MSU LIBRARIES .—;-—. RETURNING MATERIALS: P1ace in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. Z4: 7 Depa A STUDY OF THE ATTITUDES CONCERNING THE MODERN FOREIGN LANGUAGE REQUIREMENT IN LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES IN UPSTATE NEW YORK BY DAVID GLENN HAMILTON A DISSERTATION submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Higher Education 1984 ABSTRACT A STUDY OF THE ATTITUDES CONCERNING THE MODERN FOREIGN LANGUAGE REQUIREMENT IN LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES IN UPSTATE NEW YORK BY David G. Hamilton The researcher sought in this study to see if 1) there is iJuieed a trend to restore the foreign language degree re- quirement for undergraduates, 2) there is a difference of opinion concerning the foreign language requirement between foreign language professionals and some other group of aca- demdx: professionals in post-secondary institutions, 3) there is support for some of the traditional reasons given to de- fend such a modern language requirement, and 4) there might be a difference in what language skills and what languages would be emphasized in the future. Ti deans college T1 initic sion c langua pant a modern how mu attain It with a Th 1] 2) 5) This study's population was conposed of the academic deans and the language chairpersons of all the liberal arts colleges of upstate New York. The researcher using a guided interview sought a def- in ition of what these participants believed to be the mis- sion of the liberal arts college and the role of the modern languages within this liberal arts context. Each partici— pant was then asked whether he favored an institution-wide modern language requirement for the bachelor's degree and how much time would be required for the average student to attain a minimum proficiency in a foreign language. In addition a Modern Language Requirement Questionnaire with a Likert scale was administered to each participant. The major conclusions of this study were as follows: 1) Overall, there is not a large difference between the attitudes of the deans as a group and the language chairpersons in regard to the importance of the modern language instruction and its requirement in these liberal arts college. 2) The principal rationale for the inclusion of language instruction in the liberal arts cur- riculum closely matches the primary mission statements of liberal arts colleges in this pepulation. 3) There is strong support among these deans and languages chairpersons for a modern language requirement extending to include intermediate- level instruction. 4) French, German, and Spanish will remain the dominant languages taught in these liberal arts colleges for the foreseeable future. 5) Although there is a strong conviction that mod- ern languages will become more and more impor- tant for business interests, there is little 6) support for the notion that the primary pur- pose for language instruction should be of a pragmatic nature. There is wideSpread support in both groups in this population for the notion that there is a significant and measurable trend in American higher education to encourage, in general, re- quirements in the curriculum and the modern language requirement in particular. Reve Stri‘ Caro. Wife their DEDIC AT ION This dissertation is dedicated to my parents,the Reverend and Mrs. Glenn Hamilton, who early encouraged me to strive for excellence. It is also dedicated to my wife, Calnalee, and my children, Mark and Laura Beth, as well as my wife's parents, Dr. and Mrs. Ellwood Voller, because of their great support throughout this project. ii servec tion. Instit this 6 gratit who pa 5399 ad AC KNOWLE DG ME NT 8 I would like to acknowledge my friend Carole Rose who served as my typist through many drafts of this disserta- tion. She and her friends whom she "drafted“ from Rochester Institute of Technology were invaluable in the printing of this dissertation. I would also like to express my deep gratitude to my advisor and chairman, Dr. Eldon Nonnamaker, who patiently answered myriad questions and who offered such sage advice . iii II. III. Iv, II. III. IV. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page THE PROBIEM 000.00.00.000.0.0.0000...0.0.0.00... 1 Intrfiuction OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 1 Statemnt Of the Problem OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOIOO 7 Statement of Objectives ........................ 10 Population ..................................... 10 Technique ...................................... 11 The Interview .................................. 12 Analysis of Data ............................... 13 Overview ....................................... 15 Bibliography ........ ........................... 18 AREVIEWOF THE LITERATURE OOOOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOO 19 Bibliography OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 74 mTHODOLWY OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0.0.0....0.0.0.... 79 Introduction ................................... 79 The Population ................................. 80 The Research Interview ......................... 83 Methodology .................................... 86 Bibliography ................................... 88 ANAI‘YSIS OF RESULTS OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0.0.0... 89 Introduction ................................... 89 The Open-Ended Questions ....................... 92 The Questionnaire .............................. 124 The Pearson Correlation ........................ 133 Conclusion .................. .......... .... ..... 140 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 141 Introduction ................................... 141 The Guided Interview ........................... 144 The Modern Language Requirement Questionnaire .. 156 Conclusions of This Study ...................... 162 Limitations of This Study ...................... 166 iv APPEN; Ill l (H Recommendations for Further Research ........... 167 A Final Word ................................... 169 APPEND IX Data Sheet Modern Language Requirement Questionnaire Sample Letter H C) rf day mic: Rour ing fami an ic could canin belie' &.ist Michig for the nationa Commit,”E baccalaur. Illa M CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Introduction A mother mouse was taking her family for a walk one day. Sensing no imminent danger, she accompanied the tiny mice beyond the normal boundary for the family outings. Rounding a corner, the mice encountered a waiting cat. Know- ing that unless she thought quickly of a means of escape her family would be surely annihilated, the mother came up with an idea. Clearing her throat she, in the sternest voice she could muster, bellowed, "Wuff, Wuff". In the face of such canine sounds the startled cat fled. Turning to her dis- believing children the mother uttered, "See how important it is to know a second language.” (Chastain, p.3) Eddy, in a survey conducted by the University of Michigan Research Center in 1979, found wide public support for the President's Commission on Foreign Language and Inter- national Studies but did not find a correspondingly high commitment to requirement of foreign language study at the baccalaureate level. (Eddy, p.58) In a January, 1983, issue of The Chronicle of Higher Education the matter of whether or not a foreign language shoul of hi attac offer ment. ff‘l Unive langu his c facul one." is cu HaIVa recen in 19 Peten baCCa should be required for graduation from American institutions of higher education was again forcefully raised. The author attacked what he felt to be cliche’s often unreflectively offered for the importance of the foreign language require- ment. (Brewer, p.72) Some years ago in an education journal a dean at the University of Virginia was quoted concerning the foreign language as a degree requirement for undergraduates. It was his contention that "no other academic issue so polarizes a faculty or evokes so much irrational argument as does this one. " (Scully, p.1) If what Scully asserts is true, what is currently happening at the traditional trend-setters like Harvard and Yale might indeed stir such controversy. Harvard recently required that, beginning with the freshmen entering in 1982, all students must demonstrate foreign language com- petence in order to graduate from that institution. Yale's recent insistence on a two-year language requirement for the baccalaureate leaves only one Ivy League School which has not reinstated a foreign language requirement. The possibil- ity exists that a reversal of the trend that saw widespread abolishment of the foreign language requirement in the late 19608 and early 19703 might be about to occur. William Riley Parker, a major force in the mid— twentieth-century modern languages movement, held that it is often the nation's secondary schools that dictate the curric- ulum in America's colleges and universities. (Parker, p.131) There are others who insist that the high-school Curd proc schc give sion EVEn Commj trend wan C Move wide Years curriculum is established by a kind of "filtering down" process from the nation's institutions of higher education. Whether one holds with one theory or the other, there is no mistaking the stirrings within the nation's secondary school system in regard to requirements. The recent report given to Secretary of Education Bell by the National Commis- sion on Excellence in Education strongly urged a return to more requirements in American high schools. Foreign lan- guages were singled out for commentary. The report stated: ”For the college-bound, two years of foreign languages in high school are strongly recommended in addition to those taken earlier." (National Commission, p. 14) The report continues in the same vein: Achieving proficiency in a foreign language ordinarily requires four to six years of study and should therefore be started in the elementary grades. We believe it is desirable that students achieve such proficiency, be- cause study of a foreign language introduces students to non-English speaking cultures, heightens awareness and comprehension of one' s native tongue, and serves the nation's needs in commerce, diplomacy, defense, and ed- ucation. (National Commission, p.15) Even before the release of the report of the National Commission on Academic Excellence, educational leaders saw a trend to restore requirements. Dr. Edward Q. Moulton, chair- man of the Ohio Board of Regents, speaking of the pendulum movement asserted: “To succeed at reasonable levels on a wide range of programs, students really should have four years of English, three years of math, three years of social the vieu cal] Will Univ our Scho science, two Years of science, and two years of foreign lan- guage." (Kerezy, p.34) At this point it is difficult to assess what effect the National Commission's report of 1983 will have on the curric- ulum of the nation's secondary schools. It is even harder to assess what effects, if any, such a report will have on the nation's colleges and universities. Yet even a brief re- view of the literature does reveal that there are concurrent calls within the collegiate community for more requirements. William Graves, associate dean of general education at University of North Carolina reports: "We should tighten up our own requirements first to send a message to the high schools.” (Kerezy, p.38) It is ironic, say some, that such a movement is gaining momentum at a time when the vocational aspect of education is paramount and declining enrollments in post-secondary institutions ought supposedly to lead to less stringent requirements in order to attract students. Yet Gaff, director of curriculum development of the Associa— tion of American Colleges disagrees: "Students are not like a generation ago when they wanted more individual freedom and less structure. Now they look to colleges and universi- ties to tell them what is important for them to know and to be able to do." (Kerezy, p. 38) A review of the literature in regard to the modern lan— guage degree requirement for undergraduates at once reveals several concerns. For one, nearly all articles written in recent years in defense of the foreign language requ guag prof cles with requirements have been written by members of foreign lan— guage departments. The charge could be made that language professionals are often too defensive. Further, most arti- cles have been written as a reflection of personal opinion with little or no backing of careful research. At times, sweeping generalizations are based on what appear to be hunches, and at times arguments used to defend such modern language requirements border on the naive. Where in the last ten years research has been conducted concerning such a requirement, the results have been possi- bly skewed by relying too much on foreign language personnel to assess the situation. The Klayman studies are cases in point. (Klayman, 1975, p.173 and 1978, p.238) As the foreign language requirement, as well as other requirements, came under heavy attack in the late 19603, a host of articles appeared in the‘ professional journals and monographs both defending and opposing such projected curric- ular changes. The articles were often emotionally charged. (Some even characterized the situation as a cause for panic.) After much of the furor had died down, until just re- cently few articles appeared in professional journals con- cerning the modern foreign language as a requirement for the baccalaureate degree. Some interest in the matter was re- kindled when the Commission on Foreign Language and Inter- national Studies released its findings to President Carter in 1979. The report called for reinstatement of the modern lang such for such spot cons inte lanc nego some in I call lea) Succ quiz eflou the (Geh Huma in a the th language requirement in those colleges which had dropped such a requirement. Some held that the committee's concern for foreign language study, rather than being a call for such study in a traditional sense, was perhaps more a re- sponse to a hidden agenda. The latter might include such considerations as the serious slipping of American economic interests in international markets where the use of foreign language might become increasingly more important in trade negotiations. A. Bartlett Giamatti, Yale's outSpoken president whom some call the ”national spokesman for education,“ is adamant in his view that Yale's mission is ”not to make one techni- cally proficient, but to instill some sense of the love of learning for its own sake." (Geist, p.42) Regarding his successful campaign to reinstate the foreign language re-' quirement to Yale's curriculum Giamatti stresses: "It is not enough to offer a smorgasboard of courses. We must insure the students are not just eating at one end of the table." (Geist, p.56) In addition, Dr. John Crecine, dean of the College of Humanities and Social Studies at Carnegie-Mellon University in a recent interview in the New York Times takes to task the liberal arts programs of many of America's institutions of higher education. On one hand he warns that if the stu- dent does not receive enough exposure to the liberal arts, he may become a one-dimensional technocrat. Yet he insists, on the other hand, that the liberal arts curriculum have sec‘ den flas ed eig adds lisi eve] reg} Sucl Prcn area secure moorings within the pragmatic. To ‘him the ideal stu— dent should ‘have a portfolio of skills, not just a single flashy marketable skill such as offered by technically train- ed people. " In assessing the importance of learning a for- eign language in this search for a balanced curriculum he adds: A good grasp of a foreign language or two can also help as a job—getter, eSpecially French and German, because so many of the multi- national companies are European-based or have major operations in Europe. Other languages that can translate into corporate jobs in- clude Japanese and Spanish (Fowler, Section D, p.17) Others dismiss such contentions by asserting that Eng- lish is the lingua franca of international trade, and that even if the nation's colleges were to reinstitute the degree requirement in modern languages, students having pursued such a course of study would not necessarily have the needed proficiency for even minimum competency in the international arena. Statement of the Problem Although a review of the literature required a broad reading in regard to the undergraduate modern language requirement (for both entry and graduate), this study of necessity has a limited scope. The researcher has chosen the liberal arts college as the focus for the study. mode of t Har\ lang tior plor arts acti tance fine the not lang ment Traditionally, colleges patterned after the English model have had languages, if not as the core, near the core of their curriculum. To be sure, the model adopted by the Harvard of old stressed the ancient languages; the modern languages were not, strictly Speaking, a part of the tradi- tional liberal arts curriculum. This study sought to ex- plore the current rationale for languages within the liberal arts context. Further, the researcher saw the need to compare the re- actions of foreign language personnel regarding the impor- tance of the foreign language requirement with some other de- fined body representing a wide variety of disciplines within the academic community. Such a comparison might or might not show an over-defensive posture on the part of foreign language personnel regarding the modern language require- ment and the cluster of issues surrounding it. The need for a standardized procedure of inquiry was apparent. Thus, there seemed to be need for a study to see if 1) there is indeed a trend to restore the foreign language degree requirement for undergraduates, 2) there is a differ- ence of opinion concerning foreign language requirements between foreign language professionals and other profession- als in post-secondary institutions, 3) there is merit in some of the reasons offered to defend the modern foreign language requirement, and 4) if there might be a shift in the future away from the traditional concerns of language study and away from the traditional languages offered in the cur: reas give in d expl sake curr Fren comm not stud a cox exam; by a quite a hig tion Dart‘ curriculum. The researcher wanted to study some of these reasons (some might hold certain of these to be cliche/s) given for encouraging language study. Although one might assume that the terms used thus far in delimiting the scope of the problem are somewhat self- explanatory, the researcher has defined each briefly for the sake of clarity. By modern language he means a language currently spoken by some ethnic or cultural group. Although Funench, Spanish, and German have traditionally been the most ccnmnon languages studied in liberal arts colleges, they were ncH: necessarily the only modern languages envisioned in this study. By requirement is meant that the student must take a course or a sequence of courses (or possibly a placement examination) to satisfy certain minimum standards as defined by a given institution. One could also look at entrance re- cniirements (i.e. two years of study of a foreign language in a high school) as a part of this study, but such a considera- tion received only passing attention. Here, for the most part, requirement has meant baccalaureate degree require- ment. To be certain, various institutions could widely vary in their definition of a liberal arts college. By liberal _a_£t_§ this researcher meant to identify those colleges which claim prominently somewhere in their literature (mission statement, goals, institutional standards) to be a liberal arts college. Statement Sinc tory in x hypotheses 1) Tc Quirement 2) Tc 10 Statement of Objectives Since the study was descriptive and somewhat explora- tory in nature, it was best to state objectives rather than hypotheses. Some of the objectives of this study were: 1) To see the current status of the modern language re- quirement in selected liberal arts colleges. 2) To see if significant differences in attitudes toward foreign language study exist between modern language professionals and other academic professionals. 3) To compare the reactions of the participants to statements given as rationale for foreign language study (good mental exercise, good vocational preparation, broaden- ing experience). Population The academic deans and heads of language departments of a11.11pstate liberal arts colleges in western New York State, from and including Albany, New York, to the western border of New York State served as the population. This study was exploratory and descriptive in nature. By using a narrow pOpulation the researcher was not able to draw generaliza— tions to a wider population. Further studies using a sample of a larger population would need to be done at some future time popu] Techr not On 11 time, so that results could be generalized for a larger population. Technique Since the researcher was, in large measure, assessing attitudes, an attitude test was needed. A four-point Likert scale was used (ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree). The researcher using the review of the litera- ture formulated questions and subjected such questions to a pilot study. Included with the letter asking participation in the research was a form seeking both biographical and institu- tional data. In return the researcher received such informa- tion as the interviewee's academic background (i.e. under- graduate and graduate majors, date of degrees), present and past institutional foreign language course requirements as well as anticipated future course requirements. These data were sent back to the researcher along with the letter con- firming the time and place of the interview. Collection of these data prior to the interview saved time during the actual interview. Some of the data were used for further comparisons. Along with closed-ended questions, open-ended questions were used in a guided interview format. The researcher was not only interested in ”what is” but was also seeking clues as to "w. forty-five The This stu predictiv be necess to be real Fr) Merl Smit? 12 as to "why it is.” Each interview lasted approximately forty-five minutes to one hour and was tape recorded. The interview allowed for some in-depth questioning. This study was meant to be indicative but not necessarily predictive for another population. Further research would be necessary in a later study for such predictive qualities to be realized. The Interview Smith has referred to the interview as "a conversation with a purpose. " (Smith, p.199) Although a well designed questionnaire mailed to a carefully selected random sample can yield valuable data, the chances of receiving in-depth rationale for opinions stated are not very good on such a written instrument. Van Dalen holds that ”many people are more willing to communicate information verbally than in writing and, there- fore, will provide data more readily and fully in an inter- view than on a questionnaire." (Van Dalen, p.258) There is, of course, the possibility that the person interviewed may not indicate his true opinion on a certain question. Hopefully through multiple questions on a key concept and through some probing, the researcher sought to find some- thing close to true opinions. The the intex ate bias m Analysis 0 The 1 committe the best tion. Alt tion coul ized by i that the intervieh in SOUR Of HdV ir Searcher r. tated a H | “MilanC 13 The researcher had to be careful at all times during the interview to avoid loaded questions, since non-deliber- ate bias might ensue. Analysis of Data The researcher, in consultation with the members of his committee, gave considerable attention to the question of the best method for exploring the topic of this disserta- tion. Although a random sampling of a large national popula- tion could have yielded data that could have been general- ized by inference to such a broad population, the group felt that the data might be somewhat shallow and that the guided interview woud offer a better means of allowing some depth in some of the responses. Having decided to use the guided interview, the re- searcher realized that constraints of time and geography dic- tated a narrow population. As was previously indicated the population chosen for the study included all the liberal arts colleges in upstate New York. This exploratory study used descriptive rather than in- ferential statistics. As such, the study did not call for a null hypothesis and a corresponding alternative hypothesis and level of statistical significance. Nor was the size of the group studied so significant as would be the case where infe true view size that trend have towa arts the nigh chai of w) Prob was t many case Of re For i agree those a Stro Cent 0 ninety 14 inference was being considered. The data collected were true for the population studied to the extent that the inter- viewed expressed their true opinons on the questions. The size of the group was somewhat important to the extent that the answers of about forty respondents could indicate trends, where fewer than ten might not so easily. There were several independent variables that might have a bearing on the dependent variable (the attitudes toward the modern foreign language requirement at liberal arts colleges). The major comparison however was between the academic deans whose personal educational backgrounds might possibly represent a wide range of disciplines and chairpersons of foreign language departments (or departments of which foreign languages are a part). A statistician consulted indicated that the data would probably be linear and that the best method of correlation was the Pearson Product Moment. The mean and standard deviation were formulated for many responses where quantification was possible, as in the case of the Likert scale. It was believed that percentage of respondents in a given category might also prove useful. For instance, if ninety percent of all reSpondents were to agree strongly that a foreign language be required of all those pursuing a baccalaureate degree, that would represent a strong indication. If on the other hand only twenty per- cent of the deans agreed with such a requirement, whereas ninety percent of the chairpersons of foreign lanugage depa tell dat. end end cod the qui be' deg 15 departments called for such requirements, this fact would be telling concerning this given population. One of the difficulties of analysis was found in the data collected from open—ended questions. Where the closed- ended questions could at once be quantified, such was not the case with the open-ended questions or in the follow-up of some closed—ended questions. The answers to the open- ended questions were summarized and where possible were coded so that trends might be quantified. For instance, if the interviewee were to disagree strongly with a degree re- quirement of foreign language, a follow-up question might be; "What are your major reasons for objecting to such a degree requirement?" If a large majority of such inter- viewees were to indicate that one of their reasons for such a strongly negative response was that there simply was not enough space in the students' schedules for such course re- quirements, such a trend would be coded and reported. Overview Chapter one of this dissertation was an attempt to put the problem in context and to establish definitions and objectives. More Specific concerns are addressed in future chapters. Chapter two includes a background of how the modern foreign languages became a part of the curriculum of Amer- ican higher education. Considerable attention was given to hel lan ies erc rec. qui. the reg: 1960 tati The alsc in p Dece C01c Care Some eXPe the lEad‘ 16 t1) the historic battle between the ancient languages so long helrl as central in American higher education, and the modern languages (mostly French and German), which were for centur- ies considered inferior to the former in terms of mental ex- ercise. The review of the literature also includes more recent events having a bearing on the foreign language re- quirement such as the effects on foreign language study of the launching of Sputnik and the wideSpread abolishment of requirements partially as a result of student unrest in the 19603. Chapter three expatiates on the advantages and the limi- tations of using the guided interview in research design. The (molleges represented by their deans and chairpersons are also more specifically profiled. There is more elaboration in regard to the statistical tools to be used. Chapter four is an analysis of data gathered in October- December 1983. Careful attention has been given not to color the data to fit any projected outcomes. Although a be of little importance and hardly more than 'a substitute for minds incapable of mastering Hebrew, Chemistry, and Calculus." (watts, p.78) This was a time when the Yale Report was to reaffirm that the true role of the classical educational curriculum was for 'the discipline and furniture” of the mind. The student who has limited himself to French, Italian, and Spanish is very imper- fectly prepared to commence a course for either divinity of law. He knows less of the 08‘ be ids the der. is Var: UQr aCC all 34 literature of his own country than if he had been educated in the old method; the facul- ties of his mind have been brought into less vigorous exercise. (Yale Report p.38) Yet, like a prophet, Ticknor foresaw the founding of new colleges in which time-honored educational values would be openly challenged. Ticknor spoke of this when he said: Our high places of education may easily accom- odate themselves more wisely to the spirit and wants of the times in which we live. New institutions are springing up which in the flexibility of their youth will easily take the forms that are required of them, while the older establishments if they suffer them- selves to grow harder and harder in their ancient habits and systems will be only the first victims of the spirit of improvement. (Ticknor, p.45) Reference is made to the modern languages in the Pres- ident' 3 1828-1829 annual Harvard report, where one can read: “The principles that regulate the modern languages are these; no student is compelled to study any of them. A stu— dent choosing to study either is compelled to perservere. He is not permitted to quit the study until he has learned the languages. " (Fourth Annual Report of the President at Har- vard for 1828-1829 p. XXXIII) Fay suggests two major reasons for the failing of Tick- nor's reforms. First, he claims that the faculty, long- accustomed to a comfortable way of operating refused to allow changes (even though one could have demonstrated the 35 desirablility of such changes), because such changes threat- ened their academic "power." Further, many students who had grown intellectually lazy resisted reforms that would make themtrmore personally reSponsible for their academic endeavors. (Fay, p. 193) An (flyviously frustrated Ticknor was later to utter that "either the modern language was wrong or else the university was following the wrong path." (Fay, p. 200) With such a statement the battle lines had been drawn. The overseers at Harvard decided to remain firm in their position, and there seemed no other alternative for Ticknor but to leave Har- vard. Thus in 1835 Ticknor did leave, and Harvard was faced with the monumental task of replacing this modern language teacher who many felt was, more than any other single indi- vidual, the father of modern language instruction in Amer- ican higher education. In remarks made in 1825 Ticknor had referred to other new colleges that were springing up in America. One such in- stitution was Amherst, where Professor Jacob Abbot, who, like Ticknor, was a kind of I'voice crying in the wilderness“ devised a plan of parallel courses of instruction (the tradi- tional one and one which allowed for one based on reform). The Board of Trustees accepted his proposals stating: Ab pr of WI CC 36 In consequence of the demand which is at the present time made by a large portion of the public for the means of an elevated and lib- eral education without the necessity of devot- ing so much time to the study of the ancient languages, the trustees have authorized the establishment of two parallel courses of study, in one of which, Ancient and in the other Modern Languages and Literature receive particular attention. (watts, p. 76) Abbot's attempts to reform the time-honored curriculum proved short-lived, but from that time on French was a part of the Amherst curriculum. At Washington College (now Washington and Lee) students were permitted to substitute French for the Greek require- ment, but the president cast a dissenting vote when he claim- ed that "to substitute French for Greek was a mistake, not because French was generally of less practicality than the Greek, but... because the study of it does not so well exer- cise the mental faculties of a youth." (watts, p. 72) Thomas Jefferson, who from his youth had been a propon- ent of the modern languages, late in his life as the founder of Virginia, gave the German language a great boost when he contended: The German now stands in a line with that of the most learned nations in richness of condi- tion and advances in the sciences. It is too of common descent with the language of our own country, a branch of the same original Gothic stock, and furnishes valuable illustra- tions for us. (Zeydel, p. 291) f1 in in by )3 a 37 At Harvard the Smith Chair of Modern Languages vacated by Ticknor was filled in 1835 by the appointment of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, who had been appointed professor of modern languages at Bowdoin College at the age of nineteen. Like Tic knor he had spent three years in Europe in language preparation for his duties at Bowdoin. Writing to his father from Europe in 1827 he stated: "Do not believe what people tell you of learning the French language in six months and the Spanish in three.“ (Watts, p.73) One of his students wrote of Longfellow's teaching at Bowdoin: "He created an interest for the modern languages which has never since been equaled. He was a model teacher with a special fitness, both natural and acquired, for the department.” (watts, p.74) Longfellow, however, did not seem to have the acumen either for administering the department or defining its role in high places at Harvard. Although students enjoyed his lectures, the department lost ground at Harvard under his administration. In 1854, having found teaching "a dog's life, " he resigned his position at Harvard to devote himself fu'lltime to his creative writing. Longfellow was replaced in the Smith Chair by James Russell Lowell. (watts, p. 80) As Tic knor had foretold, the new colleges Springing up in what was then considered the western territory were be Di. 8mg; be ti '11 38 beginning to challenge the traditional curriculum based on the English model. The rise of the land-grant college with its penchant for the pragmatic did not do much to advance the cause of the modern language requirement directly; it did continue to hammer away at the ancients and their grip on the collegiate curriculum. Whereas the first half of the nineteenth century had clearly been dominated by the classical tradition with Latin and Greek as its core (as the Yale Report had claimed should continue to be the case), the end of the nineteenth century would witness the modern languages firmly in place as re- quirements (often at the expense of Latin and Greek). Several factors accounted for this shift away from the ancient languages late in the nineteenth century. As has been previously mentioned, the new land-grant and public uni- versity systems had an impact. Also to be considered was the entry of the empirical method into a central position in the collegiate arena. Perhaps most crucial was the Spirit of Lernfreiheit of the German university model and the generation of administrators in higher education who had been so shaped by it. Two statements made by President Barnard in the mid- nineteenth century reflect the somewhat rapid shift in emphasis that was to take place in American higher education P: the Str 39 after the Civil War. In 1855, as the President of the Uni- versity of Alabama, he made the following statement: “It is laest: to reject entirely from the regular course of study all subjects that are taught primarily for their practical value. " For Barnard, Greek and Latin should continue to be the keystones of the collegiate structure. (Barnard, p.9) However in 1866, now as President of Columbia University, Barnard shifted his position somewhat . He held that although the ancients might still be considered important, they had to release the tight grip which they had on educa- tion. (Barnard in Liedke, p.17) The dialogue between Porter of Yale and White, who was establishing the prototype for the new order at Cornell, heightened the contrast between those who felt that modern language should be pre-eminent and those who upheld the time-honored curriculum. Said Andrew White of Cornell: It is impossible to find a reason why a man should be made a Bachelor of Arts for good studies in Cicero and Tacitus and Thucydides and Sophocles which does not equally prove that he ought to have the same distinction for good studies in Montesquieu and Corneille, and Goethe, and Schiller, and Dante, and ShakeSpeare. (Letter to N.Y. Tribune, March 16, 1868) President Porter of Yale replied that he felt a knowledge of the ancient languages continued to be ”the most efficient in- strument of discipline." (Porter, p.69) dS 40 It is ironic that the man who was to launch the elec- tive system in American higher education (a system which many today hold responsible for the decline in modern lan— guage instruction) was to make a demand for the equality of the modern languages with the ancient ones. Charles Eliot, who stood as a giant because of his influence of American higher education served from 1869 until 1909 as the reform- minded president of Harvard. He was to bring to fruition many of the reforms dreamed about by men such as Ticknor at Harvard and Abbot at Amherst a half-century earlier. In a strong statement that came at nearly the same time as the formation of the Modern Language Association and of the Alliance francaise in France, he asserted: s The next subjects for which I claim a posi- tion of academic equality with Greek, Latin, and Mathematics are German and French. This claim rests not on the usefulness of these languages to couriers, tourists, commercial travelers, and not on their merits as lan- guages, but on the magnitude and worth of their literatures, and the unquestionable fact that facility in reading these languages is absolutely indiSpensible to a scholar what- ever may be his department of studies. I urge no utilitarian argument but rest the claim of French and German...to complete equally on the copiousness and merit of their literature and indispensibleness of the lan- guages to all scholars. (Eliot, p.101) His statement not only established the modern languages as worthy replacements for the requirement of the ancient la la In ed; 88*- 41 languages but also set the manner in which they should be studied and the goal for such a study. Gilbert in “French and German: a Comparative Study“ writes that the Modern Lan— guage Association founded in 1883 "adopted the methods and objectives of the classicists, emphasizing the discipline of the mind such study provides and stressing grammatical analy- sis and the translation of prestigious literature in a two- year course." (Gilbert, p.262) The battle over whether language study should be primarily for intrinsic or extrin- sic reasons would not break out until after World War I. The impact of Eliot's statement can be seen in the change in the number of accredited liberal arts colleges re- quiring modern languages for graduation. In 1884 only a scattering of such colleges required a modern language for the bachelor's degree. By 1896, fifty percent of these institutions had such a requirement. Even Yale required modern languages for graduation in 1885! In the year 1900, German was by far the most popular of the modern languages in American higher education. German had taken the preeminent position so long held by French largely due to the influence of the German university model. Institutions such as the Johns Hopkins University were mark- edly different in their educational philosophy from the more established American colleges. The Spanish language got 42 some attention because the United States acquired Spanish- speaking territories after the Spanish-American War, but was still, at the dawn of the twentieth century, a very minor influence in American higher education. Inna years preceding World War I saw a dramatic increase in modern language requirements in American liberal arts colleges. By 1910 nearly 70% required a modern language for graduation and by 1915, 85% had such a requirement.” (Zeydel, p.297) In addition, 89% of the nation's colleges required a modern language for entrance. (Parker, p.140) A chart of high school enrollment shows some trends from the period. According to Parker such figures reflect what was happening as well in post-secondary instruction in modern languages. *Year 43 Total H.S. %L. %M.L. %F. %G. %S. Enrollment 1890 202963 34.7 16.3 5.8 10.5 0.0 1895 350099 43.9 17.9 6.5 11.4 0.0 1900 519251 50.6 22.1 7.8 14.3 0.0 1905 679702 50.2 29.3 9.1 20.2 0.0 1910 915061 49.0 34.3 9.9 23.7 0.7 1915 1328984 37.3 35.9 8.8 24.4 2.7 (Parker, p.139) * %L. = % Latin, %M.L. = % Modern Language, %F. = % French, %G. = % German, and %S. = % Spanish. It is interesting to note that Latin enrollment con— tinued to increase in high schools until 1905. Between 1905 and 1910 Latin registered a slight decrease, but between 1910 and 1915 the decline was significant. The increase in German enrollment from 1890 until 1915 was most dramatic. Just prior to World War I nearly a quarter of all high school students were studying German. It is interesting to note that French enrollment actually dipped slightly between 1910 and 1915. Also it is noteworthy that Spanish for the first time registered significantly on enrollment studies. 44 Ehit as is so often the case, secondary factors (or what sociologists might call a hidden agenda) were about to play a significant role in the shaping of modern language study in the nation's institutions of secondary and postsecondary education. World War I was devastating to the cause of modern langauge study in general and the study of German in particular. Whereas 24.4% of American high school students had loeen pursuing a study of German in 1915, that percentage dropped to 0.6% by 1922. Parker explains, “Almost overnight Americans developed a hysterical distrust of all things German, hence by emotional logic, of most things foreign.“ Twenty-two states swept by the xenophobic tide passed laws that were I'hostile" to the teaching of modern languages. Though the Supreme Court declared them unconstitutional, but the damage had been done. (Parker, p.140) Year Total H.S. %L. %M.L. %F. %G. %S. Enrollment 1915 1328984 37.3 35.9 8.8 24.4 2.7 1922 2230000 27.5 27.4 15.5 0.6 11.3 (Gilbert, p.262,263) With the emergence of Spanish as a major foreign lan- guage, a new aspect of infighting amoung language teachers would begin. Until World War I there had been little 45 arguing that the major aim of foreign language instruction was to be gramatical analysis and literary criticism. Spanish, however, had not yet discovered its literary heri- tage, and thus set up as its primary function the teaching of communication skills which could be applied in its new market, Latin America. (Parker, p.139) Although World War I and its aftermath profoundly affected modern language study in American higher education in the years between the two World Wars, other factors were at work. It is important to take note of some of the factors affecting the educational climate at the turn of the century and into the early twentieth century. For instance, the Committee on Reorganization of Secondary Education met to assess educational objectives in light of the Eliot Report of 1893. The commission, chaired by Harvard's Eliot, found that the natural sciences and foreign languages had been held up ”to cultivate the habits of observation." The Reorganization Commission found the Eliot Report "elitist.” The Commission found ”most school children not capable of subject matter and intellectual skill.“ Elitism [an attri- bute of foreign languages, felt the Commission] became at once the enemy of democratically oriented education. (Mitchell, p.71) 46 The Cardinal Principles enunciated in the Commission's Report did not mention foreign languages. The attack on the traditional role of foreign languages is unmistakable: "It [high school] has so exclusively sought intellectual disci— pline that it has seldom treated literature, art, and music so as to evoke right emotional response and produce posi- tive enjoyment.” (Mitchell, p.83) Perhaps at this point it would be good to address the relationship between high school and colleges in regard to modern language instruction and requirements. Parker contends that college-entrance requirements are not so much affected by the wishes and desires of college faculties as they are by high school administrators and counselors heed- ing the advice of "professional educators." Says he: “Recognized or not, it is a fact that changes in secondary school education have influenced faculty views of what a college education ought to be." (Parker, p.131) Another report that had a profound influence on the direction of modern language instruction between the two World Wars was the Coleman Report of 1924, the findings of which indicated that the high school student could not learn much in a two-year foreign language sequence. Since the one skill that might be attained to some degree was reading; therefore, in the interests of time, reading skills should 47 be stressed at the expense of speaking and listening skills. The effects of such an emphasis would be acutely felt as the United States entered World War II. In addition, learning theory as developed by research- ers such as Thorndike became prevalent in the twentieth cen- tury and attacked the time-honored concept that language study was a worthy task for mental exercise and discipline. Thorndike, reporting in 1924, found that I'the investigations agree in disagreeing with the traditional doctrine that Latin, Algebra, and Geometry are the prime disciplinary sub- jects of the high school. The average for Latin (and French) and Algebra is lower than the values for physical science for persons of the same sex and initial ability." (Thorndike, p.98) In the same vein Bode in Conflicting Psychologies of Learning held that: The weight of evidence is all against the former disciplines of tradition. The experi- mental evidence is against the idea that the'powers' of the mind CAN be trained like muscles, so that the strengthening of these powers will automatically insure a high degree of efficiency in new and unrelated ma- terials. (Bode, p.44) Parker reports that, in a 1940 study entitled "Educa- tion for All American Youth”, it was found that "vicious” subjects like foreign languages were cruelly hurting the nation' 3 youngsters. If students were interested in taking 48 subjects like foreign languages, chemistry, and literature they should do it in their spare time as a "peripheral” con- cern. (Parker, p.89) For these reasons cited and others perhaps even unde- finab le, 1930-1950 marked a period of decline of the modern language requirement both for entry into the nation's lib- eral arts colleges as well as for graduation from them. Nicholas Murray Butler, president of Columbia University noted the trend with alarm when he wrote: It is astonishing that while the decades since the first World War have drawn us into even a closer communication with foreign peoples and put on us an ever increasing burden in world affairs, they have also been marked by a steady decline in the study of foreign languages. (Newark, p.v.) World War II found the United States woefully unpre- pared in the area of language competence. Many held that de- clining requirements in the nation's colleges and over- emphasis on reading skills contributed to a lack of recruits who could speak a foreign language. The government itself had to take over intensive language instruction with its Army Specialized Training Program. The excellent results of audio-lingual training used in the program would have a pro- found impact on language instruction techniques in the years following the war. There are those who would quickly add, however, that while the ASTP was quite efficient, its 49 trainees were immersed in a way not possible in a tradi- tional college classroom. The large blocks of time that ASTP devoted to learning a language just are not there for the professor facing a classroom of students for a term or two. Ironically, although World War II had once again illus- trated that cultural isolation was an impossibility, foreign language instruction continued to decline along with both re- quirements for college entry and graduation. Once ag ain ref- erence is made to high school enrollment figures as an indi- cator. Year Total H.S. %L. %M.L. %F. %G. %S. Enrollment 1922 2230000 27.5 27.4 15.5 .6 11.3 1928 3354473 22.0 25.2 14.0 1.8 9.4 1934 5620625 16.0 19.5 10.9 2.4 6.2 1949 4399452 7.8 13.7 4.7 .8 8.2 1954 6582300 6.9 14.2 5.6 .8 7.3 Note the precipitous decline for both French and Latin. Spanish, although showing lower enrollments did not have so pronounced a decline as that of Latin and French. From 1900-1949 Latin dropped from 50.6% of the high school 50 population and modern languages dropped from 35.9% of high school students in 1915 to 13.7% in 1949. Two statements made at Harvard during World War II bear mentioning. The first, made by James Bryant Conant in his 1943 Presidential Report, reflected how the clientele at the institutions of American higher education had changed, as had the rationale for the education received there. ”The primary concern of American education today is not the devel- opment of the appreciation of the'good life' in young gentle- men born to the purple. It is the infusion of the liberal humane tradition into our entire education system.” The Harvard Report of 1945 entitled "General Education in a Free Society" foresaw a role, albeit small, for foreign lan- guages. According to the report: "Indeed they [who learn a foreign language] are essential since any society for want of certain number of persons so educated, slips into insular- ity.” (Harvard Report, p.120) Although the launching of Sputnik in 1957 did, in re- verse, to foreign language study what World War I had done, it can be documented (using Parker's high school enrollment chart as an indicator) that a small increase for modern lan- guage could be seen prior to that eventful scientific accom- plishment. 51 Perhaps such an increase was in part affected by a dra- matic statement made by the United States Commissioner of Ed- ucation in 1952. Asserted Commissioner McGrath: For some years I unwisely took the position that foreign language did not constitute an indiSpensible element in a general education- al program. This position, I am happy to say, I have reversed. I have now seen the light, and I consider foreign languages a very important element in general educa- tion...JDnly through the ability to use another language even modestly can one really become conscious of the full meaning of being a member of another nationality or cultural group. It is in our national interest to give as many of our citizens as possible the opportunity to gain those cultural insights...Educators from the elementary school to the top levels of the university system ought to give immediate attention to this matter. (Parker, p.148,149) The National Defense Education Act of 1958 was most beneficial for modern language study in the United States. Once again using high school enrollment figures as an indica- tor one can catch a glimpse of dramatic increases. Year Total H.S . %L. %M.L. %F. %G. %S . Enrollment 1954 6582300 6.9 14.2 5.6 .8 7.3 1958 7897232 7.8 16.4 6.1 1.2 8.8 1959 8155573 7.9 19.1 7.4 1.5 9.8 1964 11056639 5.4 26.2 10.8 2.6 12.3 I; 52 Note the increase in one single year from 1958-1959. In that year there was nearly a three-percent increase in those enrolled in modern languages in high schools. Latin continued its decline by dropping from 7.9% in 1959 to 5.4% in 1964. Consider actual numbers enrolled in modern lan- guages in American colleges for the years 1960-1974 in graph form (given in thousands). 1000 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 1960 1963 1965 1968 1972 1974 Key: French German ______________ Spanish 00000000000... (Foreign Language Annals 1976: 90) 53 By 1965, 89% of the nation's colleges and universities required foreign language for graduation, though only 33% re- quired a foreign language for entrance. By 1974 only 55% had degree requirements and 19% entrance requirements. By 1981 only 8% required a foreign language for entrance. Also in 1974 only 18.4% of high school students were enrolled in a modern language as compared to 27.7% in 1968 (French 1968- 10.4%, 1974- 5.8%) (Foreign Language Annals 1977: 116) Almost as dramatic as the increase in the early 19603 was the decline in the 19708. What could possibly explain such a precipitous decline? Norma Klayman, who has done several studies on the modern language requirement in Ameri- can higher education, offers these words: The widespread abolishment of the foreign lan- guage requirement is attributable to a popu- lar trend which swept the riotous college cam- puses during the Vietnam War. En masse, at the same time, the nation endorsed the notion that everyone, particularly the student, could do his own thing even if it led to intellectual chaos and intellectual malnutri- tion. (Klayman, p.168) Girouard writing in "How America Got Its Foreign Lan- guage Gap“ asserts that "foreign languages were among the first victims of revamped curricula. They least of all were 'relevant' or 'meaningful' to the Feel Generation." Further he contends that a kind of hidden agenda was at work. Ad- ministrators foreseeing enrollment declines and in attempt 54 to make college more palatable allowed foreign languages to be the scapegoat. (Girouard, p187) Chastain in an article entitled "The Relevance of Re- quirements“ does not find foreign languages quite so singled out as does Girouard. Instead he found that permissiveness had led to a generation of students that "looks disdainfully upon anything required as distasteful, irrelevant, unneces- sary and destructive...” He continues: The students, of course, are not all romantic youmu; idealists blazing a path toward Utopia. Some are lazy opportunists who constantly seek out the path of least resistance and follow it passionately. To many students, elimination of the requirements makes things easier for them. If they can get away with it, who can blame them? (Chastain, p.373) Not since the great debates of the nineteenth century between the ancient and the modern languages has there been so much attention given to soul-searching within the modern language ranks. There are those that feel that the era immediately following NDEA made the modern language depart- ments fat and lazy. Troyanovich, reiterating what Conant had claimed in 1943, in an article entitled "Foreign Lan- guages and the Dodo Bird; A Lesson from Darwin" says that the genteel tradition serving as a cocoon around foreign lan- guage is gone, never to return. For him such a situation is healthy, if modern languages can adapt to the changes. (Troyanovich, p.342) 55 In the period from 1969 through the early 1970s the lit- erature is full of articles stating various reasons for the modern language requirement. Unfortunately for the sake of balanced research most of the data were gathered from people within the language profession. On one hand language teachers, more than any other sector of the academic commun- ity, know the issues to be raised in this matter, but the articles often take on the defensive tone of one who is de- fending his territory. However, there are those who point to the hostility which results when a requirement yields a captive audience. Wilga Rivers has collected a series of reactions of such “captives.” Following is a sampling of comments: Les Miserables got its title from all the lucky people taking 101. Many liked the course, but few liked having to take it. As a foreign language requirement this course contains all the necessary grammar and vocab- ulary, except for words of frustration, hos- tility, and anger. A good dictionary will fill in those educational gaps. (This course) ruins most students averages; it ruins their morale, it ruins their social life by staying in and studying so much: and it really ruins any desire that any would have to learn a foreign language. (Rivers, p.1) 56 Many argue that the good student seeing the long term need for a foreign language will seek out the opportunity voluntarily. Sammons in an article entitled "Our Problems Are Our Own" comes out against what he terms ”protective tariffs. " He asserts that if foreign language courses are well taught, and if foreign language departments clearly articulate the rationale for their courses, students will see the educational value and will take the course in ques- tion. Not so asserts Burgett, who insists that "the primary rationale for requiring any course is that students, though realizing the need for a course and often wanting to take that course, do not take the course anyway.“ (Burgett, p.23) Cyril Birch agrees but explains the need for a require- ment in a different manner. Says he: Obviously there aren't many of us, with the best will in the world, who can summon up the kind to determination that starts a diary on January 1 and keeps it up much beyond February 15. A requirement is an irksome but valuable substitute for a particular kind of will power. (Deeken, p.27) Several studies should be cited at this point concern- ing the foreign language requirement at the college level. In 1954 Politzer conducted a study at Harvard to measure student attitude toward the foreign language requirement. In a survey of students taking French and Spanish as 57 an institutional requirement he found that one-third to one- half of the students had no intrinsic interest in the lan- guage which they were studying. In addition they found a reading knowledge of the language studied was just as impor— tant as a Speaking knowledge. (Politzer, p.15) A study conducted at the University of Illinois in 1968 found that 50% "preferred a course oriented toward under- standing of grammar and reading comprehension,“ while 47% preferred ”a course oriented toward an aural/oral approach.” Moreover, the study found that 80% of those in a required language course felt they had to work harder in a foreign language course than in other course and found this differ- ence to be unfair. Sixty-one percent (61%) felt that the extra work required by a foreign language course prevented their pursuing other courses in which they had more inter- est. Eighty percent (80%) of the students surveyed dis- agreed that study of a foreign language was helpful in developing “discipline" or "better study habits." Seventy- six percent (76%) disapproved of a foreign language require- ment and 40% felt that such a requirement was detrimental. (Jakobovits, p.448) A survey of students taking a foreign language at Penn State in 1967 found that 81% were taking a foreign language 58 to fulfill a requirement. Forty-nine percent (49%) of the students claimed that they would have taken the course even if it were not required. Saviano conducted a survey of liberal arts college grad- uates to ascertain what they would change about their college careers if given the opportunity. Of all the courses they wished they had taken (with the benefit of hind- sight) by rank order the foreign languages were first. Saviano continues: "In their search for what was relevant they were permitted to take what they thought they wanted and avoid what they didn't want to take. It wasn't until their later years that they realized their mistake." (Saviano, p.13) Casten'ada, who feels the requirement presents more problems than benefits, offers a plausible reason for the resistance to foreign language courses. He claims that today's college professors were part of the captive audience of the past, and it is possible that they ”discourage stu- dent advisees from enrolling in foreign language courses, because such courses were the least happy, successful,and re- warding of their schooling.“ (Castefiada, p.46) William Riley Parker, author of the ”Language Curtain" as well as other important essays, once cemented, “Heaven help the academic subject that can and must be defended in 59 terms of being both a tool of practical value and also its contributions to the ideal of liberal arts!" (Parker, p.152) Such a struggle, however, exists between those who hold differing views as to whether. extrinsic or intrinsic value of language study should be paramount. Brod disagrees that there need be an inherent conflict between those who are heirs of the classical tradition and the ones who feel that one is to teach language as a voca— tional tool. (Brod, p.17) Perhaps, as Brod suggests, there need not be conflict, but the evidence is that such conflict (at times open hostility) often attends an airing of the opposing views. Numerous sources indicate that for foreign language teachers to campaign for language study as a primary voca- tional skill is to be dishonest. Yet there are those who will quickly add that, as an auxiliary skill, a foreign lan- guage quite effectively complements such degrees as market- ing, business management, and engineering. Several studies show that both the United States govern- ment and American business are frankly displeased with the products (even language majors) of American institutions of higher education. American business in general assigns low priority to language skills. Quite often businesses opt either for natives to carry on foreign language tasks or 60 give their employees a crash course in the foreign language involved. (Berryman, p.123) Weinstein in an article ”Foreign Language Majors: the Washington Perspective" sees several problems with the cur- rent attitude of United States business toward the import- ance of foreign language skills. He sees the United States slipping seriously in international trade. He offers the view that one of the reasons is the insistence on English as the lingua franca. He contrasts this attitude with that of many European and Asian businessmen who meet face to face without the services of the middleman (an interpreter). When a businessman does take a crash course, he usually ex- hibits a proficiency below that established by the State Department as minimal. Native Speakers are simply unacquainted often with technical terms. Arnett of Olympus Research Corporation indicates that the three major languages needed for international business and government are by rank order 1) Spanish 2)French and 3) German. He finds the attitude of business (i.e. that English must be the lingua franca) to be hurting severely United States interests abroad, and he lays the blame for barriers to the needed retooling squarely on the shoulders of the nation's foreign language departments which he describes as that "monolithic coalition of pre-supposed humanitarians who see themselves only in the light of being 61 true to the faith of liberal arts and the belles lettres." (Arnett, p.22,23) Yet there are those in the ”monolithic coalition,” as Arnett calls it, who feel just as strongly about their posi— tion. Assineau claims that teaching of foreign language must not be reduced to the level of "bilingual guides for hurried tourists. " He continues: "Our task is to form civilized and cultured young men and women, and not parrots who can repeat sentences....' (Assineau, p.684) Kimpton in an article entitled “What is French For?" seconds Assineau's position. Kimpton, who resents the mar— keting of modern languages in an age when language require- ments have been dropped in American higher education, holds that a doctrinaire insistence on French for every- one recapitu lates in the opposite tradition our previous error of French only for the elite. Is it not more reasonable to offer French for all those who are willing and able to master it? The world opened for such students should not be that of "the depart- ment store, the Parisian cafe, or the Eiffel Tower, but rather the world of Villon, of Baudelaire, of Valery and of the poets... (Kimpton, p.739) Thus the question is raised: should the modern lan- guage department be training clerks or classicists? Should such courses be required or not? The controversy continues. 62 Klayman in a recent survey of high school administra- tors, counselors, and foreign language teachers, sought opinions concerning the foreign language requirement for colleges. Following are the responses to several questions {Martaining to foreign language study. Of a total of 650 re- spondents chosen at random in Western New York State, 29% were administrators, 30% were guidance counselors, and 41% were foreign language teachers. Following are several sample questions: Question: What in your opinion constitutes the greatest cause for the decline of foreign language in recent years? --From a list of several choices, the most important one cited was the lowering of college entrance requirements. (83%) Question: Who in your opinion whould study foreign language in college? --All college students (20%) --Only those who want to study foreign lan- guage (25%) --At least all liberal arts students (54%) (A total of 74% felt that at least all lib- eral arts students should study a foreign lan— guage in college.) Question: Should a student who has had no foreigmxlanguage experience in high school be required to take a foreign language for a lib- eral arts degree in college? --Yes 75% --No 25% Question: Should the foreign language re- quirement be reinstated by colleges for some students? 63 --Yes 80% --No 20% Question: Could in your opinion the limita- tion of foreign language study only to those who elect to study them be detrimental ultimately to many capable students who might neglect to take a language and eventually to the national interest? --Yes 70% --No 30% Question: Do you feel that state and nation- al efforts to deter decline of foreign lan- guage study should be made? --Yes 86% —-No 14% (Although on face this study might be dismissed because of the preponderance of foreign language teachers involved, it shou ld be added that, with administrators and counselors separated out as a group, a clear majority of affirmative reSponses was still shown for each question.) ter century. In a follow-up study in 1978 Klayman chose fifty for- eign-language educators who in her opinion have done the most to shape foreign language instruction in the last quar- swers of these foreign language experts. Question: Should colleges reinstate the foreign language requirement? --Yes 93% —-No 7% (“captive audience", ”poor teach- ing milieu“) Following are several questions and the an- 64 Question: Were the reasons valid for drop- ping the requirement? --Yes 20% ("promised unattainable, unreal- istic goals", "profession guilty of poor per- formances') --No 74% ('capitulation tosnmdent demands”) Question: Is a sensible course of study possible to achieve in 4 years of high school or 4 semesters of college? --Yes 77% Question: Are you opposed to culture courses taught in English as substitutes mandated for- eign language study? --Yes 84% Question: Are you opposed to foreign lan- guage in translation to replace foreign lan- guage requirements? --Yes 80% Question: What should be the priorities of a foreign language department? (Answers by rank order) —1) Development of basic skills (Reading, Writing, Comprehension, Speaking) -2) Culture taught in context of foreign lan- guage -3) Literature taught in original language There are also numerous anecdotes to illustrate the hazards of poor translation. President Carter's embarrass- ment in Poland was not by any means the only example. Some faulty translation has even had devastating effects. Toward the end of World War II with the use of the atomic bomb pend— ing, the Japanese were offered surrender. Their answer was 65 'mukusatsu," which in Japanese means “withholding decision. " However it was translated in Washington as ”offer reject- ed. " On another occasion a French diplomat at the United Nations answered a resolution with the statement: "Je demande l 'aide." 'Demander" was translated as "to demand,” when in fact in French it means 'to request.“ Serious reper- cussions followed the misunderstanding. (Honig and Brod, p.8—10) John Foster Dulles seemed to be concerned about the possibility for such misunderstandings when he uttered a gen- eration ago: “Interpreters are no substitute. It is not possible to understand what is in the minds of other people without understanding their language, and without understand- ing their language it is impossible to be sure that they understand what is on 933 minds. " (Parker, p.101) In 1975 the Helsinki Accords included a provision "to encourage the foreign language and civilization as important means of expanding communication among people.“ (Perkins, p.11) The Commission on Foreign Language and International Study was thus established in April, 1978, with the realiza- tion that there had been a serious deterioration in this country's lan- guage and research capability at a time when an increasingly hazardous international mili- tary, political, and economic environment is making unprecedented demand on American re- sources, intellectual capacity, and public 66 sensitivity. Nothing less is at issue than the nation's security. (Perkins, p.11) As chairman, Perkins adds in his report to the President: The damage to America's competitive edge in international commerce and our repeated unpreparedness for events overseas that might have been anticipated, or met more effective- ly by extensive research, illustrate the risks...America's incompetence in foreign language is nothing short of scandalous. (Perkins, p.12) The report further chided Americans for taking the attitude that the whole world accept English as the lingua franca. The decline from 43% to 8% since 1966 in the number of colleges requiring foreign language for admission was viewed with alarm. It was also noted that in the United States there are 10,000 Japanese business representatives who speak English, whereas of the 900 American businessmen located in Japan few Speak Japanese. (Perkins, p.13) Mitchell picks up on this theme when he suggests: When we have finally reached something like our present condition, when the bad name of language study has provided that few college students can even speak English, never mind German, or French, and when businesses find that their memo writers can't understand each other, and when thousands of workers are driven out of jobs by foreign competition, then we discover that every Japanese salesman Speaks fluent English, and we wonder if that means something. (Mitchell, p.150) 67 The report to the President also found that ignorance of international matters accompanied foreign language incom- petence. It was found that 40% of 12th graders in the United States could not locate Egypt on a map, and 20% could not locate China or France. (Perkins, p.13) A brief summary of recommendations made by the President' s Commission would include: 1) Schools and colleges should reinstate the foreign language requirements. 2) Foreign language instruction should con- centrate on speaking and understanding before other language skills are developed. 3) Attention should be given to the lack of recognition on the part of colleges and uni- versities of effective language teaching with promotion and tenure linked to publication and other non-teaching activities'. 4) Attempts should be made to compensate for inattention to the less commonly taught lan- guages such as Japanese, Chinese, and Russian. (Perkins, p.14-l7) Parker suggests a rationalization frequently cited that hinders the kind of foreign language commitment called for in the Commission's report. Many Americans argue either that ”Everything of any importance is available in English“ or I'I 've forgotten all the French and German I ever learned, and I've gotten along all right." Parker adds, that 'blind men get along too, but the difference is that one can admire their triumph over handicap.” (Parker, p.121) 68 Mark Twain humorously pointed out in the nineteenth cen- tury a provincial attitude so prevalent in much of contempor- ary American society. The dialogue is between his charac- ters Huck and Jim: “Why Huck, doan'de French people talk di same way we does?“ "No, Jim; you couldn't understand a word they said — not a single word...” ”S'pose a man was to come to you and say Polly-voo—franzy. What would you think?“ "I wouldn't think nuffin; I'd take in bust him over the head." "Is a Frenchman a man?“ "Yes.” "Well, den! Dad blame it, why doan 'he talk like a man? You answer me dat!‘ "I see it warn't no use wasting words...So I quit.” (Chastain, p.13, 1976) Turner in a very insightful article entitled Wfiw' Johnny Doesn' t Want to Learn a Foreign Language” suggests that the main obstacle to Americans' learning of a foreign language is cultural. As pragmatists Americans just are not convinced that they will ever sufficiently need a foreign language to warrant their spending the time and effort learn- ing it. Turner further contends that if the foreign lan- guage teacher retreats from the extrinsic rationale to the intrinsic, that too is doomed to failure, because it doesn't mesh with the fabric that is the American character. (Turner, p.196) The ”melting pot" concept puts a premium on total 69 assimilation into the new culture. Haugen claims that in an important sense Americans are all descendants of immigrants. The word immigrant , though, has negative associations for most Americans, for it suggests "someone who is uproot- ed, homeless, displaced, near the bottom of the social ladder, an ignoramus; in short, someone who is raw material to become a future American." (Haugen, p.9) Turner suggests that Americans adopt a stance of super- iority to all that is not American. He uses a speech made by General Patton during World War II to illustrate his point: When we land, we will meet German, and Italian soliders whom it is our honor and privilege to attack and destroy. Many of you have in your veins German and Italian blood, but remember that these ancestors of yours so loved freedom that they gave up home and coun— try to cross the ocean in search of liberty. The ancestors of people we shall kill lacked the courage to make such a sacrifice and con- tinued as slaves. (Gorer, p.123) Gilbert in ”French and German: A Comparative Study“ claims that the extent to which assimilation of immigrants into the new culture in which they found themselves depended on certain sociological and political characteristics of the immigrants. For example the Germans settling in colonial America were for the most part “outcasts from the home coun- try, not colonial representatives of it." 70 Germany had no colonial design invested in this immigra- tion. On the other hand, Gilbert points out: French enjoyed a stronger position (in both Louisiana and Quebec) at least initially. French-speaking settlers arrived under the auSpices and protection of an official plan of French colonization designed to establish a New France in North America. The colonists were reliably Catholic and often deeply con- servative. (Gilbert, p.260, 261) Today in the state of Louisiana there are two official languages, French and English; moreover Quebec continues to fight assimilation into its dominantly Anglophone surroundings. There is no such German pattern in the North American continent. For all intents and purposes near total assimilation has occurred into the dominant English stratum. Recent articles in popular magazines, newspapers, as well as professional journals, regarding the importance of foreign language instruction in American higher education would indicate the pendulum that swung so far in one direc- tion in the late 19603 and early 19703 is swinging back in the opposite direction. The present preoccupation of college students with vocational pursuits as well as the tenor of the Presidential Commission on foreign language study would seem to indicate priorities distinctly different from those in an earlier traditional liberal arts framework. Harvard has just re-introduced foreign language compe- tence into its core curriculum effective with the class 71 entering in 1982. To what extent will other institutions follow Harvard's lead? Recent international conferences have: addressed the slipping prestige of the United States in the arena of international trade. What effects if any, will this have on the foreign language requirement? More time will be needed to assess the impact of these factors on for— eign language study. Parker offers some words of caution in regard to foreign languages in the liberal arts context. A given de- partment may agree that foreign language is of no value to it as a tool. Others may point to the pragmatic results of foreign language study. But Parker hastens to Show that ibotlllare missing the point of the requirement in the liberal arts context. Parker contends that 'the discussion must stay on the subject, which is the nature of liberal educa- tion, not the need or lack of need of any department for lan- guage as a tool.‘I (Parker, p. 120) Parker also cautions that liberal arts colleges must be very careful in allowing for formal alternatives to estab- lished institutional requirements. Of course formal alter- natives are possible where it can be shown that the substi- tution represents “closely similar experiences of equal value.“ (Parker, p.124) Parker would not hold computer lan- guage as such a similar experience. 72 Bundy agrees with Parker on this point: It is true that computer language is a means of communication; so are road signs, semaphores, and the Morse code. Bees dance; porpoises grunt, whistles, and squeal; dogs bark, growl, and wag their tails. All of these are languages of a sort, but when we talk about man's languages we are talking about something much more complex. (Bundy, p.46) Pincus adds that computer language "is not a foreign language nor is it a means of communication between people. It is a set of arbitrary symbols that turn switching gears in a computer.” (Pincus, p.21) Parker would concede that computer language or some similar alternative might indeed represent a means of commun- ication and learning, "but it does not teach that human beings in other cultures use sounds and symbols to express concepts which may find no real equivalents in English.“ (Parker, p.126) Although numerous studies Show that at least two years of college study are needed to achieve even the survival level 1 (PSI of the United States Department of State), Parker grants that, due to the many time demands placed upon the liberal arts curriculum (new courses, increased hours for the major), proponents of the foreign language require- ment may not be able to have all the time they feel they need to develop even minimum proficiency. But Parker adds 73 that "the briefest experience of breaking the barrier of a single language and a single culture may well seem the most liberalizing adventure that a liberal arts college can offer today. " (Parker, p. 129) Dr. James B. Conant disagreed. Said be: "A two year course...they might as well play basketball.” (Parker, p.9) To be certain, in the years ahead there will be con- fl icts both intradepartmental and interdepartmental, in the liberal arts college. However, language teachers and others involved in the debate would do well to observe Parker's admonition to "stick to the subject" in the airing of such differences of opinion. B IB LI OGRAPHY Arnett, M. Rex, ”Languages for the World of Work: Implications of a Recent Study”, paper presented at the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages, Washington, D.C., 1975. Assineau, Roger, "Language and Literature", quoted in Joyaux, Georges, "Foreign Languages and the Humanities“, Modern Language Journal, February, 1965, pp. 102-105. Barnard, F.A.P., Early Mental Training and Studies Best Fitted For it, quoted—in Liedke, Otto, “A- Historfial Review of the Controversy between the Ancient and the Modern Languages in American Higher Education”, in Newmark, Maxim, Twentieth Century Modern Language Teaching, New York: Philosophical Library, 1948. Barnard, F.A.P., Improvements Practicable in American Colleges, quoted in Liedke, Otto, "A Historical Review of the Controversy between the Ancient and the Modern Languages in American Higher Education“, in Newmark, Maxim, Twentieth Centugy Modern Language Teaching, New York: Philosophical Library, 1948. Berryman, Sue E. and others, Foreign Langgages and International Studies Specialists, the Marketplace and NatTonal Policy. Santa Monica: Rand Corporation for National Endowment for the Humanities, 1979, pp. 75-146. Bode, B.H. , Conflicting Psychologies of Learning. Boston: D.C. Heath and Company, 1929. Brod, Richard I., “Careers and the Foreign Language Department”, Bulletin of the Association of Depa;t__ments of Foreign Language, November, 1974, pp. 17-19. Brod, Richard I. , ”Survey of Foreign Language Entrance and Degree Requirements for Bachelor of Arts Degree in 0.8. Institutions of Higher Education”, presented for the Modern Language Association, Fall, 1974. 74 75 Brodsky, Patricia, quoted in Turner, Paul R., "Why Johnny Doesn' t Want to Learn a Foreign Language", Modern Language Journal, Volume 58, 1974, pp. 191-196. Bundy, Jean D., "What Do We Do with the Language Requirement", Bulletin of the Association of Departments of Foreign Language, September, 1971, p. 21. Burgett, Jim, ”Concerning the Foreign Language Requirement", Bulletin of the Association of Departments of Foreign Language, December, 1969, p. 23. Butterfield, L.H., Letters of Benjamin Rush. Princeton: University Press, 1951. Caput, Jean-Pol, La Langue francaise. Paris: Librairie La Rousse, 1972. Caste'fiada, James, “The Future of Foreign Language Study in American Colleges and Universities", Profession, 1978' pp. 43-48. Chastain, Kenneth, Developing Second Language Skills. Chicago: Rand, McNally College Publishing Company, 1976. Chastain, Kenneth, “The Relevance of Requirements", Intellect, March, 1974, pp. 373-374. Dalkor, John, "A Look at Student Attitudes and Opinions", Bulletin of the Association of Departments of Foreign Language, March, 1970, pp. 56-63. Deeken, Hans W., "The Foreign Language Requirement: A Collection of Comments for the AATG', 1969. Dickman, Adolphe J. , "The Foreign Language Requirement in the Liberal Arts College", Modern Language Journal, May, 1947, pp. 335-342. Eddy, Peter, ”Foreign Languages in the U.S.A.: A National Survey of Attitudes and Experiences", Modern Language Journal, Spring, 1980, pp. 58-63. Eliot, C.W., "What Is a Liberal Education“, quoted in Liedke, Otto, “A Historical Review of the Controversy between the Ancient and the Modern Languages in American Higher Education”, in Newmark, Maxim, Twentieth Century Modern Language Teaching, New York: Philosophical Library, 1948. 76 Fay, Bernard, ”La Langue frangaise 5 Harvard, 1636-1936", in Harvard et la France, Paris: La Revue d'Histoire moderne, 1936. Fornwalt, Russell J. and Herbert W. Rogers, Modern Language Journal, December, 1934, pp. 161-164. Gilbert, Glenn G. ”French and German: A Comparative Study“, Language in the U.S., edited by Charles A. Ferguson and Shirley Brice Heath, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981, pp. 257-271. Girouard, Richard L., "How American Got Its Foreign Language Gap”. Modern Language Journal, Summer, 1980 pp. 187-189. Gorer, Geoffry, The American People: A Study in National Character. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1948. Honig, Lucille and Richard I. Brod, Foreign Languages and Careers. 1974, pp. 5-30. Jakobovits, Leon A., ”Research Findings and Foreign Language Requirements in Colleges and Universities”, Foreign Language Annals, May, 1969, pp. 436-456. Jones, Howard Mumford, Ameryican and French Culture, in Watts, George B., "A History of the Teaching of French in America", The French Review, Volume XXXVII, Part II, 1963, pp. 14-15: 60-95. Kimpton, Jon R. "What Is French For?", The French Review, —_7 Volume XLVIII, no. 4, March, 1965, pp. 735-740. Klayman, Norma Enea, ”Views of Secondary School Educators on the Foreign Language Requirement in Higher Education", Modern Language Journal, April, 1975, pp. 168-173. Le Breton, Maurice, The French in Boston in the Eighteenth Century. Bordeaux: Cadoret, 1979. Liedke, Otto, "A Historical Review of the Controversy between the Ancient and Modern Languages in American Higher Education", in Newmark, Maxim, Twentieth Century Modern Language Teaching, New York: Philosophical Library, 1948. Mitchell, Richard, The Graves of Academe. Boston: Little, Brown, and Co., 1981. 77 Montgomery, Thomas, A History of the University of Pennsylvania 1749-1770. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1900, p. 368. Morison, Samuel Eliot, Three Centuries of Harvard: Newmark, Parker, Perkins, Pincus, 1636-1936. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1946. Maxim, Twentieth Century Modern Language Teach- i 9. New York: Philosophical Library, 1948. William Riley, The Language Curtain and Other Essays on American Education. New York: The Modern Language Association, 1966. James A., "A Report to the President from the Commission on Foreign Languages and International Studies", Modern Language Journal, Spring, 1980, pp. 7-57. Michael 8., Foreign Languages in the Service of the Liberal Arts", Bulletin of the Associathxlof Departments of Foreign Language, Volume 3, September, 1971, pp. 19-22. Piper, Esther F., Coordinator of the 3 M Language Society in a paper presented to the Minnesota Council of Foreign Language Teachers, October, 1975. PoliJzzer, RJL., ”Student Motivation and Interest in Porter, Sammons, Saviano, Spurlin, Elementary Language Courses”, Language Learning, Volume 5, 1953-1954, pp. 15-21. Noah, "The American College and the American Public", New England, January, 1869, pp. 66-114. .Jeffrey, ”Our Problems Are Our Own", Bulletin on the Association of Departments of Foreign Language, December, 1969, pp. 24-26. Eugene, "The Foreign Language Requirement,a1 Liberal Education, and You", Bulletin of the Association of Departments of Foreign Language, Volume 5, p. 13. Paul M., ”The Founding Fathers and the French Language", Modern Language Journal, March, 1976, pp. 85-93. 78 Thormulike, E.L., "Mental Discipline in High Schools Studies”, Journal of Educational Psychology, January-February, 1924, p. 98. Tsongas, Senator Paul E., "Foreign Languages and American Interests”, Foreign Language Annals, April, 1981, pp. 115-119. Troyanovich, John M., "Foreign Languages and the Dodo Bird: A Lesson from Darwin”, Foreign Language Annals, Volume 5,1972, pp. 341-344. Turner, Paul R., "Why Johnny Doesn't Want to Learn a Foreign Language", Modern Language Journal, Volume 58, 1974, pp. 191-196. Watts, George B., "A History of the Teaching of French in America", The French Review, Volume XXXVII, Part II, 1963, pp. 14-15; 60—95. Weinstein, Allen 1., ”Foreign Language Majors: The Washington Perspective”, May, 1975, pp. 18-27. Zeydel, Edwin H. , "The Teaching of German in the U.S. from Colonial Times to the Present”, ERIC Document 050645, pp. 286-297. , The American Magazine, May, 1788, p.374, as quoted fn Seybolt, Robert Francis, "Teaching of French in Colonial New York', Romantic Review, Volume 10, 1919, p. 376. , ”General Education in a Free Society", Harvard Report, 1945. , ”New Core Curriculum, Stiffer Requirements Approved at Harvard", Chronicles of Higher Education, Volume XVI, May 8, 1978, p. 12. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY Introduction A cartoon printed several years ago in a newSpaper show- ed a research analyst standing in front of a large bank of computer equipment. With an appropriately detached demeanor he was shown reading a print-out of a problem posed to the computer. However, his objectivity was betrayed by his wear- ing of a party hat and by his reSponse, ”Yippee!! This year's office party is l7.3167% more fun than last year's." (Dyer, p. 157) Although the example is amusing, there are at least two important points raised for the researcher. First, even a researcher can have difficulty in always maintaining his ob- jectivity. Secondly, where something has even the most re- mote possibility of being quantified, there is the tendency to do so. To be certain, where data lend themselves to quan- titative analysis, proper statistical analysis is to be sought. However some data need not be forced into such a highly precise statistical mode. To some extent, this study needed some correlations to allow comparisons where helpful, but much of the data from 79 80 the interviews, where quantitative analysis was appropriate, lent themselves to such techniques as percentages. Further, since the research was descriptive and exploratory in nature, most analysis was in the form of reporting of the candid answers to open-ended questions during the interview. The Population The population for this study included the twenty lib- eral arts colleges in upstate New York. (Keuka College was unable to participate, since due to some internal administra- tive changes, there was no dean at the time of the study, and there was no one at that particular college who felt he could represent the dean's office for the interview.) At each college the interviewer sought an interview witl: the top academic official at the college and the chair- person of the foreign language department or the chairperson of the department in which foreign languages were placed. Where the top academic official was unable to grant the interview, the reseacher interviewed the official's desig- nated representative (the latter was closely allied to the academic affairs office or foreign language department). Following is a list of the colleges that served as the popu— lation, the size of the college, its location, as well as the titles or positions of those interviewed. College/Location 1) Alfred University Alfred, NY 2) Colgate Hamilton, NY 3) Canisus College Buffalo, NY 4) D'Youville College Buffalo, NY 5) Daemen College Amherst, NY 6) Elmira College Elmira, NY 7) Hamilton College Clinton, NY 8) Hartwick Col lege Oneonta, NY 9) Hobart/wm Smith College Geneva, NY 10) Houghton College Houghton, NY 81 Interviewees Dean, College of Arts and Sciences; Chairman of Division of Humanities Dean of the College: Assistant Chairman of the Departme nt of Romance Languages and Literature Executive Vice-President for Academic Affairs; Chairman of the Department of Modern Languages Dean of Academic Affairs; Chairperson, Division of Humanities Vice President for Academic Afairs; Chairman of Department of Modern Languages Academic Dean; Chairman of the Humanities Division Dean of the College; Chair-Department of Romance Languages and Literature Vice-President and Dean of the College; Chair of the Department of Modern Languages Vice-President for Academic Affairs; Chairman of Department of Modern Languages Academic Dean; Chaierivision of Foreign Languages Enrollment 1937 1620 3300 1300 1100 950 1620 1380 1700 1225 82 ll) Ithaca College Dean-Humanities 4800 Ithaca, NY and Science; Chairperson Department of Modern Languages 12) LeMoyne College Academic Dean; 1928 Syracuse, NY Chairman—Foreign Language and Literatures l3) Nazareth College Assistant to the Provost; 1286 Rochester, NY Chairman-Foreign Language Department 14) Roberts Wesleyan Vice President for 672 College Academic Affairs; Rochester, NY Acting Chair-Division of Humanitites 15) Russell Sage Academic Dean; 1450 College Chairperson Modern Language Troy, NY Department 16) St. John Fisher Academic Dean; 1550 College Chair—Department of Modern Rochester, NY Languages 17) Siena College Dean of the Division 2600 Albany, NY of Humanities; Chair- Department of Foreign Languages 18) Skidmore College Provost; Chairperson 2100 Saratoga Springs, Department of Foreign NY Languages 19) Wells College Dean of the College; 500 Aurora, NY Chairman-Department of Modern Languages To be sure, there are several other colleges in upstate New York that were not included in the population. The cri- terion established for selection was that in its literature the college claim itself a liberal arts institution. 83 The Research Interview The interview method was chosen because the researcher wanted to probe further some of the reSponses from the par- ticipants in the study. Clearly some of the data could have been gathered by means of a questionnaire sent to a random sample, but many important responses might have thus been lost. Henry and Johnnie Smith speak to this point when they write: The chief advantage of the interview lies in the informal manner in which it is conducted and the possibilities it offers for drawing out of certain facts which could not be ob- tained in any other way. Bare facts are not always true facts- accompanying reactions to spoken facts often shade the meanings and even in some instances change them alto- gether. The interview is really an oral ques- tionnaire and many authorities believe it to be preferable to the written questionnaire for this reason. (Smith and Smith, p. 201, 202) Hyman further notes the advantages to be gained by use of the interview: A variety of gains results from the fact that the interviewer, while he might be a biasing agent, might conceivably be an insightful, helpful person. He might be able to amplify a given question, probe for clarification of an ambiguous answer, or elaboration of a cryp- tic report, or to persuade the respondent to answer a question that he would otherwise skip. As was mentioned in the first chapter, the interviewer must take all precautions to maintain objectivity so as not to contaminate the data, especially when he himself may have strong opinions on some of the questions posed. Further- more, Travers reminds us that “there are difficulties in 84 quantifying the data provided by the interview. Often the data are such that they do not lend themselves to quanti- fication. " (Travers, p. 230) However, Travers hastens to point out the advantages of the interview process including higher percentage of respondents and easier opportunity to explain the purpose of the interview. He adds: An interviewer can conduct an interview at a proper speed, while questionnaires are often filled in hurriedly. The writer can recall having to fill in a questionnaire late at night in order that it be available for collection the following morning. True, the questionnaire had lain around the house for two weeks, but somehow time had not been found to answer the questions. This kind of problem can be avoided when the interview is used. (Travers, p.233) The actual interviews for this study were conducted be- tween October and December, 1983. Letters explaining the purpose of the study were sent to each prospective inter- viewee. The letter stated that the researcher would be calling soon to make an appointment for the interview. The reception to the invitation to participate in the research project was excellent. In order to assure that the format for the guided inter- view was relatively free from ambiguity and to allow for fur- ther concerns to be uncovered during the response to open- ended questions, the researcher conducted three pilot inter- views in August of 1983. Two of the interviews were conduct- ed at liberal arts colleges in Michigan (outside of the popu- lation area). The dean and the department chairperson of 85 humanities (in which the foreign language discipline was found) of this college were interviewed. Their responses were candid, and both welcomed the opportunity to speak to many of the issues raised by the interviewer. One further interview was conducted in the pOpulation area. A former language chairperson at one of the colleges within the study area was asked to participate. During the cumirse of these interviews, the researcher was able to prac- tice his interviewing techniques as well as to clarify some of the questions asked. Such trial interviews gave more con- fidence to the interviewer in both his techniques and in the instrument used. Each interview, which lasted from forty-five minutes to an hour, was taped on a cassette. (One dean declined to be taped, and there were two tapes that were defective, so the interviews were not recorded.) In addition, the interviewer took written notes on each interview. The tapes served as a back-up in case of lost notes or as a context for ambiguous notations which several weeks or months after the interview might not remain vivid in the mind of the researcher. Before the interviewer started asking direct questions pertaining to the modern language requirement, he asked a few questions concerning what each interviewee felt to be the mission of the liberal arts college. This fine of questioning had at least three purposes. First, it continued to establish a rapport between interviewer and interviewee. 86 Second, liberal arts might mean different things to differ- ent people; it helped establish his definition of what a liberal arts college is. Generally such questioning helped the participant to begin to probe what he really believed. Third, the context was established for the main issue--the modern language requirement in the liberal arts college. With only a couple of exceptions, the interviewer was re- ceived warmly, and the interviewees seemed to be most anxious to answer the questions at hand. Methodology It was difficult to quantify much of the data collected from open-ended questions in the interviews. Where possi- ble, percentages were used to allow for some quantification of key indicators with each response. As much as possible, responses of the deans and the de- partme nt chairpersons have been analyzed separately to allow for contrasts and comparisons. At times the researcher con- cluded that the best way to represent in—depth responses was to select pertinent quotes that would give the reader a feel- ing for what the group (deans or department chairpersons) was giving as the rationale for majority .as well as minority positions on a given issue. However, it was considered valuable to include some des- criptive statistics to allow for some more precise 87 assessment of some of the issues surrounding the requirement of a mmdern language at a liberal arts college. Thus a ques— tionnaire with a Likert scale was devised. The researcher sought to measure with the questionnaire the attitudes toward certain rationale for requiring of the modern lan- guage. The scale ranged from 4 (Strong agreement) to a score of 1 (Strong disagreement). For each question the re- searcher tabulated the mean score and standard deviation. Alsca, to allow for further comparison between the two groups of respondents, a Pearson correlation was calculated. This method of correlation compared the responses taken as a whole for each group. The investigator was trying to deter- mine through such correlation techniques whether there was substantial agreement between foreign language personnel and another group. B IB LI OGRAPHY Dyer, Jean Royer, Understanding and Evaluating Education Research. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1979. Hymmui, Herbert H., Interviewing in Social Research. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1954. Smith, Henry Lester and Johnnie Rutland Smith, Ag Introduction to Research in Education. Bloomington: Educational Public, 1959. Travers, Robert M.W., An Iptroduction to Educational Research. New Yofk: The Macmillan Company, I964. 88 CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF RESULTS Introduction Although the population for this study had been chosen in the 1982-1983 academic year, some reports issued by the New York State Board of Regents made this particular popula- tion especially interesting for study. During the 1983-1984 academic year, the Board of Regents has been circulating a proposal calling for wideSpread changes in requirements for a Regents diploma from a high school in the state of New York. (Most high school students in New York anticipating pursuit of post—secondary studies earn the Regents diploma). For the first time in a couple of decades the Board of Re- gents has called for increased requirements in mathematics, science, and social studies as well as foreign languages 89 90 for receipt of such a diploma. If the proposal is promulgat- ed, New York will recommend a three-year requirement in a foreign-language sequence for the Regents diploma. Hearings on this recommendation followed closely another document circulated by the Board of Regents. In this document, dated July, 1983, entitled Education for a Global Perspective: A Plan for New York State, the New York State Education Department stated as its goal 'to develop among all students a knowledge and understanding of the cultures of this nation and the world and to provide more students with communication skills necessary to meet their personal and professional objectives in cultural settings and in languages other than their own." The Board of Regents then went on to Spell out what this would mean in terms of curricular reform: All students, preferably in the early elemen- tary years, but no later than by the time they complete grade nine, will acquire a basic proficiency in a language other than English, and secondary schools will provide sequential second language programs which are suited to the needs and abilities of all stu- dents; and furthermore, as a condition for re- ceiving a Regents high school diploma stu- dents must demonstrate thorough proficiency in speaking, listening, reading, and writing a language other than English at a pro- ficiency level at least that required current- ly for Regents foreign language credit (3-year sequence). However, the Regents Global Perspective Plan does not just stop with the potential Regents diploma graduate. It 91 goes on to insist that "the examination of basic functional proficiency in a language other than English may be taken at an earlier time but no later than the end of grade nine and must be passed for high school graduation." In addition, the plan requires that by 1994 all new per- sonnel certified to teach elementary school must be pro- ficient enough to teach a second language. One can well imagine the controversy that such a plan has caused in elementary and secondary educational systems of New York State. To cite once again William Riley Parker, it is often the nation's secondary schools that dictate what the curriculum in America's colleges and universities will be. (See chapter I.) Said one dean in this present study: "I believe that New York State is starting a trend that will be followed by California, Texas, Pennsylvania, Illinois and Michigan. And if these states move in the direction of requiring more foreign languages of their secondary students, so will the rest of the states, as will the colleges." Another chair- person of a foreign language department stated as an aside in his interview: ”This is a very timely study. It is so refreshing to be able to sit down and discuss this with a neutral observer in an atmoSphere not charged emotionally and politic ally.“ Further reactions to the Global Perspec- tive Plan will be included later in this chapter, but it was deemed necessary to preface analysis of the data by making 92 reference to such upheavals that might affect this popula- tion in regard to the modern languages required in the liberal arts college. The Open-Ended Qpestions Since the criticism has been raised in recent years that much data reported concerning the importance of foreign language in the post-secondary and secondary education have come from those within the foreign language discipline, it was decided that a group outside the foreign language pro- fession should also be interviewed. As such, this group would answer the same questions as foreign language per- sonnel, whose expertise concerning the role of foreign lan- guage in the curriculum is of utmost importance. However, there are those, as mentioned in chapter 1, that hold that to seek only the opinions of foreign language professionals concerning the modern language requirement for the baccalaur— eate degree would just add to a growing list of possibly biased reports. Thus, by interviewing the deans, who represent a wide range of disciplines, the researcher gathered the responses to the same question posed to both groups and sought a com- parison. As a result data from each group within the popu- latixnm (the 19 foreign language chairpersons and the 19 aca- demic deans) were analyzed separately with comparisons then being made. 93 Question one: How do you personally define the mission of a liberal arts college? When asked this question one dean paused pensively for a moment and then stated boldly: ”It is that study that pre- pares you for everything and yet at the same time for nothing. " This pithy statement summed up well the attitudes of many respondents--both deans and language chairpersons alike. Yet another veteran dean was troubled by the question. He objected to the phrase "liberal arts,” ”since it is broad- ly used by American institutions to avoid the problem of de- fining what we do.” He hastened to add, "For practical pur— poses, however, I take the phrase to refer to all forms of human inquiry carried out for their own sake, rather than the form of applications to anticipated professional situa- tions." His assessments seemed to reflect well the data re- ceived from both groups. Terms like broadening, libera- t_i_§_g_, develgping of critical thinking skills abounded as reSpondents attempted definition. Clear focus seemed to be lacking. In all fairness, however, because of time limita- tions it was difficult for the interviewees to give such a question anything but broadest treatment. Several respondents echoed the dean's concern that lib- eral arts were not for the purpose of professional 94 preparation in the technical sense. Another dean offered, “If we are just training them for a vocation, we are doing a lot of 'crystal-balling." Nearly half the deans used the phrase, "a broadening ex- perience” while several others alluded to it. This concept of breadth along with ”liberal" in the sense of freeing and employing of liberal arts education for the development of critical thinking skills summarize well the importance of a liberal arts education according to these academic execu- tives. Yet three of the deans mentioned that the breadth had to be accompanied by depth in some specialized training. This too, they held, was a part of the definition of what a liberal arts education should be. More than half of the language chairpersons specifically used the expression "a broadening experience." They, too, frequently cited the function of a liberal arts education as a liberating experience as well as the foster- ing of critical thinking skills. One chairperson recounted that two years ago teachers at her institution had not been able to agree on what a liberal arts education should be, but they had decided what it should not be. She and her colleagues were nearly unanimimous in their conviction that they were not in the business of imparting skills for a par- ticular job, but rather were imparting skills needed for any job. Two of the language chairpersons were adamant that the liberal arts were synonymous with the humanities. For them 95 neither the natural nor the social sciences were worthy disciplines for inclusion into a liberal arts scheme. If the analysis of this question is vague and somewhat unfocused, it is perhaps in part because the data received lacked clear focus. Perhaps the official who chided his fellow deans for utilizing the term "liberal arts" as a catch—all to avoid clarity is closer to the truth than many of his colleagues would admit. Yet in spite of this vague- ness, both groups were remarkably consistent in their defini- tion of a liberal arts education. The investigation will re- turn to one aspect of these data in question nine. Question two: Should a liberal arts college have a common core curriculum? And if so, what should be its key components? One dean, when asked this question, responded that eighty percent of his colleagues were in strong agreement that a core curriculum should be restored to their campus but not in the same mold as the one that had been cast aside. Seventeen of the nineteen deans (89%) clearly favor- ed a common-core curriculum. However, the word common did not necessarily mean the requirement of specific courses. Seven of the nineteen deans (37%) specifically used the term 'bank of courses” as part of their response to this open- ended question while several others alluded to such a 96 concept of the core. Clearly the majority of deans in this population were not in favor of narrowly prescribed courses. One dean stated that common—core courses raised the level of conversation on campus. His feeling was that even if most of the courses in the core were distributive in nature, there should still be a couple that everyone took. Another dean held strongly that common courses were needed by freshmen. Among the foreign—language chairpersons thirteen of eighteen (72%) favored a core curriculum. Those who were not sure that there should be one offered their reasons for their uneasiness with the concept: One chairperson who grad- uated in the 19603 remembered how difficult it had been to change an inflexible curriculum. He did not favor a well de- fined circle around a core curriculum. Another stated that he was not sure one could have a very extensive core that was very meaningful. Another chairperson felt that there was a critical mass to which the truly educated person should be exposed, but wondered who would define what that critical mass should be. Intoned one chairperson: ”How could we ever get the divisions of our colleges to agree on this?“ As was the case with the deans' responses, the foreign- 1anguage chairpersons as a group leaned toward distribution requirements more than the requirement of specfic courses. The favoring of the "bank of courses” by both groups reveal- ed an inconsistency when compared to some of the responses 97 in a later question. This issue will be analyzed in question seven. Question three: The Yale Report of 1828 defined the mission of liberal arts colleges like Yale as 'the disci- pline and furniture” of the mind. Is such a description of the task of a liberal arts college still applicable in your opinion? ”What more could one want than a disciplined and furn- ished mind, " claimed one dean. The deans participating in this research project overwhelmingly favored this concept as a good description of what a liberal arts college should attempt to do. Seventeen of the nineteen deans (89%) inter- viewed agreed with this aSpect of the Yale Report. However, in agreeing, the deans had certain qualifica- tions. One dean pointed out that it is hard to compare the climate of the 18203 with that of the 19803. He noted that Yale' s self-defined role was to prepare an elite leadership. However, another dean put forward that that is exactly what liberal arts should do. Said he, ”We still need to educate liberally our future leaders." There were those who were a bit uncomfortable with an education where there was such a narrowly intellectual focus. As such, discipline and functions of the mind served as a good basis, to which could be added the affective empha- sis. One dean felt the term "furniture" projected too 98 static a viewpoint. Another dean agreed that Day's assess- ment as a mission statement was good, but that it was fully as important to prepare one for a career. Echoing this sen- timent was a dean who stated that although he personally agreed with the concept, he had encountered many parents and students who, when faced with the high cost of education today, felt that such discipline and furniture might prove to be a luxury. Only two deans did not answer affirmatively the ques- tion. One of them held that discipline and furniture of the mind was ”no better than other cliches to mask our [liberal arts colleges'] imprecision.” The only dean who flatly dis- agreed with such a notion insisted that it owed itself to Locke, and thus was to be rejected on philosophical grounds. As was the case with the deans, the foreign language chair- persons with near unanimity embraced this principle from the Yale Report. There were those who felt that one needed to add to the analytical mind such qualities as compassion, inquisitive- ness, and a love of questioning. One of them agreed pro- vided she could change the furniture around from time to time. Some felt that the word furniture itself was too archaic, while one language professional chided American edu- cation for limiting the furniture to a western world decor. What was however of most interest to this investigator in the responses to this question was the observation by 99 some of these chairpersons that math and modern language study served well as instruments for mental discipline. Such contentions bring to mind the nineteenth-century argu- ment that such components of the traditional quadrivium and triv ium as Latin and Greek were of utmost importance for the exercising of the mind as if it were a muscle. Further, there were many nineteenth-century educators who held that such modern additions to the curriculum as French and math should be substituted only by those whose minds were too weak to be given to the rigors of Latin and Greek. Question four: How do you assess the intrinsic aspects of education as compared to the extrinsic? Is one more important than the other, or should a balance be sought? "Theory that never involves application is impotent. Application without theory is overly mechanical." Such a call for balance of the intrinsic and the extrinsic in the liberal arts endeavor was shared by a narrow majority (53%) of the deans. One dean warned that since we were not educa- ting monks, over-attention to the intrinsic could lead to solipsism; while another was troubled that such a distinc- tion need be made at all. Being forced to make a choice be- tween the two would prove unfruitful. Still another dean pointed to an A.T.&T study involving several hundred executives reported in Forbes. The study showed that the technical expertise wins out upon entry into 100 an occupation, whereas the liberal arts training catches up and actually forges ahead in later years. The assessment was that the most successful executives were those who had been exposed to the liberal arts and who also had some com- petency in a technical area such as computers. A sizeable minority (37%), however, believed strongly that the intrinsic should be stressed more than the extrin— sic. One of the major reasons for this position was that many felt that since vocationalism had become so prominent, an equally strong reaction in favor of the intrinsic was needed. But there was more than just discussion of the pen- dulum effect. One dean insisted that the philosophical per- son will go out and create a job. Such a person is far more likely to reach the highest level of satisfaction as des- cribed by Maslow. The two deans who chose neither the intrinsic nor a balance of the intrinsic and extrinsic included one who would not commit herself and one who favored neither the in- trinsic or the balanced view espoused by so vast a majority. The dean who would not commit herself on the issue held that such an argument was a cliche’. For her the quality and rigor of an education was more important that considerations of whether intrinsic or extrinsic aspects were more impor- tant. The dean who openly rejected either the intrinsic or balanced viewpoint showed great insight in his response. 101 I agree with most social scientists who feel that a complete balance could only be brought about by an extraordinary coincidence of his- torical forces. I am not so concerned about vocationalism as are some of my peers, since I feel it is a healthy tendency to serve the needs of the society within which our colleges are supported. I also think that the Simon—pure view in favor of an intrin- sically defined curriculum is arrant non- sense, since our intellectual activities must be in a state of dynamic interaction with the society we serve. A foreign-language chairperson inserting a personal note summed up well the tension between the intrinsic and ex- trinsic. Said he: "I have a daughter who will be a fresh- man next year at a liberal arts college. I want her to be able to get a good job when she graduates.“ He hastened to add, ”However to perform without knowing is dangerous.“ Others pointed to the running civil war between those who heralded either the intrinsic or the vocational. One contended that those who insisted on a particularly strong emphasis on the intrinsic were often held to be elitist and obsolete in their views. One of the chairpersons when speak- ing of the civil war said that while he favored a balance of the two, he was of the firm conviction that the extrinsic would generally win. It is important to know how the intrinsic and the ex- trinsic battle is perceived as it relates to the study of modern languages. Such a concern will be addressed in a later question. 102 Question five: How does the study of a modern language fit into the liberal arts curriculum? One of the deans pointed out that he had recently seen statistics that were of a great surprise to him. His college was located in Rochester, New York, headquarters for several large multi-national corporations including Eastman Kodak. According to a study that had just been released, Rochester did more foreign business per capita than any other city in the United States. He added that the indus- tries of this northeastern city were becoming increasingly interested in the importance of foreign languages to their corporate interests. Several other deans reflected on the importance of such pragmatic consideration in the study of modern languages. However, the major role of language study was seen to be its releasing of Americans from their cocoon through knowledge of other cultures. As a communication tool languages are of great importance but not so much as their ability to intro- duce one to the Spirit of another culture. Said one dean: "A language is the autobiography of a culture. Language is the way we react to reality and what defines humanness.” Fifteen of the nineteen deans (79%) held this increased cul- tural awareness to be the major function of a modern lan- guage in the liberal arts context. 'Our faculty does not perceive a language as a prior- ity. When push came to shove, languages got shoved 103 out. I feel the study of a language is very important but our arrogant society does not.” Thus one dean spoke out on the importance of languages to cultural awareness and the difficulties faced within academia for such an endeavor. As was the case with the deans, the large majority of lan- guage chairpersons pointed up the need for foreign languages for inter-cultural understanding. But other reasons also came to the fore. One language professional asked, “How can one have a liberal arts education without knowledge of a modern language?" In the same breath she added: ”But I suppose one could have said the same of Greek and Latin two centuries ago.” Another chairperson viewed foreign-language study as a major category of human endeavor much like the study of the natural sciences or history. Several deans added that as such an endeavor, language study represented a degree of exactitude not found in many educational categories today. Such discipline was held as being of great importance. Question six: How would you describe your own language study? (asked only to the deans) As has been pointed out in chapter two of this disserta- tion, one factor for the abolition by so many colleges of the language requirement in the 19603 and early 19703 might have been the reaction of deans and faculty members who had disliked their own required language study. 104 The researcher concluded that it might prove interesting to interview the deans concerning their reactions to their own language study. Fourteen of the nineteen deans (74%) had been required to take a language as a part of their undergraduate educa- tion. Of the deans only one had never had formal language instruction. He claimed that if he had it to do over, he would definitely have taken some. Of those who took a language as a requirement for the bachelor' 3 degree, the general consensus was that it was an enjoyable experience. Exclaimed one dean, “My background was definitely affected by my language learning.’I Said another dean, "I didn't really understand the structure of English until I took a foreign language.“ However there was definite criticism of the language in- struction that had been received by these academic pro- fessionals. Thirty-nine percent (39%) of those who had taken: a language expressed regret that they had never accom- plished much oral fluency in the languages studied. They ex- pressed a concern that such not be the case with students learning a modern language presently. Question seven: Do you personally favor a modern lan- guage requirement for receiving a bachelor's degree at a lib- eral arts college? 105 Before assessing the reaction of the deans and the lan- guage chairpersons, it is necessary to indicate the status of language requirements at the liberal arts colleges in thims population. Of these nineteen schools eleven (58%) had no modern language requirement whatsoever at the time of the study. Of the remaining eight schools, five (26%) had very limited requirements for a few majors. Thus eighty-four percent (84%) of the population studied claimed that their institutions had either very little or no language required of their students. Yet when asked if they favored an institution-wide re- quirement of their students, seventeen (90%) of the deans answered affirmatively. The reasons given echo those given by this group in question five. One dean insisted however that if indeed there were such a requirement at his institution, it should include more than French 101 and French 102, or it would probably prove worthless. Another dean in agreement with the institution-wide language requirement admitted that he would havwa opposed such a requirement twenty years ago. But since people may not make the right choices when given too much freedom, he now would favor such a requirement. However, one of the deans who did not favor the require- mern: held that the matter of choice was paramount. Require- mentm: for him represented a false kind of motivation. He ex- pressed concern that there are those students (i.e. the tone deaf) for whom language study is too grueling. And thus 106 they should not be forced into taking it lest there possibly follow a hatred for foreign languages. The researcher has already alluded to the opposition of another dean to the language requirement. For him such skills are primarily the task of high schools. Perhaps one of the most fascinating statistics revealed in this study was that a higher percentage of deans favored a language requirement than did foreign language chair- persons. While a large majority of these language pro- fessionals favored an institution—wide requirement, only thirteen (68%) clearly did so. Four from among this group were against a requirement and three (11%) were ambivalent concerning such a modern language requirement. One of the language professionals who was adamant in her insistence that a requirement be restored at her college exclaimed: ”We died when we lost it! Students today are afraid of it (language study) and think it has no impor- tance. They won't take it voluntarily." The comments of one chairperson who favored the requirement were especially telling: I've come full circle. I'm for it now. We haven't done our job in this country at an early level, and the leadership in our country will suffer if we don't have it (lan- guage requirement). I was not of that opinion fifteen years ago. High schools were doing a decent job then. However, I would rather have those in my classes who wanted to be there. 107 Two of the four chairpersons who opposed the requirement as well as one who was ambivalent on this issue remembered with particular distaste 'the captive audience“ in crammed class- rooms. One of them suggested that what we need more than a requirement are parents in this nation who expect that their children will pursue the study of a foreign language. In his opinion, such is not the case. Another chairperson who strongly opposed the reinstate- ment of the requirement at his institution offered the following reasons for his attitude: I was part of the generation that rebelled against requirements...Besides, language learning is easiest for the young. It is not the best time for a nineteen or twenty-year- old to begin language study. A caveat was issued by one chairperson who emphatically favored restoration of the language requirement to her campus: “There are those on this campus who had to take a language as part of their requirement for the Ph.D and who hated it. They will fight us on this tooth and nail.” Question eight: If your college were to require all students seeking the bachelor's degree to demonstrate mini- mum proficiency in a foreign language, how would you describe such a proficiency, and how long would it take the average student to acquire it? "The problem with my training was that I could just read and write." With obvious frustration one of the deans 108 indicated that as far as he was concerned students should be able to speak and listen, albeit haltingly, in what the French call the language of 'la vie quotidienne" (everyday life). Eleven (58%) of the deans emphatically Specified the need for students to be able at least to have rudimentary speaking and listening skills. Said one dean "The student should be able to walk into Paris and be able to converse even at a low level of discourse." In addition, the student possessing minimum proficiency in a language should have reading skills sufficient to get the gist of a newspaper article in Madrid and be able to write sufficiently well to "leave a note for the milkman". One dean felt that minimum proficiency was exhibited when the student was able to read a piece of literature with the aid of a dictionary. For him any attempts at speaking fluency were unnecessary. But in this particular popula- tion, these deans overwhelmingly rejected such a narrow de- finition of minimum proficiency. The next aspect of this question involved the length of time these deans thought would be necessary to achieve this minimum proficiency. Only one (5%) of the deans felt that such desired proficiency could be accomplished in two semes- ters of college work. Fifteen (79%) of the deans insisted that a student would need at least intermediate language courses (second year) in order to attain such proficiency, while two deans (11%) maintained that the student would need courses beyond the intermediate level. The only dean who 109 did not Specify how long a student would need to attain minimum proficiency simply stated that once a minimum proficiency was defined a student would take a language for as long as it took for him to attain it. "I believe that a student should be able to converse without fear in a foreign culture with a child.“ Thus one foreign language chairperson addressed the aural/oral compon- ent of minimum competency. Another added that every student should be given a measure of confidence in his oral ability in a foreign languages. Said she: ”It [learning to Speak] is what ”grabs the student.” These two language profession- als were joined by a sizeable majority (74%) of their colleagues in their insistence that oral communication skills be a part of minimum competency. Of course reading and writing skills should not be ignored. As was the case with deans,the language chairpersons saw the need for stu- dents possessing a minimum proficiency to be able to read fairly easily a newspaper printed in a language other than their own. There was one chairperson who held that definition of minimum proficiency was no easy matter to establish. She pointed to the effort of organizations such as the American Council for the Teachers of Foreign Language to establish such a standard. Another chairperson insisted that before much more could 'be done to define minimum proficiency the language pro- fession would need to examine carefully its pedagogy. 110 For her the functional-notional approach presented some intriguing possibilities. The language chairpersons in this population with near unanimity (95%) held that at least the intermediate level of language study would be necessary to attain minimum pro- ficiency. What was most noteworthy about the reactions of both the deans and language chairpersons was the vast inconsis- tency between present practice and belief. Although ninety percent (90%) of the deans and ninety-five percent (95%) of the language professionals claimed that minimum proficiency would require at least intermediate-level work, only two (11%) of the institutions presently had an intermediate- 1evel requirement; and for one of these it was not an insti- tution-wide requirement since some professional programs were able to waive the requirement. The only college to require an institution-wide intermediate-level proficiency had a policy which strongly stated that there would be no waivers except where the student, upon entry to the college, could demonstrate she already possessed intermediate-level skills. The dean of this college adamantly insisted that even the most professionally oriented of its students should not expect any special waivers. Question nine: Several reasons for inclusion of a modern language requirement at a liberal arts college such as this one have been mentioned during this interview. If 111 you were to appear before the governing body of your college or an academic policy committee, what would you use as your most cogent argument for continuation of your present foreign language requirement or inclusion of such a require- ment in the future? The first question posed during the interview sought what this population held as the major goal of a liberal arts education. As has already been reported there seemed to be wide support for "a broadening experience" to serve as a definition for such an education. It is not surprising that sixteen (84%) of the deans responded that the most important reason for foreign lan- guages' being required as a part of one's liberal arts educa- tion was their value as a culturally broadening experience. Several of the deans mentioned the incredible pro- vincialism extant in American society. Several voiced the concern that such ethnocentrism in our culture often border- ed on arrogance, an arrogance not well received in many foreign countries. One dean summed up the thoughts of many of his colleagues when he articulated: The best I can do is to say that exposure to a foreign language gives the student access to an entirely different structure of thought from that defined by his or her own language. Beyond that, I see the need for language instruction as being instrumental, in that it prov ides access to the Western tradition and with luck non-Western traditions as well, at a level which is impossible to handle in 112 translation. The instrumental argument, of course, requires a much higher degree of sophistication than the argument in favor of language instruction as a means of expanding the logical equipment of the learner. There were three deans who did not directly state this culturally broadening aspect as the most important function of language instruction at a liberal arts college. Two of them referred to the personal satisfaction and sense of power that comes when the student manipulates the symbols that constitute another language. The third dean in a gen- eral sense could have been included with the majority who called for a breaking out of the cultural cocoon, but this dean' 3 concern was not so much for the cross-cultural aware- ness outside the American borders. He pointed out the grow- ing importance of the American public to communicate with the Hispanics in the United States. As was the case with the deans, the largest number of language chairpersons held that the major value of foreign language instruction was for its heightening of cultural awareness in the student (69%). Although representing a clear majority, fewer language professionals gave this re- sponse. One chairperson pointed out that the whole notion of a melting pot often militated against allowing for significant individual differences within the American culture. She was of the opinion that the American experience should be more of a salad bowl than a melting pot. As a salad bowl each 113 separate ingredient, while contributing to the whole, would keep its own unique flavor. The chairperson of one college affiliated with a church saw language study as a ministry of reconciliation. He in- sisted that the world had been torn apart linguistically by the Tower of Babel, and that attempts should be made to heal the rift. Said another chairperson, "You acquire another skin.” Several other respondents in the group also alluded to the students' seeing the world through different eyes after the study of a foreign language. Of course there were those who did not indicate that the major value of language instruction to college students was the breaking down of provincialism with resulting broad- ening of cultural awareness. One chairperson pointed out that foreign language is a subject area that comes very close to the essence of human thinking and as such was even more basic than literature, for language must precede liter- ature. There were those who saw foreign language instruction chiefly in terms of its unlocking of a literature. Such exposure to a literature other than English allowed the en- riching of one's inner life. These respondents were insis- tent that such literature was not nearly so valuable in translation. Furthermore, several language chairpersons prefaced their remarks by indicating what was not a major value of 114 language instruction of those seeking a baccalaureate degree. For them language study should not be for pragmatic reasons such as the acquiring of skills for a job. Question ten: Do you anticipate that five years from now students at your college will be required to take less, more, or about the same amount of modern language instruc- tion for graduation? By a narrow majority (58%) the deans felt that in five years there would be more language instruction as a degree requirement. As might be expected nearly all the deans anticipating such an increase represented schools that pre- sently had little or no language instruction as a graduation requirement. In this group several qualified their re- sponses by stating that adequate resources to fund such in— creases was a very real concern. One dean, although foreseeing increased requirements at her school, pointed out the obstacles faced: Our admissions director is fighting us all the way on this one. He is so afraid of scaring away potential students [by such a re- quirement]. In addition some of our senior faculty members in the language department are burned out. This adversely affects the foreign language program. New personnel would make the requirement easier to sell. Uninspiring instruction is deadly. Six of the deans (32%) predicted that there would be about the same amount of language requirement at their colleges in five years. Of these, half were deans of 115 colleges that presently required intermediate-level foreign language skills for graduation. One dean of a college that does not presently have lan— guage requirements pointed out the slowness with which aca- demic institutions respond to needed change. It was his con- viction that such a requirement was sorely needed, but that it would take ten years, not five, for such reform to be en- acted. Another dean foresaw little change at his institution where no language requirements were presently in place. He pointed to enormous movement at the national level to encour- age more language instruction, but he added, "I do not see the resources there to accomplish what is needed. We are 'holding the line economically.’ The Northeast is such a economically depressed area. How can language instruction compete with the demands of computer instruction and business courses? There is a trade-off. The resources just are not there for everything.’I Two of the deans were not sure whether more instruction in foreign language was in the future plans at their schools. Said one: "There ought to be more. But given the realities of life, I am not sure. If the students are tuned in, they had better be taking more." Of the language chairpersons a wide majority (79%) fore- saw increased language requirements for graduation from their schools in five years. The increased interdependence of the world' s corporations, as well as curriculum changes 116 at trendsetting schools (restored language requirements at Ivy League colleges), along with the Board of Regents pro- posed changes in New York State high schools were some of the reasons stated for such a conviction. As was the case with the deans, several chairpersons cited adequate :rescnirces to fund such increased requirements as a matter of concern. Of those predicting about the same level of require- ments in five years, half represented institutions where there was presently an intermediate-level requirement. Although these chairpersons saw the need for more, they stated that intermediate-level requirements were all that they could possibly hope to have. One chairperson of a school where there are presently rm: language requirements for the baccalaureate degree offer— ed: ”Everybody pays lip service to foreign languages like Imyther and apple pie, but they will not back such expression of concern with adequate resources.” Another chairperson indicated why foreign language re- quirements had been dropped at his institution at the time the (mollege which he served made the transition from being a women' 3 college to a co-educational institution. There had been great concern that the foreign language requirement might drive away potential male students, since it was felt that foreign languages would be more readily accepted by fe- male students than by males. 117 Question eleven: Will French, Spanish, and German remain the predominant languages offered at America's colleges? There seems to be little doubt in this population that such will be the case. Seventeen (90%) of the deans thought so. But what is of real interest here were the comments made, especially in analyzing the role of such languages as Arabic, Chinese, Japanese, and Russian. The researcher lists some of these comments: -- The exotic languages are hard to sell, because they are too tough. —- Yes [French, Spanish, and German will remain predominant], but it will be a mistake. We should stress Russian and the Oriental languages. -- The pressure is there for study of Chinese. The study of German will go down. Arabic is too difficult and Amer- icans don't like the Arabs. We like the Chinese, however. -- At a small college like ours such will be the case, but I would like to see more in- struction in non-Western languages. Ger- man is hanging in there only because of business demands. Otherwise it would go down significantly. -- In the history of higher education the tradition is there (for French, Spanish, and German). French will remain somewhat important for academic reasons and Span- ish for demographic ones. -- In five years certainly, in ten years probably, in twenty years probably not. Japanese, Chinese, and Arabic will emerge. 118 -- Yes. The Chinese are much more inter— ested in learning English than vice- versa. -- Yes, in the near future. But gradually Chinese, Japanese, and Arabic will have an expanded role. Thousands of Japanese business speak English. They understand the American culture. —- Yes, but it shouldn't be the case. How- ever, it comes down to a question of re- sources. -- Probably Spanish will overtake both (French and German). I think the ascen- dency of French and German is a pity, since the latter is not crucially impor- tant in the modern world, and the former is studied out of cultural habit. Any- thing that can be done to encourage the study of Japanese, Chinese, and Russian would be in the interest of the future. With a majority similar to that of the deans (95%), the language chairpersons answered affirmatively this question. Once again, the comments were most interesting, and the in- vestigator has chosen to include some of them: -- Yes, but Spanish will be more dominant. James Naisbitt's book Mgatrends states that we will need to be tri-lingual in the future - English, computers, and Span- ish. American business has not awakened to the Hispanic consumer at home. The Oriental languages along with Arabic and Portuguese should be stressed more, but traditions are hard to change. -- Yes, in the near future. Changes come slowly in the educational structure. [i.e. tenured teachers, and vested inter- ests]. After Sputnik there was only a temporary interest in Russian. -- If I were eighteen, I would want to in- vestigate Chinese, Russian or Japanese. Spanish will remain dominant because of the sheer number of immigrants. 119 -- Whatever is taught in high schools will be taught in colleges. -- Yes. The Oriental languages are too hard and would take too long to attain minimum proficiency. It's hard enough for the students to learn the easy ones [foreign languages] -- Spanish will increase for demographic reasons and French for cultural and pro- fessional reasons. I'm not sure about German; it may slip. Non—Western lan- guages will become more and more impor- tant for extrinsic reasons. -- Yes. Spanish is obvious. Japanese will come into its own. Japanese businessmen know the importance of speaking English. -- Yes, although others are more important strategically. Spanish will remain for demographic reasons. Literature emphasis in the study of foreign language studies will continue to go down, and there will be more emphasis on communications. Question twelve: If the proposal of the New York Board of Regents (that all students seeking a Regents diploma be required to take a foreign language) were to be enacted, would this have an impact on your college? As was stated in the preface of this chapter, New York State is presently involved in a controversy as to whether these recipients of the Regents diploma should be required tn) take a foreign language or not. The Commissioner of Edu- cation and the Board of Regents have gone on record as favor- ing snich a requirement. But as hearings have been conducted throughout the state, there has been opposition to such a proposal for various reasons chief of which seems to 120 be the belief that there will be a lack of adequate resources to implement such a plan. On this question (12) the deans were unanimous in stating that this would have an impact on their colleges, and in most cases a major impact. The most common answer given was that there would be more demand for intermediate and advanced level courses (68%) since many students would presumably be entering college with more foreign language skills. One dean held that such a requirement in New York State' 3 high school would allow colleges in turn to toughen up their language requirements. He confirmed: “Language teachers are defensive. They have the reputation for being soft touches.” Another dean contended that if more students were to take languages in high school, they might be more easily per- suaded to continue to higher levels, since they would already be convinced of the importance of foreign language. Other deans pointed out that there would be a need for more foreign language majors to handle the dramatically in- creased demand for courses at both the high school and college level. Perhaps the most unusual answer given by a dean was: "Yes, implementation of such a policy would have a major im- pact here. There would be less pressure to offer courses 121 Since our faculty would feel the student had already had enough foreign language study." Of the language administrators interviewed seventeen (90%) were of the opinion that there would be a definite im- pact should such a proposal be implemented. The two who did not foresee a major impact were deans of schools where there either was a three-year language entrance requirement or where the vast majority had studied three years in high school. Several, although agreeing that the impact would be felt in their departments [students pursuing languages to more advanced levels than at present, need for more foreign language majors, students arriving at college with better foreign language skills], doubted that such policy would ever be enacted due to economic reasons. One chairperson very honestly stated: It would make it easier for us to push through a requirement. There is great worry about diminished numbers of applications at our college. But high schools would take the heat off us, if they required a language for graduation, and then we followed suit. Another chairperson echoed the opinion of the wide majority of her colleagues that such a policy would encour- age more students to take higher level courses in college, but she added: "I worry that we will not have enough lan- guage teachers to handle it, if it comes. " 122 Question thirteen: The literature seems to indicate that there is a trend in American higher education to restore some of the requirements (including one for foreign language). Do you personally think that this is a signifi- cant trend? Eighteen (95%) of the deans interviewed answered this question in the affirmative. But what is of great interest here were the reasons given. The researcher is listing sev- eral of them here. -— We are moving away from the smorgasboard approach, but we will never return to iron-bound requirements. -- New York State will be a leader in this. -- I hope it's substantial. It is a good one. I think that it will get even stronger than it is presently. -- How far (the trend will go) is the ques- tion. There have always been wild swings up and down in higher education. It makes it hard for administrators to do long range planning. -- It is measurable as part of a dialectic with other curricular emphases. There is a greater disparity between better and more poorly prepared students. Require- ments address this disparity. —- The pendulum is swinging. Language may or may not be a part of it. Language is, at schools like Harvard and Dartmouth. -- There is a general conservative trend in the educational establishment. We threw out a lot that was good along with some chain that needed casting off. 123 -- It won't go away easily or quickly. But the big question is still resources. The trend is happening in our nation's high schools. Will there be a ripple effect? -- Language requirements will come back, but not in the form they left us. -- There is much support for this. But will the resources follow? Without such resource, it is just lip service. This is all tied to the conservative back-to- basis movement. We don't have a good language pedagogy. Students want to Egg the language. We need a new pedagogy for useful language study. -- This is the beginning of another cycle which goes hand in ahand with the stu- dents' being more conservative. There is a battle between those who are scared about admissions projections and those that feel that we should be more rigor- ous. -- But will we do what we ought to do? It's still a liberal arts verses the market- place battle. But liberal arts propon- ents shouldn't back off from asserting themselves. -- It's significant, but I think a lot of college officials will cop out, and will not be true to their beliefs. The econ- omic crunch will win out. Only one dean did not agree that this was not a signifi- cant trend. Said he: "It merely represents a kind of a cyclical tinkering to which the very loose tradition of the liberal arts bachelor's degree is subject." The foreign language administrators were unanimous in their appraisal that there was a significant trend to re- store requirements. Many of the statements that accompanied their affirmative reSponses voiced the same concerns as those of the deans (not enough resources, declining 124 enrollments, marketplace versus the academic ideal). The researcher has included several responses as a sample of the opinions of these chairpersons. One chair- person who had been born in Europe and had come here in her adult life gave pause before answering this question. Pen- sively she offered: I think it has always been there. Some didn't see it or wouldn't act on it. The best jobs need those requirements. One can- not keep a good job with a ”line of least re- sistance” approach to education. Every society needs its intellectual elite. Perhaps the comment made by one of the language adminis- trators addressed the question in boldest terms. Said he: "The first step is that people agree that requirements are okay.“ Another chairperson picked up on this same theme and added: As this trend crescendos there will be much pressure for requirements. Students do not have the influence that they had in the 19603. They couldn't ward off the require- ments as they did in the early 19703. Maybe the students of the 19803 will not even want to [avoid requirements]. The Questionnaire Up to this point in the chapter the researcher has recorded impressions, attitudes, and predictions of the mem- bers of this population. As such, these responses have defied all but the simplest statistical analysis. The 125 writer sensed the need to offer at least some quantifiable data that could be analyzed by statistical methods. Several common reasons for the importance of foreign language instruction in colleges were listed along with some questions concerning the methodology of language instruc- tion. For each statement the dean or language chairperson was asked to circle the number that most closely resembled his attitudes toward the issue raised. A frnlr-point Likert scale was used ranging from a 4 for strong agreement to l for strong disagreement. It was fur— ther explained to each respondent to the questionnaire that ii rating of 3 indicated agreement but without much intensity (mild agreement), while a 2 represented disagreement but without much intensity (mild disagreement). Although the fourwqpoint scale forced an opinion, the researcher, when re-