IuLmanMLMIungiliymflwiilul w ‘3'” LIBRARY Michigan State University This is to certify that the thesis entitled PERCEPTIONS 0F BRAZILIAN EDUCATIONAL PARTICIPANTS CONCERNING GOALS FOR HIGHER EDUCATION presented by LUIZ R. LIMA has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for /' waAOI/I“V\ Major pro'fessor . /' Date 7 [é ‘7 0.7539 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution PERCEPTIONS 0F BRAZILIAN EDUCATIONAL PARTICIPANTS CONCERNING GOALS FOR HIGHER EDUCATION By Luiz R. Lima A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Educational Administration 1985 COPym'ght by LUIZ R. LIMA 1985 ABSTRACT PERCEPTIONS OF BRAZILIAN EDUCATIONAL PARTICIPANTS CONCERNING GOALS FOR HIGHER EDUCATION By Luiz R. Lima The purpose of the study was to analyze and describe per- ceptions of educational participants concerning possible goals and objectives for higher education. In addition, the larger concern was to generate a framework for the research with regard to broader issues of economics of education, sociology, organization, and administration of higher education. The investigator conducted an in-country survey at the Federal University of Paraiba (Brazil), in December 1984. Some N = 450 questionnaires were distributed to university students (N = 150), faculty members (N = l50), and administrators (N = 150), in order to assess their perceptions of what the educational system actually "is" and their perceptions of what they think it ideally "should be.“ The instrument was based on the Institutional Goals Inven- tory (IGI) (Peterson, 1970), and Gross and Grambsch (1968) pioneer works on goals for higher education. The questionnaire contained two parts. Part one dealt with demographic characteristics of the respondents. Part two consisted of 36 possible goals for higher education. For each one of the goal statements appearing in the Luiz R. Lima scale. Response choices were as follows: (l) Of no importance; (2) 0f low importance; (3) Of medium importance; (4) Of high impor- tance; (5) 0f extremely high importance. 0f the total questionnaires distributed, some N = 343 were returned (76.22 percent) containing information for analysis. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to test significant differences of perceptions for all goal statements within total group and subgroup tables. The statistical data obtained from the ANOVA was used to perform the Scheffée test, which is a post-hoc multiple-comparison of means. In the analysis of actual goals of university education, there is congruence amongst total group as well as each individual group. Ideally more importance should be given to all goals. How- ever, it was observed discrepancy in perceptions concerning priorities of goals by the individual groups. The respondents indicated desire of having the educational system changed to better qualify students with skills and know-how in demand locally. They long for a more participatory democracy. And they call for a reform of the educational system, in their overall perceptions. DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to my parents, Naisses Ramos de Lima and Barbara Rios Lima, who have instilled in me the value of education. I am thankful for having parents who have always encouraged all their children to do their best, and who have always provided me with positive example to follow. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS No task of this magnitude could ever be completed indepen— dently. There are many people who have directly or indirectly helped in the achievement of this study. In a small way I wish to acknowledge some of those who have given me so much support. I thank Dr. Ted Ward who served as my first Committee Chair- man until prior to his leaving East Lansing. Dr. Ted Hard has provided valuable guidance and suggestions in the early stage of the doctoral program of studies. I thank Dr. Eldon Nonnamaker for his willingness to serve as my Committee Chairman, for his guidance, and for his constant support. I thank Dr. Ben Bohnhorst, my Dissertation Director, for his encouragement, patience and understanding, and for his expert advice and direction throughout my sojourn at Michigan State University. Dr. Bohnhorst is a diplomatic, courteous, and unassuming scholar who instills in his students the true desire for learning, research and exploring more. I thank also the other committee members: Dr. Charles Blackman, Dr. James Buschman, and Dr. Louis Hekhuis, for their assistance. There are two institutions in this country I owe so much to. The School for International Training and The Experiment in iv International Living—-the best kept secret in the United States. Indeed, the accomplishment of the doctoral program has its roots in the campus of these two institutions in Brattleboro, Vermont, where I first arrived in January 1968. From there I was introduced to Bates College (Maine) where I earned my Bachelor's degree. After which I returned to the School for International Training to work towards a Master's degree in education. At these two institutions I wish to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. John Wallace. I am most grateful to his tremendous support and help, and for having paved the way for the attainment of this most important accomplishment. Still at The Experiment in International Living I wish to acknowledge Tom and Ilene Todd, the Batchelder's, the Fantini's, Mike Jerald, Ray Clark, Pat Moran, Harry Starkey, Russ Ellis, Sam Achzinger, Ed Ellis, Mrs. Gregg, Ann Puyana, Shirley Capron, Julie Soquet, Bobby Williams, Mary Adams, the Burlingham's, Shaun Bennett, Mrs. Wallace, Sara Loessel, and Ed Cassidy, for their friendship. In Brazil, I thank Professor Antonio Cavalcante Filho, my proxy and colleague for all the hard work performed on my behalf. A special thanks goes to Darcy Chaves Araujo who kindly allowed me to use his car to travel throughout the State of Paraiba to collect the data. I thank my sisters and brothers for their prayers and support. I am especially grateful to my sister Nancy Lima, who served as my proxy in the Rio de Janeiro area, being instrumental with financial matters. I thank Federal University of Paraiba, and National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq), for their financial support. I thank the students, faculty members, and administrators of the Federal University of Paraiba for responding to the survey questionnaire. Their participation made this study possible. I thank Lin Chang of MSU's Office for Research Consultation, for her advisement regarding statistical procedures for data processing. Last, but not least, I wish to thank my wife Bila Lima for performing the computer processing of the data. Bila has always been so generous and gratious to me and to our lovely children, Jennifer and Jonathan. Her cooperation and support have been instrumental. Bila has managed and kept our home so well, making sure our children understood their neglectful daddy's commitment to this endeavor. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv CHAPTER I THE RESEARCH PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . l Statement of the Problem . . . . . . 4 Purpose of the Research . . . . . . . . 4 Research Questions . . . . . . . . . 5 Statement of the Hypotheses . 6 Significance of the Study. . . Z : I : : 7 The Setting for the Research. . . ll Part One. The Brazilian Educational System. . ll The Ideal and Actual Values of Education. . 13 The Development of the Country and the School System. . . . . . . . . . l3 Nonformal Education: An Overview of two Sound Technical Programs . . . . . . 15 The Agricultural Crisis . . . . . . . l6 Higher Education Administration. . . . 17 The Development of Educational Research. . 18 Development and Planning of the Education System . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Internal Efficiency. . . . . . . . . 19 External Relevance . . . . . . . . . 20 Trends and Possibilities . . . . 20 Part Two. The American Higher Educational System . . . . 24 Efficiency and Accountability in Higher Education . . . . 24 Functions of Higher Education . . . . . 28 Production in Higher Education . . . . . 30 Training Models in Higher Education . . . 31 Development of American Higher Education. . 33 The American Community College . . . . . 34 Concept and Growth . . . . . . 35 The Importance of the Institution . . . . 39 Community College in Michigan . . . . . 4O vii 1. _. 1 CHAPTER I THE RESEARCH PROBLEM (continued) Philosophical Assumptions. Assumptions of the Study. Limitations . Definitions of Terms . Organization of the Study. II CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW . Rationale . . Organizational Goals and Objectives . A Historic Overview of Higher Education Goals . Accumulating Purposes . . . . . . The Non- Functionality of Goals: A Viewpoint Research on College and University Goals. Goals: The Intended Outcome of Higher Education . . Empirical Studies of Purposes and Goals in Higher Education. . . . Conceptual Distinctions . Techniques for Identification of Goals Institutional Goals Inventory (IGI) . . Descriptions of Goal Statements of the IGI . Conceptual Framework . . Economics of Education. Historical Perspective of. Economics of Education . . Manpower Needs and Expenditure on Education. Human Capital: A Conceptual Framework A Brief Overview. . . . . . Sociology of Education. Social Goals of Higher Education Individualism versus Collectivism . Social Change versus Stability. . Organization and Administration of Higher Education . . . . . Organizational Theory. Descriptive Studies. Normative Studies Governance and Control. The Role of Paradigms in Science . . Organizational Paradigms Applied to the University. . . Planning . Accountability viii 108 110 110 113 CHAPTER Page II CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW (continued) Recent Development. . . 115 The University as Center and Periphery. . 117 Linkages Between the University and the Community. . . . . . . . . . . 119 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURES . . . . . 124 Research Design. . . . . . . . . 124 Questions and Hypotheses. . . . . . . . 125 Population and Sample. . . . . . . . . 127 Instrumentation. . . . . . . . . . . 127 Pretest . . . . . . . . 130 In- Country Data Collection . . . . . . . 131 Reliability. . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Validity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 IV ANALYSIS OF DATA . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Demographic Information . . . . 137 Perceptions of the Respondents Concerning Goals and Objectives . . 150 Perceptions of the Three Groups Concerning Actual Goals. . . 150 Perceptions of the Three Groups Concerning Ideal Goals . . . 154 Perceptions of Students Concerning Actual Goals . . . 158 Perceptions of Students Concerning Ideal Goals . . . 162 Perceptions of Faculty Members Concerning Actual Goals. . . 166 Perceptions of Faculty Members Concerning Ideal Goals . . . 170 Perceptions of Administrators Concerning Actual Goals. . . . 174 Perceptions of Administrators Concerning Ideal Goals . . 178 Group Differences of Perceptions Concerning Actual Goals. . . 182 Group Differences of Perceptions Concerning Ideal Goals . . . . . . . . . . 186 ix _1 CHAPTER Page IV ANALYSIS OF DATA (continued) Goal Statement Discrepancies. . . . . 200 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). . . 202 Scheffée Test of Post- Hoc Multiple-Compari- son . . . . . 207 Testing of Hypotheses . . . . . . . 208 Goals Written by the Respondents . . . . 213 Students' Goals . . . . . . . 213 Faculty Members' Goals. . . . . . . 214 Administrators' Goals . . . . . . 215 Comments Written by the Respondents . . . 216 Students' Comments . . . . . . . . 216 Faculty Members' Comments. . . . . . 217 Administrator's Comments . . . . . . 217 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . 219 A Brief Review of the Study . . . . . . 219 Summary of the Findings . . . . . . . 221 Students Goals . , , , , , , , 225 Faculty Members' Goals. , , . , , , 227 Administrators' Goals . . . . . 227 Comments Written by the Respondents . . . 228 Students' Comments . . . . . . . . 228 Faculty Members' Comments. . . . . . 228 Administrators' Comments . . . . . . 229 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . 229 Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . 230 APPENDIX A: Map of Brazil: The shaded area depicts the State of Paraiba . . . . . 234 APPENDIX B: Map of the State of Paraiba, Depicting Campus Locations of the Federal University of Paraiba . . . . . . . 236 APPENDIX C: English and Portuguese Version of a Letter sent to Participants of the Pretesting of the Questionnaire. . . . . . . . . 238 APPENDIX 0: English and Portuguese Version of a Letter Signed by a Committee Member sent to Participants of the Pretesting of the Questionnaire . . . . . . 241 :1 7 ml. APPENDIX E: English and Portuguese Version of the Final Printed Questionnaire. . . . . APPENDIX F: English and Portuguese Version of a Letter Signed by the Rector of the Federal University of Paraiba. . APPENDIX G: The Models of Teaching Classified by Family and Mission . . BIBLIOGRAPHY . xi Page 244 261 264 268 b-b->-l>-b-bNNN 0‘01th DON—l _.l LIST OF TABLES Statistics of the Brazilian Educational Reality. Schematic Descriptions of the Productive Process in Higher Education . . . . . . . . . Historical and Philosophical Development in American Higher Education . . . . . . . Taxonomy for the Study of Outcomes . Outcome and Process Goals . Comparison of Three Models of University Governance Distribution of Responses by Group . Report of Returns on Each Campus. Years in the Category as Students Years in the Category as Faculty Members . Years in the Category as Administrators Sex of the Respondents, by Group, with Percentage and Total . . . . Age of the Respondents, by Group, with Percentage and Total . . Marital Status of the Respondents, by Group, with Percentage and Total. , Academic Position of Faculty Members and Administra- tors, with Total and Percentage . . . . Academic Discipline of Interest of Respondents, by Group, with Totals and Percentage . Work Condition of Faculty Members and Administrators, with Totals and Percentage. . . . . Page 22 32 34 68 80 111 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 hub-[:- .20 .21 .22 .23 24 .25 .26 .27 Occupation of Administrators and Percentage . Rank Order of Perceived Importance of the Actual Goals by All Respondents . . . . . Rank Order of Perceived Importance of the Ideal Goals by All Respondents . . . . . Rank Order of Perceived Importance of the Actual Goals by Students. . . . . . . Rank Order of Perceived Importance of the Ideal Goals by Students. . . . . . Rank Order of Perceived Importance of the Actual Goals by Faculty Members . . . . . Rank Order of Perceived Importance of the Ideal Goals by Faculty Members . . . . Rank Order of Perceived Importance of the Actual Goals by Administrators. . . . . . Rank Order of Perceived Importance of the Ideal Goals by Administrators. . . . . . Group Differences of Perceptions Concerning Actual University Goals . . . . . . Group Differences of Perceptions Concerning Ideal University Goals . . . . . . Response to University Goals, by Total Groups, Perceived and Preferred Scores ANOVA for Actual Goals . ANOVA for Ideal Goals Actual Goals with Significant Differences by Pairs of Groups Ideal Goals with Significant Differences by Pairs of Groups . xiii Page 149 151 155 159 162 166 170 174 178 182 187 194 203 205 207 208 LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE Page 1.1 Pyramid of Enrollments: Brazil. . . . . . . 23 1.2 Estimated Expenditures of Educational Institutions, by Source of Funds: United States, 1981-82. . 26 CHAPTER I THE RESEARCH PROBLEM Education everywhere is considered to be the vehicle through which society transmits wisdom and accumulated knowledge from one generation to another: Education empowers people for membership in society, actively participating in the maintenance, progress, growth and development of their countries. In fact, today it is common practice to measure the worthiness of an individual in terms of his or her academic achievements. In business, education is considered to be an investment with consequences in the form of capital. The rapport between education and productivity has captured the atten- tion of educators and has become an integral part of economic and social thought. Education everywhere is considered a form of investment in human capital which yields economic benefits with contribution to the future wealth of the nation by increasing the productive capacity of its people. In a developing country such as Brazil, education is viewed not only as a cultural heritage, but also as an economic investment. Education is utilized as a means of directing society toward desired goals. Large sums of money and human resources are being invested in education with the anticipation of better qualifying people to help in the plight of the country to move from the stage of underdeveloped society to that of a full-scale economy with high employment, thus improving the standard of living of its citizens. In fact, throughout Brazil there is a cry for skilled individuals to work, operate, manage, and administer factories and those corporations being installed in the country. Universities must demonstrate their capacity to adapt to the nation's research, scientific and professional needs. Although higher education is being directly charged to train and qualify individuals responsible for national development, there still per- sists the old question about which concept is best suited in higher education--1iterary or practical. Rather than straightforwardly providing technical training for their students, universities in Brazil seem to want to continue gearing curricula to the well- roundedness of individuals, missing the opportunity to become more effective institutions in tune with the aspirations of a fast- developing society, one much in need of individuals with competence in technical skills. Rapid and effective development of the system is urgently needed, a market-oriented, more utilitarian system of higher education which would qualify university students to fulfill the demands of the high-technology era that has already arrived in the country. Assessing the needs of higher education in Brazil, McNeill (1970) states that "the traditional educational system failed to meet the demands of this rapidly developing country." Universities must exercise more accountability to the local com- munity to promote change. As Roeber (1973, page x) asserted: . .organizations have been able to adapt themselves to slow changes in their environments by making small concessions to pressures, and through the import of new personnel and the diffusion of new ideas. Through these unstructured, untutored, and unconscious adap- tive responses organizations have "tracked" changes in their environment, much as the rear wheels of a long trailer track the changes in direction at the front. But such natural processes are no longer appropriate when the environment changes rapidly. Indeed, those in charge of higher education must introduce processes for managing change that are capable of "defining missions, setting objectives, allocating resources and coordinating efforts for the institution" (Corson, 1975, page 18). As Gardner (1964) suggested: The true task is to design a society (and institutions) capable of continuous change, renewal and responsiveness. We can less and less afford to limit ourselves to routine repair of breakdowns in our institutions. Unless we are willing to see a final confrontation between institutions that refuse to change and critics bent on destruction, we had better get on with the business of redesigning our society. An institution of higher education must respond to the needs and aspirations of the individual and of the community of which it is a member. Learning is a hard task in itself, and learning for the sake of learning is no easier. Carl Rogers (1961, page 292) once said: If we value independence, if we are disturbed by the growing conformity of knowledge, of values, of attitudes which our present system induces, then we may wish to set up conditions of learning which make for uniqueness, for self-direction, and for self-initiated learning. In today's world, men and women need not only solid educa- tional foundations, but also lifelong opportunities to adapt, to ‘ i _ 1.. renew themselves, and to acquire new knowledge, and, as Freire would say, “to master their own destiny." The development of human resources must not be overlooked by our institutions of higher education. Statement of the Problem In a developing country such as Brazil, the educational system has a great responsibility for helping to solve existing social problems, meeting the needs of its people, and assisting in the realization of the potentiality and aspirations of the nation. The universitysystemshould be called upon to better develop human resource programs, providing training to workers, and qualifying the labor force with skills necessary to the well functioning of enterprises locating throughout the various regions of the country. Thus, the main focus of the research was to interpret the lifelong educational needs that exist in Brazil, as perceived by university participants. Purpose of the Research The purpose of the research was to analyze and describe per- ceptions of participants in the Brazilian university system with respect to goals and objectives of higher education. The researcher conducted a survey with distribution of N = 450 questionnaires to three distinct groups of Brazilian university students (N = 150), faculty members (N = 150), and administrators (N = 150), in order to assess their perceptions of what the educational system actually "is and their perceptions of what they think it ideally ”should be." The educational participants selected for responding the questionnaire were representative to some degree of educational outlooks in Brazil today. The degree to which the sample is repre- sentative was not tested, so no generalizations can be made with certainty. The researcher wanted to summarize these analysis in order to draw certain initial conclusions in the form of tentative principles, pointing to needed further research on the subject. But this research was intended only as an initial exploratory, descriptive investigation. In addition to the main thrust of the research which dealt with perceptions about university goals and objectives, the larger concern was to generate a framework for the research with regard to broader issues of economics of education, sociology, organiza- tion, and administration of higher education. Research,9uestions The following research questions cover the major concerns of the study. They are based upon the needs assessment format, the result of which will serve as a basis for the final conclusions and recommendations of the research. (1) How do all respondents (students, faculty members, and administrators), perceive and rank order the possible actual goals of university education? (2) How do all respondents (students, faculty members, and administrators), perceive and rank order the possible ideal goals of university education? (3) How do students perceive and rank order the possible actual goals of university education? (4) How do students perceive and rank order the possible ideal goals of university education? (5) How do faculty members perceive and rank order the possible actual goals of university education? (6) How do faculty members perceive and rank order the possible ideal goals of university education? (7) How do administrators perceive and rank order the possible actual goals of university education? (8) How do administrators perceive and rank order the possible ideal goals of university education? (9) What are the differences that exist in the perceptions of students, faculty members, and administrators, concerning the actual goals of unviersity education? (10) What are the differences that exist in the perceptions of students, faculty members, and administrators, concerning the ideal goals of university education? Statement of the Hypotheses The conceptual framework of the research holds that the university and the community where it is located interact in such a way that they mutually benefit from their very existence in the environment. The framework holds also that university participants' perceptions of actual ("is") and ideal ("should be") objectives of higher education are consonant with the missions of the institutions. Based on these premises the null hypotheses to be tested were formulated as follows: H : There are no significant differences in percep- tions of students and faculty members, with regards to the actual possible goals of univer- sity education. 01 Ho : There are no significant differences in percep- 2 tions of students and faculty members, with regards to the ideal possible goals of univer- sity education. Ho : There are no significant differences in percep- 3 tions of students and administrators, with regards to the actual possible goals of univer- sity education. Ho : There are no significant differences in percep- 4 tions of students and administrators, with regards to the ideal possible goals of univer- sity education. H : There are no significant differences in percep- 5 tions of faculty members and administrators, with regards to the actual possible goals of university education. Ho : There are no significant differences in percep- 6 tions of faculty members and administrators, with regards to the ideal possible goals of university education.‘ Significance of the Study The researcher's concern grew from a general interest in university goals and objectives, sociology, organization, and administration of higher education as means to efficiently provid- ing students with high technology skills and training to fulfill the needs and demands of a rapidly changing society. As a concep- tual tool the.notion of goals can be enormously useful in deliberating, determining, and evaluating policy and practice in educational organization. Organization and administration are not ends in themselves. They exist for the purpose of enabling institutions to carry out their aims and policies. As Charles A. Beard (1937, page 3) observed: a. I . I There is no subject more important. . . than this subject of administration. The future of civilized government, and even, I think, of civilization itself, rests upon our ability to develop a science and philosophy and a practice of administration competent to discharge the public functions of civilized society. Organization and administration have an important contri- bution to make to higher education, through both leadership and service, with respect to the individual institution and to the community of which it is an integral part and to which it is respon- sible. Thus, it is hoped that the research may be of value to those in charge of leadership in administration, planning and organization of higher education, as they may wish to learn the perceptions of educational participants which can aid in their true task of constantly trying to upgrade the goals and objectives of the university system, consonant to changes that occur in a modern- izing society. After all, as John Caffrey (Gross and Grambsch, 1968, page vii) stated, "it is certainly one of the functions of leader- ship, be it administrators, faculty, trustee, or whomever, continually to clarify these goals and periodically to reexamine them in light of changing desirabilities and feasibilities". Other factors equally important for this research are identified below: (1) Despite Brazil's great natural resources and renewed governmental commitment to augmenting the skilled work force, educa- tors must contend with certain historical liabilities as they try to improve the country and educate its people. Inequalities of wealth and income, widespread poverty, malnutrition, illiteracy, high birth and mortality rates, and economic and political instabi- lity have long plagued the country. The primary challenge is to develop human resources as well as possible, given limited funds available for this purpose. Were courses of study briefer and more directed toward eventual local employment, the nation would be better served. (2) The Constitution of Brazil establishes education as a right of all, stating that it is a duty of the State to provide education in the home and in school. The fundamental legislation which presently governs Brazilian educational system consists of the following: (a) Law Number 4,024 of December 22, 1961, which defines the principles of national education and the general norms of organizations; (b) Law Number 5,540 of November 28, 1968, which specifies the norms for the structure and function of postsecondary education; (c) Decree-Law Number 464 of February 11, 1969, which complements Law Number 5,540; and (d) Law Number 5,692 of August 11, 1971, which establishes the directives and bases of first- level and second-level education. The university Reform Law (Number 5,540) clearly specifies and introduces innovations in the curriculum, switching to the credit system for evaluating students and appropriating sufficient public funds to support the expansion and improvements of physical and human resources in higher education (Haussman, 1978). The goals of universities in Brazil, according to the Reform Law (Number 5,540), are ”research, the development of the sciences, 10 letters and arts, and professional education." Haussman further states that university extension activities in Brazil were developed to create a strong and visible link between higher education and national development. The goals of all extension programs have been fundamentally the same: (a) to provide students with a clearer understanding of regional and national problems and enable them to participate in the nation's development, (b) to encourage students both to apply classroom learning and to acquire skills essential to the country's needs, (c) to tap the university as a development-related resource, and (d) to bring technical assistance and training to Brazil's interior. (3) A UNESCO study (1982) reveals that there are over one million students enrolled in higher education institutions in Brazil. It also shows that most institutions offer degree programs in four years of study, with little or no vocational/technical skills and training. Brazil is a developing country experiencing a tremendous economic and technological growth. The existing manpower supply lacks proper training and skills to fill existing job opportunities. The cost to industry and commerce to train prospective employees is high and time consuming. (4) As the above points indicate explicit goals for Brazilian higher education currently are spelled out briefly or generally at best. The results of this study may help identify more well-developed higher education goal statements including goals which are considered more important by the respondents. Such 11 results may aid the university in the more adequate accomplishment of its mission and purpose. The Setting for the Research This section is divided into two parts. In part one it is discussed the Brazilian educational system. Part two is reserved for the presentation of a synopsis of the American higher education system. Part One: The Brazilian Educational System For centuries Brazil was dominated culturally by Europe. The Portuguese colonization was aimed at short term exploitation of the national resources rather than long term investment. Since the Brazilian society was predominantly agrarian, education was reserved for those members of the rural aristocracy. They were the educated elite who dominated and led the Church, the State, and the professions. To Haussman (1978) the education they received was, however, ornamental rather than functional—~merely a social status symbol used to differentiate the upper class from the lower class. Education was classical in nature and elitist in orientation. There was little incentive for greater allocation of resources to education. In fact, investment in education was not considered economically attractive. It was the Jesuits who introduced education in Brazil in 1549 when they arrived with the Portuguese colonizers. The cultural dominance was exercised until 1759 when the Jesuit influence was 12 virtually ended. The Portuguese Prime Minister Pombal expelled them in an effort to reform the administrative system of Portugal (Haussman, 1978, page 31). Cowen (1984) asserts that in the nineteenth century when Brazil sought a model for its cultural institution it was Europe, and particularly to France, that it looked. Thus the basic ingredient in Brazilian educational thought was the European tradition. It was essentially an elitist and humanistic tradition designed to cultivate the mind and provide an avenue to the "noble" professions: secondary and higher education in Brazil were above all the mark of a gentleman. It was anti- technical and concerned with theorizing rather than empirical investigation. It was reflected on concepts of "authority" as to the purity of the subject matter and as a result the system was rigidly centralized until 1961. Haussman (1978) argues that although Jesuit colégios (actually, high schools) existed in sixteenth-century Brazil, higher education did not emerge until 1808 when the Portuguese court fled to Brazil in anticipation of Napoleon's invasion of Portugal. After 1808 and well into the middle of the nineteenth century, higher education remained exclusively professional in nature; offering study in such fields as medicine, surgery, econo- mics, agriculture, chemistry, design, and mechanical drawing. The emphasis on professional studies represented a radical break with the scholasticism of the literary period (before the expulsion of the Jesuits) and strongly influenced the future development of higher education in Brazil. 13 The Ideal and Actual Values of Education Secondary and higher education in Brazil, traditionally manifested itself in encyclopaedic curricula, and emphasis on standards and in examinations designed to sift out the intellec- tually unworthy. Primary schools (being concerned with the "instruc- tion" and not the "education" of the lower classes) were not included in this rationale, but they too reflected its style and attitudes. Cowen (1984) states that in defining the objectives of education, governments expanded on this narrow educational view. Legislation variously defines them in terms of health, culture, nationalism, social integration and individual development--but in Latin fashion those were "ideal" values unrelated to what was actually happening in the schools. The Development of the Country and the School System The growth of Brazil since 1930 has been remarkable. Dur- ing World War II, in particular, national industry was stimulated by great restrictions on international trade, which may have paved the way for the country to enter the "technological era." It is interesting and impressive the contrast of the present situation with the recent past. Oliveira Junior (1959) argues that during the first decades of this century agriculture was the main source of income; exports consisted of rubber, coffee, and other tropical products. Industry was primitive, and the country had to import almost entirely both raw materials and the machines to manufacture them. Gouveia (1957) asserts that in 1907 there were 3,250 14 industrial enterprises employing 150,841 workers. In 1963 more than three million industrial workers in about one hundred thousand enterprises were producing a large percentage of the country's needs for heavy steel, oil products, automobiles, and household appliances. McNeill (1970) states that at the beginning of the century most Brazilians were peasants working on ranches and planta- tions, totally dependent upon their landowners. Today, while this situation still remains in most of the rural areas, an increasingly large urban middle class is being formed, as the cities have experienced extensive migration. According to a U.S. army area handbook for Brazil (1964), in 1962 it was estimated that 200,000 inhabitants from the interior were moving to the cities each year in search of work and better conditions. Together with industriali- zation and population growth, the country's system of public ser— vice is also developing at a rapid pace. How did the educational system contribute to this development? Where did the country find the workers to develop its steel and electric power, automobile and aviation industries? According to McNeill (1970, page 9). the traditional educa- tional system failed to meet the demands of this rapidly developing country. It produced mainly lawyers, physicians, and engineers. With the creation of faculties of philosophy in 1931, secondary teachers, mathematicians, physicists, biologists, and chemists began to receive specialized training. However, schools of commerce and industry did not have many graduates to offer. Thus, the working 15 force was formed in part by on-the-job training, in part by immigrant skilled workers. According to Diegues Junior (1964) in 1951 alone, 8,606 skilled foreign workers were added to the labor , a. force 1n Sao Paulo. Nonformal Education: An Overview of Two Sound Technical Programs A serious shortage of skilled industrial workers and of middle level business managers continues to exist. To meet these demands, Brazilian industry and business have supported and admin- istered since 1942, two types of technical educational programs outside the regular system. By law, enterprises employing more than one hundred persons are required to provide schooling for their employees and their employee's children. Professional train- ing, for youngsters and adults with or without proper schooling, is provided by Servigo Nacional de Aprendizagem Industrial-National Service of Industrial Apprenticeship (SENAI) and the Servigo Nacional de Aprendizagem Comercial-National Service of Commercial Apprenticeship (SENAC). SENAI and SENAC are supported by a fund fed by the tax- paying enterprises and their employees, and are administered by the National Federation of Industry and the National Federation of Commerce, respectively. SENAI's chief activities today are: (l) the training of industrial manpower through its apprenticeship courses for youngsters between fourteen and eighteen; (2) intensive professional training for employed and unemployed adults; and (3) retraining and specialization courses for qualified workers 16 and supervisors. Haussman (1978, page 105) states that more than half of SENAI's courses are given at its own centers. The rest are given at factory sites. SENAC was created in 1946, on the same principles as SENAI, to provide training for commercial and service occupations. SENAC offers courses for about 90 different occupations, and through on- the-job training courses in large commercial enterprises. For example, with Brazil's new efforts to attract tourists from abroad and offer them accommodations with internationally acceptable stan- dards, the training of hotel and restaurant personnel has become a priority endeavor. Thus, SENAC operates its own restaurants to train cooks, waiters and barmen. The Agricultural Crisis Brazil also has a shortage of trained agriculatural workers, to which no solution has yet been found. In many areas production is small and expensive, and undernorishment is a permanent condi- tion. Camargo (1960) points to an "agricultural crisis" in Brazil in terms of production and the number and quality of schools of agriculture. The author criticizes and suggests that agricultural education be expanded at the university level. According to a detailed survey of the Brazilian educational system (Anuério Brasileiro de Educaygo, 1966), in 1964 there were only 35 agricul- tural high schools (technical level) with an enrollment of less than 4,000. For McNeill (1970, page 10), graduates from these schools frequently lack practical farm experience, and many do not 17 become farmers; some become rural teachers, but do not seem to have a marked influence on the communities where they live. The shortage of skilled labor is also compounded by the fact that most students continue to prefer an academic education: it is far more prestig- ious. Higher Education Administration Higher education is a federal responsibility, though insti- tutions are run by federal, state, municipal, religious and private entities. There are also large numbers of independent faculties. Education, research, and extension are-the main functions of university education in Brazil. In 1980 there were 65 universities and 822 independent faculties enrolling a total of 1,311,799 stu- dents, 53% of whom were studying in private institutions. Brazilian higher education has been undergoing continuous reform since 1961 and was the subject of radical reforms in 1968. The intention of this reform was to improve the quality and efficiency of the first degree course, particularly by reducing the independence and powers of individual faculties. The university organization Brazil inherited was patterned after European models which were limited to acquisition and trans- mission of current scientific knowledge or to applying and adapting such knowledge in order to meet pressing local needs. The Univer- sity Reform Law of 1968 basically changed the structure of Brazilian universities. Fidelis (1982) asserts that the French Inodel of the university, with its characteristic tendency toward |.V L LL In! I 18 centralization, was replaced by a more flexible and decentralized system like the American model. New concepts in university admin— istration emerged from the University Reform Law, such as the departmental structure, credits, basic and professional studies, student participation, and optional or elective courses. However, several areas of conflict are apparent, after the introduction of the University Reform Law. Fidelis (page 13) states that the newly designed structure of universities was intended to transform the older European-type professional school into an American-type system with a departmental structure, more interdisciplinary programs, and an emphasis on research and training in technologi- cal fields. Such changes were almost immediately implemented in all public universities in Brazil. However, the expansion and complexity of administrative matters in the new structure, if indeed envisioned, did not receive the necessary support. The Development of Educational Research Educational research pointing to specific problems and their solutions has not yet been extensively done in Brazil. Teixeira (1957) pointed to what he called the "backwardness" of educational research in Brazil; the fact that educational statis- tics were the major source of awareness about the nation's educa- tional status. Other critics (Abreu, 1968; Fernandes, 1960) have also pointed out that most of what has been called "educational research" is merely "identification, definition, assertion, and fact assembly," , L .. . ”I“. .I 19 and that "a theoretical point of view to provide a rational crite- rion of assembling facts and methodological concerns are often absent." The lack of a "practical attitude" on the part of the researcher has also been criticized, for many studies have been useful neither for educational practice nor for planning future research (Abreu, pages 51-78). Fernandes (pages 31-59) believes that science and national development should be twin ideas. Brazilian scientists should: (1) try to create the conditions for pure and applied research in Brazil, (2) be concerned about the practical utilization of the results of their investigations, and (3) be aware of the social significance for Brazil of the "organized expansion of its science as well as of its scientifically based technology." Development and Planning of the Education System In a summary form, Cowen (1984, page 618) has presented the problems which Brazilians detect in their education system as follows: Internal Efficiengy (i) a serious shortage and unequal distribution of facilities (ii) soaring demand outpacing supply (iii) high drop-out, repeater and failure rates (iv) lack of 'articulation' between levels of the system (v) shortages of trained teachers at all levels; low salaries and part time working (vi) encyclopaedic curricula 5.. -I, 1% (vii) (viii) 20 formalistic teaching methods inappropriate educational aims and concepts. External Relevance (i) (ii) academic curricula and non-practical orientation humanistic bias at higher levels resulting in shortages of technicians, doctors, scientists, etc. and probable over-production of lawyers and philosophers. Trends and Possibilities (i) (ii) the urban, progressive regions of Brazil with their European traditions and industrial bases have shown in recent years similar trends to those observable in Western Europe. The minimum length of schooling has become progressively longer. Curricula at the upper first cycle (primeiro grau) level have become more uniform and there is a trend toward postponing specialization until second cycle (segundo grau). At the upper levels there have also been clear signs of closer university involvement in develop- mental problems and a retreat from the "ivory tower" image. Pressures too from the National Council for Scientific and Technological Develop- ment (CNPq) and MEC's Coordination for the Improve- ment of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES) have also resulted in significant advances in the teach- ing of science and in the quantity and quality of advanced research. The foundation of the first faculties of education are also illustrative of a slight up-grading in the academic status of teacher training. At another level, a feature typical of the developing world can be detected-- namely a phenomenal increase in demand and provi- sion, matched by a fall in quality. these underlying educational trends combined with the response of the government's technocrats and planners to the quantitative and qualitative problems of the system produced in the late 19605 a sweeping program of reform. The extent and importance of these modifications can be appreciated by the following summary. Some may be criticized, and some omissions may be noted, but overall the 21 list presents an impressive catalogue of reform which in Brazilian conditions only a single minded and determined government could have achieved: (a) "Operation School" launched in 1968 to master- mind the expansion of the primary system and the re-examination of curricula and criteria (b) The Reform Law of 1971 (Law 5692) - restruc- turing the school system into two levels, the first offering "fundamental education" to all between the ages of 7 and 14; the second providing three or four years of secondary education of a type suitable for either university entrance or for the middle level manpower needs of the economy (c) University Reform - following the lines of the recommendations of 1968, priority targets being: - Operation Productivity, to improve adminis- trative efficiency - the concentration of university departments and faculties on to the same campus (d) Teachers. Accelerated training programs for unqualified teachers. The establishment of university faculties of education. The encouragement of full time work (especially at university level) with improved salaries (e) Administration. The reform of both the struc- ture and the spirit of MEC. An expansion in educational expenditure and the creation of new sources of revenue. Expanded schemes for scholarships, etc. (f) Research and Development. An expansion of official educational research and dissemina- tion facilities (9) Use of the Media. The Brazilian authorities, concerned that conventional educational methods cannot solve the country's problems, is anxious to give high level technology a vital role in their strategy. A number of cities now have ETV networks and a scheme is at present in 22 operation in the north and northeast of the country involving the use of an educational satellite which receives signals from the Sao Paulo area and transmits them to 200,000 schools distributed throughout the target area. In 1975 plans were announced for extensive reorganization and improvement of ER and ETV systems, within the new national broadcasting system (RADIOBRAS). The following statistics in Table 1.1 present a clearer view of the educational reality in Brazil. They appear in Cowen (1984, page 624): TABLE 1.1 STATISTICS OF THE BRAZILIAN EDUCATIONAL REALITY SCHOOL ENROLLMENT: 1978 (in thousands) First level (Grades 1 to 8); 21,473 Second level (Grades 1 to 3): 2,519 HIGHER EDUCATION ENROLLMENTS: 1979 Enrollments on all courses: 1,311,799 Enrollments in universities: 613,192 Enrollments in isolated colleges: 698,607 HIGHER EDUCATION STUDENTS: 1979 AREAS OF KNOWLEDGE Biological Sciences and Health Professions 153,255 Technological Sciences 326,825 Agrarian Sciences 29,086 Humanities 696,070 Literature/Linguistics 81,741 Arts 24,822 TOTAL 1,311,799 PERCENTAGE OF GNP ALLOCATED T0 EDUCATION Year 1961 l 1963 l 1965 I 1967 l 1969 1971 l 1973 % 2:09 1 1.72 I 2.80 | 3.14 | "3.42 3.25 1 ’2195 23 Figure 1.1 shows the total enrollment for all education in Brazil. FIGURE 1.1 PYRAMID OF ENROLLMENTS il l L. “ Third Level __ (1,311 (1979) - " Second(Leve; 2,519 1978 l 1 I 1 I I First Level 1 21.473 (1978) F l .L - - 1 } Pre-Primary 944 (1979) Source: Cowen, 1984, page 621. 24 Part Two: The American Higher Educational System A critical analysis of the American higher educational sys- tem is presented in this section. It will include the following tOpics: efficiency and accountability in higher education; func— tions of higher education; production in higher education; training model in higher education; development of American higher education; the American community college; concept and growth, the importance of the institution. the community college in Michigan, and philo- sophical assumptions. Efficiency and Accountability in Higher Education Education is a gigantic enterprise in the United States, perhaps the largest one. In 1981, education was the primary acti- vity of approximately 61.4 million Americans. Included in the total were an estimated 57.8 million students enrolled at schools and colleges, 3.3 million teachers, and about 300,000 superintendents, principals, supervisors. and other instructional staff members. This means that in a nation with approximately 230 million people, more than one out of every four persons was directly involved in the educational process. Data from a survey of enrollment in higher education indicated that about 12,320,000 students were enrolled in the 3,253 institutions of higher education. Of these, there were five million students enrolled in the existing 1,274 community and junior colleges open to the public in the United States. The 1981 gross national product for the United States was $2,827 billion. The total expenditure for higher education was 25 $73 billion. The total expenditure for all education was $199.8 billion (US Natl. Center for Education Statistics, 1982). This sum was second in size only to the national defense expenditure. Viewed from another context, the total expenditure for education in the United States is 6.8% of the gross national product (GNP). Figure 1.2 presents a clearer picture of estimated expenditures for educa- tional purposes, including the percentage distribution by source of funds. These statistics provide a quantitative description of the current American educational scene. Clearly, the vast sums expended by educational institutions indicate that the American people have a high regard for learning, financially supporting their educational institutions. A widely held assumption is that higher education at some unspecified time will involve every high school graduate (Hausman, 1972, page 1). If this were to happen the burden to state and federal governments would be great, due to the fact that the process of education involves large expenditures. 0n the other hand, total expenditures alone do not provide agoodpficture of the vast invest- ments in education, nor does it tell about the quality of such education. One must also consider another important element in educational cost, the foregone income, that is, the total amount of money the student is not earning while attending college or univer- sity (Bowen and Servelle, 1972, pages 31-32; Carnegie Commission, 1973a, pages 49-53). In the United States, the federal government has never been empowered to exercise direct administrative or legal control over 26 FIGURE 1.2 ESTIMATED EXPENDITURES OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS, BY SOURCE OF FUNDS: UNITED STATES: 1981-82 Local governments State governments 25.4% 38.2% //,,r"“f"“‘- All other sources Federal Government 26.4% 10.0% Total expenditures = $199.8 billion NOTE: Includes expenditures of public and private institu- tions at all levels of education from preprimary through graduate school. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, estimates. 27 education in the states. It has been influential in education affairs, however; and in recent decades, it has had a marked effect on the development of both public and private education. When an industry reaches such financial magnitude, many people ask whether the outcomes are worth the cost. Criticism of higher education is that it is educating more people than the economy can absorb. Another is the inability of college graduates to get jobs, or the ill-preparation of graduates to the job market. Many Americans perceive their system of higher education as efficient, great in quality and quantity, providing solid prepara- tion of students. Many other Americans functioning as observers of their system wish to hold college and universities accountable, demanding that outcomes of higher education be identified, measured in dollars, and then compared with costs. See, for example, Goodman (1964); Berg (1970); Illich (1972); Thurow (1975); Freeman (1976). Yet, in their perceptions they fail to recognize that efficiency is a relationship between two variables, cost and outcome. Higher education is concerned with matters of intellect, personality, and value, not always quantifiable, to compute rates of return. In assessing the efficiency of higher education one must consider both cost and result. As Fritz Machlup has said (in Salmon and Taubman, 1973, page 361), "choices must be made among all sorts of alterna- tives, and the gratification of cultural desires--music and art, beauty and truth, peace and justice--is not outside economic con- siderations. We cannot measure such benefits, but we cannot help evaluating them as long as they do not fall like manna from heaven." _ :I. 28 Functions of Higher Education Education is the process of training and developing the knowledge, skills, mind, character, etc., especially for formal schooling. Education activities involve the production and distri- bution of knowledge which are undertaken in institutions of learning or elsewhere. The institutions where these activities take place are private and public elementary and secondary schools and private and public colleges and universities. Other institutions that carry out educational activities are the military, churches, busi- ness enterprises, civic clubs, etc. (Cohn, 1979, page 2). The educa- tion of the child is one of the basic duties of the state. It is not, however, the state's exclusive right. Independent associations of citizens and religious organizations share in the educational functions of the nation. The American higher educational system is a huge industry, with well-defined functions. Such an industry in performing its functions it engages in "production," using resources, which are transformed into end products called outcomes. Bowen (1977, page 7) maintains that the efficiency of the system is measured by comparing the outcomes with the resources employed. And accountability is achieved when the outcomes, as well as the resources used, are identified and measured. Education, research, and public service are the three princi- pal functions of American higher education. These functions are based in learning, which means knowing and interpreting the known (scholarship and criticism), discovering the new (research and related activities), and bringing about desired change in the _I 29 cognitive and affective traits and characteristics of human beings (education). For Bowen (1977, page 8) education includes both curricular and extracurricular influence on students. Its purpose is to change students in both the cognitive and affective aspects of their personalities and to prepare them for practical affairs. Research, broadly defined, includes the scholarly, scientific, philosophical, and critical activities of colleges and universities, and their contribution to arts. The purpose of research is to preserve, acquire, disseminate, interpret, and apply knowledge, and to cultivate reactive frontiers in arts and sciences. The public service activities include health care, consulting, off- campus lectures and courses, work performance by interns, artistic performances and exhibits, spectator sports, and so on. Kaysen (1969, pages 5—8) cites the following functions of higher education: (1) creation of new knowledge; (2) transmission of knowledge to new generation; (3) application of knowledge to the solution of practical problems in the wider society; and (4) socialization of late adolescents and young adults. Ladd and Lipset (1975, pages 10-11) suggest these functions: (1) socializa- tion in the sense of the transmission of traditional values; (2) innovation and scholarship; and (3) community service. Johnson (Lumsden, 1974, pages 21-23) refers to: (1) a symbol and repository of civilization; (2) a home for research; (3) a place of information storage; and (4) a center for the teaching of young adults. 30 Production in Higher Education Higher education produces only a small part of all human learning (Machlup, 1962). Virtually all of the experiences in life are learning experiences. Learning, the principal product of higher education, consists primarily of changes in people, and their behavior. Bowen (1977, page 12) states that another way to approach the definition of outcomes is to assume that the institu- tion should provide only adequate faculties, facilities, programs, and services--a suitable environment--and students should use this environment for the purpose of "getting an education". A college or university achieves its production through creating an environ- ment calculated to bring about desired change in people. To this Bloom (1975, page 18) refers to as ”growth-inducing climates." FEgerlind (1975, pages 33-39) refers to the transformation of early childhood resources into adult outcomes. Since students come from different backgrounds, they bring to campus environment, the author argues, a particular background of biological, psycho- logical, and emotional traits and needs, and a special set of experiences. Each student has a unique personality. Each student may be affected by an institution differently. Each institution is unique and has a unique environmental "press" that is "found in the characteristic pressures, stress, and conformity-demanding influences of the college culture” (Pace, 1957, page 4). Learning in all its manifestations, has to do with changes in people, in their knowledge, characteristics, behavior. As Bowen 31 (page 16) argues, these changes are generated in the first instance by instruction, research, and public service. There are indeed many "models" of production in higher education. Authors such as Astin (in Bowen, 1974, pages 22-33; Clark and others, 1972, page 14; Micek and Wallhaus, 1973, pages 5-22; Walsh, 1973; Weisbrod, 1966, pages 5-21), have all delved into the arena of analysis and production of "models" outcome in higher education. Table 1.2 presents a schematic outline tracing the productive process in higher education from resources to environment to immediate outcomes to future effects on society to further changes generated by these future outcomes. It is presented as it appeared in Bowen (1977, page 17). Training Models in Higher Education Educators, systems analysts, psychologists, and others have developed a number of theoretical positions about learning and teaching. The educational models developed are based on experi- mental research, theories, and/or speculations about the meanings of theories and research done by others. An example of such model appears in Joyce and Neil (1980). These authors identified and organized different models into four "families," such as: (a) those oriented toward social relations and toward the relation between man and his culture and which draw upon social sources; (b) those which draw information processing systems and descriptions of human capacity for processing information; (c) those which draw on personality, development, the processes of personal construction 32 TABLE 1.2 SCHEMATIC DESCRIPTION OF THE PRODUCTIVE PROCESS IN HIGHER EDUCATION RESOURCES (Labor, Land, Capital, Purchased Services, and Supplies) iv are transformed into 1r ACADEMIC ENVIRONMENTS (Physical, Human, Cultural) i which produce i (a) IMMEDIATE AND INDUCED FUTURE CHANGES IN STUDENTS (Cognitive Learning, Emotional and Moral Development, Practical Competence) (b) BY-PRODUCTS FOR STUDENTS (Career Placement, Direct Satisfactions, Lifetime Satisfactions) (c) SECONDARY BENEFITS AND SATISFACTIONS ACCRUING TO RELATIVES, ASSOCIATES, AND OFFSPRING OF STUDENTS (d) IMMEDIATE AND INDUCED FUTURE CHANGES IN KNOWLEDGE AND THE ARTS (e) DIRECT SERVICES TO THE PUBLIC l which produce 4 CHANGES IN SOCIETY (Improved Performance of Government, the Economy, and other Social Institutions, Human Equality and Freedom, Amelioration of Social Problems, Improved General Quality of Life) 4 which in turn give rise to 4 FURTHER CHANGES IN INDIVIDUALS (Including those of Future Generations) AND SOCIETY 33 of reality, and the capacity to function as an integrated personality as the major source; and (d) those developed from an analysis of the processes by which human behavior is shaped and reinforced. Accord- ing to the authors, these models can be used for making curriculum planning, as guidelines for interactions between teachers and learners, and as specifications for instructional materials (see Appendix G for a list of models classified by "family” and goals). Development of American Higher Education Table 1.3 shows three historical periods in American higher education with corresponding changes and development in the type of college and in the curriculum and the related changes in philosophy. Burnett (1977) states that all three periods were products of socio- economic and political forces of those respective eras. The first period (1636-1850), which was the era of colonial colleges and the expansion of the liberal arts concept, was characterized by a philosophy that was autocratic or elitist. Until near the end of this era only young men, for the most part, were admitted to college. Not always, but usually, because a college education was expensive, the parents were upper-middle class or well-to-do people. The second period (1850-1950) was dominated by the development of the land-grant college and the expansion of the university. A merito- cratic philOSOphy prevailed; namely, anyone who was motivated and had the necessary academic credentials should be admitted to college. The third period (1950-present) can be characterized by the amazing 34 growth and influence of the community college and the development of the super star, the multiversity. The philoSOphy that has been predominant so far in this period is egalitarianism; that is, anyone has access to some sector of higher education who has a high school diploma or is 18 years of age or older. American society has moved from the concept of elitism to mass to universal higher education. TABLE 1.3 HISTORICAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL DEVELOPMENT IN AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION TIME PERIOD TYPE OF COLLEGE PHILOSOPHY 1636-1850 Colonial Colleges and Autocratic Expansion of Liberal or Elitism Arts Colleges 1850-1950 Land-grant Colleges Meritocratic and Expansion of the University 1950-present Community Colleges and Egalitarianism Multiversities The American Community College A critical analysis of current literature related to the community college as an institution of higher education is presented here. The literature reveals the effectiveness of the community college in providing sound educational background skills, qualifying students for employment by local businesses and industries. Perti- nent literature related to functions, descriptive institutional 35 traits, and contributions of the community college is also considered. There is a vast amount of literature on relations between the com- munity and the college as well as on the technique of effectiveness and better management of this segment of higher education, demonstrat- ing the cost effectiveness of their operations. While there is a paucity of literature related to the effectiveness of higher educa- tion in general, there is abundant literature to determine what makes workers in the community college give their best in job-related situations. Many researchers conclude that the community college is different than the four-year institution, its peOple liking the differences and wanting them to continue. The study of effectiveness in current literature is viewed as synonymous with internal organization, efficiency, and adequate internal processes and procedures (Argyris, 1962; Bennis, 1976; Likert, 1967). Writing on effectiveness of higher education insti- tutions, Blau (1964) maintains that the basic responsibility of academic institutions are academic and scholarly research. Concept and Growth The community college is an important component of higher education in the United States. Its growth in the last two decades has been tremendous. There are overl,250 two year colleges in this country with over 40% of the total college enrollment (Cross, 1982). American community colleges have met admirably the challenge of providing expanded access to postsecondary education (Luckenbill and McCabe, 1982). They have developed new opportunities for —‘i 36 individuals who had previously been excluded from receiving the training and education necessary to participate fully in the society. There are many explanations for this phenomenal growth. Among them are the Open door policy of the institutions, their mission, their geographic distribution, their low charges for tui- tion, their effectiveness in training students in short periods of time, and their appeal to students of all ages and commitments (Carnegie Commission on Higher Education, 1970). There is reason to believe that the continuing growth of the community college and its appeal to people from all walks of life throughout the United States are primarily due to the value of the services that the community college renders to those individuals in need of training in a short period of time. More and more stu- dents believe that they can receive a sound educational training at a community college because it provides them the needed skills and technical experience necessary for job placement in a tight labor market. Thus, an interesting number of students seek training at a community college rather than at a university. Reportedly, such students demonstrate their satisfaction with the educational train- ing they receive. The community college means many different things to differ— ent people. It is a unique concept among institutions of higher education in the United States, and each one has its own peculiar characteristics. They differ in the composition of their student bodies, their physical facilities, their educational goals, and the communities they serve. 37 Literature concerning the community college in the United States is a rich one. Professional books, journals, periodicals, and newspapers in recent years have been publishing articles con- cerned not only with the community college concept, but also with the specific problems involved in establishing goals relevant to the population and community to be served, administrative procedures, integration of the institution into the community, and curriculum development. The American Association of Community and Junior Colleges (AACJC) is the national organization that represents two-year colleges. The AACJC produces an authoritative professional bi-monthly magazine. In addition, AACJC publishes the annual Community, Technical, and Junior College Directory, which presents vital statistics about the two-year colleges. The mission of the AACJC is to exert leadership, act as advocate, and provide ser- vices in support of community, technical, and junior colleges, as these institutions deliver accessible educational opportunities designed to address the needs of the individuals, organizations, and communities forming their constituencies (AACJC, 1985). American community colleges have met the needs of this nation. Evidence of this was demonstrated in the 19605 when enrollment more than doubled (Carnegie Commission on Higher Educa- tion, 1970). In 1960 there were 656 community colleges in the United States, by 1970 the total was 1,100, and in 1982 there were over:1,250 two-year colleges in the USA (Yarrington, 1981). 38 The community college holds that both the individual and his or her community are best served when the programs allow the student to integrate his or her own experiences. Generally, programs are designed to support and guide the student in his or her achieve- ment of career, social, and personal identity through mastery of skills and search for meaning and belief. Warner (1982) states that the college is committed to purpose and process to a learning environment built on individualized instruction, student-oriented faculty, and flexible programs. Institutions of higher education have not, as of yet, completely solved the problems of organization, administration, and philosophy which would allow the vocational/technical curricu- lum to exist. Redemsky (1972) asked the question, "If there is to be a vocational-technical education program, on what bases will it be justified, planned, and structured?" It seems that the junior colleges should (1) conduct more follow-up studies of their graduates in order to determine to what extent inclusion of vocational- technical courses in the curriculum is warranted; (2) survey the community to secure a perspective of the occupational pattern; (3) conduct a survey of high school seniors in order to determine if more seniors would attend the junior college if vocational- technical curricula were offered; (4) conduct a survey to determine what percent of the high school graduates remain in the community; (5) make an analysis of the type of occupations in which these high school graduates are engaged in order to determine if the junior college could offer curricula which would train them for these occupations; (6) discuss with employers the types of training junior colleges could offer to aid prospective employees; and (7) organize a citizen's committee to discuss and contemplate the expansion of the vocational-technical curricula in the junior college (page 224). 39 The Importance of the Institution The American community college dates from the early years of the 20th century. The first public community college was established in Joliet, Illinois, in 1902. Several forces contri- buted to the rise in importance of this institution. The most prominent were the need for workers to operate the nation's expand- ing industries and the drive for social equality which was enhanced by opening more schools and encouraging everyone to attend (Cohen and Brawer, 1982). Enrollments increased from an estimated 100 students in 1902 to an estimated five million in 1981 (Open Doors, 1982). The first collegesirithis country were in small communities. Limited in curricula and serving a very small constituency, they served primarily people who came from what could be called "good families." By the mid-18005, land grant institutions represented the educational frontier. With greatly expanded curricula and a mission to broaden a college education to serve the children of farmers and factory workers, the land grant institutions forged an entirely new culture, suited to life on the new frontier. Their educational pragmatism was very different from that of colleges of the past, and some people steeped in the traditions of the more aristocratic liberal arts colleges found the new frontier a bit crude. Almost a century later, community colleges came along, pushing with renewed vigor the egalitarian frontier of higher educa- tion. Unlike the aristocratic colleges of the 18005 which were 4O largely self selective or the land grant colleges which became institutionally selective, community colleges were not selective at all. They have opened a new frontier in higher education on many fronts, among which are open admissions, community involvement, comprehensive curricula, and teaching as a first priority over research (Cross, 1980). Thornton (in Paradise and Long, 1981) delineates the basic philosophy that has led to the rapid growth and expansion of com- munity colleges as arising from three main factors, which he iden- tifies as the idea of widespread education for all people; the idea that increasing economic wealth will increase the taxation base of the governing jurisdictions-~the long-prevailing view that educa- tion will provide social and economic Opportunity; and the continu- ing realization of the "American dream" that education is a social and individual good that society is obliged to provide its people. The three humanitarian and economic factors, outlined by Thornton, continue to play a prominent role in furthering the develOpment of community colleges. Implicitly, they also provide much of the argu- ment for counseling as a major resource for the educational objec- tives of the community college student (pages 3-4). Community College in Michigan The first community college in Michigan was established in 1914 in Grand Rapids. Today, there are 29 such colleges in the state in 13 of the 14 state planning and development regions, and their-districts include over 88% of the residents of the state, 41 approximately 95% of whom live within 40 miles of one of these "open admissions" institutions. In the 1980-81 academic year, community colleges enrolled over 233,000 students in Michigan, representing over 40% of the students in Michigan institutions of higher education. Since per- sons enrolling in Michigan community colleges have varied educa- tional goals and needs, the community colleges respond by offering programs and courses in occupatiOnal, general, continuing, and develOpmental education. The community colleges in Michigan hold a special place in the state educational system. Students are pre- pared with the job skills necessary for employment in local busi- nesses and industries (Packwood, 1981). The institutions offer programming which specifically meets the needs of the businesses and industries in their areas. The goal of Michigan community colleges, typically, is to meet the needs of their immediate ser- vice areas and regions, rather than attempting to compete with institutions in other areas. There are several indices of how successful they have been at this: (1) most students at community colleges are residents of their own community college districts and most of them commute to their colleges; (2) community colleges have planned their programming around the needs of their local areas and residents; and (3) community colleges work closely with their communi- ties in developing new programs and courses. The community colleges work directly with representatives of businesses, industry, and the public sector in determining educational needs and in developing courses and programs designed to meet their specific needs. 42 The Michigan community college structure is unique with its potential for flexible responsiveness to its community constituents. Any time the community demonstrates a need for a new course or curriculum, the community college is likely to design and offer the course tailored specifically to meet that need. Such potential for flexibility in education is an important ingredient to meeting indi- vidual needs in an increasingly accelerating technological society (Toffler, 1971). A few years ago a study was performed on the status of higher education in Michigan, part of which was completed by Martorana (1975) who was concerned with the goals and objectives of community colleges. The following are the objectives stated by that author: (1) The Michigan community colleges on the whole accept and are making energetic efforts to accomplish the five functions usually associated to local, public, community, and junior colleges. The five purposes generally assigned to these institutions are (a) providing general education for all students; (b) offering transfer and college-parallel courses in pre-professional fields and in the arts and sciences; (c) providing organized occupational programs for students who will seek to enter employment immediately after leaving the local college; (d) offering adult and community-service programs of a wide variety; and (e) providing a full program of student personnel and counseling services for the students enrolled. (2) Although they are doing significantly greater work than the private colleges or the state colleges in the provision of organized occupational programs, the Michigan community colleges are still placing major emphasis on offerings in pre-professional fields and in the lower division arts and science programs for transfer credit. Even so, the com- munity colleges are the chief source of supply for technicians and semi-professional personnel in F” 43 Michigan, as shown by the fact that as a group they offer more organized occupational programs of less- than-bachelor's degree length than do either the state colleges and universities as a group or the private institutions as a group, more students are enrolled in these programs in the community colleges than in either of the other types of institutions of higher education. Community college acceptance of this important educational assignment in Michigan is evident, further, in that they have established more programs in recentyears than the other two types of institutions have established (pages 3-4). Martorana recommended that the community colleges within the state should continue efforts not only to maintain the supply of skilled personnel, but also to increase the number of technicians and semi-professional personnel for the economy of the state. Michigan's community colleges and local industry have worked cooperatively in providing facilities and support for education which will maintain a supply of technical and semi-professional personnel necessary for the state's economic needs. Philosophical Assumptions The purposes and philosophical assumptions underlying the programs of the community colleges throughout the United States have been defined by authors like Cross (1980; 1982), Martorana (1975), Gleazer (1980), and Bogue (1950) as well as institutions such as the American Association of Community and Junior Colleges (1983; 1984; 1985), the National Society for the Study of Education (1970; 1982), and many others. There is a general consensus among researchers today as to the objectives of the community college. Adaptability is one element in mission or process commonly agreed 44 upon. As an example, Gleazer maintains that there are different values and different political realities. The institutions serve unique communities and needs. Some observers say there are dangers in attempting to be specific with regard to mission. Gleazer (1980) asserts that: Any time we can describe the community college in defini- tive, specific terms, we will destory it. It has to change. It has to be different in different areas. You need to keep moving as a community college norm. We need to look at people, but we tend to look at the institution. We should not try to push the river in a different direc- tion (page 5). Assumptions of the Study The research was carried under the following assumptions: (1) The research and its data gathering device were understood by the respondents prior to their completion of the survey. (2) The respondents' answers to the questionnaire were honest and accurate. (3) The institution selected for this study shares as a common mission and purpose the transmission and education vis-hovis the development and formation of human resource potential in the environment. (4) Survey research is an acceptable and adequate method of gathering data for descriptive studies in the social sciences and education. Limitations The research was conducted under the following limitations: (1) It was limited to analyses and descriptions of percep- tions and comments written in a questionnaire by the respondents. (2) The responses were written in Portuguese. A subse- quent translation of the questionnaire to English was 45 a procedural step undertaken by the researcher. Loss of meaning might have occurred in the process. Definition of Terms The following terms used in the research are defined as follows: Administration is an art. It was defined by lead (1951, page 3) as follows: . . . Administration (is) the necessary activities of those individuals (executives) in an organization who are charged with the ordering, forwarding and facili- tating of the associated efforts of a group of persons brought together to realize some defined purposes. Community is a geographical metropolitan area served by common institutions, providing medical care, local security needs, and other social needs, and whose inhabitants interact more fre- quently with each other than they do with persons outside of the community. Community College is an institution component of higher education (Berdahl, 1971, pages 229-230). Such an institution is characterized as follows: (1) provides instruction leading to the acquisition of technical skills needed within the community in which they are located; (2) offers courses requiring two to four years to complete; (3) courses are based on a combination of teacher-led instruction and hands-on experience in the practice of the skills learned both within the institution and within the local community; (4) primarily services the residents and business enterprises of a relatively restricted localized 46 area when compared to universities which may be per- ceived to serve a generalized society, and (5) institutions which interface with the more general university system within the society in that comple- tion of two-year course work within the community college is directly transferable as credit toward a university degree in the same field of study. Goals will refer to the particular, possibly unique pattern of specified ends, outputs, and priorities established for a single college or university. Like system purposes, when new institutional goals are set, it is generally through a political rather than a more deliberate or rational process (Peterson, 1970). Higher education is used as general term to include both colleges and universities. It is also used in the sense of the third and fourth level of the educational system, that which is carried on in institutions of higher learning, and which lies beyond the completion of the secondary school. Higher education functions refer to activities of the university or higher education system that are functionally related to other social institutions. Such functions have evolved over time generally without conscious intent. They are the variously identified activities of higher education as one social institution within a larger social system (Peterson, 1970). Institutional goals inventory is an instrument to inter- pret educational goals and identify priorities among those goals. It is designed to elicit from individuals their opinions concerning the desired goals of higher education. It is one component of the total needs assessment process. 47 Needs assessment is the process of determining areas of deficiency of a given institution or educational system. Objective is used in speaking about ends of various compo- nent units, programs, and services. Thus the academic planner (or program evaluator) might speak of "program objectives"; department chairman and professors, of "course objectives". In contrast to the other kinds of ends, determinationiyfprogram objectives is primarily the task of the relevant academic professionals, with little "outside" influence. Program objectives, however, would be expected to be roughly consistent with institutional goals (Peterson, 1970). Organization was defined by Dimock and Dimock (1953) as follows: Organization is the systematic bringing together of interdependent parts to form a unified whole through which authority, coordination, and control may be exercised to achieve a given purpose. Because the interdependent parts are made up of pe0p1e who must be directed and motivated and whose work must be coordinated in order to achieve the objectives of the enterprise, organization is both structure and human relations. Purposes in higher education refer to stated conceptions of the mission of systems, groups, or types of colleges. Purposes in the public higher education sector are usually politically determined (Peterson, 1970). Technical skills are individual skills which allow persons to manipulate, maintain, or utilize materials or tools introduced into a local community from outside. As such technical skills 48 refer specifically to the learned interaction of persons with technology which is not indigenous and to skills for which there is no traditional source or means of instruction within the local community. Qgganization of the Study The study is organized and presented in the following way: Chapter I deals with the focus of the research, the percep- tions of educational participants concerning university goals and objectives. This chapter is organized with the inclusion of the following topics: the research problem, the statement of the problem, the purpose of the research, the research questions, the statement of the hypotheses, significance of the study, the setting for the research, part one: the Brazilian educational system, part two: the American higher educational system, assumptions of the study, limitations, definitions of terms, and the organization of the study. Chapter II presents a conceptual framework and literature review. This chapter provides a review of relevant literature in the following t0pics: organizational goals and objectives, econo- mics of education, sociology, organization, and administration of higher education. A summary ends the chapter. Chapter III discusses extensively the research methodology and procedures, the research design, questions and hypotheses, population and sample, instrumentation, pretest, in-country data collection, reliability, validity, data analysis, and a summary. 49 Chapter IV deals with analysis of data and reports the research findings. Chapter V is reserved for discussion of conclusions of the study and the recommendations based on the research findings. CHAPTER II CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter clarifies the conceputal and empirical frame- work of the research. A framework is an open case, or structure for admitting, enclosing, or supporting things such as a window, a pic- ture, or a library door. Intellectually, this means bringing to light explanations or expositions and generalizations which are con- sidered valuable as themes or organizing principles for grouping, integrating, and explaining facts. Thus, the aim of this chapter is to set the research in its prOper perspective basing the theoretical framework on a current literature review from which the conceptual framework is drawn. The conceptual framework reflects intellectual interest of the researcher, in areas of pursuit such as organiza- tional goals and objectives, economics of education, sociology, organization, and administration of higher education. A fundamental assumption in the study is that higher educa- tion is classified as an organizational system, serving educational pruposes, reflecting values and aspirations of the community setting inhere it is located. Penrose (1961) has identified three very general characteristics in his writings about the nature of formal «organizations: purpose, program, and production. The purposes of ariiarganization are its goals and objectives. For some, professors 50 51 for instance, the purpose Of higher education is to advance learning. For other, students, for example, judging them by their behavior, the primary purposes Of institutions Of higher education are tO confer social prestige, enhance earning power, and palliate loneli- ness. Penrose asserts, nevertheless, that Of all characteristics, purpose is the most important. Higher education is an open organizational system very much in agreement with what Roeber (1973) postulates in his assertion Of organization, when he suggested: Organizations are not closed systems, obedient to their own laws, but are open systems, sensitive and responsive to change in their environment. We call them systems because they have boundaries (although these are not easy to define) and the capacity for self-perpetuation and growth. They are "open" because they exist by interchange Of matter, energy, and information with the environment and its transformation within the boundaries. Rationale The rationale for this chapter is based on a literature review, from which the conceptual approach for the research was set forth. The following procedural steps were observed for reviewing the literature: (1) The Review of Educational Research was an important source, since it summarizes many researches conducted on a given topic, directing the researcher to relevant primary sources. (2) The Education Index, which includes report of research, reviews Of related research, and opinion articles, was also a very helpful source. It lists bibliographi- cal information alphabetically, under subject, author, and title heading. (3) (4) (5) (6) 52 A manual search Of current literature through subject/ author/title card catalogue. The interlibrary loan service was utilized with high degree of frequency when the researcher was in need of reference material unavailable at the Michigan State Library stacks. A computer search Of Dissertation Abstracts International. The Dissertation Abstract InternatiOnal contains abstracts Of doctoral dissertations. Abstracts are brief summaries Of dissertation studies. The researcher was able to classify all references as relates to his problem Of investigation. Dissertation Abstracts International classifies entry by sdbject, author, and institution. Copy Of the complete dissertation, microfiche, or micro- film can be Obtained from University Microfilms Inter- national, in Ann Arbor, which provides DATRIX, a computer retrieval service. A literature search through computer retrieval sources of Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC), including the ERIC microfiche system was undertaken. Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) is a national infOrmation system supportédiand Operated by the National Institute Of Education (NIE). Its purpose is to collect and disseminate reports of current educa- tional research, evaluation, and development activities. ERIC publishes Resources in Education (RIE) and Current Index to Journals in Education (CIJE) (NIE. In Gay, 1981). The Thesaurus of ERIC Descriptors, is a compila- tion Of the key words used in indexing’ERIC documents (CCM Information. In Gay, 1981). The Thesaurus indi- cates the various terms under which a given tOpic is indexed. ERIC comprises a central Office and a number of clearinghouses, each devoted to a different area. These clearinghouses collect, abstract, store, and disseminate documents, which include information analy- sis products (books, monographs, and other publications), fact sheets, computer search reprints, and information bulletins. A11 ERIC documents are available in both hard copy and microfiche. Microfiche is considered less expensive. Michigan State University library maintains an updated microfiche collection service and advanced technological apparatus such as microfiche readers and microfiche duplicators. The researcher widely used the ERIC ser- vices in his quest Of gathering information for the literature review. 53 Organizational Goals and Objectives The main thrust Of the research was to analyze and describe perceptions of the three groups Of respondents, with regards to possible goals and Objectives Of higher education. A questionnaire was develOped by the investigator. The instrument was modeled and patterned after the Institutional Goals Inventory (IGI) developed by Peterson and Uhl (1977). The questionnaire was also heavily influ- enced by the pioneering work of Gross and Grambsch (1968; 1974), which provide college and university administrators an easily acces- sible instrument and procedure for conducting self-evaluations of institutional goals. The university is a large, complex organization, and usually it has a variety Of goals. There are people who think Of a goal in terms of output--teaching, research, or service to the community. One of the aims Of the study was simply to focus attention on the analysis, and description Of possible goals Of university education. It was essential to contact the three groups participants in higher education, through the application Of the questionnaire, in order to learn their perception about university goals both actual ("is") and preferred ("should be"). This need to understand organizational mission in order to integrate what are sometimes divergent activi- ties has a basis in organizational theory. The assumption that an organization understands its mission is embedded in the management- by-Objectives (M80) and systems approaches to planning and management. For'instance, Peter Drucker (1973) asserts: 54 Only a clear definition Of the mission and purpose Of the business makes possible clear and realistic busi- ness Objectives. It is the foundation Of priorities, strategies, plans and work assignments. It is the starting point for the design Of managerial jobs and, above all, for the design Of managerial structures. Structure follows strategy. Strategy determines what the key activities are in a given business. And strategy requires knowing "what our business is and what it should be." Another study found appropriate to mention in this review was that done by King and Cleland (1978), who similarly stated: It is both meaningful and necessary for an organization tO consciously choose and continually review its mission concept if it is to survive and prosper. This is as true of government as Of business, despite the much- discussed perseverance of some bureaucracies past their time of usefulness. This is so if only because a mission statement serves as a guide for the multitude Of under- lying choices that must be made to guide the organiza- tion into the future. However, it is also important in serving to define the scope Of acceptable choice, as a symbol around which some organizational members can gather, and as a statement from which nonagreeing members can flee. A Historic Overview Of Higher Education Goals The goals of higher education have been considered since the time Of Plato by philosophers, psychologists, sociologists, literary figures, social critics, and educators. It is believed, for example, that the great Roman philOSOpher Seneca, more than 1900 years ago, concluded: When a man does not know what harbor he is making for, no wind is the right wind. Plato (1974, page 130) quoted Socrates, "And we shall begin by educating mind and character, shall we not?" Aristotle, however (Ulich, 1968, page 65) was less positive on the matter when he 55 stated: "There are differences of Opinion as to the proper tasks to be set; for all peoples do not agree as to the things that the young ought to learn, either with a view to virtue or with a view to the best life, nor is it clear whether their studies should be regulated more with regard to intellect or with regard to character . and it is not at all clear whether the pupils should practice pursuits that are practically useful, or morally edifying, or higher accomplishments." However, Aristotle went on to advocate attention to the intellect, the character, and practical competence. Pre-twentieth century authors, Cardinal Newman (1960, page 76) for example, saw the purpose of the university as teaching and cultivating the mind. Cardinal Newman also saw the main purpose Of a university in terms Of how it treats students, in the following Observation: An assemblage Of learned men, zealous for their own sciences, and rivals Of each other, are brought, by familiar intercourse and for the sake Of intellectual peace, to adjust together the claims and relations Of their respective subjects Of investigation. They learn to respect, to consult, to aid each other. In his essay "Literature and Science" (1927, page 62), Matthew Arnold Observed that: When we set ourselves to enumerate the powers which gO to the building up Of human life, and say that they are the power Of conduct, the power Of intellect and knowledge, the power Of beauty, and the power of social life and manner, (we) can hardly deny that this scheme, though drawn in rough and plain lines enough, and not pretending to scientific exactness, does yet give a fairly true representation Of the matter. Human nature is built up by those powers; we have the need for them all. When we have rightly met and adjusted the claims Of them all, we shall then be in a fair way for getting soberness and righteousness, with wisdom. 56 Nevitt Sanford (1969, page 76) Offers a restatement Of Arnold's theme: "our goal is to expand both the intellectual and the area of motive and feeling and to bring the two together in a larger whole." Dewey's philOSOphy Of education was essentially humanistic, with a concern for the needs and rights Of the individual. For Dewey (1916), educational aims are not external, they are within people: An educational aim must be founded upon the intrinsic activities and needs (including original instincts and acquired habits) of the given individual to be educated. The purpose of education, in Dewey's view, is to provide an apprOpriate learning environment in which each student can be helped to make sense Of the world in his own way. Thus, students should be free to determine their curricular goals, rather than following a curriculum determined by the teacher. The student, rather than the teacher, is in control (Henderson and Nathenson, 1984, pages 52-53). From colonial times through the early twentieth century, American colleges and universities faced a relatively stable environ- ment (Caruthers and Lott, 1981, page 11). During the colonial era, the mission definition Of the typical institution was easy to com- prehend: to provide a liberal education to a rather select group Of'students and tO Offer training for entry into a few professions (Brubacher and Rudy, 1976, pages 3-11). Higher education in North America began with the founding Of Harvard in 1636. The college pattern was basically taken from 57 Stuart England with some Scottish influence (Carnegie Commission, 1973b, page 59). Historians Of higher education identify three historical periods and align their accounts accordingly (Brubacher and Rudy, 1976; Rudolph, 1962; Schmidt, 1957). The first period (from roughly 1636 to 1828) saw the transplantation Of English and Scottish universities with their classical curriculum packaged in a theological framework. The original purpose Of American higher education was personal development through acculturation to the classics and to moral principles (Handlin and Handlin, 1970). This purpose Of personal development has continued ever since in changing forms. The second period (1828-1862) was characterized by the birth Of the modern university, and conflicts between sectarian and tradi- tional liberal arts schools. The third period began with the Morril Act Of 1862. The Morril Act established state institutions Of higher education supported by endowments Of land from the federal government. It specified that agriculture and engineering and other technical areas Of study form the major part Of the curriculum, without excluding other scientific and classical studies. Conrad (1978, page 50), maintains that "The most important single event in the gradual unfolding Of the curriculum from the general-liberal to the utilitarian-vocational was the Morril Act (Land Grant Act) Of 1862)." Conrad and Wyer (1980, page 9) identify this as a period of transition, in their analysis Of higher education, when they stated: Our close historical proximity and contemporary confusion over the goals and mission Of higher education have worked 58 to halt the definitive identification of a fourth period emerging in the late twentieth century. Thus, Conrad and Wyer hold that liberal education flourished in the earlier periods but declined in significance and impact with the rising Of the comprehensive university. Similarly, they state: Indeed, the failure Of the liberal arts schools to adjust effectively to the changing pressures and needs Of an expanding society is, at least in part, the explanation for their own decline and the immense success Of more versatile and Open forms Of higher education. It is also one fundamental cause Of our contemporary divisions between vocational and liberal arts colleges, and even between the sciences and the humanities. By the mid- twentieth century, the status quo lay firmly within the multi-purpose, multi-mission universities; and the majority Of liberal arts colleges and university under- graduate offerings, if not their educational rhetoric, from the academic specialists, the professional schools, the immediate needs Of society, or some combination Of the three. Throughout most Of this century there have been attempts to revitalize liberal education and purposively illustrate its rela— tionship to society and to the other forms Of higher education- professional, vocational, or disciplinary specialization. After the World War II and the publication Of Harvard's report, General Education in a Free Society (Harvard Committee, 1945), there appeared another surge of interest in liberal education. According to the Harvard report, "The task of modern democracy is tO preserve the ancient ideal of liberal education and to extend it as far as possible to all the members of the community" (Harvard Committee, 1945, page 53). The report concludes that what is neces- sary is a "general education capable at once Of taking on many 59 different forms and yet Of representing in all its forms the common knowledge and the common values on which a free society depends". The dominant feature Of our age has been unswerving faith in a purely Objective, inhumane form Of reason, answered through the beliefs and actions of withdrawals and irrationality: stoicism, mysticism, existential despair. A new synthesis must lie in a model Of humane, practical reason. Conrad and Wyer (1980, page 58) advocate that in more concrete terms, we need curricular models for liberal education: (1) avoid trivialization due the overemphasis Of skills and behavioral outcomes; (2) personalize education through broaching divisions between theory and practice, learner and teacher, and facts and values; (3) integrate the vocational with liberal studies not through weakening the ideals Of liberal education but strengthening our conception Of vocation; (4) allow more room for diversity in curricular practice and Offerings through continuing focus on the unique traditions and mission Of individual colleges; (5) ensure that liberal education provides a forum where real-life issues and values are discussed freely and passionately. In short, creating an atmosphere where academic freedom can have real meaning; and (6) shift the emphasis away from departmental and disci- plinary structures at the undergraduate level, with more weight given to those ideals and theories that link personal development with intellectual growth. Liberal education is a dynamic tradition, capable Of adapting to changing times and conditions. Yet there is much in the history Of liberal education, particularly its Greek roots, that can illumi- nate Our current confusion. Rather than narrowly focus all our 60 attention on curricular trends and model, we must also confront the underlying pragmatic cognitive reason and a dualistic view Of humanity and the universe--that shape our visions of liberal educa- tion. Accumulating Purposes One purpose has been added to another--personal develOpment, economic growth, political health, service tO society--and each pur- pose has become more complex: thus the historical process of pro- liferating purposes. Far from being in the periphery Of life of the middle classes, higher education in America is more at the center Of the entire society. The more that society needs new knowledge and high skills, the more central it becomes. Purposes accumulate as the trained becomes more essential to the effective conduct of society. The Carnegie Commission (1973b) reports that the four historical purposes may be partially translated into five current and future purposes: (1) Personal development can be translated into the education Of the individual student and the pro- vision of an environment for develOpmental growth. (2) Economic advancement, into aspects Of advancing human capability in society at large. (3) Political health, in part, into educational justice and into evaluation Of society. (4) Service to society, into aspects of advancing human capability. (5) Pure scholarship has come along more as a companion Of these four historical purposes than as a con- sciously chosen purpose by American society. It should be set forth formally now as a central purpose. 61 The Non-Functionality of Goals: A Viewpoint Indeed, one would suppose that by now the question Of educa- tional goal would have been fairly well settled, and the problem to define goals would have found some useful answers. But the question is still very much Open. The problem Of goals is today, more than ever, a top priority, and largely unsolved problem. As King and others (1973, page 2) discussed, in spite Of all hard thinking and earnest talk about educational goals and how tO define them, the goals produced have been essentially non-functional. There are many reasons why they have been non-functional but among the most common are: (1) tOO much reliance on the magic words; (2) tOO little public participation in formulating goals; (3) tOO great a readiness to assume that goals are already given and require only to be achieved. Such weakness must be overcome if goals are to success- fully serve their intended purpose. Research on College and University Goals Without a doubt the research undertaken in 1964 and published four years later, by Gross and Grambsch (1968) may be considered the most significant effort to analyze the nature and structure Of university goals. These authors surveyed samples of faculty and administrators at 68 nondenominational Ph.D. granting universities, using an inventory consisting Of 47 goal statements, Of which 17 dealt with "output" goals (preparing students, doing research, pro- viding public service) and the rest with "support" goals (holding staff, involving faculty in university governance). Respondents 62 rated the goals in two ways: (1) how important each goal "is" at the respondent's university, and (2) how important the goal "should be" at the university. Based on 51 and 40 percent return rates for faculty and administrators, the seven top ranked "Is" goals for the two groups combined were: (1) Protect the faculty's right to aca- demic freedom. (2) Increase or maintain the prestige Of the univer- sity. (3) Maintain top quality in those programs felt to be espe- cially important. (4) Ensure the continued confidence and hence support Of those who contribute substantially to the finances and other material resource needs Of the university. (5) Keep up-tO- date and responsive. (6) Train students in methods Of scholarship, scientific research, and creative endeavor. (7) Carry on pure research. Goals: The Intended Outcome Of Higher Education Researchers interested in purposes Of higher education have noted the difficulties Of translating goals into action. Stated goals may not reflect the reality Of individual or organizational behavior. Argyris and SchOn (1974) have identified the important distinction between individuals descriptions Of their attitudes (their "espoused theories") and their actual behavior (their "theories in use"). Conrad (1974, page 512) has coined the term "Operative goals" to avoid reifying organizational goals as synony- mous with organizational behavior. Conrad maintains that most literature assures that goals explain organizational behavior. For him, "Operative goals", by definition, avoids this crude determinism. 63 For Breuder and King (1976, pages 8-12) the identification Of college goals and the achievement of consensus regarding goal priorities are only first steps. The next step is to translate institutional goals into explicit and measurable Objectives, that are useful in guiding the allocation Of resources. Doucette, Richardson Jr., and Fenske (1985) counterargument Breuder's and King's assertion, arguing that such assertion reflects the recent emphasis placed by major corporations and government agencies on management by Objectives. They further argue that: Yet this argument assumes that goals and Objectives are closely related constructs differing primarily in levels Of generality. In fact, the translation Of abstract goals into practical Objectives has proven to be parti- cularly elusive largely because goals and Objectives are fundamentally different. Similarly, an educational institution today which has not identified and set forth clear and explicit goals will be unable to provide the necessary focus and direction needed to achieve its prescribed mission. Peterson (1970, page 1) expresses the urgency of establishing goals when he says: It seems essential in these times that colleges articulate their goals: to give direction to present and future work; tO provide an ideology that can nurture internal coopera- tion, communication, and trust; to enable appraisal Of the institution as a means-end system; to afford a basis for public understanding and support. Indeed, the college without the inclination or will to define itself, to chart a course for itself, can look forward either to no future--to a kind of half-life Of constantly responding to shifting pressures-~or to a future laid down by some external authority. The goals of which Peterson speaks are derived from the insti- tution's mission statement--a statement Of a single purpose which 64 is a hope for accomplishment. King,Marquess, and Breuder (1973) state that: Goals are usually broad and may not be quantifiable. Once goals have been established measurable objectives can then be set and strategies for Obtaining them devised. By evaluating each strategy in terms of resources needed and possible outcomes, a plan Of action can be determined. In general, there are two kinds of goals: outcome and sup- port (process). For King and others outcome goals are ends the college seeks to realize and are eventually translated into precise measurable Objectives. Goals Of a supportive nature, when attained, facilitate reaching the outcome goals. Essentially, they are intended to Optimize previously identified outcome goals. Institutional goal determination has two end-products: identification Of goals and establishment Of priorities among goals. Still King and others maintain that: An institution's "goals structure"--it's rank ordering goals-~can be said determined when some level Of consen- sus has been reached through a process that is democratic and participatory. Goals must be developed which accommo- date the needs Of diverse constituencies and respond to changing and conflicting societal demands. In order for an institution to identify goals considered important by the community it serves, it must identify a method for transforming expressed needs into meaningful goals. 0n the subject Of institutional goals assessment, the follow- ing statement by Corson (1975) is clearly appropriate, especially as it relates to colleges and universities: It is an axiom of management that to be effective, an organization must have clearly stated purposes and generally understood Objectives that can be translated into more precise goals against which performance can be measured. 65 A study by Palola and Padgett (1971) arrived at the follow- ing conclusion: A recurring theme in the literature Of goals in education is that too little attention is paid tO defining the aims Of the educational process beyond coining global abstrac- tion... In the self-renewing institution, the plans allow flexibility while focusing on concrete goals; goals which represent achievable ideals rather than simply projections Of the past on the one hand, or vague philosophical rhetoric on the other (pages 77-78). In the final analysis, institutional well-being may depend on symmetry between intent and delivery. The latter depends upon demonstrated progress toward the achievement Of goals and community expectations. Indeed, there is an urgency associated with the task of goal assessment, but care and planning are equivalent necessities. Empirical Studies Of Purposes and Goals in Higher Education Social scientists have produced a substantive body Of knowledge about different aspects Of organizational behavior. Yet there are relatively few studies on goals in complex organizations. This paucity Of research on goals is especially reflected in the study of complex universities; either the Official statements Of goals are taken at face value (Stroup, 1966) or the goals are taken fOr granted, in which case the most effective ordering Of resources and personnel is seen as the only problematic issue. There is, indeed, a voluminous literature about organizational goals, much of it the work of sociologists interested in organiza- tional theory and behavior. A good review, in higher education con- text can be found in Palola, Lehamann, and Brischke (1970). Other 66 useful references are Drabek and Chapman (1973) and Georgiou (1973). In their analysis Of university goals Peterson and Uhl (1977) main- tain that as intentions, goals exist only as statements that describe the desired conditions. Such definitional language approximates Kerr's (Carnegie Commission, 1973b), although Kerr uses the word purpose rather than goal. Goals symbolize end conditions. They do not describe what the institution does or how it functions to achieve or maintain those ends. An institutional goal is an ideal condition the campus can continuously seek to maximize or perfect; that is, a goal can remain, even though according to some index, it has been achieved. Thus, a goal may be thought Of as a statement Of continu- ing intent. Bowen (1977, page 32) similarly, takes the view that the literature on goals Of higher education is vast. In fact, in his study, Bowen develops a systematic effort tO identify widely accepted goals Of higher education. Like his, the researcher's Objective was tO bring from the literature those goals which describe the final outputs Of higher education, not intermediary or enabling Objectives. For example, such Objectives as increasing the financial support Of higher education, raising the faculty-student ratios, modernizing buildings, and equipment, improving curricula--Objectives that loom large in the plans Of educators--are regarded here not as final Out- puts, but as means (Gross and Grambsch, 1974, pages 43-74). The goals are related to the three main functions Of higher education: education, research, and service. 67 Conrad (1974) elaborated the following main reasons for the advancing studies Of goals, particularly university goals. For him, goals may serve a variety Of purposes for the organization. They may (1) serve as standards by which to judge its success, (2) con- stitute a source Of legitimacy, (3) define organizational needs and priorities, (4) define production units or "outputs" for the organi- zation (5) define its clientele, or (6) define the nature Of the relationship between the organization and society. Such enumeration Of reasons seem to be strong enough. But if university goals are to serve the purposes listed above, they must be identified more precisely. Clark Kerr (Peterson and Uhl, 1977) in his introduction Of a major study Of college and university goals Observed rather emphati- cally: It is useful to us, therefore, to be reminded that goal setting is a complicated enterprise with serious conse- quences for an institution and the people who work and live within it. And it is also useful for us to under- stand that goals are not indelibly written; they change over time. Moreover, they are not always in the same rank Of importance in relation to one another; some can be valid even if they have low priorities. Nor are they some kind of mysterious transcedent influence that controls and energizes a college or university; they are, instead, tools for directing, measuring, and evaluat- ing the energies that are generated from within. Although all major segments Of the academic community are concerned with the goals and Objectives Of their own institutions, college and university presidents and their administrative staffs have a special responsibility, as a vital aspect Of their leadership function, to develOp, organize, and use the resources of the 68 institution to achieve its goals with maximum effectiveness. As Caffrey (Gross and Grambsch, 1968, page v) asserts: An essential phase Of this goal-oriented function is to clarify the institution's present goals, and especially to distinguish between the real and the supposed, in order to evaluate the effectiveness Of progress toward these goals--and, equally important, continually to reevaluate the goals themselves. As needs and contexts change, so many goals. The goals of higher education are concerned with the develop- ment of the full potentialities Of the human beings and of society, since they correspond closely to the goals Of human life. As Alexander Heard (1973, page 16) remarked: Our largest common goal in higher education, indeed in all education, is to create and stimulate the kind Of learning that breeds strength and humor and hOpe within a person, and that helps build a society outside him that stirs his pride and commands his affection. Bowen (1977, pages 55-59) presents a rather long but very useful taxonomy for the study Of outcomes, which for him it is indeed a catalogue Of widely accepted goals. The catalogue Of goals for higher education, as it was presented by Bowen, is shown in Table 2.1: TABLE 2.1 TAXONOMY FOR THE STUDY OF OUTCOMES I. Goals for Individual Students A. Cognitive Learning (1) Verbal skills. Ability to comprehend through reading and listening. Ability to speak and write clearly, correctly, and gracefully. Effectiveness in the organization and presentation Of ideas in writing and in discussion. Possi- bly some acquaintance with a second language. 69 TABLE 2.1 (continued) TAXONOMY FOR THE STUDY OF OUTCOMES (2) (3) (6) (7) Quantitative skills. Ability tO understand elementary concepts of mathematics and to handle simple statistical data and statistical reasoning. Possibly some understand- ing of the rudiments of accounting and the uses Of computers. Substantive knowledge. Acquaintance with the cultural heritage Of the West and some knowledge of other traditions. Awareness Of the contemporary world Of philosophy, natural science, art, literature, social change, and social issues. Command Of vocabulary, facts, and principles in one or more selected fields Of knowledge. Rationality. Ability and disposition to think logically on the basis Of useful assumptions. Capacity to see facts and events objectively--distinguishing the normative, ideological, and emotive from the positive and factual. Disposition to weigh evidence, evaluate facts and ideas critically, and tO think independently. Ability to analyze and synthesize. Intellectual tolerance. Freedom Of mind. Openness to new ideas. Willingness to question orthodoxy. Intellectual curiosity. Ability to deal with complexity and ambiguity. Appreciation Of intellectual and cultural diversity. His- torical perspective and cosmopolitan outlook. Understand- ing Of the limitations Of knowledge and thought. Esthetic sensibility.2 Knowledge of, interest in, and responsiveness to literature, the fine arts, and natural beauty. Creativeness. Imagination and originality in formulating new hypotheses and ideas and in producing new works Of art. l able. 2 Appreciation Of the local, provincial, and parochial is commend- Values such as cosmopolitanism are not undesirable but perhaps they are most valuable when they occur in tension with their Opposites, when the person achieves an appreciation of both the cosmopolitan and the provincial and a critical capacity to stress the merits and deficiencies Ob both. Esthetic sensibility is Often classified under affective develOp- ment rather than cognitive learning. It contains elements Of both. 70 TABLE 2.1 (continued) TAXONOMY FOR THE STUDY OF OUTCOMES (8) (9) (10) Intellectual integrity. Understanding of the idea of "truth" and Of its contingent nature. Disposition to seek and speak the truth. Conscientiousness of inquiry and accuracy in reporting results. Wisdom. Balanced perspective, judgment, and prudence. Lifelong learning. Love Of learning. Sustained intellec- tual interests. Learning how to learn. B. Emotional and Moral Development (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Personal self-discovery. Knowledge of one's own talents, interests, values, aspirations, and weaknesses. Discovery Of unique personal identity. Psychological well-being. Progress toward the ability to "understand and confront with integrity the nature Of the human condition” (Perry, 1970, p. 201). Sensitivity to deeper feelings and emotions combined with emotional stability. Ability to express emotions constructively. Appropriate self-assertiveness, sense Of security, self- confidence, self-reliance, decisiveness, spontaneity. Acceptance Of self and others. Human understanding. Humane Outlook. Capacity for empathy, thoughtfulness, compassion, respect, tolerance, and coopera- tion toward others, including persons Of different back- grounds. Democratic and nonauthoritarian disposition. Skill in communication with others. Values and morals. A valid and internalized but not dog- matic set Of values and moral principles. Moral sensiti- vity and courage. Sense Of social consciousness and social responsibility. Religious interest. Serious and thoughtful exploration of purpose, value, and meaning. Refinement Of taste, conduct, and manner. 71 TABLE 2.1 (continued) TAXONOMY FOR THE STUDY OF OUTCOMES C. Practical Competence (1) Traits Of value in practical affairs generally. Virtually (2) (3) (4) all of the goals included under cognitive learning and emotional and moral development apply to practical affairs. In addition, the following traits, which are more specifi- cally related tO achievement in practical affairs, may be mentioned: (a) Need for achievement. Motivation toward accomplishment. Initiative, energy, drive, persistence, self-discipline. (b) Future orientation. Ability to plan ahead and to be prudent in risk-taking. A realistic outlook toward the future. (c) Adaptability. Tolerance Of new ideas or practices. Willingness to accept change. Versatility and resourcefulness in coping with problems and crises. Capacity to learn from experience. Willingness to negotiate, compromise, and keep Options Open. (d) Leadership. Capacity to win the confidence Of others, willingness to assume responsibility, organizational ability, decisiveness, disposition to take counsel. Citizenship. Understanding Of a commitment to democracy. Knowledge Of governmental institutions and procedures. Awareness Of major social issues. Ability to evaluate propaganda and political argumentation. Disposition and ability to participate actively in civic, political, econo- mic, professional, educational, and other voluntary organi- zations. Orientation toward international understanding and world community. Ability to deal with bureaucracies. Disposition toward law observance. Economic productivity. Knowledge and skills needed for first job and for growth in productivity through experience and on-the-job training. Adaptability and mobility. Sound career decisions. Capacity to bring humanistic values to the workplace and to derive meaning from work. Sound family life. Personal qualities making for stable families. Knowledge and skill relating to child development. 72 TABLE 2.1 (continued) TAXONOMY FOR THE STUDY OF OUTCOMES (5) Consumer efficiency. Sound choice Of values relating tO style of life. Skill in stretching consumer dollars. Ability to cope with taxes, credit, insurance, investments, legal issues, and so on. Ability to recognize deceptive sales practices and to withstand high-pressure sales tactics. (6) Fruitful leisure. Wisdom in allocation Of time among work, leisure, and other pursuits. Development of tastes and skills in literature, the arts, nature, sports, hobbies, and community participation. Lifelong education, formal and informal, as a productive use Of leisure. Resourceful- ness in overcoming boredom, finding renewal, and discovering satisfying and rewarding uses Of leisure time. (7) Health. Understanding Of the basic principles for cultivat- ing physical and mental health. Knowledge of how and when to use the professional health care system. 0. Direct Satisfactions and Enjoyments from College Education (1) During the college years. (2) In later life. E. Avoidance Of negative outcomes for individual students. II. Goals for Society (Note: These goals may be achieved through education, through research and related activities, or through public services.) A. Advancement Of knowledge (1) Preservation and dissemination of the cultural heritage. (2) Discovery and dissemination of new knowledge and advance- ment of philosophical and religious thought, literature, and the fine arts--all regarded as valuable in their own right without reference to ulterior ends. 73 TABLE 2.1 (continued) TAXONOMY FOR THE STUDY OF OUTCOMES (3) Direct satisfactions and enjoyments received by the pOpula- tion from living in a world Of advancing knowledge, tech- nology, ideas, and arts. B. Discovery and Encouragement of Talent. C. Advancement Of Social Welfare. (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Economic efficiency and growth. Enhancement Of national prestige and power. Progress toward the identification and solution Of social problems. "Improvement" in the motives, values, aspirations, attitudes, and behavior Of members of the general population. Over long periods of time, exerting a significant and favorable influence On the course of history as reflected in the evolution Of the basic culture and of the funda- mental social institutions. Progress in human equality, freedom, justice, security, order, religion, health, and so on. D. Avoidance Of Negative Outcomes for Society. Conceptual Distinctions The literature review contains interesting conceptual dis- tinctions drawn mainly by sociologists interested in organizational theory. The distinction between output and support goals (Gross and Grambsch, 1968) is between those "which are manifested in a product Of some kind (output goals). . . and those which are the ends Of 74 persons responsible for the maintenance activities. . . Of the organization" (support goals). In the university, the former: Charles involve the usual goals of teaching, research and community service. . . the latter involve a variety Of activities designed to help the organization sur- vive in its environment, those that ensure that the university is run in desired ways, those designed tO ensure motivated participation, and those designed to ensure the university's position in the population Of universities (Gross, 1968). Official goals have been contrasted with operative goals by Perrow (1961). For him, Official goals: are the general purposes. . . as put forth in the charter, annual reports, public statements by key executives, and other authoritative pronouncements such as the college catalogue, while Operative goals designate the ends sought through the actual Operat- ing policies Of the organization; they tell us what the organization actually is trying to do, regardless Of what the Official goals say are the aims. Amitai Etzioni (1964) makes approximately the same distinc- tion, using the words stated and real goals. Operative goals bear no necessary relation to Official goals; the former, says Perrow, "may support, be irrelevant to, or subvert Official goals." Various researchers (Perrow, 1961; Etzioni, 1964; Price, 1968; Churchman, 1968) have pointed out the relative difficulty Of identifying the Operative or real goals of an organization. In organizations the problem Of goals and goal attainment has priority over all other problems (Parsons, 1961, pages 38-41). The existence Of the organization is justified primarily by its orientation to a set Of goals, and it is continually judged by how successfully it attains those goals. Simon (1964) comments that in 75 spite Of the very great amount of research and theoretical atten- tion which has been given to formal organizations, little attention has been paid tO developing a clear definition Of what is meant by a goal in the first place. The concept seems to be taken for granted in most studies, yet the specific goal Of a particular organization is an empirical matter which can be ascertained. Etzioni (1964, page 6) defines an organizational goal as "a desired state Of affairs which the organization attempts to realize." It is essential, a priori, to distinguish private from organizational goals. For Gross and Grambsch (1974, page 9) a private goal consists Of a future state that the individual desires for himself. Such a notion comes close to the psychologist's conception Of a motive. This meaning may be distinguished from what a particular person desires for the organization as a whole (Cartwright and Zander, 1953, pages 308-311). The latter comes closer to the notion Of an organizational goal, although it still consists Of something that the particular person wishes and may not at all correspond to the organization's goals. Thompson and McEwen (1958) and Parsons (1961) have attempted to define goals in terms of systems linkages. Both have seen a goal as involving some type Of output to a larger society. Amitai Etzioni (1964, pages 16-19) has criticized the goal approach to the study of organizations as being tOO limited. To define an organiza- tion solely in terms Of its degree Of success in Obtaining that goal is to doom the investigator to disappointment. 76 An institution's mission, goals, and objectives are all involved in assessing institutional goals. Pratt and Reichard (1983, page 53) Offer the following definition for these terms: The mission is a statement of educational philOSOphy, which may include a description Of special populations to be served. It changes infrequently and provides a long-term sense of identity to an institution. Goals, in contrast, provide a sense Of direction for the shorter term. Objectives are much more specific statements, which describe activities and related outcomes for short periods Of time. Fenske (1980) presents a definition Of goals that reflect the broad consensus Of other authors. He defines goals as state- ments Of university purpose that fall between extremely broad state- ments, such as those contained in the institutional mission, and specific descriptions of various Operations within a university. Obviously, a broad mission statement can generate several goals, and each goal, in turn, can create many Objectives. Goals imply a desired outcome. As Pratt and Reichard (1983, page 54) remind us, a key element is the translation of broad goals, which may prove difficult to measure, into more specific and measurable Objectives. Obviously, goals are the cornerstone of effective planning, and yet there are those who question the need for goals. As Fenske (1980, page 178) indicates: "The question 'Why study goals?' is somewhat annoying to most planners and researchers, in that the answer seems so Obvious, even axiomatic. One Of the few things organizational theorists agree on is the necessity Of defining and studying goals". 77 The debate over the utility of mission statements is obscured by the absence of widely accepted definitions to distinguish among a number of interrelated terms. Caruthers and Lott (1981, page 26) state that mission, role, scope, goal, and objective are used almost interchangeably by authors in the field. In general, mission, roles and scope describe the philosophy, clientele, and dimension--the identity Of a college. The goals and objectives dimension relates more to actions-~that is, the steps an institution plan to take in order to achieve certain outcomes that will help it fulfill its desired mission. The former dimension usually focuses on what the institution is and hopes to be, the latter on the means to reach that end. Mission and scope and Objectives imply the more specific parts Of any overall statement. Thus for the most part, the mission Of an institution is relatively unchanging, while the scope and particularly the Objectives, are subject to regular revision. Romney and Bogen (1978) have defined goal as a set Of circum- stances sought in pursuit of the mission. Goals are usually stated in broad qualitative terms and serve as guides for institutional development in a particular frame of time. Objectives are specific ends to be achieved with regard to a particular goal. An Objective is Often stated in more quantitative, outcomes-oriented terms. A frequent purpose Of formulating a set Of goals and Objectives is to enable an institution to change its role and sc0pe. 78 Techniques for Identification of Goals Many questions can be asked by those responsible for planning and development Of goals and objectives, when an institution reaches the conclusion that some formal process must be to identify goals. Should the planners use a collection Of goal statements developed elsewhere, or should they develop a list of goals expressly for their institution? Who will be the constituent groups involved in the process? How many persons from each group will be part integrant in the process, as respondents? What will the process to select a defined set of goals? Who will be responsible for coordinating such endeavor? How long will such planning group work together? Such planning and work in goals development require considerable amount Of time and resources. However, standardized instruments, sampling techniques, and even some standardized analyses of data are avail- able and can reduce the institutional effort. One such instrument will be now discussed. Institutional Goals Inventggy (IGI) The Institutional Goals Inventory (IGI) was developed by Peterson and Uhl at the Educational Testing Service (ETS). It is considered to be one Of the most extensive and the best known compila- tions Of goal statements (Pratt and Reichard, 1983). The IGI was developed as a tool that colleges and universities may use in the process Of identifying basic campus goals and in determining priori- ties among them. For Peterson and Uhl (1977) the IGI can indicate the degree of consensus among peOple at the college regarding the 79 importance Of each goal. King and others (1973) in their analysis on the subject, concluded that the IGI was judged to be superior (in terms Of goals statement coverage, flexibility, and ease Of administration) to the only other known published goals inventory, produced by the National Lab for Higher Education in Durham, North Carolina. The instrument does not tell colleges and universities what to do in order to reach goals. Instead, it provides a means by which many individuals and constituent groups can contribute their thinking about desired institutional goals. The inventory is comprised of ninety goal statements which attempt to conceptualize in a meaningful way the spectrum of goals Of American colleges and universities. It is divided into twenty goal areas. There are four goal statements per goal area with ten goal statements categorized under the rubric "miscellaneous". The twenty goal statements are divided into thirteen outcome goals and seven process goals. They are listed below in Table 2.2 as shown by Peterson and Uhl (1977). Descriptions Of Goal Statements of the IGI Peterson and Uhl (1977) have described the twenty goal areas shown in Table 2.2 as follows: Outcome Goals Academic Development has to dO with acquisition Of general and specialized knowledge, preparation of students for advanced scholarly study, and maintenance of high intellectual standards on campus. 80 TABLE 2.2 OUTCOME AND PROCESS GOALS OUTCOME GOALS (Goals the college or university seek to realize) PROCESS GOALS (Goals of a supportive nature-- when attained, they facilitate reaching the outcome goals) Academic Development Intellectual Orientation Individual Personal Development Humanism/Altruism Cultural/Aesthetic Awareness Traditional Religiousness Vocational Preparation Advanced Training Research Meeting Local Needs Public Service Social Egalitarianism Social Criticism/Activism Freedom Democratic Governance Community Intellectual/Aesthetic Environ- ment Innovation Off-Campus Learning Accountability/Efficiency 81 Intellectual Orientation relates to an attitude about learn- ing and intellectual work. It means familiarity with research and problem solving methods, the ability to synthesize knowledge from many sources, the capacity for self-directed learning, and a commit- ment to lifelong learning. Individual Personal Development means identification by students of personal goals and develOpment of means for achieving them, enhancement Of sense Of self-worth and self-confidence. Humanism/Altruism reflects a respect for diverse cultures, commitmentixiworking for world peace, consciousness of the important moral issues of the time, and concern about the welfare of man generally. Cultural/Aesthetic Awareness entails a heightened apprecia- tion Of a variety Of art forms, required study in the humanities or arts, exposure to forms of non-Western art, and encouragement of active student participation in artistic activities. Traditional Religiousness is intended to mean a religious- ness that is orthodox, doctrinal, usually sectarian, and Often fundamental-~in short, traditional rather than secular or modern. Vocational Preparation means Offering specific occupational curriculums (as in accounting or nursing), programs geared to emerg- ing career fields, Opportunities for retraining or upgrading skills, and assistance to students in career planning. Advanced Training can be most readily understood simply as the availability Of postgraduate education. It means developing 82 and maintaining a strong and comprehensive graduate school, provid- ing programs in the professions, and conducting advanced study in specialized problem areas. Research involves doing contract studies for external agencies, conducting basic research in the natural and social sciences, and seeking generally to extend the frontiers Of knowledge through scientific research. Meeting Local Needs is defined as providing for continuing education for adults, serving as a cultural center for the community, providing trained manpower for local employers, and facilitating student involvement in community-service activities. Public Service means working with governmental agencies in social and environmentalpolicyfbrmation, committing institutional resources to the solution of major social and environmental problems, training peOple from disadvantaged communities, and generally being responsible to regional and national priorities in planning educa- tional programs. Social Egalitarianism has Undo with Open admissions and suitable education for all admitted, providing educational experi- ences relevant to the evolving interests Of minority groups and women, and offering remedial work in basic skills. Social Criticism/Activism means providing criticisms of pre- vailing American values, Offering ideas for changing social insti- tutions judged to be defective, helping students learn how to bring about change in American society, and being engaged, as an institu- tion, in working for basic changes in American society. 83 Process Goals Freedom is defined as protecting the right of faculty to present controversial ideas in the classroom, not preventing stu- dents from hearing controversial points Of view, placing no restric- tions on Off-campus political activities by faculty or students, and ensuring faculty and students the freedom to choose their own life- styles. Democratic Governance means decentralized decision-making arrangements by which students, faculty, administrators, governing board members can all be significantly involved in campus governance; Opportunity for individuals to participate in all decisions affect- ing them; and governance that is genuinely responsive to the concerns Of everyone at the institution. Community is defined as maintaining a climate in which there is faculty commitment to the general welfare of the institution, open and candid communication, Open and amicable airing Of differ- ences, and mutual trust and respect among students, faculty, and administrators. Intellectual/Aesthetic Environment means a rich program of cultural events, a campus climate that facilitates student free-time involvement in intellectual and cultural activities, an environment in which students and faculty can easily interact informally, and a reputation as an intellectually exciting campus. Innovation is defined as a climate in which continuous innova- tion is an accepted way of life; it means established procedures for 84 readily initiating curricular or instructional innovations; and, more specifically, it means experimentation with new approaches to individualized instruction and to evaluating and grading student performance. Off-Campus Learning includes time away from the campus in travel, work-study, VISTA work, etc., study on several campuses during undergraduate programs; awarding degrees for supervised study off the campus; awarding degrees entirely on the basis of perfor- mance on an examination. Accountability/Efficiency is defined to include use of cost criteria in deciding among program alternatives, concern for program efficiency, accountability to funding sources for program effective- ness, and regular submission Of evidence that the institution is achieving stated goals. The Educational Testing Service (ETS) has published guides for use of the Institutional Goals Inventory (IGI), which describe the instrument, suggest appropriate methods for conducting a goals study (Peterson and Uhl, 1975) and provide comparative data (Peterson and Uhl, 1977). The IGI measures respondents' perceptions Of the extent to which each goal statement describes the current orientation of the institution and also the extent to which each goal should be emphasized. The discrepancy between what should be (desired goals) and what is (perception of current reality) provides insights into value orientation of various constituencies. There are several methods for selecting high-priority goals. One of the 85 simplest, from an administrative point of view, is the survey. Adopting this approach for data collection, a large set of goal statements is sent to prospective respondents chosen from each institutional constituent group. The results of the survey are compiled, and the highest-ranked (or highest-rated) goals become the current goals Of the institution (Pratt and Reichard, 1983). The survey approach has the advantage of being relatively inexpen- sive, requiring a minimum of each participant's time and allowing inclusion of a greater number of participants. For each goal statement appearing in the inventory, the respondent is asked to check the degree of importance for the insti- tution on a five point Likert scale. Response choices are: "Of extremely high importance", "of high importance", "of medium impor- tance", "of low importance", and "Of no importance". The IGI asks participants to rate goals in two ways. First, the participant is asked to rate the goal as to its current importance, the I§_ response; and, second, the participant rates the goal as to the importance it should have in the future, the Should Be response. In selecting goals for attention, it is especially important to consider the goals that have the highest Should Be ratings, accom- panied by a large discrepancy between I§_and Should Be ratings. Thus, the IGI is a tool used to measure perceptions of members Of various constituent groups. If longitudinal data are not available, discrepancy analyses incorporating a series of actual (Is) versus ideal (Should Be) comparisons also may be helpful in assessing 86 differences between expectations and outcomes. In this regard, differences between the ideal and the actual attainment Of specific goals may be evaluated (Pratt and Reichard). Use of the Institutional Goals Inventory (IGI) is appro- priately only one element in a larger goal-setting process that would involve information and ideas from many sources together with all manner Of deliberation (Peterson and Uhl, 1977). The assessment of goals is a complex process. Specifying the relationship between a goal and a set of outcomes by formulating clear Objectives is the key to the process. The essential significance Of the resulting goals conception is that it sets forth basic institutional policy, which then has the potential Of serving as a unifying ideology throughout the campus (Peterson and Uhl, 1977). Conceptual Framework The general strategy followed by Peterson and Uhl (1977) in constructing the IGI was first to develOp a theoretical framework-- a conceptualization Of higher education goals--and then to write goal statements that seemed to reflect each of the goals, or goal areas, conceived. Two general considerations guided their conceptual efforts. First, they established a structure that was comprehensive, embracing the major goals of all kinds of higher education institutions. The development and publication of the IGI, has a major advantage of a single standard instrument in that it enables and encourages compara- tive multicampus studies that can be especially illuminating to 87 participating colleges. Second, the conceptual framework needed to be specific enough for the resulting instrument to yield information for some suitable number of goals. Peterson and Uhl (1977) assert that the initial conceptualization for the instrument grew out of extensive deliberations within a task group at the Educational Test- ing Service (ETS), in New Jersey. The preliminary Institutional Goals Inventory, which was based on the Gross and Grambsch (1968) response format, was developed specifically for a study carried out during 1970 under Uhl's direction. One purpose Of the project was to define the goal structures of five colleges that were working with the Lab in develOping its Administrative Organizations System (AOS) model. Peterson and Uhl assert that the final turn in the conceptual evolution of the IGI was to abandon the words Output and support in favor of outcome and process. Output implies production Of a perhaps standard product, as on an assembly line; outcome is more suggestive of ends and purposes, perhaps in variable combination. Support, means maintenance and survival; by process, the authors wish to refer to the characteristic model and styles that define the process by which the work of the college is carried forth. Economics Of Education From the outset an Operational definition of economics, education, and economics Of education, is deemed necessary. Econo- mics defined: Samuelson (1961) acknowledges that there is no single definition of economics, but he develops "an informative introductory description" in the following ways: "Economics is the study of how 88 men and society choose, with or without the use of money, to employ scarce productive resources to produce various commodities over time and distribute them for consumption, now and in the future, among various people and groups in society" (page 6). Education defined: According to Webster's New World Dictionary (1962), education is "the process of training and developing knowledge, skill, mind, character, etc., especially by formal schooling" (page 461). The Economics of Education defined: Based upon the definitions Of economics and education, a definition Of the economics of education emerges: The economics of education is the study Of how men and society choose, with or without the use Of money, to employ develop- ment of knowledge, skill, mind, character, and so forth--especially by formal schooling--over time and to distribute them, now and in the future, among various peOple and groups in society. As Cohn (1979, page 2) pointed out, the economics Of education is concerned with (1) the process by which education is produced; (2) the dis- tribution of education among competing groups and individuals; and (3) questions regarding how much should be spent by society (or any of its component individuals) on educational activities, and what types Of educational activities should be selected. Psacharopoulos has written, that ideas are that, tradition- ally, the factors influencing education in the community have been examined from the sociodemographic point Of view. It has been established for example, that education promotes social goals as the creation of better citizens and the possibility of social 89 mobility by facilitating occupation change (in Knowles, 1977, page 1344). In the past three decades, education has been increas- ingly looked on from an economic viewpoint, that is, the economic impact on the individual, his community, and his society as a whole. Historical Perspective of Economics of Education The purpose here is not to state of develop new ideas, nor to establish a framework. Rather, the purpose here is to present an intellectual introduction on historical perspective of economics of education, which is but one intellectual and estimulating area Of interest held by the researcher. Human capital is an Old concept but a relatively new research area in economics. The central ideal is that human capacities are in large part acquired or developed through informal and formal education at home and at school, and through training experience, and mobility in the labor market (Mincer, 1979, page 1). Interest of economists in the effects Of higher education can be traced historically at least to the writings Of Adam Smith, who commented in some detail on the social and economic benefit of education. Adam Smith in 1776 considered the skills Of labor to be the predominant force for economic progress and part Of his defini- tion of capital. In 1890, Alfred Marshall argued that schooling may be regarded as a national investment. He also suggested that the profit motive Operates in personal investment in the same manner as it Operates in other capital investment decisions (1961, Ninth edition). The tradition Of economic reasoning was maintained by the 90 other great economists. Ricardo was concerned to show that increase in economic well-being Of the masses could arrive from a diminution Of the population or augmentation of capital. He and Malthus favored education as means of inculcating habits which would lead to family limitation (Vaizey, 1962, page 19). Alfred Marshall (Sixth edition, 1910, page 217), refers to "education as national investment" and writes "There are few practi- cal problems in which the economist has a more direct interest than those relating to the principles on which the expense Of the educa- tion of children should be divided between the state and the parents". He adopted the prevailing psychology, which was based very much on ”learning by doing“ and so supported practical forms Of education, linked tO industry (Vaizey, 1962, page 21). As Observed, from the earliest days, the great classical economists such as Adam Smith, Ricardo and Marshall, brought to bear upon education a searching and measuring approach concerned with its contribution to wealth creation and the "orderly habits Of peOpleII (Lyons, 1979, page 416). Marx shared in this tradition, and developed, tOO, Adam Smith's plea for education as a counterbalance to the inhuman results of the division Of labor. For him, the func- tion Of education in a socialist society will be to overcome the alienation of the worker from the means of production, while develOp- ing his technical skills; it will be to restore him as a man as well as keeping him as a producer (Vaizey, 1962, page 24). Marx was wrong in believing that general education cannot evolve in a 91 capitalist society. Professor Johnson (1960, page 563) observes: "Application Of Marx's general analytical method to the system of corporate industrial production suggests, not the polarization and eventual breakdown of capitalist society that he predicted, but the consolidation of a highly differentiated hierarchical society in which status is determined ultimately by educational attainment". As economic growth was resumed in 1940 shortages of skilled -talent became evident; and with growing interest in the measurement Of economic magnitudes work has become focused on the problem Of evaluating "human capital.“ As Johnson (page 562) Observes, this development has affected economic thought about the worker and his wages. "His knowledge and skill in turn are the product of a capi- tal investment in his education in the general capacities Of communi- cation and calculation required for participation in the production process, and the specific capacities required for the individual job, a capital investment which is variously financed by the state, the worker himself and the employer. Thus the laborer is himself a produced means of production, an item of capital equipment." Empirical analysis Of the economic value Of investments in schooling have been undertaken since the first decade Of this cen- tury (Ellis, 1917; Walsh, 1935). But intense professional interest in economics of education did not truly begin until about 1960, when empirical investigations of the American economy confirmed that the output of goods and services had been growing much more rapidly than the quantity of labor, capital, and materials used to produce 92 it (Douglass, 1977, page 360). Nonetheless, Machlup (1976, page 10) has warned us that nothing in modern economics is more speculative than quantitative empirical research. An interesting point of debate in the discussion Of the growth of higher education concerns the role played by early work Of Schultz (1960), Denison (1962L.and Harbison and Myers (1964) which attempted to show a causal link between educational expansion and economic growth. It took longer before the states' management of the educa- tional systems became affected by the intention of stimulated or sustained economic growth. The idea that formal education is an investment has been enthusiastically received in both the developed and the developing world. Manpower Needs and Expenditure on Education Education has become a major source of skills and trained talent. Indeed, from one point of view, this is education's critical economic role. Some economists agree that expenditure and effort by national education authorities should be directed towards the fore- casting Of needs for scientific and technical education. Since there is always scarcity of resources to finance education, it is diffi- cult to decide how wisely to distribute available money between levels and types of education. Developing nations are particularly pressed to meet the urgent needs for scientists, technologists and technicians, reforming the overly humanistic curricula and programs, and turn to the systematic education and training Of the needed personnel by spending greater sums on such scientific and technical 93 education. Manpower needs can also be met by develOping non-formal education through the efforts of business firms, but this involves many social and organizational problems (Lyons, 1979, page 427). There is also the role of money in encouraging recruitment to teaching and to jobs which are Of prior importance for economic develOpment. Dudley Seers and Richard Jolly in a series of studies (Jolly, 1969), have examined the difficulties Of providing education in countries where the salaries for teachers and of educated people were high, relative to those of less educated or uneducated people, and where with limited budget resources education could not be developed in order to meet estimated needs. Being education an investment Of human capital, it naturally follows that the accumula- tion of this human capital should be a factor in economic growth. Vaizey identifies three initial roles for education. One is to supply skilled manpower and technicians without whom physical capital would be wasted. The second is to generate "a climate for growth", by giving the masses a capacity for thinking beyond their immediate needs and troubles. The third is to teach the cultivators simple and elementary rural skills which will yield a small surplus over subsistence consumption and which can be the basis for physical accumulation. Human Capital: A Congeptual Framework The human capital hypothesis is an approach which relates levels of schooling to demands in the market place for skilled labor. Basically, the hypothesis is that a growing demand for skills 94 increases the individual's monetary returns to investment in schooling- to investment in his or her human capital-and, hence, that unless the real and Opportunity costs of formal education or the demand for unskilled labor increase proportionately, levels Of schooling will rise (Becker, 1964; Mincer, 1958; T. W. Schultz, 1961). Education for Craig (1981, page 159) can result in higher earnings, in social control, in national integration, and so on. From an economic point Of view education may be regarded both as consumption and as invest- ment. Education can lead not only to higher wages in the labor mar- ket but also to better working conditions and fringe benefits (Duncan, 1976; Freeman, 1978; Lucas, 1977). Schooling can make individuals more proficient learners and increase their propensity to seek new knowledge (Goody, 1977; Heckman, 1976; Hyman, Wright, and Reed, 1975). It also can make them more efficient consumers, thus raising their real income (Michael, 1973). It can contribute to better health and greater life expectancy (Grossman, 1975). It can result in a better allocation of men and women in the marriage market and hence in more suitable and rewarding marriages (Becker, Landes and Michael, 1977). Human capital as most economists define it, consists of the acquired energy, motivations, skills, and knowledge possessed by human beings, which cantweharnessed over a period of time to the task of producing goods and services (Douglass, 1977, page 362). A Brief Overview Economics Of education is a field of study gaining increasing interest by educators. This area called for an extensive review of 95 the literature to trace some historical aspects related to what economists have said about economics Of education with regards to social and economic benefits of education. Based on the review Of the literature it can be concluded that (1) during the past thirty years or so economists have made a substantial contribution to think- ing about problems of resource allocation to education and Of returns to education; (2) the study Of costs and expenditures on education has advanced considerably; (3) the relationship of expenditure on education to economic growth, individual and social returns to educa- tion, and the role of education in meeting economic needs, similarly, gained attention Of analysts of economics Of education. The issue Of the role of the state in determining the balance between social expenditures and other expenditures in national econo- mic and social development remains central to "economics Of educa- tion". Economists still have an important contribution to make to the development of cost and finance analysis and to studies of the efficiency Of resource allocation to education in order to avoid waste (Lyons, 1979). Sociology of Education Max Weber was the first sociologist tO apply sociology to the field of higher education (Shils, 1974). Max Weber (1946, page 426), has classified educational system into three major types as follows: (1) The attempt to call forth and to test allegedly inherent traits to the individual, to allow them to unfold, to be realized. This is generally character- istic of charismatically sanctioned institutions and status groups. 96 (2) By rote learning and moral exhortion, by drill and imposed habituation, the attempt to stereotype the individual into line with the traditional routines, which is generally characteristic of traditionalist societies. (3) The attempt rationally to transmit to the individual certain traits, to train him for specific skills by challenging him to think and act independently-- which is generally characteristic of educational spheres Of rational bureaucratic organizations. Weber's third category classification is the prevalent type of educational system. In modern education the principal aim is to develop rational faculties Of human beings so that they can have independent thinking and their actions are not governed by any stereo- type norms or principles. This type Of training helps the individual to challengethedogmatic beliefs and to inculcate rational thinking. The encouragement of rational and independent thinking, consequently, affects the behavior of the individuals, as thought and behavior are closely interrelated. Education can be regarded as influencing both the thought and behavior-patterns of the individuals and when there are changes in the behavior-patterns Of individual members of various social groups, the social structural elements Of a community are bound to have a significant impact (Bhatnagar, 1972, page 4). The term sociology was coined by Comte in the first half of the nineteenth century. Comte divided the new subject in two parts: social dynamics (to study the progress of society), and social statics (to study the order of society). Education was clearly related to social progress, its social function was given considerable attention by early socio- logists such as Comte, Spencer, Durkheim and Ward. Durkheim, above 97 all, defined clearly the scientific nature of sociology Of education and education as "methodical socialization Of the younger generation" (Durkheim, 1956, pages 49, 119). He analyzed the history of French educational thought in terms of a relationship between social develop- ment and educational institutions, and explained the function of the school in training youth in civil morality (Shimbori, 1979, page 396). While these sociologists were interested mainly in the rela- tionship of education to social progress, early American sociologists developed sociology not from purely academic motives but in response to practical needs, as means of resolving social problems such as crime, divorce, unemployment, poverty, delinquency, prostitution and racism. With the dramatic expansion of educational institutions in early part of this century, and particularly after the Second World War, education was recognized as means Of economic recovery, necessary for development and for national cohesion. As a strong educational movement, there was the Parallel Community School Move- ment which tried to combine progressivism and essentialism and to use education as a means of community development. After the war, ducational sociology became an established sub-discipline of socio- logy Of education, with three approaches as follows: (1) cultural anthropology (2) social psychology (3) historical-institutional. The cultural-anthropological approach focused attention on social class and education, via problems like educational Opportunity, 98 social mobility, child-rearing and "culture and personality" (Bogdan and Biklen, 1982, pages 11-26). The social psychological approach had the tendency to analyze the school class and school as social systems, examining the struc- tures Of human relations, role systems, school cultures, group norms and communication processes, using techniques such as experiments, controlled Observation, micro-sociological analysis and statistical questionnaires. The historical-institutional approach was mainly interested in the social functions of education. Shimbory (1979, page 400) argues that the scientific level of a discipline depends to a great extent upon the development of cog- nate disciplines, and as they grow in quality, educational sociology necessarily is improved. SO, as theories and findings in the fields of sociology, social psychology, cultural anthropology, research methods in statistics and social surveys have been remarkably improved, education as a social phenomenon has been explored in more sophisticated ways. The "new" sociology of education appeared in the 70's. Although in the crisis of education in the 60's the benefits of widespread schooling were seriously doubted, sociologists Of education still believed in their competence in helping to solve the crisis. The "new" sociology appeared with a pessimistic view Of the ability of the "Old" sociology of education to analyze and rescue contemporary education. This "new" sociology, both at the theoreti- cal and the methodological level seeks to re-examine fundamentally 99 the social function of sociology and the social role of sociologists. The Frankfurt School, covering a vast range of scholars such as Horkheimer, Adorno, Marcuse, Fromm, Habermas and Schmidt were the radical sociologists critical of both functionalism and of Marxism. The “old" school was seen as a failure in dealing adequately with conflict and change, and thus accused of maintaining the status quO of society. Through functionalism, education could not promote social change or innovation. Social Goals of Higher Education Educationists have Observed and studied the relationship of education and society since Plato, who is considered to be the father Of the philosophy of education, and who was the initiator Of the social function of education. Since last century, the educational theory has been characterized as more individualistic, with the full development of the individual as the center, the aim of education. Michiya Shimbori (1979, page 394) in reviewing the historical trend Of educational theory, asserts however that since Herbart established pedagogy as a systematic theory, the main trend Of educational theory for a long time has been individualistic, in that it took the comple- tion Of an individual being as the aim of education, with teaching seen as a deliberate and planned process of formal instruction. Historically, there has always existed two broad views of education. One which emphasizes individual development, views expressions of rationalists, existentialists, and transcendentalists, and the other, which views expressions Of pragmatism, utilitarianism, and social 100 reconstruction. These opposing extremes are known as individualism and collectivism. The individualistic, emphasizes the development Of persons as the final end, and the collectivistic, emphasizes the advancement Of society as the final end (Emmerij, 1974, pages 147- 151, 170-171, 191-200). Individualism versus Collectivism The following are the assumptions underlying the extreme individualistic and collectivistic points Of view. They were dis- cussed in Bowen (1977, page 46). Individualistic assumptions are (1) that education should be designed to produce autonomous indivi- duals who are civilized and effective in practical affairs; (2) that a society of such individuals will spontaneously work out a desir- able social destiny through the democratic process as a result Of their separate and collective decisions and actions; (3) that research and related intellectual and artistic activities of the academic community should be designed to foster learning for its Own sake; and (4) that such learning will spontaneously turn out to be useful for both cultural development and practical affairs. The assumptions underlying the extreme collectivistic point of view are (1) that "society” has goals that may be distinguishable from the interactive summation of individual goals; (2) that educa- tion should be designed to shape individuals to serve the purposes of the nation--usually set forth by the government or by a party leadership; and (3) that research and related intellectual and artistic activities should be directed toward the achievement of 101 national goals, including the solution Of social problems. This point of view was recently described by Jan Szczepanski (1974, page 7) as: ". . . a process of intentional formation Of the personality according to an established personality idea. . . " He then outlined the goals Of higher education as follows: First is the education Of the desired personality type required by the relations of production--to use the Marxian terminology--or, in other words, the type Of personality required by the structure Of the economy and this type Of socialized society. Next, the most important goal is the vocational and professional education of graduates required by the present state for the expected future development of the economy. . . The third goal is preparation for participation in social and cultural identity of the nation. . . The final goal is to assure the optimal development of human individuality, to provide the individual with the chance for self-orientation and self-education. This goal is to prepare him fully to function in all con- texts Of social life, not only in the economic sphere. This is, I might say, an echo Of the Humboldtian idea of the fully developed creative personality (1974, pages 10-11). Sociologist and educator Szczepanski added: Within every institution of higher education the party organization has to watch that the political line is being respected. . . One Of the most important problems is the harmonization Of the state and government goals and societal goals with the personal goals of the fami- lies who send their children to an institution Of higher education, and students who want to achieve personal life goals. The traditional images of the role and function of higher education still influence the expec- tations of students and their families. But the tradi- tional images are irrelevant to contemporary reality (pages 18-19). While it is true that a nation must find its place on the continuum between individualistic and collectivistic educational 102 approaches, the researcher believes that the individualistic view is the one held in the American educational system. Thomas Jefferson, Horace Mann, and John Dewey are examples of educationists whose con- cepts of education and democracy are well known world over. Educa- tion has been regarded as a means of preparing individuals capable of choosing sound goals for society and effective in achieving these goals through the democratic process. Social Change versus Stability Is education an agent of social change or an agent of social stability? Or both? Some observers hold on to the theory that higher education should equip students to understand and appreciate the cultural heritage, to value social continuity, to discover what is right in society as well as what is wrong, to distinguish between what is possible and impossible in social reform, and to work toward the preservation of that which is worth preserving (Bowen, l977, page 49). Other observers maintain that the college or university should serve society in the capacity of social critic--as a center from which ideas basic to social change would emerge. The dual roles of higher education may not be in conflict. The true goal may be men and women with free minds who can form balanced judgments about change and stability and who can work toward orderly and progressive social development, drawing on both old and new (see Ottoway, 1962; Clark and others, l972; Ladd and Lipset, l975). -__.. rtf-Tfi.‘ 103 Organization and Administration of Higher Education General administration of colleges and universities consists essentially of the overall direction and management. Organization patterns range from simple structures for smaller, two- and four-year colleges to very complex structures of administration for very large universities with traditional undergraduate and graduate programs and many special missions (Rodgers, l977). College and university administration has, as its goal, the achievement of effective parti- cipation in the affairs of institutions by various constituencies of such institutions--faculty and staff, students, and members of the governing boards. Organizational Theory The basic organizational structure of a college or university is determined by its missions and charter, its size and scope of services, its complexity, and its philOSOphy of education. The primary missions of educational institutions are teaching, research, and public service. The degree to which any institution undertakes these three missions and the breadth of its offerings and activities in one or any combinationtrfthem determine its organizational struc- ture and administrative pattern. Research on the organization of Western colleges and univer- sities has been emerging as a serious area of inquiry since the 19605 (Peterson, l974&. No consensus exists as to the most appro- priate model for the administrative organization of colleges and universities. As Corwin (l974) suggests, researchers are beginning 104 to determine that different models may be applicable under different conditions. Two major types of current research is detected: descriptive studies, based on empirical evidence; and research and normative studies, based on decision theory and management science methods relating to efficient and effective organization. Descriptive Studies Baldridge (l97la; l97lb) conducted an intensive, two-year empirical study of a "political process" model of institutional decision making in an American university. In this study he con- centrated on the major policy issues affecting New York university in the late l9605. The simple political model consists of five components: (l) the social context factors, (2) interest articula- tion, (3) legislative transformation, (4) policy consensus, and (5) execution of policy. Baldridge believes that the effective formulation of policy, through his suggested political process, is more important to the effectiveness of colleges and universities than the concentration on effective utilization of resources because the latter assumes that policies have been effectively formulated. Parsons and Platt (l973), conducted a study of American research-oriented universities. Parsons and Platt view the American university as essentially a stratified collegial institution. The university's primary societal function is that of guardian of cogni- tive culture and the interests that support such culture. The graduate faculties and research centers are the core of the univer- sities. 105 The primary function of the graduate faculty is to maintain standards of cognitive rationalities; additional functions are related to undergraduate socialization; training in the professions; and the education of social critics. This theory of university organization ascribes a detached societal role for universities in which their primary concerns are the advancement of knowledge and the development of cognitively significant competencies. Van den Berghe (l973), on the other hand, considers the relationship of the university to society as most important. He conducted an intensive sociological case study as a "minimally participant observer" of a major African university. In this study, Van den Berghe focused on the political structure of the university and its relationship to society, social stratification and mobility, and the problems of ethnicity in the emergence of an African nation. Van den Berghe found that the political structures of the university was closely related to the social, economic and political structures of the local, regional, national, and even international tie was attributed to the necessity of hiring faculty who had been educated abroad. The university was closely associated with the national government because of its dependencecwithe government's financial support, advice and consultation to federal agencies, and its primary role in training the elite for the national bureaucracy. In terms of social stratification and mobility, the members of the university community were identified as members of three estates; (1) senior staff, including senior administrators and faculty; 106 (2) students; and (3) the intermediate and support staff. Although three estates were not considered strict definitions assignable at birth, Van den Berghe found that members of these three groups tended to act in a homogeneous manner, exhibiting a hierarchy of prestige and power within the groups, and also that significant gaps in income occurred among the three groups. Normative Studies The Ford Foundation supported a five-year program in univer- sity admiministration, directed by Balderston (l974), at the Univer- sity of California, Berkeley, to determine what changes in management practices were required in response to the growing complexity of colleges and universities. Balderston believes that new management approaches are very much needed but that these new management prac- tices could facilitate control of the university by its enemies, or evoke the imagination, the stamina, and free commitment essential to academia. Balderston believes the obligation "is to create, pre- sent, and use approaches to management in universities that will enhance their ability and effectiveness and will serve sensitively and not impair the work of the scholar and student (1974, page viii). The project sought to test in empirical applications, new techniques to investigate and analyze university management problems and new inodels of educational resources allocation. The study developed Inodels for enrollment projections, faculty staffing analyses, library utilization, manpower projections, capital analyses, resource plan- ning, cost analysis, admissions planning, and facility planning. 107 These and other analytical efforts were aimed at assisting university decision makers and others concerned with university management to understand better the complexity of university systems and to utilize effectively the tools of modern management. Fieden and Lockwood (l973) examined existing planning manage- ment, and budgeting systems and practices in a selected sample of British universities, reviewed other management techniques and inno- vations that have proved useful through experience elsewhere, and produced their recommendationsirna handbook on planning and manage- ment in universities. Both the descriptive and normative approaches to understanding and improving the decision-making processes of college and university general administration are helpful. The dis- tinction between the approaches is becoming more vague; in fact, the approaches appear to be converging. Practitioners of general admin- istration have to be familiar with both traditions and eclectically adept at modifying components of each approach that appear to be most useful for their particular situation and circumstances. Governance and Control Theories in educational administration must be seen in the context of the social sciences and science itself, with all the limitations inherent in such disciplines (Willower, 1980, page 2). Some of the more recent ideas being advanced in the social sciences, organization theory and educational administration reject traditional theory development and, to some extent, scientific method itself. 108 The governance and control of higher education covers four main areas: (l) academic decision making, (2) charters and statutes, (3) governance and administration, and (4) university legislation. Traditionally, universities have seen themselves as largely autono- mous institutions; yet with the rise of industrialism and the new demands of a post-industrial society, "the great historic universi- ties must now depend financially primarily on the more lucrative but once wholly secondary functions of professional training and government-contract work" (Martin, l977. Quoted in Carr, l984). As a result modern institutions of higher education are increasingly being influenced at the policy making and curricular planning levels by the demands of the wider community. The issue of the role of the state in determining the balance between social expenditures and other expenditures in national, economic and social developments remains central to the economics of education (Lyons, l979, page 415). The increasing dominant view of the social function of the university today is expressed by Bledstein (l976, page 289): The American university has served as a primary service organization, a professional service institution which has made possible the functions of many derivative institutions serving the middle class. The university has exerted a formative influence upon society as the matrix within which the culture of professionalism matured; as the center to which practitioners trace the theoretical basis of knowledge upon which they establish authority. The Role of Paradigms in Science For Baldridge (l97lb) governance is the process by which the university's destiny is shaped; it is the complex of structures and 109 processes that determines the critical decisions and sets the long- range policies. Baldridge further asserts that one of the most urgent needs is a theoretical framework that can unify isolated ideas and findings about academic governance. Without a unifying model facts about the university are fragmented and contribute little to an overall understanding. Copernicus (Kuhn, l957), once commented ~that astronomy was in a similar condition under the old Ptolemaic theory of the solar system: . . it is as though an artist were to gather the hands, feet, head, and other members for his images from diverse models, each part excellently drawn, but not related to a single body, and since they in no way match each other, the result would be a monster rather than a man (page l38). It is still Baldridge (l97lb, page 8) who asserts that although the idea of scientific models, or paradigms, is certainly not new, Thomas Kuhn's book entitled The Structure of Scientific Revolution has been a benchmark in the thinking of historians of science as they approach the problems of scientific advancement. Kuhn suggests that scientific enterprises occur within the bounds of certain conceptual frameworks, which he calls "paradigms." According to Kuhn's argument, science does not advance by piecemeal accumulation of facts, but instead major advances are related to conceptual revolutions, to critical shifts in intellectual frame- works, and to changes in the scientific paradigms. The scientific paradigm governs the thinking of a particular segment of the scien- tific community and serves as a conceptual framework within which thegroup's investigations occur. The paradigm becomes the governing 110 framework that defines and legitimizes the efforts of scientists working within this area. Organizational Paradigms Applied to the University The literature regarding organization and administration of higher education usually falls into three models: bureaucratic, collegial, and political. The bureaucratic model derived from the work of Max Weber. Baldridge (197lb, page 9) states that although well suited to the analysis of business and governmental organiza- tions, Weber's paradigm does not adequately account for what observers believe to be the unique nature of universities as organi- zations. Some of these observers turn therefore to the so-called collegial paradigm as a theoretical foundation for examining the universities. It was Baldridge (l97lb) who developed a new inter- pretation of university governance, with his political model. Table 2.3 presents these three models. Planning For Peterson and Uhl (1977), the diverse activities and decisions that go under the name of planning are critical to an institution's future. Virtually all those who write on the subject regard institutional goals as a first step in the planning process. For example, Cammack (l97l, pages 259-62) asserts that: the first step of a planning effort requires that a statement of assumptions about the future be developed (and that) the process of developing assumptions and specific goals related to these may be one of the more difficult points upon which to obtain accord. 111 .3.-. .3 .22. 83......- o... 3:. 2. a... .8 5...: 83.2... I... 8.23 "8.58 3......» .. 3832:. .u .33.... ... 2.1.8.. d 39.3.89 5... =8 8 2... 309.80 a... 28.... 2.333.. v..- 8.3.8.8 .8333... 05.5.. 5.33.. so. :8 "5.3-. .o 5.35..- ..55333 352.350 3 8.308 225.3893 9.9- uanconcoo .o Loco—2.8 .. .83. -933- .Sncoucou 5 as!!! :3 -9... «5 c. to... 3.3.30.9... .o act‘s—o»: 2.. .33.... 53.3- ... .3 .33.. 2.9.2.3.... 5 2 23.3.8835. v33 33:38 .83. .2322...- »o .3232...- “8.0:? icons-E3... 3.239- s 3...... 5233...... .8 3.2.3 Cal .339... 23.2.: 833.93.... 5.5! 33:: £8 .2358 38:8 .33... I... 1.3.339... co 0.5.9.3.. 38...: -2393 3 52:8- 28....2 all... 2.2.3 1:8 .00.. 3 v3.33... 3.3.2.3 .0 5.5.8 .5 .3 v3.5 “Pants .8205. .o 3.5.8 2...... a c. ‘32....- 2-[35- .- at; 225...... ..3£?:.3. .2. 3.39. 8.35 2:889 52.... to... .o 9.5!“. mail-on 7.8.332; 83.6.3 .. 3.8.. .3328 £85.... a... .82. 9.32:: not a... 58.2.8 8 2... 358.8 2.33.833... [3-28. 3.3.5. 3333.... 2.9.9323 2.2.9. .o .39. noun-.3835 33.38 ”Sula-L26 522....- ..Eo. 3.3. 233.... .3338 £9.32. a. 3.550 .83.... 39.3... 3.5.5... .8353»... 3.... 3:26.... 3.38.... 3.6.3 .35.. .o 3.3..- ..858 .5 an 92.9... -..8 3 .3 8:8 .3322. . 2r... .8:.-.§8§:l 8.38.. u. 5... . 3.88. 26...... .0 8235-23. "380.... 3.... -39. 39.....8 285-32»..- :83... 3:889 .393 .o «.6 83. .0 1059.95 331...... 3.2.5:... 5.2.28 no Lou-53:20. 3559... 532-3 “3.3.5. 28:09.3... .3395. 3 1....8 .5333. 8833- ".3... 83:33. 8 3.2.5 «338.3 09:03:... 33:2. 2. .2222... .8358... boo... .28. 3.5.8 "Do-5 2.3:. 5.8 “bola 96.3 :23... “D85 uu.Cc8 «I...» v..- 833 :23... 289.2,... 9... «23.33. 33.89... 333.95: 3.83.... 328 .o 3.3...- 3 a} 2'3: a. v2...» . 8.83.... lo... 3.39.. 8:20 .5338 but... 839.03. 7.8.30.9... 5.30 .9355... «In»? .3338 .3... .x .92... .x 33.. .3328 3.3.6. 33-3.... P.- no.u..o.. 3.. £29.- 8 S... "2.32:: c. 32.29 5298 3 2... 3838.... 3.3.5. "359...: .538 2.5:... .295. 8:21.539... 2.33.35:- .3.:.. v... as: -28 .2532! 3.35... .8: $9.558 .o 22:29 .2893... .33. 2.3.3.595 5.98 :2 .5 9.... 3 8... I v..- .Iu.ao..n 2....» e3 .83. -22 2. 26:... 3.8.7.5.. by» «Lilo-cal 3.35.8. 83350.0. “3.9.0 33.3.3 32.3-53.- uo coats—0). mug—agap- e... 5...: £3.53. .032. .38: 223.33.... .82.... a. sou-Lu 5.5%. 3...... 9.23.539... 39.5.93 .22 5.32353 .8330... .8 2.28 3.3.3.3.... 839...... v.35: «3.338.. 9.3.3.823 .3... .22....18338 .22.... .88 «.3: .lo. 733-... fool 3.22.3.5: 5.53.: sauna. .13. .5 2 88.8.... 53.5 2832.3 3.95323 3 3:2. .80 8 3 Sales. 3 or...» 232...: IE. 3.3! 02!... .5859 3...: 39.2.3.3 Rufus-23 79.5.3.3... "hug 82.! .mumnuzx53 "3.555525 ”:3 ”8::uuaxw . g; "wwuuagusum—uuo “as $5.2m 92 3.3.5.33 "532 out sung-.38 «gig—n58 3.52.3; 3.588... “:3 "2553.5 333 no In; "bu—.189 "mummy? 3.2.0 "was: ":3 3.3.38 3.28.. n.~ we!» I'll-'11! 3:52:09 535:5 no 388 was... 3 82.2.89 9. as: as. 112 The second step is to review past operations. The third step. . . is the clarification of goals, (which is) more than a matter of reading a statement of goals or purposes in the catalog. We are talking about broad institutional purposes which are opera- tionally evident in the functions of instruction, research, and public service. . . We are talking about fairly specific definitions of the types of character- istics or competencies that students are expected to acquire. . . We are talking about ends viewed for graduate or professional programs, for commitment to the liberal arts, for innovation. . . The subject of goals and planning, it can be assumed, is interconnected. The connection between such concepts becomes explicit in Micek and Arney's (l973) conception of "outcome-oriented planning." These authors suggest that “planning in higher educa- tion. . . can be improved by taking an "outcome-oriented (as opposed to a means-oriented) approach. . ." which involves the following three steps (page 5): (l) the goal setting step emphasizes the translation of and program goals, which often are broad and philosophical, into desired measurable outcomes terms. (2) The program selection step emphasizes an understand- ing of the expected outcomes of each alternative program being considered. . . The program. . . that most closely meets the desired outcomes can be identified (selected). (3) Program evaluation (the final step) stresses. . measurement of the actual outcomes that result from implementing programs. Did the program meet the established goals? With regards to goal setting and planning it is still authors Peterson and Uhl (l977) who assert that goal setting and planning are best regarded as separate processes. Goal setting is more political while planning is more technical. 113 Accountability Mortimer (1972) notes that the term accountability does not appear in the Education Index until June 1970. Peterson and Uhl (l977) note that evaluation as a measurement of goal-relevant per- formance, chiefly for the purpose of program improvement, began to permeate higher education in the late 19605, often along with the notions of planning, innovation, flexibility, and other elements of John Gardner's (1964) idea of institutional self-renewal. As a management control device, accountability seems to be widely used. As confidence in higher education is restored this term seems to be giving way to responsibility. Edward Suchman (l967), in an early and general treatise on evaluation practice, puts "identification of goals to be evaluated” first in a list of steps "essentialiin*evaluation". A blue-ribbon task force on evalua- tion (Task Force IV, l97l) began its recommendation to the Connecticut Commission for Higher Education as follows: Recommendation 1. Each institution within the state system of higher education should define its goals and functions in such terms as to make it possible to check whether the goals are being achieved, should reconsider its goals and functions periodically, and should change them as appropriate. . . Recommendation 2. Each institutional unit. . . should periodically evaluate, in the light of the goals and functions mentioned in Recommendation l, its inputs, its processes, and its performance, with evaluation of performance being of highest importance (pages l-2). and further: Recommendation 10. In justifying budget requests made to the state legislature, the Commission for Higher Education should coordinate efforts of the separate 114 institutions to develop, agree upon, and report realistic indices of value produced, including those which measure "value added," to the population being served (page 5). The Carnegie Commission (l973c) endorsed the notion of assessment of value added, as follows: "The quality of an institu- tion should be determined by what it does for the students it enrolls, not by the characteristics of its entering students. . ." (page 39). Peterson and Vale (l973) have outlined several strategies for assessing value added (institutional effectiveness) in multicampus systems, and Palola and Lehman (1976) have recently set forth a provocative framework for assessing program effectiveness and the attendant costs. The concept accountability for Mortimer (1972) indicates that: Determining goals and objectives is one of the primary requisites for establishing internal accountability (page 30). For Henry (1972): Accountability as a concept rests upon measurement of performance. To measure performance, one must begin with purposes. Purposes and objectives constitute the standard to which evaluation is calibrated. with- out a clearcut and specific statement of purpose, measurement is meaningless. . . Without maximum insti- tutional research capability, efforts to improve accountability will be seriously handicapped (page 289). Bowen (l974) asserts that: The six steps of a system of accountability are quite simple and straightforward. They are: to define, clarify, and order priorities among the objectives to allocate resources to methods of “production" that promise maximum returns in relation to these objectives; to measure the costs of these activities or programs; to evaluate their outcomes or products or results; to 115 relate costs and outcomes; and to report the results in appropriate form to governing boards, outside sources of financial support, faculty and administrative staff, and the general public (page 121). Each step in this process involves extraordinary feats of identification, measurement, and judgment . . . The process is bound to be difficult, expensive, and in the end subjective and judgmental. However, judgments can be informed and made more credible by systematic fact gathering and analysis. There is no valid reason why institutions should not clarify goals, gather evidence about costs and outcomes, and report the results of institutional evaluations to funding agencies and to the public. If institutions do not do these things, others will (page 2). Recent Development Edgar Faure et al (1972) says that "the physical, intellec- tual, emotional and ethical integration of the individual into a complete person is a broad definition of the fundamental aim of education". This essentially means a closer interaction between the affective components of a human being and academic learning. Recent development in society led planners and administra- tors to bring the curriculum towards vocational preparation and away from the humanities (Swartz, l977). After considering the objectives of higher education and its role in the socio-economic development, Sanyal (l982; Silberman, l978) analyses the relationship between higher education and the world of work, and makes various assertions. Work and education are connected. Higher education will have to find ways to train young people to meet the existing needs of the community, taking into account the objective need for skills, values, and ethics as well as manpower forecasts. Planning for higher 116 education should integrate informal and nonformal with formal pro- grams. The objective of higher education should include means of making persons educable rather than educated. Experience from indus- try should be taken into account, with the final objective of integrating institutions of education and institutions of employment. Until society is ready to recognize as "employment" any useful social role, higher education planning should emphasize aspects of graduate employability. Another interesting field of study has been in relation to women's role in higher education. Martin (l982) asserts that women have been traditionally under represented in the scholarship of the academic disciplines. The author examines the exclusion of women from philOSOphy of education both as subject who have written about education and as object of educational study and thought. Randour, et al (1982) present a recent, extensive review of the literature on women in higher education. The authors concluded that insofar enrollment is concerned from 1968 to l978 the percent- age of women aged 16 or older enrolled in school increased for every age group. Grant and Eiden (l980) assert that by contrast the percentage of 18- to 24-year-old men in the population enrolled in school declined dramatically--from 60.4 to 47.8 while the percentage of men in the school pOpulation aged 25 and over remained stable or increased only very slightly. Despite the increase in enrollment of women vis-a-vis men, entry into medical and legal fields of study and the unprecedented 117 numbers earning doctorates, "most women still earn their degrees in lower-paying, lower-status, female-intensive field§'(Randour, 1982). Nonetheless, there is an inverse relationship between the level of degree and the percentage of women earning degrees in that field. At higher-degree levels, fewer women are earning degrees. The most sizable gains, made by women are in the community college realm. As Randour (l982) stated: There are more women in two year colleges, more women in less well-funded public institutions, more women enrolled part-time, and more women achieving lower degree levels. We conclude that some women in higher education have achieved parity with men, but caution that most have not. The University as Center and Periphery Carnoy (l967) argues that although recent research in human resources has generated universal interest in education as a tool of economic develOpment, empirical results of such research have, in fact, been almost entirely restricted to highly developed economies. Carnoy further asserts that, rather than putting investment in educa- tion within the context of allocating scarce resources optimally, developing countries have tended to superimpose educational invest- ment decisions somewhat haphazardly on general development goals (pages 359-374). Analyzing the complexities and dilemmas of higher education, Altbach (1981) developed an empirical study concerning the relation- ship between universities in the industrialized world and in the ‘Fhird World. The author argues within a dependency theory framework, 118 suggesting that universities in the Third World find themselves at a disadvantage in the international knowledge network while at the same time playing a key role in their own societies (page 601). Altbach draws the distinction between the center-periphery concept, between educational institutions at the intellectual centers, that give directions, provide model, produce research for the entire academic system, and between universities at the periphery which tend merely to "copy developments from abroad, produce little that is original, and are generally not at the frontiers of knowledge" (page 602). Central institutions tend to be research-oriented, prestigious and part of the international knowledge system (large libraries, well- equipped laboratories, plentiful resources for research and graduate study) (page 602). Peripheral universities, on the other hand, act as "distributors of knowledge" with a large concentration on teach- ing as Opposed to research. They tend to be dependent for innovation and direction, on the center universities. Their facilities are less adequate, their academics less well qualified and less well paid. Altbach further asserts that centers and peripheries exist not only among nations but within national university systems, whereby a handful of universities set the academic tone for the rest. Speaking about the American system of higher education, Altbach maintains that: A small number of recognized central universities in the United States dominate the large majority of 119 universities. Relatively few institutions present alternative models or go in radically different directions. The current debate concerning the under- graduate curriculum is, not surprisingly, led by Harvard University. When Harvard gives its approval to a new trend, as it has done in the past with regard to legal and business education, other institutions generally follows. Further, the central universities receive an overwhelming proportion of research funds, have research-oriented faculty, and the like. The peripheral institutions not only follow, but they seldom blaze new trails in education even in the United States, where fiscal and other constraints are not so serious as in most Third World countries (page 603). In concluding his study, Altbach calls for a clear and realistic appraisal of the position of a national academic system in its international and regional context. He further points out that some universities can realistically try to build up excellence in some areas, while others may be best suited for knowledge trans- mission (page 6l7). Educational planners, at both the government and the academic levels, should also have a consciousness of the nature of the dependency relationship and decide whether to develOp new and more independent models. Altbach further asserts that: The research function of universities is very important. Even if it is possible to sponsor research in only a few areas, perhaps related to local economic or agricultural conditions and in fields that will foster a national culture, such develOpments will be useful (page 6l8). Linkages Between the University and the Community Several institutions have been established in the United States, whose purpose and mission feature a philosophical and programmatic objective of service to the community and fostering international understanding through education of students. One of 120 them is the Experiment in International Living, a pioneer institu- tion in international youth exchange programs, founded in 1932. Through its programs the Experiment encourages and educates people to be culturally sensitive and to act responsibly in the world com- munity by addressing basic human needs through a process of learn- ing that involves the whole person. The academic arm of the Experiment in International Living is the School for International Training which was founded in l964, to prepare needed professionals for international careers. The School for International Training is a senior college and graduate school, offering upper level university education resulting in a bachelor's degree in international studies, master's degree in international management, and a master of arts degree in teaching. In all its programs, the School for International Training heavily emphasizes current world issues and cross-cultural orienta- tion, fostering awareness and understanding amongst people from dif- ferent cultures, educating and promoting commitment in one's com- munity, society, and the world. The educational philosophy and approach of the School for International Training are based on the concept that effective action requires conceptual knowledge, practi- cal skills, and an ability to apply these in intercultural and international settings. Another institution, Florida International University, accord- ing to Pagano (l977) explored the linkages between a community of learners with a community of scholars. The university's primary 121 clientele is composed of adult graduates of community colleges and older continuing education adults who are self-supporting. The average age of the general student population is 28 years, the majority of students work full-time or part-time, are married or have substantial family responsibilities, and 60 percent attend classes after 5:00 p.m. (page 207). The university developed a learning environment as a response to the characteristics of the learning community. Florida International University offers full range of degree programs to students in the junior and senior years of undergraduate programs, as well as master's degree programs in a range of fields having in common the development of experts in academic and professional domains bearing directly on the needs of the larger community. Pagano asserts: As the newest university in the state system, it has two philosophical and programmatic objectives which rank equally with the education of students: Service to the community, and fostering greater understanding, learning and technical expertise in the international arena comprised by the Caribbean Islands and Latin America countries (page 206). The university's planners acknowledged and developed an early respect for the multiplicity of roles played by its potential student population. Such roles include: wage earner, spouse, parent, con- sumer, voter, community leader and taxpayer. Rather than expecting students to abdicate non-student roles, the university sought to Inake its 'traditional' courses accessible through new methods of delivery. Pagano further states: Such a highly individualized system has created radical changes in the roles of students, faculty members, 122 administrators, Deans, Chairpersons of academic units. The critical processes in which all are involved are the assessment of prior learning and the development of an educational contract (page 212). The student for example, becomes ”active initiator of educa- tional experiences, rather than passive recipient. The primary role of the faculty adviser is to assist and support the student in utilizing his or her own resources as well as those of the university in attaining specific learning objectives. While the student bears primary responsibility for identifying his own learning needs and the means by which he h0pes to attain them, the faculty adviser is charged with keeping the academic process. As Pagano further asserts: While the student is responsible for knowing how and what he prefers to learn, the faculty adviser is responsible for making sure the learning contract reflects appropriate learning modes to match specific content areas, that the size and scope of independent study projects is appropriate to the number of credits to be awarded, that the level of learning reflected in independent study projects will be consistent with the junior and senior years of college level work, and that the plan for learning is one that will yield assessable products on which to base the faculty adviser's recommendation, upon completion, that the student be certified for graduation (page 214). m This chapter presented the conceptual and empirical ground- ing of the research. The literature was reviewed in areas such as university goals and objectives, economics of education, sociology, organization, and administration of higher education. Such areas have, indeed, a bearing on the overall purpose of the study. The conceptual framework was drawn from the comprehensive review of the 123 literature, and it shed light to relevant theories for the analyses and description of data gathered from participants in university system, and their perception of goals of higher education. CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURES In order to analyze and describe perceptions of educational participants concerning university goals and objectives, the research utilized the distribution of questionnaire as the primary source for collecting data. This chapter describes the research design, ques- tions and hypotheses; it also describes the population and sample, theinstrumentation, pretest,in-country data collection, reliabi- lity, validity, and data analysis. A brief summary completes the chapter. Research Design The mode of the study was essentially descriptive. Sax (1968) maintains that descriptive research involves the collection of data for the purpose of describing conditions as they exist. Armore (1966) asserts that descriptive statistics provide methods to organize, summarize, and describe sets of data which represent the population. Descriptive analysis was used for that part of the research which could not be analyzed statistically. The open-ended portion of the questionnaire where the respondents commented about their perceptions of university education both actual ("is") and ideal ("should be"), was subjected to descriptive analysis, in order 124 125 to find out whether there was evidence of recurring statements in the data. Ary et a1 (1972), provide the base for descriptive studies when they assert that descriptive research studies are designed to obtain information concerning the current status of phenomena. For Van Dalen and Meyer (1962), one of the objectives of descriptive study is to determine the nature of prevailing conditions, practices and attitudes-~seeking accurate descriptions of activities, objects, processes and persons. For Isaac and Michael (1971), descriptive studies can make contribution to the advancement of knowledge. They assert that the purpose of survey studies are as follows: (a) to collect detailed factual information that describes existing phenomena. (b) to identify problems or justify current condi- tions and practices. (c) to make comparisons and evaluations. (d) to determine what others are doing with similar problems or situations and benefit from their experience in making future plans and decisions. Questions and Hypotheses The following research questions were investigated by the researcher: (1) How do all respondents (students, faculty members, and administrators), perceive and rank order the possible actual goals of university education? (2) How do all respondents (students, faculty members, and administrators), perceive and rank order the possible ideal goals of university education? (10) 126 How do students perceive and rank order the possible actual goals of university education? How do students perceive and rank order the possible ideal goals of university education? How do faculty members perceive and rank order the possible actual goals of university education? How do faculty members perceive and rank order the possible ideal goals of university education? How do administrators perceive and rank order the possible actual goals of university education? How do administrators perceive and rank order the possible ideal goals of university education? What are the differences that exist in the percep- tions of students, faculty members, and adminis- trators, concerning the actual goals of university education? What are the differences that exist in the percep- tions of students, faculty members, and adminis- trators, concerning the ideal goals of university education? The following null hypotheses were developed, specifically for use in this study: There are no significant differences in perceptions of students and faculty members, with regards to the actual possible goals of university education. There are no significant differences in perceptions of students and faculty members, with regards to the ideal possible goals of university education. There are no significant differences in perceptions of students and administrators, with regards to the actual possible goals of university education. There are no significant differences in perceptions of students and administrators, with regards to the ideal possible goals of university education. There are no significant differences in perceptions of faculty members and administrators, with regards to the actual possible goals of university education. 127 HO : There are no significant differences in perceptions 6 of faculty members and administrators, with regards to the ideal possible goals of university education. Population and Sample The population of the research was composed of students, faculty members, and administrators of the Federal University of Paraiba, throughout its seven campuses. The State of Paraiba is located in the northeast part of Brazil. Appendix A shows the map of Brazil, with contours of her various states. The state of Paraiba is shaded in the map for rapid identification. Appendix 8 presents the map of the State of Paraiba, highlighting locations of the seven campuses of the Federal University, setting of the research. The sample consisted of N = 450 members of the three distinct groups selected to participate in the research. The survey ques- tionnaires were distributed to university students (N = 150), faculty members (N = 150), and administrators (N = 150). The returned questionnaires represented 76.22% of the total distributed or 343 useful survey questionnaires, comprised the operational popu- lation of the research. Instrumentation A survey questionnaire inspired and patterned after the Institutional Goals Inventory (IGI) (Peterson, 1970, 1973a, 1973b, 1973c, 1974b), was developed as a tool fkn~data gathering. The survey's design was also based on a format which was developed by Gross and Grambsch (1968) and used extensively by the Educational Testing 128 Service (ETS). The questionnaires were distributed personally in face-to-face situation to the three groups, students, faculty mem- bers, and administrators, of the Federal University of Paraiba, in order to assess their perception of current needs of higher educa- tion. The questionnaire was divided in two parts. Part one dealt with demographic questions related to the characteristics of parti- cipants in the research. Part two consisted of 36 possible goals for higher education. The questionnaire was printed out profes- sionally and contained 8 pages (Appendix E). The front page of the questionnaire was a letter signed by the researcher, addressed to the respondents,providing the objective of the instrument, and ask- ing the respondents participation. The respondents were here informed of the strict confidentiality of which the data gathered would incur. A letter in English, signed by the researcher's academic committee chairman, was inserted in the bottom of the page. This letter was also addressed to the respondents, requesting their time to respond the questionnaire. The front page of the survey used a Michigan State University letterhead, where it appears also College of Education, Department of Educational Administration, which contributed considerably to make the final printed version of the survey questionnaire very clear, with a professional look, and very impressive. Page 2 contained instructions on how to fill out the ques- tionnaire in both parts. The 36 possible goals for higher education 129 were to be answered in two ways. One representing the respondent's perception about what the current educational system "is", and, then, what it "should be”. An example was provided as follows: 1. ACTUAL: How important is the goal of university education at the present time? 2. IDEAL: How important should the goal of univer- sity education be? For each of the goal statements appearing in the question- naire, the respondents were asked to check the degree of importance for higher educational development on a five point Likert scale. Response choices were as follows: (1) 0f no importance; (2) 0f low importance; (3) 0f medium importance; (4) 0f high importance; (5) 0f extremely high importance. Respondents were asked to answer the goal statements both in terms of perceived existing goals and goal preferences ("is” and "should be"). Page 3 contained the demographic information on the respon- dents, such as sex, age, academic position, etc. Respondents were asked to circle a number which would correspond to their category. Pages 4, 5, 6, and 7 contained the 36 possible goals of higher education. A space on page 7, was provided for possible objectives numbers 37,38, 39, and 40. The respondents were asked to write here their own objectives for higher education, different of the ones presented by the researcher. Page 8 asked the respondents to critically react to the objectivity and clarity of the survey questionnaire. Also, the respondents were asked to comment and present suggestions about the 130 study, and their feelings about university education as they per- ceive it in their own reality. The open-ended portion of the ques- tionnaire allowed the respondents to answer freely and fully in their own words and their own frame of reference, presenting their perceptions about goals of university education. Pretest The questionnaire was developed specifically for the study. It was submitted to the researcher's Academic Committee for apprecia- tion and suggestions for upgrading and improvement. After incor- porating the suggestions, the questionnaire was translated into Portuguese language and was pretested in October 1984, with a group of Brazilian graduate students at Michigan State University. A total of N = 27 survey questionnaires were pretested. A letter explaining the purpose of the pretest study was mailed, asking the selected participants to complete the questionnaire, and their written comment on any item, including clarity of the Portuguese language (Appendix C). Another letter signed by one member of the researcher's academic committee was also sent along, reiterating the objective of the pretest and eliciting cooperation (Appendix D). A stamped, addressed envelope was provided for the respondents to return the questionnaire to the researcher on, or before October 10, 1984. A high response rate, over 80%, was obtained, since N = 24 respondents returned the questionnaire with comments and suggestions. Based on the suggestions received the questionnaire was reworked and again submitted to the Guidance Committee members for approval, 131 prior to being sent to be professionally printed as a final version. At this time, the final pretested Portuguese version of the survey was translated into English to be part integrant of the research (Appendix E). The high response rate brought a wealth of data which needed to be organized, analyzed, and reported in a systematic manner. The pretest study in its entirety proved to be a valid and reliable exercise, concurring with Babbie's (l973) assertion that pretest refers to initial testing of one or more aspects of the study design. It was very contributive to the overall organization of the study. It also enhanced the researcher's experience and led him to antici- pate and budget for possible future drawbacks. In—Country Data Collection The data for the research were collected in Brazil, at the Federal University of Paraiba. The questionnaires were administered in face-to-face contact situations with students, faculty members, and administrators, throughout the seven campuses of the institution. In this direct contact the investigator was able to personally pre- sent the questionnaire to the respondents, explaining the purpose and significance of the study, clarifying points, answering questions the participants asked, and talking about the confidentiality the answers would be treated. In the in-country data collection, the researcher was immersed in the task of extended observations with the purpose of collecting valid and reliable information. He was in a vantage 132 position in the setting, interacting with university participants, learning their aspirations and perceptions, which would not surface had the study relied solely on mailing questionnaires. The existing socio-economic inequalities emerged and were observed. Malinowski (1922) argues that ethnography depends on real scientific aims, on living right among natives, and on using a variety of special methods of collecting, manipulating, and fixing evidence. Purely descrip- tive studies deal with characteristics, usages, social and political conditions of peoples irrespective of their possible relations or affinities. The French writer M.de Rosny (Keane, 1896) gives an unlimited scope to ethnography, declaring that it results from "la synthEse de toutes les sciences qui ont pour but de rechercher 1a mission de 1'homme et ses destinées.“ The Rector of the Federal University of Paraiba was contacted with regard to the research activity, which took place in December, 1984. The Rector provided a letter to the researcher, introducing him to the groups (Appendix F), and authorizing him to carry on his duties in the university setting. The operational population of the research consisted of N = 343 responses brought back to the United States with the researcher, for computer analysis of data at the Computer Center of Michigan State University. According to Babbie (1973, page 165): . a response rate of at least 50 percent is adequate for analysis and reporting. A response rate of at least 60 percent is good. And a response rate of 70 percent or more is very good. The reader should bear in mind, how- ever, that these are only rough guides, they have no 133 statistical basis, and a demonstrated lack of response bias is far more important than a high response rate. Reliability The American Psychological Association (1974) has defined reliability as "the degree to which the results of measurement are attributable to systematic sources of variance (true variance)". The sources of variance, which are classified as systematic and random, are determined by one's conception of reliability and will determine the Operational definition of reliability for a specific study. Peterson and Uhl (1977) state that different definitions of reliability lead to different procedures for measuring reliability, which may provide quite different estimates. For example, an instru- ment may possess high test-retest reliability (stability) and may have rather low internal consistency (homogeneity in item content), even though both are measures of reliability. The difference is that, in a test-retest situation, the consistency of the total score over time is measured, while, for internal consistency, the consis- tency of responses to individual items is measured. Validity The validity of an instrument indicates whether it measures what it purports to measure. Although there are numerous procedures for assessing validity, they are frequently classified into the general areas of content, criterion-related, and construct validity. The three have been described by the American Psychological Associa- tion (1966, pages 12-13; 1974, pages 25-31), as follows: 134 Content validity is demonstrated by showing how well the content of the test samples the class of situations or subject matter about which conclusions are to be drawn . . . Criterion-related validity is demonstrated by comparing the test scores with one or more external variables considered to pro- vide a direct measure of the characteristic or behavior in question Construct validity is evaluated by investigating what quali- ties a test measures, that is, by determining the degree to which certain explanatory concepts or constructs account for performance on the test. Data Analysis Statistical and descriptive data were collected. Both of them were used for the analysis and explanation of the findings. A high return rate of the survey questionnaires, as seen in Table 4.1, prompted the researcher to utilize a large mainframe computer (Cyber l70/750)for data analysis. To quantify the data, each response category on the rating scale was assigned an arbitrary value. The response "of no importance" was assigned a value of l; the response "of low importance" a value of 2; "of medium importance" a value of 3; "of high importance" a value of 4; "of extremely high importance" a value of 5. To proceed with computation of mean scores each goal classification, for each individual, was derived by summing the item scores for each individual and dividing by the number of items answered. All responses were coded for key punch (IBM cards), 135 use and analysis. Statistical techniques were used to analyze the survey data, within groups and across groups consideration of goal rankings, and measure of congruence across and within groups. The survey data were analyzed in order to compare the ranking of items of students, faculty members, and administrators, to observe the significant differences, if there were any, in their perceptions of what education "is" and "should be". The open-ended questionnaire presented a set of comments by the three group members. The descrip- tive comments gathered from the survey questionnaires were analyzed with the objective of identification of common, or recurring responses. This procedure was done in a systematic manner and it was used as supplementary data in the analysis and explanation of the statistical data. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (§P§§)_(Nie, et al, 1975) computer program was utilized to analyze the data. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to test significant differences for all 36 goal statements within the total group and subgroup tables. The level of significance for the rejection of the null hypotheses was set at the .05 alpha level. The .05 level of significance is a commonly accepted one, according to Borg (1979, pages 424-425). According to Walpole (1974) the ANOVA is a method of splitting the variance into more meaningful components that measure different sources of variation. This test was selected because most of the commonly used statistical tests assume variance to be roughly equal and because the researcher's hypotheses concerns the variability of samples means. 136 The statistical data from the ANOVA was used to perform the Scheffée test, which is a post-hoc multiple—comparison of means. The objective for performing the Scheffée test was to examine which pairs of comparisons were significantly different. Summar The primary purpose of the research was to analyze and describe perceptions of Brazilian educational participants concern- ing university goals. Thus far, the chapters have presented procedural steps conceputalized and undertaken in conducting the research. The principal procedures adopted dealt with qualitative and quantitative research. The next chapter will present the data analysis and the findings of the study. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF DATA This chapter contains a detailed analysis of data, and it is organized and presented through the display of tables. This presentation is comprised of four general areas as follows: (1) demographic information (2) perceptions of the respondents concerning goals and objectives (3) goals written by the respondents (4) comments written by the respondents Demographic Information The population of the research consisted of students, fac- ulty members, and administrators of the Federal University of Paraiba, in its seven campuses. The sample consisted of N = 450 members of the three distinct groups selected to participate in the study. The returned response was N = 343, or 76.22 percent. The distribution is presented in the following Tables 4.1 and 4.2: Table 4.2 presents totals of the questionnaires returns, by campus and by groups: Tables 4.3, 4.4 and 4.5 list for the respondents their years in the categories of students, faculty members, and administrators. They are presented as follows. 137 138 TABLE 4.1 DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSES BY GROUP GROUP N PERCENT Students 147 42.9 Faculty members 106 30.9 Administrators 90 26.2 TOTALS 343 100.0 139 TABLE 4.2 REPORT OF RETURNS ON EACH CAMPUS CAMPUS LOCATION STUDENTS FACULTY ADMINISTRATORS TOTAL I .3030 Pessoa 57 44 41 142 II Campina Grande 14 25 34 73 III Areia 2 3 4 9 IV Bananeiras 9 4 , 3 16 V Cajazeiras 35 13 4 52 VI Sousa 27 5 1 33 VII Patos 3 12 3 18 TOTALS N = 147 N = 106 N = 90 N = 343 140 TABLE 4.3 YEARS IN THE CATEGORY AS STUDENTS YEARS NUMBER OF PERCENT OF RESPONDENTS GROUP Up to 1 16 10.9 1 to 2 24 16.3 2 to 3 17 11.6 3 to 4 33 22.4 4 to 5 14 9.6 6 to 10 9 6.1 11 to 20 24 16.3 Above 21 4 2.7 Missing 6 4.1 TOTALS 147 100.0 141 TABLE 4.4 YEARS IN THE CATEGORY AS FACULTY MEMBERS YEARS NUMBER OF PERCENT OF RESPONDENTS GROUP Up to l 7 6.6 1 to 2 7 6.6 2 to 3 5 4.7 3 to 4 4 3.8 4 to 5 17 16.0 6 to 10 35 33.0 11 to 20 22 20.8 Above 21 7 6.6 Missing 2 1.9 TOTALS 106 100.0 142 TABLE 4.5 YEARS IN THE CATEGORY AS ADMINISTRATORS YEARS NUMBER OF PERCENT OF RESPONDENTS GROUP Up to 1 11 12.2 1 to 2 14 15.6 2 to 3 10 11.1 3 to 4 11 12.2 4 to 5 9 10.0 6 to 10 18 20.0 11 to 20 11 12.2 Above 21 5 5.6 Missing l 1.1 TOTALS 90 100.0 143 Of the respondents, 51.9 percent were male, and 47.2 per- cent female. Table 4.6 shows the overall distribution of respondents in terms of sex, by groups. TABLE 4.6 SEX OF THE RESPONDENTS, BY GROUP, WITH THE PERCENTAGE AND TOTAL SEX STUDENT FACULTY ADMINISTRATOR TOTAL PERCENTAGE Male 57 62 59 178 51.9 Female 89 44 29 162 47.2 Missing 1 - 2 3 .9 TOTALS 147 106 90 343 100.0 144 As for age, 82.8 percent of the respondents were below 44 years old, and 15.5 percent were above. Table 4.7 displays the distribution by groups. TABLE 4.7 AGE OF THE RESPONDENTS, BY GROUP, WITH PERCENTAGE AND TOTAL AGE STUDENT FACULTY ADMINISTRATOR TOTAL PERCENTAGE 17-24 87 3 - 90 26.2 25-44 53 84 57 194 56.6 45-64 6 18 27 51 14.9 Above 65 - l l 2 .6 Missing 1 - 5 6 1.7 TOTALS 147 106 90 343 100.0 145 Of the respondents there were 49.0 percent single and 48.1 percent married. Table 4.8 presents the marital status by group. TABLE 4.8 MARITAL STATUS OF THE RESPONDENTS, BY GROUP, HITH PERCENTAGE AND TOTAL MARITAL STATUS STUDENT FACULTY ADMINISTRATOR TOTAL PERCENTAGE Married 33 61 71 165 48.1 Single 110 42 16 168 49.0 Other 3 3 3 9 2.6 Missing 1 - - l 3 TOTALS 147 106 90 343 100.0 146 Of the faculty members and administrators respondents, 13.8 percent hold full professorship position, 21.4 percent are listed as adjunct professor, 50.0 percent are employed as assistant pro- fessor, and 11.2 percent work as auxiliary professor. A total of 3.6 percent listed other position category, when responding to this item. Table 4.9 presents the distribution of the overall academic positions held by the respondents. TABLE 4.9 ACADEMIC POSITION OF FACULTY MEMBERS AND ADMINISTRATORS, WITH TOTAL AND PERCENTAGE POSITION FACULTY ADMINISTRATOR TOTAL PERCENTAGE Full Professor 10 17 27 13.8 Adjunct Professor 16 26 42 21.4 Assistant Professor 58 4O 98 50.0 Auxiliar Professor l9 3 22 11.2 Other 3 4 7 3.6 TOTALS 106 90 196 100.0 147 The academic discipline of interest of the respondents is shown in Table 4 ACADEMIC DISCIPLINE OF INTEREST OF RESPONDENTS, .10. TABLE 4.10 BY GROUP, WITH TOTALS AND PERCENTAGE DISCIPLINE STUDENT FACULTY ADMINISTRATOR TOTAL PERCENTAGE Economics 7 8 6 21 6.1 Administration 13 13 9 35 10.2 Education 21 10 8 39 11.4 Engineering 15 4 9 28 8.2 Mathematics 2 6 6 14 4.1 Physics 1 9 6 16 4.7 Chemistry 3 1 5 9 2.6 Technology 5 7 7 19 5.5 Art/Humanity 11 10 5 26 7.6 Social Sciences 24 16 15 55 16.0 Biology 40 15 9 64 18.6 Other 3 7 5 15 4.4 Missing 2 - - 2 .6 TOTALS 147 106 90 343 100.0 148 In terms of work condition, 87.7 percent of the respondents are full time employees. It should be noted that those hired as full time may not, legally, accept job employment in another enter- prise while affiliated with the university. Of the respondents 8.2 percent are employed under 40 hours work condition, and 4.1 hold 20 hours work commitment. Table 4.11 depicts this distribution by group. TABLE 4.11 WORK CONDITION OF FACULTY MEMBERS AND ADMINISTRATORS, WITH TOTALS AND PERCENTAGE CONDITION OF WORK FACULTY ADMINISTRATOR TOTAL PERCENTAGE Full time* 87 85 172 87.7 40 HOURS 11 5 16 8.2 20 hours 8 - 8 4.1 TOTALS 106 90 196 100.0 *Full time employees may not, legally, accept job employment in another enterprise. 149 Of the administrators respondents, 46.7 percent hold depart- ment chairmanship position, 23.3 percent occupy themselves in the Master Degree programs, and 16.7 percent are directors. Table 4.12 shows the characteristics of their occupations in more detail. TABLE 4.12 OCCUPATION OF ADMINISTRATORS AND PERCENTAGE JOB OCCUPATION ADMINISTRATOR PERCENTAGE Department Chairman 42 46.7 Master Degree Coordinator 21 23.3 Director 15 16.7 Pro-Rector 6 6.7 Vice-Rector 1 1.1 Rector 1 1.1 Other 4 4.4 TOTALS 90 100.0 150 Perceptions of the Respondents Concerning Goals and Objectives This section portrays various tables concerning perceptions of the respondents with regards to the 36 possible university goals in the questionnaire. The tables will display both the perceived and the preferred goals. Tables will be shown for the three groups combined as well as the individual groups. The means and standard deviations for each goal statement are presented in summarizing form. Means and standard deviations are calculated directly from the Likert scale, the five point response distributions, excluding missing data, or omits. The closer the goal statement mean is to 5.0, the greater the importance attached to the goal by the group in question. Likewise, the higher the standard deviation the greater the disparities of disagreement within the group regarding the importance of the goal statement in question. Following this rationale, it is significant to note that the relatively low standard deviation scores of the preferred ("should be") responses indicate greater group consensus regarding the importance of the individual goal statement. Perceptions of the Three Groups Concerning Actual Goals Research question number one asked: How do all respondents (students, faculty members, and administrators), perceive and rank order the possible actual goals of university education? 151 Table 4.13 shows the perceptions of all respondents concern- ing actual goal statements in rank order, means, and standard deviation. TABLE 4.13 RANK ORDER OF PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE OF THE ACTUAL GOALS BY ALL RESPONDENTS GOAL NUMBER GOAL STATEMENT RANK MEAN 8.0. 16 To develop educational programs geared to new and emerging career fields, like computer science/informatics. 1 2.342 1.077 7 To provide vocational and academic counseling to the students. 2 2.339 1.197 3 To provide training opportunities and skilled manpower for local area busi- ness, industry and government. 3 2.300 1.157 35 To develop a university system whose academic credits can be transferred to other universities. 4 2.296 1.109 1 To provide opportunities for adult education in the local area. 5 2.279 1.072 5 To facilitate involvement of faculty members in neighborhood and community service activity. 6 2.251 1.073 4 To facilitate involvement of students in neighborhood and community service activity. 7 2.220 1.132 2 To provide retraining opportunities for professionals whose job skills have become out of date. 8 2.203 1.094 19 To provide training which prepares students to function effectively as members of the community. 9 2.169 1.102 152 TABLE 4.13 (continued) RANK ORDER OF PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE OF THE ACTUAL GOALS BY ALL RESPONDENTS GOAL NUMBER GOAL STATEMENT RANK MEAN .D. 33 To emphasize lifelong education as priority for future professional success of the students. 10 2.169 .176 13 To develop a university where students and professors can constantly have oppor- tunities to interact and meet informally. 11 2.138 .058 34 To attend to the education needs of the community where the university is located. 12 2.137 .026 14 To provide students with various avenues to reach success in their professional careers. 13 2.134 .199 26 To realistically prepare students for the job market. 14 2.116 .081 32 To remove economic barriers to university education. 15 2.116 .193 36 To develop a policy of admissions of students that are prepared for university work. 16 2.115 .140 12 To confer equal prestige to academic as well as professional programs. 17 2.096 .023 30 To develop a university which Offers both academic and professional programs to serve the needs of students and community. 18 2.089 .075 11 To provide a diversified and flexible cur- riculum that reflects experiential learning which allows sts. dev. as per indv. needs. 19 2.088 .164 28 To use the university as the educational and socio-cultural center of the community. 20 2.087 .048 153 TABLE 4.13 (continued) RANK ORDER OF PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE OF THE ACTUAL GOALS BY ALL RESPONDENTS GOAL NUMBER GOAL STATEMENT RANK MEAN .D. 31 To remove geographical barriers to university education. 21 2.079 .095 22 To provide educational programs relevant to the evolving interest of the community. 22 2.078 .023 21 Implement and better the university- business sector with regard to future employment to graduating students. 23 2.062 .128 8 To help students identify their own personal goals. 24 2.061 .165 20 To offer educational opportunity for all segments of the people to fulfill econo- mic and social potential. 25 2.058 .166 10 To offer developmental or remedial programs in basic skills in Portuguese (Reading and Writing). Math, etc. 26 2.055 .161 23 To utilize the university for the study of community problems. 27 2.050 .077 18 To provide a flexible curriculum that responds to the changing needs of society. 28 2.049 .081 15 To emphasize lifelong education. 29 2.024 .088 17 To provide relevant learning experience that reflects the needs of the individual. 30 2.022 .029 27 To use local resources to solve local problems. 31 2.019 .032 154 TABLE 4.13 (continued) RANK ORDER OF PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE OF THE ACTUAL GOALS BY ALL RESPONDENTS GOAL NUMBER GOAL STATEMENT RANK MEAN 5.0. 25 To constantly promote educational innovation to attend the needs of society. 32 2.015 1.092 29 To provide learning activities for students of varied abilities and ambitions. 33 1.984 1.028 9 To assist students in exploring various alternative careers. 34 1.939 1.139 24 To utilize universities to plan projects of community betterment, together with branches of the local administration. 35 1.922 1.054 6 To include local leaders in the planning of university education programs that will affect the local community. 36 1.886 1.058 low priority. Clearly, the respondents perceive the actual goals as having (i = 2.342). The average mean ratings range from (i = Perceptions of the Three Groups Concerning Ideal Goals Research question number two asked: How do all respondents (students, faculty members, and administrators), perceive and rank order the possible ideal goals of university education? 1.886) to 155 Table 4.14 shows the perceptions of all respondents concern- ing ideal goal statements in rank order, means, and standard devia- tion. TABLE 4.14 RANK ORDER OF PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE OF THE IDEAL GOALS BY ALL RESPONDENTS GOAL NUMBER GOAL STATEMENT RANK MEAN 5.0. 36 To develop a policy of admissions of students that are prepared for univer- sity work. 1 4.439 .808 33 To emphasize lifelong education as priority for future professional success of the students. 2 4.379 .789 14 To provide students with various avenues to reach success in their professional careers. 3 4.364 .784 7 To provide vocational and academic counseling to the students. 4 4.353 .749 26 To realistically prepare students for the job market. 5 4.339 .790 30 To develop a university which offers both academic and professional programs to serve the needs of students and community. 6 4.328 .748 32 To remove economic barriers to university education. 7 4.328 .807 11 To provide a diversified and flexible cur- riculum that reflects experiential learning which allows sts. dev. as per indv. needs. 8 4.310 .774 4 To facilitate involvement of students in neighborhood and community service activity 9 4.298 .702 15 To emphasize lifelong education. 10 4.289 .876 156 TABLE 4.14 (continued) RANK ORDER OF PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE OF THE IDEAL GOALS BY ALL RESPONDENTS GOAL NUMBER GOAL STATEMENT RANK MEAN S.D. 25 To constantly promote educational innova- tion to attend the needs of society. 11 4.265 .760 24 To utilize universities to plan projects of community betterment, together with branches of the local administration. 12 4.264 .886 28 To use the university as the educational and socio-cultural center of the com- munity. 13 4.262 .784 13 To develop a university where students and professors can constantly have oppor- tunities to interact and meet informally. 14 4.260 .789 34 To attend to the educational needs of the community where the university is located. 15 4.256 .810 18 To provide a flexible curriculum that responds to the changing needs of society. 16 4.255 .801 To facilitate involvement of faculty mem- bers in neighborhood and community ser- vice activity. 17 4.245 .846 21 Implement and better the university- business sector with regard to future employment to graduating students. 18 4.238 .870 To help students identify their own personal goals. 19 4.225 .876 23 To utilize the university for the study of community problems. 20 4.223 .858 19 To provide training which prepares stu- dents to function effectively as members of the community. 21 4.221 .830 157 TABLE 4.14 (continued) RANK ORDER OF PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE OF THE IDEAL GOALS BY ALL RESPONDENTS GOAL NUMBER GOAL STATEMENT RANK MEAN S.D. 16 To develop educational programs geared to new and emerging career fields, like computer science/informatics. 22 4.207 .819 22 To provide educational programs relevant to the evolving interest of the community. 23 4.188 .793 9 To assist students in exploring various alternative careers. 24 4.174 .886 35 To develOp a university system whose academic credits can be transferred to other universities. 25 4.171 .889 3 To provide training opportunities and skilled manpower for local area business, industry and government. 26 4.167 .841 20 To offer educational opportunity for all segments of the people to fulfill econo- mic and social potential. 27 4.148 .827 1 To provide opportunities for adult educa- tion in the local area. 4 28 4.123 .807 27 To use local resources to solve local problems. 29 4.099 .843 31 To remove geographical barriers to university education. 30 4.093 .835 2 To provide retraining opportunities for professionals whose job skills have become out of date. 31 4.047 .922 12 To confer equal prestige to academic as well as professional programs. 32 4.037 .788 158 TABLE 4.14 (continued) RANK ORDER OF PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE OF THE IDEAL GOALS BY ALL RESPONDENTS GOAL NUMBER GOAL STATEMENT RANK MEAN S.D. 17 To provide relevant learning experience that reflects the needs of the individual. 33 4.037 .813 29 To provide learning activities for stu- dents of varied abilities and ambitions. 34 3.965 .914 10 To offer developmental or remedial pro- grams in basic skills in Portuguese (Reading and Writing). Math, etc. 35 3.935 1.038 6 To include local leaders in the planning of university education programs that will affect the local community. 36 3.829 1.045 As can be seen in Table 4.14 the respondents perceive the ideal goals as having top priority. All goals are ranked above "Of medium importance". The average mean ratings range from (i = 3.829) to (i = 4.439). Perceptions of Students Concerning_Actua1 Goals Research question number three asked: How do students perceive and rank order the possible actual goals of university education? Table 4.15 shows the perceptions of students concerning actual goal statements in rank order, means, and standard deviation. 159 TABLE 4.15 RANK ORDER OF PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE OF THE ACTUAL GOALS BY STUDENTS GOAL NUMBER GOAL STATEMENT RANK MEAN To provide vocational and academic counseling to the students. 2.584 1.375 To provide opportunities for adult education in the local area. 2.571 1.206 To provide training opportunities and skilled manpower for local area busi- ness, industry and government. 2.504 1.357 10 To offer developmental or remedial programs in basic skills in Portuguese (Reading and Writing). Math, etc. 2.459 1.303 16 To develop educational programs geared to new and emerging career fields, like computer science/informatics. 2.451 1.252 19 To provide training which prepares students to function effectively as members of the community. 2.439 1.234 ()1 To facilitate involvement of faculty members in neighborhood and community service activity. 2.422 1.231 To facilitate involvement of students in neighborhood and community service activity 2.410 1.356 To provide retraining opportunities for professionals whose job skills have become out of date. 2.400 1.198 35 To develop a university system whose academic credits can be transferred to other universities. 10 2.390 1.312 33 To emphasize lifelong education as priority for future professional success of the students. 11 2.382 1.372 160 TABLE 4.15 (continued) RANK ORDER OF PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE OF THE ACTUAL GOALS BY STUDENTS GOAL NUMBER GOAL STATEMENT RANK MEAN S.D. 11 To provide a diversified and flexible cur- riculum that reflects experiential learning which allows sts. dev. as per indv. needs. 12 2.379 1.349 14 To provide students with various avenues to reach success in their professional careers. 13 2.343 1.431 36 To develop a policy of admissions of stu- dents that are prepared for university work. 14 2.343 1.297 12 To confer equal prestige to academic as well as professional programs. 15 2.307 1.216 15 To emphasize lifelong education. 16 2.301 1.243 20 To offer educational opportunity for all segments of the people to fulfill economic and social potential. 17 2.287 1.333 22 To provide educational programs relevant to the evolving interest of the community. 18 2.276 1.210 34 To attend to the educational needs of the community where the university is located. 19 2.269 1.209 32 To remove economic barriers to university education. 20 2.268 1.380 8 To help students identify their own per- sonal goals. 21 2.267 1.311 13 To develop a university where students and professors can constantly have oppor- tunities to interact and meet informally. 22 2.256 1.210 26 To realistically prepare students for the job market. 23 2.248 1.253 161 TABLE 4.15 (continued) RANK ORDER OF PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE OF THE ACTUAL GOALS BY STUDENTS GOAL NUMBER GOAL STATEMENT RANK MEAN .D. 30 To develop a university which offers both academic and professional programs to serve the needs of students and community. 24 2.241 .281 9 To assist students in exploring various alternative careers. 25 2.219 .321 18 To provide a flexible curriculum that responds to the changing needs of society. 26 2.201 .240 21 Implement and better the university-busi- ness sector with regard to future employ- ment to graduating students. 27 2.190 .375 31 To remove geographical barriers to univer- sity education. 28 2.180 .247 6 To include local leaders in the planning of university education programs that will affect the local community. 29 2.168 .210 17 To provide relevant learning experience that reflects the needs of the individual. 30 2.167 .186 27 To use local resources to solve local problems. 31 2.154 .198 28 To use the university as the educational and socio-cultural center of the community. 32 2.149 .254 29 To provide learning activities for students of varied abilities and amibitions. 33 2.148 .181 25 To constantly promote educational innova- tion to attend the needs of society. 34 2.127 .289 23 To utilize the university for the study of community problems. 35 2.112 .290 24 To utilize universities to plan projects of community betterment, together with branches of the local administration. 36 1.992 .274 ments as having low priority. medium importance". to (x = 162 The students respondents perceive the 36 actual goal state- 2.584). Perceptions of Students Concerning Ideal Goals Research question number four asked: The average mean ratings range from (x = How do students perceive and rank order the possible ideal goals of university education? Table 4.16 shows the perceptions of students concerning The goals are all ranked below "Of 1.992) ideal goal statements in rank order, means, and standard deviation. TABLE 4.16 RANK ORDER OF PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE OF THE IDEAL GOALS BY STUDENTS GOAL NUMBER GOAL STATEMENT RANK MEAN 5.0. 14 To provide students with various avenues to reach success in their professional careers. 1 4.550 .723 33 To emphasize lifelong education as prio- rity for future professional success of the students. 2 4.514 .776 30 To develop a university which offers both academic and professional programs to serve the needs of students and community. 3 4.507 .737 15 To emphasize lifelong education. 4 4.417 .850 36 To develop a policy of admissions of stu- dents that are prepared for university work. 5 4.413 .877 11 To provide a diversified and flexible cur- riculum that reflects experiential learning which allows sts. dev. as per indv. needs. 6 4.399 .779 163 TABLE 4.16 (continued) RANK ORDER OF PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE OF THE IDEAL GOALS BY STUDENTS GOAL NUMBER GOAL STATEMENT RANK MEAN S.D. 7 To provide vocational and academic counseling to the students. 7 4.397 .810 35 To develop a university system whose academic credits can be transferred to other universities. 8 4.361 .865 8 To help students identify their own personal goals. 9 4.356 .859 20 To offer educational opportunity for all segments of the peOple to fulfill econo- mic and social potential. 10 4.348 .837 32 To remove economic barriers to univer- sity education. 11 4.346 .838 9 To assist students in exploring various alternative careers. 12 4.344 .839 4 To facilitate involvement of students in neighborhood and community service acti- vity. 13 4.336 .800 34 To attend to the educational needs of the community where the university is located. 14 4.328 .839 1 To provide opportunities for adult educa- tion in the local area. 15 4.311 .717 3 To provide training opportunities and skilled manpower for local area business, industry and government. 16 4.280 .823 26 To realistically prepare students for the job market. 17 4.276 .904 13 To develop a university where students and professors can constantly have oppor- tunities to interact and meet informally. 18 4.232 .907 164 TABLE 4516 (continued) RANK ORDER OF PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE OF THE IDEAL GOALS BY STUDENTS GOAL NUMBER GOAL STATEMENT RANK MEAN S.D. 21 Implement and better the university- business sector with regard to future employment to graduating students. 19 4.230 .911 25 To constantly promote educational innova- tion to attend the needs of society. 20 4.228 .834 19 To provide training which prepares students to function effectively as members of the community. 21 4.225 .896 24 To utilize universities to plan projects of community betterment, together with branches of the local administration. 22 4.212 .943 10 To offer developmental or remedial pro- grams in basic skills in Portuguese (Reading and Writing), Math, etc. 23 4.206 .909 18 To provide a flexible curriculum that responds to the changing needs of society. 24 4.194 .854 28 To use the univerSity as the educational and socio-cultural center of the community. 25 4.185 .932 5 To facilitate involvement of faculty members in neighborhood and community service activity. 26 4.163 .975 31 To remove geographical barriers to university education. 27 4.148 .851 16 To develop educational programs geared to new and emerging career fields, like computer science/informatics. 28 4.130 .903 23 To utilize the university for the study of community problems. 29 4.116 1.004 22 To provide educational programs relevant to the evolving interest of the community. 30 4.111 .920 165 TABLE 4.16 (continued) RANK ORDER OF PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE OF THE IDEAL GOALS BY STUDENTS GOAL NUMBER GOAL STATEMENT RANK MEAN 5.0. 17 To provide relevant learning experience that reflects the needs of the indivi- dual. 31 4.081 .890 12 To confer equal prestige to academic as well as professional programs. 32 4.058 .866 2 To provide retraining opportunities for professionals whose job skills have become out of date. 33 3.984 .935 27 To use local resources to solve local problems. 34 3.926 .927 29 To provide learning activities for students of varied abilities and ambi~ tions. 35 3.917 1.115 6 To include local leaders in the planning of university education programs that will affect the local community. 36 3.840 1.108 As shown in Table 4.16 the students respondents perceive the 36 possible ideal goal statements as having top priority. A total of 32, or 88.8 percent of the goal statements are at or above the "Of high importance" category. The following three goal state- ments are the preferred ones by the students: "To provide students with various avenues to reach success in their professional careers" (Goal number 14); "To emphasize lifelong education as priority for future professional success of the students" (Goal number 33); To 166 develop a university which offers both academic and professional programs to serve the needs of students and community" (Goal number 30). On the other hand, the three least preferred goal statements by the group of students are as follows: "To use local resources to solve local problems" (Goal number 27); "To provide learning activities for students of varied abilities and ambitions“ (Goal number 29); "To include local leaders in the planning of university education programs that will affect the local community (Goal number 6). The average mean ratings range from (x = 3.840) to (x = 4.550). Perceptions of Faculty Members Concerning Actual Goals Research question number five asked: How do faculty members perceive and rank order the possible actual goals of university education? Table 4.17 shows the perceptions of faculty members concern- ing actual goal statements in rank order, means, and standard devia- tion. TABLE 4.17 RANK ORDER OF PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE OF THE ACTUAL GOALS BY FACULTY MEMBERS GOAL NUMBER GOAL STATEMENT RANK MEAN S.D. 16 To develop educational programs geared to new and emerging career fields, like computer science/informatics. 1 2.426 .993 35 To develop a university system whose academic credits can be transferred to other universities. 2 2.410 1.045 167 TABLE 4117 (continued) RANK ORDER OF PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE OF THE ACTUAL GOALS BY FACULTY MEMBERS GOAL NUMBER GOAL STATEMENT RANK MEAN 5.0. 7 To provide vocational and academic counseling to the students. 3 2.376 1.076 3 To provide training opportunities and skilled manpower for local area business, industry and government. 4 2.245 .953 1 To provide opportunities for adult educa- tion in the local area. 5 2.238 .918 4 To facilitate involvement of students in neighborhood and community service acti- vity. 6 2.208 1.003 5 To facilitate involvement of faculty mem- bers in neighborhood and community service activity. 7 2.186 .992 33 To emphasize lifelong education as priority for future professional success of the students. 8 2.186 1.106 13 To develop a university where students and professors can constantly have opportuni- ties to interact and meet informally. 9 2.178 1.033 28 To use the university as the educational and socio-cultural center of the community. 10 2.178 .984 19 To provide training which prepares stu- dents to function effectively as members of the community. 11 2.175 1.052 34 To attend to the educational needs of the community where the university is located. 12 2.167 .945 2 To provide retraining opportunities for professionals whose job skills have become out of date. 13 2.158 1.093 31 To remove geographical barriers to univer- sity education. 14 2.149 1.024 168 TABLE 4.17 (continued) RANK ORDER OF PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE OF THE ACTUAL GOALS BY FACULTY MEMBERS GOAL NUMBER GOAL STATEMENT RANK MEAN .O. 30 To develop a university which offers both academic and professional programs to serve the needs of students and community. 15 2.147 .009 26 To realistically prepare students for the job market. 16 2.125 .002 32 To remove economic barriers to university education. 17 2.107 .093 12 To confer equal prestige to academic as well as professional programs. 18 2.100 .905 17 To provide relevant learning experience that reflects the needs of the individual. 19 2.090 .055 23 To utilize the university for the study of community problems. 20 2.079 .987 14 To provide students with various avenues to reach success in their professional careers. 21 2.059 .124 21 Implement and better the university- business sector with regard to future ‘ employment to graduating students. 22 2.051 .862 36 To develop a policy of admissions of students that are prepared for university work. 23 2.051 .110 22 To provide educational programs relevant to the evolving interest of the community. 24 2.050 .910 20 To offer educational opportunity for all segments of the people to fulfill econo- mic and social potential. 25 2.039 .107 27 To use local resources to solve local problems. 26 2.020 .995 169 TABLE 4.17 (continued) RANK ORDER OF PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE OF THE ACTUAL GOALS BY FACULTY MEMBERS GOAL NUMBER GOAL STATEMENT RANK MEAN 5.0. 8 To help students identify their own personal goals. 27 2.019 1.111 11 To provide a diversified and flexible cur- riculum that reflects experiential learn- ing which allows sts. dev. as per indv. needs. 28 2.010 1.049 29 To provide learning activities for stu- dents of varied abilities and ambitions. 29 2.000 .979 18 To provide a flexible curriculum that responds to the changing needs of society. 30 1.981 1.075 25 To constantly promote educational innova- tion to attend the needs of society. 31 1.971 1.019 24 To utilize universities to plan projects of community betterment, together with branches of the local administration. 32 1.931 .947 15 To emphasize lifelong education. 33 1.864 1.058 10 To offer developmental or remedial pro- grams in basic skills in Portuguese (Reading and Writing), Math, etc. 34 1.861 1.000 9 To assist students in exploring various alternative careers. 35 1.851 1.024 6 To include local leaders in the planning of university education programs that will affect the local community. 36 1.768 .998 The faculty members perceive the 36 actual goal statements as having low priority. The goals are all ranked below "Of medium impor- tance”. The average mean ratings range from (i = 1.768) to (i = 2.426). 170 Perceptions of Faculty Members Concerning Ideal Goals Research question number six asked: How do faculty members perceive and rank order the possible ideal goals of university education? Table 4.18 shows the perceptions of faculty members concern- ing ideal goal statements in rank order, means, and standard devia- tion. TABLE 4.18 RANK ORDER OF PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE OF THE IDEAL GOALS BY FACULTY MEMBERS GOAL NUMBER GOAL STATEMENT RANK MEAN S.D. 36 To develop a policy of admissions of students that are prepared for univer- sity work. 1 4.495 .757 26 T0 realistically prepare students for the job market. 2 4.422 .681 33 To emphasize lifelong education as priority for future professional success of the students. 3 4.337 .803 7 To provide vocational and academic counseling to the students. 4 4.327 .723 13 To develop a university where students and professors can constantly have opportuni- ties to interact and meet informally. 5 4.301 .712 27 To use local resources to solve local problems. 6 4.294 .712 28 To use the university as the educational and socio-cultural center of the community 7 4.294 .712 32 To remove economic barriers to university education. 8 4.294 .851 171 TABLE 4.18 (continued) RANK ORDER OF PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE THE IDEAL GOALS BY FACULTY MEMBERS OF GOAL NUMBER GOAL STATEMENT RANK MEAN S.D. 25 To constantly promote educational innova- tion to attend the needs of society. 4.282 .692 18 To provide a flexible curriculum that responds to the changing needs of society. 10 4.260 .812 19 To provide training which prepares stu- dents to function effectively as members of the community. 11 4.250 .773 23 To utilize the university for the study of community problems. 12 4.250 .797 21 Implement and better the university- business sector with regard to future employment to graduating students. 13 4.248 .910 To facilitate involvement of students in neighborhood and community service acti- vity. 14 4.245 .681 24 To utilize universities to plan projects of community betterment, together with branches of the local administration. 15 4.243 .810 34 To attend to the educational needs of the community where the university is located. 16 4.235 .773 To facilitate involvement of faculty mem- bers in neighborhood and community service activity. 17 4.233 .730 11 To provide a diversified and flexible cur- riculum that reflects experiential learn- ing which allows sts. dev. as per indv. needs. 18 4.225 .757 22 To provide educational programs relevant to the evolving interest of the community. 19 4.223 .740 172 TABLE 4.18 (continued) RANK ORDER OF PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE OF THE IDEAL GOALS BY FACULTY MEMBERS GOAL NUMBER GOAL STATEMENT RANK MEAN S.D. 16 To develop educational programs geared to new and emerging career fields, like computer science/informatics. 20 4.155 .837 15 To emphasize lifelong education. 21 4.147 .905 30 To develop a university which offers both academic and professional programs to serve the needs of students and community. 22 4.147 .763 14 To provide students with various avenues to reach success in their professional careers. 23 4.146 .944 9 To assist students in exploring various alternative careers. 24 4.107 .917 8 To help students identify their own personal goals. 25 4.087 .940 2 To provide retraining opportunities for professionals whose job skills have become out of date. 26 4.059 .983 20 To offer educational opportunity for all segments of the people to fulfill econo- mic and social potential. 27 4.000 .821 35 To deve10p a university system whose academic credits can be transferred to other universities. 28 3.990 .933 17 To provide relevant learning experience that reflects the needs of the individual. 29 3.980 .791 12 To confer equal prestige to academic as well as professional programs. 30 3.971 .789 3 To provide training opportunities and skilled manpower for local area business, industry and government. 31 3.970 .897 173 TABLE 4.18 (continued) RANK ORDER OF PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE OF THE IDEAL GOALS BY FACULTY MEMBERS GOAL NUMBER GOAL STATEMENT RANK MEAN S.D. 31 To remove geographical barriers to university education. 32 3.961 .911 29 To provide learning activities for students of varied abilities and ambitions. 33 3.921 .757 1 To provide opportunities for adult education in the local area. 34 3.873 .886 6 To include local leaders in the planning of university education programs that will affect the local community. 35 3.765 1.016 10 To offer developmental or remedial programs in basic skills in Portuguese (Reading and Writing). Math, etc. 36 3.563 1.126 As shown in Table 4.18 the faculty members respondents per- ceive the 36 possible ideal goal statements as having top priority. A total of 31, or 86.1 percent of the responses are at or above the "Of high importance" category. Five responses are at or above the "Of medium importance" category. The average mean ratings range from (i = 3.563) to (i = 4.495). The following are the three goal statements most preferred by the faculty members as a group: "To develop a policy of admis- sions of students that are prepared for university work" (Goal number 36); "To realistically prepare students for the job market" 174 (Goal number 26); "To emphasize lifelong education as priority for future professional success of the students" (Goal number 33). In terms of the least preferred goal statements, the faculty members listed the following: "To provide opportunities for adult education in the local area" (Goal number 1); "To include local leaders in the planning of university education programs that will affect the local community" (Goal number 6); "To offer developmental or remedial programs in basic skills in Portuguese (Reading and Writing), Math, etc." (Goal number 10). Perceptions of Administrators Concerning Actual Goals Research question number seven asked: How do administrators perceive and rank order the possible actual goals of university education? Table 4.19 shows the perceptions of administrators concern- ing actual goal statements in rank order, means, and standard deviation. TABLE 4.19 RANK ORDER OF PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE OF THE ACTUAL GOALS BY ADMINISTRATORS GOAL NUMBER GOAL STATEMENT RANK MEAN S.D. 16 To develop educational programs geared to new and emerging career fields, like computer science/informatics. 1 2.080 .820 5 To facilitate involvement of faculty members in neighborhood and community service activity. 2 2.058 .845 175 TABLE 4.19 (continued) RANK ORDER OF PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE OF THE ACTUAL GOALS BY ADMINISTRATORS GOAL NUMBER GOAL STATEMENT RANK MEAN S.D. 3 To provide training opportunities and skilled manpower for local area business, industry and government. 3 2.056 .981 35 To develop a university system whose academic credits can be transferred to other universities. 4 2.023 .742 2 TO provide retraining Opportunities for professionals whose job skills have become out of date. 5 1.966 .872 4 TO facilitate involvement of students in neighborhood and community service acti- vity. 6 1.943 .798 7 To provide vocational and academic counsel- ing to the students. 7 1.921 .895 23 TO utilize the university for the study Of community problems. 8 1.919 .770 13 To develop a university where students and professors can constantly have Opportuni- ties tO interact and meet informally. 9 1.906 .766 26 TO realistically prepare students for the job market. 10 1.898 .831 14 To provide students with various avenues to reach success in their professional careers. 11 1.895 .767 25 To constantly promote educational innova- tion to attend the needs Of society. 12 1.895 .797 34 TO attend to the educational needs of the community where the university is located. 13 1.895 .736 18 TO provide a flexible curriculum that responds to the changing needs of society. 14 1.885 .738 176 TABLE 4:19 (continued) RANK ORDER OF PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE OF THE ACTUAL GOALS BY ADMINISTRATORS GOAL NUMBER GOAL STATEMENT RANK MEAN S.D. 32 To remove economic barriers to university education. 15 1.885 .933 28 To use the university as the educational and sociO-cultural center of the community. 16 1.844 .693 21 Implement and better the university- business sector with regard to future employment to graduating students. 17 1.875 .932 1 To provide Opportunities for adult educa- tion in the local area. 18 1.865 .855 31 To remove geographical barriers to univer- sity education. 19 1.841 .869 36 To deve10p a policy of admissions of students that are prepared for university work. 20 1.828 .795 33 To emphasize lifelong education as priority for future professional success of the students. 21 1.818 .796 22 To provide educational programs relevant to the evolving interest Of the community. 22 1.802 .733 24 TO utilize universities to plan projects of community betterment, together with branches of the local administration. 23 1.802 .764 27 To use local resources to solve local problems. 24 1.802 .717 8 To help students identify their own personal goals. 25 1.795 .912 15 To emphasize lifelong education. 26 1.784 .718 177 TABLE 4.19 (continued) RANK ORDER OF PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE OF THE ACTUAL GOALS BY ADMINISTRATORS GOAL NUMBER GOAL STATEMENT RANK MEAN S.D. 30 To develop a university which Offers both academic and professional programs to serve the needs of students and community. 27 1.779 .658 12 To confer equal prestige to academic as well as professional programs. 28 1.759 .681 19 To provide training which prepares stu- dents tO function effectively as members of the community. 29 1.742 .762 20 To Offer educational opportunity for all segments of the people to fulfill econo- mic and social potential. 30 1.727 .840 17 To provide relevant learning experience that reflects the needs of the individual. 31 1.724 .604 11 TO provide a diversified and flexible cur- riculum that reflects experiential learn- ing which allows sts. dev. as per indv. needs. 32 1.719 .812 29 TO provide learning activities for stu- dents of varied abilities and ambitions. 33 1.702 .724 10 To Offer developmental or remedial pro- grams in basic skills in Portuguese (Reading and Writing). Math, etc. 34 1.663 .891 To assist students in exploring various alternative careers. 35 1.607 .820 To include local leaders in the planning of university education programs that will affect the local community. 36 1.584 .720 1 i having low priority. The administrators perceive the 36 actual goal statements as The goals are all ranked below "Of medium 178 importance". The average mean ratings range from (i = 1.584) to (i = 2.080). Perceptions of Administrators Concerning Ideal Goals Research question number eight asked: How do administrators perceive and rank order the possible ideal goals of university education? Table 4.20 shows the perceptions Of administrators concerning ideal goal statements in rank order, means, and standard deviation. TABLE 4.20 RANK ORDER OF PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE OF THE IDEAL GOALS BY ADMINISTRATORS GOAL NUMBER GOAL STATEMENT RANK MEAN S.D. 36 To deve10p a policy of admissions of students that are prepared for univer- sity work. 1 4.414 .756 16 TO develop educational programs geared to new and emerging career fields, like computer science/informatics. 2 4.386 .615 5 To facilitate involvement of faculty members in neighborhood and community service activity. 3 4.384 .754 24 To utilize universities to plan projects of community betterment, together with branches of the local administration. 4 4.372 .882 23 To utilize the university for the study of community problems. 5 4.360 .631 18 TO provide a flexible curriculum that responds to the changing needs of society. 6 4.345 .696 28 To use the university as the educational and socio-cultural center of the commu— nity. 7 4.345 .587 179 TABLE 4:20 (continued) RANK ORDER OF PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE OF THE IDEAL GOALS BY ADMINISTRATORS GOAL NUMBER GOAL STATEMENT RANK MEAN S.D. 32 To remove economic barriers to university education. 8 4.341 .709 26 To realistically prepare students for the job market. 9 4.337 .713 14 To provide students with various avenues to reach success in their professional careers. 10 4.322 .581 7 To provide vocational and academic counseling to the students. 11 4.318 .687 4 To facilitate involvement of students in neighborhood and community service acti- vity. 12 4.302 .555 25 TO constantly promote educational innova- tion to attend the needs of society. 13 4.302 .721 11 To provide a diversified and flexible cur- riculum that reflects experiential learning which allows sts. dev. as per indv. needs. 14 4.270 .780 22 To provide educational programs relevant to the evolving interest Of the community. 15 4.264 .619 13 To deve10p a university where students and professors can constantly have Opportuni- ties tO interact and meet informally.' 16 4.256 .672 30 To develop a university which Offers both academic and professional programs to serve the needs of students and community. 17 4.256 .689 15 To emphasize lifelong education. 18 4.250 .861 21 Implement and better the university- business sector with regard to future employment to graduating students. 19 4.239 .758 180 TABLE 4.20 (continued) RANK ORDER OF PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE OF THE IDEAL GOALS BY ADMINISTRATORS GOAL NUMBER GOAL STATEMENT RANK MEAN S.D. 3 To provide training Opportunities and skilled manpower for local area business, industry and government. 20 4.218 .769 33 To emphasize lifelong education as priority for future professional success of the students. 21 4.216 .765 8 TO help students identify their own per- sonal goals. 22 4.184 .800 19 To provide training which prepares students to function effectively as members of the community. 23 4.182 .796 34 To attend to the educational needs of the community where the university is located. 24 4.170 .805 31 To remove geographical barriers to univer- sity education. 25 4.161 .697 27 To use local resources to solve local problems. 26 4.140 .799 1 To provide Opportunities for adult educa- tion in the local area. 27 4.125 .770 2 TO provide retraining opportunities for professionals whose job skills have become out Of date. 28 4.125 .828 29 To provide learning activities for students of varied abilities and ambitions. 29 4.095 .705 35 TO deve10p a university system whose academic credits can be transferred to other universities. 30 4.091 .825 12 To confer equal prestige to academic as well as professional programs. 31 4.082 .640 181 TABLE 4.20 (continued) RANK ORDER OF PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE OF THE IDEAL GOALS BY ADMINISTRATORS GOAL NUMBER GOAL STATEMENT RANK MEAN S.D. 17 To provide relevant learning experience that reflects the needs of the individual. 32 4.035 .710 9 To assist students in exploring various alternative careers. 33 4.000 .884 20 To Offer educational Opportunity for all segments of the people to fulfill econo- mic and social potential. 34 4.000 .758 10 To Offer developmental or remedial programs in basic skills in Portuguese (Reading and Writing). Math, etc. 35 3.966 .988 6 To include local leaders in the planning of university education programs that will affect the local community. 36 3.886 .988 As shown in Table 4.20 the administrators perceive the 36 possible ideal goal statements as having tOp priority. A total of 96.6 percent Of the responses are at or above the "Of high impor- tance" category. Only two responses fell below such category. The average mean ratings range from (i = 3.886) to (x = 4.414). The administrators list the following three goal statements as their most preferred ones: "TO develop a policy of admissions of students that are prepared'flncuniversity work" (Goal number 36); "TO develop educational programs geared to new and emerging career fields, like computer science/informatics" (Goal number 16); "To 182 facilitate involvement Of faculty members in neighborhood and com- munity service activity" (Goal number 5). For the administrators, the least preferred goal statements are the following: "To offer developmental or remedial programs in basic skills in Portuguese (Reading and Writing), Math, etc." (Goal number 10); "To include local leaders in the planning of university education programs that will affect the local community" (Goal number 6). Group Differences Of Perceptions Concerning Actual Goals Research question number nine asked: What are the differences that exist in the percep- tions of students, faculty members, and adminis- trators, concerning the actual goals of university education? Table 4.21 shows a comparison of the perceptions of the three groups, based upon rank order for each actual goal statement. TABLE 4.21 GROUP DIFFERENCES OF PERCEPTIONS CONCERNING ACTUAL UNIVERSITY GOALS GOAL NUMBER GOAL STATEMENTS A B C 1 TO provide Opportunities for adult education in the local area. 2 5 18 2 To provide retraining opportunities for professionals whose job skills have become out Of date. 9 13 5 Key; A = Students 8 = Faculty members C = Administrators 183 TABLE 4.21 (continued) GROUP DIFFERENCES OF PERCEPTIONS CONCERNING ACTUAL UNIVERSITY GOALS GOAL NUMBER GOAL STATEMENTS To provide training Opportunities and skilled manpower for local area business, industry and government. ‘fi - u... .n...--— To facilitate involvement of students in neighborhood and community service activity. To facilitate involvement Of faculty members in neighborhood and community service acti- vity. To include local leaders in the planning of university education programs that will affect the local community. 29 36 36 To provide vocational and academic counsel- ing to the students. To help students identify their own personal goals. 21 27 25 To assist students in exploring various alternative careers. 25 35 35 10 To offer developmental or remedial programs in basic skills in Portuguese (Reading and Writing). Math, etc. 34 34 11 To provide a diversified and flexible curri- culum that reflects experiential learning which allows students to dev. as per indv. needs. 12 28 32 12 TO confer equal prestige to academic as well as professional programs. 15 18 28 13 TO develop a university where students and professors can constantly have Opportuni- ties tO interact and meet informally. 22 184 TABLE 4.21 (continued) GROUP DIFFERENCES OF PERCEPTIONS CONCERNING ACTUAL UNIVERSITY GOALS GOAL NUMBER GOAL STATEMENTS A B C 14 To provide students with various avenues to reach success in their professional careers. 13 21 11 15 TO emphasize lifelong education. 16 33 26 16 To develop educational programs geared to new and emerging career fields, like computer science/informatics. 5 1 1 17 To provide relevant learning experience that reflects the needs of the individual. 30 19 31 18 To provide a flexible curriculum that responds to the changing needs of society. 26 30 14 19 TO provide training which prepares students to function effectively as members of the community. 6 11 29 20 To offer educational opportunity for all segments of the people to fulfill economic and social potential. 17 (25 30 21 Implement and better the university-business sector with regard to future employment to graduating students. 27 22 17 22 To provide educational programs relevent to the evolving interest of the community. 18 24 22 23 TO utilize the university for the study of community problems. 35 2O 8 24 TO utilize universities to plan projects of community betterment, together with branches of the local administration. 36 32 23 25 To constantly promote educational innovation to attend the needs of society. 34 31 12 185 TABLE 4.21 (continued) GROUP DIFFERENCES OF PERCEPTIONS CONCERNING ACTUAL UNIVERSITY GOALS GOAL NUMBER GOAL STATEMENTS A B C 26 To realistically prepare students for the job market. 23 16 10 27 To use local resources to solve local problems. 31 26 24 28 To use the university as the educational and socio-cultural center of the community. 32 10 16 29 TO provide learning activities for students of various abilities and ambitions. 33 29 33 30 TO develop a university which offers both academic and professional programs to serve the needs of students and community. 24 15 27 31 To remove geographical barriers to univer- sity education. 28 14 19 32 To remove economic barriers to university education. 20 17 15 33 To emphasize lifelong education as priority for future professional success of the students. 11 8 21 34 TO attend to the educational needs of the community where the university is located. 19 12 13 35 To develop a university system whose academic credit can be transferred to other universities. 10 2 4 36 TO develop a policy of admissions of students that are prepared for university work. 14 23 20 186 Table 4.21 Offers a wide range of alternative interpretations. The most noteworthy result Of this analysis is the congruence between students, faculty members, and administrators on the majority of the actual goal statements. There is congruence amongst the respon- dents in 61.1 percent of the actual goals. Also, it can be observed the existence of congruence in two of the three distinct groups, or 38.9 percent of the goal statements. Group Differences Of Perceptions Concerning Ideal Goals Research question number ten asked: What are the differences that exist in the percep- tions of students, faculty members, and adminis- trators, concerning the ideal goals of university education? Table 4.22 shows a comparison of the perceptions of the three groups, based upon rank order for each ideal goal statement. 187 TABLE 4.22 GROUP DIFFERENCES OF PERCEPTIONS CONCERNING IDEAL UNIVERSITY GOALS GOAL NUMBER GOAL STATEMENTS A B C 1 To provide opportunities for adult education in the local area. 15 34 27 2 To provide retraining Opportunities for professionals whose job skills have become out of date. 33 25 28 3 To provide training Opportunities and skilled manpower for local area business, industry , and government. 15 31 20 4 To facilitate involvement of students in neighborhood and community service activity. 13 14 12 5 TO facilitate involvement Of faculty members in neighborhood and community service acti- vity. 26 17 3 6 To include local leaders in the planning of university education programs that will affect the local community. 36 35 36 7 To provide vocational and academic counsel- ing to the students. 7 4 11 8 TO help students identify their own personal goals. 9 25 22 9 To assist students in exploring various alternative careers. 12 24 33 Lax: Students Faculty members Administrators mm) 11 II II 188 TABLE 4122 (continued) GROUP DIFFERENCES OF PERCEPTIONS CONCERNING IDEAL UNIVERSITY GOALS GOAL NUMBER GOAL STATEMENTS A B C 10 To Offer developmental or remedial programs in basic skills in Portuguese (Reading and Writing). Math, etc. 23 36 35 11 TO provide a diversified and flexible curri- culum that reflects experiential learning which allows students to dev. as per indv. needs. 6 18 14 12 To confer equal prestige to academic as well as professional programs. 32 30 31 13 To develop a university where students and professors can constantly have Opportuni- ties tO interact and meet informally. 18 5 15 14 TO provide students with various avenues to reach success in their professional careers. 1 23 10 15 TO emphasize lifelong education. 4 21 18 16 To develop educational programs geared to new and emerging career fields, like computer science/informatics. 23 20 2 17 To provide relevant learning experience that reflects the needs Of the individual. 31 29 32 18 TO provide a flexible curriculum that responds to the changing needs of society. 24 10 5 19 To provide training which prepares ' students to function effectively as members of the community. 21 11 23 20 To offer educational opportunity for all segments of the people to fulfill economic and social potential. 10 27 34 189 TABLE 4.22 (continued) GROUP DIFFERENCES OF PERCEPTIONS CONCERNING IDEAL UNIVERSITY GOALS GOAL NUMBER GOAL STATEMENTS A B C 21 Implement and better the university-business sector with regard to future employment to graduating students. 19 13 19 22 TO provide educational programs relevent to the evolving interest of the community. 30 19 15 23 To utilize the university for the study of community problems. 29 12 5 24 To utilize universities to plan projects of community betterment, together with branches Of the local administration. 22 15 4 25 To constantly promote educational innovation to attend the needs Of society. 20 9 13 26 TO realistically prepare students for the job market. 17 2 9 27 To use local resources to solve local problems. 34 5 26 28 TO use the university as the educational and sociO-cultural center of the community. 25 7 7 29 To provide learning activities for students of various abilities and ambitions. 35 33 29 30 TO develop a university which offers both academic and professional programs to serve students and community. 3 22 17 31 TO remove geographical barriers to univer- sity education. 27 32 25 190 TABLE 4:22 (continued) GROUP DIFFERENCES OF PERCEPTIONS CONCERNING IDEAL UNIVERSITY GOALS GOAL NUMBER GOAL STATEMENTS A B C 32 To remove economic barriers to university education. 11 8 8 33 To emphasize lifelong education as priority for future professional success of the students. 2 3 21 34 TO attend to the educational needs Of the community where the university is located. 14 16 24 35 To develop a university system whose academic credit can be transferred to other universities. 8 28 3O 36 To develop a policy of admissions Of students that are prepared for university work. 5 1 1 Table 4.22 Offers a wide range of alternative interpreta- tions. There is congruence amongst the respondents in 47.2 percent of the ideal goals. The three groups agree that the following goal statements are of high importance: "To facilitate involvement of students in neighborhood and community service activity" (Goal number 4); “To provide vocational and academic counseling to the students" (Goal number 7); "To provide a diversified and flexible curriculum that reflects experiential learning which allows students to develop as per individual needs" (Goal number 11); "To develop a university where students and professors can constantly have 191 Opportunity to interact and meet informally” (Goal number 13); "To realistically prepare students for the job market" (Goal number 26); TO remove economic barriers to university education" (Goal number 32); "To deve10p a policy of admissions of students that are pre- pared for university work" (Goal number 36). It can be observed, also, the existence Of congruence in two Of the three distinct groups, or 52.8 percent of the goal state- ments. The following goal statements are of high importance for the students, and there is congruence of low importance for the faculty members, and administrators: "TO provide opportunities for adult education in the local area" (Goal number 1); "To help students identify their own personal goals" (Goal number 8); "TO assist students in exploring various alternative careers" (Goal number 9); ”To Offer educational opportunity for all segments of the people to fulfill economic and social potential" (Goal number 20); "To deve10p a university which Offers both academic and professional programs to serve students and community" (Goal number 30); and "To deve10p a university system whose academic credits can be transferred to other universities (Goal number 35). As for the goal statement number 33 ”TO emphasize lifelong education as priority for future professional success of the stu- dents", there is congruence of high importance for the students and faculty members. The students and administrators agree as of high importance the goal statements "To provide training Opportunities and skilled 192 manpower for local area business, industry and government" (Goal number 3); and "To provide students with various avenues to reach success in their professional careers" (Goal number 14). The faculty members and administrators perceive with con- gruence Of high importance, the following: "To provide a flexible curriculum that responds to the changing needs Of society" (Goal number 18); "To utilize the university for the study of comunity problems" (Goal number 23); "To constantly promote educational innovation to attend the needs of society" (Goal number 25); and "To use the university as the educational and sociO-cultural center of the community" (Goal number 28). The following goal statements are perceived as of high importance for the group of administrators. "To facilitate involve- ment of faculty members in neighborhood and community" (Goal number 5); "To develop educational programs geared to new and emerging career fields, like computer science/informatics" (Goal number 16); and "To utilize universities to plan projects of community better- ment, together with branches of the local administration" (Goal number 24). Only the group Of faculty members perceive as of high impor- tance the goal statements "To provide training which prepares stu- dents tO function effectively as members of the community” (Goal number 19); and "To use local resources to solve local problems" (Goal number 27). Further analysis of Table 4.22 indicates least and most preference by groups: 193 Students The most preferred goal statements by the students are goal numbers 14, 33, 30, and 15. For the same group, the least preferred are goal numbers 6, 29, 27, and 2. Faculty Members These are the goal statements mostly preferred by the faculty members: 36, 26, 33, and 7. The least preferred are the goal numbers 29, l, 6, and 10. Administrators The following goal statements are the ones most preferred by the administrators: 36, 16, 5, and 7. This group perceive the following goals as the least pre- ferred ones: 6, 10, 20, and 9. Table 4.23 shows a summary Of the perceptions and goal discrepancies by the groups. 194 .~w>mp poo. on» ucoan go no pcmuwmwcmwm appmuvumwumum mew museum aucmamgomwu ppm Lwcugau .Fmom comm com ocoum um>wmugma some mmmgm>m mazes mgoum uwggmmmga cums mmmgm>m mpmscm mgoum >Ucmnmgum_o« mew. me~.¢ umggwmmga .zuw>puum mew>gmm emm.— zuwczseou can noocgongmwm: cw mgmnsme muo.~ Pm~.~ um>wwugma aupaumw 4o ucmsm>Po>cw mampwpwumm o» m we“. mm~.¢ umggmmwga .zuw>_uum who.~ muw>gmm xuwcassou use coosgoasmwm: cw mmp.p o-.~ cm>PmuLma muzmuaum Go pawsm>po>=w wumuwpwume op 3 Few. mop.e Guacamoga .pcmsccm>om use zgpmavcw .mmmcwman nom._ cage Pmuop com cozoacms umppwxm use “mp." oom.~ um>wmugma wwwuwcsucoano mcmcwmgu www>ocn oh m «Na. 580.8 omggmemga .oumu mo use wsoumn m>mg cam.. mppwxm now «was: mpmcopmmmmogg Low emo.~ mom.m uw>wmugmm mmwuwczugoago acacwmcpmg mcw>ogg o» N now. m~_.¢ umcgwmwca evw.~ .mmgm pmuop mg» cw cowpmuznm Nuo.p mn~.~ um>mmugma “Faun Low mmmpmcaugoaao muw>oga oh _ camoum onPmo mzh mhzm2mpuzmuummm .mazoxw 4m .m4H~mmm>Hza Oh mmzoammm mm.¢ m4mo=p Loo mo .>oo op mucoooum mzoppo -N.N cops: mcpcgoop poppcopcooxo muooppog pony oop.p mmo.~ oo>poogoa .ogzo opopxopp oco oopppmoo>po o oop>ooo op pp wmo._ mmm.m acecaoaca .636 .558: .Aoepoecz oee acyoeemv owm.p omoamzpcoo :p mpppxm opmoo op mEogmooo pmp.p mmo.~ oo>poogoo popoosog Lo poucosoopo>oo compo op op omw. opp.¢ ooggopoco mm~.N .mgoogoo o>puocgoppo moopoo> amp.p mmm.p oo>poogoo mcpoopoxo op mucooaam pmpmmo op m mpm. mNN.e oogcopogo omp.m .mpoom pocomgoo mop.p poo.~ oo>poogoo czo Epoxy xwppcoop mucoooum opo; op w mop. mmm.o ooggopoga opo.~ .mpcooapm mop o» moppomcsoo pap.p mmm.m oo>poogoa opEooooo coo pocopuooo> oop>ogo op p moo.p mmm.m ooogopoga .zup::EEoo pooop ogu pooppo pppz mom.p pogo msogmogo copuooooo xupmgo>pcs po mmo.p 0mm.p oo>poogoa mcpccopo ocu cp mgoooop pooop oozpocp op m ammoom onpuo mzuz~muxma .masomw 4m .m4p~mmm>pz= Op mmzommmm Aedsemoeaov m~.e mom

poocoo pogo sopoopggoo opopxopp o oop>ogo op mp mpw. pmo.e ooogopogo .pooo mpo.~ 1p>pocp on» po moooc on» muooppog pogo omo.p .mmo.~ oo>poogoo oocopoooxo ocpcgoop pco>opoo oop>ooo op pp opw. po~.o ooggopogo .mopuosgop:p\oocopOm gouoosoo mom.p oxpp .mopopp Loogoo mcpoooso oco 3o: ppo.p Nom.~ oo>poogoo op oogoom msogmogo pocopuooooo oopo>oo op op opm. mm~.o oogoopogo mom.~ mmo.p omo.m oo>pooooo .copuooooo ocopoppp oNPmogoso op mp «mp. oom.¢ oosgopogo .mooogoo omm.~ pocopmmopogo Epoxy op mmoooom zooms o» omp.p omp.N oo>pooooo mooco>o moopgo> cup; mucoooum oop>ooo op op map. om~.o oopgopogo .xpposgopcp Home new uoogoucp on mopppcop mmp.~ -ooooo o>oc apucoomcoo coo moommopogo oco wmo.p mmp.~ oo>pooooo mucooopm moon: appmgo>pco o oopo>oo op mp mmp. pmo.o oogoopogo pom.p .msogmogo pocopmmopogo mo ppm: mmo.p coo.~ oo>pooooo mo opsooooo op omppmooo poooo Lopcoo op Np «umoum onpmo mzuzpwummo .mosomw 4m .m4p~mmm>~z= op mmzoommm Aoozeeoeoov m~.a oom

poogoo muoonogo copo op mopupmco>pc= o~pppuo op om mmm. m-.o ooggopogo Mpp.m .meopooco popcoesoo po pooum ppo.p omo.~ oo>poosoo on» Lop zppmgo>pco on» o~pppao op mm mop. mwp.e ooggopogo .xupc322oo on» opp.~ po umocouop ocp>po>o on» ou uco>opog mmo.p mpo.~ oo>poogoo msogmogo pocopuooooo oop>ogo op mm 0pm. mm~.o oocLOpoLo .mpcooopm mcpooooooo op ocoszoposo opp.m ogouop ou ogooog cup: gouoom mmocpmoo . wmp.p ~mo.m oo>poogoo ixupmsm>pco ox» coupon oco acosoposm pm pmm. mop.o omgnmpogo .popucouoo popoom oco ooo.~ opsocooo pppppop op opoooo mop po mpcosoom mop.p mmo.m oo>poogoo ppo Lop popcoogoooo pocopuooooo goppo op om 0mm. p-.e oocgopogo .xupcossoo mop po moonsos Nmo.~ mo xpo>puooppo :opoocop op mucoooum Nop.p mop.~ oo>poocoo mmgoooco cops; ocpcpogu oop>oco op mp «macaw onp<~>mo mzuz~mumuo .moaomo 4m .m4mz= op umzoommm Aeaaeeoeoov m~.a woo

com op mm~.~ msocmooo pooopmmopogo oco opsooooo coon mpo.p mmo.~ oo>poosoo mgoppo oops: pupmeo>pco o oopo>oo op om opm. mom.m ooggoposo .mcopupoEo oco pom.p mopppppoo moopoo> po mucoooum cop mNo.p omm.p oo>pougoo mopop>puoo mcpcooop oop>ogo op om «mp. Nm~.o ooggopogo .xupcossoo moo po Lopcoo mpp.m pogoopooiopoom oco pocoppooooo woo.p poo.~ oo>poogoo mop mo xupmoo>pco osu om: op mm mom. moo.o ooggopogo omo.m .msopoooo pooop Nmo.p mpo.~ oo>poogoo o>pom o» moogoomog pooop om: op pm omp. mmm.o. oogaopogo mNN.N . .poxooe non mop Lop poo.p opp.~ oo>poogoo mozoooum ooooooo appoopumppoog op om cop. mo~.o oopgopogo .ppopoom omm.~ po moooc osu ocoupo on copuo>occp Nmo.p mpo.~ oo>pooooo pocopuooooo oposooo apocopmcoo op mm «umoum zopp

mo mzuz~mummo .mooomo 4p~mxm>~z= op mmzoommm Aoe=EFoeooo m~.a mom

pco Lop oogoooco moo uo;o_mpcooopm oop.p mpp.m oo>poogoo po mcopmmpsoo po poppoo o oopo>oo op mm mom. ppp.o ooggopogo .mopupmoo>p:= Lozuo mpm.p op ooogopmcogu on coo mupoogo opsooooo mop.p omm.~ om>poosoo moon: swampm pppmco>pco o oopo>oo op mm opm. om~.o oogoopoeo .oooooop opp.m . mp pppmco>pco on» moon: pup::EEoo ogu omo.p pmp.m oo>pooooo po mooo: pocopuooooo oz» ou ocoupo op om amp. mpm.o ooggmpogo .mucoooum moo po mmoooom op~.~ pocopmmopogo weapop sop popgopoo . opp.p mop.~ oo>poogoo mo copuooooo mcopoppp o~pmogoeo op mm pom. mum.o. ooLsOpogo Npm.m . . . - .copuooooo pupmco>pco mop.p opp.~ oo>poogoo op mgopoooo opeocooo o>osoo op mm mmm. moo.o, ooggopogo opo.m .copuooooo pppmgo>pzo moo.p opo.m oo>poogoo op mgopogoo poopzoooooom o>osoo op pm «umoum .onpmo. mzumommo .moooxo 4pwm¢m>mzo op wmzoommm Aooaepoeooo m~.e mom

H monsooo. méfizéa > nsmldo HH» 9&8 o 3E"??? 89% H> cannon swoon o oopogoo po aupmoo>pco pogooom mg» po mcopuooop asaEGO oewoooaoo .eopecea ca doeom ago to 562 .m xHozmaa< 237 APPENDIX C ENGLISH AND PORTUGUESE VERSION OF A LETTER SENT TO PARTICIPANTS OF THE PRETESTING OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE 238 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF EDUCATION EAST [ANSING 0 IICHIGAN 0 0824-1034 09m Of EDUCATIONAL ADIlNlS'l'IA'flON m HA1]. October 2, 1984 Dear Colleague: As an integral part of my doctoral program in Educational administra- tion, I will travel to Brazil with the intention Of administering .450 questionnaires. These questionnaires will be distributed to three (3) distinct groups consisting Of university students, faculty members, and administrators. Once completed by the members of these groups, the instruments will reflect the goals which the respondents have for higher education. The marked responses will represent their perception of current and ideal emphases of post—secondary education in Brazil. Therefore, I am asking you to help me in this important task of pretesting by filling out the attached instrument. Your written commentary concerning any matter, including the clarity of expres- sion in the Portuguese language, will be very welcome. Any sugges- tions will be considered by this researcher and his Academic Com- mittee at Michigan State University. Please give your candid and free Opinions about the items, including their format. If you disagree with any affirmation, please write your comments about this. After completing this task, please return the questionnaire on or before October 10, using the addressed and stamped envelope which is attac e . - I wish to take this Opportunity to express my sincere thanks for your assistance in this extremely important aspect of my studies. Sincerely, Luiz R. Lima 919-H Cherry Lane East Lansing, MI 48823 H5 U is a. III/mum Anion/Equal Wily Institution 239 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY COUIGE Of EDUCATION EAST LANSING 0 IICHIGAN 0 “IN-I054 Dam OF EDUCATIONAL WHOM IIICKSON HALL October 2. 1984 Prezadc colega: Cono‘parte integrante do men pro ana de doutoredo en Administrapgg Lducacional. farei ume viagem no Brasil com o intuito de adminis- trer 450 questionérios. tee refcridos questionarios serao dis- tribufdos a tree (3) gzupos dis ”into consistindo de estudartes u- niversitérios. professores. e air; nistradorcs. Depois de preenchi- dos pelos nor bros destes grufié. os instrumentos refletirac 03 goals quc os respondentes manten para a educagao superior. As respostas roads“ representarao sue porcepceo sobre a e fase atual e a ideal da educageo p5s-sccundaria no Erscil- Porisso resno. solicito-lhe assistir-ne nesta inportante tarefa de pretestage... preenchenio o instrumento que segue e: ancxo- Sen co- mentar; O escrito sobre qualquer quesito. inclusive 8 claridaoe de cxpresgeo da gingue portugues a. seré'm to hem vindoo Quaisquer su~estocs sorao consideredas por cste pesquisador e seu Conite Aca- denico na K_chigan State University. Favor Opinar. candida e livre- matte. sobre 05 quesitos. inclusive 0 formato. Caso voce discorde de qualqucr efirmaggb. queira. por gentileza. escrever ux comenta- rio sobre isto. ApSS conflbtar este tarefa queira retornar O questionério antes on no die. 10 de outu‘oro. usendo o envelope previamente endereyado e eelcdo qua segue anexo. 1(S ta oportunidadc gosterde de expressar men sinccro agraiecimento pole sue assis téncia neste as:ect9que e do suna importancia em meus estudos. Sinceramente. / Luiz Ro Lina 919-}. Sherri Lane Last Lans ir -l - 43823 USU in - 4]]an Adios/Egan! Wtiflfly Inuit-uno- 240 APPENDIX D ENGLISH AND PORTUGUESE VERSION OF A LETTER SIGNED BY A COMMITTEE MEMBER SENT TO PARTICIPANTS OF THE PRETESTING OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE 241 LATIN AMERICAN STUDIES CENTER CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMS MICHIGAN STATE UM\’EPS:T\ [L’T LI~NS!'.' . ”1'.“ 44'. 48:. '- 1, " October 2, 1984 Dear Brazilian Student: Your colleague Luiz Lima is currently involved in the pretesting phase of the instrument (questionnaire) which he will take to Brazil to collect data for his dissertation research. As a member of his orientation committee, I ask you to help him with this phase by filling out the current version of the questionnaire and offering critical comments on the same. Thank you for your cooperation. Sincerely, James Buschman Director 242 LATIN AMERICAN STUDIES CENTER CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMS MICHIGAN STATE UNNEHSITV EAST LAF.SI'.C.~-(MICH11AN ‘8 3': 1:1" 2 de outubro de 1984 Caro esmdante brasileim: O seu colega Iniz Lina amalmente esta envolvido na fase de pretestagan do instmnento (questiona’rio) que ele lava-é aO Brasil para coletar os dados da sua pesquisa de dissertacao. Cam umbro do Canite de Orienta- 95o,pe99-1hes que ajudannesta fase, preachaido a atual versao do questionario e oferecendo canmtariOs criticos referentes ao Imam. Agradeco de antenfi'o esta colaboracfio. Sinceramente , 7.: ~/&2 ameschmn MSUn on Affirm.“ we Acmn (we! Op; ”0 Tumry Inst/fur -(I In 243 APPENDIX E ENGLISH AND PORTUGUESE VERSION OF THE FINAL PRINTED QUESTIONNAIRE 244 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE or EDUCATION m1 unseat. . IICHIGAN . 0024.10.54 ovum or EDUCATIONAL WWTION mason HALL QUESTIONNAIRE Dear Respondents The Objective of the questionnaire is to investigate the perception that administrators. professors and university students have about possible objectives of university education in Brazil. This study is an integral part of the doctorate in Educational Administration. which will have as titles PL‘RCEPTIOIS 0? BRAZILIA' EDUCATIONAL PARTICIPANTS CONCERT? 3 SELECTED GOALS FOP. HIGHER EDUCATION This research is a fundamental part in my studies. Your participation' is of extreme importance. Therefore. I ask you to assist me in this task of data collection by filling out and returning to me the enclosed questionnaire. A high degree of confidentiality will be Observed with respect to data gathered. an}. yOL‘u {Jr/~19 1a.: P1- are Assistant Piof esso: Center for Applied Social Sciences-0W3 Dear Respondent: Your participation in this survey will increase the importance of the research that Professor Lima has undertaken. Because of my interest in higher education'in Brazil I am pleased to join Professor Lima in making this request for your time and thoughtful response. Sincerely, guests Ted W. Ward Professor of Educational Administration HS U is an AM Arden/Equal Wu, hue-she 245 EXPLANATION ABOUT THE QUESTIONNAIRE The instrument consists of two parts. In the first part the questionnaire characterizes administrators. professors and univer- sity students who participated in the study. insofar as demo- graphic data are concerned. The second part of the instrument consists of 36 affirmatives of possible objectives of university education. Using the example given below. I ask you to respond to each affirmation in two distinct ways: one representing your perception about the actual emphasis. and the other representing your perception about the emphasis ideal of university education in Brazil 1. ACTUAL: How important is the goal of university education at the present time? 2. IDEAL: How important should the goal of university education be? Ilease circle the number in each one of the statements that corre- sponds to the answer of your choice and is representative of your perception of the emphasis currentlv given to university education. Also. circle a number which corresponds to the answer of your choice and is representative of your perception of the ideal. that is. that which should beggiven to university education- a. 8.9.? s a“ i a v' . ratio ”gig is ‘dgog‘ 0 ACTUAL 1 2 3 L 5 3145 9. \a Q ,, e i. mm '9; a '1. To prepare students forthe job market IDEAL 1 2 In the example. the respondent has indicated that he believes the goal "to prepare students for the job market" is presently of low importance in university education. but it should be of high im- portance. In giving "should be" responses. do not be restrained by your be- liefs about whether the goal can ever be realistically attained. At the end of the questionnaire space is provided for comments and suggestions. numbers 37 to no. 246 QUESTI ONNAI RE FIRST PART: Intonation on the respondents: A. Please circle the nuaber that G. Acadeaic Position: corresponds to your: category: 1. 1e Student 20 2. Professor 3. 3. Administrator Is. 5. B.luabered'yeminthe above category: ll. Academic madpline: Please circle a field of teacldng. research or study of your 1.Upt01year 2.Upt02years Professor Adjunctor Professor Assistant Professor Auxiliary Professor Other (Please specify) 3. Up to 3 years interest: is. Up to it years 1. Economics _5. Up to 5 years 2. Admirdstration 6. From 6 to 10 years 3. Education 7. From 11 to 20 years 1+. Engineering 8. Above 21 years 5. Hath/Statistics 6. Physics C. Sex: 7. Chemistry 8. Technology :12: {Single 9. Arts/humanities 10. Social Sciences 1) A803 11. Biological Sciences ' 12. Other field (Please 1. 17-2h years 2a 25-h“ ”m specify ) 3. 146-6} years I. Pork condition: “‘ 0"” 65 ”m 1. m1 time* 2. ho horn-s 1. Campus of affiliation: 3. 20 hours 1. Joao Pessoa 1+. 2. Campina Grande Other (Please specify) 3. Areia J. Occupation (administrators h. Bananeiras 001!) g' 3:352:11.” 1. Department Chairman 7' Patos 2. Coordinator of the Master ' Degree Program 3. Director 1. mm Status: 1:. Pm_mt°r 1. Married 5. Vice-Hector 2. Single 6. Rector 3. Other (Please specify) 7. Other (Please specify) *Pull time means that the employee say not responsibility in another enterprise. accept Job 247 SE? CITE o; it ctive; or” university education vrrtu; 1 uca‘." or it. are a- Iii; ‘ (- Tc yrsvidc If opportunities CT'V' 1 2 3 l L 5 for professiona. job skill: l ; i have beco:r 1 2 5 u ' 5 I i. To orcvidc trainin; opport'nities an? 1 ACT?;' 1 2 1 n z " ‘c; narrower for local area ; i I est. industry an: gsvcrnxcnt- : ZJLAL 1 2 3 ‘ u t 5 .. g h n 1 ~- 1 c J u 5 1 l l--»~‘- : 2 :- . L ‘ 5 5. 3 .2731; 1 2 3 v L; ' 5 . ‘ ‘I-4; i 2 3 L 5 _;cludc local Leaders in the J.CTCAL 1 2 1 g a j *__:g‘of univ.eiuc. pro» vLLL affect tht local community. .ZDUAL 1 2 1 p \n ,. Tc provide vocational i 'nd academic counseling 1 to the studeLts. 1 2 3 L z r. F- l :. AC.!AI[ 1 2 3 4 1 z ,1 2 3;:‘5 l l C. T: i l '1 2 Q : b 5 in exploring variou: E i altc-native careers. :IFLAl 1 2 3 i a 5 l 1?. To offer prorra:; dcvclc 248 5330:: PART: “' " . .1 _, ’ uvjvcrziiy 1?. 1c dcvele' a m‘iverslty where 5:. :r:::. car. CTV.’.C“..Z.“.‘.11' nav . I f ' ‘L - 1 2’ ‘ L i f .. _.. - - , l - —‘~v- .1...” i ’ 1 , i , - b ‘ 5 . I . I - ; ‘ A ~ ~ I. l . l — 1 . '— ' ‘ -« . : 1 . :1. I ’_-‘;:_ 3 l 2 ‘ —, L , v: L 1 l --» .— l . , ._ u I z --—- —- - ~- . J . r I 4 . , _ . . — . __. . l- 4'." .3 55111:: 6;-c 'GZ'.L 2:01am (can't I. .52.! 1 . 2 3 Y b I f, t: ".L" are. _ ._ earn: ,- 1-}. ‘ . L c: sci00 3% ‘0 ’ e 7" ’ "9- % . 9o? 33).. g) 3)» ’0, o a 31. Remover barreiras geogralicas da oportunidade de educaczo "u" ‘ 3 3 4 univemtaria. ideal 1 2 3 4 32. Remover barreiras aconbmicas da oportunidade de educacS'o "U" ‘ 3 3 4 universitaria. — ideal 1 2 3 4 33. Valorizar a educaci'o permanente como prioridade para o "u" ‘ 2 3 ‘ sucesso profissional futuro dos eswdantes. 1,". 1 2 a 4 34- Atender as necessidades educacionais da comunidade onde se atual ‘ 2 3 3 localiza a instituicS'o universitaria. ideal 1 2 3 4 35. Desenvolver uma instituicé'o universitaria cujos créditos atual 1 3 3 4 academicos do mesmo nivel sejam transferi’veis para outras unwersrdades. ideal 1 3 4 36. Desenvolver uma politica de admiss‘i'o a universidade de atual ‘ 2 3 ‘ astudantes preparados e capacitados. ideal 1 2 3 4 Oueira escrever aqui outros possiveis objativos da aducaclo superior qua vooG tem a que nlo astejam incluidos acima, conforme indicado na pagina 2 daste questionario: 37. Seu objefivo: atual 1 2 3 4 ideal 1 2 3 4 38. Sea objetivo: final 1 2 a 4 ideal 1 2 3 4 39. Seu objetivo: atual 1 2 3 4 ideal 1 2 3 4 40. Seu objetivo: .1”: 1 2 3 4 ideal 1 2 3 ‘ 259 Favor usar este espaco para sua reaczo critica a objetividade a claraza do questionario. Escreva tambem outras sugestaes e comentarios sobre aste estudo. Final do questionario. Muito obrigado pela sua valiosa cOOperach. 260 APPENDIX F ENGLISH AND PORTUGUESE VERSION OF A LETTER SIGNED BY THE RECTOR OF THE FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF PARAIBA 261 umvnnsroaol FEDERAL DA PARAIBA GABINITI no neuron Joao Pessoa December 3, 1984 Dear Sir: It is my pleasure to introduce to you Professor Luiz Ramos de Lima, of the Center for Applied Social Sciences of this university, who is at the moment enrolled in a Doctoral program in Administration of Higher Education at Michigan State University, in the United States of America. I ask your cooperation to facilitate his work regarding data collection which are necessary for his dissertation. Sincerely, Jose Jackson Carneiro de Carvalho Rector 1262 unwanaioapa "Danna. DA panama minute no neuron Joio Pessoa, 03 de dezembro de 1984 Prezado Senhor: Tenho a satisfacio de lhe apresentar 0 Professor LUIZ RAMOS DE Ll MA, do Centro de Ciéncias Sociais Aplicadas desta Universidade, ora realizag do curso de Doutorado em Administracio de Ensino Superior na Universidade Es tadual de Michigan, dos Estados Unidos da América. Solicito a sua colaboracio no sentido de facilitar os trabalhos do referido professor relativos i coleta de dados necessirios i sua Tese. Atenciosamente, JJQéVSQcI§3;~::?Z::t;‘EZ‘EEF331no REITOR 263 APPENDIX G THE MODELS OF TEACHING CLASSIFIED BY FAMILY AND MISSION 264 THE MODELS OF TEACHING CLASSIFIED BY FAMILY AND MISSION Major Family or Mission or Goals for Model Theorist Orientation which Applicable 1. inductive Hilda Taba information Primarily for development teaching processing of inductive mental pro- model cesses and academic reason- ing or theory-building, but 2. inquiry Richard information these capacities are useful training Suchman processing for personal and social model goals as well. 3. Science Joseph J. information Designed to teach the re- inquiry Schwab processing search system of the discl- model (also much pline but also expected to of the Cur- have effects in other do- riculum mains (i.e., socio-logical Reform methods may be taught in Movement; order to increase social see Jerome understanding and social Bruner, '_l‘_h_e problem-solving). Process of Education for the Rationale) ll. Jurispru- Donald Oliver Social Designed primarily to teach dential and James P. interaction the jurisprudential frame of teaching Shriver reference as a way of pro- model cessing information but also as a way of thinking about and resolving social issues. 5. Concept Jerome information Designed primarily to attainment Bruner processing develop inductive reasoning model 6. Develop- Jean Piaget, information Designed to increase general mental irving Sigel, processing intellectual development, model Edmund Sul- especially logical reasoning, livan but can be applied to social and moral development as well (see Kohlberg). 265 THE MODELS OF TEACHING CLASSIFIED BY FAMILY AND MISSION (continued) Major Family or Mission or Goals for Model Theorist Orientation which Applicable 7. Advanced David information Designed to increase the organizer Ausubel processing efficiency of information- model processing capacities to meaningfully absorb and relate bodies of knowledge. 8. Group Herbert Social Development of skills for investiga- Thelen, interaction participation in democratic tion John Dewey social process through model combined emphases on inter- personal and social (group) skills and academic inquiry. Aspects of personal develop- ment are important out- growths of this model. 9. Social Byron Social Social problem-solving inquiry Massiolas, interaction primarily through academic model Benjamin inquiry and logical reason- Cox ing. 10. Laboratory National Social Development of interper- method Training interaction sonal awareness and flexi- model Laboratory bility. Emphasis on build- (NTL), ing capacity for self- Bethel, instruction and through this, Maine personal develOpment in terms of self-understanding, self-discovery, and self- concept. 11. Non- Carl Rogers Person Emphasis on building capa- directive city for self-instruction model and through this personal develOpment in terms of self-understanding, self - discovery, and self-concept. 12. Classroom William Person Development of self-under- meeting Glasser standing and self- model responsibility. This would have latent benefits to other kinds of functioning, i.e., social. 266 THE MODELS OF TEACHING CLASSIFIED BY FAMILY AND MISSION Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. (continued) Major Family or Mission or Goals for Model Theorist Orientation which Applicable 13. Awareness William Person increasing personal capa- training Schutz city for self-exploration model and self-awareness. Much emphasis on development of interpersonal awareness and understanding. ill. Synectics William Person Personal development of model Cordon creativity and creative problem solving. l5. Conceptual David E. - Person Designed to increase systems Hunt personal complexity and model flexibility. Matches environ-l ments to students. 16 Operant B. F. Behavior General applicability. condition- Skinner modifica- A domain-free approach ing model tion though probably most appli- cable to information- processing function. Source: Joyce, Bruce and Neil, Marsha. (l980). Models of teaching. 267 BIBLIOGRAPHY 10. ll. 12. 268 BIBLIOGRAPHY Abreu, J. (1968). Pesquisa~e planejamento em educagso. In J. Abreu (Ed.). Educacao, sociedade e desenvolvimento. Rio de Janeiro: CBPE, INEP, Ministéfio de Educacio e Cultura. Altbach, P. C. (l98l). The university as center and periphery. Teachers College Record, g2, 600-62l. American Association of Community and Junior Colleges (1985). Community, junior, and technical college directory (annual). Washington, D.C.: AACJC. American Psychological Association. (1966). Standards for educational and psychological tests and manuals. Washington, D.C.: APA. (1974). Standards for educational and psychological tests. Washington, D.C.: APA. Anuario Brasileiro de Educacgo-1964. (1966). Rio de Janeiro: INEP, MAniStZrio de Educacfio e Cultura. Argyris, C. (l962). Interpersonal competence and organiza- tional effectiveness. Homewood, IL: The Dorsey Press, Inc. Argyris, C., and Sch3n, D. A. (1974). Theory in practice. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, Publishers. Armore, S. J. (1966). Introduction to statistical analysis and inference for psyChoTogy and evaantion. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Arnold, M. (1927). Prose andgpoetry. New York: Scribner's. Ary, D., Jacobs, L. C., and Rozavieh, A. (1972). Introduction to research in education. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Wifiston. Babbie, E. R. (l973). Survey research methods. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co. l3. l4. 15. 16. l7. l8. l9. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 269 Balderston, F. E. (l974). Managing today's university. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, Publishers. Baldridge, J. V. (Ed.). (197la). Academic governance: Research on institutionalgpolitics and’deEiSion-making, Berkeley, CA: McCutEhen. (197lb). Power and conflict in the university. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Beard, C. A. (1937). The role of administration in government. The work unit in federal administration. Chicago: Public Administration Service. Becker, 6. S. (l964). Human capital. New York: Columbia University Press. Becker, G. S., Landes, E. M., and Michael, R. T. (l977). An economic analysis of marital instability. Journal of Political Economy, §§, ll4l-ll87. Bennis, W. 6., Benne, K. D., and Chin, R. (Eds.). (1976). The planning of change. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Berdahl, R. 0. (197l). Statewide coordination of higher education. Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education. Berg, 1. E. (l970). Education and jobs: The great trainigg robbery. New York: Praeger. Bhatnagar, G. S. (l972). Education and social change. Calcutta: The Minerva Associates. Blau, P. M. (1964). Exchange and_power in social life. New York: J. Wiley. Bledstein, B. J. (l976). The culture of professionalism: The middle class and the develgpment of higher education in America. New York: _W}'W} Norton & Co. Inc. Bloom, B. T. (Ed.). (l975). Psychological stress in the campus community. New York: Behavioral Publications, Inc. Bogdan, R. C., and Biklen, S. K. (1982). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to theory andimethods. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. 27. 28. 29. 30. 3]. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 270 Bogue, J. P. (1950). The community college. New York: McGraw-Hill. Borg, W. R., and Gall, M. D. (1979). Educational Research: An introduction. New York: Longman. Bowen, H. R. (Ed.). (1974). Evaluating institutions for accountability. New Direction for Institutional Research, 1, l-l23. (1977). Investment in learning: The individual and'social value of Amefican higher education. San FranEisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, PubliShers. Bowen, H. R., and Servelle, P. (l972). Who benefits from higher education and who should pay? Washington, D.C.: Amerihan Association of Higher EdUcation. Breuder, R. L., and King, M. C. (1976). Institutional goals in planning. Community and Junior College Journal, 52, 8-12. Brubacher, J. S., and Rudy, W. (1976). Higher education in transition: A history of American colleges and universi- ties,7l636-1976. Neinork: Harper & Row, Publishers. Burnett, C. W. (Ed.). (l977). The community and jgnior college. Lexington, KY: University of Kentucky. Camargo, P. N. (l960). Ensino Agricola. Rio de Janeiro: Encontros Regionais de Educadores’Brasileiros. (mimeo- graphed). Cammack, E. F. (l97l). Long-range planning. In P. L. Dressel and Associates (Eds.). Institutional research in the university. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, Publishers. Carnegie Commission on Higher Education. (1970). The 0 en- door colleges: Policies for community college. New York: McGraw-Hill. (l973a). Higher education: Who pays? Who benefits? Who should pay? New York: McGraw-Hill. (l973b). The purposes and the perfor- mance of‘higher education in the United States. NewFYOrk: McGraw-Hill. (l973c). Continuity and Discontinuity. New York: McGraw-Hill. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 271 Carnoy, M. (l967). Rates of returning to schooling in Latin America. Journal of Human Resources, l-2, 359-374. Carr, N. (l984). A merger between the new university of Ulster and Ulster polytechnic: Possibilities and constraints for higher education planning (Doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, l984). Disserta- tion Abstracts International, 45, 995A. Cartwright, D., and Zander, A. (Eds.). (l953). Group_Dynamics. Evanston, IL: Row, Peterson & Company. Caruthers, J. K., and Lott, G. B. (l98l). Mission review: Foundation for strategic planning. Boulder, CO: National Center for Higher Education Management Systems. Churchman, C. W. (1968). The system approach. New York: Dell. Clark, B. R. and others. (l972). Students and colleges: Interaction and change. Berkeley, CA: Center for Research and Development in Higher Education, University of California. Cohen, A. M., and Brawer, F. B. (l982). The American Com- munity College. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Publishers. Cohn, E. (l979). The economics of education. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger, PubliShing Company. Conrad, C. F. (l974). University goals: An operative approach. Journal of Higher Education, 45, 504-516. (I978). The undergraduate curriculum: A guide to innovation and reform. Boulder, CO: Westview. Conrad, C. F., and Wyer, J. C. (1980). Liberal education in transition. Washington, D.C.: American Association for Higher Education. Corson, J. J. (l975). The governance of colleges and univer- sities. New York: McGraw-Hill. Corwin, R. G. (l974). Models of educational organizations. Review of Research in Education, g, 247-295. Cowen, R., and McLean, M. (Eds.). (l984). International handbook of education systems. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 6]. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 272 Craig, J. (l981). The expansion of education. Review of Research in Education, 2, 15l-2l3. Cross, P. (l980). The new frontier. AACJC 1980 Meritorious Award (Tape 2). Washington, D.C.: ’AmericanlASSociation of Community and Junior Colleges. (1982). Thirty years have passed. New Directions for Community College, 59, ll-20. Denison, E. F. (l962). The sources of economic growth in the United States and the alternative before us. NewlYork: Committee for Economic Development. Dewey, J. (l9l6). Democracy in education: An introduction to the phil050phers 6? education. NewaBrk: MacMillan Co. Diegues Junior, M. (1964). Imigragao, urbaniza;30, industria- lizagfio. Rio de Janeiro: CBPE, INEP, Ministerio de uca; o e Cultura. Dimock. M. E., and Dimmock, G. 0. (1953). Public administra- tion. New York: Rinehart & Company, Inc. Doucette, D. S., Richardson, R. C., and Fenske, R. H. (l985). Defining institutional mission: Application of a research model. Journal of Higher Education, §§, l89-205. Douglass, G. K. (l977). Economic returns of investments in higher education. In H. R. Bowen (Ed.). Investment in learning. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, Publishers. Drabek, R. E., and Campman, J. B. (l973). 0n assessing organization priorities: Concept and method. The Sociological Quarterly, 14, Summer, 359-75. Drucker, P. F. (l973). Management: Tasks, responsibilities, practices. New York: Harper & Row Publishers. Duncan, G. J. (1976). Earnings functions and nonpecuniary benefits. Journal of Human Resources, 11) 462-483. Durkheim, E. (l956). Education and sociology, Glencoe, IL: The Free Press. Ellis, A. C. (l9l7). The money value of education, (Bureau of Education Bulletin No. 22). Washington,‘D.C. Govern- ment Printing Office. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 273 Emmerij,Ln (l974). Can the school build a new social order? Amsterdam: Elsevier Scientific Publication Co. Etzioni, A. (1964). Modern organizations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Fagerlind, I. (1975). Formal education and adult earnings, Stockholm: Almquist and Wiksell. Faure, E., et al. (l972). Learning to be:;lhe world of education today and tomorrow. Paris: UNESCO. Fenske, R. H. (1980). Setting institutional goals and objec- tives. In P. Jedamus, M. Peterson, and Associates (Eds.). Improving academic management. San Francisco, CA: JfisseyiBass, Publishers. Fernandes, F. (l960). O Cientista brasileiro e o desenvolvi- mento da ciéncia. Revista Brasileira de Estudos Pedggdgj: Egg, §§_(80), 3l-59. Fidelis, G. (l982). Brazilian university administrators' perceptions of their training and the administrative appointment process: A case study (Doctoral Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1982). Dissertation Abstract International, 5;, 318A. Fielden, J. (l973). Planning and management in universities: A study of British universities. London: Chatto andl Windus. Freeman, R. B. (1976). The over-educated American. New York: Academic Press. (1978). The effect of trade unionism on fringe benefits. National Bureau of Economic Research, (Working paper number 292). Washington, D.C.: Govern- ment Printing Office. Freire, P. (l970). The pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Seabury Press. Gardner, J. W. (1964). Self-renewal: The individual and the innovative society. NewlYork: Harper & Row Publishers. Gay, L. R. (l98l). Educational research: Competencies for analysis and application. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merril Publishing Co. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 274 Georgiou, P. (l973). The goal paradigm and notes toward a counter paradigm. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1B, 29l-3l0. Gleazer, E. (1980). Values, vision and vitality. Washington, D.C.: American Association of Community and Junior Colleges. Goodman, P. (l964). Compulsory miseducation. New York: Horizon Press. Goody, J. R. (1977). The domestication of the savage mind. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Gouveia, A. J. (1957). A escola e o professor na opiniso dos pais. Educadfio e Cifincias Sociais, g_(5), l79-208. Grant, W. V., and Eiden, L. J. (1980). Digest of education statistics, l980. Washington, D.C.: National’Center foriEducation Statistics. Gross, E. (1968). Universities as organizations: A research approach. American Sociological Review, g3, 5l8-44. Gross, E., and Grambsch, P. V. (1968). University goals and academic power. Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education. (l974). Changes in university organi- zation: l964-l97l. New York: McGraw-Hill. Grossman, M. (1975). The correlation between health and schooling. In E. E. Terleckyj (Ed.). Household produc- tion and consumption. New York: National Bureau off Education Researchf' Handlin, D., and Handlin, M. F. (l970). The American college and American culture: Socialization as a function of’ higher education. Neinork: McGraw-Hill. Harbison, F. H., and Myers, C. A. (l964). Education, manpower and economic growth: Strategies for human development. New York: McGraw-Hill. Harvard Committee. (1945). General education in a free society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Hausman, L. (l972). Pressure, benefits and options. In L. Wilson (Ed.). Universal higher education. Washington, D.C.: American CounEil on EdUcatién. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. 105. 106. 107. 108. 109. 275 Haussman, F., and Haar, J. (1978). Education in Brazil. Hamden, CT: Archon Books. Heard, A. (l973). The modern culture of higher education: many missions and nothing_sacred. Nashville, TN: United Methodist Church, Board of Higher Education. Heckman, J. J. (1976). A life cycle model of earnings, learning and consumption. Journal of Political Economy B4, Sll-544. Henderson, E. S., and Nathenson, M. B. (l984). Independent learningyin higher education. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. Henry, D. D. (l972). Accountability: To whom, for what, by what means? Educational Record, gg, (Fall), 287-92. Hyman, H. H., Wright, C. R., and Reed, J. S. (1975). Ihg_ enduring effects of education. Chicago: University of ChicagoiPress. Illich, I. D. (1972). Deschooling societ . New York: Harper & Row Publishers. Isaac, S., and Michael, W. B. (l97l). Handbook in research and evaluation. San Diego, CA: Robert R. Knapp, PUblisher. Johnson, H. G. (1960). The political economy of opulence. The Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science. 2E, 552-564. Jolly, R. (1969). Planning education for African development. Nairobi, East Africa Publishing House. Joyce, 8., and Weil, M. (1980). Models of teaching. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Kaysen, C. (l969). The higher learning, the universities and the public. Princeton, NJ: Princeton UniverSity Press. Keane, A. H. (1896). Ethnology. Cambridge, England: The University Press. King, M. C., Marquess, A. P., and Breuder, R. L. (1973). A model process for institutional goals-setting. (ERIC document reproduction service number ED 097067). Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Education. 110. 111. 112. 113. 114. 115. 116. 117. 118. 119. 120. 121. 122. 123. 124. 276 King, W. R., and Cleland, D. I. (1978). Strategic planning and policy. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Knowles, A. S. (1977). The international encyclopedia of higher education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, Publishers. Kuhn, T. S. (1957). The Copernican Revolution. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Kuhn, T. S. (1962). The structure of scientific revolution. Chicago, IL: University Ef’ChicagoiPress. Ladd, E. C. Jr., and Lipset, S. M. (1975). The divided academy: Professors and politics. New York: McGraw- Hill. Likert, R. (l967). The human organization. New York: McGraw-Hill. Lucas, R. E. B. (1977). Hedonic wage equations and psychic wages in the returns to schooling. American Economic Review, 61, 549-558. Lukenbill, J. D., and McCabe, R. H. (1982). Getting started: Straightforward advice. New Directions for Community College, 49, (December), 83-97. Lumsden, K. G. (Ed.). (1974). Efficiency in universities: The La Paz papers. Amsterdam: Elsevier Scientific Publication Co. Lyons, R. (1979). Economics of education. International Review of Education, 25, 425-432. Machlup, F. (1962). The production and distribution of knowledge in the United States. Princeton, NJ: iPrinceton UniversityiPress. (1976). Education and economic growth. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. Malinowski, B. (1922). The argonauts of the western pacific. London: Routledge and Keagan PaUl. Marshall, A. (l890a). Theyprinciples of economics. London: MacMillan Company (6th edition, l9l0). . (1890b). The principles of economics. London: MacMillan Company (9th edition, l96l). 125. 126. 127. 128. 129. 130. 131. 132. 133. 134. 135. 136. 137. 138. 277 Martin, J. R. (1982). Excluding women from the educational realm. Harvard Educational Review, 52, 2, l33-l48. Martorana, S. V. (1975). The community college in Michigan. Lansing, MI: Michigan Legislative Study Committee on Higher Education. McNeil, M. R. (l970). Guidelines to problems of education in Brazil. New York: *Teachers College Press. Micek, S. S., and Arney, W. R. (l973). Outcome-oriented planning in higher education: An approach’or an impossibility? Boulder, CO: National Center f6r Higher EdUcation Management Systems. Michael, R. T. (l973). Education and nonmarket production. Journal of Political Economy, 81, 306-327. Mincer, J. (l958). Investment in human capital and personal income distribution. Journal of Political Economy, 66, 281-302. (1979). Human capital and earnings. In D. WindhamilEd.). Economic dimensions of education. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Education. Mortimer, K. P. (l972). Accountability in higher education. Washington, D.C.: American Association of Higher Educa- tion. National Society for the Study of Education. (1970; l982). General education in the American college, Part 2, 38th Yearbook?” Bloomihgton, IN: NSSE. Newman (Cardinal), J. H. (l960). In M. J. Svaglic (Ed.). The idea of a university, defined and illustrated: in 9 discourses deliveredito the Catholics ofiDGblin. New York: iHolt, Rinehart and Winston. Nie, N. H. (1975). Statistical package for the social sciences (SPSS). New—York: McGraw-Hill. Oliveira Junior, E. L. (1959). Os fatores sociais e humanos que influem no_produtividade. Rio de Janeiro: Instituto de Cighcias Sociais da Universidade do Brasil. Open Doors. (l982). Report on International education exchange. New York: Institute of International Education. Ottoway, A. K. C. (l962). Education and society. London: Routledge and Keagan Paul. 139. 140. 141. 142. 143. 144. 145. 146. 147. 148. 149. 150. 151. 278 Pace, C. R. (l957). The environment as a factor in the criterion of college success (Paper presented at the 65th annual meeting of‘the American Psychological Associa- tion. Packwood, G. (1981). The impact of community colleges on Michigan and its economy. A research Report sponsored by the 29 community colleges of Michigan. Pagano, J. O. (1977). Linking a community of learners with a community of scholars. International Review of Educa- tion, 22, 205-2l6. Palola, E. G., Lehmann, T., and Blischke, W. R. (1970). Higher education by design: The sociology of planning, Berkeley, CA: Center for Research and Development in Higher Education. University of California. Palola, E. G., and Padgett, W. (197l). Planning_for self- renewal: A new approach to planned organizational Change. Berkeley, CA: Center for Research and Development in Higher Education. University of California. Palola, E. G., and Lehmann, T. (1976). Improving student outcomes and institutional decision making with PERC. In T. Lenning (Ed.). Improving educational outcomes. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, Publishers. Paradise, L. V., and Long, T. J. (198l). Counseling in the community college: Models and approaches. New York: Praeger Publishers. Parsons, T., et al (Eds.). (l96l). Theories of society. New York: The Free Press of Glencoe, Inc. Parsons, T., and Platt, G. M. (l973).' The American univer- sity. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Penrose, W. O. (l96l). Structure of higher education. The Hague: Uitgeverij Van Kéulen, N. V. Perrow, C. (l96l). The analysis of goals in complex organi- zations. American Sociological Review, 26, 854-866. Perry, W. 6., Jr. (1970). Forms of intellectual and ethical Development in the college years. New York: Holt, Rinehart and*Winston. Peterson, M. (l974a). Organization and administration in higher education: Sociological and social-psychological perspec- tives. Review of Research in Education, Ii, 296-347. 152. 153. 154. 155. 156. 157. 158. 159. 160. 161. 162. 163. 279 Peterson, R. E. (1970). The institutional research program for higher education: The crisis of purpose: Definition and uses 6f institutional goals.i (ERIC document reproduc- tion serVice number E07042934l: Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Education. (1973a). College goals: Practical and ideological uses. (ERIC document reprodhction service number ED 077407). Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Education. (l973b). College goals and challenge of effectiveness. (ERIC document reproduction service numBer ED 078735). Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Education. (1973c). Toward institutional goal- consciousness. (ERIC document reproduction service number ED 080037). Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Education. (l974b). The institutional research program for higher education: ’Strategieslfor assessing, differential institutional effectiveness. (ERIC docu- ment reproduction service number ED 088390). Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Education. Peterson, R. E., and Uhl, N. P. (1975). IGI comparative data. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing SerViEe. . (l977). Formulatingcollege and univer- sity goals: Aoguide for using the TG . Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service. Peterson, R. E., and Vale, C. A. (l973). Strategies for Assessing differential effectiveness in multi-campus systems. Berkeley, CA: Educational Testing Service. Plato. (l974). In D. Lee (Trans.; 2nd ed.). The Republic. Middlesex, England: Penguin Books. Pratt, L. K., and Reichard, D. R. (1983). Assessing institu- tional goals. In N. P. Uhl (Ed.). New Directions for Institutional Research, 21, 53-66. Price, J. L. (l968). Onganizational effectiveness: An inventory of propositions. Homewood, IL: Irwin. Randour, M. L., et al. (l982). Women in higher education: Trends in enrollments and degrees earned. Harvard Educational Review, §2, 189-202. 164. 165. 166. 167. 168. 169. 170. 171. 172. 173. 174. 175. 176. 177. 280 Redemsky, L. W. (l972). Vocational-technical aspect of junior college terminal education. Junior College Journal XXIII (December), 224. Riley, G. L., and Baldridge, J. V. (Eds.). (1977). Govern- ing academic organizations. Berkeley, CA: McCutchan PUBlishing Co. Rodgers, K. (l977). General administration, organization for. In A. S. Knowles (Ed.). The international encyclopedia of higher education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, Pub- lishers. Roeber, R. J. C. (1973). The organization in a changing environment. Reading, MA:_'Addison-Wesley Publishing Co. Rogers, C. (l961). 0n becoming a person. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. Romney, L. C., and Bogen, G. K. (1978). Assessing institu- tional goals: Proceed with caution. In R. H. Fenske (Ed.). Using goals in research planning. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, Publishers. Rudolph, F. (l962). The American college and university. New York: Vintage. Samuelson, P. A. (l96l). Economics: An introductory anaLy- gig, New York: McGraw-Hill. Sanford, N. (1969). Where colleges fail. San Francisco, CA Jossey-Bass, Publishers. Sanyal, B. C. (l982). Alternative structures of higher education and the world of work. International Review of Education, 25, 239-257. Sax, G. (1968). Empirical foundations of educational research. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Schmidt, G. P. (l957). The liberal arts college: A chapter in American cultural history. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers UhiversitylPress. Schultz, T. W. (l960). Capital formation by education. Journal of Political Economy, 55, 57l-583. (l96l). Investment in human capital. American Economic Review, 51, l-l7. 178. 179. 180. 181. 182. 183. 184. 185. 186. 187. 188. 189. 190. 191. 281 Shils, E. A. (Ed.). (l974). Max Weber on universities: The Power of the state and the dignity of the academic cdlling_ inlihperial Germany. Chicago: The UniverSity ofSChicago Press Shimbori, M. (1979). Sociology of education. International Review of Education. 25, 2-3. 393-413. Silberman, H. F. (l978). Academic versus vocational educa- tion in the U.S. International Review of Education, 25, 2. 167-176. Simon, H. (1964). On the concept of organizational goal. Administrative Science Quarterly, 5, l-22. Smith, A. (l776). The wealth of nations. New York: MacMillan and Co. (l910 editidh). Solmon, L. C., and Taubman, P. J. (1973). Does college matter? New York: Academic Press. Stroup, H. (l966). Bureaucracy in higher education. New York: The Free Press. Suchman, E. A. (1967). Evaluative research. New York: Russel Sage. Swartz, D. (1977). Pierre Bourdieu: The cultural transmis- sion of social inequality. Harvard Educational Review, 41, 4, 545-555. Szczepanski, J. (1974). Higher education in Eastern Europe, New York: International Council for Educational Develop- ment. Task Force IV. (l97l). Qualitative and quantitative perfor- mance and achievement in higher ed0cation. Hartford, CT: Connecticut Commission for Higher Education. Tead, O. (l95l). The art of administration. New York: McGraw-Hill. Teixeira, A. S. (1957). Educational research in countries other than the United States-Brazil. Review of Educa- tional Research, 21, 92-107. Thompson, J., and McEwen, W. J. (l958). Organization goals and environment. American Sociological Review, 25, 23-50. 192. 193. 194. 195. 196. 197. 198. 199. 200. 201. 202. 203. 204. 205. 206. 207. 282 Thurow, L. C. (1975). Generating inequality: Mechanisms of distribution in the U.S. economy. New York: Basic Books. Toffler, A. (1971). Future shock. New York: Random House. Ulich, R. (1968). Three thousand years of educational wisdom. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. United Nations Education, Scientific, and Cultural Organiza- tion. (1982). Statistical Yearbook. New York: UNESCO. U.S. ArmyeArea Handbook for Brazil. (1964). Washington, D.C.: Department of the Army Pamphlet Number 550-20. U.S. Department of Education: National Center for Educational Statistics. (1982). Washington,iD.CT: Government”Print- ing Office. Vaizey, J. (1962). The economics of education. New York: The Free Press of Glencoe,llhc. Van Dalen, D. 8., and Meyer, W. J. (1962). Understanding_ education research: An introduction. New York: McGraw- Hill. Van den Berghe, P. L. (1973). Power and privilege at an African university, Cambridge, MA: Schenkman. Walpole, R. E. (1974). Introduction to statistics. New York: MacMillan Company. Walsh, J. R. (1935). Capital concept applied to man. Quarterly Journal of Economics, (FebruarY). 255-85. Walsh, W. B. (1973). Theories of Person-environment Inter- action: Implications for the College stgdent. Iowa City: American College Testing Program. Warner, E. (1982-1983). Studenteguidebook. Lansing Community College. Weber, M. (1946). In H. H. Gerth, and C. W. Mills (Eds.). From Max Weber: Essays in sociology, New York: Oxford University Press. Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language. (1962). (COllege edition). Cleveland, OH: The World Publishing Company. Weisbrod, B. A. (1966). Investing in human capital. Journal of Human Resources. 1_(Summer), 5-21. 283 208. Willower, D. J. (1980). Contemporary issues in theory in educational administration. Educational Administration Quarterly, 15, 3, (Fall), 1-25. 209. Yarrington, R. (1981). A report of five round tables on the Brookings study. Community and Junior College Journal. (May). 14-21.