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FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. -<- .- THE EFFECT OF THE TREATMENT ORDER OF INSERVICE TRAINING SESSIONS WITH COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE EMPHASES ON TEACHER RESPONSES TO A MULTICULTURAL KNOWLEDGE AND ATTITUDE SURVEY By Patricia Patton Shinsky A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Curriculum 1983 ©1984 PATRICIA PATTON SHINSKY All Rights Reserved ABSTRACT THE EFFECT OF THE TREATMENT ORDER OF INSERVICE TRAINING SESSIONS WITH COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE EMPHASES ON TEACHER RESPONSES TO A MULTICULTURAL KNOWLEDGE AND ATTITUDE SURVEY By Patricia Patton Shinsky The purpose of the study was to examine multicultural inservice sessions that present affective/cognitive experiences first, as opposed to cognitive/affective, to determine whether the order of presentation had an effect on teachers' attitudes toward and knowledge about cultu- ral diversity, as well as their overall reaction to the training sessions. The researcher sought to investigate the following questions: l. Are teachers' attitudes and knowledge influenced by the sequence of cognitive and affective inservice sessions? 2. Are the effects of sequence influenced by the factors of teachers' race and teaching level? 3. Is teachers' overall evaluation of the inservice sessions influenced by the sequence of cognitive and affective sessions? 4. Is teachers' overall evaluation of inservice sessions influenced by factors of race and teaching level? The subjects were 20 elementary and 20 secondary teachers volunteering from the Lansing School District. From this pool of Patricia Patton Shinsky teachers, a group from the elementary and secondary levels were ran- domly assigned to Treatment 1 (affective emphases followed by cognitive emphases) or Treatment 2 (cognitive emphases followed by affective emphases). All subjects in the study were pretested with two instru- ments: the Ethnic Awareness Survey (the cognitive measure) and the Teacher—Student Interaction Instrument (the affective measure). Both groups received four training sessions--two with affective content and two with cognitive content--over a three-week period. At the comple- tion of the inservice sessions. all subjects were posttested with the pretest instruments as well as a Multicultural Inservice Evaluation Survey. The pretest and posttest measures were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) multivariate analy- sis of covariance. The inservice evaluation survey was analyzed using a two-way analysis of variance. Results indicated no significant dif- ferences for race and teaching or treatment by race and treatment by teaching interaction were revealed on the cognitive or affective measures. On the inservice evaluation survey, a significant interaction was found between order of cognitive and affective inservice sessions and participants' race. Minority members who were in the affective/ cognitive inservice sessions rated their experiences significantly more positively than did minorities in the cognitive/affective sequence. This dissertation is dedicated to four of the most important people in my life: my father, Reuben; my mother, Dorothy; my brother, Reuben; and my husband, John. My father instilled in me at an early age the importance of pursuing a dream. His unending love, strength, and wisdom gave me courage and a sense of purpose and comfort. My mother's devotion and love gave me confidence and belief that I am somebody capable of reaching any goal. My parents' influence has been a guiding force throughout my life. My brother's friendship and love have been an inspiration for me, not only with this project, but throughout my life. My husband's love, encouragement, insight, and friendship were the enabling forces that brought this project to fruition. Words cannot express the deep appreciation and happiness I feel for the love, understanding, and patience of my husband, Dr. John Shinsky. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Dr. Lois A. Bader, chairperson of my doctoral committee, has my sincere appreciation and admiration for the role she played as my academic advisor. Special thanks are extended for her excellent guidance throughout my doctoral and master's programs. Her helpful feedback, kindness, support, and friendship are deeply appreciated. I have gained a great deal as a result of knowing her. I want to express my gratitude to Dr. Robert Chamberlain for his stimulating ideas and openness to sharing with me. His calm presence and patience in response to my many divergent ideas and concerns during my entire study in the doctoral program provided enormous support and assistance. His creative thinking, leadership ability, and genuine kindness serve as models for my future pursuits. Dr. Gene Pernell and Dr. Ben Bohnhorst have my appreciation for agreeing to act as members of my doctoral committee and for their subsequent help and encouragement. I am indebted to Dr. Richard Thomas and Dr. George Cornell for conducting the sessions of the study. Their inservice partici- pation and expertise were invaluable. I would like to thank Dr. Matt Prophet for his assistance in the beginning stages of my doctoral program. I am grateful to Sue Cooley and Khalil Elaian for their expert assistance in the completion of this dissertation. I am iii deeply indebted to them both for the high quality of their work, their patience and good humor, and their personal sacrifices to help me fulfill my commitments. I wish to thank the Lansing School District staff who par— ticipated in the study for their time and support. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ......................... LIST OF FIGURES ......................... Chapter I. THE PROBLEM ....................... Introduction ..................... Statement of the Problem ............... Background and Rationale for the Study ........ Purpose of the Study ................. Research Questions .................. Hypotheses ...................... Hypotheses Relative to the Composite Test Scores . . Generalizability ................... Population and Sample ................. Definition of Terms .................. Summary and Overview ................. II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE .............. Introduction ..................... Criteria for Successful Teacher Inservice Education Programs ...................... Design and Planning ................. Staff Involvement .................. Consultants ..................... Leadership ..................... Summary ....................... Recommended Content for Multicultural Teacher Inservice Programs ................. Affect and Cognition: Content Components ...... Inservice Content Models .............. Approaches to Implementing Inservice Content . . Content of Four Training Programs .......... Concluding Remarks ................. Summary ........................ Page vii viii III. DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ................. 48 Introduction ..................... 48 Brief Overview of the Lansing School District ..... 48 The Lansing School District's Teaching Population . . 49 Description of the Sample ............... 49 Procedures for Obtaining the Inservice Sample . . . . 50 Study Design ..................... 51 Instrumentation .................... 54 Cognitive Instrument ................ 54 Affective Instrument ................ 55 Multicultural Inservice Evaluation Survey ...... 56 Inservice Presenters ................. 56 Inservice Content Development ............. 57 Observational Field Reporting Notes .......... 58 Research Questions .................. 59 Null Hypotheses .................... 59 Data-Analysis Procedures ............... 60 IV. ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS ................. 6l Introduction ..................... 6l Results of Hypothesis Testing ............. 62 Additional Findings .................. 68 V. SUMMARY, DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . 74 Summary ........................ 74 Discussion of Limitations of the Study ........ 76 Conclusions ...................... 78 Recommendations for Future Research .......... 85 Recommendations for Future Multicultural Inservice Programs ...................... 87 APPENDICES ........................... 90 A. BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON THE LANSING SCHOOL DISTRICT . . 9T B. LETTER TO BUILDING PRINCIPALS AND STAFF; MULTICULTURAL INSERVICE FORMAT ............ 95 INSTRUMENTS USED IN THE STUDY .............. 97 OBSERVATIONAL FIELD-REPORTING NOTES; DR. THOMAS'S MULTI- CULTURAL INSERVICE OBSERVATION REPORT; DR. CORNELL'S MULTICULTURAL INSERVICE OBSERVATION REPORT ...... 114 E. OPEN-ENDED COMMENTS FOR QUESTIONS 7, 8, AND 9 OF THE POST-INSERVICE EVALUATION ............... I39 REFERENCES ........................... T45 Table l0. ll. 12. LIST OF TABLES Characteristics of Participants Involved in the Study . . . Effect of Inservice Order Sequence on Teachers' Cognitive and Affective Posttest Scores ......... Effect of Race on Teachers' Cognitive and Affective Posttest Scores ..................... Effect of Order Sequence and Race on Teachers' Cognitive and Affective Posttest Scores .............. Effect of Order Sequence and Teaching Level on Teachers' Affective and Cognitive Posttest Scores ......... Effect of Teaching Level on Teachers' Affective and Cognitive Posttest Scores ................ Effect of Ordering Sequence and Teachers' Race on Their Inservice Evaluation Rating ............... Effect of Ordering Sequence and Teachers' Teaching Level on Their Inservice Evaluation Rating .......... Correlations Between the Pretest and Posttest Affective and Cognitive Scores of the Participating Teachers Teachers' Ratings of Six Inservice Benefits ........ Participants' Responses to the Question Regarding Whether the Order of Sessions Should be Changed ......... Percentage of Teachers in Each Order Sequence Rating the Inservice Sessions on a Four-Point Scale ...... vii Page 50 63 63 64 65 65 66 68 69 71 72 73 Table 10. 11. 12. LIST OF TABLES Characteristics of Participants Involved in the Study . . . Effect of Inservice Order Sequence on Teachers' Cognitive and Affective Posttest Scores ......... Effect of Race on Teachers' Cognitive and Affective Posttest Scores ..................... Effect of Order Sequence and Race on Teachers' Cognitive and Affective Posttest Scores .............. Effect of Order Sequence and Teaching Level on Teachers' Affective and Cognitive Posttest Scores ......... Effect of Teaching Level on Teachers' Affective and Cognitive Posttest Scores ................ Effect of Ordering Sequence and Teachers' Race on Their Inservice Evaluation Rating ............... Effect of Ordering Sequence and Teachers' Teaching Level on Their Inservice Evaluation Rating .......... Correlations Between the Pretest and Posttest Affective and Cognitive Scores of the Participating Teachers Teachers' Ratings of Six Inservice Benefits ........ Participants' Responses to the Question Regarding Whether the Order of Sessions Should be Changed ......... Percentage of Teachers in Each Order Sequence Rating the Inservice Sessions on a Four-Point Scale ...... vii Page 50 63 63 64 65 65 66 68 69 71 72 73 Figure LIST OF FIGURES Cultural Pluralism Operationalized Through Multi- cultural Education ................... A Model for Training Teachers to Teach Multicultural Education ........ . .............. Study Design ....................... Interaction Between Treatment-Order Sequence and Teachers' Race ..................... viii Page 36 37 53 67 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Introduction The United States as a nation and as a society comprises many different groups of people with many cultural orientations. A mono- cultural perspective, mainly composed of Anglo culture, image, and values, has resulted in a melting-pot ideology that has worked for some ethnic groups but not for the more visible minorities. The lack of potential far upward mobility for individuals in these groups has caused a great deal of conflict and turmoil in this country. Although the melting-pot theory has failed and it has been recognized that the United States is culturally diverse, no concerted effort has been made nationally to understand or include different cultural groups within the mainstream of American life. Therefore, ethnic communities have been forced to remain isolated from the dominant culture, and in many cases have become disfranchised. Ethnic groups have begun to feel the negative effect that has resulted from limited access to the political, economic, and social benefits Anglo-Americans enjoy. The power structures that have emerged within ethnic communities have stressed the need for their group members to receive education, economic development, and political coalition. This would provide the mechanisms to deal with their struggle to participate equally in the work force and at the same 1 time maintain a subcultural mosaic. The movement to maintain one's ethnic and cultural heritage gave rise to the concept of "cultural pluralism." This new form of nationalism gave impetus to minority groups' protest of racial injustices in housing, public facilities, employment, and education. Since many ethnic groups desire a better way of life for themselves and, more important, for their children, education has become the focal point of critical analysis and debate by many ethnic groups, especially minority ones. The Civil Rights movement of the l960$ voiced the concerns of the black community regarding the fact the public schools have largely failed to educate black children. The black community asserted that the school staff, most specifically teachers, lacked sensitivity toward and knowledge about working in a racially diverse environment and that the school curriculum did not include the realities of history and the contributions of black Americans. During the l970s, the issue of providing all students with educational Opportunities developed from a growing concern that minority students had been discriminated against within the educa- tional institution. According to Hunter (l974), if equity is to be realized, schools must be concerned with the needs of a multicultural society and reflect its diversity throughout their organiza- tional structure. Thus, multicultural education must become a part of the educational programs as well as a part of the philosophy of education threading throughout the educational enterprise. (p. 18) For multicultural education to become part of the curriculum, teacher inservice programs must include multicultural training. Statement of the Problem Since the 19605, a great deal of discussion has centered on the need for ethnic studies and multicultural education in American schools. Scholars, community groups, and educators have advocated the philosophy of cultural pluralism as an important process in facilitating change from a “monocultural " educational environment to one that is "predicated upon a fundamental belief that all people must be accorded respect, regardless of their social, ethnic, cul- tural, and religious backgrounds" (Grant, l977, p. 66). Although school systems have recognized that various ethnic communities are dissatisfied with the education of their youths and with the content of the curriculum, little change has taken place in the overall structure of the social environment. This lack of change may be attributed to the fact that teachers, as the key implementers of multicultural education, have not been trained to incorporate this educational innovation within their classrooms. In addition to lacking the necessary training, teachers are also products of an educational process that is based on a monocul- tural doctrine that does not encourage or acknowledge the positive benefits of ethnic and cultural diversity in American life. Hence some teachers are transmitting a biased philOSOphy of assimilation and white supremacy. This attitude, whether overt, hidden, or presented in a paternalistic way, has caused many minority students to feel frustrated and isolated from the educational milieu. As Garcia (l982) stated, At times, teachers do transmit unconscious ethnic and racial biases. These biases may represent ethnic group pride (mild ethnocentrism), or they may represent cultural chauvinism (extreme ethnocentrism). At times, teachers do discriminate against minority students. These acts of discrimination may be based on notions of biological racism. . . . A teacher may have racist or ethnocentric attitudes and yet not discrimi- nate; conversely, a teacher may not have racist or ethnocentric attitudes and yet discriminate. (p. 89) Banks (l977) discussed the presence of the assimilationist philosophy in teacher education. He wrote, Teacher education institutions reinforced dominant societal goals and ideologies and socialized teachers so that they would become effective agents of the assimilationist ideology. This ideology maintains that ethnicity is "un-American" and that ethnic and primordial attachments are dysfunctional within a modernized nation state. . . . Increasingly, teacher edu- cators are beginning to realize the importance of ethnicity in the socialization of many individuals within American society and are becoming aware of the ways in which the ethnic characteristics of individuals and groups are often used to deny them equal educational opportunities. (p. l) Incorporating multicultural education within school systems and teacher-education institutions is gaining increased legitimacy. Teacher inservice programs have become an important technique for assisting teachers already engaged in service with opportunities to acquire necessary skills with which to meet the needs of diverse stu- dents populations. In recognizing that teacher-education programs have not ade- quately prepared teachers to meet the needs of a culturally diverse student population, Valverde (l977) stressed that Massive staff retraining is mandatory and of high priority, since most public school staffs are culturally limited and thus at a disadvantage when dealing with others. The lack of sub- stantial contact with different lifestyles by most staff mem- bers indicates the necessity for sensitivity training and information sharing. (p. ZOl) Planners of inservice activities in multicultural education have a major task of designing programs that will be relevant and useful to the classroom teacher. Such programs have been criticized on the basis that they lacked a systematic approach and that teachers could not see the applicability of such programs to classroom instruc- tion. The content of multicultural inservice programs is extremely important, and program planners should give it the utmost considera- tion. Banks (1977) stated, Teacher education programs should help teachers to clarify their attitudes and perceptions of ethnic and racial groups, to relate positively to different ethnic and social class groups, and to reduce their levels of ethnic, racial, and social class preju- dice. Research suggests that teachers, next to parents, are the most significant others in students' lives, and that classroom teachers plan an important role in the formation of students' attitudes and self-perceptions. . . . (p. 2) The literature on multicultural education has stated that classroom teachers play an important role in developing educational programs. Specifically, teachers of multicultural education should be able to plan and implement a curriculum design that incorporates the realities, both positive and negative, of ethnic- and cultural- group experiences in American life. Gay (l977) discussed the content of multicultural teacher-education programs as follows: Curriculum designs for multicultural teacher education should include three major components. These can be categorized as knowledge, attitudes, and skills. Some educators prefer to call them cognition, affect, and behavior. The knowledge component of multicultural teacher education is a critical one. It serves several different functions simultaneously. It can help teachers become literate about ethnic group experiences while, at the same time, providing them with information they, in turn, can use to design programs for students. The multicultural teacher educa- tion programs should also include experiences which help teachers examine their existing attitudes and feelings toward ethnic, racial, and cultural differences, and develop ones that are com- patible with cultural pluralism. Their preparation must also include developing skills to translate their knowledge and sen- sitivities into school programs, curricular designs and classroom instructional practices. (p. 33) Teacher inservice programs are an important element in facili— tating the implementation of multicultural education in school systems. Various writers have suggested many components that should be included in multicultural inservice programs. Most consistently mentioned in the literature were the cognitive and affective domains. Teachers must have the essential information and proper attitude about ethnicity and minority groups and be able to share this information in a way that is consistent with the principles of cultural pluralism and to translate the philOSOphy of multicultural education into class- room practices. In this study, the writer investigated multicultural inservice program presentations with cognitive and affective emphases to assess whether the ordering of sequence of cognitive and affective emphases made a difference in changing teachers' attitudes and increasing their knowledge, as well as in their general perception of the inservice sessions. Background and Rationale for the Study One major objective of most multicultural inservice programs is to present specific stimuli that will elicit positive attitudinal changes in participants. A desirable outcome of such programs is to enable teachers whose attitudes about students do not allow room for diverse cultural differences and perspectives to become aware of their personal and professional biases and to develop strategies that will facilitate the needed change. Cross, Baker, and Stiles (1977) stated, The teacher begins to respond to the reality of cultural diver— sity by being aware of self as a resource, accessible material, and personal lack or presence of outreach orientation to extend knowledge. This awareness should be complemented by informa- tion on historical perspective, the teaching role, and teaching strategies. (p. 14) Researchers have documented the fact that teachers' attitudes play an important role in determining whether a student will be suc- cessful in the classroom environment. The same is true in an inser- vice program, where attitude is an essential indicator of the degree of change and the level of success a teacher will have in responding to the need to use a multicultural perspective in teaching and in dealing with students from diverse backgrounds. Hence, in developing effective inservice programs, it is necessary to understand the mean- ing of attitude and its major categories. Rosenberg and Hovland (1960) defined attitudes as predispositions to respond in a particular way toward a speci- fied class of objects. . . . Being predispositions they are not directly observable or measurable. Instead they are inferred from the way we react to particular stimuli. Saying that a man has an unfavorable attitude toward foreigners leads us to expect that he will perceive their actions with distrust, will have strong negative feelings toward them, and will tend to avoid them socially. Thus when attitudes are studied what are observed are the evoking stimuli on the one hand and the vari- ous types of response on the other. The types of response that are commonly used as "indices" of attitudes fall in three major categories: cognitive, affective, and behavioral. For certain types of research it may be sufficient to use a single response as the "index" of an individual's attitude. Thus if we can keep other factors constant and merely introduce some external stimu- lus, say a communication, we can see how the individual's way of perceiving an issue is changed. For example, if one wants to determine whether presenting a particular point of view in first position, as compared to second position (after the Opposing point of view has been presented), produces greater change in attitude, one can administer a scale of verbal statements about the issue before and after the two orders of presentation and compare their impact. (pp. 1-2) Rosenberg and Hovland continued: An individual's affective response toward another individual may be inferred from measures of such physiological variables as blood pressure or galvanic response (cf. Lawson & Stagner, 1957), but is more typically inferred from verbal statements of how much he likes or dislikes him. Similarly, how an individual will act toward a given situation may be evaluated by how he does respond when directly confronted with the situation but may also be inferred from what he says he will do in the given situation. Cognitions include perceptions, concepts, and beliefs about the attitude object, and these are usually elicited by ver- bal questions in printed or oral form. The study by Katz and Braly (1933) was an early attempt to investigate the cognitive content of attitudes. A well-known finding from this study was that prejudiced respondents were markedly similar in the "traits" they attributed to members of disliked ethnic groups. (pp. 3-4) A considerable amount of research has been done in the area of attitude and its relationship to affective and cognitive gain. Because the role of inservice education has become important in developing teachers who are equipped to provide education that is culturally pluralistic, a need exists for research in the area of multicultural inservice education, which examines the various com- ponents of such an inservice experience and analyzes its effect on teachers’ attitudes. Clarifying the relative contribution of behavioral, cognitive, affective, and situational variables to cross-cultural effectiveness remains an important goal from both a theoretical and a pragmatic perspective. Conceptually, research and synthesis can lead to a better understanding of the nature of cross-cultural effectiveness and elucidate the relationship between effectiveness and adaptation. The writer investigated two elements of an inservice program-- cognitive and affective-—to determine whether presenting cognitive or affective emphases first, as compared to second, made a difference in changing the attitudes of teacher participants, as measured by an affective and cognitive multicultural testing instrument. The investigator also evaluated whether a change in attitude caused a change in cognition and vice versa. Such information should greatly assist schools in providing teachers with multicultural inservice activities. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to determine whether attitudes and knowledge about multicultural education are affected by the order in which cognitive and affective treatments are presented in a series of inService sessions. As early as 1929, Watson found that groups scoring higher on cognitive items tended to have a more favorable attitude toward the Japanese people and Chinese nationalism than did those with lower cognitive scores. Watson's study suggests that cognitive knowledge is very important in effect- ing attitudinal changes. This investigator examined whether the order of presenta- tion of cognitive and affective domains had any significant effect in producing attitude changes. An attempt was made to determine 10 whether presenting information first in inservice sessions or pre- senting first the understanding of one's own feelings and attitudes toward multiculturalism produced greater attitudinal changes. In education, it is often assumed that elementary-school teachers tend to exhibit more affective sensitivities toward multicultural education than do secondary-school teachers, who are more knowledge oriented. Therefore, this investigator also explored the relationship between the test scores of teachers in Order A and Order 8 to assess the differences, if any, that existed between elementary and secondary teachers. Research Questions The following research questions were constructed to guide the gathering of data for this study: l. Are teachers' attitudes and knowledge influenced by the sequence of cognitive and affective inservice sessions? 2. Are the effects of sequence influenced by the teachers' race and teaching level? 3. Are teachers' overall evaluations of the inservice ses- sions influenced by the sequence of cognitive and affective sessions? 4. Are teachers' overall evaluations of the inservice ses- sions influenced by factors of race and teaching level? Hypotheses The hypotheses for the study were formulated relative to the pretest and posttest scores on the Ethnic Awareness Survey (the 11 cognitive instrument), the Teacher-Student Interaction questionnaire (the affective instrument), and the Multicultural Inservice Evalua- tion Survey. Hypotheses Relative to the Composite Test Scores Ho 1.0: Ho Ho HO Ho Ho 1.1: 1.2: 2.0: 2.1: 2.2: There will be no significant differences between teachers' cognitive and affective posttest scores due to the order of inservice sessions. There will be no significant interaction between the order of cognitive and affective inservice sessions and race, as measured by cognitive and affective pretest and posttest scores. There will be no significant differences in the interac- tion between the order of cognitive and affective inser- vice sessions and teaching level, as measured by cognitive and affective pretest and posttest scores. There will be no significant interaction between the order of cognitive and affective inservice sessions and race on teachers' responses to an inservice evaluation survey. There will be no significant interaction between the order of cognitive and affective inservice sessions and teaching level on teachers' responses to an inservice evaluation survey. There will be no significant differences between the order of cognitive and affective inservice sessions on teachers' responses to an inservice evaluation survey. Generalizability The findings of this study must be considered within the limits of the population and the procedures used in the investigation. Gen- eralization beyond the sample included in this project should be done »with caution. 12 Population and Sample The population from which the sample for the study was drawn comprised elementary- and secondary-school teaching staff members from the Lansing School District. The total teaching staff in the sample numbered 40 teachers--20 from the elementary level and 20 from the secondary level. Definition of Terms The following terms are defined in the context in which they are used in this study: Acculturation--The process by which a person absorbs the cultural traits of another group. Affective--Attitudes and value judgments an individual feels or expresses concerning any person, place, or object. Assimilation--Sometimes called the "melting pot" theory; the absorption of a person or a group of people into the major group or the society; the relinquishment of unique and particular ways and mores in order to practice the ways and traditions of the majority group. Attitude--A tendency to react to persons, places, or things in either a positive or a negative manner. Cognitive--The factual knowledge, beliefs, perceptions, and expectations of an individual as regards any person, place, or object. 13 Cultural assimilation-~The process by which an individual or group acquires the cultural traits of another ethnic group. Cultural diversity¢-The condition of wide differences within and among ethnic groups. Such factors as social class, occupation and life style affect cultural diversity. Cultural pluralism--A state of equal coexistence in a mutually supportive relationship within the framework of one nation by people of diverse cultures with significantly different beliefs, behavior, color, and, in many cases, languages (Cross, Baker, & Stiles, 1977, p. 28). Culture--"The life of a people as typified in contacts, insti- tutions and equipment. . . . [It] means all those things, institutions, material objects, typical reactions to situations, which characterize a pe0ple and distinguish them from other people" (Kroeber& Kluckhohn, 1952). Ethnic groupse-Microcultural groups within the United States that have unique characteristics that set them apart from other cul- tural groups (Banks, 1979). Ethnicity--A sense of commonality derived from kinship pat- terns, a shared historical past, common experiences, religious affilia- tions, language or linguistic commonalities, shared values, attitudes, perceptions, modes of expression, and identity. Ethnocentrism--The belief that one's culture is superior to that of other groups. Inservice--All activities engaged in by the professional personnel during their service and designed to contribute to improve- ment on the job. 14 Melting pot--The belief that American society is composed of a single, homogeneous breed of people, each equal to the other and all sharing a comnon culture (Banks, 1979). Multicultural education--An educational program that provides multiple learning environments that match the academic and social needs of students. These needs may vary widely because of differences in the race, sex, ethnicity, or social-class background of the stu- dents. In addition to developing students' basic academic skills, a multicultural program should help pupils develop a better understanding of their own backgrounds and those of other groups in our society (Suzuki, 1979, p. 57). Pluralistic teacher--One who has democratic attitudes and values, a clarified pluralistic ideology, a process conceptualization of ethnic studies, ability to view society from a multiethnic view- point, knowledge of the emerging stages of ethnicity, and an ability to function effectively in a diverse multiracial/multicultural classroom. Ragg:-A subgroup of peoples possessing a definite combination of physical characteristics of genetic origin; this combination serves, in varying degrees, to distinguish the subgroup from other subgroups of mankind. Staff development--Considers the effects of the whole school (the staff) on the individual (the teacher) and the necessity of long-term growth (development). 15 Summary and Overview In this chapter, the problem, background, rationale, purpose of the study, research questions, and hypotheses were presented. Also included were a description of the population and definitions of important terms. In Chapter II, literature is reviewed concerning factors identified as important to successful inservice training pro- grams and the recommended content for multicultural education programs for teachers. Chapter III contains a discussion of the design and methodology of the study. The data are reported, analyzed, and dis- cussed in Chapter IV. Chapter V contains the summary and conclu- sions of the study, as well as recommendations for teacher inservice programs in multicultural education. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Introduction In reviewing the literature, an attempt was made to determine the general consensus of authors regarding the question of whether the order in which cognitive and affective emphases are presented in multicultural inservice has an effect on teachers. The investigator uncovered an abundance of information regarding the recommended con- tent for teacher inservice programs and the skills required of teach- ers when working with culturally diverse students. In some cases, the literature described the order in which inservice content should be presented. However, little research was found that specifically addressed that issue. Baptiste (1979) voiced the need for research in the field when he stated: There is a need for the development of valid research models for multicultural education. Presently, there is a paucity of research dealing with cultural pluralistic content, populations, teaching strategies, etc. It is common knowledge that the development of a discipline depends very heavily on research. In multicultural education, scholars must evolve modes of inquiry which will be proper for the problems related to multicultural education. The philosophy for research must move away from a pre— occupation with pathological ideas about minority ethnic groups. Studies must be conducted from a cultural pluralistic vantage point in order to develop realistic knowledge results. In the past, most of the research in the antecedent area (culturally deprived, culturally disadvantaged) has been conducted in such a manner as to indicate "ills of the target population." (p. 31) 16 17 In addition to examining the concept of order, the researcher was also concerned with implementing multicultural inservice sessions with content that was appropriate for this study, useful to the teacher participants, and followed guidelines of effective inser- vice programming. Hence the literature review is divided into two main sections: Criteria for Successful Teacher Inservice Educa- tion Programs and Recommended Content of Multicultural Education Programs for Teachers. The section dealing with Criteria for Successful Teacher Inservice Programs provides a general overview of factors that have been identified as important to the success of an inservice education program. The second section reviews recommended content for Multi- cultural Teacher Inservice Programs, with a specific focus on the order of content presentation. Five subtopics are considered: (1) Affect and Cognition: Content Components, (2) Inservice Content Models, (3) Approaches to Implementing Inservice Content, (4) Content of Four Training Programs, and (5) Conclusions. The chapter ends with a brief summary of the literature review. Criteria for Successful Teacher Inservice Education Programs In this section of the literature review, the writer discusses the major ingredients of a successful inservice program. Attention is given to inservice programs in school systems over the years. In many districts, inservice activities have become a requirement in professional staff-development programs. Usually, teachers are required to attend a certain number of inservice sessions during a 18 given school year. Several criteria have been identified throughout the literature as important considerations for inservice planners in attempting to provide successful experiences for teachers. These criteria are in the areas of (1) design and planning, (2) staff involvement, (3) consultants, and (4) leadership. Design and Planning Inservice education planners concerned with providing worth- while programs must design activities with goals and objectives that reflect the needs of the school district's staff. The staff should feel confident in the validity and usefulness of the inservice activi- ties. McFeaters (1954) concluded from her review of the research on successful inservice programs that "those tailored to local situa- tions and designed to improve teachers' ability to effectively pro- vide the best learning situations for children were thought to be the best type of inservice experience by participants" (p. 1340). The design of inservice programs is important and must include a plan to achieve the desired results. According to Harris, Bessent, and McIntyre (1969), Inservice education is a goal-directed activity concerned with changes in individuals and organizational systems and achieved through changes in people, rather than in rules, structures, functions or physical environment; and accomplished through training, rather than replacement or reassignment. Harris and his colleagues listed several factors that should be considered when planning inservice programs. A few of those factors are (1) overall objectives, (2) activities, (3) goals, (4) cognitive objectives, (5) affective objectives, and (6) inservice education as a component in a larger design. 19 Cognitive objectives are different from affective objectives in that their outcomes are concerned with participants recalling or recognizing pertinent information or knowledge about a given tapic. Affective objectives, on the other hand, are designed to give par- ticipants an experiential effect requiring some alteration in their pattern of behavior. The affective objective does not place emphasis on obtaining new information, but rather on changing the participants' feelings. Finally, inservice education is a component of the larger affective design. Participants come to see the applicability of learned behavior to other school functions and the importance of imple- menting the instructional change. As in most endeavors, the better planned an activity is, the greater the chances are for its success. Goddu, Crosby, and Massey (1977) felt that planning is the "key to effective inservice" (p. 24). Planning requires knowledge of the general goals of inservice educa- tion. Rubin (1964) cited those goals as “the extension of learning in general and pertinent subject matter knowledge in particular, the acquisition of new techniques of teaching, and a shaping of attitudes and purpose" (p. 279). Understanding why inservice programs have failed can help planners avoid making the same mistakes. Harris et al. suggested some ways in which inservice planners may violate good practice: 1. An otherwise appropriate inservice activity is sometimes used excessively. 2. Little consideration is given to the unique purposes a given activity might serve effectively. 2O 3. An inservice program plan tends to take stereotyped forms, such as a series of meetings or a lecture followed by discussions or a film followed by buzz sessions with no real designing involved. 4. The requirements of a program as to time, staff, and other resources tend to be ignored (p. 9). In "Reflections on Adult Development: Implications for Inser- vice Teacher Education," Willie and Howey (1980) suggested that the following questions be considered in developing an inservice design: 00 the participants have a sense of security? Is the activity offered in their environment? Are the instructors known to them? Do they know the criteria for evaluation? What recognition will be given to teachers as a result of par- ticipation? A new title? Publicity about their participation and achievement? Commendations to the community? What measure of autonomy do teachers have? Was the activity planned and is it being conducted under shared control? Have teachers been involved in deciding the what, when, where, and why of the activity? Is opportunity provided for participants to apply in the classroom what is learned in the workshop? As teachers increase their skills, are new opportunities made available? Do participants develop a sense of efficacy? Do they feel that they have the power to move toward individual and institu- tional goals? 00 the participating teachers receive respect? Are they treated as adult learners? Is there clarity in the task at hand? 00 participants clearly understand the task as well as the purposes behind it? (n.p.) Staff Involvement Harris et al. (1969) suggested that involvement of teachers in the inservice program should be on-going: From initial planning to final evaluation, the staff members must be intimately involved in the activities of a program in a meaningful way. Involvement is an important key to success. There are others, perhaps, but none so basic nor more important. (p. 9) 21 Dillon-Peterson (1981) believed that "sufficient numbers of staff members [should be] voluntarily involved in the learning to provide an adequate support system to maintain the change long enough for it to be institutionalized." She stated that using teachers as the change agents, verbally supporting an inservice activity, will do more to create interest and long-term application than any other strategy. Consultants One aspect teachers often criticize about inservice programs is that consultants cite teachers as the cause of their students' social and academic problems. Such consultants seem to imply that the teachers lack skill and competence in the art of teaching. There- fore, the inservice atmosphere often becomes hostile, and teachers may refuse to participate. Gerheim (1959) found that teachers favored consultants who helped them learn abggt_children, rather than those who helped in teaching children. Goodlad (n.d.) stated that a consultant's success with a group appears to depend on several factors: 1. His/her skill in using the internal structure of the group to foster the potentialities within it, e.g., skill in recogniz- ing and using leadership abilities already emerging from group struc- ture. 2. His/her ability to help the group feel able and free to make group decisions, even if important later choices are to be made individually. 22 3. His/her ability to help the group accept change--both individual and group--as a desirable goal (p. 185). In addition, consultants should display positive attitudes toward teachers and be sensitive to their needs and concerns. Leadership, Leadership is another key factor in successful inservice education programs. Without a leader or facilitator, little change occurs. Lippett and Fox (1972) asserted that, in part, the slow rate of change in the public schools is attributable to the absence of a change agent. Consultants may facilitate the needed change, but their input is often limited, and teachers do not see them as part of the "educational unit." They are viewed as outsiders who come in with alternative strategies and leave without assisting in implement- ing those strategies. The degree of success of inservice programs often depends largely on the principal. Winterton (1977) stated, "There is no other way to say it--the principal is the key figure in the success of any inservice program within the school" (p. 35). Howey and Willie (l977) agreed that administrators are key leaders, but they added: "Their management and curricular skills, while essential, are not enough to effect comprehensive change. . . . Principals themselves rarely engage in the development of new teaching skills or major role modifi- cations for their staff" (p. 20). Whereas principals cannot devote the necessary time to the development of staff inservice programs, 23 they can provide the support and encouragement to teachers in making the inservice activity a success. Vacca (1981) suggested that "the process of working with class- room teachers toward change involves helping them study the things they do instructionally so that they can develop more efficiency and effectiveness" (p. 307). She outlined several guidelines for inser- vice planners to follow: 1. Involve teachers in all phases of planning. 2. Provide follow-up services. 3. Provide for continuous evaluation and use it, if need be, to redesign future inservice sessions. 4. Allow for flexibility. Planners cannot shy away from immediate or changing concerns. Summary Couretas (1980) outlined 40 principles for successful inser- vice education, which encompassed many of the criteria discussed in the preceding section. These principles fell under five categories: (1) responsibility for inservice education, (2) the inservice educa- tion program itself, (3) time commitment for inservice education, (4) the confluence of theory and practice, and (5) evaluation and/or follow-up for inservice education. Generally, Couretas emphasized collaborative efforts among school-district staff, especially teachers and administrators, as a key to implementing a successful inservice program. Also, he recommended using well-trained inservice consult- ants and specialists within the district and community. The planning 24 of inservice programs should include developing well-defined educational-improvement activities, individualized instruction, and identified goals and objectives. Another important principle is to establish an atmosphere that is positive and cooperative and creates inservice activities based on needs identified by the program par- ticipants. Recommended Content for Multicultural Teacher Inservice Programs Affect and Cognition: Content Components In recognizing a need for teachers to become more culturally literate, school systems across the country have begun to incorporate multicultural education into their inservice activities. Similarly, teacher-preparation programs have begun to include the cultures of ethnic minorities in their curriculum. To insure that multicultural education is included in teacher-education programs, the National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) (1979), the organization that accredits teacher-education programs throughout the United States, has mandated a multicultural education standard for all NCATE teacher-preparation programs in the United States: Multicultural education could include but not be limited to experiences which: (1) promote analytical and evaluative abilities to confront issues such as participatory democracy, racism, and sexism, and the parity of power, (2) develop skills for values clarification includin the study of the manifest and latent transmission of values, (31 examine the dynamics of diverse cultures and the implication for developing professional education strategies, and (4; develop appropriate professional education strategies. (p. 13 25 The position of the NCATE and other organizations has assisted in legitimizing the adoption of multicultural education into more teacher-preparation programs than was the case in the past. Conse- quently, the focus of educational institutions has centered on the development of relevant content for multicultural teacher-education programs. Most of this content has included the affective, cognitive, and behavioral modes. Many authors have said these modes are the foundation underlying an educational inservice program that is guided by the ideals of cultural pluralism. Hayles (1978), for one, concluded that: Practitioners generally agree that if a program can impact the cognitive, affective, and behavioral domains, it is very likely to be successful. . . . Cognitive material typically includes descriptions of the historical, cultural, social, political, and economic circumstances of the people of color being dealt with by the program. The affective domain is typic- ally approached by dealing with the origin of attitudes and the ways in which racism operates and affects behavior. This ele- ment often includes self-awareness and empathy development exer- cises along with other activities designed to nourish respect for diversity and personal rights. Finally, most programs make attempts to at least discuss behaviors indicative of harmonious inter-ethnic relations. Some programs try to facilitate the establishment of groups, support structures, sources of addi- tional information, etc., in order to sustain behavioral and organizational change. It is logical to assert that there is an optional combination of cognitive, affective, and behavioral training experiences and activity for each person in the group. (p. 66) Gay (1977) suggested that curriculum designs for multicul- tural teacher education should include the categories of knowledge, attitudes, and skills or cognition, affect and behavior. In discuss- ing the order of the three categories, Gay stated, "This does not mean that the curriculum, when actually implemented, should present the components in the order they are discussed." She did, however, 26 believe that all of these components are necessary and should be included in the curriculum content. Gay described each component as follows: Knowledge Components Understanding the content of ethnic diversity and cultural pluralism. The curriculum for multicultural teacher education should present a broad range of factual information about a wide variety of different ethnic groups. It needs to include information on the cultures, the contributions, the historical experiences, and the social problems ethnic groups encounter in American society. Attitude Components The curriculum must also include experiences which help teach— ers examine their existing attitudes and feelings toward ethnic, racial, and cultural differences, and develop ones that are com- patible with cultural pluralism. Skills Teachers should learn to translate their philosophies and knowledge about ethnicity and cultural pluralism into instruc- tional plans for use with students. (pp. 34-48) Multicultural inservice education requires a variety of experi- ences that lead individuals through various stages of development. These stages may begin with a basic examination of cultural norms and values, definition of key concepts reflective of the ethnic diver- sity among groups, and skill in implementing a multicultural-education plan for students. According to Schwartz (1980), multicultural inservice programs should include specific goals that promote the abilities, knowledge, skills, attitudes, and relationships which lead individuals to move through the four stages of the develop- ment model called the "4 A's." 1. Awareness, characterized by an honest analysis of norms, values, and Beliefs as they have been shaped by culture. 2. Analysis, characterized by the knowledge and skill to use concepts to identify similarities and differences among cultures. 27 3. Acceptance, characterized by the ability to understand and appreciate racial, cultural, and individual differences and their right to exist. 4. Affirmation, characterized by the ability to design, implement and evaluate multicultural experiences in schools/ communities. (pp. 2-3) Unlike Gay, who did not recommend a particular order for the presentation of the components, Schwartz did suggest that the aware- ness (affective) stage should come first and the analysis (cognitive) stage second. Baptiste and Baptiste (1979) developed competencies, which they divided into three sequential phases: Cognitive The goal of Phase I competencies is the achievement of a knowledge based on group diversity, particularly the differen- tial treatment of various racial, ethnic, and cultural groups within our society. In Phase II, the demonstration of competencies is primarily via application in the K—12 school structure. Phase III synthesizes Phase I and Phase II competencies for the learner. Therefore, the learner evolves a conceptualization of a rationale or model for multicultural education. Affective Phase I-—developing an awareness in the learners of the value of cultural diversity. Phase II--assisting and preparing the learners to interact successfully in a cross-cultural setting. Phase III-erecognizing and accepting differences in social structure, including familial organization and patterns of authority, and their significance for the educational environ- ment. (pp. 4-7) Hunter (1974) outlined three components he considered to be basic considerations for teacher-training programs: Component 1--Establishing a knowledge base. An exploration may include historical background, cultural aspects, and any other areas considered essential towards building an individual's knowledge base. 28 Component 2--Deve10ping a supportive philosophy. It is assumed that as individuals move from the first stage, they will begin to develop the sensitivity and awareness level that is a requi- site for philosophical consideration of multiculturalism. Component 3--Implementing multicultural learning experiences. The implementation stage involves the strategies, techniques, methods, and evaluative procedures used in the learning envi- ronment. It is at this point that the attitude and behavior of those involved in the process of learning are seen in "product" form. (pp. 36-37) Most of the authors considered thus far have discussed affec- tive and cognitive components within the same framework or scheme. Other writers have elected to highlight one component separately from the other. Baptiste and Baptiste (n.d.) formulated eight affective and ten cognitive needs for teachers of multicultural education: Affective Needs 1. Develop an awareness in learners of the value of cultural diversity. Help the learners identify and take pride in their own culture. Assist and prepare the learners to interact successfully in a cross-cultural setting. Assist them to respond positively to the diversity of behavior in cross-cultural school environments. Recognize both the similarities and differences between Anglo- Americans and minority cultures and understand the potential conflicts and opportunities they may create for students. 6. Recognize and accept both the student's home language and English as a valid system of communication, each with its own legitimate functions. 7. Recognize and accept that patterns of child development vary within and among cultures in formulating realistic educational objectives. 8. Recognize and accept differences in family social structure and patterns of authority, and their impact on the educational environment. 0" D on N o o o 0 Cognitive Needs 1. Learn about the cultural experience, both contemporary and historical, of any two ethnic, racial, or cultural groups. 2. Demonstrate a basic knowledge of the contributions of minority groups in general to American society. 3. Assess the relevance and feasibility of the existing ways groups gain inclusion in today's society. 29 4. Identify current biases and deficiencies in the existing curriculum and in both commercial and teacher-prepared instruction materials. 5. Recognize potential linguistic and cultural biases of exist- ing assessment instruments and testing procedures. 6. Acquire a thorough knowledge of the philosophy and theory behind bilingual education and its application. 7. Acquire, evaluate, adapt and develop materials appropriate to the multicultural classroom. 8. Critique an educational environment on the basis of its multi- cultural educational approach. 9. Design, develop and implement an instructional module that is multicultural, multiethnic, and multiracial. 10. Present a rationale or model for the development and implemen- tation of a curriculum reflecting cultural pluralism within the K-12 school and be able to defend it on a psychological, sociological, and cultural basis. A multicultural-education inservice program includes opportu- nities for teachers to explore their own attitudes toward minority people as well as to study the contributions, values, and lifestyles of a variety of racial, ethnic, and cultural groups in American society. The following have been suggested by various authors as important cognitive and affective aspects of teacher-training pro- grams (Gollnick, 1980): l. Studying the concept and philosophies of ethnic diversity and cultural pluralism (Banks, 1977; Baptiste, 1977; Gay, 1977; Herman, 1974). 2. Studying the psychological and sociocultural processes of early-childhood growth and development (Gay, 1977). 3. Examining one's own attitudes and feelings toward ethnic, racial, and cultural differences (Banks, 1977; Banks et al., 1976; Gay, 1977; Grant, l977a, Herman, 1974). 30 4. Designing and experimenting with nontraditional teaching techniques during the training program (Gay, 1977). 5. Living for one year in a cultural setting different than one's own background (Johnson, 1977). 6. Increasing skills in creating, selecting, evaluating, and revising instructional materials with a multicultural perspective (Banks et al., 1976). 7. Experiencing and interacting with people of diverse cul- tures (Banks, 1977; Grant, l977a). 8. Studying techniques for handling problems of interpersonal relations that arise from cultural conflicts between groups (Grant, 1977a; Herman, 1974). Central to multicultural staff training is human interaction. Hillard (1974) believed that "multicultural education and multicul- tural teacher education must focus upon the dynamics of person with person and institution with person interactions, as these interactions give clues to oppressive and facilitative behaviors" (p. 2). As stated in the Guide for Multicultural Education (California State Department of Education, 1977), in multicultural instruction, Attention is focused on self-understanding or self-integration through the examination of individual beliefs, values and atti- tudes and of the impact that societal norms have on the forma- tion and maintenance of beliefs, values and attitudes. The first step in re-education is to become aware of one's own attitudes and their origins' until they are brought into the realm of consciousness, they cannot be reevaluated or changed. (p. 7) 31 Epstein (1972) believed that the cognitive level is impor- tant but that the affective aspect of educating students is most crucial: Every subject must be explored not only on the cognitive level, but also on the affective level. Often, we struggle and fail in our attempts to help children "achieve" in school because we are ignoring their strong feelings that must be dealt with before they can cope with "facts." There is no subject that can be taught legitimately without concern for the learner's feel- ings. Thus, feelings about self need to be part of the classroom material before mathematics becomes important for some children, feelings about adults need to be explored before information about drugs can be internalized, and feelings about race need to be expressed before history and civics take on any real meaning. Mayes and Commenou (1978) agreed with Epstein's belief that understanding one's ethnicity and cultural orientation is most crucial in accepting multicultural education. They wrote: Programs have been devised which give a great deal of factual information about culture, other programs have helped teachers in understanding concepts of intercultural communication such as value conflict, culture-boundness, cultural assumptions, etc. Some programs have given teachers games, books, films, and other techniques for demonstrating cultural issues. Each of these is necessary, but they are incomplete without the goal of knowing one's own values and how these values affect the teaching/learning process. Teachers who participate in an inservice session are not seeing a true picture of multicultural education if all they encounter are sensitivity and appreciation exercises. Teachers also need accu- rate, systematic, and comprehensive information that provides a theoretical base from which to apply affective skills. Knowledge about cultural diversity is the cognitive component in developing teaching styles for multicultural education. Knowledge without feeling can be detrimental, just as feel- ings without knowledge can lead to unfounded assumptions and a 32 tendency to be paternalistic and patronizing to students, especially those who are culturally different. A balance of the affective and cognitive domains in teacher education becomes an important considera- tion as issues such as improving minority achievement scores receive increased attention. Pettigrew (1974) argued that Teachers must become more concerned about the differences and similarities between achievements and aspirations of the ethnic minority child and disadvantaged majority child. Further, teachers must become more adept in the deliberate designing of learning environments that will foster academic growth and achievement within a multicultural educational setting. This concern for teachers' developing diagnostic and pre- scriptive skills was discussed by Grant (1977). He stated that "teacher education institutions must have within the curriculum con- tent activities that will prepare the teachers to distinguish between cultural differences and learning differences" (p. 31). According to Cross and Deslonde (1978), multicultural inser- vice providers have three responsibilities: 1. To help teachers develop an awareness of differences in learners. 2. To help teachers learn to value these differences. 3. To help teachers implement a curriculum which builds on the integrity of the individual. These authors viewed multicultural education for teachers as cor- recting destructive environments by affecting not only what is taught, but how it is taught. Cross and Fields (1974) suggested three specific priorities for multicultural education that should be included in a teacher- inservice program. Teachers should learn how to 1. Teach about the United States ethnic and cultural experience. 33 2. Integrate ethnic and cultural content throughout the entire curriculum. 3. Make "individual differences" the basis for planning instructional techniques and classroom processes. Leading scholars in multicultural and general education alike have agreed that teachers are the core implementers of educational theory. Likewise, teachers are the most important element in provid- ing students with a multicultural perspective. A teacher's multi- cultural commitment and his/her ability to transmit this type of education, which deviates from the traditional mode of teaching stu- dents, are imperative to the survival of multicultural education. Regardless of how much a district advocates the philosophies and goals of multicultural education, such teaching will become a reality only when teachers learn to implement these goals in their classrooms. Improving teacher attitudes and skills is an important goal of multicultural-education inservice programs. Johnson, Scales, and Smith (1974) stated: When teachers have negative feelings about their students' mental abilities and do not respect them, the teachers unwittingly con- demn their students to poor achievement. If students perceive in their teachers genuine respect, support, and confidence in their ability to learn, teachers will have much success in their ability to relate to and to teach their students. High expecta- tions through adequately planned assignments, along with respect, are the key elements for success in classrooms of the culturally different. (p. 195) Moody (n.d.) stated that, in preparing teachers to provide multicultural education, "inservice training will be needed to examine the history of minorities, curriculum content, textbooks and materials, staff and student expectations, the significant of student self- concept, testing, and student needs and ways to meet them" (p. xii). 34 Effective inservice programs should provide teachers with an opportunity to observe the effect of verbal and nonverbal cues on minority students' attitudes toward learning. Understanding cultural differences and similarities is an important prerequisite to success- fully teaching culturally diverse student populations. Discipline and academic problems occur when teachers are not trained to spot signs of trouble in the developing stages. Erickson, Cazden, and Carrasco (1982) found this to be true; they stated: Cultural interference can have profound effects on how comfort- able children feel in school and on how well they do academ- ically. In a classroom of Hispanic children, being taught by an Anglo teacher, for example, unfamiliar aspects of Anglo lan- guage and culture may confuse and alienate the children, inter- fering with their success in school. It is not things like tortillas and pifiatas that make Hispanic children feel at home; it is things like the way their teacher interacts with them, how respect is shown, and how expectations are made clear. (p. 4) Integrating multicultural education in the classroom necessi- tates that teachers have a basic understanding of key concepts that help bridge the gap between theory and the implementation of activi- ties. These concepts help define and clarify certain attitudes and conditions that prevail in the adaptation to a pluralistic educational environment. Concepts relative to multicultural education can be insured by teacher inservice programs that prepare the teacher in areas of culture, ethnicity, cultural pluralism, cultural diversity, encul- turation, assimilation, acculturation, ethnocentrism, racism (institu- tional and informal), and prejudice. Inservice Content Models Banks (1977) described five stages of ethnicity, which he believed to be important considerations when designing curriculum 35 programs for teachers. He believed that, in stage one, participants would benefit most from a ”monoethnic content" and experiences designed to develop their ethnic awareness and consciousness. Banks suggested that such "monoethnic" content should provide experiences that assist an individual in “coming to grips with his/her own ethnic identity and to learn how his/her ethnic group has been victimized by the larger society." In stage two, Banks recommended that individ- uals move a step further in dealing with their own ethnic identity, to accepting and empathizing with their "ethnic identities and hostile feelings toward outside groups." He suggested that "a strong affective curricular component which helps students to clarify their negative ethnic and racial feelings should be a major part of the curriculum." Stage three should reinforce the students' emerging ethnic identity and clarification. In stages four and five, the emphasis should change from affective development to a more cognitive-oriented struc- ture, thereby suggesting that students would be helped to “master concepts and generalizations as well as develop a global sense of ethnic literacy" related to a wide range of ethnic groups." Figure 1 illustrates the components of affective and cognitive processes with cultural pluralism at the core of the plan of action for inservice. According to Baptiste (1979), The spokes radiating ‘from the hub represent four general cul- tural factors that are substantively interrelated. Considera- tion of these factors constitutes an integral part of educational planning. Instructional goals and strategies, multiethnic and sociocultural instructional materials, and humanistic learning environment, depicted on the outer rim, are, in fact, a matrix of elements designed to implement culturally pluralistic goals within an educational framework. The elements on the outer rim are cyclic, representing continuous interaction with the factors represented on the spokes. (pp. 13-14) 36 Cultural Pluralism Anglenbg Figure l.--Cultural pluralism Operationalized through multicultural education. (From Baptiste, 1979, p. 13.) 37 Baker (1973) developed a teacher-education model that differs somewhat from Banks' stages of ethnicity in that she focused on the concept of culture as opposed to ethnicity. Baker recommended that teachers receive three stages of training: (1) the acquisition stage, which emphasizes knowledge; (2) the development stage, dealing with acquiring a philosophy of education consistent with the goals of cul- tural pluralism; and (3) the involvement stage, which focuses on implementing multicultural content and interacting in ways that are compatible with diversity. The order of stages is important in attaining the most effective results from using this model. Figure 2 illustrates graphically Baker's teacher-training model. STAGES L91. ACQUISITION 2. DEVELOPMENT 3. INVOLVEMENT r_. I Teacher teaches-- -—' M content K P P interactions N H L perceptions O I E W L M L <——> 0 <———) E E S N D 0 T E 5 ¢ Techniques Y I Materials 0 Evaluation N Child learns-- content <. EXPERIENCES ~%; interaction behavior Figure 2.--A model for training teachers to teach multicul- tural education. 38 Aragon's (1973) model of teacher preparation for multicultural education is similar to Baker's in that he, too, described three stages of training: These stages are awareness, which is analogous to acquisition of knowledge; application of awareness wherein teachers analyze school programs, teaching styles and learning theory, and iden- tify multicultural resources; and logistics for implementation, or instructional strategies and methodologies. (p. 80) In line with Aragon's model, Gay (1977) noted that Cooper, Jones, and Webb advocate identifying specific multicul- tural competencies all teachers should learn during their train- ing programs. They feel these competencies can be derived from four different sources or frames of reference. These are: philosophical sources, or the values of man; empirical sources which come from research and experimentation; the knowledge selected from the subject matter disciplines; and practical sources, or an analysis of what the teaching job requires and what skills are necessary to do it well. (p. 33) Approaches to Implementing Inservice Content Thus far, the discussion has centered on the stages and components of a multicultural teacher-education program. Specific mention has not been made of the procedures, strategies, or approaches that can be employed when implementing the inservice content. Deslonde (1977) developed three approaches for conveying the inservice content. He suggested: (1) an individualized approach using clinical strategies to impact individual teacher attitudes that would result in imple- mentation of program changes, new instructional strategies by teachers themselves, (2) supporting and rewarding approach that rewards those teachers' performances in tailor-made programs reflecting individual teacher characteristics and desires, rather than a total school program. (3) program approach that focuses on program rather than teachers, and the artifact of program development could have the desired effect on impacting teacher be iefs. 39 Deslonde conducted a study of two desegregated schools in moderately large urban centers in different states. In both schools, the desegregation plan was "peaceful"--there were no violent reactions from the community, no court order, no visible resistance from school officials. In each school, the concept of multicultural education had not been discussed before the study. The following is a summary of the study. The purpose of the project was to "look for evidence that one school, when compared with another, approached more closely a state of true integration and thus was ready to institute multicultural educational changes rather than simply exist in a desegregated condi- tion." A first step in accomplishing this was to look for some classifiable way to plot attitudinal differences found in each school. From numerous conversations, faculty meetings, anecdotal records, and questions these attitudes were developed into a process of components ranging from 0: teacher oblivious to difficulty or refusal to recognize that problems require differential responses to 10: whole-hearted acceptance or resignation. Teachers at Valencia, in an upper-middle-class community, were generally defensive and emotional when questioned at length regarding progress made by minority children in the school. Arroyo teachers were quite the opposite; they were eager to exchange ideas and receive new information. Two of Deslonde's suggested approaches were selected for these schools: in Valencia, the individualized, clinical approach; for Arroyo, the program approach. At the end of the first year, few changes were noted at Valencia, except that the faculty voted the program out of the school. In essence they refused to participate in a 4O follow-up year and totally rejected any concepts of multicul- tural education. On the other hand, the Arroyo faculty voted for a follow-up year and seemed relatively pleased with them- selves as they noted the numerous aspects or program changes they accomplished in the pilot year. As a result of these experiences, Deslonde was extremely cautious in recommending individualized inservice strategies focused on teacher attitudes. Impacting a school with a carefully planned program of change requiring the skills of all the teachers seems to hold more promise. The program approach has the decided advantage of requiring new behaviors on the part of the teacher; the attitude-value change is then a private personal affair for each teacher. Deslonde's approaches provide ways in which teacher attitudes may be changed within the context of the school. Banks (1977), on the other hand, suggested experiences that staff-development programs can use in attempting to achieve similar goals. First, he acknowledged that An extensive review of the research suggests that changing the racial attitudes of adults is a cumbersome task. Diverse experiences, such as seminars, visitations, community involve- ment, committee work, guest speakers, films, multimedia mate- rials, and workshops, combined with factual lectures, are more effective than any single approach. Earlier, Bogardus (1948) had found that a five-week intergroup education workshop, which consisted of lectures on racial problems, research projects, and visits to community agencies, had a significantly positive effect on the participants' racial attitudes. It may be concluded from Banks and Bogardus's findings, and more specifically from Deslonde's research, that providing a variety of inservice activities may increase the possibility of reaching a larger cross-section of teachers. In other words, what works for some may not work for others; therefore, the inservice planner would be wise to incorporate a variety of strategies and activities. 41 Levis (1978) found the strategy that seemed most appropriate to a group she was working with was the creation of programs, curriculum, and emphasis on self--and cultural awareness. This does not imply mere “consciousness raising" or learning a list of "cues" from other cultures' repertoires. Such training would include: (1) a model of culture as communication. . . ; (2) involvement of individuals in on-going investigation of their own premises, perceptual biases, and "filters" through carefully defined and presented "exercises"; (3) stress on the purpose of conscious awareness-- the responsibility of the individual in interpersonal interac- tions or endeavors for "stepping outside" of him or herself; and (4) perhaps most important, a broadening of focus in inter- personal interactions from the content orientation of the past to include process questions and knowledge (asking "how" and "what" we do in interaction rather than "why"). (p. 15) Content of Four Training Programs Several educational institutions have developed multicultural teacher-preparation components with defined content. Four such pro- grams are reviewed in this section. The School of Education at the University of Michigan adopted the following objectives in the fall of 1973. These objec- tives were developed by the Multicultural Committee for Inservice Programming. 1. Knowledge: to expand the participants' knowledge of their own and other cultures. . . . 2. Philosophy: to develop the participants' capacities for humane, sensitive, and critical inquiry into the nature of cultural issues, particularly as these may relate to edu- cation. . . . 3. Methodology: investigating, developing and testing suit- able teaching strategies for multicultural curriculum (Baker, 1977, pp. 166-67) Staff members of the Wisconsin State Department of Public Instruction who are responsible for working with colleges and univer- sities in human-relations program development listed six multicultural 42 program components for teacher-preparation institutions. They are as follows: Component 1. Development of attitudes, skills, and techniques so that knowledge of human relations, including intergroup relations, can be translated into learning experiences for students. Component 2. A study of the values, life styles, and contri- butions of racial,cu1tural,and economic groups in American society. Component 3. An analysis of the forces of racism, prejudice, and discrimination in American life and the effect of these forces on the experience of majority and minority groups. Component 4. Structured experiences in which teacher-education candidates have Opportunities to examine their own attitudes and feel- ings about issues of racism, prejudice, and discrimination. Component 5. Direct involvement with members Of racial, cul- tural, and economic groups and/or with organizations working to improve human relations, including intergroup relations. Component 6. Experience in evaluating the ways in which racism. prejudice, and discrimination can be reflected in instructional mate- rials (Johnson, 1977, pp. 188-93). The Institute for Cultural Pluralism at San Diego State Uni- versity also designed a teacher-training model in multicultural edu- cation. The Community, Home, Cultural Awareness, and Language Training (CHCALT) Model has four basic components: 1. Philosophy of education for the culturally and linguistic— ally different. 2. Sociocultural awareness—-home and community based. 43 3. Oral language and assessment techniques. 4. Diagnostic and prescriptive strategies. During Phase 1 of the program, students are involved in a multidisciplinary (anthropological, sociological, psychological, aesthetic, linguistic, and historical) study of culture. Phase 2 places the students in the community of the target culture they have selected. This is followed by Phase III, in which the students evolve a thorough understanding of language from a cultural-community context, as well as the role of language as a vehicle for communication, cul- tural transmission, and sociocultural identification. In Phase IV, diagnostic and prescriptive strategies, students acquire the compe- tencies to adopt and devise diagnostic tools and prescriptive strate- gies specified to meet the needs of the children they will teach (Mazon, 1974). Payne (1980) described a multicultural teacher inservice model implemented at Ball State University: One of the first considerations in developing a multicultural program should be to create a paradigm as a reference point and guide for formulating and selecting the desired content and experiences. The program at Ball State University consists of four phases that help students move from an awareness to applica- tion in the classroom. The first phase, Awareness, examines the existence of cultural differences and what is in the world around us. In the second phase, Philosophy, beliefs about the existence of other cultures and how these beliefs dictate teaching patterns in the classroom and school are examined. During the third phase, Instructional Strategies, the concepts learned in the first two phases are integrated into the teaching process. Instructional techniques based on the cultural background of the students are developed. The fourth phase, Schools as Organizations, examines how schools are organized in terms of awareness, philosophy, and instructional strategies for multicultural classrooms and schools, and how the school's organization impedes or enhances awareness, philosophy, and instructional strategies for multicultural class- rooms and schools. 44 The four examples of training models discussed in this section are representative of efforts made by state departments of education and universities to take more of a leadership role in training teach- ers to work effectively with all_students. The four programs varied somewhat in the order of their phases or components. The School of Education at the University of Michigan placed knowledge-oriented material first and more affective-related content second, whereas the Department of Public Instruction in Wisconsin integrated the two com- ponents. The CHCALT program integrated the affective and cognitive domains in the first component. This program added a dimension of actual visitation to the community, and more defined application strategies were proposed in this program than in the others. The fourth program, at Ball State University, placed awareness (affective domain) as the first phase and an integration of affective and cogni- tive emphasis in the next phase; the third phase was more cognitively oriented. Concluding Remarks Planners Of multicultural-education inservice programs have the difficult task of designing programs to develop positive attitudes and behaviors toward cultural diversity while imparting information about ethnic and cultural diversity. In addition, these programs must include strategies to encourage participants to share personal attitudes and feelings. Further,lfilliard (1974) believed that the training context must build confidence. He wrote: Teachers must see that they can teach children from other cul- tures successfully. Their freedom to be creative can never 45 come later if they must live with the knowledge that they cannot teach successfully in a multicultural context. They must not leave teacher training programs being afraid to try and wonder- ing if they can make it. (p. 53) Five organizational approaches are keys to planning a multi- cultural inservice program: 1. To meet with key school-district staff to develop ways of assessing and defining long-term and immediate needs; 2. To select staff, consultants, and resource personnel to assist in planning and implementing the inservice activity; 3. To develop inservice goals and Objectives and to organize content and materials to be used in the inservice program; 4. to design inservice activities; 5. To plan ways of creating an atmosphere that encourages and promotes multicultural understanding and appreciation. This list provides a starting point for developers of multi- cultural inservice programs. The fifth approach, preparing an atmos- phere, can add the finishing touches to an inservice activity. Inser- vice developers must bridge the gap that often exists between minority- and majority-group teachers in the inservice environment. Hilliard (1974) cited common tendencies of minority- and majority-group teachers in regard to multicultural education: Minority teachers often feel that no training for them is neces- sary in matters of multicultural concern. Nothing could be further from the truth. Cross-cultural experiences for minority teachers are necessary. . . . White teachers who are inexperienced in multicultural settings prefer to focus upon learning informa- tion about minorities rather than upon interactions with minori- ties. There is no clear indication that information about a cultural group leads to more supportive treatment of that group. 46 This is easy and can be done at leisure. However, it is the Egtegggtions themselves which provide the grist for learning. An inservice activity should allow teachers to examine their individual values and attitudes relative to teaching and participat- ing in a multicultural society. This focus will encourage teachers to challenge their traditional viewpoints through a process reevalua- tion. Summary This chapter began with a review of literature on important factors in successful training programs and the recommended content of multicultural teacher-education programs. Scholars involved in multicultural inservice education view society as composed of cul- turally diverse groups Who have made tremendous contributions that should be acknowledged and maintained. Therefore, they believe teachers should receive adequate training to transmit this view into their classrooms. For a teacher inservice program to generate a multicultural theme, it is important that program developers plan content that includes affective (awareness of attitudes, values, and biases in regard to cultural diversity) and cognitive (study of the history, contributions, and experiences of ethnic groups in American life) domains. The goals and objectives as well as materials and activi- ties should reflect the needs of the inservice participants. In addition, the selection of consultants and collaborative efforts between teachers and school staff in the planning and implementing 47 stages are necessary. Also, a well-defined inservice design with goals, objectives, and needs assessed by participants is important for program success. Literature dealing with effective inservice- education programs indicated that planning an inservice activity requires input from a variety of sources within the school district. Using sensitive and knowledgeable consultants is crucial, as is using the information gathered from needs identified by the participants themselves. Chapter III presents the methodology and procedures used to measure the effect of treatment order of affective and cognitive inservice training sessions on teacher responses to a multicultural knowledge and attitude survey. CHAPTER III DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Introduction The Design and Methodology chapter contains eight sections: a brief overview of the Lansing School District and the teaching popu- lation, a description of the sample and procedures employed in obtain- ing the sample, study design, instrumentation of the study, inservice presenters, content developed for the inservice sessions, observa- tional field notes, and research questions and analysis procedures. Brief Overview of the Lansing School District A booklet entitled "Lansing School District, A Great Place to Learn," distributed by the Lansing School District (1982), describes the school district as follows: The Lansing School District encompasses 64 square miles of territory which include the City of Lansing and a small part of East Lansing. The school system also extends into portions of Delhi, Delta, DeWitt, Lansing, Watertown, and Windsor townships. The district's physical plant, which has an insured value of more than $205 million, includes 49 schools, 2 office build- ings, a warehouse, bus garage, and the downtown public library. Lansing's K-12 student population numbers almost 24,000 and is expected to stabilize at 22,500 in 1985. The system has a diverse ethnic and socio-economic mix of students reflective of an urban area. The student body is approximately 63 percent Caucasian, 24 percent Black, 10 percent Latino, 2 percent Asian, and 1 percent American Indian. Lansing provides bilingual and multicultural education ser- vices to district students and staff. These programs are an outgrowth of the desegregation efforts started in Lansing dur- ing the 1970's. [See Appendix A for a detailed summary of the desegregation history in Lansing School District.] 48 49 Lansing currently operates 3 senior high schools for grades 10-12 (Eastern, Everett, and Sexton) and 4 junior high schools for grades 7- 9 (Gardner, Otto, Pattengill, and Rich). Each building publishes a student- -parent handbook which details the school course offerings, graduation requirements, and athletic/co-curricular activities available there. The Lansing School District offers an outstanding variety of educational programs for handicapped students of varying abilities from pre- -school age up through 25.. . Vocational programs are available to high school juniors and seniors. Students spend a half-day of concentrated study in their vocational field and the remainder of each school day in other required or elective classes. By the fall of 1983, all vocational courses will be taught at the Hill Academic and Vocational Center. For more detailed information on the Lansing School District, see Appendix A. The Lansipg School District's Teaching Population Lansing has a professional staff of 1,414 full-time teachers. The ethnic breakdown of that staff is as follows: 1,180 Caucasian 83.5% 186 Black 13.2% 37 Hispanic 2.6% 7 Asian .5% 3 Indian .2% 1 Other .1% The majority of teachers in the district have master's degrees. Teachers are encouraged to attend workshops and conferences to update and expand their skills. Most of the teaching staff belong to the Lansing School Education Association's Union. Description of the Sample The participants H1this study were members of the Lansing School District teaching staff. Forty teachers participated on a voluntary basis: 20 from the elementary level and 20 from the 50 secondary level. Teacher participants varied according to race, teaching grade level, and the amount of experience in the area of multicultural education. Salient features of the 40 teachers who participated in the study are presented in Table 1. Table l.--Characteristics of participants involved in the study (N=40). Participation in Amount Of Other Multicul- Race Sex Teaching . Experience turgloénzggv1ce Black=l7 Male=3 1-3 yrs.= Yes=25 Hispanic=7 Female=37 4-6 yrs.= No =15 Caucasian=l3 7-9 yrs.= Other=3 10-12 yrs.= 13-18 yrs =13 >18 yrs.=3 Procedures for Obtaining the Inservice’Sample A letter was sent to all building administrators at the elemen- tary and secondary levels, department Chairpersons, and key teachers in each building who communicate daily with staff members. The letter and a flyer outlined the need for inservice participants and gave gen- eral information about the four inservice training sessions, such as the name of each facilitator and the dates, times, and places where the sessions would be held. (See Appendix B.) A participant registration form was attached to the letter. Staff members who volunteered to participate in the study were asked to fill out the form and return it to the researcher bya specified date. As soon as the registration forms were returned, the researcher 51 divided participants into two groups: (1) according to teaching grade level and (2) according to race. Each teacher was assigned a random number. The two groups of 20 teachers were randomly assigned to Treatment Group A and Treatment Group B, as explained in the Study Design section. A letter was sent to each teacher who volunteered to participate in the study, thanking him/her for agreeing to par- ticipate. A schedule of dates, times, and places of each session was included with the letter. Teachers in the sample were assigned two code letters, which indicated their race and teaching grade levels. The researcher administered the pretest and posttest assess- ments, monitored their implementation, and collected the completed tests. Teachers were reassured that there would be no pass-or-fail criteria and that the results would be used only to make generaliza- tions about the sessions and not to identify individual participants. Study Design An experimental design with a pretest, a posttest, and an inservice evaluation survey was employed in the study. The design included three independent variables: (1) order of treatment (ran- domized), (2) race (B-W-Other), and (3) teaching level (elementary- secondary). The design also included five dependent variables: (1) affective instrument--pretest score, (2) affective instrument-- posttest score, (3) cognitive instrument--pretest score, (4) cognitive instrument--posttest score, and (5) a rating composite score on an inservice evaluation survey. 52 A sample of 40 teachers was drawn from the Lansing School District teaching staff. Twenty teachers from the elementary level and 20 from the secondary level were randomly assigned to one of the two possible sequence-of-training orders: Treatment A--affective emphasis followed by cognitive emphasis, or Treatment B--cognitive emphasis followed by affective emphasis. All subjects in Treatments A and 8 received a pretest before attending the first session. Subjects in Treatment A went through two affective-emphasis training sessions, followed by two cognitive- emphasis training sessions. Subjects in Treatment 8 went through two cognitive-emphasis training sessions, followed by two affective- emphasis training sessions. When both groups had completed their inservice sessions, a posttest and an inservice evaluation survey were administered. The posttest contained the same items as did the pretest. Data were analyzed to determine if a significant difference existed between posttest scores of Pre-El and Pre-E2 teachers and Pre-Sl and Pre-SZ teachers. Scores of Pre-El and Pre-Sl teachers were compared to determine whether a significant difference existed between the two groups on their posttest scores. The same type of evaluation was performed on the scores of Pre-E2 and Pre-SZ teachers and on the scores of lE-El, lE-E2, lE-Sl, and lE-SZ teachers. The study design is illustrated in Figure 3. All data cells indicated as pretest and posttest include two sets Of scores. For example, each cell includes scores on the Ethnic Awareness Survey, termed the cognitive measure, and the Teacher-Student Interaction instrument, termed the affective measure. Treatment 1 Sequence of training: Affective emphasis fol- lowed by cog- nitive emphasis Treatment 2 Sequence of training: Cognitive emphasis fol- lowed by affec- tive emphasis . Cognitive Scores Teachers Train- (Subjects) Pretest ing Posttest . Affective . Affective Elem. Scores Scores 10 . Cognitive . Cognitive Scores T Scores . Affective 1 . Affective Sec. Scores Scores 10 . Cognitive . Cognitive Scores Scores . Affective . Affective Elem. Scores Scores 10 . Cognitive . Cognitive Scores T Scores . Affective 2 . Affective Sec. Scores Scores 10 . Cognitive Scores Figure 3.--Study design. The affective and cognitive tests were statistically tested using the analysis of covariance technique. The inservice survey was statistically tested using a two-way analysis of variance pro- cedure. Four inservice sessions were conducted. Two of these sessions provided emphasis on cognitive-based information about four ethnic 54 and racial groups (Black, American Indian, Hispanic, and Asian). Two sessions emphasized affective content related to multicultural education, including developing self-awareness, feelings about and attitudes toward racial groups, and so on. Two sessions were used to administer the assessment tests. Instrumentation The Ethnic Awareness Survey (the cognitive instrument), the Teacher-Student Interaction Instrument (the affective instrument), and the Multicultural Inservice Evaluation Survey were used as dependent variables in the study. They were chosen as appropriate measures for assessing teachers' knowledge about specific ethnic groups, their attitudes toward cultural diversity, and their overall reaction to the multicultural inservice sessions. Each instrument is discussed in the following paragraphs. Cognitive Instrument Gary Howard, the author of the Ethnic Awareness Survey, described the instrument as follows. (See Appendix C for a copy of the actual test.) The Ethnic Awareness Survey for measuring education was designed and field-tested during the first year of the develop- mental phase of the project. This process was carried out by the project developer under the supervision of Dr. Don F. Blood, Director of Testing at Western Washington University. The initial 128 five-Option multiple-choice items were written by four ethnic consultants who represent the Asian, Black, Chicano, and Native American cultures, and who teach those areas of his- tory and culture at the university level. This pool of items was then revised by the project developer to achieve clarity and eighth grade readability. The revised items were then sent to a group of eight additional ethnic consultants to be critiqued for 55 validity, accuracy, and cultural sensitivity. This input along with the item analysis data was used to select the 54 items which appear in the final form of the Ethnic Awareness Survey. . . The final form of the instrument has been field- tested with the second and third year project participants to gather addi- tional item analysis and reliability data. At this point the Ethnic Awareness Survey has proven to be a reliable (Kuder/ Richardson coefficient of .90) tool for measuring students' level of knowledge related to the history and culture of non- white ethnic groups. (Howard, n.d.) Affective Instrument The affective instrument used in this study was the Teacher- Student Interaction Instrument, develOped by Margaret Ford (1979). She described the instrument as follows. (A copy of the entire instrument may be found in Appendix C.) The instrument was based on James Banks' typology of eth- nicity, which he referred to as a preliminary ideal-type con- struct. After studying Banks' construct, the following steps were taken in an effort to generate parameters for each of the stages and thus to produce an instrument to be validated and tested for reliability. Step 1. The investigator reviewed the literature and other model constructs for their relationship to Banks' typology. . . . Step 2. Based on the knowledge of the characteristics of each stage, the investigator generated a preliminary list of parameters for each of the stages of ethnicity. . . . The .001 level of significance was the criterion by which the scale was refined. The .001 level of significance was selected because it is a very conservative measure that only allows for variation one out of every thousand times. After piloting the instrument, forty-two of the fifty-two items had a .001 level of significance. The .001 level of significance is considered a very rigid measure, therefore its use would assure highly reliable items. While ten additional items with various levels of significance remained a part of the instrument, they were not used in the final analysis of data because of the probability of contaminating the results. (pp. 37-39, 41-42) 56 Multicultural Inservice Evaluation Survey Data concerning the participants' overall evaluation of the inservice sessions were gathered by means of the Multicultural Inser- vice Evaluation Survey, developed by the researcher and Dr. Richard Thomas, Associate Professor of History and Urban Affairs at Michigan State University. The survey was developed as a postevaluative measure to determine participants' attitudes toward their overall multicultural inservice experience. The survey is divided into three parts. The first part deals with participants' opinions concerning the effectiveness of the struc- ture, content, facilitators, and organization. Responses of NR = no response, SA = strongly agree, A = agree, N = neither agree nor disagree, 0 = disagree, and SD = strongly disagree were the categories available to choose from. The second part of the survey comprised three open-ended questions concerning the workshop. The third part of the survey requested participants to rate each individual session as follows: excellent, good, fair, and poor. (See Appendix C for a copy of the instrument.) Inservice Presenters Two inservice presenters assisted in the study. Dr. Cornell is an Assistant Professor in the Department of English and American Studies, College of Arts and Letters, Michigan State University. He has taught for the Department of Racial and Ethnic Studies in the College of Urban Affairs since 1975. Dr. Cornell has conducted several inservice programs and has consulted with school districts 57 and other institutions in Sault Saint Marie, Grand Rapids, Lansing, and Jackson. Dr. Richard Thomas is an Associate Professor of History and Urban Affairs at Michigan State University. He has been a consultant in multicultural education and race relations for more than ten years. Dr. Thomas has lectured, consulted, and taught courses in multicul- tural education and race relations throughout Michigan and in Chicago, Illinois, and Cleveland, Ohio. He has also taught graduate-level courses in multicultural education to graduate students in Lakenheath, England. Dr. Thomas was formerly a member of the Department of Racial and Ethnic Studies at Michigan State University. Inservice Content Develgpment Earlier in the year, before the study was initiated, teachers in the Lansing School District had been given a postevaluation survey after participating in multicultural education inservice programs, to determine their perception of the training experience and what addi- tional inservice activities were needed. Their responses gave the researcher and the two inservice facilitators background information regarding the type of inservice content teachers felt was important. This information was used in developing the inservice sessions because teachers could not participate in planning the inservice sessions for this study. Their participation in organizing the program would have invalidated the results of the study. Dr. Cornell and Dr. Thomas met with the researcher several times to develop the content and activi- ties for each session. The researcher reviewed the study design, 58 procedures, and evaluation instruments with the two facilitators. The following is a summary of the content developed for the purpose of this study. Affective: Dr. George Cornell conducted the affective sessions. The content consisted of teacher participants dealing with subjective emotional reasons for inequality and the relationship between personal attitudes, values, and beliefs, and diverse populations. Cognitive: Dr. Richard Thomas conducted the cognitive sessions. The content consisted of teachers studying facts about Blacks, Native Americans, Asians, Hispanics, and various European ethnic groups, such as the English, Irish, and Polish. Concepts and theories like ethnic- ity, racism, cultural pluralism, ethnocentrism, and multiculturalism were discussed. In designing these sessions, the intention was to separate the two areas that normally interrelate, for the purpose of examining them separately. In the affective sessions, participants were encouraged to share their experiences and attitudes, with guidance from Dr. Cornell, whereas the cognitive sessions dealt primarily with concrete, factual data about various ethnic groups. There were distinctive differences in the presentations of the two areas, as well as in the types of dis- cussions during the sessions. For a more detailed summary of the inservice sessions, see Appendix D, Observational Field Reporting Notes. Observational Field Rgporting Notes The investigator attended both group sessions and kept a log of "out of class" and “in class" comments regarding the inservice 59 sessions. In addition, the two presenters reported their observations by completing a questionnaire form and writing their general observa- tions about each group. (See Appendix D.) At the concldsion of the study, the observational data logs kept by the researcher and the two facilitators were compared with the data. It should be noted that confidentiality of respondents was not violated in the observational field notes, nor were generalizations made about specific ethnic or racial groups. Rather, the writer simply intended to give general insights into discussions (taken out of context) that took place, to give an overview of the types of con- cerns and issues with which study participants:were involved. Research Questions The following research questions were formulated to guide the gathering of data for the study: 1. Are teachers' attitudes and knowledge influenced by the sequence of cognitive and affective inservice sessions? 2. Are the effects of sequence influenced by the teachers' race and teaching level? 3. Are teachers' overall evaluations of the inservice ses- sions influenced by the sequence of cognitive and affective sessions? 4. Are teachers' overall evaluations of the inservice ses- sions influenced by factors of race and teaching level? Null Hypotheses The following hypotheses, stated in the null form, were formu- lated to test the data gathered in the study. 60 Ho 1.0: There will be no significant differences between teachers' cognitive and affective posttest scores due to the order of inservice sessions. Ho 1.1: There will be no significant interaction between the order of cognitive and affective inservice sessions and race, as measured by cognitive and affective pretest and posttest scores. Ho 1.2: There will be no significant differences in the interac- tion between the order of cognitive and affective inser- vice sessions and teaching level, as measured by cognitive and affective pretest and posttest scores. Ho 2.0: There will be no significant interaction between the order of cognitive and affective inservice sessions and race on teachers' responses to an inservice evaluation survey. Ho 2.1: There will be no significant interaction between the order of cognitive and affective inservice sessions and teaching level on teachers' responses to an inservice evaluation survey. Ho 2.2: There will be no significant differences between the order of cognitive and affective inservice sessions on teachers' responses to an inservice evaluation survey. Data-Analysis Procedures A pretest, posttest, and post-inservice-evaluation survey design was employed to ascertain changes in the dependent variables. Data-analysis procedures for the study included a multivariate analy- sis of covariance (MANCOVA) and a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). MANCOVA was used to test Hypotheses 1.0, 1.1, and 1.2. ANOVA was used to test Hypotheses 2.0, 2.1, and 2.2. Chapter IV contains an analysis of the data collected in this study. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS Introduction The results of the study are presented in this chapter. Through the design of the study and the analysis of the results, the researcher sought to determine if ordering sequence of affective/ cognitive or cognitive/affective prompted a difference in teachers' knowledge and attitude toward multicultural education. The researcher also sought to determine if factors such as race and teaching level had an influence on cognitive-knowledge acquisition and attitude changes of participants. Affective and cognitive posttest scores were analyzed using MANCOVA (multivariate analysis of variance, using a covariate structure) to determine whether there were significant differences between groups due to the ordering of inservice sessions. Two covariates were included in the analysis: affective pretest scores and cognitive pretest scores of the participating teachers. The pretest scores were used as covariates, as opposed to including them in the form of dependent variables, because: 1. Whenever knowledge and attitudes in the area of multi- cultural education are probed, teachers, as others, tend to hold specific and diverse points of view on the subject. Because this investigator was interested in the effect of a treatment-ordering sequence, it was necessary to neutralize interference from the 61 62 participants' existing body of knowledge and attitudes. Using the pretest scores as covariates helped to equate the participants sta- tistically, relative to their attitude and knowledge about multicul- tural education. 2. Another statistical possibility was to analyze the pretest and posttest change scores of the participating teachers. However, statistically, change-score analysis is very unreliable because change does not occur uniformly over the total range of a dependent measure. In other words, an experimental treatment could appear to have made a significant change only because the participants' pretest scores were low. However, the same treatment employed with a group whose initial scores were high would fail to show significance. Participants' responses on the inservice evaluation survey were analyzed using a two-way analysis of variance to determine whether there were significant differences between groups due to the ordering of inservice sessions. In the following pages, the statistical results of the study are presented for each null hypothesis. Results of Hypothesis Testing Ho 1.0: There will be no significant differences between teachers' cognitive and affective posttest scores due to the order of inservice sessions. To determine if there was an effect due to the ordering sequence of the treatment sessions on any of the two posttest scores, an F statistic for multivariate test of equality of mean vectors was computed. Table 2 shows that no statistically significant difference was found, with an F ratio of 1.81 and p s .179. 63 Table 2.--Effect of inservice order sequence on teachers' cognitive and affective posttest scores. Variable MS df F p's Post A 122.21 1 3.53 Post C 22.69 1 .366 .99 Error A 37.53 34 Error C 61.95 Degrees of freedom = 1,34 Overall F = 1.81 p S .179 To determine if there was an effect due to the race of the participating teachers on any of the two posttest scores, an F statistic for multivariate test of equality of mean vectors was computed. Table 3 shows that no statistically significant difference was found, with an F ratio of .534 and p S .711. Table 3.--Effect Of race on teachers' cognitive and affective posttest scores. Variable MS df F p S Post A 35.71 2 .97739 .388 Post C 4.28 2 .0785 .924 Error A 36.54 29 Error C 54.29 29 Degrees of freedom = 2, 29 Overall F = .534 p s .711 64 Ho 1.1: There will be no significant interaction between the order of cognitive and affective inservice sessions and race, as measured by cognitive and affective pretest and posttest scores. To determine if the order of inservice sessions was interacting with teachers' race, the F statistic formultivariate test of equality of mean vectors was computed, with affective and cognitive posttest scores as dependent measures. Table 4 shows that no statistically significant interaction was found, with an F ratio of 1.64 and p s .175. Thus, there was no statistically significant interaction between order sequence and race. Table 4.--Effect of order sequence and race on teachers' cognitive and affective posttest scores. Variable MS df F p s Post A 7.95 2 .217 .806 Post C 169.31 2 3.110 .059 Error A 36.54 29 Error C 54.29 29 Degrees of freedom = 2,29 Overall F = 1.64 p s .175. Ho 1.2: There will be no significant differences in the interac- tion between the order of cognitive and affective inser- vice sessions and teaching level, as measured by cognitive and affective pretest and posttest scores. To determine if the order of inservice sessions was interac- ing with the teachers' teaching level, the F statistic for multivariate test of equality of mean vectors was computed, with affective and cog- nitive posttest scores as dependent measures. Table 5 shows that no 65 statistically significant interaction was found, with an F ratio of .074 and p 5 .928. Thus, there was no statistically significant inter- action between order sequence and teaching level. Table 5.--Effect of order sequence and teaching level on teachers' affective and cognitive posttest scores. Variable MS df F p 5 Post A .01 1 .00 .999 Post C 9.35 l .15 Error A 34.53 37 Error C 61.95 37 Degrees of freedom = 1,37 Overall F = .074 p s .928 As the interaction was not significant, the possibility of significant differences due to the two teaching levels was explored. Table 6 shows that no statistically significant interaction was found, with an F ratio of .005 and p s .99. Table 6.--Effect of teaching level on teachers' affective and cognitive posttest scores. Variable MS df F p 5 Post A .21 1 .005 .99 Post C .43 l .007 Error A 34.53 37 Error C 61.95 37 Degrees of freedom = 1,37 Overall F = .005 p g .99 66 Ho 2.0: There will be no significant interaction between the order of cognitive and affective inservice sessions and race on teachers responses to an inservice evaluation survey. To determine if the order of inservice sessions was interact- ing with the race of the participating teachers, a two-way ANOVA was computed. Table 7 shows that a statistically significant interaction existed between the order of cognitive and affective inservice sessions and participants' race,with an F ratio of 3.47 and p s .02. Table 7.--Effect of ordering sequence and teachers' race on their inservice evaluation rating. Source MS df F p < Order 1.69 l .04 .84 Race 10.277 3 .27 .84 Interaction 132.860 3 3.47 .02* Error 38.273 32 Degrees of freedom 3,32 Overall F = 3.47 p s .02 *Significant at p .05. IA Figure 4 depicts the interaction between treatment-order sequence and teachers' race. The graph indicates that Blacks and Whites in the affective/cognitive order group had higher scores than Blacks and Whites in the cognitive/affective order group. The situation seemed to be reversed for the other two racial cate- gories. Participants in the affective/cognitive order group had 67 lower inservice evaluation scores than did those in the cognitive/ affective order group. a: /F ‘5 171’ Order 2 73 ‘5‘ .— 3" 25 41 S)- - _. 3 5 _\ V’ 20 . 7‘ C .2 g 15 4» 3 f5 15 10 g Order 1 w u > a: m C .. ° 4 4 + 1 Black White Hispanic Other Race Figure 4.--Interaction between treatment-order sequence and teachers' race. Ho 2.1: There will be no significant interaction between the order of cognitive and affective inservice sessions and teaching level on teachers' responses to an inservice evaluation survey. To determine if the order of inservice sessions was interact- ing with the teaching level of participants on the multicultural inservice evaluation survey, a two-way ANOVA was computed. Table 8 shows that there was no statistically significant interaction between 68 the order of cognitive and affective inservice sessions and partici- pants' teaching level, with an F ratio of .001 and p 5 .98. Table 8.--Effect of ordering sequence and teachers' teaching level on their inservice evaluation rating. Source MS df F p 5 Order 2.007 1 .046 .83 Teaching level 90.336 1 1.050 .16 Interaction .030 l .001 .98 Error 43.950 35 Ho 2.2: There will be no significant differences between the order of cognitive and affective inservice sessions on teachers' responses to an inservice evaluation survey. Table 8 shows that the main effect of order was not signifi- cant, with an F ratio of .046 and p s .83. Thus, there was no sta- tistically significant difference between the two orders of cognitive and affective inservice sessions. Additional Findingg 1. To examine the relationships among the four dependent measures (two covariates and two dependent variables) in this study, a Pearson product-moment correlation matrix was computed. Table 9 includes the correlation coefficients and p significance values for the total sample of 40 teachers. 69 Table 9.--Correlations between the pretest and posttest affective and cognitive scores of the participating teachers. A-Pre C-Pre A-Post C-Post Affective pretest " {:333) (:33?) (:19) Cognitive pretest -- (:33) (:33?) Affective posttest .. (:2;) Cognitive posttest *Significant at p s .05. As shown in Table 9, a significant positive correlation was found between the pretest and the posttest scores in both the affective and cognitive domains. Squaring the respective correlation coefficients indicates the percentage of variance in the posttest scores that could be attributed to the pretest scores. Thus, 55 percent of the variance in the affective posttest scores was directly related to the respective pretest scores and was not influenced by the experimental treatment (order sequence). Likewise, 46 percent of the variance in the cogni- tive posttest scores was attributed to the respective pretest scores but not to the experimental treatment. Table 9 also shows an interesting relationship between the affective and cognitive test scores: A significantly negative corre- lation (r==-,38, p s .009) existed between the affective and cognitive pretest scores for the total sample of participants. In other words, teachers with high affective scores tended to have low cognitive 70 scores, and vice versa. However, following the four treatment ses- sions, there was no correlation between the affective and cognitive posttest scores (r = -.01, p 5 .47). Thus, it may be inferred that the experimental treatment may have had an effect of separating the teachers' affective and cognitive frames of reference and making the teachers aware of those dimensions. 2. The percentage distribution of teachers' ratings of various facets of the inservice experience is shown in Table 10. The ratings were on a scale from strongly agree to strongly disagree. Most of the teachers were positive about the inservice. Questions 1 and 2, which concerned expectations of the inservice and the facilitators, received high ratings. Teachers generally agreed that the inservice sessions met their expectations and that the facilitators were well suited to their particular sessions. Question 3 varied from Questions 1 and 2 in that more teachers felt they would reconmend this type of inser- vice to other teachers. On this question, the strongly agree cate- gory received a higher percentage of responses than did the agree category. More teachers agreed than strongly agreed that there had been an increase in their knowledge as a result of the inservice ses- sions (Question 4). Question 5, regarding an increase in positive attitudes toward multicultural education as a result of the inservice sessions, showed ratings ranging from the strongly agree to the neither agree nor disagree categories. Most of the teachers agreed that their attitudes had become more positive, whereas others were undecided. On Question 6, teachers were split between strongly agree and agree concerning their interest in participating in other sessions. 71 Table 10.--Teachers' ratings of six inservice benefits. Questions SA A N D SD 1. Did the inservice training sessions meet your expectations? 20 50 12 7 8 2. Were the facilitators well suited to the inservice sessions? 32 52 8 8 0 3. Would you recommend this inser- vice to other teachers? 45 32 12 10 O 4. There has been an increase in my knowledge of multicultural education as a result of this 35 42 10 7 5 inservice. 5. My attitudes have become more positive toward multicultural education as a result of this 25 45 25 5 0 inservice. 6. Would you be interested in participating in other 48 4O 7 3 O inservices? Participants were asked in the Multicultural Inservice Evalua- tion Survey, "Should the order of sessions be changed?" Table 11 illustrates the participants' responses to this question. Most of the participants believed that the order was satisfactory and that a need did not exist for it to be changed. However, more respondents in the affective/cognitive group answered affirmatively than did those in the cognitive/affective group. The reverse was true of the cognitive/ affective group; more respondents in that group than in the affective/ cognitive group believed the sessions should not be changed. These data reflect only part of the group's opinion of order. Eleven 72 teachers did not respond to the question. Two interpretations may be made: (1) that the teachers were undecided about whether the order affected the inservice or (2) that they did not understand the purpose of the question and consequently did not respond. Table ll.--Participants' responses to the question regarding whether the order of sessions should be changed. Response Cognitive/Affective Affective/Cognitive Yes 3 6 No 11 9 At the end of the inservice program, the participating teach- ers were asked to rate the quality of each of the four inservice sessions on a scale ranging from excellent to poor. Table 12 shows a summary of those ratings, for each order sequence. The table depicts a trend that, although not statistically significant, has important implications for this study. A higher percentage of par- ticipants in the cognitive/affective group rated the first two inser- vice sessions low on the scale, in contrast to the participants in the affective/cognitive group. Across the four sessions, participants in the affective/cognitive group did not exhibit marked changes in their ratings of the sessions. However, participants in the cognitive/ affective group did increase their ratings of the third and fourth sessions, in comparison to their first and second session ratings. 73 Table 12.--Percentage of teachers in each order sequence rating the inservice sessions on a four-point scale.a Affective/Cognitive Session Cognitive/Affective Exc. Good Fair Poor Exc. Good Fair Poor 26 47 21 6 l 25 35 35 5 25 6O 10 5 2 25 3O 45 O 35 45 15 5 3 45 4O 10 5 25 55 15 5 4 26 53 16 5 aA separate X2 value was computed for each order group separately, and across the two orders, separately, Sor high and low ratings. Zhe X2 values were compared with a tabled X = 3.841. The following x values were obtained: 1. Order 1, high vs. low rating: x2 = 4.776 points to a signifi- cant relationship between session sequence and rating. 2. Order 11, high vs. low rating: X2 relationship. = 2.899, no significant 3. High rating, Order I vs. Order 11: x2 = .987, no significant relationship. 4. Low rating, Order I vs. Order II: X2 = 1.084, no significant relationship. Chapter V contains a summary of the study, a discussion of limitations and results, and recommendations for future research. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary The purpose of the study was to examine the effect of ordering on training sessions having affective/cognitive emphases versus cognitive/affective emphases in their content. Little research has been done to evaluate the effectiveness of ordering with an affective/ cognitive emphasis and the reverse order with teacher populations in multicultural inservice settings. This study was designed to learn whether inservice programs that provide affective experiences before cognitive information are more effective than programs that provide cognitive information before affective experiences. The researcher sought to investigate the following questions: 1. Are teachers' attitudes and knowledge influenced by the sequence of cognitive and affective inservice sessions? 2. Are the effects of sequence influenced by the factors of teachers' race and teaching level? 3. Is teachers' overall evaluation of the inservice sessions influenced by the sequence of cognitive and affective sessions? 4. Is teachers overall evaluation Of inservice sessions influenced by factors of race and teaching level? Teachers in the Lansing School District were asked to volunteer for this study. From this pool of 40 volunteer teachers, 20 elementary 74 75 and 20 secondary teachers were randomly assigned to Treatment 1: affective emphases followed by cognitive emphases, or Treatment 2: cognitive emphases followed by affective emphases. All subjects in the study were pretested with two instruments: the Ethnic Awareness Survey (termed the cognitive measure) and the Teacher-Student Inter- action Instrument (termed the affective measure). Each subject also filled out a teacher information survey, which contained demographic questions about teaching assignment, ethnic background, years of teaching experience, and number of multicultural inservice programs attended. Participants in both Treatment 1 and Treatment 2 received four training sessions--two with affective content and two with cog- nitive content--over a three-week period. The order of affective and cognitive presentations varied according to treatment group. Upon the completion Of the four sessions, all subjects were posttested on the Ethnic Awareness Survey, the Teacher-Student Interaction Instru- ment, and the Multicultural Inservice Evaluation Survey. The independent variables, race and teaching level, were selected as possible factors that could bias the data. It was thought that these variables might influence research results in relation to the ordering effect of affective and cognitive emphases in relation to inservice presentations--that the treatment might not be the only variable influencing the outcome. To overcome this potential prob- lem, the variables race and teaching level were included in the design so that the effects of the treatment could be analyzed. 76 The pretest and posttest measures of the three dependent variables were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA). The MANCOVA assessed the effect of treatment, race, and teaching level on the cognitive and affective posttest scores. The results indicated that no significant differences existed for race and teaching or treatment by race and treatment by teaching interaction on the cog- nitive and affective evaluative measures. The inservice evaluation survey was analyzed using a two-way analysis of variance. The purpose was to determine the effect of ordering sequence and teachers' race on their inservice evaluation rating. A significant interaction was found between the order of cognitive and affective inservice sessions and participants' race. Blacks and Whites in the affective/cognitive order group had higher scores than Blacks and Whites in the cognitive/affective order group. The reverse was true for the other two racial groups-- Hispanics and others. Participants in the cognitive/affective order group had lower evaluation scores for the inservice than did those in the affective/cognitive order group. Conclusions Four major conclusions were drawn from the results Of the study. 1. Teachers' attitudes and knowledge were not influenced by the sequence of cognitive and affective inservice sessions. 77 This finding may be attributed to the format of the inservice sessions. Teachers in both treatments received primarily the same type of delivery from different presenters. Although the affective sessions had an informal atmosphere with more interaction and discus- sion between the teachers and the facilitator, and the cognitive sessions were more formal and lecture oriented, the contrast between the two modes was not great enough. The content presented in the two treatments was indeed different, but the method of presentation was only slightly altered for the two groups. It appears that content alone did not make a difference in teachers' reactions to the order. Perhaps stimuli such as films, slides, role playing, and material review might have made the affective treatment order markedly differ- ent so as to prompt a more diverse response in the two groups. Order of presentation did make a difference. According to Dr. Cornell, "There is little doubt in my mind that the first affective group sessions were more effective than the latter group sessions. By the end of the second session, first group, the participants were clamoring for cognitive information." This observation may in part explain the cognitive group's lower evaluation of the effectiveness of the cognitive inservice sessions than the evaluation of the affective group. This researcher received several comments from participants that, in summary, suggest that participants were not concerned with the order as much as with the content and applicability of the content to the classroom situation. 78 By all indications, teachers seemed to want affective-related inservice programs only if there was a natural balance and interaction with the cognitive information. The affective/cognitive format or the reverse did not matter, as long as the sessions had outcomes that were relevant and clear to the participants. One participant in par- ticular felt that “not enough time was devoted to historical events and case studies. Too much on feelings and attitudes. Incorporate the two, data first, then feelings." The research reviewed for this study emphasized the types of affective and cognitive skills that teachers should Obtain through a well-planned inservice program. However, there was little mention of the ordering of these skills in the program. This may be because content, skills, objectives, and goals are essential to the inser- vice, and the organization and design of inservice sessions depend largely on the needs and characteristics of the audience to receive the training. Baker (1973), Schwartz (1980), Baptists and Baptiste (1979), Hunter (1974), and Aragon (1973) have suggested knowledge acquisition as the first stage of training teachers to teach multi- cultural education. However, Baker, unlike the other writers, did not include affective training as the second component in her model. 2. Teachers' attitudes and knowledge were not influenced by the factors Of race and teaching level. Dr. Thomas, Dr. Cornell, and the researcher agreed that: a. Black teachers in particular were extremely vocal in dis- cussion groups and tended to be most articulate 14. i5. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 101 The ethnic group that students are members of frequently influences how I will respond to them interpersonally. I naturally respond more favorably to students of my ethnic group. I would feel more relaxed in my role as a teacher if I could work with students and teachers of my own ethnic group. It does not pay to be fair and just to members of other ethnic groups. I see an implicit danger in promoting cultural and ethnic group differences. Because of the way that I was raised, I believe in the inherent superiority and inferiority of certain groups. Because of the history of my ethnic group, I feel it a personal Obligation to give special privileges to students of my ethnic group. When I understand the environment from which many ethnic minority children come, I understand why they do not have pride in their ethnic identities. As a minority in this country, I (would) feel very self-conscious about my ethnic identity. When people form relationships, it is good to establish ties with persons who hold similar values. I feel tense and uptight when I have to work closely with students and teachers who are of a different ethnic @0111). A student's ethnic group influences my behavior towards him more than his character. Felt! 1111 N Ul> ”IS“: 4 28. 29. 310 102 Offensive behavior by an ethnic minority reinforces my attitudes about the behavior of other members of that group. I dislike associating with members of my ethnic group if their values are different from mine. I prefer isolating myself from everyone. People should have intimate associations with persons Of their ethnic group Only. The fact that White ethnics have more powerful positions than minorities illustrates their inherent superiority. Each ethnic group should strive to become more Americanized. Rd 1w N 103 *** PLEASE DO NOT OPEN THIS BOOKLET UNTIL YOU ARE TOLD TO DO SO *** Project ‘R E AC H 8. .‘i‘ i Directions: This is a questionnaire to find out how much you know about different ethnic groups in America. Each question is followed by 5 possible answers. Only one of these answers is cOrrect. Read each question carefully and then choose which of the 5 responses is the best answer. Record your answer by filling in the correct space on your answer sheet. *** PLEASE DO NOT OPEN THIS BOOKLET UNTIL YOU ARE TOLD TO DO SO *** DO NOT WRITE IN THIS BOOKLET C) 1981 Arlington School District Do not reproduce in any form withOut written permission from the Arlington School District, Arlington, WA 98223. 104 The first person to die when America was fighting for indepehdence from Great Britain was a Black man. What was his name? a. Net Turner b. George Washington Carver c. Denmark Vesey d. John Brown e. Crispus Attucks Which two groups represent the cultural "roots" of Mexican Americans? a. Italian and Indian b. French and Indian c. Spanish and Indian d. English and Indian e. German and Indian . Which statement best describes Vine Deloria? a. A modern Indian writer and activist b. A type of grape produced by Mexican American growers in California c. A special wine the Japanese make from rice d. A Black woman who led hundreds of slaves to freedom during the 1840's e. A code name for a group of Mexican revolutionaries during the Spanish American War What does "hui kuan" mean? a. Lottery system b. Chinese laundry c. Buddhist Temple d. Military organization e. Organization away from home Most Black Americans can trace their ancestry to Africa. In what part of the‘ African continent are their ancestors most likely to have lived? a. South Africa b. East Africa c. West Africa d. Central Africa e. North Africa Which region of the United States was taken by force from the Mexicans? a. The Southwest including California, Texas and New Mexico b. The Old South including South Carolina, Georgia and Alabama c. The Midwest including Ohio, Kansas and Illinois d. Only Texas e. The Americans never took land that didn't belong to them 10. 11. 12. 105 What government document provides for treaties between the United States and other nations? a. Constitution b. Alien Land Act c. Declaration of Independence d. United Nations Charter e. Emancipation Proclamation To what political party do most Blacks in America belong? a. The Black Panther Party b. The Republican Party c. The American Communist Party d. The Democratic Party a. The American Independent Party' What group of people have been referred to as "Wetbacks?" a. Japanese American prisoners who escaped from San Queptin by swimming across San Francisco Bay b. Mexican workers who came into the United States without legal permission c. Blacks who worked in the hot cotton fields owned by white slaveholders in the Old South d. Indian braves who used a special grease to protect their bodies from the sun e. Koreans who entered the United States by jumping ship and swimming to safety on the shore Whom can we thank for the first wheat, the first Olives, oranges, lemons, figs, and dates harvested in the continental United States? a. Black Americans b. Asian Americans c. Native Americans d. English Americans a. Mexican Americans In what year did American Indians become citizens? a. 1794 b. 1894 c. 1924 d. 1974 e. Never became citizens What does "tong" mean? a. Nation b. District c. City d. Village a. Secret brotherhood 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 106 What was the policy of the United States government toward Japanese Americans during World War II? b. c. d. e. They were all sent back to Japan All males over 21 were sent to fight against Japan They were treated like any other Americans All Japanese Americans on the West Coast were placed in concentration camps All Japanese women and children were sent to Canada for safety What was the most common way by which Blacks voiced their protest during the Civil Rights movement? a. b. c. d. o. By attacking the police By looting white-owned stores By peacefully marching By burning records in city hall By rioting What animal was first brought to North America by the ancestors of the Mexican American people? a. b. c. d. e. Buffalo Horse Giraffe Lion Elephant What do all American Indians get from the federal government every month just because they are Indians? a. b. Co d. e. Monthly check Nothing Food and clothing Medicine Food stamps Which of the following Filipino Americans wrote "America Is In The Heart?" a. b. c. d. e. Pedro dela Cruz Carlos Bulosan Manuel Buaken Pablo Manlapit Eduardo E. Malapit What is the religion of most Mexican American people? a. b. c. d. e. Baptist Mormon Catholic Hindu Lutheran 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 107 Next to the Irish, what was the second largest group of foreign-born prospectors who came to find gold during the California rush of the 1840's and 50's? a. b. c. d. German Korean , Chinese British Spanish What is the largest ethnic group in'Bawaii? a. b. c. d. In By a. b. c. d. e. Chinese Japanese Filipino White Native Hawaiian the 1880's the American Indians held about 140 million acres of land. the 1930's, how much had been taken away? None 1/3 1/2 2/3 All of it Which of these is an example of "genocide?" a. b. c. d. e. A white missionary attempts to convert Indians to Christianity 'The U.S. government takes land away from Mexico A Chinese laborer attacks the boss of a railroad crew .The U.S. cavalry tries to wipe out all the Indians in the West Black slaves revolt and kill their master The first major boycott of the Civil Rights Movement took place in Alabama. Which of the following rights were Blacks trying to win? a. b. c. ,d. The right to sit anywhere on a bus The right to be served in any restaurant The right to drink at a public water fountain The right to get a room in a public motel The right to go to the school of their choice What was Tecumseh's hope for the Indian people? a. b. c. d. Find a new home and independence for Indian people in Canada Sell Indian lands to white settlers and use the profits to buy new homes in the West Join all tribes together in a great army to defeat the white man Win the friendship of the white settlers by helping them with their westward movement Keep the white man busy by having each Indian tribe fight its own separate war with them 25. 26. 27. 28. .29- 30. 108 Which of these organizations has staged protests to gain rights for the American Indian people? a. b. 'C. d. e. NAACP CORE BIA AIM LaRaza Which word means the children of Japanese immigrants in America? a. b. c. d. e. Enryo Giri Nisei Issei Sansei Which of the following statements best fits the Aztec ancestors of the Mexican American people? a. b. c. d. e. They lived very poorly and ate mostly roots and insects They lived reasonably well by hunting game and gathering fruits and nuts They lived a rugged life by trapping animals and trading skins for food. and clothing at the local trading post They lived quite well by building cities and producing large amounts of corn and other farm products They lived modestly by fishing in the sea and gathering shellfish on the beach Four hundred years ago the people of Mexico began to move north into land that would later become the United States. What were they searching for? a. b. C. d. e. Gold Jobs Better hunting grounds Oil Mere peaceful life The names "Manzanar" and "Tule Lake" have a special meaning for what group of Americans? a. b. c. d. e. Indians Blacks Mexican Americans Japanese Americans Whites Where do Chinese Americans fit into the job market today? a. b. c. d. e. As a group, they have the lowest income of all Americans Most Chinese Americans work in laundries They have a higher percentage of their people in professional and technical jobs than do whites Most Chinese Americans own restaurants They have the highest unemployment rate in America 109 To which group does the term "Chicano" refer? a. b. c. d.- . e. Native American Black American Mexican American Hawaiian American Asian American What was the purpose of the Gentlemen's Agreement of 1908 between Japan and the United States? a. b. c. d. e. Who a. b. c. d. e. To stop Japanese laborers in Hawaii from coming to California To limit the number of Japanese laborers coming into the United States To allow more Japanese laborers to come into the Hawaiian Islands To allow more Japanese students to come to the United States To allow Japanese laborers in America to send their money home was the first Black to play major league baseball? Hank Aaron Reggie Jackson Willie Mayes Frank Robinson Jackie Robinson ' Using Black street language, if I just saw a "bad ride," what exactly did I see? a. A motorcycle accident b. ,A bronc rider getting thrown from his horse c. .A careless cyclist d. A drunk driver weaving in and out of traffic e. A smart looking car If you heard someone say that an Indian was returning to the "blanket," what would it mean? a. Going on welfare b. Returning to the reservation c. Going to sleep d. Moving to the city -e. Going to the hospital Which of the names below belongs to a Mexican American who helped form a new union for farm workers? a. b. c. d. e. Fidel Castro Anwar Sadat Desi Arnaz "Bebe" Rebozo Cesar Chavez 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 110 Which of the following documents first announced an end to slavery in several Southern states? ' a. b. C. d. e. The Declaration of Independence The Mayflower Compact The United States Constitution The Fugitive Slave Act The Emancipation Proclamation A Mexican revolutionary who has become a folk hero to many Mexican Americans V88 a. b. c. d. e. Who a. b. c. d. Who a. b. c. d. The killed in 1919. What was his name? Emiliano Zapata The Cisco Kid Che Guevara Zorro Freddie Fender is known in Jazz circles as the "First Lady of Song?" Sarah Vaughn Ella Fitzgerald Natalie Cole Gladys Knight Esther Sutterfield was "Captain Jack?" A.Modoc Indian chief who refused to be moved away from his homeland A Yankee soldier who fought to free the slaves during the Civil War A leader of a Black infantry unit in World War II A hero in the U.S. Army during the Mexican American War A Japanese American who led his peOple in a protest against relocation Mexicans and the Americans fought each other in a war during the years 1846-1848. How did this war end? b. c. d. e. Each side pulled back its troops and promised to be friendly The Mexicans were defeated The Americans were defeated The war was ended by the United Nations The French came in and took over the land they were fighting over Where have most Blacks in America been moving since the Civil War? a. b. c. d. From South to North From North to South From Northeast to Southwest From East to West From West to East 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. -48. m The "Fish-Ins" of the early 1960's were held on the Puyallup and Nisqually Rivers of Washington State. What right were the Indians trying to get? a. To fish in their traditional places b. To catch 50% of the fish c. To fish on the reservation d. To use fish nets in the river e. To fish outside the 3-mile limit What happened in King Phillip's War? a. A French king fought to keep his colonies in America b. An African tribal king fought to keep his people from the slave traders c. The Dutch refused to give up their lands to Indians in Pennsylvania d. An Indian chief led his people in one of the first attacks against white settlers in New England e. A Mexican laborer led his fellow workers in a violent protest against sugar beet growers in California Who was the first Black man to win the World Heavyweight Boxing title? a. Joe Frasier b. Jack Johnson c. Muhammed Ali d. Joe Louis e. George Foreman Before 1954 it was very common for Black children and white children to go to different schools. Who said this should be changed? a. The POTOAO b. The President c. The Governor d. The Supreme Court e. Judge Boldt What was the intent of the Alien Land Act which the legislature of California passed in 1913? a. To keep Japanese from owning land b. To allow Japanese to borrow money so that they could buy land c. To stop Japanese from selling their land d. To stop Japanese from becoming tenant farmers e. To allow Japanese to buy land from their relatives Which of the following persons is the first Japanese American to become a United States Senator? a. Samuel I. Hayakawa b. Henry S. Tatsumi c. John Maki d. Daniel Ken lnouye e. Wilfred Tsukiyama 112 *On each of the next six questions you will be given a statement, each statement being followed by 5 words or phrases. You are asked to choose the word or phrase ‘which most closely has the same meaning as the statement. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. Is taking place when an individual or group adds aspects of other cultures a. b. c. d. e. The a. b. c. d. e. The a. b. c. d. e. .to its own, such as eating foods or using words from other ethnic groups. Genocide Apartheid Acculturation Assimilation Discrimination feeling that one's own culture is superior to that of other people. Pluralism Ethnocentrism Acculturation Diversity Assimilation presence of many different ethnic and cultural groups in one society. Acculturation Ethnocentrism Apartheid Cultural diversity Assimilation Based only on physical or biological differences. a. b. c. d. e. Culture ‘Ethnicity Ethnocentrism Nationality Race A situation where one group of people feels they are better than another group merely because of differences in skin color. .b. c. d. e. The a. b. C. 5. Cultural pluralism Integration Segregation Separatism Racism "melting pot" idea about cultural differences. Assimilation Separatism Pluralism Diversity Segregation 113 Post-Inservice Evaluation Directions: This section of the survey deals with opinions concerning the effec- tiveness of each inservice session. Please answer the following questions by circling the response that best expresses your opinion. Please check only one response per guestion. Response Code: NR = no response, SA agree nor disagree, D = disagree, SD strongly disagree. was: 1. Did the inservice training sessions meet your expectations? 0 l 2. Were the facilitators well suited to the inservice sessions? 0 l 3. Would you recommend this inservice to other teachers? 0 l 4. There has been an increase in my knowledge of Multicultural Education as a result of this inservice. O l 5. My attitudes have become more positive toward Multicultural Education as a result of this inservice. 0 , l 6. Would you be interested in participating in other inservices? 0 l Directions: Please answer the following questions: 7. What were the major benefits of this inservice? 8. How might the workshop be improved? 9. Should the order of sessions be changed? . If so, how? 10. How would you rate the workshop sessions? Excellent Good Fair Poor Session I l 2 3 4 Session II 1 2 3 4 Session III 1 2 3 4 Session IV l 2 3 4 A 2 strongly agree, A = agree, N = neither 9. 4 APPENDIX D OBSERVATIONAL FIELD-REPORTING NOTES DR. THOMAS'S MULTICULTURAL INSERVICE OBSERVATION REPORT DR. CORNELL'S MULTICULTURAL INSERVICE OBSERVATION REPORT 114 115 OBSBMTICNAL FIELD-REPORTING NOTES PHASE A--PRE-SESSION ORIENTATION PERIOD OF RESEAROi STUDY l . Ehvi ronment Description Roan Decor. The total group of teachers participating in the study (elementary and seconday levels) met at a Junior High School building in a large classroan—affective group would remain in this room--a sliding divider separated the other room to be used for the cognitive group sessions. There were six straight rows of chairs with desks attached arranged in a standard class- room style. In the front of the roan a large table with packets of information was situated on one side and on the other side was a table of refreshments. The room was a familiar sight for secondary teachers, it was a typical secondary level roan. The cognitive room which connects the affectve roan is exactly the sane in physical type. Chairs with desk attachments were organized in the sane manner. Atmosphere. Upon entering the roan, teachers were instructed to pick up a packet of materials consisting of: roan and group assigrments, dates, times, and facilitators names were also included. A PGP Credit Card (Professional Growth Program) was also included-Ms would be punched and turned into the curriculum office for teachers to receive a certain number of hours for attending each session towards a district requirement. rIleachers were also encouraged to enjoy the array of refreshrents that were provided. 116 rIhere were several teachers who knew one another and inmediately began talking about the inservice facilitators and asked questions about the inservice activities. The facilitators were instructed to give only general information about the sessions. There were a few teachers who had never participated in a multicultural inservice and those teachers remained quiet and reser- ved--looking at their packet of information and checking their calendars. In general, teachers seemed optimistic and anxious to receive instruction and begin the sessions. The researcher encouraged teachers to relax and enjoy the inservice experience. rI’ne inservice was run on a tight schedule and careful attention was given to respecting the time agreement made by the researcher and inservice participants. Minority teachers, especially black teachers, had a tendency to sit next to one another and white teachers did the sane. Questions/discussions . 'Deachers were mostly concerned with making sure they had the correct dates and meeting places. 'Iwao teachers asked if their group assignments could be changed so that they could be in the same group. Their request was denied because they were randomly assigned. Teachers were persistent in making sure the researcher received their canplete PGP card. They wanted to make sure they received credit . 117 PHASE B-PRE-SESSIC 'PRDCEDURE FORMAT Step I--Introduction After teachers had about ten minutes to informally chat and enjoy their refreshments, the researcher began the session with a welcane to the teachers and thanking than for participating. A brief overview of the inservice purpose was given. Reassuring caments were issued that explained that the data to be collected would be on the basis of unidentified teacher participation and would give the researcher and facilitators an understanding of the group's profile. There was absolutely no nention of affective and cognitive sequence or order. General questions were answered, teachers appeared to have no real concern or problems with why they were there or what was going to happen. Participants were generally told that the inservice experiences that they were to receive could further assist them in teaching youngsters from diverse cultural and ethnic backgrounds. The inservice facilitators were introduced and teachers were given a brief background of their credentials , rDeachers were encouraged to relax and enjoy the refresh- nents . Step I‘If—Pre-Testfi Phase vfiv Teachers were given a brief introduction of the test and were told that this information would be useful in obtaining a profile of the group. 118 The test packet was distributed to every teacher and the researcher reviewed the directiais for each part of the instrument battery. Questions and answers were entertained. A white teacher had a question cmcerning the danographic portion, she was not sure what to put regarding ethnic background. All she was told was that she was white. Other questions were of a routine "test taking" nature. The affective instrument was the first test within the packet. Teachers were generally canfortable with taking this test. (he teacher made an overt facial expression regarding a couple of items. Another teacher camented that a few of her colleagues should be given this test. lIhe cognitive drew more verbal and non-verbal response. One male teacher asked another fanale teacher whether she knew the answers to these questions. He was having trouble and wondered whether it was him or the test. The teacher being asked the question responded that she knew sane but never heard of the others. When the teachers canpleted the tests, most wanted to know what the answers were to the cognitive test, whether they would learn the information they did not know, if they would be given the test or another like it to take again. The roan filled with chatter over the tests: especially the cognitive portion. hachers felt this test should be given to all staff and that 119 students need to learn the information. It was obvious that II'DSt of the teachers wanted the cognitive sessions where questions could be answered. Step III—Preparation for Sessions The questions asked after the test were not totally answered and the researcher explained that teachers slould begin to go to their assigned sessions. The facilitators would handle the questions later. The group then divided; the affective group of teachers remained in the orientation roan while the cognitive group moved to the roan next door. The facilitator who remained in the background took over the inservice session and the researcter changed places and stayed in the background. General Garments Prior to the pre-test teachers were ready to participate in an inservice activity that they have either been involved in the past or heard about fran others. As a whole, they were con— fident. After the pre-test, there was apprehension on the part of sate teachers that they did not know as much about ethnic and racial groups' histories as they did before. Others who were more confident becane curious about the direction the facilitators would be going. The mood changed fran passive participation to a more aggressive air. Minority teachers were more (ruminant and talkative while white teachers were more quiet with their remarks. 120 PHASE C-SESSICNS 1 AND 2 AFTECI’IVE Dr. George Cornell (facilitator) (Group I) Atmosphere Dr. Cornell imnediately began his session with a cannent about the formality of the roan and asked the participants to assist him in making the roan more canfortable and friendly. Participants eagerly began to rearrange the desks into a circle. Teachers then took their seats and waited for Dr. Cbrnell to make the first nove and give direction. Group Dynamics Dr. Cornell opened the discussion with, "Mat is Multi- cultural education? and why do we need it?" It was quite evident that minority teachers, especially black teachers, were nore cpen to begin the discussion based on personal experience. White teachers generally told of classroan situations and looked for answers to help them work better with their students who were having trouble. Personal experiences were traded by most of the participants. One white woman did not participate in the discussion and remained silent throughout. In session 2, tension started within the group between black and hispanics, when a black wanan made a cannent that bilingual programs made her angry and she did not like their existence 121 because black youngsters did not have entry into these programs. The hispanic teachers tried to explain the reason for bilingual education and became very wset over the carments that took place. Verbal and non-verbal interactions were operating. Black women in the grow were more vocal and articulated their feelings strongly while the hispanic women were visibly shaken by their caments but would not confront than directly and retreated. Che hispanic wanan made a cament about the need not being great for students to learn about their cultural and ethnic backgrounds. This caused black wanen in the grow to feel uncanfortable and resentful about her cannents . General Comments The first two sessions were very informative. The teachers were very interested in the topic for discussion, had strong feelings about the subject matter and were interested in interacting with others. Garments that were made after the first two sessions were enlightening: sate cf the black teachers were very wset that a hispanic wanan could not see what the fuss was about regarding students having multicultural learning. They felther attitude was ridiculous for a minority. A hispanic waran camented that she wanted more information and that she had heard all this years ago. She was getting concerned over the redundancy of the dis- cussions. Overall, the grow could not have stood another affective session. They were ready to receive cognitive 122 information. The black teachers thought tl'e sessions were good and some teachers need a lot of training in this area. Also, they felt that this type of training is needed throughout the district. PHASE C-SESSIONS 1 AND 2 COGNITIVE Dr. Richard Thanas (facilitator) (Grow II) Atmosphere The roan and atmosptere contrasted largely to the mm and atmosphere of the affective sessions. Teachers were still discussing the cognitive test items. The roan still remained in the six rows of seats. Dr. Thanas remained at the front of the classroan and teachers began to actively listen and sate took notes. The structure of the roan was a lot like a Michigan State University lecture format. The instructor shared information and students took notes . Teachers immediately began to ask questions about the pre-test. Dr. Thomas organized the group content by discussing a few concepts and their historical relevance to ethnic grows in America. Teachers began to take notes. The black women in the 123 group were very outspoken and ethnocentric about the historical information Dr. Thomas gave them about minority groups. A lot of discussion centered on tie cmcept of racism. Dr. Thanas pointed out that sate behaviors are not necessarily racist but may be ethnocentric. This made sate black waren uncanfortable. Discussion about ethnic difference among whites as well as mirorities made whites participate and feel a part of the inservice. The historical realities that Dr. Thanas gave regarding minorities other than blacks became difficult for sore of tie black women in the grow to accept and it appeared they wanted more sensitivity to their feelings than facts. Hispanic waren talked more in this group than in the affective one. It appeared as if information was the reference and controlled the discussions far more than in the affective sessions. Dr. Thanas' obvious expertise in this subject matter made it difficult for teacl'ers who disagreed to challenge without really reflecting on their bias and ethnocentric viewpoints. It was obvious that some teachers were juggling between their emotional feelings and their intellectual knowledge. then intel- lectual information was in contrast with arotional feelings and experiences, teachers really became outspoken and wanted Dr. Thanas to give them a lot of examples and informetiai to support He historical facts. It was a very interesting and exciting two sessions because whenever the mood became emotional or discussions centered on assumptions and feelings, Dr. Thanas gave a historical fact and the grow began to digest and internalize how they would 124 accarodate this information. Black teachers tried to bring the point of discussion back to the "black perspective." General Comments After each session, white, black, and hispanic teachers all stayed after to discuss certain informational data with Dr. Thomas. A camon remark was that tl'ey needed more sessims and time did not permit enough opportunity for then to learn more about specific racial and ethnic grows. A few teachers camented that they wished more time could have been devoted to sharing experiences and, attitudes. PHASE D--SESSIONS 3 AND 4 AFFECTIVE Dr. George Cornell (facilitator) (Crow 1) General (laments This group (who had already received the cognitive sessions) was ready to share. It was difficult for Dr. Cornell to keep the group fran discussing cognitive based information obtained from the cognitve sessions. The discussion had a tendency to combine affective feelings with cogiitive infonnation. It was as if the group was being forced to digress back to an entry—level stage of discussion. What is Multicultural Education? Why do we need it? 125 This made the group's dynamics more intense and critical. Sare teachers had pent-up carments that were not expressed in the first sessions. and they were ready to vent their feelings. A few teachers appeared to be more relaxed in this session than in the cognitive. White teachers appeared to be more confident in their discussion and participated readily. There appeared to be more of a balance between racial grows' camenting than before, with the first group. PHASE D—SESSIWS 3 AND 4 C(XZNITIVE (Group 2) General Garments It was quite evident that this group was ready for cognitive information. They readily conformed to the seating arrangements and began to take notes as Dr. Thanas spoke. This grow easily interacted with Dr. Thomas and one another. As concepts were presented, teachers wanted to divert the discussion back to their own personal experiences. Several minority grow members became rmcan- fortable when Dr. Thanas related facts about their group and they began to challenge him. One hispanic teacher became concerned that Dr. Thanas was covering mly a few cultural sub-groups within the hispanic pOpulation. She wanted equal treatment of all grows. 126 Time did not permit that type of indepth study. Other teachers decided to listen and rot actively participate. Sare teachers wto were actively participating in the first session had a tendency to have problems with understanding the experiences of other minority grows and wanted certain facts clarified. Dr. Thanas' discussion of how cultures are footed received a great deal of reaction fran all of the ethnic grow menbers represented in the grow. Sa're teachers felt ownership to certain cultural traits and could rot entertain the notion that they are not inborn. Others had stereotypical views of cultural attributes of sale minority groups and were surprised that they were deter- mined by others througl'out history. The minority grow members had a hard time dealing with the fact that there are significant cultural and ethnic differences among whites. Sare minority teachers, especially black teachers, voiced their concern over the prevailing problems of racism and treatment of blacks in society. Dr. Thanas challenged the teachers with information that was contrary to what many teachers thought was factual and his information forced many teachers to reevaluate and reconsider their interpretations of history, in relation to ethnic and minority experiences in this country. After the session, teachers were given a five-minute break and several teachers stayed to discuss further the points brought out in the session. 127 Teachers were instructed to return to their roams and the posttest was distributed. Teachers appeared to be more intense as they took the test and little discussion took place. As teachers handed the posttest to the researcher, carnents were made such as: We need more sessions, I enjoyed the sessions, I did not need the sessions as much as others, the facilitators were excellent, let me know when there will be other worksl'ops, sessiais should have been longer, I still could not answer most of the questions on the second test (cognitive), one learns a lot about how others think in these sessions, I learned a lot. Overall Remarks The primary goal of the inservice program was best stated by John Dewey in his fourth function of a school within a canplex society. He stated, "A third function of a school within a canplex society is to provide sare balance among the various elerents that exist within the social environment, so that each individual can escape fran the limitations of his more narrow inherited environment, can fruitfully mingle with people of other backgrounds, and can reunite with them in activity toward canton aims.” This inservice program brought a balance of equal focus and time restrictions on the examination of the impact that affective John Dewey, Derocracy and Education. (New York: Mac- Millian, l916; Free Press, paperback, 1966), pp. 20-22. 128 and cognitive content e'rphases has on teachers, when the two areas are isolated fran one arother in the context of multicultural teacher training. In light of this task, Dr. Thanas and Dr. Cornell did an outstanding job of presenting the two areas individually and devel- oping content that was relevant and important to understanding underlying dynamics of teaching in a multicultural classroan. Their dedication to the ideals of what they were teaching and their expert knowdedge of the area generated an atrrosphere of open sharing, learning and intellectual exchange. Eyen though the research study campelled then to follow strict guidelines, they were sensitive and aware of the group's needs and concerns. Teachers wio participated in the study are dedicated educ- ators who wanted to becare more knowledgeable about multicultural education. There were those teachers wio held ethnocentric view- points about the struggle and experiences of their group and had problems relating to other groups ' Oppressions, whereas other teachers who did not understand their role in multicultural education did attempt to explore how to incorporate multicultural education into their teaching. Teachers in the inservice sessions were encourageito view differences among and between students as positive and to see that ethnic and cultural grows need to learn in a setting that respects and encourages cultural pluralism. The affective sessions included teachers' dealing with multi- cultural ideas by examining their own behavior and attitudes. The 129 cognitive sessions included teachers ' re-examing and re-evaluating information that formed the basis for their attitudes and behaviors by learning factual and historic realities of various ethnic grow members. There was a lot of diversity within the grows and among the individual teachers. Differences such as sex, race, teaching level , background experiences , and level of ethnic identification made each group and session very interesting and exciting. Dr. Cornell coined a phrase that explained certain attitudes among a segment of the teachers in the study. He termed it "Nbverent school of thought," which is a type of thinking that came out of the 1960's pro-black nationalist moverent. This movement was strongly concerned with the black struggle in America and was dedicated to preserving strong ethnic affiliations that was opposed to accul- turation, integrating through marriage or strong intimate ties with other ethnic grows. This type of attitude was present in a cowle of black waren who had sare problems dealing with the cognitive sessions. The white teachers in the grow did not openly voice their views toward assimilation or what constitutes an American. As a whole, the hispanic and Asian teachers were concerned with ethnic and cultural recognition for their grow but there were tiose who felt too much emphases was being placed on differences and cultural diversity. 130 The multicultural inservice program from all appearances did bring teachers from diverse backgrounds together to talk over and share information about multicultural education that might make those teachers aware that were previously unaware, assist those teachers who did not understand or learn about others ' struggles to do so and to get those teachers talking about cultural understanding concerns and ways to make a better world which might not have been done prior to the inservice experience. For all practical purposes, everyone left the session with a thought either positive, negative, or undecided, the inservice experiences made people feel and think. ~ For no other reason, that made the inservice effective. II. Richard W. Thomas 131 MULTICULTURAL INSERVICE OBSERVATION REPORTING SURVEY Directions: Based on your observation of'participant behaviors during each session, please answer the following questions. COGNITIVE SESSIONS a. Did teacher responses to certain questions and discussion topics vary according to their race and teaching level? The teaching level was not a significant factor in the discussion. Race was a factor, particularly among blacks who tended to be the most articulate on questions of race. Did teachers show a sincere desire to grow in the ability to deal with identified needs fbr social change and equity? Minority teachers tended to be more concerned with these objectives. Yet, some majority teachers were very open to the need for equity and social change and revealed a real commitment to the objectives of MCE. Did teachers interact with one another and communicate issues and feelings of'concern? Yes. But certain teachers interacted and communicated with each other more often than with others. I suspect this was related to shared experiences in and out of the classroom. What kinds of‘behaviors did the participants exhibit when dealing with controversial topics? Several tried to approach these topics from the framework of their own experiences. Others drew back. were there differences between elementary and secondary teacher attitudes with regard to their feeling toward the inservice content? None that I noticed. Perhaps the only difference was in the use of multi-cultural materials for particular age groups. was there a key individual who assisted with the direction of'the in— service sessions? Yes. Several people with backgrounds in social movements and school programs stimulated much discussion. Several minority-group members challenged me on particular facts relating to their group. 132 was there a detractor? Not really. Only a few people with strong opinions about the history and culture of their particular group. Example: Mexican-American women wanted certain facts clarified. Black women had problems accepting certain uncomplimentary, but historically accurate, facts about particular blacks. g. were the goals of‘the inservice sessions accomplished? Yes. Teachers learned a set of facts about racial and ethnic groups and developed a deeper understanding of MCE. COMMENT Multicultural Inservice: Teaching and Evaluating Teacher Knowledge of' Multicultural Facts My task was to teach teachers facts about specific racial and ethnic groups in America. The groups covered were blacks, Indians, Asians, Mexicans, and various European ethnic groups such as the English, Irish, and Polish. Before focusing upon these groups, I discussed a few concepts and theories such as ethnicity, racism, cultural pluralism. ethnocentrism, and multiculturalism. These concepts and theories were essential in aiding students in understanding their own perceptions of different groups. The group was composed of black, Mexican, white and Asian people, most of whom were women. The black women were the most outspoken which can be attributed to the still very pervasive influence of "black consciousness" in contemporary society. Interestingly enough, the blacks sometime had a difficult time understanding the experiences of other oppressed groups. Several of these blacks tended to judge and evaluate other groups from the "black perspective.“ In short, they used their group as the reference point. This was a classic case of ethnocentrism where one group feels it occupies the center of the world. I pointed out, however, that this kind of attitude was not "racist." A key concern of mine throughout this inservice training program was for people to understand how cultures formed. For example, black culture is often associated with black music and "soul," as if these "traits" are inborn, i.e., biologically determined, rather than historically determined. Blacks, whites,all members had problems with this. I pointed out that people tend to attribute similar cultural traits to other groups, such as the "silent, reflective Asians." There was a tendency of the group to ignore ethnic differences among whites, such as Irish, Polish and Jewish. The operating assumption was: They are all "white." I had to stress the fact that there are significant cultural and ethnic differences among whites. 133 G.L. CORNELL NEG-IIGAN STATE UNIVEIBITY OUTLINE FOR AFFECTIVE MULTICULTURAL IN SERVICES MULTI CULTURAL EDUCATION *What is it, and why do we need it? A) To prcmote equality between diverse groups B) This is tied to the notion of justice or "fairness" C) Experientially we know that a double standard exists *Urban areas and concentrations of minority pOpulations *E‘ducational levels and job skills *Unemployment statistics *Sccio-econcmic indicators *The bottcm line: *Our society has not provided equality for diverse peOples WHY? *Many of the reasons for inequality are not objective (cognitive), but rather, subjective (affective) or emotional. ‘We attempt to be pragmatic (use facts), but in reality our relationship with diverse populations or minorities is based upon personal attitudes/values/beliefs which are communicated by individual cultures or societal norms. *We end up reinforcing stereotypical images and misconceptions of minority people and perpetuating inequalities. *We seem to be unable to subjectively deal with the realm of human emotions that should enable us to accept diverse peoples as equals or in a JUST fashion. W138: The failure to cope with our subjective experience pranotes litigation on behalf of minority populations. This is imposed or forced change which is resisted by people, and it blurs the notion or reality of JUSTICE. *Desegration *Japanese—American redress efforts *Native American rights, land claims *Hispanic land claims These efforts are necessitated because society refused to deal with minorities in an equitable manner. As educators, 134 we supposedly rely on objectivity and cognitive approaches to change attitudes, while failing to acknowledge that these beliefs are subjectively formed and reinforced. We must adapt our teaching strategies to promote multi- cultural studeies on a personal level. THE NEED FOR: * Humanism * Acceptance * Sensitivity * Trust * Empathy * Consistency 135 MULTICUL TURAL I NS ERVI CE OBSERVATION REPORTING SURVEY Directions: Based on your observation of'participant behaviors during each session, please answer the fbllowing questions. II. AFFECTIVE SESSIONS Cl. Did teacher responses to certain questions and discussion topics vary according to their race and teaching level? The responses did not vary according to teaching level, but responses were frequently made by minority group members. Black teachers in particular were extremely vocal in discussion groups. Did teachers show a sincere desire to grow in the ability to deal with identified needs for social change and equity? Those teacher who were very supportive of multicultural education tended to be those that.were already involved*with NEE, or minority teachers who had experienced inequality in society. The need for societal growth as well as personal growth was connented upon. Did teachers interact with one another and communicate issues and feelings of’concern? Teachers were very prone to use local school district examples to shed light on discussion questions or to:make points. The communication on these issues was very inter- active, since it was a situation that all participants could understand and relate to. What kinds of‘behaviors did the particpants exhibit when dealing with controversial topics? For the most part, participants did not exhibit marked behavioral changes when dealing with topics that could be labeled "controversial." They understood that these developments were the result of the lack of equity in society and.were logical outgrowths of ignoring diversity in the United States. 136 e. Were there differences between elementary and secondary teacher attitudes with regard to their feeling toward the inservice content? NOt really. The teachers seemed to react to the inservices based upon their familiarity with MCE and their experiences in society and the school district. was there a key individual who assisted with the direction of'the inservice sessions? There was no key individual who emerged in any of the affective sessions who helped in the direction or lead the session. Participation seemed to rotate based upon information about tOpics, experiences, or personal impact of a particular topic. was there a detractor? There Were not any detractors, but there were individuals who were removed frcm the inservice. In other words, they did not take an active role in discussions and seemed to sit back and listen. 9. Were the goals of'the inservice sessions accomplished? I believe so. Participants received an affective presentation on the need for MCE and some suggestions regarding what could be emphasized so that his could be accanplished. C OAWENTS AND OBSERVATIONS ON I NS ER VI C E SESSIONS ( AFFE C TI ICE Theserccnnents represent my observations of the inservice sessions that I conducted for Pat Shinsky while she was collecting data for his dissertation. The inservices that I conducted were affective sessions on multicultural education and the content of those sessions can be gleaned from an examination of the outline 137 that was used to make the presentations. I intentionally resisted providing participants with cognitive information, and focused on experential knowledge and subjectivity. In the first group (two sessions) there was one minority teacher (in her mid-fifties?) who simply tuned out the entire training session. She did not participate and seemed withdrawn and hesitant to enter into discussion. The basic premise of the inservice seemed to bother her. She did not want to acknowledge that subjectively, all participants knew that there was inequality in society. She was the only participant in both groups (four sessions) to do this. Most of the participants were very attentive and actively took part in the discussion at one point in time or another. One of the very interesting observations that emerged was the ethnic dynamics that occured in the context of the training sessions. Black females became the dominant conversational discussion group in the first group (two sessions). One black female stated that bilingual programs made her mad, since blacks did not have access to these programs, and she resented the existance of these programs. These remarks polarized the discussion with three hispanic teachers becoming somewhat upset over the remarks. They attempted to shed light on the rationale for the bilingual programs without alienating or directly contradicting the black wanen in the group. They were tactful, yet visibly upset that vocal opposition to their vested interest programs was voiced by another minority. They were i very unassertive in making their feelings known and seered content not to pursue the matter. The black females in the first grow (two sessions) were very influential in controlling grow discussion. They were extremely vocal. The effectiveness of the sessions (by grows) also prompted some interesting observations. There is little doubt in my mind that the first affective grow (two sessions) were much more effective than the latter grow (two sessions). By the end of the second session, first group, the participants were clamoring for cognitive information. They were attempting to move the discussioi and responses in that direction. Affective presentations, when they are almost totally affective, tend to get rhetorical after time. It became clear that participants in the first grow (two sessions) wanted facts to go along with an affective rationale for multicultural studies. The second grow (those who had already had the cognitive training) were a much more difficult grow to work with, since they attempted to inject cognitive information into the discussion. They wanted to pursue the melding of affective and cognitive information into effective multicultural presentations for their class- rooms. This detracted from keeping the presentation totally affective. It is my inclination that training will be more effective when affective presentations are conducted first (order of treatment) and that these are followed with cognitive sessions that meld the two areas together. APPENDIX E OPEN-ENDED COMMENTS FOR QUESTIONS 7, 8, AND 9 OF THE POST-INSERVICE EVALUATION 139 140 Qpen-Ended Responses to Questions 7, 8, and 9 of the Post-Inservice Evaluation Question 7: What were the major benefits of this inservice? Affective-Cognitive (Elementary) I learned about different concepts that are very important and I can use in my teaching experiences. All of the sessions. Reviewing some historical elements that served to remind me of the horrific gap we have yet to bridge to achieve a glimmer of pluralistic education. Expression of opinions from the group. Historical data Multicultural education will and can work! Understanding of concepts. Information about ethnic groups. Affective-Cognitive (Secondary) It has raised my awareness of other cultural groups-~not just Blacks. I see where other groups went through the same kinds of oppressions as the Blacks did--and are still doing. Awareness. Refresher. Increase leadership skills. It would be helpful if we had subs so we could have half-day in-services. I was able to redefine some terms that I had forgotten. It provided me with a review of my attitudes. I don't see any. It seems that the peOple who were here didn't need this. Exposure--limited as it was. 141 Exposure to multicultural influence and factors in our society. The information we received about various minority groups. Cognitive-Affective (Elementary) Concepts of multicultural education. New terminology--cultural diversity, ethnocentricity, assimilation, etc. Increased insight of multicultural [education]. Produced on me more interest in researching. Broadened my experience. Information about other cultures. Learning about different cultures and history. Listening to people of other groups talking. Provided important information to teachers--gave teachers an opportunity to think about topics they may not have thought much about. Cognitive-Affective (Elementary) It provided me with time to deal with issues that are important and served as a reminder that I want to set a definite time aside for more reading and project completion. Sharing of ideas and feelings about certain issues. Learning about other ethnic groups and concepts of multicultural education. Exchange of information which seemed to increase my desire to learn more about a larger number of cultures and/or races. This type of inservice might be beneficial to teachers who have gg_ background in multicultural education. I got a very interesting perspective on the horrendous attitudes of teachers towards multi-cultural acceptance (knowledge). I was really quite surprised and quite discouraged. I found that the problems my ethnic group experiences is not too different to the other ethnic groups. 142 Qgestion 8: How might the workshop be improved? Affective-Cognitive(Elementary) If you show movies about other cultures such as African, Mexican, etc., or filmstrips. More time. My first suggestions would be that an assessment of participants' knowledge of multiethnic studies be preassessed; grouping by knowledge level and information be planned and disseminated using this pretest. Need more practical aspects-—expected more emphasis on classroom teaching. A multicultural class for teachers should be offered during the first semester of school. Review the pretest before giving the posttest. More time for information. Affective-Cognitive(Secondary) The presenters should speak at a level that is understandable. I didn't have any idea of what was going on. I could not see where the inservice was headed. The presenter used many words which had no meaning--"pragmatic," "ironic," plus the statements of many injustices-~I could not see the purpose of mentioning these injustices. Really I saw no goal during those first two sessions. More useful classroom materials. Another day of the week--Thursday or Friday. Excellent workshop; I'd like to have a fall in-service and a spring in-service. Could have used films and art samples. Have definite goals and objectives. Why were we here? More time-~more specific! 143 Not enough time devoted to historical events and case studies. Too much on feelings and attitudes. Incorporate the two. Race information and less sharing about feelings toward groups. Eggnjtive-Affective (Elementary) More participation on the part of the participants. I would like more of "little" known facts about cultures. More time to focus on certain areas. I would be interested in more factual information. Cognitive-Affective (Secondary) A session on strategies that work in the classroom or have worked with participants as facilitators would be very interesting. More time for sharing. Methodologies in teaching multicultural education. We never went over the historical questions! I would like a list of reading material that can be obtained on the least known information about other cultures in the U.S. It should be geared to meet the needs of the participants. More kinetic activities--less lecture, more discussion-~quit talking at us g:_teach historical background (information). More time may be allowed. Question 9: Should the order of sessions be changed? If so, how? Affective-Cognitive (Elementary) Yes--First a short preassessment; then based on that information and grade level taught, give us some knowledge and hands-on materials or "role plays," etc. that we can take back and actually use or practice with students and fellow building staff. Yes--Nights 7-8 o'clock once a week for 6 to 9 weeks for more information, and class participation. Yes--recent concepts first. 144 Affective-Cognitive (Secondary) TWO longer times. Doesn't make a difference. Data first, then feelings. Yes--more concrete information for classroom. Cpgnitive-Affective (Elementary) Yes--longer. Cognitive-Affective (Secondary) Yes--I feel as if we are at a stand still as far as multicultural education goes in the district. We meet and rehash the same concepts over and over again. We need more practical information (most of us who attend these programs share the same philosophy and sincerely believe in the importance of multiculture education already). We need to know what to do. We need to share actual lessons and materials. We need to help each other become more educated in the historical and cultural differences of the diverse people in this country, so that we can then go back into the classroom and educate our students. I'm willing to incorporate multicultural education into my program. I know why, but I need help on hgw! REFERENCES 145 REFERENCES Aragon, John. "An Impediment to Cultural Pluralism: Culturally Defi- cient Teachers Attempting to Teach Culturally Different Children. " In Cultural Pluralism in Education. A Mandate for Chapge. PP 77- 84. Edited by Madelon D. Stent, William R. Hazard, and Harry N. Rivlin. New York: Appleton-Century- Crofts, 1973. Baker, Gwendolyn Calvert. "Development of the Multicultural Program: School of Education, University of Michigan." In Pluralism and the American Teacher: Issues and Case Studies. pp. l66-67. Edited’byTErank H. Klassen and Donna M. Gollnick. New York: American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education, l977. . "Multicultural Training for Student Teachers." Journal of Teacher Education 24 (Winter 1973): 306-307. Banks, A. James. "The Implications of Multicultural Education for Teacher Education." Paper presented at the Leadership Training Institute on Multicultural Education in Teacher Education, sponsored by the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education, Washington, D.C., April 28-30, 1976. "The Implications of Multicultural Education for Teacher Education." In Pluralism and the American Teacher: Issues and Case Studies, pp.l22-24. Edited by Frank H. Klassen and Donna M. Gollnickfi New York: American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education, 1977. Baptiste, H. Prentice, Jr. Multicultural Education: A Synopsis. University Press of America, 1979. , and Baptiste, Mira Lanier. "Developing the Multicultural Process." In Classroom Instruction: Competencies for Teachers, vol. I, pp. 4-7. 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