training, motivation, resources, and distance. That is, (a) lock or shortage of trained development workers (as perceived by all groups except project committees, (b) lack of motivation or of community participation in development activities (by project committees), (c) limitations and delays in funding (by project committees), and (d) transportation problems of development workers in covering wide geographical areas to facilitate development project activities (by project committees). Problems 9 and _b relate to the training or education process of both project workers and community people, while problem 9 concerns the efficiency and requirements of the funding system. The fourth problem is both a reflection of the infrastructure and shortage of project workers. Strengths of and Concerns about the Agency Finally, when the strengths of and concerns about the agency were considered, the agency was found to have many impressive strengths with highly commendable development activities. The ll points identified in development literature in Chapter I (under PVOs) are true of this agency in the country in which the research was undertaken. In addition to the above, the following seem to be strengths of the agency in East Africa: «commitment to Christian values and moral standards, particularly at the field level; «effort and commitment to meet both physical and spiritual needs of the community, «approach to community development is holistic (i.e., it makes an effort to deal with integrated development«hea|th, agriculture, education, water, etc.); IS3 «effort to meet the needs of the community at the grassroots level (i.e., reaching the poorest of the poor); «effort to create self-reliance in its target population; «effort to work with local people, not {(1 them (ile., involving people in development process or encouraging participation of a community); «willingness to use material resources generously to meet communities' needs; «effort to co-manage and supervise community development projects with local persons; «effort to increase or improve living standards by increasing productivity; «relation to local churches is positive and supportive; «effort to have moral and spiritual impact on its target population; «willingness to work with all kinds of political and religious ideologies; «ability to work with totally committed and dedicated change agents to assist communities; and «working with very mature and dedicated leaders at all levels, both experience-wise and spiritually. t-bwever, there are some areas of concern which need improvement to make the agency more effective in development assistance. A number of things that were considered to be weak points of the agency are listed in the findings (Chapter V) as they were perceived at different levels. Of these, the following seemed the most serious and in need of special attention for improvement. Reward A reward system (i.e., the reward system is based on- satisfying the organization's system requirements) that is, person(s) who satisfy the management's paper work requirements are rewarded at the expense of persons who serve the needs of people or communities. In other words, the reward I54 system excludes people-oriented individuals in favor of system-oriented individuals. This is consistent with the training emphasis which was discussed earlier and the skills and roles valued by administrative personnel. Balancing Between Office Work and Development Unbalanced emphasis was found to be placed on paper work to satisfy the system's requirements at the expense of the felt needs of a community. Both the training curriculum emphasis and the kind of work on which project coordinators spend most of their working time strongly suggest a need for improvement in this ("'80. Staff Development The agency has shown inadequate concern about the professional development of its personnel at different levels in the organization. One cannot help such caring for assistance in professional development as listening to the staffs, particularly personnel at management and field levels. Lack of Theoloiof Development As is shown in the findings in Chapter V, concern was expressed about lack of a precise theology of development and applicable, practical policy of development. It is also recommended that the agency determined a clear and precise theology of development that can provide guidance for development activities. The respondents' complaints about the present policy were that it is too general to provide guidance (e.g., to develop God-given potential) and too idealistic to be practiced. Serious study or research is needed either to justify the existing development policy or improve it, based on research findings. ISS Although the agency claimed that high proportions of its activities were development-oriented, it seemed that the agency did not have a philosophy of development that practitioners (project implementors) and community people could grasp for practical purposes. The existing development policy is a reflection of often idealistic Western philosophy of development; it is not concerned primarily with the views or needs seen by local people. The differences between development and relief and rehabilitation are clear at the conceptual level, but not at the practical level. In summary, because the agency desires a true partnership with community people and with local churches, realistic, practical, and meaningful participation of the local people should be encouraged in order to enable them to be true partners in development activities and in shaping agency policy. Special attention needs to be given to implementation of development activities«even more than organization or administration«in designing development policy. The success or failure of development activities is generally determined at the implementation level. Fame, the project coordinators and managers have a major role to play in the implementation and maintenance of development projects. Therefore, development practitioners should be given a comprehensive understanding of development policy. Their suggestions should be taken seriously, and their contributions should be sought in designing and shaping development policy. Change of Policy Frequent policy changes are undertaken without adequate explanation of taking time to convince people who are involved in implementing the policy, or those who are effected by the change, of the need for the change. The problems are two-fold: (a) lack of adequate and convincing explanation for the policy change for change agents who, in turn, convince the |56 communities, and (b) the frequent changes of policy don't provide adequate opportunity for the local people to find out whether a particular policy works or not. Therefore, it would create better understanding and the spirit of partnership would be improved if the agency would have discussions with the communities, providing adequate explanation for the change of policy. Finally, the agency should refrain from minor changes that interfere with communities' development activities and might negatively affect their motivation. Summary Some of the researcher's assumptions about the agency at the beginning of the research project were confirmed and others were changed. One early assumption was that the agency was exemplary in its intro-organizational communication, particularly in its use of a two-way flow of communication. It was found, however, that such was not the case. Intro-organizational communication was found to be an exchange of paper in the form of policy decisions and report on the vertical plane. Horizontal communication flow was even weaker. A second assumption was that since the agency was international, personnel at international offices would be well aware of cross-cultural issues and sensitive to field problems and realities. This was not found to be the case. A third assumption was that since the agency was a well-known international relief and development agency, it would have a well thought out and precise policy and theology of development that would benefit not only the agency's offices, but also other PVOs. On the contrary, the theology of development and policy the agency works with at present still needs to be refined. I57 The fourth assumption concerned the training curriculum for project coordinators and managers, for a holistic development ministry. It was assumed that the agency would have a comprehensive training program for its development practitioners. instead, the training seminars hardly addressed fundamental issues of development, specific skills needed in development work, and concepts and practical aspects of holistic development. Fifth, it was assumed that since the agency is a large, well-established organization, it would have an inefficient method of selecting and approving projects. It was found, however, to be efficient and, in fact, exemplary. With a few minor changes, it could provide an efficient format for other PVOs. The sixth assumption was that recruited agency personnel at the management, operational, and project coordinator levels would be well qualified intellectual persons who would be proficient in written communication, not as well-qualified in spiritual leadership, and even distant from their communities. Although the first part of this assumption was correct, the rest was proven wrong. Recruited personnel at all levels with few exceptions were found to be outstanding spiritual leaders and highly committed individuals, both to their respective communities and to the organization. Moreover, they expressed a great concern for and strong ties to the people they served. It was apparent that these personnel are the major strength of the agency's relief and development assistance. The remaining concern is that the agency has not fully utilized its such rich resources for the excellency of its work. Seventh, it was assumed that the agency would be distanced from community people and would not identify with people at the grassroots level. This assumption was in error. Given the realities of the field (where development work is implemented), the difficulties of development and the risks involved in any serious attempts at new development projects, the agency's I58 personnel involvement with people at the grassroots level was found to be commendable. Given that the agency typifies PVOs in many ways and considering the nature of their development work and their communities are similar, the following summary of the conclusions may be helpful or have application for other PVOs. Hypotheses are provided for further research. PVOs cannot be as effective as they want to be because of communication problems at different levels within the organizational hierarchy. As shown clearly in the study, while people at the policy level feel they are doing "X," people at the management level may be saying, "We are doing Y." Yet, community people may think what the agency is doing is neither "X" nor "Y" but "Z." Therefore, the first hypothesis that researchers need to look at is the following: hypothesis l. One of the major problems of PVOs in development work is the lack of effective, infra-organizational communication. They also cannot be as effective as they want to because they emphasize learned skills or specialization at the expense of other personal qualities. Effective development practitioners need to be relate to community people to influence them positively. hypothesis 2. Effective development workers are those who have a basic and comprehensive knowledge of development and general development skills and who also possess personal qualities that community people appreciate and can identify with. Effective development work is also limited by inconsistencies in what agencies say they are doing or intend to do in their policies and what they end up doing (e.g., the policy may say "70% of Our work is development" but in reality 70% of their efforts is expended in relief and/or rehabilitation and less than 30% is expended in development). typothesis 3. More than half of what PVOs describe in their policies as development activity is actually relief or rehabilitation. The l59 actual development work is very limited in comparison with relief efforts. PVOs cannot be as effective in development work as they are in relief and rehabilitation work because of fund raising concerns. Although the PVOs may be convinced that relief without development is an inadequate solution and may want to do more development work, the reality is that they can raise funds for relief much more easily than for development work. Therefore, they are caught between using relief for fund raising while attempting to emphasize development activities in the field. Wpothesis 4. PVOs generally want to do development but find they are limited by fund raising concerns. PVOs want to do more effective development than they presently do, but they are limited by the management systems under which they work. Effective management systems demand that reports are on time, in such and such a format, including input and output cost analyses when possible, and so forth. But the realities of the field are that if they want to do effective development, it takes time. Development cannot be measured by amounts of money or the number of written reports. .t-typothesis 5. One of the major problems of PVOs is working within Western management systems which demand excessive paper work and leave little time for development work. PVOs want to do effective, lasting development, but they cannot because there are so many pressing needs and jobs which get priority before development work. Those pressing needs usually do not leave time or other resources for development work. typothesis 6. One of the reasons for PVOs' not focusing on development work as much as they would like to is unexpected pressing needs that arise. PVOs may want to do more effective development work than they are now doing, but they cannot because their training in development activities does not I60 address fundamental development issues in the Third World context nor equip trainees with purposeful development goals or effective skills. Hypothesis 7. PVOs' training systems orient staff to office work and the agency's ways of doing things to facilitate the flow .of funds rather than to equip trainees for effective development work. PVOs may want to train development practitioners to be effective implementors, but they cannot because they do not have specific sectors in focus for training persons to be effective. PVOs which accept whatever is proposed for a community cannot prepare development workers since they do not know what kind of development a community might propose next. The solution to this may be in training all workers for general development while being specific to equip given trainees to be effective in particular disciplines. hypothesis 8. Not having a specific sector of develop as its major emphasis weakens a PVO. PVOs want to train effective development workers, but they cannot because different expectations exist between PVOs and the trainees. PVOs perceive that effective training imparts knowledge or skills as inservice training while trainees view effective training as gaining credentials for higher education. Hypothesis 9. One of the problems of inservice training is different expectations between PVOs and their trainees. PVOs may want to do more effective development, but they cannot because their approach to a great extent is still top-down and lacks an effective participatory approach. Hypothesis l0. Although there has been a great deal of talk about bottom-up and participatory approaches to development, PVOs' approaches are still characterized by top-down planning and ineffective use of participation. Therefore, it is recommended that the agency would benefit greatly by utilizing these common concerns to understand the extent of the congruence at I6l different personnel levels and using the common concerns as bases for designing training curricula for change agents, making effective policy decisions on development issues, and using the findings for evaluation and long-term planning. PVOs would benefit by applying some of the major findings identified principles to their situations. Further research is also recommended to test the specific summary hypotheses identified above. In time, the theoretical bases can be formed for more effective relief and development work. APPENDICES APPENDIX A Your Perception of the Agency as (I‘d Organization Circle the number that best expresses your opinion: Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Disagree Agree l. The agency is a committed Christian I 2 3 4 5 organization that reflects Christian values. 2. The agency is best known for reaching I 2 3 4 5 out to needy communities to help solve their immediate problems. 3. The agency is best known for assisting I 2 3 4 5 communities to plan and carry out long term development projects. 4. Issues the agency deals with include some of the following list: Evangelism Development Relief Rehabilitation Training field supervisors Conducting relevant research & evaluation Encouraging Christian Strengthening local church leadership organizations Other (specify) Training project Committees 0. Are there any other issues or activities that should be included (be specific«put them on the provided cards). b. Put the cards in ranking order to show what the agency is. c. Arrange the cards in ranking order to show what you think the agency should be like. (I. Arrange the cards in ranking order to show how you think communities (villagers) would like to see the agency. e. Arrange the cards in ranking order to show how project coordinators see the agency. 5. Does the agency differentiate between relief and development activities? 0. YES b. NO ‘c. NOT SURE I62 I63 If your answer to number five was YES, list below any key differences that exist between relief and development: 0. b. Purposes of Development Assistance Some specific issues that could be development assistance objectives are listed below: Economic growth Meeting basic needs Efficiency Equity Self-Reliance Other (specify) a. Add to the cards provided any objectives that should be on the list. b. Arrange the cards in order of their priority of the agency. c. Please identify one or more reasons why you have selected in "number one" as your priority: According to development literature, in mo$t cases development assistance is characterized by some of the following phrases. Mark those that apply to the agency. a. a short term commitment b. a long term commitment . process oriented (education emphasis) product oriented (income) aims to liberate people from oppression and injustice political holistic in its approach to development (aims to meet both physical and spiritual needs) . helping people in disaster situations i. helping primitive communities progress toward modernity j. increasing living standards by increasing productivity k. fostering social and political transformation I. facilitating communities in identifying problems and dealing with them m. other(s) (specify) ave-0 3' (.045 64 Circle the number that best represents your opinion: Most of the agency projects focus on: a. b. c. d. e. f. how well do the following value statements apply the agency? meeting basic human needs increasing production systems improving infrastructure institutions' training centers' improvement meeting spiritual needs others (be specific) Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Disagree it has great concern for the professional development of its personnel at all levels it encourages development workers' participation and values their input it encourages two-way communication it meets the needs of communities at a grass roots level it makes an effort to create self- reliance in its target population it works with flexible programs to meet local needs it has a moral and spiritual impact on its target population it is generous in using materials resources to meet community's needs it uses locally available materials I 2 3 l 2 3 l 2 3 I 2 3 l 2 3 Not Never Some- Sure Apply ti mes it has great appreciation and respect for communities' values and norms Agree 4 5 4 5 4 5 4 5 4 5 Fre- Always quently Apply 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 I65 Not Never Some- Fre- Always Sure Apply times quently Apply k. its projects are small and l 2 3 4 5 manageable I. its projects as co-managed and supervised by local persons l 2 3 4 5 m. it places high value on human dignity (people oriented) I 2 3 4 5 n. it makes local people the subjects (one who controls) of their own development I 2 3 4 5 o. it works with local people, not for them I 2 3 4 5 p. its relation to local churches is supportive and positive I 2 3 4 5 q. its use of church leaders does not detract from their roles in the church I 2 3 4 5 r. it cooperates with interagency organizations I 2 3 4 5 s. it cooperates well with national government agencies I 2 3 4 5 t. others (specify) Some major source(s) to be drawn upon for conceptualizing the development and/or training model include those listed below. Please identify the two you use the most: a. development literature I . b. colleagues' input 2. c. regional/country directors d. project coordinators e. community people f. project reports 9. personal experiences h. other(s) (specify) I66 There are different ways of communicating development activities (models) for implementation. Which two do you use? __ a. pre-field orientation Most frequently __ b. short seminar presentation I. __ c. dialogue back and forth 2. _ d. written policy Least frequently __ e. staff conference I. f. other(s) (specify) 2. To what extent have the following been problems in implementing development programs and development training programs (projects) for the agency? Circle the number that best reflects the seriousness of the problem. Not Not a Slight Problem Serious Sure Problem Problem Problem 0. political constraints | 2 3 4 5 b. lack of trained people I 2 3 4 5 c. lack of resources I 2 3 4 5 d. lack of commitment/motivation from community people I 2 3 4 5 e. infrastructure transformation/ communication l 2 3 4 S f. value conflict between the agency and partner agencies I 2 3 4 5 9. rules and regulations of legal government I 2 3 4 5 h. other(s) (specify) Please Discuss the serious problem(s): I67 Role of the Agency Change Agents (Project Coordinator/Managers) Do you consider the field worker (project coordinators) to be change agents? a. yes b. no a. not sure The following list includes some of the roles change agents are required to perform. To what extent do you expect the agency field supervisors to fulfill these roles? Circle the number that best expresses your opinion. Not Not Somewhat Frequently Always Sure Required Required Required Required a. facilitator l 5 b. educator I c. relationship builder l d. developer I e. problem identifier or diagnostician f. informer g. planner h. activist i. organizer j. coordinator k. innovator, starter, initiator l. consultant m. legitimizer n. motivator and stimulator o. advocate p. advisor/guide q. maintenance of change r. administrator s. dealing with resistance t. analyzer/interpretor u. applied researcher v. evaluator w. other(s) (specify) NNNNNNNNNNNN NNNNNN NNNN wwwwwwwwwwww 000000000000 00000000 «PJ-‘J-‘J-‘PJ—‘J—‘I—‘J—‘J—‘J-‘P J-‘J-‘J—‘J-‘J-‘D J-‘J-‘J-‘L‘ U101U101U'IU'IU‘IU'IU1U1U'IU'I U1U101U101U1 LDUIU‘I Identify from the above list and/or your observations five areas where the agency project coordinators have demonstrated the most and least competence. Most Competence Least Competence I68 Most Competence Least Competence c. c d d e e Skills for Development Field Workers I8. t-bw much of the agency's project coordinators' time has been taken by each of the following development processes? Circle the number that best represents your view. Not No Little Reason- Lots Sure Time Time able of Time Time a. building relationships within a community I 2 3 4 5 b. diagnosing a community's problem I 2 3 4 5 c. choosing a solution to a community's problem I 2 3 4 5 d. implementing the solution to a community problem I 2 3 4 5 e. trying to achieve developmental goals I 2 3 4 5 f. evaluating development I 2 3 4 5 g. servicing the agency system I 2 3 4 5 Circle the ones that best express your opinions. 20. Strongly DisagreeNeutral Agree Strongly Disagree Agree The skills change agents possess are more important than personalities I 2 3 4 5 General skills are more important than specific skills in the success of developmental assistance. I 2 3 4 5 I69 Identify some general skills you consider key to the success of development projects. Some specific interpersonal skills needed by developments field workers: Not Not Some- Freq. Always Sure Impt. times Impt. Impt. Impt. a. ability to communicate I 2 3 4 5 b. listening I 2 3 4 5 c. confrontation l 2 3 4 5 d. conflict resolution I 2 3 4 5 e. giving positive reinforcement (make others feel valued) I 2 3 4 5 f. influencing others I 2 3 4 5 In addition to interpersonal skills, how important is it for development field workers following skills? Circle the number that best expresses your opinion. Not Not Some- Freq. Always Sure Impt. times Impt. Impt. Impt. 0. educational skills I) creating learning opportuni- ties for a community I 2 3 4 5 2) implementing learning theory I 2 3 4 5 3) using community feedback for better training I 2 3 4 5 4) program outlining l 2 3 4 5 b. - program development skills I) conceptualizing I 2 3 4 5 2) implementing plans of action I 3 4 5 3) organizing, designing, pre- senting development program I 2 3 4 5 4) other(s) specify 24. 25. 26. Identify three or more skills that you consider should be part of the training I70 Not Not Some- Freq. Sure Impt. times Impt. Impt. research skills I) information collection, use, sharing 2) assessing the need for change 3) conducting needs analysis 4) writing program proposals 5) evaluating the program 6) other(s) specify NNNNN wwwww J—‘J—‘FJ—‘L‘ leadership (I‘d administrative skills I) planning 2) organizing 3) coordinating 4) motivating 5) directing 6) controlling 7) decision making NNNNNNN wwwwwww D-P-PJ-‘J-‘kb curriculum. Please write the number and letter of the item. a. b. C. Identify some key reasons why the above have such importance: What are some of the skills (or what kind of skills) the agency provides projects coordinators with during orientation seminars of training? 0. b. Always Impt. UtU‘MU‘U't U1U1U1U'IU'IU1U1 27. 28. 29. HI Are there specific skills you feel should be developed/encouraged by the agency during inservice training or during staff conferences? YES NO If £5, please list a few of them: a. b. c. Of the skills project coordinators have, which ones fall into each of the following categories? Most Used Least Used 0 a. b. b c c. d d. e. e Please feel free to add any comments or concerns about your work or the agency as an organization that you would like to make and/or about this survey. I72 30. Circle the response that best describes your background. junior high school completed secondary school completed college training or equivalent graduate studies post graduate studies a. Formal education PFPPT social science humanities natural science other (specify) b. Field of professional training: FPPT c. Year of involvement in relief and/or development work less than one year I - 3 years 4 - 6 years 7 or more years FPI"? I. less than one year 2. l - 3 years 3. 4 - 6 years 4. 7 or more years d. Years of working for the agency APPENDIX B I73 'nI'IIIIII’IIIIIIIZc w mm”... " "0 7m . ..:.«aa WWI... ’Z'ggé IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII.‘ ”IIIIIIIIIIIH #324 IIIIII 7». mm #01, Won-muoonomom 4% I’ll’millllllllao .1” . “in. “"140, W""‘“?. ‘ I 11777777 mma Wmmtocoounuuuh (a ‘27”43 IIIIIIIIIIIIII o 0/, -- mom»: i a ’ ’I” I: O . .. .. "" .‘”‘595955¥D ,,,,9¥#¥m .‘z ‘ A mom IIIIIIIn m .0. 0. ts, ‘I’IIIIIII’IIIWI fifififiilél’g‘l’lllllla{ré mama". I. Wanna 40 4Qay 1,329,“? 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