NABTTAT REQUTREMENTS or ‘
FOUR SELECTED SPEcTEs TN f ,
THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT

, Thesfis for the Degree; of ’Ph. D.
IMICHTGAN’ STATE UNIVERSITY
DARRELL LEECAULEY ,
.1974” '

 

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This is to certify that the
thesis entitled

Habitat Requirements of
Four Selected Species

in the Urban Environment
. . : presented by

Darreil L. Cauley

has been accepted towards fulfiilment
of the requirements for

Ph. D. Fisheries and Wildlife

 

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ABSTRACT

HABITAT REQUIREMENTS OF FOUR SELECTED SPECIES IN
THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT

By

Darrell Lee Cauley

NMch of the research involving wildlife in.urban.areas has dealt
‘with the elimination or reduction of species considered health hazards
or pests. There has been little or no research to determine the ecology
of urban wildlife, or resident attitudes toward wildlife in our cities.
In this study, the techniques of radio telemetry, capture-recapture,
vegetative analysis, and resident interviews were employed to deter-
mine the movement, activities, ecology, and desirability of cardinal

(Richmondena cardinalis), blue jays (Cyanocitta cristata), raccoons

 

 

 

 

(Procyon lotor), and fox squirrel (Sciurus niger) in.an area in Taylor
Township, a suburb of Detroit, Michigan.

Cardinals in my study had significantly smaller mean home ranges,
and higher popuflations than those in natural habitat reported in the
literature. Seventy four percent had an active feeder within their
home range, and several appeared to expand their ranges to include a
feeder. Cardinals nested in areas whose total leafy volume varied
from 279,589 to 2,25%,2h7 cu. ft./acre, and as a result appeared
plastic in their habitat requirements. Movement in the vertical
stratum, however, did not vary significantly between the habitat types.

Blue jay densities in my study were similar to those reported for
other urban areas at this latitude. .All the blue jay ranges contained
at least one active feeder station, and jays appeared to alter their

utilization of the vertical stratum to take advantage of feeders.

Darrell Lee Cauley

These birds nested exclusively in sections with mature deciduous vege-
tation, and their nesting heights were significantly higher than.those
reported in the literature.

Raccoon densities in this study are significantly higher than
those reported for wild Midhigan populations and they appear to have
smaller home ranges than those reported for wild raccoons. This
compression of home range and increased density is probably due to the
abundance of food in urban areas (i.e., refuse, gardens).

Fox squirrels in my study area had a population density which
approximated that reported for wild Michigan squirrels. Home ranges,
however, were significantly smaller than those reported in the litera-
ture. The smaller home ranges, but equivalent density indicates space
available for expansion of squirrel numbers into unused habitat. This
lack of expansion is probably caused by the overall scarcity of cavity
dens in urban areas due to frequent pruning and removal of dead trees.

Resident response to the questionnaire was strongly in favor of
'wildlife in the city. Approximately 88 percent of those interviewed
regularly observed wildlife on their property. All of the study
species were considered desirable by at least 75 percent of those

interviewed.

HABITAT REQUIREMENTS OF FOUR SELECTED SPECIES IN
THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT

Darrell Lee Cauley

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in.partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Fisheries and Wildlife

197k

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author is indebted to professors Leslie W. Gysel and
Donald Beaver under whose guidance this research was conducted,
and to the residents of Mortonview.Avenue, Wick Road, Merrick and
Polk Streets in Taylor, Michigan, without whose cooperation and

assistance this research could not have been completed.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . .

STUDY AREA . . . . . . . . .

METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . .

VEGETATIVE ANALYSIS .

RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mammals . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
vegetation .

Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . .
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . .
Birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cardinal . . . . . . . . . .
Blue Jay .

Mammals . . . . . . . . . .
Raccoon .
Squirrels . . . . . . . . . .

PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH URBAN RESEARCH . .

BIBLIOGRAPHY

iii

10
16
19
19
25 T
35

50 .
50
50
52
51+ _,
5h
56
63
6h

Number

10

LIST OF TABLES

Cardinal trapping data.
Blue jay trapping data.

Tmapping and radio telemetry data collected for
raccoons.

Trapping and radio telemetry data collected for
fox squirrels.

WOOdy species observed in the woodlot during the
vegetative sampling.

Squirrel leaf nests and den cavities in the woodlot.

Weady species observed in the urban residential
section. '

Fox squirrel leaf nests and den cavities in the
urban residential section.

woOdy species Observed in the shrub section.
Woody species observed in.the subdivision.

Space utilization in the four habitat types.

iv

Page
20

23

26

3O

37
38

ho

1+3
1&5
1+7
61

Number

4:"

\OCD-QONU'I

10

ll

13
1h

15

LIST OF FIGURES

Habitat types and distribution of houses in the
study area.

Aerial photograph of houses in the subdivision.

Aerial photograph of houses in the urban residential
section.

Location of bird and mammal trap positions.
Photograph of completed raccoon transmitters.
Profile classes of trees in the study area.
Cardinal home ranges in the study area.

Blue jay home ranges in the study area.
Raccoon.home ranges in.the study'area.

Fox squirrel home ranges in the study area.

Chimney squirrel den located in.the urban residential
section.

Squirrel den located in the eave of a building in
the urban residential section.

Fox squirrel daily activity.
Height distribution of vegetative volume by percent.

Nesting and.denning heights of fox squirrels in the
urban residential and woodlot sections.

11
1h
17
21
21+
28

32

33

33
31;
36

58

INTRODUCTION

The study of urban wildlife is important partly because it is a
field that has been overlooked in the past and little is known about
animals in.urban areas, and also because it could lead to the proper
management of these animals to the benefit of man. The 1970 Federal
census revealed that three fourths of our country's population is
located in.metropolitan areas, and that this figure is increasing
rapidly. The majority of people therefore, receive much of their
appreciation.and knowledge of wildlife from those species inhabiting
the cities. This same majority constitutes the political force which
can effect conservation practices throughout our country. If urban
dwellers are to make the environmental decisions, it is vital that
they become aware of the mechanisms of the ecosystem and the role that
they play in that system.

Many researchers (Davey, 1967; Twiss, 1967; and, Stearns, 1967)
feel that one way of educating the public is to increase the amount of
exposure of city dwellers to a variety of wildlife species. Although
there are large numbers of birds and mammals in our urban areas, many
are considered pests or health problems (starlings, pigeons, and rats,
for instance). Management in the past, therefore, has been concerned
primarily with reducing or eliminating many of these species. Very
little is known about the habitat requirements or population dynamics
of some of the more desirable wildlife found in cities. Grosvenor (1916),

l

2

Whitaker (1916), and Pitelka (1912) have published reports of high
wildlife densities in the vicinity of man's establishments, and there
are numerous texts and government extension service publications
(Baker, 1918; Davison, 1967; Tenes, 1968; Courtsal, 1969; McAtbe, 1918;
Longnecker and Ellarson, 1960; USDA, 1969) which describe methods of
attracting wildlife by means of plantings, nest boxes, and feeding
stations. None, however, are species specific concerning habitat
requirements and other ecological considerations, and.most exclude
mammals. Davey (1970) has stated that, "The accumulation and analysis
of available information on breeding populations of birds and mammals
within urban areas is an early need."

There are other human.preferences that must be analyzed. Do
urbanites want wildlife? Are they willing to pay the costs? Finally,
which species should we manage? The first two questions can be
answered by data accumulated through the National Recreational Survey.
There were about 98 million activity days in nature walks in the summer
of 1960, as compared to 117 million activity days for the summer of
1965, or an increase of 19 percent in five years. The membership of
the'Wilderness Society quadrupled between 1957 and 1967 (9,000 to
36,000), and the 1965 survey of outdoor recreation activities reported
that there were over eight million bird watchers and three million
‘wildlife photographers in this country. Obviously, people are becoming
more interested in wildlife. That national sales of commercial bird
seed have soared in the past ten years also indicates that many are
willing to pay to draw wildlife to them. The third question, what
species should we manage, will have to be answered in part by the

people living in the city.

(l)

(2)

(3)
(1T)

(5)

The objectives of this study were:

to determine the composition and structure of an urban vegetative
community;

to examine environmental factors associated with the four study

species: raccoon (Procyon lotor), fox squirrel (Sciurus niger),

 

 

blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata), and cardinal (Richmondena

 

 

cardinalis);

 

to describe the cultural effects of urban areas on wildlife;
to suggest possible management techniques for the four study
species; and

to determine resident attitudes toward wildlife.

STUDY AREA

The study site is approximately 159 acres located in Taylor
Township on the southwestern fringe of the Detroit, Michigan, metro-
politan area. Primarily a residential community of middle-class homes,
it is surrounded on.three sides by subdivisions; the southern terrain
is bordered by light industry. The soil is predominantly Pawamo loam,
with a gentle 0 to 2 percent slope. These soils contain a calcareous
silty clay loam which drains poorly. Kibbie fine sand was also present,
but it constituted less than 10 percent of the total soil. A small
rolling area of 6 to 12 percent slope abutted the only large woodlot on
the site. The runoff from these slopes and the poor drainage of the
soils created flood conditions in the woods during wet periods. Pot-
holes of water were present in the woodlot throughout the summer months.

Five distinct community types are present within the study site
(Figure l). The first two are non-natural and include a housing sub-
division of 20 acres, or 12.5 percent of the total land area, and a
widely spaced urban residential section with homes along Wick Road
and Mortonview Avenue. The urban residential (UR) area is 65 acres or
Al percent of the total land space. Three natural plant communities
are present: a lowland deciduous woodlot of 20 acres (12.5 percent),

a shrub community of 6 acres (h percent), and two open field communities
totaling A8 acres (30 percent).

Homes on the site were not evenly dispersed, with 63 percent of

the total 1&6 dwellings located in the subdivision. These houses,
1,

 

Urban rosidontial ‘.Iulldings
Subdivision _ Main "a...

 

  

”"95 Secondary '09"
D Mold % ‘I'onporcry "room
”9.395.: Woodlot

 

Flour. ‘I. Habitat typos and distribution of houses in tho study or...

completed in.the early 1950's, have a uniform lot size of 65 X 135 feet.
The basic structure is identical; brick, single-storied, and spaced

15 ft. apart (Figure 2). Twenty five percent of the residents have
added garages and various out-buildings; swimming pools, etc., but the
general configuration remains constant. The majority of the landscaping
was done by the original contractor and consists of various ornamental
species, such as spruce, barberry, juniper, privet, and cedar. The
vegetation in this section was sparse and consisted primarily of low
trees and shrubs planted around buildings.

The majority of homes along Mortonyiew and Wick were constructed
during the immediate post World War II period. Most are brick, have
two stories, with lot size varying from .33 to 3.2 acres (Figure 3).
In many cases the construction incorporated existing vegetation, and
there are numerous deciduous and coniferous trees present with dbh's
(diameter breast height) exceeding 30 inches, and heights to 102 ft.
Many owners of larger lots do not maintain all of their property.
Consequently some land not immediately abutting a main thoroughfare
has undergone natural plant succession. This section had the second
highest vegetative volume and appeared to have a good distribution and
diversity of plant species.

The deciduous woodlot was dominated by sycamore (Plantanus

occidentalis), silver maple (Acer saccharinum), and white ash

 

 

(Fraxinus americana). This section received heavy use by neighborhood

 

children. Much of the understory was trampled or damaged by chopping,
bark stripping, and ground fires.
The shrub community also received damage similar to that found in

the woodlot. The dominant plant species of the community included

 

 

Figure 2. Aerial photograph of houses in the subdivision.

 

 

Figure 3. Aerial photograph of houses in the urban residential section.

9

slippery elm (Ulmus fulva), hawthorne (Crataegus sp.), ash-leaved maple

 

(A92: ESE), and various dogwoods (Cornus sp. ).

A large part of the open fields adjacent to houses in the Morton-
viewAWick area was planted to vegetable gardens. The most southern
field community was formerly a pasture and consisted of various weeds,
grasses, and forbs. Both areas did not undergo normal plant succession
due to cultivation or frequent cutting.

There were no permanent streams on the study site. The woodlot,
as stated, underwent seasonal flooding, and contained potholes of
water that remained throughout the summer, as well as, a seasonal
stream. water was also available to wildlife from decorative ponds,
swimming pools, bird.baths, and similar sources. It is doubtful that

water was a limiting factor for any of the species studied.

METHODS

During the spring and summer of 1972, lineartransects were

. established to determine the relative abundance of the various song
bird species. A map of the study area was used to locate each bird
sighting and to obtain composites of activity centers. The data included:

1. species

2. height observed

3. total height of cover utilized

A. location

The cardinal and blue jay were selected as study species based
upon the frequency and number of sightings, visibility, and variety of
habitat utilized.

Live trapping for birds began on 15 April and ended 15 July, 1973.
Birds were captured.using a modified decoy trap designed by the USDI.
Each trap was 3 X 3 X 5 ft and constructed of 1 inch mesh welded wire.
Four traps were initially employed, but one was stolen from the woodlot
during the first trap day, and'bird trapping in this area was dis-
continued. The remaining three bird traps were checked at two to three
hour intervals to discourage further theft. Traps were spaced to insure
maximum coverage of the study area. Random spacing of bird and mammal
traps was not possible because residents frequently denied.permission
to place traps on.their property and because each location.had to
include a suitable structure to secure the trap. Traps were, there-
fore, placed to achieve optimum coverage of each habitat type (Figure h).

10

 
 
  
  

- IO RaccoOn traps 0
Fox squirrol traps x

Iird traps v

 

 

   

 

0.-
“Pill
‘ITT

T

   

 

"TIIITTTT

 

 

 

  
 

‘ . Buildings

_ Main roads

 

Socondary "NI“

% ‘lomporary "roam

" Wood I ot

 

Ilguro 4. locations of bird and mammal trap positions.

12

Each captured'bird was dyed using Nyanzol A and was banded for identifi-
cation using colored.plastic leg bands. Nyanzol A was applied to the
'wings, breast, and tails, in a predetermined manner to color code each
individual, a method which was highly successful. Twenty one birds
were handled in this manner with no apparent adverse effects. Baits
included cracked corn, whole corn, commercial bird seed, and sunflower
seeds. The sunflower seeds provided the best cardinal-blue jay capture
rates and reduced the number of captures of the smaller bird species.
Marked birds were observed for periods of two to three hours continuously
over a minimum two week.period, or until home ranges or territories
could.be mapped (Odum and Kuenzler, 1955). The data recorded for'both
bird species include:

1. capture location

2. vegetative and non-vegetative cover utilized to include heights

observed and total height of cover

3. nest location and heights

h. singing perches

5. feeding areas

Mammal trapping began on 9 July and was concluded on 29 October,
1973. Squirrels were captured using a Mowhawk Model 10h live trap
(6 X 6 X 2% inches). When possible, traps were spaced to achieve
the maximum coverage of each habitat type (Figure A). Ten squirrel
traps were set out during each trapping period. The traps were placed
in one of the four habitat types (shrub, urban, residential, woodlot,
and subdivision) fer three to four days at three week intervals. The
location of every capture was marked, and each individual was sexed,
aged (juvenile-adult), and color dyed (Nyanzol A) for identification.

The squirrels were anesthetized using ether in a variable sized

anesthetizing chamber described by schinner and Cauley, l97h. This

l3

permitted the coded dyeing and the attachment of transmitter collars.
Baits for the fox squirrel included sunflower seeds, loose corn, and
dried ear corn. The ear corn.provided the best capture frequencies.
Squirrel traps also had to be closely monitored (2 hours or less) to
prevent theft. Squirrel trapping in the woodlot was discontinued after
16 trap days, since teenagers were observed tampering with traps,
releasing animals, and removing baits. Squirrel trapping was conducted
in.the shrub areas only where traps could be secured to large trees
because of the amount of activity in that area.

Raccoons were captured using a Mowhawk Model 108 live trap (11 X 12 X
32 inches). The raccoon traps were spaced so that maximum coverage
could be achieved for eadh habitat type (Figure A). Traps were picked
up each morning and were replaced after dark to reduce tampering by
neighborhood children. A mixture of sardines and dog food was used as
bait (Schinner and Cauley, 197A). Each raccoon was anesthetized using
the technique previously mentioned for fox squirrels. The location
of capture, relative age (juvenile-adult), and sex were noted. Each
animal was also toe clipped for identification.

Selected squirrels and raccoons were radio tracked to determine
home ranges, movement, and activity patterns. Transmitters were
essentially those described by Cochran and Lord (1967) with the
copper collar serving as a transmitting antennae (Figure 5). The
receiver was portable, l2 channeled, with a three element Yagi antenna.
Position sitings were taken at 30 minute intervals over a minimum
sevensday period for each radio tracked animal. The number of separate
radio fixes varied from 26 to 77 for fox squirrels and A6 to 77 for

raccoons. The data recorded for both species included:

11+

 

 

Figure 5. Photo of completed squirrel and raccoon transmitters.

15

1. position
2. onset and termination of activity

den sites

JTUO

feeding areas
nesting heights
tree species

dbh

oo-qun

total height of den trees

Radio fixes were accurate to the exact location of the squirrels
tracked, since visual verification was possible. Raccoon sightings
were accurate to :_10 ft. in.both the woodlot interior and the shrub
area as verified'by walk-ups on tracked individuals. The accuracy
varied directly with the proximity of the receiver to the transmitter.
Position sightings, therefore, were made only when the signal strength
meter (on the receiver) indicated that the operator was very near the
transmitter (.< 100 yards). Squirrels were monitored from 30 minutes
before sunrise to 30 minutes after sunset. Raccoons were tracked from
30 minutes befbre sunset to 30 minutes after sunrise. In addition,
frequent daytime sightings were made to verify raccoon den locations

and to determine any movement during the daylight hours.

VEGETATIVE ANALYSIS

A simple 20 X 50 ft. plot was used to sample the woodlot and the
shrub area (Cain and Castro, 1959) and.plots were spaced at 100 foot
intervals. Measurements were made in ten.plots in the woodlot, and
in four in the shrub area for a total sample of two percent of each
habitat type. Further sampling was unnecessary because of the low
number of new species encountered in each subsequent sample. Both
the woodlot and the shrub sections were relatively uniform habitat
types. The vegetative data collected included:

1. species

2. height

3. height to crown
h. radius

5. shape

6. relative density

7. cavity and leaf nests heights

The crown volume of every tree sampled was calculated in the
following manner. The basic shape of all trees in the study area was
recorded as a profile class with three basic profiles: truncated
sphere, cylinder, and cone (Figure 6). The radius of each tree was
considered circular in horizontal cross section, or determined by an
average of two measurements. Overall height and height to canopy were

:measured to the nearest foot using a Haga altimeter. These data were

16

17

soul :3: o... a. :0... to .0307 239.: .o 95.:

0:00 50‘... .>0 aaosta 10.025...—

 

unocou
2 2a....

3:5. i

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

3a.... .32

18

applied in a computer program supplied by Allen Tipton (Fisheries and
Wildlife Department, Michigan State University), to formulas based on
the various geometric shapes to yield the total leafy volume of each
tree in the sample. Shrub volumes were estimated by reducing the shape
of each plant to a box and performing the appropriate calculations.

The same data were collected in the urban residential and sub-
division areas. The plot sizes in these sections were determined by
property boundaries. Plot size, therefore, varied from 8775 sq. ft.
to 1.2 acres. Eight samples were taken in the urban residential
section and 15 in the subdivision, for a total area of 6.81 and 3.01
acres, respectively. This provided a sample of 10.5 percent of the UR
section and 15.1 percent of the subdivision. Additional information
gathered in the residential areas included:

1. volume

2. water sources

3. areas of grass, gardens, and bare ground

ll. location of bird feeders and bird houses

Approximately 17 percent of the study area homes were randomly
selected for interviews to determine resident attitudes toward wild-
life, the extent of supplementary feeding, shelter, and water available,
and the identity of birds and mammals most frequently observed. The
surveyor used a prepared questionnaire and interviewed the head of

household or a resident adult (age 18 years or older).

RESULTS

Birds

 

Ninety three trap days were recorded for cardinals and blue jays,
for a combined capture frequency of 22.58 percent. Thirteen cardinals
were captured and marked during the study (Table 1). The cardinal
breeding density was 5.03 pairs per 100 acres (prs; /100 acres). The
mean home range for this species was 3.6 acres, with a variance of
.96 to 7.27 acres. Eight home ranges were found in the study area;
five in the urban residential section, taro in the shrub section, and
one in the woodlot (Figure 7). Six ranges contained at least one
active bird feeder.

Three hundred and forty nine measurements were made of cardinal
positions in the vegetative and non-vegetative strata of the four
habitat types. The cardinal activity heights over the entire area
varied from 0 to 60 ft., with a mean of 12.63 ft. Ninety percent of
the height measurements were within a range of 0 to 25 ft. (designated
the high activity stratum). The mean activity heights for the four
habitat types were compared using the Student-Neuman-Keuls (SNK) test
for means of unequal sample size. The least significant range (ISR)
value was l$.61 (at .05). The LSR is that range within which there is
no significant difference between the compared means. The observed
range of cardinal heights in the four habitat types was h.h8 ft., or

within the ISR value.

19

20

 

 

Table 1. Cardinal trapping data.
Identification Relative Capture Home Range
Number Sex Age Location Status In Acres
1 male adult woodlot resident 2.h2
2 male adult UR transient
3 female adult UR transient
A male adult sub- resident 7.27
division
5 male adult woodlot transient
6 female adult sub- transient
division
7 male adult UR resident .96
8 male adult UR resident 2.13
9 male adult UR resident 2.06
10 male adult woodlot resident 6.81
11 male adult 'woodlot transient
12 male adult UR resident h.0
13 male adult UR resident 3. 1h

 

21

Cardinals

 

legend

Urban residential ‘.Iulldlngs
Subdivision _ Main roads
shrub

B field 6 Temporary stream

 

Secondary PM!"

  

‘93}1‘5: Woodlot o "0'"
X Feeders

figure 7. Cardinal home ranges in the study area.

22

The crown volume within the high activity stratum was compared
for the three habitat types containing cardinal ranges. The volume
figures were: urban residential, 122,123 cu.ft./acre; woodlot,
593,056 cu.ft./acre; and, shrub, 729,6h0 cu.ft./acre. The urban
residential area had.the lowest total volume and the highest number
of cardinal ranges (five).

8 Seven cardinal nests were located, and these varied in height
from 5 to 9 feet (nearest foot), with a mean of 6.86 feet. The average
height of vegetation containing a nest was 10.29 ft. The total leafy
volume between 5 and 10 feet was then compared for the three nesting
sections. The urban residential section.had 10,560 ou.ft./acre, the
woodlot had 35,920 cu.ft./acre, and the shrub section had the highest
volume, 108,083 cu.ft./acre. The urban residential section.again.had
the lowest total volume with the greatest number of nests. No nests
were found in the subdivision. The overall crown volume in the sub-
division was low, 63,182 cu.ft./acre, approximately 28 percent (l7,h75
cu.ft./acre) of which was in the nesting range.

Eleven'blue jays were captured and.marked during the study
(Table 2). The blue jay breeding density was 2.5 pr./100 acres. Four
home ranges were located in the study area, and they varied from 8.h0
to 26.0 acres, with a mean of 15.9. The largest blue jay range con-
tained three active feeders, another held two, and the remaining two
home ranges had one each (Figure 8).

Two hundred and forty three measurements were made of blue jay
positions in natural and non-natural habitats. These heights ranged
from 0 to 70 ft., with a mean of 2l.h8 ft. Approximately 80 percent
of the measurements were within a 10 to #0 ft. range (high activity

stratum). All of the blue jay home ranges overlapped several habitat

23

 

 

Table 2. Blue jay trapping data.
Identification Relative Capture Home Range
Number Sex Age Location Status In.Acres
1 male adult UR resident 8.h0
2 female adult UR resident
3 male adult woodlot resident
A female adult woodlot resident
5 male juvenile UR resident
6 male adult UR resident 26.0
7 female adult UR resident 10.0
8 female adult sub- resident
division
9 male adult UR resident
10 N/D* juvenile sub- resident 19.2
division
11 N/D juvenile sub- resident
division

 

* Sex not determined.

a

Slue Jays

 

Legend

Urban residential A.Iulldlngs
Subdivision

1” 1' Shrub

 

 

Secondary reads
B field % Temporary stream

*fii “hodht o N0"!

 

x Feeders
Figure S. III” lay home ranges In the study area.

25

types; therefore, it was not possible to compare leafy volume between
the sections. The mean.heights of blue jay activity, however, were
compared for the three habitats utilized. The shrub area was deleted
due to insufficient data. The same SNK test, previously described,
was applied, and a LSR value of 7.5M ft. determined at the .05 level.
The observed range was 15.02 ft. indicating a significant difference.
The source of variance was determined by systematically deleting a
habitat type from the comparison. The subdivision contained the
greatest deviation from the observed high activity stratum, Figures
for artificial perches (such as, fences, roofs, telephone wires, TV
antennae, etc.) were deleted from the data, and a new LSR value of
9.62 ft. calculated. The observed range was 7.h ft. indicating no
significant difference between the mean.heights of blue jay activity
for the three habitat types.

Four blue jay nests were located during the study; three were in
the urban residential section, and one was in the woodlot. .All nests
were in deciduous trees, the mean height of which was #2 ft. The mean
nesting height was 31+.33 ft. with a range of 27 to Al ft. The leafy
volume between 27 and 1+2 ft. was compared for the two habitat types
containing nests. The urban residential section.had 10h,l76 cu.ft./

acre, and the woodlot had a much greater volume of 790,353 cu.ft./acre.

Mammals

Nine raccoons were captured and marked during the study period;
four juvenile males, two juvenile females, two adult females, and one
adult male (Table 3). Six animals were captured in the woodlot, two

in the shrub section, and one in the urban residential section. There

26

 

 

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27

were no captures recorded in the subdivision, despite 156 trap nights
in that area. Four hundred and seventy-eight trap nights were recorded
during the study, with a capture frequency of approximately 1.9 percent.
Five raccoons were equipped with transmitters to monitor movements and
estimate home ranges (Table 3). Two animals left the study area during
the first two nights of tracking. Both were juveniles, who may not
have been residents. Raccoon number three was dropped because of radio
interference caused by citizen's band radios and power lines within

its range. Two raccoons did provide sufficient data to plot their
home range. Raccoon number 5, an adult female, had a home range of
approximately 26 acres (Figure 9). The nightly activity pattern began
by exiting a den between 30 and 150 mimltes after sunset. Three dens
were located for this animal, two in the woodlot and one adjacent to

a dry creek bed approximately 150 yards south of the woodlot (Figure 9).
One of the woodlot dens was located in a dead basswood tree; the other
was in an abandoned groundhog den. After departing its den, raccoon
five frequently foraged entirely within the woodlot. On one occasion
this animal was detected behind the dwellings along the western border
of the woodlot apparently foraging in the garbage cans. Raccoon five
frequently used an exposed limb of an apple tree as a den site. This
tree was located adjacent to a dry creek bed south of the woodlot.
There were feeding signs beneath the tree, and this animal probably
used this tree as a foraging site and a den. Raccoon five was always
at her daytime resting site 30 minutes prior to sunrise. The earliest
denning occurred 90 minutes before sunrise. The center of activity
for this raccoon was the woodlot where approximately 86 percent of its

radio fixes were located. Most of the movement within the woodlot

28

  
  
  
 
  
 

EEZEEzi IZZIIiIIIIZIT"” EI'3 53 Raccoons
Hi2 ................... :'~ 3* No

333333: :12: 22:1. 5—-—-
323.2222; o—-
: :22. :2: 9 _-..__

Urban

‘ . Buildings

- Main roads

 

Secondary roads
% Temporary stream

0 Nest

 

Figure 9. lascoen home ranges in the study area.

29

appeared to be at random or similar to the meandering foraging pattern
described by Stuewer (l9h3) as typical of Michigan raccoons.

Raccoon number six was a yearling female with a total home range
of approximately 21 acres. This animal denned in three different
sections; woodlot, shrub, and UR. Two dens were located in.the woodlot,
one in an abandoned groundhog den, and the other in the same basswood
tree used.by raccoon five. A ground den was also located in the shrub
section, and the final den site was in the attic of a garage along
MortonvieW'Avenue in the UR section (Figure 9). Ninety-eight percent
of the radio fixes for this animal were located in the woodlot and the
UR sections. Fifty-four percent were in the woodlot which was used
exclusively as a denning area. There were no meandering, foraging
patterns displayed by raccoon six while in the woodlot. .A typical
nights activity began.by exiting the den 110 to 130 minutes after
sunset. Raccoon 6 then.moved directly to her feeding sites behind
the house along the western side of MortonvieW'Avenue. It’s nightly
activity terminated as early as ho and as late as 10 minutes before
sunrise. This animal never used the same den on successive nights.

If it denned in the woodlot the previous day, it's next den would be
either in.the shrub or UR sections.

A total of 39A trap days were recorded for fox squirrels in this
study. Ten squirrels were caught and marked for a capture frequency
of 2.5M percent (Table A). All captures occurred in the urban
residential section. The shrub section.had 76 trap days and the sub-
division had 158 trap days without a capture. Trapping in the woodlot
was halted due to tampering and frequent theft of traps. Six fox

squirrels were equipped with radio transmitters, and five of these

30

Table A. Trapping and radio telemetry data collected for fox squirrels.

 

 

Identi-
fication Relative Number Tracking Home Range Days
Number Sex Age of Fixes Period In.Acres Tracked
5 female juvenile 28 9/5 to 9/20 .8 7
6 male juvenile 32 9/7 to 9/22 2.5 7
9 female adult 77 10/5 to lo/2u 7.89 13
10 male adult 3h 10/7 to 10/18 2.61 8
3 female juvenile 38 9/13 to 9/27 1.85 7
1 male juvenile
2 male juvenile
A female adult
7 male juvenile
8 female juvenile

 

31
provided sufficient data to plot their’home ranges and activity patterns
(Figure 10). The largest home range was recorded for squirrel number
nine, an adult female with a home range of 7.89 acres. The smallest
home range belonged to a juvenile female (.8 acres). The mean size
of all squirrel home ranges was 3.13 acres. The means of nesting
heights, dbh's of nest trees, and total heights of trees selected as
nest locations were compared between the urban residential and woodlot
sections. No significant differenct (SNK 1, .05) was discovered for
any of the nesting parameters.

Squirrels in the urban residential section frequently used non-
natural cavity dens. One burrowed beneath a chimney grate to enter
and nest (Figure 11). Another chewed through the eaves of a second
floor attic and denned in the space between.the roof and ceiling
(Figure 12). .A resident reported three squirrels entering the
exhaust ductwork of his gas furnace and making their way into his
basement to den in the storage shelves. Tree cavities in.the urban
residential section were uncommon. 0f the five squirrels tracked,
only two made regular use of tree cavity dens. .A survey of the urban
residential section revealed that there were just four trees with
cavities that appeared suitable for squirrel dens.

Fox squirrel activity was plotted to determine peak activity
jperiods. Squirrels in this study were most active at noon and 3:00 p.m.
(Figure 13). They were least active between 8:00 and 9:00 a.m., and
between 6:00 and 7:00 p.m. Their activity began as early as 68 minutes
and as late as 3&5 minutes after sunrise. The mean time for peak of

activity was 165 minutes after sunrise.

32

 
  
  
 
 
 
 

Fox Squirrels
Na.
3 _ . _ .
5 [flirt]!!!
6 _ ._ —
9 _

'0 alone.

 

Urban residential ‘.Iulldings
Subdivlslon _ Main roads

 

 

Figure 10. Fox squirrel home ranges In the study area.

Secondary roads

vv Temporary stream

33

 

 

Figure 11. Chimney squirrel den located in the urban residential section.

 

 

 

Figure 12. Squirrel den located in the cave of a building in the
urban residential section.

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35

Vegetation

 

The woodlot was a second-growth stand of all aged deciduous trees
consisting primarily of water tolerant species. Historical records
for this section are unclear, but the area was logged over, probably
within the past 55 to 70 years. The total leafy volume of woody species
was 2,252,155 cu. ft./acre. This section had the broadest distribution
of leafy volume of any habitat type studied (Figure 1h). No single 5
foot stratum'between 0 and 85 ft. contained more than 12 percent of
the volume. The woodlot was a mixed age stand consisting of 1h deciduous

species (Table 5). Sycamore (Plantanus occidentalis), silver maple

 

(Acer saccharinum), red oak (Quercus rubra), and white ash (Fraxinus

 

 

americana) made up approximately 68 percent of the leafy volume (Table
5). There were no coniferous species present. The trees in.this
section were mature and relatively dense as indicated.by the basal
area, 90.87 sq.ft./acre. Many contained squirrel nests and two had
cavities large enough to accomodate a raccoon. Forty-two trees had at
least one leaf nest, not all of which appeared to be active. Six

trees had cavities, detectable from.the ground, which appeared suitable
for a squirrel nest. Thirteen different woodlot species contained

some type of squirrel nest, leaf or cavity (Table 6). White ash was
most frequently utilized with 21.3% percent of the total nests occurring
in this species. Table 6 summarizes nest and den utilization by fox
squirrels in the woodlot. The mean dob for all trees was 17.83 inches.
The mean tree height was 62.56 ft., and the mean height to leaf nests
and cavity dens was 32.51 and 33.h ft., respectively. White ash, ‘
basswood, and silver maple had the highest frequency of overstory

species in the ten sample plots (Table 5). Approximately ho percent

36

 

 

 

Height
in
feet
0 IO 20 30 40
Percent of total volume
Subdivision - - - - “ Woodlot ——
Shrub - - — - -— - Urban residential ‘ °" ‘ " “

Figure 14. Height aleributlon of vegetative volume by percent

37

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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39

of the squirrel nests were located in this group, which may indicate
that fox squirrels were taking advantage of the most available tree
species. Sycamore had the greatest volume, 20 percent of the total,
yet sycamore did not contain a squirrel nest. The frequency for
sycamore was 20 percent, indicating a narrow dispersal range. The
absence of nests in this species may be the result of selection against
sycamore by fax squirrels in this study. Six nests (lh.29 percent)
were located in cottonwood which was totally absent from.the sample
plots. These trees were clumped in the southeastern portion of the
woodlot, and it may be that squirrels in.this section selected for
cottonwood or utilized this species because of its high frequency in
this particular area.

Less than.6.h percent of the woodlot volume occurred.between.0
and 15 ft. (Figure 1h), versus 16 percent in the urban residential,
37.3 percent in the subdivision, and 37.7'percent in the shrub section.
This low figure may'be typical of woods undergoing seasonal flooding
but is probably augmented.by the amount of damage resulting from.human
activity.

The urban residential section (UR) had a total leafy volume of
279,589 cu. ft./acre, 5005 cu. ft./acre of which was coniferous.
Buildings in this section occupied h3,229 cu. ft./acre or a ratio of
crown to building volume of 6.h7:l. The vegetation varied to 95 ft.
in.height and was well distributed with no five foot stratum comprising
.more than 1h percent of the volume (Figure 1h). This section had 28
tree species. Silver maple was the domdnant, and accounted for approxi-
mately 36 percent of the total volume.

There were a number of ornamental and fruit species present, and

these made Up for much of the vegetative diversity (Table 7). Pear

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(Ry;u§_spp.), white birch (Betula papyrifera), blue spruce (Picea
menziesii), mock orange (Philadelphus coronarius), and juniper

(Juniperus communis) were the most common. This section had a number

 

of mature trees, but these were scattered, as indicated by the basal
area, 19.39 sq. ft./acre. Nineteen.trees had at least one fox squirrel
nest (Table 8). There were four tree cavities, detectable from the
ground, that appeared suitable for a fox squirrel den. None of the
trees in this section had cavities large enough to accomodate a raccoon.
(Several raccoons, however, were reported using garages and out-buildings
as den sites. One raccoon, number six, was frequently radio tracked to
a garage den in the southern portion of the UR section). Silver maple,
ash-leaf maple, and chinese elm were the trees most frequently utilized
by fox squirrels for leaf nests. Approximately 78 percent of the tree
nests/dens were located in these three species. As stated, silver
maple was the dominant species in the UR section. Since the sample
plots varied with the size of the individual lot (.3 to 3.2 acres),
it is not possible to compare the frequency of tree species. Silver
maple, however, was well distributed over the UR section. Fax squirrels
were prbbably utilizing the most available nesting habitat rather than
selecting for silver maple, ash-leaf maple and chinese elm.were not
well distributed, but clumped in two separate areas. The apparent
nesting preference for these two species may be a reflection of the
high availability, resulting from clumping, or selection on the part
of fox squirrels. The sample size in.both the woodlot and UR sections,
however, was too small to statistically evaluate nest site preference.
The UR section.had a large area of vegetable gardens, approximately

7003 sq. ft./acre. Thirty-eight percent of the UR residents annually

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planted vegetables on some portion of their lot. All gardens were
non-commercial and consisted of common varieties of household.produce.
The shrub section was in an early succession stage, as evidenced
by the basal area, 3h.h9 sq. ft./acre. The vegetative diversity was
low, with a total of five tree species (Table 9). The dominant species
was hawthorne (Crategus sp.) with 33.h2 percent of the total volume.

Slippery elm.(Ulmus rubra) had 30.20 percent, and ash-leaf maple

 

25.89 percent of the leafy volume (Table 9). The vegetation was clumped
between 10 and 25 ft. with approximately 70 percent of the volume
occurring at this range (Figure 1h). The total decisuous volume was
877,211 cu. ft./acre, and there were no coniferous species present.
Two squirrel leaf nests were observed in the shrub section. One was
found in a hawthorne, and the other in a cottonwood tree. Both nests
appeared to be in use (squirrel number five was radio tracked on two
occasions to the cottonwood leaf nest). No tree cavities suitable for
either mammal species were detected from the ground. Raccoon number
five, however, was radio tracked on two occasions to a ground.burrow
in this section. Approximately 93 percent of the crown volume was
30 ft. or less in height. This fact, as well as the low frequency of
mast species (Table 9) probably precluded any significant fox squirrel
densities. The mean.height and dbh of all trees in the sample was
27.63 ft. and h.0 inches, respectively.

The subdivision had a total crown.volume of 59,h89 cu. ft./acre,
3012 cu. ft. of Which was coniferous. The volume of structures in this
section was 90,2hl cu. ft./acre, for a ratio of .63 cu. ft. of crown
per cu. ft. of building. The vegetation varied to 65 ft. in height,

but the majority (approximately 6h percent) was clumped between 10 to

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30 ft. (Figure 1h). There were a total of lh tree species in this
section, with a combined basal area of 8.33 sq. ft./acre. Silver maple,
and weeping willow were the dominant species, with approximately 36 and
2h percent, respectively, of the leafy volume (Table 10). Ornamental
and fruit species accounted for much of the plant diversity in this
section. Apple trees, however, were the only species, other than those
previously mentioned, which represented a significant percentage of the
total volume. There were no mast species present, and no squirrel
dens or nests were observed. Fox squirrel number ten did frequent the
area to take sunflower seeds from a bird feeder. There were also no
trees present with cavities suitable for raccoons.

Approximately 27 percent of the residents had vegetable gardens.
The average size was 726 sq. ft., and the total area of garden per acre

of subdivision was 998 sq. ft.

Questionnaire

 

In any survey, such as this, the data analyzed are only as accurate
as the information received from those people interviewed. The data
are presented as absolute values but should be considered as approxima-
tions.

Seventy-six percent of those interviewed in the study area enjoyed
having wildlife on their property. Sixteen percent were indifferent,
and four percent disliked all forms of wildlife. The majority of home-
owners (88 percent) frequently to occasionally observed animals around
their residences, and 72 percent regularly made food available to
wildlife at some time during the year. Food.was distributed in all

seasons, with the greatest volume of feeding during the winter months.

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h8

The type of food varied from table scraps, bread crumbs, and dried corn
to commercial bird seed. Forty-five percent of those feeding wildlife
used seed distributed from feeders. Two thirds of this group fed 50
pounds (lbs.) or less per year; 22 percent fed 51 to 100 lbs.; and the
remainder annually distributed more than 100 lbs. of commercial bird
seed. These figures extrapolated over the total study area population
indicate that approximately two tons of commercial seed is available
to wildlife in a given year. Additional food was also available in
the numerous vegetable gardens in the area. Approximately 6.35 percent
of the total land space was annually planted to gardens. The largest
were in the urban residential section where the area per acre was 7005
square feet (sq. ft.). All of the gardens were non-commercial, and
contained a wide variety of produce. The subdivision had a much lower
area of garden (998 sq. ft. per acre), obviously reflecting the smaller
amount of available land. Approximately 26.7 percent of this group
planted vegetables, versus 37.5 percent in the urban residential section.

Twenty four percent of those interviewed had bird baths, and twenty
eight percent had.bird houses on their property. The highest percentage
of bird.houses and'bird.baths were found in the urban.residential section.
Neither of the species studied used bird houses, nor did they nest under
artificial cover of any type (eaves, ledges, etc.). Both species,
however, were frequently seen at bird baths, artificial ponds, wading
and swimming pools where they took.water.

The density of household pets in the combined UR subdivision
sections was; dogs, 1 per 3.6 acres, and cats, 1 per 5.33 acres. The
dogs in the study area were not permitted to roam freely, all were

either chained, kept in enclosures, or under supervision while being

h9

exercised. All dog owners interviewed had fences around some part of
their property where they kept their pets. Most of these enclosures
were back yard property line structures where pets remained for long
periods unrestrained. All of the cats in the area, however, were
frequently permitted to roam freely. This density of potential wildlife
predators may have been a factor in.habitat selection for some of the
study species.

There was a combined residential total of 1.20 children.(under 15
years) per household. The UR section.was low with .61 children.per
household, and many of the homes in this section were occupied by retired
or semi-retired persons. Approximately #5 percent of the UR section
were 50 years or older. None of the subdivision residents interviewed
were 50 years or older. The child density in this section was 1.83
per household, or three times that of the UR section. The density of
children.may be a factor in.habitat selection and mortality of some
'wildlife species. Children.were Observed in the woodlot with a variety
of weapons; rifles, shotguns, B.B. guns, and air rifles. There was
also evidence of vegetative damage from bark stripping, trampling, and
ground fires. The total estimated human density for this area was 3.56
per acre, considerably lower than that in the tract housing surrounding

the study area.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Birds
Cardinal

The cardinal density in this study (5.03 prs./lOO acres) was
similar to that found by Graber and Graber (1963) in their survey of
urban areas in Illinois. Dow (1968} found "wild" Ontario populations
of .h8 prs./100 acres. He stated that Elmira, Ontario is peripheral
to the cardinal's geographic range, and therefore, should contain low
densities, due to limited occupancy of the habitat. This appears to
be the case in my study. Four cardinal home ranges abutted, but no
intra-specific territorial interactions were observed. Laskey (l9hh)
describes the cardinal as a "nonrpugnacious defender of its territory",
but the total absence of territorial defense suggests a population well
below the carrying capacity.

Cardinal home ranges in this study were significantly smaller than
that raported for wild populations. This condensation may have been
caused.by the large amounts of available food. The mean size of home
ranges in.my study was 3.05 acres versus h6.h8 acres reported by Dow
(1968). Hilden (1965) correlated pair density of birds with the quantity
of food available in the environment. Cardinals in this study had food
available from the many feeders in the area. More than two tons of
commercial bird seed was annually placed out for wildlife (see questionnaire

results). Approximately 7h percent of all cardinal home ranges contained

50

51

an active feeder. Supplementary food'was also available from vegetable
gardens and fruit trees, which were common in the residential sections.

Many of the cardinals in.my study appeared to expand their home
ranges to include an active feeder. The mean distance from nest sites
to feeders, in those home ranges containing a feeder, was 766 ft.

Using this figure as the radius of a circle, a mean home range of 10.57
acres would be predicted, or slightly more than.three times that actually
observed. A pair of cardinals whose nest was located in the woodlot
traveled a linear distance of approximately 1100 ft. to a feeder in the
subdividion. A female, nesting in the UR section, utilized this same
feeder although her mate never left their normal home range. Feeders,
therefore, appear to play a significant role in habitat selection and
utilization.by cardinals in this study.

Nesting heights in this study did not vary significantly from
those reported for wild.populations by Laskey (l9hh), Taylor (1965),
and Dow (1969). The mean height for seven nests in this study was
6.86 ft. (SD 1.35 ft.). The crown volume between 5 and 10 ft. was
compared for the four habitat types studied. The subdivision did not
contain a nest, and had a nesting stratum volume of 5,806 cu. ft./acre
between 5 and 10 ft. The UR section had five nests and a leafy volume
of 10,560 cu. f‘t./acre. The shrub and woodlot sections had one nest
apiece, with a volume of 108,083 cu. ft./acre and 35,920 cu. ft./acre,
respectively. The broad range of crown volume at the nesting stratum,
in those areas containing a nest (10,560 to 108,063 cu. ft./acre),
indicates that there is no correlation between total leafy volume at
the nesting heights and nest site selection. The absence of cardinal

nests in the subdivision is probably due to a combination of factors.

52

Burr and Jones (1968) have correlated.human activity with an increase
in nesting heights and a reduction in density of shrub nesting species.
The intensity of human activity, frequent pruning of vegetation, and
the low crown volume were probably factors in the absence of nests
in.the subdivision.

There was no significant difference between the mean activity
heights for cardinals in the four habitat types studied (SNK .05).
Cardinals confined their activities to the same vertical stratum
despite the fluctuation in vegetative volume and human density. Total
leafy volume for the four habitat types varied from 6h,62h cu. ft./acre
in the subdivision to 2,251+,2h7 cu. ft. /acre in the woodlot, yet
cardinals frequented all four habitat types. Cardinals in.my study,
therefore, appeared plastic in'both nesting and habitat requirements,

but fairly rigid in their utilization of the vertical.height stratum.

Blue Jay
The blue jay density in this study (2.5 prs./1OO acres) was lower

than that reported by Graber and Graber (1963) in their summer study of
three Illinois urban areas. Their report did not include a detailed
description of the study areas, and it may be that they worked in a
more uniform.habitat than described in.this study; The urban.environ-
ment is a mixture of habitat types particularly when applied to larger,
mObile species, such as blue jays and raccoons, whose ranges generally
encompass a large area. Urban.popu1ation estimates, therefore, may be
misleading in that they include habitat types not preferred or even
devoid of individuals of a given species. The Grabers also stated that
Illinois jay densities have increased in urban areas between 1909 and

1957, and decreased in previously preferred forest habitat over the same

53

period. They stated that the ecology of the blue jay is apparently
changing, but the cause as yet is not apparent. Kendeigh (AFN, 13)
found a steady increase in jay density as Dutch Elm disease opened the
interior of a forest. Certain urban areas may offer the type of open
canopy apparently preferred by blue jays. Woolfender and Rohwer (1969)
found a density of 11h prs./lOO acres in a Florida plot. Their study
area was a woodlot completely surrounded.by subdivision, and it is
implied that jays made use of available food and cover from these
areas. This high Florida density and the trend toward increasing
urban jay populations indicates that this species can achieve high
densities in urban areas where requirements of food and cover are met.
Bird feeders in this study had the effect of altering blue jay
utilization of the vertical stratum. .All of the jay home ranges con-
tained at least one active feeder, and 76 percent of all jay activity
in the subdivision occurred at or around a feeder. The subdivision
mean activity height for jays was 17.0% ft., versus 2h.66 ft. in.the
UR section, and 32.06 ft. in the woodlot (shrub section data was omitted
due to insufficient sightings). The difference between the three means
was significant (SNK .05) at the 95 percent level. When.height data
at and around feeders was deleted from the comparison, there was no
significant difference in the mean activity heights for the three
habitat types surveyed. The fact that all blue jays home ranges con-
tained an active feeder, and that an alteration in vertical height
utilization occurred as a result of the presence of feeders indicates
that feeders play a significant role in habitat selection and utilization
by jays in this study.

Blue jay's nests in my study were higher than those reported for

wild populations. Taylor (1965) found the majority of Louisiana jays

5h

nesting between 7 and 15 ft. Bent (19h0) describes 20 ft. as the height
most frequently utilized by nesting jays. The lowest nest in this

study was 27 ft., with a range to #1 ft. and a mean of 3h.33 ft. The
same factors of human activity and.management (Burr and Jones, 1968)
affecting cardinals may have also influenced the nesting heights of
jays. For example, the lowest jay nest in this study (27. ft.) was
found in the woodlot where there was no management and comparatively
little human traffic. The higher nests were located in the UR section,
and none were found in the subdivision where human traffic and manage-

ment were most intense.

Mammals

Raccoon

Urban raccoon.populations apparently achieve much higher densities
than wild.populations. The number of captures and recaptures in the
study was too low to estimate the population, but if we use the nine
raccoons marked as the total, the density would be one per 17.67 acres.
This figure is much higher than the l per approximately'hh acres reported
by Stuewer (19MB) as typical of wild Michigan raccoon populations.
Schinner and Cauley (197R) raported monthly densities as high as l.per
2 acres for Cincinnati raccoons. One reason for these high densities
may be the abundance of food in.urban areas. In the Cincinnait study,
all ten of the raccoons radio tracked.used garbage as their primary
food source. Both animals in this study also depended on garbage
as an important source of their food.

Raccoons in this study arrived earlier and departed later from

their overnight dens than those raported in the literature. Berner

55

and Gysel (1967) reported Michigan raccoons denning in a farm woodlot
as departing dens shortly after sunset, and returning shortly before
sunrise. Raccoons in this study departed overnight dens an average

62 minutes after sunset and re-denned an average 31 minutes before
sunrise. Cincinnati raccoons (Schinner and Cauley, 197M) also departed
dens much later and returned earlier than those reported by Berner and
Gysel (1967). Food availability is probably a factor in the shorter
foraging period of urban raccoons. Human traffic may also influence
raccoon activity by restricting movement until lulls occur.

Both raccoons in this study had significantly smaller home ranges
(21 and 26 acres) than those reported.by Stuewer (l9h3). Stuewer
correlated home range size with age, and found means of 503 acres for
adult males, 268 acres for adult females, 260 acres for juvenile males,
and 111 acres for juvenile females. Stuewer's estimates were also much
higher than those observed in Cincinnati (Schinner and Cauley, l97h).
Raccoons home ranges in Cincinnati varied from .5 to 50 acres, with a
mean of 20.6 acres. The compression of raccoon home ranges in urban
acres is probably due, in part, to the large quantity of food available
in the form of refuse.

Four of the five raccoons in this study used ground burrows for
either escape cover or overnight denning sites. Utilization of this
type den is prObably due to the apparent lack of suitable tree cavities
large enough for a raccoon, and one of these, a dead.basswood, was
frequently used by both raccoons five and six. There were no trees
'with suitable cavities in any of the other sections studied. Dead
limbs of trees in the UR section and subdivision were removed so that

cavities could not be formed. Trees in the woodlot and shrub section

56

did not receive this type of care, but generally had dbh's too small

to accomodate a raccoon den. Several residents had raccoons denning

in their attics and garages. Raccoon six was radio tracked to the attic
of a garage in the UR section three separate nights. The lack of natural
den sites probably results in raccoons denning in buildings and ground
burrows, and may be a factor in the low population density observed in

this study versus the Cincinnati research.

Squirrels

The density of fox squirrels in.this study, one per 11.36 acres,
is lower than.that reported by Allen (19h3) for either late winter or
fall populations in Michigan. My estimate, however, was based on the
total acerage of the study area. The shrub and subdivision sections
supported very little squirrel activity. One fox squirrel did.have a
nest in the shrub section along the border abutting the UR section.

This animal was radio tracked for seven days, however, and was never
tracked to the interior of the shrub section. The fox squirrel activity
in the subdivision section was confined to the western fringe, where a
single squirrel took sunflower seed at a bird feeder. The number of

fox squirrels per acre of woody cover in this study, therefore, approaches
the one per 5 to 6 acres described.by Allen (l9h3) as typical of late
‘winter Michigan.populations.

The mean size of fox squirrel home ranges in.this study (3.13
acres) was smaller than any reported in.the literature. .Allen (l9h3)
found the minimum seasonal fox squirrel range in Michigan woodlots to
be 10 acres. Donohoe and Real (1972) found Ohio fox squirrels to have

the following mean home ranges: adult males, h0.7; adult females, 7.2;

57

and juvenile males, 10.5 acres. The largest home range in my study was
that of an adult female, 7.89 acres. The next largest home range of
3.16 acres was recorded for a juvenile male. The apparent compression
of fox squirrel home ranges in my study was probably influenced by the
limited habitat available. Only two sections had a canopy of mature,
deciduous trees, UR and the woodlot. All of the fox squirrels captures
occurred in.the UR section, and those squirrels affixed with transmitters
confined 95 percent of their activities to this section. Food appeared
to be abundant and this too may have been a factor in the smaller
squirrel home ranges observed in this study.

There was no significant difference (SNK .05) between the UR section
and the woodlot for any of the nesting parameters, dbh, height to cavity
or den, and total height of trees containing a cavity or den (Figure 15).
This occurred despite the broad variation in the total leafy volume and
density of cover between these two sections. The above data for dbh's
was combined and compared with that found for wild Ohio squirrels by
Donohoe and Real (1972). There was no significant difference (SNK .05)
between these two studies for the dbh's of trees selected for nests or
dens. My study squirrels, however, did appear to nest higher in the
canopy than those reported in the literature. The UR and'woodlot
sections had a mean nesting height of 35th ft. 3: 11.39 and 37.68 ft. :
12.2, respectively. These heights are approximately 19 percent greater
than those reported by Allen (198) and Montgomery (19h1). The same
factors of human activity and management reported.by Burr and JOnes (1968)
as causing an increase in nesting heights and densities of shrub species
may also be influencing the heights of squirrel nests in this study.

Fox squirrels in my study were radio tracked to chimneys, garage

and home attics, and two were even detected in a basement. This frequent

58

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59

use of non-natural den sites is an apparent effort to overcome the lack
of tree cavities. The constant pruning of limbs and removal of dead

and dying trees in the residential areas causes a scarcity of these
cavities. Brown.and Yeager (19h5) have stated that the absence or

lack of suitable tree cavities may be a factor in.reducing fox squirrel
numbers. One obvious management practice for urban squirrels, therefore,
would be the installation of nest boxes to increase squirrel numbers

and reduce nuisance denning.

Fox squirrels in this study had shorter activity periods and later
onset of activity than those reported.by Don0h0e and.Bea1 (1972). My
squirrels had two activity peaks; one occurred between 11:00 a.m, and
l:Oij.m., and the other between 3:00 and h:OO p.m. (Figure 13). These
animals were most active after 10:00 a.m. and remained fairly active
until approximately 5:00 p.ms Two peaks of inactivity also occurred:
one between 7:00 and 10:00 a.m. and the other between 5:00 and 8:00 p.m.
(Figure 13). The inactivity peaks appeared to coincide with increased
human traffic. Don0hoe and Beal (1972) reported their squirrels (fox
and gray) as most active between 8:00 and 11:00 a.m., and least active
between 11:00 a.m. and 1:00 p.m. They found another smaller peak
occurred at 2:00 p.m., and most activity ceased.by 5:00 p.m. The later
onset of activity and reduced total hours of activity observed in my
study may also be influenced by the abundance of food. Mast species
made up approximately 27 percent of the woodlot's and 15.25 percent
of the UR section's vegetative volume. Other trees providing squirrel
foods, such as white ash, basswood, crabapple, sycamore, slippery elm,
osage orange, and cherry were also present in both the UR and woodlot

sections (Martin, Zim, and Nelson, 1961). Food was also available from

bird feeders, handouts, and vegetable gardens in the UR section.

60

None of the study species nested or denned in the subdivision where
the effects of urbanization were most pronounced (Table 11). .All of the
species but the raccoon, however, were observed in this section. The
raccoon was reported to have been in the area prior to construction of
townhouses which now abutt the eastern border of the subdivision
(Figure 2 ). The study species visiting the subdivision were invariably
drawn by food. The bird.species were particularly influenced by the
presence of feeder stations. One management technique for urban.birds,
therefore, may be the use of feeder stations in conjunction with nesting
habitat. Further research will have to be conducted to determine the
attractability, food preferences, and distribution of feeder stations.
Fox squirrels appear to be the most habitat specific, of the feur species
studied. They appear to have a strong dependence upon.mature deciduous
trees for both cover and food. This is a definite liability, when
considering management, since the construction of habitat in.urban
areas would be costly, and require a great deal of time. One squirrel
in.my study did frequent a feeder station, and several denned in non-
natural cavities, indicating a potential for limited.management in
areas of pre-existing mature deciduous habitat. The evidence in this
study is too limited to discuss raccoon management. My data, however,
combined with that of the Cincinnati research indicates a strong adapta-
bility by this species to urban.habitats. Several residents expressed
a strong dislike of raccoons denning in.their out-buildings. Two
residents also complained of damage to garden crops by raccoons. The
questionnaire, however, revealed that just one species, the skunk, was
considered a pest by more than 25 percent of those interviewed. As

stated, the majority of the residents enjoyed having wildlife on their

61

Table 11. Space utilization in the feur habitat types.

 

 

Urban Sub-
Woodlot Shrub Residential division

Vegetative crown volume 2251+2h7 877211 279589 61621;
in out ft./acre
Coniferous volume in O 0 5005 3272
cu. ft./acre
Deciduous volume in 225mm 877211 27hh1+8 61352
cu. ft./acre
Area of lawn in o 0 27289 21195
sq. ft./acre
Area of vegetable O O 7003 998
gardens in sq. ft./acre
Building volume 0 O h3229 902h1
in cu. ft./acre
Area of pavement O O 2050 5789

in sq. ft./acre

 

62

property, and most regularly made food available. The advisability of
perpetuating or encouraging raccoons in the city is debatable since
their viewability is low. They also present a potential nuisance in
denning and foraging in garbage cans, and they are a potential reservoir
for canine distemper.

One possible key to the quality of urban.habitats may be the ratio
of vegetative to building volume. The subdivision section ratio was
less than 1:1 and held no nesting study species. In contrast, the UR
section's ratio was 6.5:1 and had good densities of all the species
in the study. Schinner (unpub. Ph.D. thesis) has stated that a ratio
of vegetation to building volume of less than 1:1 was a significant

factor in the reduction of bird.species diversity in the Detroit area.

PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH URBAN RESEARCH

Certain difficulties were encountered during this research of Which
future researchers should be aware. There is the obvious necessity of
obtaining permission from a large percentage of the residents to utilize
their property. This can.be difficult, since many will permit trespass
but will refuse to allow trapping, a situation which complicates random
placement of trap locations. Neighborhood children can also pose a
problem. For example, they quickly became familiar with my car and
followed me as I set out traps. Five mammal and one large bird trap
were stolen, despite the fact that all were chained and padlocked to
trees, fences, etc. I also discovered empty traps that had obviously
held an animal, and several more were sprung with the bait removed.

To minimize theft and tampering, I monitored the traps at a maximum

two hour interval, and picked up daily those traps not being used (i.e.,
raccoon traps during the day). The incidence of tampering and theft

was so high in the woodlot and portions of the shrub section that
squirrel trapping had to be discontinued in.these areas. I was able

to recover most of the lost traps by offering a reward. In.urban
research, it is essential to maintain the cooperation of the residents.
Urban researchers, therefore, will have to accept the increased efferts
involved. Any attempt to eliminate or reduce difficulties by involving
civil authorities or confronting residents regarding thefts and vandalism

'would surely result in loss of cooperation and interfere with the research.

63

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. N.D. The fox squirrel: Its life history and habits
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