' ’YAKSHAGANA BADAGATI'ITU BAYALATA _ , A SOUTH INDIAN DANCE DRAMA I 7‘ - Thesis for the Degree oI Ph D . MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY MARTHA BUSH ASHTON II‘IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII “my , _, I Michigan Stave University This is to certify that the thesis entitled YAKSHAGANA BADAGATITTU BAYALATA A SOUTH INDIAN DANCE DRAMA presented by Martha Bush Ashton has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for ELL—degree in Theatre Niajor professor Date—”VZVZ 4‘ /2 P L: 0-7639 7'... A v 'I ' “I hum-G ‘-‘.. \ "u: ., ‘ ‘M‘u're ‘ u. .u I ultra a I. I we I ABSTRACT YAKSHAGANA BADAGATITTU BAYALATA: A SOUTH INDIAN DANCE DRAMA by Martha Bush Ashton Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata is a dance drama of South Kanara District, Mysore,State, India, which has played a significant role in the cultural and religious development of the people of this community for several centurieS. It is a composite art of music, dance, make-up, I costume and impromptu dialogue. I The purpose of this study is to provide a description of this dance—drama so that some detailed record of the art's enistence is pre- served for posterity; and so that Western theatre scholars searching for different techniques of production will have useful resource material. A number of steps were taken to accomplish this study: from January 1967 to February 1972 documentary research of published materials in the United States and India; transcription of translations relating to the dance—drama—-Dr. Kota Shivarama Karanth's book, Yakshagana Bavalata, four‘Yakshagana stories and the book of rituals pertaining to this dance—drama; observation of twenty—nine performances from December 1969 to April 1971; private lessons in wearing the costumes and make-up; recording of Yakshagana songs, poems and prose; photographing of live Performances and individual actors wearing the costumes of various ii :31 of Martha Bush Ashton character-types; "personal interviews with veteran performers, scholars, musicians, and Yakshagana enthusiasts; travel within the area to those places which are important .to the performers; and attendance at private and public ceremonies in order to more fully understand the terms and deities mentioned in the rituals and in the Yakshagana stories. The study is divided into nine chapters. Chapter, I includes an overview of the art—form, the scope of the study, definition of terms used frequently throughout the study and the research methodology. The second chapter traces the available historyof the dance-drama and dis— cusses the characteristics of the existing troupes, their locations and temple affiliations and the functions of their personnel. The third chapter deals with the elements of the drama—~the written story and the impromptu dialogue—-and their composition. The fourth chapter describes the physical environment in which the dance—drama is performed——the performance area, the dressing room, the audience and the amenities. Information on the melodies, the musical time patterns, the musical instruments and the way in Which the music-is performed is contained in Chapter V. The subject of the sixth chapter is the dance and its function. Chapter VII contains a detailed description of the make—up and costumes and how they are worn. In Chapter VIII, there is a detailed description of the rituals performed in connection with this dance—drama. -The study leads to conclusions, speculations, and suggestions for further research which are found in Chapter IX. YAKSHAGANA BADAGATITTU BAYALATA A SOUTH INDIAN DANCE DRAMA by Martha Bush Ashton A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Theatre 1972 I’. El (A Copyright by MARTHA BUSH ASHTON 1972 TO Dr. Kota Shivarama Karanth Shri Hiriadka Gopala Rao Shrimati Leela Bhat Shri Nil awara . Ramakrishnayya Dr. Bruce Robert Christie ii Eb m" M.“ m: umflu Yul ml Ila «at ur . . -. . I I - . an C .1 .Tu urn - Wm .2“ ,. .I ..u. N... W.» . .3 .I I. u r a I u. I: . u: A . “I“ I 1 n I u . «L 5 vs .5. . e. 9L I t - _ . .\ I K “C. . I. t... a 'I' ._: I v ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I am grateful to Dr. Farley Poe Richmond, the chairman of my committee, for his continual guidance and encouragement .in the preparation of this work and to Professor Frank Rutledge and Professor Herbert C. Jackson for their interest and editorial contributions. My sincerest thanks and devotion go to my teachers: Dr. Kota ShivaramaKaranth who directed my study of Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata, who‘translated his book on the subject into English for my benefit, who unselfishly gave of his time and knowledge and who has been a constant‘inspiration to me; Shri Hiriadka Gopala Rao, a master Yakshagana artist, who patiently and thoroughly taught me the rhythms and dances of this art-form through which I developed a great respect for it and who faithfully accompanied me to the performances and shared With me his knowledge of them; Shrimati Puttur Leela Bhat who beauti— fully translated into English four Yakshagana stories, the book of rituals connected with the performances and folk songs for use in this StUdy and who also taught me the significance of these translations; Shri NilawaraRamakrishnayya who diligently demonstrated the art of YakShagana music. My deePESt appreciation also goes to the many friends with whom I lived and visited who positively encouraged my study by making it a community PrOject: Shrimati M. Lakshmi, Mr. and Mrs. Aloysius Joseph: Professor B. v. Achar, Professor K. s. Haridasa Bhat, Shri H. Subbanna Bhat, Shri K. K. Hebbar, Shri and Shrimati Ramesh Pai, Shri Prabhakara iii *3, ill “I. «I I Pai, Shri Ganesh Pai, Shri Pailoor Lakshminarayana Rao, Shri Baikadi Venkatakrishna Rao, Shri Dattatreya Shastry, Shri Vasudeva Nayak, Shri Rajagopala Acharya, Shri-A. G. Alse, Shri H. Madhusoodhana Bhat, Shri G. Laksminarayana Rao, .Shri A. Madanlal, Shri Krishnamurthy, Shri B. Ananta, and Shri Narasimha. I am grateful to the following Yakshagana artists who posed for photographs: Shri H. Kushta Ganaga, Shri H. Mahabala Ganaga, Shri B. Virabhadra Nayak, Shri Srinivas Nayak, Shri Sakettu Laksminarayana and Shri Nilawara Subbanna Shetty. ‘ My gratitude also goes to the members of Mandarthi, Maranakatte, Perduru, Amriteshwari, Saligrama and Kamalashile Troupes who made Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata an exciting form of dance—drama worthy of a detailed study. My thanks to Dr. and Mrs. William T. Ross, Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Helweg. Mrs. Farley Richmond. Mr. and Mrs. Jagdev Sharma, and Dr. Bruce Christie for their interest and encouragement. I am thankful to my parents, Annie and Raymond Bush, for their love and loyalty and for their financial support during these years of study. ‘ iv \I.‘ TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 II THE HISTORY AND EXISTING TROUPES OF YAKSHAGANA BADAGATITTU BAYALATA. . . . . . . . 7 III ELEMENTS OF THE DRAMA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 IV THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT . . . . 60 V MUSIC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 VI DANCE. . . . . . . . . . . . ’. . . . . . 94 VII MAKE-UP AND COSTUME. . 145 VIII PERFORMANCE RITUALS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 IX CONCLUSIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . 316 APPENDIX.......A.......................320 III Figure CHAPTER II 1 2 CHAPTER IV 1 2 LIST OF FIGURES Page Map of India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Map showing villages important to Yakshagana . . . . . . l7 Box—like frame rangasthala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Bent—bamboo frame rangasthala. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Customary arrangement of the rangasthala . . . . . . . . 63 The ratha. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Swords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 The mace . . . . . . . . 67 The chakra . . . 68 The trident. . 68 The axe. . . . 69 The bows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 The arrows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Patrons' audience arrangement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 How to hold the tala . . . . . .‘. . . . . . . . . . . . 84 How to hold the tala . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Beating the tala . . . . . . . . . . . . .‘. . . . . . . 84 The maddale. . . . . . 86 The chande . . . . - 89 vi wet-r- Figme Page GHETMRVI 1 H Steps used in the Balagopalas' dance . . . . . . . . . 102 2 Ground plan view of patterns used in the striveshas' dance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 3 Ground plan view of pattern for the first steps of tere digana dance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 4 Ground plan view of-pattern for second step of tere digana dance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 5 Ground plan View of pattern for third step of tere digana dance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 6 Pandavas' oddolaga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 7 Ground plan View of patterns used in the Pandavas' oddolaga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .‘ 111 8 Pandavas' oddolaga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 9 Squatting step in Pandavas' oddolaga . . . . . . . . . . 114 10 Ground plan view of pattern used for squatting step. . . 114 ll Kneeling step. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 12 Ground plan View of pattern used in kirata's oddolaga. . 122 13 Places on body for putting vibhuti marks in the demon's oddolaga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 14 Making the linga for the demon's oddolaga. . . . . . . . 125 15 Gesture used for putting on eye make—up in the demoness‘ oddolaga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 16 Ground plan view of pattern for the traveling dance. . 132 17 Resting pose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 18 Ground plan View of pattern used in battle dance . . . . 13S 19 Ground plan view of patterns used in battle dance. . . . 135 20 Ground plan view of patterns used in battle dance. . . . 135 H Ground plan view of pattern used in battle dance . . . . 137 22 Ground plan View of pattern used in battle dance . . . . 137 23 Ground plan View of pattern used in battle dance . . 137 vii a Figure 24 Position of male character's body. 25 Position of female character's body. 26 A method for shifting weight . CHAPTER VII 1 Step A, basic male make—up pattern . 2 Step B, basic male make—up pattern . 3 Step C, basic male make—up pattern . 4 Pajamas. 5 Gfije. 6 Anklets. 7 Belt . 8 Basic male.breast plate. 9 Basic male shoulder ornaments. 10 Basic male armlets . 11 Basic male bracelet. . . 12 Basic male girdle. 13 Tying the gejje and anklets. 14 Step A, wrapping the kase sire . 15 Step B, wrapping the kase sire . 16 Step C, wrapping the kase sire . 17 Step D, wrapping the kase sire . 18 Step E, wrapping the kase sire . 19 The-basic male costume . 20 The bhuttu mundale . 21 Ear decorations. . 22 The taware . . 23 The mudi (bun) . . . . 24 Step A, wrapping the mudi. . . viii Page 140 140 142 147 147 147 149 149 149 149 150 150 150 150 152 152 154 155 155 156 158 158 159 159 33 34 35 Step B, wrapping the mudi. Wearing the bhuttu mundale . . . . . Wearing the maths. . . . . . . . An»atte. Step A, tying the kedage mundale . Step B, tying the kedage mundale . Step C, tying the kedage mundale . The kedage . . . . . . . . . . . The suttu. A kenchu . The turai. The mudi kedage. Side View of the kedage mundale. Front View of the kedage mundale . Back View of the kedage mundale. The mundasu. The raja kirita. . . . . . Complete raja kirita . . . Back view of raja kirita . . . . . Black woolen mustache. Black painted—on beard . Step A, wrapping the paku yelavastra . Step B, front View of the paku yelavastra. Step B, wrapping the paku yelavastra, back view. Step C, wrapping the paku yelavastra . Step D, back View of paku yelavastra . Step A, wearing the hagallu walli. Step B, wearing the hagallu walli. ix Page 159 161 161 161 162 162 162 164 165 165 165 167 167 167 168 168 171 174 174 177 178 178 180 181 Figure Pag e 53 Step C, wearing the hagallu walli. . . . . . . . . . . . 181 54 Modern style of wrapping six-yard sari . . . . . . . . . 186 55 One method of wrapping the nine—yard sari. . . . . . . . 186 56 Back view of kaccha wrap of a nine—yard sari . . . . . . 187 57 The female's girdle designed by Karanth. . . . . . . . . 188 58 The female's necklace designed by Karanth. . . . . . . . 188 59 The female's armlets and bracelets designed by Karanth . 188 60 Female's headdress designed by Karanth . . . . . . . . . 190 61 Wearing the female's headdress . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 62 The gandharva's mundasu. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 63 Step A, preparing to wear the single—slanted mundasu . . 197 64 Step B, preparing to wear the single—slanted mundasu . . 197 65 The single—slanted mundasu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 66 Preparing to wear the double—slanted mundasu . . . . . . 199 67 The double—slanted mundasu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 68 Step A, the demon's make-up. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 69 Step B, the demon's make—up. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 70 Step C, the demon's make—up. . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 71 The demon's breast plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 72 The demon's shoulder ornaments . . . . . . . . . 204 73 The demon's girdle‘. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 74 Step A, preparing to wear the demon's crown. . . . 205 75 Step B, preparing to wear the demon's crown. . . . . . . 205 76 The front part of the demon's crown. . . . . . . . . . . 205 77 The back piece of the demon's headdress. . . . . . . 207 78 Placement of the demon's crown on the head . . . 207 79 The demon's crown and back piece . . . . . . . . . . . 208 80 , 209 The demon's complete headdress . . . . . . - - X Figure 81 82 83 84 The demon in full costume and make—up. Step A, the demoness‘ make—up. Step B, the demoness‘ make—up. . . . . Step C, the demoness' make—up. The demoness' crown. . . . . . . . The demoness in-full costume and make—up . Step-A, the make—up of Vali and Sugriva. Step B, the make—up of Vali and Sugriva. Make—up of Mainda and Dwivida. . . . Step A, old—style make—up for Hanumanta. Step B, old—style make-up for Hanumanta. Step C, old—style make—up for Hanumanta. Hanumanta's crown. Middle-style make—up for Hanumanta . Make—up for Anjana and Taradevi. Anjana and Taradevi. . . . . . . . Make-up for Jambava. . . . . . . . . Old—style make—up for Nandi. . . Headdress for Nandi. New—style make—up for Nandi. The ashvameda horse. Mask for Garuda. . . . . . . . . . . . Old—style Garuda . Make—up for Shiva. Make—up for Shiva. Shiva's headdress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Step A, make—up for Virabhadra . . . . . . . Step B, make—up for Virabhadra . xi Page . 210 224 225 225 228 231 231 233 235 235 238 240 241 241 244 244 247 247 II. “25 T ., Figure Page 109 The back piece for Virabhadra's headdress. . . . . . . . 249 110 Make-up and headdress for Narasimha. . . . . . . 252 111 Make—up for Parashurama. . . . . . . 255 112 A sage wearing the sign of Vishnu. 259 113‘ A sage wearing the sign of Shiva . . . . 259 114 Costume for a sage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 115 Make—up for Atikaya and Jarasandha . . 264 116 Make-up for the warrior queen. 268 117 Make—up designs for the forehead of the warrior queen. . 268 118 Step A, wrapping the warrior queen's sari. . 270 119 Step B, wrapping the warrior queen‘s sari. . . . . . . . 270 120 Step C, wrapping the warrior queen‘s sari. . . . . . . . 272 121 Step D, wrapping the warrior queen's sari. 272 122 Step E, wrapping the warrior queen's sari. . . . . . . . 273 123 Step F, wrapping the warrior queen's sari. . . . . . . . 273 124 Wearing the warrior queen's sari with decorations. . . . 275 125 The warrior queen's crown. . . . 275 126 The warrior queen in costume and make-up . . . 277 127 The Spirit's mask. . . . 278 APPENDIX 1 Staging for jodata . . . . . . . 322 2 Staging for jodata . . . . . 323 3 Staging for murata . 325 4 Staging for murata . . . . . . . 326 ’7‘ CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION An Overview For several centuries YakshaganavBadagatittu Bayalata has played a significant role in the cultural and religious life of the people of the Kamataka region of South India. But nowadays the performances are confined mostly to North Kanara, South Kanara, and Shimoga Districts of Mysore State. This folk-drama is simply staged in an open area in a casual atmosphere: a small rectangular area of ground is set off by bamboo poles at each corner and roofed with straw mats; the actor—dancers dress for the performancein anarea demarcated by bamboo poles and walled and floored with straw mats. Members of the audience come and go as they please, purchase eatables and drinks at nearby vendors' stalls to sustain them through the night, and sometimes roll out their straw mats and Sleep when parts of the performance do not interest them. The plots for the drama are based on ancient Hindu epics and legends and are presented through the mediaof music, dance, costume, make—up and impromptu dialogue. The baSic format for the presentation of the drama is as follows: the singer sings avprescribed song to which the per- formers dance. When this song is finished the characters involved in the presentation of this song then create dialogue based on its content. This pattern is repeated again and again from the time the story beings (usually around 10:00 p.m.)- until it ends (at dawn the following day). ‘ 1 . a I,‘ who. ~.‘. Lu '0 u. ‘I h‘.’ \,,_ 'D “'L W. 2 The average'audience member knows the stories taken from the Hindu epics and legends well, so the excitement of attending a performance is not so much to see and hear something new but to reinforce what is already believed and to see howwell each actor portrays his role. The season for the performances begins at the end of November when the monsoon has receded and the rice crops have been harvested and con— tinues until the end of May when the monsoon returns. During this time each of the six troupes averages approximately 150 performances. Purpose The purpose of this study is to describe the characteristics of-this dance-drama so that some detailed record of the art's existence is pre— served for posterity; and so that Western theatre scholars searching for different techniques of production will have useful resource material. m There areno books and only a few articles in English dealing exclusively with Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata. Folk Theatre of India by Balwant Gargi (1966) and Kamatak Theatre by H. K. Ranganath (1960) each contains a chapter on Yakshagana but their accounts are general, lacking in detail, and are-inadequate as standard references to Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata in English. Brief references to Yakshagana are Contained in five other books but these do not further our knowledge in this field. Dr. Kota Shivarama Karanth has written several articles in English on the subject which contain the most concise accounts of Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata history and production. The‘only Sub— stantial work on this dance—drama is Karanth's Yakshagana Bayalata (in Kannada, the language of Mysore State) which has not been-published in ERSIish. Therefore this study represents the most complete reference 3 material on this particular danceedrama in the English language, thus making it possible for the first time for students of Western theatre study to gain-an insight into the refinement of an art form markedly different from those‘found in the West and it provides the practitioners with a useful source for experimenting with a combination of instrumental and vocal music, dance and dialogue. Scope, of the Study Prior to discussing the details of this subject it is to the reader’s advantage to have a cursory perspective of the cultural, historical and geographical background of Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata. Unfortunately there are no original documents surviving from ancient times which record the origin and development of this dance-drama. Therefore most of the historical data used in this study are taken from Karanth's findings.1 This study centers on a discussion of the characteristics of the six existing troupes; the elements of the drama and their composition; a description of the physical environment of the performance; the melodies, musical time patterns, the musical instruments and the way in which the music is performed; the dance; make—up and costumes; and the rituals per— taining to the performance. Concentration centers on the dance—drama as a performing art rather than its sociological effect on the audience or the performers . Definition of Terms The following terms are used frequently throughout the study: M 1 In Yakshagana Bayalata Karanth discusses his search for historical data through stacks of old manuscripts from many areas of Mysore State and the limited amount of information he was able to find. Bhagavata refers to the chief singer and director of a Yakshagana performance. Maddalegar is the title of the senior player of the maddale (a drum). Chandegar' means one who plays the ehande (a drum). Raga refers to any melody based on a particular scale. TaZa refers to the musical time patterns and also to the small cymbals with which the bhagavata keeps the time. Research Methodology The following steps were taken to accomplish the purposes of this study: 1. From January 1967 to February 1972 documentary research of published materials in the United States and India. 2. Transcription of Kota Shivarama Karanth's translation of his book Yakshagana Bayalata into English. 3. Observation of twenty—nine Yakshagana performances from December 1969 to April 1971. 4. Private lessons in the dance for a year and four months. 5. Recording of Yakshagana songs in different ragas and talas, recording of Yakshagana poetry and a variety of drum songs. 6. Private lessons in applying the make—up and wearing of the costumes of most of the character types. 7. Photographs of live performances and posed photographs of per- formers wearing the costumes and make—up of different characters. 8. Prasangas and the book of ritual songs, poems and prose used in connection Transcription of translation into English of four Yakshagana With a Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata performance. 9. Personal interviews with veteran performers, scholars, musicians, and Yakshagana enthusiasts . i...— W—Jef” _. snag . -- F nL‘ u .- \. "at 5 10. Travel to villages and temples important to Yakshagana performers and attendance at private and public ceremonies in order to more fully understand'the terms and the deities mentioned in the rituals and in the Yakshagana prasangas . Published Materials The major sources investigated for this study were Karanth's Yakshagana Bayalata (in Kannada) and articles by Karanth in English. Other sources added relatively little information. Observations During the one and a half years of observation special attention was given to individual performers' accuracy in‘costumes and make—up, to the inclusion or exclusion of particular dances, and to the variety in dance-steps and dance patterns in different performances. Also observed were the various physical settings, stagings, rituals and audience behavior. All interviews were informal; some were planned in advance; others took place when the opportunity arose. For the pre-arranged interviews major questions were planned, but often the answers led to questions not previously in mind. The planned interviews concerning music were with Karanth, Shri Nilawara Ramakrishnayya, Shri Hiriadka Gopala Rao, Shri Rajagopala Acharya and Shri Vasudeva Nayak. The questions were as follows: (1) Which ragas and talas used in Yakshagana are common to Carnatic (South Indian) classical muSic and/or to Hindustani (North Indian) classical music? (2) Are the ragas and talas listed for the rituals in Yakshagana Sabhalakshcma and Prasangapithike the same as those used in. contemporaryperformances? If not, please give the corrections. ~mweu4- [2‘ _ -_._~ 4.. .— . _ .‘i a Q' rim: than :i'lrab film a... l I ‘Iul J r‘ m . .. film 1;- E? u ‘ FR” x,. as. I‘L 32;;" (I) 6 (3) Whatare the differences in-style among Yakshagana, Carnatic, and Hindustani schools of music? Planned interviews concerning costumes, make-up and dance were held with Karanth, Shri Nilawara Ramakrishnayya, Shri Hiriadka Gopala Rao, Shri Virabhadra Nayak, Shri Nilawara Subbanna Shetty, Shri Haradi Kushta Ganaga, Shri B. V. Achar, Shri H. Subbanna Bhat and Shri K. K. Hebbar. The questions were as follows: (1) What costumes and make-up were worn at times in the past but are no longer worn in contemporary performances? (2) What dances were performed in the past but no longer performed in contemporary performances? The following study shows how these methods were used. CHAPTER II THE HISTORY AND EXISTING TROUPES 0F YAKSHAGANA BADAGATITTU BAYALATA The purpose of this chapter is to define Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata and to discuss its fragmentary history, existing troupes, their locations and temple affiliations, and the functions of the personnel. Yakshaganal Badagatittu Bayalata is a colorful and fast—moving folk-dance-drama performed mainly in and around the tropical district of South Kanara, Mysore State, South India (see Figure l) . It is one ofseveral different forms of religious dance and dance-drama in the coastal region of Mysore State, among which are Yakshagana Tenkutittu,2 1 The term "Yakshagana" has been used to describe a number of other dance—dramas in other regions of India, such as Yakshagana Tenkutittu and Yakshagana Doddata Mysore State, Yakshagana Kuchipudi 0f Andhra State, and Yakshagana Kuravanji and Yakshagana Bhagavata. Mela of Madras State. There are no works in English dealing solely with Yakshagana, Tenkutittu (Southern Style), the other major form of folk—theatre in South Kanara. It is generally performed around Mangalore to the north and the east and south of town into Kerala State. The music of Yakshagana Tenkutittu is more'akin to that of Kathakali than Yakshagana Badagatittu BaYalata music; the bhagavata plays a gong as in Kathakali rather than the small cymbals used in Yakshagana Badagatittu. Although some of the costumes appear to have been adapted from Yakshagana Badagatittu, Tenkutittu performers wear a skirt similar to that of the Kathakali artists. The color scheme of Tenkutittu is red, pink, turquoise, white, and black; whereas the color scheme of Badagatittu is orange, golden— Yellow, green, red, black, and white. Tenkutittu dance is almost non— existent but what remains is mostly jumping and whirling. Some bhuta (devil) stories and other stories not based on the epics and legends have been added to the repetoire of Tenkutittu troupes. 0f the six Tenkutittu troupes existing during the 1969-1971 seasons Suratkal, Dharmastala, Ira Someshwara, Kamataka, and Koodlu all performed inside a~11ent and charged admission; Katil was and is the only Tenkutittu troupe Still performing out-doors . 7 -M Jonah—M 8 Nagamandalam,3 and many forms of bhuta (devil) dances including Kola.4 In South Kanara the term "Yakshagana" refers both to a style of singing and to the local dance—drama in which this style is sung. The dictionary defines yaksha as "the name of certain demi—gods attending on Kubera,"5 God of Wealth. And gona is defined as "singing, a song, praise."6 By combining the dictionary definitions, the term yakshagana might mean the "songs of the demi—gods," a definition which is acceptable to Dr. Kota Shivarama Karanth, the noted authority on Yakshagana 8 . Badagatittu Bayalata.7 The term badaga means "north" and tittu means 3Nagamandalam is a fertility dance to Naga, the serpent God, which is performed around a colorful serpent pattern design on the ground in red, yellow, black and white powders. Dr. Kota Shivarama Karanth has observed that dance steps from this dance—drama are also found in Nagamandalam ritual. For additional information regarding Nagamandalam see K. Shivarama Karanth, "Dance Rituals of South Kanara,” Journal of the Mythical Society Bangalore, India], XLVIII, (1957-1958), pp. 88—89. 4According to Karanth there are over 60 different bhutas (devils) for which special dances are performed. Usually the costumes of the dancers are made from coconut leaves, and often metal masks of appropriate animal heads are worn to distinguish the devil, such as pahjurli, the pig-devil. The purpose of the dance is to pacify the devils and secure their help in times of need. For more details concerning these dances see Karanth, Journal of the Mythical Society, pp. 83—89. 5J. Butcher (ed.), A Kannada-English Dictionary (Mangalore, South Kanara, Mysore, India: Kanarese Mission Press and Book Depot, 1923), p. 416. 6Butcher, p. 175. 7 Karanth is the author of the only book on Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata entitled Yakshagana Bayalata (in Kannada) (Puttur, South Kanara, Mysore, India: Harsha Press, 1957 and a revised edition, 1963). 8M. M. Bhatt (ed.), Kittel's Kannada-English Dictionary, III (1970), p. 1131. Mangalore My sore Mysore State W South Kanara District North Kanara District Figure 1. Map of India Ed's; 123101 :n: 10 "style."9 Badagatittu then refers to that style of Yakshagana which is performed in South Kanara primarily around the town of Udipi‘lO and north and east of Udipi. BayaZ means "an open space, field or plain"11 and ata means "play;"12 combined, the term bayalata means "a play performed in an open-space." Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata then specifically refers to the northern style of Yakshagana performed out—of—doors . His to ry Tracing the history of Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata is difficult because there is relatively little information about man's existence and activities in South Kanara before the mid-thirteenth century. And after that time up until the early nineteen hundreds there is scanty evidence of theatrical activities in the region. Although there must have been numerous languages spoken among the different groups which eventually inhabited the Kanara area, the language which emerged as the means of literary expression was Kannada. Even though the first writings in Kannada do not come from South Kanara perhaps they do suggest the type of activities enjoyed by most Kannada speaking people during the time of their composition. The earliest writing found in Primitive Kannada is the Halmidi Inscription (c. 450 A.D.) , an invoca— tion to a deity. The earliest extant book in Kannada is Kavirajamarga, a book on poetics, ascribed to Rashtrakuta King Nripatunga Amoghavarsha M 9Tittu is a Kannada word currently in common use but it is not found in the dictionary. Letter from Karanth, July 6, 1972. l . 0The traditional spelling is Udupl. llBhatt, III, p. 1142. lZBhatt, 1, (1968), p. 27. ww- y.-:» 1 . V‘ Hun-hf “in 3 ~ . ..' iii n "'1 5“ l L T__—___—, 11 (814-877 A.D.). In this workwe find mention of chattana, a form of composition which perhaps was adaptable for singing and recitation. At least one scholar believes that this may have been the forerunner of Kannada Yakshaganas.l3 Perhaps the term chattana referred to a folk— drama, since court drama was called nataka and nataka means a dance like Kathakali rather than a drama with dialogue. Although no specific sources are cited, R. R. Diwakar, chief editor of Kamataka Through the Ages, concludes that there are references to pantomime and-doll shows as early as the twelfth century which prove the existence of a Kannada theatre that catered to the masses. The shows were performed out—of—doors and the plays, based on the epic and historical themes, contained music, dance, and dialogue. Since South Kanara was never the seat of a Hindu kingdom it is probable that the peeple were not exposed to entertainment of court drama; therefore, it seems reasonable to assume that whatever theatre develOped-in this area catered to the common man. It is possible that the descriptions in these ninth and twelfth century writings do refer to a forerunner of the Yakshaganas in the Kannada—speaking regions. But unfortunately there are no works which trace the development of the folk— theatre from that time to the present. Nor are there any works that sub— stantiate a tie between these early folk—dramas and Yakshagana Badagatittu. M» M. Bhatt cites references to Dashavatara ata (one of the previous names of Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata) in a Kannada Campu work called Abhinavadashakimam Charitre, written by poet Cavundarasa (1300 A.D.) ,14 but he gives no further details. . 13M. M. Bhatt, "Yakshagana—Stage in Karnataka," Institute of Tradi- 7”final Cultures Bulletin, part 2 (Madras, 1963?), p. 235. l4Bhatt, Institute of Traditional Cultures Bulletin, p. 236. 12 With what little historical data are available Karanth has conjectured a possible originof the Yakshagana style of music which might have been the first element of this dance—drama to develop. He suggests that its earliest form was Gandharagrama, which developed into Ekkalagana, and finally evolved into a style known as Yakshagana.15 Gandharagrama was prevalent before the Natya Shastra (c. 200 B.C. to 200 A.D.) but was not discussed in the text because it was-no longer a frequently performed style of music. Gandharagrama was, however, mentioned in the WorkrNarada Shiksha (c. 600 B.C. to 200 B.C.) thought to predate the Natya Shastra. In Namda Shiksha the author describes the characteristics of Gandharagrama.16 In another work it was claimed to be a kind of stage music or natya-dharrml.l7 The term ekkalagana appeared in two early Kannada works. In Malinatapurana, a Kannada classic by Nagachandra, dated 1105 A.D., this line is found, "The king was listening to the ekkalagana musicians singing 18 Raga Saliga." In Chandraprabha Purana, assigned to 1189 A.D., the follow- ing phrase occurs: "Like the ekkalagana musicians attracting Lakshmi seated on the lotus."19 Karanth believes Ekkalagana to be a musical style derived from Gandharagrama‘because both are thought to share the same characteristics—— that either the fifth noteof the raga scale was not used or the style used only five notes of the usual eight-note raga scale. In addition, 15K. S. Karanth, "Yakshagana: A Musical Dance Drama," Sangeet Natak Akademi Bulletin, No. 10, (October, 1958), p. 14. 16 . . 0. Goswami, The Story of Indiom MuSic (Calcutta: Asia Publish— ing House, 1961), p. 45. 17 . ' . . Prajnanananda, Historical Development of Indian Music (Calcutta: ‘ Firma K. L. Mukhopadhgay, 1960), P- 12° 18 Karanth, Yakshagana Bayalata, 1963, p. 82. 19 Karanth, Yakshagana Bayalata, P‘ 32- i i 13 the Gandhara note‘(the third note) of a raga scale and the probable shrutitnote'of Gandharagrama was-also the-shruti note for Ekkalagana.20 A. H. Fox—Strangways suggests that'an attempt was made by Sarngadeva, the author of Sangita Ratnakara (13th century) to create a new style of music based on Gandharagrama. Darmodara, the author of Sangita Darpana (17th century) lent support to Sarngadeva's efforts by copying his words verbatim regarding Gandharagrama.21 Intervening between the times when these two people lived was the Vijayanagar Empire which dates from 1346 to 1763 and one of its feuda- tories, the Kelidi Kingdom (1563-1763) during which the Yakshagana of Andhra and the Yakshagana of Mysore States might have developed. During this same period another musical term appeared in literature; the term ekkedigaru is found in Bharatesh Vaibhava where the author, Ratnakavarni (c. 1577 A.D.) describes a performance at the court of King Bharata . Dancing girls and ekkedigaru appear there. . . . People knowledgeable of the Natya Shastra and those who could be emotionally moved who were visiting the king sat and watched gracefully. The Raga Salanga was taken up with maddale and cymbals playing, tuned to a common note. The drummer stands before the curtain, bows to the king and takes up the various drum beats. Karanth believes that the term ekkedigaru cited in this text refers to Yakshagana musicians . 2'3 20Karanth, Sangeet Natak Akademi Bulletin, p. 13. 2 _ _ 1A. H. Fox—Strangways, "The Gandhara Grama," The Journal of the Aetatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, I, (1935), p. 693. 22 Karanth, Yakshagana Bayalata. P- 33- 2 3Karanth, Yakshagana Bayalata, P- 33- hr _._ v.- (i) 0—- in . .m ‘- fit \ \ I o In. (.0 .h “5: /-r 4 -_ .7? L 14 There are grounds for supposing that the contemporary Yakshagana stylerof music is remotely related to Gandharagrama and Ekkalagana. One link between the three styles is the term gandhara; it refers to the third note of the ragavscale which was named so probably because it was the shruti note of Gandharagrama music. Ekkalagana was sung in gandhara shruti and Yakshagana music when sung properly is also sung in gandhara . shruti.24 Two sayings suggest that there is some connection between the term gandhara, the name of a group of heavenly musicians——the Gandharvas, and Yakshagana. According to Karanth there was once a saying among the local people that Yakshagana music could only be sung by .the Gandharvas because its pitch is so high. Karanth is supported by a statement found by A. D. Fox—Strangways in Sarngadeva's Sangita Ratnakara (13th century): "That scale exists in heaven, not on earth."25 Having traced the origin of Yakshagana music through a rather sketchy mixture of facts and probabilities, let us now consider more substantial evidences in reconstructing the historical development of Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata. A 1557 A.D. inscription on a Lakshminarayana‘Temple, in Kurugod Village, Bellary District, Mysore State, records that an endowment of land‘was given for financial support of the performers so that the P80ple could enjoy the performances of tala maddale in the temple.26 Today the term tala maddale means stories sung in Yakshagana style of mUSiC; emphasis is placed on vocal aspects to the exclusion of make-up, costumes and dance. The musicians sit center—stage with the actors on M 24Karanth, Sangeet Natak Akademi Bulletin, p. 14. 25Fox-Strangways , p . 689 . 26Karanth, Yakshagana Bayalata. P- 36- rim :sm {.o‘ (r; I» 1.".- 'I::' r“ f 15 eitherside, facing each other, interpreting the songs and acting out the roles with hand gestures and facial expressions. If this same procedure was followed in 1557 A.D. this might have been the first step in the development of Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata. The question posed by this assumption is: Was there ever a spectacular form of tala maddale? The next bit'of evidence is the earliest palm—leaf manuscript of a storylwritten to be sung in Yakshagana style and still being performed today: Virata Parva dated 1564 and written by Vishnu of Aj apura (Brahmavara) in South Kanara.27 The tala maddale inscription and the palm—leaf manuscript together suggest that at least by the mid—sixteenth century stories were written to be sung in Yakshagana-style, accompanied by tala (small cymbals) and maddale (drum) and perhaps impromptu dialogue which explained and/or expanded the content of a song. Another piece of data is the earliest extant palm—leaf manuscript of Sabhalakshana dated 1621 A.D. which serves the same function as that part of the Natya Shastra that describes the preliminaries, but is written in much less detail. This work is important because it includes rituals to be sung before the presentation of the story and a poem denoting the existence of dance during the performance.28 Rituals from this earliest Sabhalaksana are still part of contemporary Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata. From 1621 to the nineteen forties there are apparently no writings M 27 ‘ K. S. Karanth, "Yakshagana," Marg, XIX, No. 2 (March, 1966), p. 18. This manuscript is inthe private collection of Karanth. 2 8Karanth, Yaksagana Bayalata, p. 59. According to Karanth the °rigina1 work might be a hundred years earlier. A free translation of the Poem regarding the dance is as follows: duke-up, mu {h m. The :zte evic‘ Ting sw ii .Z/ if 1. which deal with Yakshagana as a composite art of music, dance, costume and make-up, and impromptu~dialogue.29 Nor is there anyevidence to sug— gest when the term Badagatittu cameto be applied to Yakshagana of this region. Therefore, it is impossible to establish a date of its origin. But the evidences of the talavmaddale inscription (1557), the earliest surviving story written to be sung inYakshagana style (1564) and the earliest surviving edition of Sabhalakshana (1621) suggest that its origin might have been during the early sixteenth century. For a number of reasons Karanth believes that the origin of Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata took place somewhere in the Malnad area between Udipi in South Kanara District and Ikkeri in Shimoga District (see Figure 2). First, most of the-early extant plays and authors came from this area.30 Secondly, one bhakti3l type worship of God Vishnu (in .the form of Lord Krishna) owes its origin to Shri Madvacharya (born 1238 A.D. near Udipi) who founded the Dwaita system of philosophy32 and Where the hands are there the eyes should follow. Where the mind is there the emotion will follow. These are the characteristics of the dance. The earliest extant work is in the private collection of Karanth. 29The earliest known article is K. S. Karanth's "The Dance of South Kanara," Asia, XL (February, 1940), p. 77—79. 30Early playwrights other than Vishnu of Ajapura (1564) were Devidasa (c. 1600) of .Barkur region; Nagappaya (early sixteen hundredS) 0f Dwajapura (Koteshwara); the Halemakki Rama (c. 1618) of Halemakki (see Figure 2). Karanth, "Yakshagana," Marg, p. 27. Plays written by these authors are still a part of contemporary. Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata troupes' repetoires, eSpecially Devidasa's Abhimanyu Kalaga and Chitrasena Kalaga, Nagappaya's Chandrawali Halemakki Rama's Krishnarjuna Kalaga. 31'Bhakti means devotion to a personal god. A. L. Basham, The Wonder That Was India (New York: Grove Press, 1959). P. 543. . 32Madhvacharya broke completely with the Upanishadic doctrine that 2 90d and the soul were one entity. He taught that the God Vishnu had Complete power over souls and matter and that Vishnu saves souls entirely by his grace which is granted to those who live pure and moral lives. Evil NORTH KANARA DIST ICT Kelidi o o Ikkeri Sa ar ° Halemakki Kundapura Saligrama i , Udipi oSuratkal ° Katil ARABIAN SEA ° Dharmastala ' Mangalore Someshwar. SOUTH KANA“ DISTRICT 0 Koodlu KERALA Figure 2. Map showing villages important to Yakshagana. IF died I light 2 id cull Lathe l 33m. by l8 installed the idol of Lord Krishna inthe temple at Udipi. Probably the religious atmosphere which generated from this center of the Krishna bhakti cult inspired the formation of a dance-drama to further spread the doctrine. Previous names of Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata—-Bhagavatara ata-and Dashavatara ata--support this theory. Bhagavatara ata probably meant plays taken from 37161961061750 Purana, which told stories from the life of Lord Krishna. Hence, the producer of such plays received the. name bhagavata, the name of the chief singer and director of Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalataperformances. Dashavatara ata means plays describ- ing the lives of the ten incarnations of God Vishnu, one of whom is Krishna.33 Most songs in the preliminary and concluding rituals of Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata in some way concern Lord Krishna. For example, during the preliminaries there is the dance of the Balagopalas, two young boys representing Lord Krishna and his brother, Lord Balarama. Follow— ing them is the dance of two female characters representing Rukmini and Satyabhama, two favorite wives of Lord Krishna. And after the completion of the play while returning to the dressing room the bha'gavata sings, "Rama [meaning Balarama] and Krishna have come‘home. Open the door."34 souls arepredestined to. eternal damnation and souls of mediocre quality will transmigrate eternally. Basham, P- 333' A somewhat contradictory statement about Madvacharya“s teachings is found in a publication released by Shri Krishna Temple in Udipi. "The individual souls trapped in the eternal cycles of birth and death can obtain liberation by the grace of God obtained by virtuous deeds and pure devotion." Udipi: An Introduction (Udipi, South Kanara: Shri Krishnapur Mutt, August, 1957). P- 11- In both interpretations there is a strong influence from Christianity. 3 3Karanth, "Yakshagana," Marg, p. 19. 3L’lf'akshagana Sabhalakshana and Prasangapithike (Udipi, South Kanara, India: Pavanje Guruvav and Sons, 1968-69), P- 66- i -_ .-.' ;-___u_h: Lord Krishna is worshipped in all areas of India, but worship of Lord Bflarmmais rare. The facts that there iS*a temple to Lord Balarama about hurdflles west of Udipi and that Lord Balarama is included in Yakshagana BammatitUJBayalata rituals are strong points in support of the Udipi 19 araaas the place of origin of Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata.35 Existing Troupes and Their Composition Now we turn from a cursory history to deal with the contemporary trmmes,their village locations and temple affiliations, and their compo- fition. The following troupes are Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata troupes adsting during the 1969—1972 seasons: Troupe Mandarthi Maranakatte Amriteshwari37 Perduuru Kamalashile38 \ 35 Karanth, "Yakshagana," Mary. P- 19' Village36 Mandarthi Maranakatte Kota Perduuru Kamalashile See Figure 2 for locations. 1969 ate 8The Kamalashile Troupe had previously been an amateur troupe thatperformEd several times during a season, but 1970-1971 was the first t the performers attempted this as their livelihood. 11 continues as a Badagatittu Bayalata Troupe. Season tha troupe sti Temple Durga Parameshwari (Mother Goddess) Yakshi (Shakti) (Mother Goddess) Amriteshwari (Mother Goddess) Ananta Padmanabha (Vishnu) Durga Parameshwari (Mother Goddess) 7 o The Amriteshwari Troupe was Badagatittu Bayalata during the -l970 season, but during 1970—71 season it began to perform 1n51de “t and charge admission and still continues in that manner. This - .._. __—_——‘-— ._e~ :nss-uW um run tho. 1 20 The following troupes employ many Badagatittu characteristics but perform inside a tent and charge admission: Troupe Village Temple Amriteshwari Kota Amriteshwari Saligrama39 Saligrama Narasimha (Vishnu) Unfortunately the history of the origin and development of troupes both extinct and extant is not recorded, but Karanth believes that some of the troupes, especially Mandarthi, can claim 165 seasons of continuous performance.40 The youngest of the groups is Saligrama Troupe formed in 1958. Each troupe needs a minimum number of five musicians and fifteen actor-dancers; the number of specific types of each category needed is listed below: 1 Senior Bhagavata (chief singer and director, and also titled the First. Actor) 1 Assistant Bhagavata (called the Sangitagar) 1 Senior Maddalegar (chief player of the maddale) 1 Assistant Maddalegar (called the Wattu Maddale) l Chandegar (player of the chande——a drum) 1 Eradana Vesha (the main male character actor, but titled the Second 'Actor) 1 Rakshasa Vesha (demon) l Rakshasi-Vesha (demoness) 2 Mundasu Veshas (those who wear the mundasu headdresses) \ 39 i , saligrama was originally formed as a troupe that would perform nslde a tent and charge admission and still continues in that manner. 40 - Karanth, Sangeet Natak Akademi Bulletin, 1). l8. 21 l Purusha Vesha (second to the main male character) 1 Mukhya Strivesha (the main :female character actor) l Murune Vesha (the third male character actor) l Sakya Strivesha (the second female character actor) l Murune Strivesha (the third female character actor) 2 Balagopalas (two young actors who represent Lord Krishna and Lord'Balarama in their youth) 2 Kodangis (little clowns, apprentices) l Hasyagar (theclown) Detailed information on the musicians is found in Chapter V on Music and that on the dancers is found in Chapter VI on Dance. Preparing for the Performance In addition to the performers each troupe has a manager and a staff of ten; each of whom has particular duties to perform. Duties of the Manager Thevmanager's duties include in the following order: the hiring of the actor-dancers for the coming season, the repair or replacement of the costumes, the hiring of a staff, and most of the financial arrangements between the patron and the troupe. A contract‘between the performer and the manager is signed before the beginning of each season. And performers transfer from troupe to troupe according to the best offers of salary. The salary of the mainactor, bhagavata, and maddalegar is approxi- mately 2,400 rupees for six months. A performer lives from season to season; even the experienced performers are unsure of their positions bel’ondvthe year of their contract. lei 22 Themaintenance of a Yakshagana troupe is expensive by Indian standards. At the time of writing, one out—door performance will cost the patron between 800 and 1,000 rupees. From this amount the manager must pay himself, the performers, the staff, and keep the costumes in repair, and if necessary pay for the transport of costumes. Each performance of Yakshagana is requested by a patron, except those performances that are performed at the beginning of the season in honor of the troupe's favorite deities. When a patron comes to the manager to arrange for a performance he gives the manager areca nut and betel leaf. With this token the patron engages the troupe for a performance at a specified place and time. In the morning of that day, the servant of the troupe's cook goes to the patron's house to inform him that the troupe has arrived. The patron gives the servant either the food supplies, or the money to purchase them, and tells the servant where the troupe is to sleep for that day. The patron usually arranges accommodation either in the temple or at a Brahmin's house. The troupe is carrying the idol of God Ganapati and both actors and the patron consider that it must be kept in a sacred place. After this the bhagavata and the maddalegar come to the patron's house and sing a devotional song, usually to the Goddess Mukambika. At this time the patron gives the areca nut and betal leaf to the bhagavata as a sign that he will pay for the performance the following morning. The troupe has its meals and sleeps during the day. In late evening the troupe comes to the performance area and the dressing room prepared by the patron, and performs the story the patron has chosen. Patrons consist of those who vow a Yakshagana performance if a certain desire of theirs is fulfilled by god, groups of peOple who collect 67 W .5/ o-v’ 23 money for a performance, or an individual who enjoys Yakshagana per se and so finances its performance. During the morning following the performance, the patron pays the manager the agreed performance fee, the staff packs the costumes, musical instruments, properties and utensils, and, with the Ganapati Pettige at the head of the line, the staff and actors begin their journey on foot to the next place of performance. If the distance from one place of performance to the other is too great the staff and equipment are trans- ported in ox—carts, whereas actors and musicians travel in a motor vehicle . Duties of the Staff The ten members of this group include a head—of—staff and nine subordinates. Each member has a title which carries with it particular duties. The head of the staff is called the Ganapati Pettige. During the day this person must carry the Ganapati idol to the next place of per— formance, find the stones for the fire place and prepare the fire for cooking the meal. After the troupe has had breakfast, he must smear cow-dung on the eating place to purify it. In the evening about seven O'Clock he sets up the idol in the dressing room. In the lid from a straw basket he places two kings' and the queen's crowns; Krishna's weapon, the chakra; Shiva's weapon, the trident; green and red pigment powder used for make-up; peacock feathers; the pot for offering money to the god; and an oil-lamp. All night he must supervise other members 0f the staff and when necessary help the actors with their costumes and make-up . 24 TheAdda Pettige carries the cooking utensils which include one large pot for sambhar, one large pot for making sweets and two large pots for rice. ‘ In the morning he must find thevplace that the patron has arranged for the cooking, then clean this place, and clean the pots. Then with the Kodangis (little apprentices) he goes to the market and purchases dhal, rice, chillies and'other foodstuff, and prepares them for the cook. In his straw basket, the Shruti Pettige must carry two maddales, the harmonium, personal attire of the bhagavata and maddalegar, and the strivesha's good saris. During the morning he must air the saries, and clean‘the maddales. During the nighthe plays the shruti, and prepares the mixture of beaten rice and ash for the maddalegar to put on the end of the drum. The Strivesha Pettige carries all the male ornaments, the girdles, the breast plates, shoulder ornaments, and small boxes of striveshas' ornaments. During the morning he procures one load of wood for cooking. In the evening he hangs the contents of his basket on the ropes or poles along the inner walls of the dressing room. When necessary he is one of the curtain holders. The Serkina Pettige carries the demon's and demoness' crowns, the make-up, sticks for applying make—up, cardboard beards for the demon and demoness, their breast plates and shoulder ornaments, the two oil- lamps for the performance area, the oil—lamp for the dressing room, the Chanda, and the grass plaits for the headdresses. During the morning he must gather one load of wood for cooking. During the night he must Prepare the oil-lamps and keep them burning. The Hecchige Pettige carries small ornaments like the kedage, km; shinna, mundale, gejje, earrings and others. During the daytime he, ——— m— -.nn 4- an 25 with the Kodangis, carries the rice and vegetables that have been purchased for the troupe's meals. During the night he holds the curtain. The Rathadhara carries the ratha——the collapsible woodenrstool—-and one pot for rice. During the daytime he must get the banana leaves that serve as the troupe‘s plates. During the night he keeps the dressing room supplied with water, and cleans the rice pots for the next day's use, and holds the curtain. Two members of the staff are the JauZipinde. They fold all the cloth costumes, the curtain, and pack correctly the coils used in making the kedage mundale and mundasu. They carry these items wrapped in a gunny cloth bag. During the day they air the clothes in the sun and, if paid by the actors, will wash specific clothes. At night they hold the curtain. The Hecchige Ghmtu helps clean the pots, and carries the left—over uncooked food. In the afternoon he must wake everyone for meals. At night he must awaken the troupe in shifts to prepare for the night's per- formance. In the first group at about 6:30 p.m. he will wake the Sangitagar (Assistant Bhagavata) , the Wattu Maddale (the Assistant Maddalegar), the Kodangis, the Second and Third Striveshas, and the Mundasu Veshas. In a later shift, about 7:30—8:00 p.m., he will wake the Purusha Vesha, the Mukhya Strivesha, Murune Vesha, and the Rakshasa. In the last shift, at midnight or 1:00 a.m., he will wake the Senior Bhagavata, the Senior Maddalegar, and the Eradana Vesha. The Kodangis are responsible for seeing that oil is available for make—up, and the Second Strivesha is responsible for seeing that the necessary items are ready for the worship before the performance. he shit an; 1 The cook is not part of the staff and is usually a resident of the area in.which the performance is to take place. sibility to-arrange for a cook. It is the patron's respon— its 20f {iii CHAPTER III ELEMENTS OF THE DRAMA The purpose'of this chapter is to define the dramatic portions of Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata, to cite the basic sources from which the stories are taken, and to discuss the characteristics of both the con- tent of the stories, using selected illustrations, and the components of theircompositional structure. Finally the chapter discusses the characteristics of the impromptu dialogue and gives examples of how the actor—dancers createthis dialogue based on the content of the song. Yakshagana Badagatittu drama consists of two parts: the prasanga and the matu. The dictionary defines prasanga as "a topic, incident, event, or occasion."l In this instance it refers to the written por- tion of the drama adapted from ancient epics and legends to be performed by this bhagavata (the chief singer and director). And matu, which means a reply, talk, or conversation,2 is the dialogue improvised by the actor-dancers. It is believed by many Hindus of the area that a poet, receives god's blessings when he writes a prasanga, the performer when he performs it, and the audience member when he listens to it; the purpose of all pra— sangas is to instruct the reader or listener in Hindu teachings. N“ 1 . . Bhatt, Kittel's Dwtwnary, III, p. 1109. 2 D O Bhatt, Kittel's Dccttonary, III, p. 1308. 27 hr in an .1. .5. MW \Wfl...»7.h Runnn law! ,n . \I .l a . .\ \VWVE .MW\ MW. y... NV......1.W.\\.\4. u. . M“ 28 Thereare more than a hundred prasangas in print,3 but only forty— five are among those that are now, or at some times in the past, frequently performed in Yakshagana Badagatittu. The Prasangas The Sources Most of the prasangas used in Yakshagana Badagatittu are adapta— tions from the various Sanskrit and Kannada versions of the Mahabi'zalr'ata,4 Jaim'ni Bharata,5 Rmayana,6 and the religious-teachings of the Bhagavata, Padma, and Skanda Puranas. At least one prasanga is said to come from Bmlhatkatha. 7 3Karanth, "Yakshagana," p. 27. Some‘versions of the Mahabharata available to Yakshagana Badagatittu poets are: Vedavyasa's Bharata (Sanskrit), Kumaravyasa's Bhar'ata (Kannada, 1400 A.D.), and Pampa's Bharata (a Jain Bharata in Kannada, 941 A.D.) . Those Yakshagana Badagatittu prasangas based on Jaimini Bharata stories might have‘come from the original in Sanskrit, the Kannada version (14th century), or from Laksmisha's Jaimini Bharata (Kannada, 1550 A.D.) . 6Some‘versionsrof the Ramayana available are: Valmiki's Rmayana (Sanskrit and Kannada), Yoga—Vashistha Ramayana (Sanskrit), Adbhuta Ramayana believed to be Visvamitra's (Sanskrit and Kannada), Uttara Ramakathe by Narayana (Kannada), Torave Ramayana by Kumara Valmiki (Kannada, 1500 A.D.), Pampa's Rcmzayana (a Jain Ramayana written by Naga Chandra in Kannada, 1100 A.D.), Kaushika Ramayana by Bathaleshwara (Kannada), Adbhuta Ramayana by Muddanna (Kannada, 19th century). 7The original BP’Lhatkatha is lost to us but it is mentioned by the poets Bana and Dandin. It largely concerned the loveadventures and marriages of Naravahanadatta, a gentleman destined to be either an e111peror or asage. There is an abbreviated version, Brihatkathashlokaswn- 9mm, a Nepalese ,workldealing with the same subject. Another version from the original Bmlhatkatha is Brihatkathamanjam’ (The Great Cluster of Story) by Kshemendra, or Kshemankara written between 1020 and 1040 A'D- The latter has been translated by C. H. Tawney and published under the title Ocean of the Streams of Story. the! salt 5 n: a think “in Wm 29 The Mahabharata is the longest epic poem in any language. In the present Sanskrit form it contains 220,000 lines organized into eighteen volumes. Scholars‘differ as to the possible date of its composition, whether or not the contents were based on actual events, and if so, the probable date of when these events occurred. But in his book The Great Epic of India, Professor Washburn Hopkins states that song cycles about the Bharatas were current by 400 B.C. and that the story ofthe Mahabharata (The Great Bharatas) was known between 400 and 200 B.C. He also believes that the story had reached its present length sometime between400 and 200 B.C., and was available in Sanskrit to priests and scholars.8 Thermain-theme of the Mahabharata is the rivalry between the Pandavas and theirvcousins, the Kauravas, which culminates in the Battle of Kurukshetra . The most frequently performed prasangas adapted from stories in the Mothabharaz‘mc9 are: Draupadiswayamvaralo (The Engagement of Draupadi) , Abhimanyu KaZaga (Abhimanyu's Battle), Karnarjuna KaZaga (ThevBattle Between Karnaand Arjuna), Bhishma Vijaya (The Victories of Bhishma) , 8Elizabeth 'Seiger, The Five Brothers: An Adaptation of the Mahabharata (New York: John Day Co., 1948), p. l. 9Prasangas adapted from the Mahabharata that were commonly per- formed in the past but rarely performed today areAiravata (The Story of Indra's Elephant), Atikaya KaZaga (Atikaya's Battle), Indrakilaka, Indrajittu'Kalaga (Indrajittu‘s Battle), Mairavana Kalaga (Ravana's Disguise in Battle), Rajasuya (Royal Ceremony), and Saindhava Vadhe (The Death of Saindhava) . 0111 publication all names of prasangas are preceded by the term Yakshagana to indicate that this work is written to be sung in Yakshagana StYle of music; for example, Yakshagana Draupadiswaymvara. inn Thu n 7 and In ., .. ”:7“ z?” 30 Chitrasena KaZaga (The Battle of Chitrasena, the Gandharva, with Duryodhana, the Kaurava), Devayaml Kalyana (The Marriage of Devayani), Kanakangi Kalyana (The Marriage of Kanakangi), Subadra Kalyana (The Marriage of Subadra) , Kichaka Vadhe (The Death of Kichika) , and Virata Parva (The Story of the Kingdom of. Virata) . There is little information about the Jaimiml Bharata published in i English. A Kannada version was supposedly written sometime during the fourteenth century.A.D. and Lakshmisha‘s Jaimini Bharata was written in Kannada in.1550 A.D.ll The Jaimiml Bharata contains an elaboration on those events relating to the Horse Sacrifice of Yudhisthira, the king of the Pandavas, after their victory over the Kauravas in the Great War at Kurukshetra . Frequently performed prasangas adapted from the Jaimini Bharata are: Sudhanva KaZaga (Sudhanwa's Battle), Babhruvahana KaZaga (Babhruvahana's Battle), Tamradhwaja KaZaga (Tamradhwaja's Battle), Chandrahasa, and Sheshiprabha Pam'naya (The Marriage of Sheshiprabha) . The Sanskrit version of the Ramayana is shorter than that of the Mahabharata. In its different recensions it contains from 50,000 to 90,000 lines organized into seven volumes. Scholars differ on the date 0f the Ramayana's composition: some say that it is older than the Mahabharata; others say itis more recent than the Mahabharata. The story israbout the life of Rama, heir to the throne of Ayodhya. It begins with Rama's boyhood, and continues with his marriage to Site and their lives together both at court and in exile in the forest. R— 11 . Puttur Leela Bhat, Lecturer in Kannada, Mahatma Gandhi Memorial 0011639., Udipi, South Kanara, Mysore State, India, interview, November 1970- Information taken from Parananama Chudamani (Bangalore: Benegal Rama Rao and Panyam Shastri, 1941). N ‘ run 6‘ W. n 1.. ll ‘ rm ‘ in nu Jud. yaw mm.— .qu .. .M 4m W "W. It hr. ml 0: TD. 0 .Ex: W y n WE. .m. We .7 on ..;~ HA» r t "S, w »M l V4 mm \ wk I h I 1 .1 Those prasangas adapted from the Ramayana most often 2 performed are: Ranapattabhisheka (The Coronation of Rama), Panchavati- Valisugmlva KaZaga (The Life of Rama and’Sita in the Panchavati Forest and the Battle Between Vali and Surgriva), Lavakusha Kalagal3 (Lava and Kusha's Battles), Rammjaneya (Rama-and Anjaneya), and Vidhyunmati KaZyanaM (The Marriage of Vidhyunmati) . Of all the eighteen major Puranas and the eighteenminor Puranas, the Bhagavata Parana is the most popular. The numerous manuscripts and publications of the text, the numerous translations from Sanskrit into E other Indian. languages, and the voluminous commentaries on the work testify to its popularity. But like most ancient Indian works it is dif— ficult to arrive at a positive date for its composition. At least one scholar, Pargiter, calculated the ‘date of its composition as the ninth century A.D.ls The work has 18,000 stanzas in twelve volumes and contains descriptions of the various activities of Lord Krishna. The most commonly performed prasangas adapted from Bhagavata Puranal6 are: Shri Mshnavivaha (ThevMarriages of Krishna) Parijata' (The Story 12 Prasangas adapted from the Ramayana that were once frequently, Subahu KaZaga (Subahu's Battle) and Viravama Kalaga performed are: (Viravarma's Battle). 3This story of Lava and Kusha is taken from .Yoga Vasishtha Ramayana. Professor A. Mojundar, Acting Head, Department of Indian Studies, Uni- versity of Melbourne, interview, Melbourne, Australia, June 24, 1971. 14 This story is taken from Adbhuta Ramayma. Letter from Professor 3. V. Achar, Brahmavara, South Kanara, May 2, 1972' . 15Gaurinath Sastri, A Concise History Of Classical Sanskrit Literature (London: Oxford Press, 1960), P' 45' l 6Yakshagana stories adapted from Bhagavata Parana that were once freQuently Performed are: Prahlada charitre (The Story Of Prahlada), and Sfimlbaragura Kalaga’ (Shambarasura's-Battle), . 32 of the Parijata‘Tree), Chandravali (TheStory of Krishna's Flirtations with Chandravali), Rukminisvayamwara (The Engagement ‘of Rukmini) , Rati Kalyana (The Marriage of Rati) and Usha Pam'naya (The Marriage of Usha) also known as Banasura KaZaga (Banasura's Battle). Padma Parana has two recensions; the earliest in the Bengali language, is probably not older than sixth century A.D. It contains descriptions of the creations of the universe, genealogies of the solar and lunar dynasties, myths of the conflicts between the gods and the demons, myths with special emphasis on the God Vishnu as the destroyer of demons and miscellaneous myths.l7 It glorifies Lord Krishna's activities in. Vrindavana Garden, and introduces erotic mysticism as the leading religious motive.18 i There is also a Jain Patina Purana written by Ravisena, 678 A.D. i describing the world and glorifying the first Jain Tirthankara (one who has attained salvation during earthly life) .19 The only Yakshagana prasanga adapted from Padma Parana is Viramam' Kalaga (Viramani's Battle) which is occasionally performed today. Skanda Parana is probably no earlier than sixth century A.D. and‘it contains legends of the God Shiva, especially his battles with demons. Furthermore, it includes the rituals for worshipping Shiva, the duties 0f each caste, the ways and means of attaining salvation, and rules about Vedic brahmanical ceremonies .20 M 17 . . . Maurice Winternitz, A Htstory of Indian Laterature (Calcutta: University of Calcutta, 1933), I, Part2, p. 470. 18 . . Sishil Kumar De, Aspects of Sanskmt Laterature (Calcutta: Firma K- L. Mukhopadhyay, 1959), pp. 129—130. 19 Winternitz, ,p. 494. 20 . Winternitz, p. 500. 33 The only prasanga adapted from Skanda Parana is Rukmangada Charitre (The Story of Rukmangada) which is occasionally performed nowadays. Ratnavatt' Kalyana is said to come from Bm'hatkatha. Prasangas f0r which there appear to be no written sources are Krishnarjma Kalaga (The Battle Between Krishna and Arjuna), Minakshi Kalyana (ThevMarriage of Minakshi) and Shwetakumara Charities (The Story of Swetakumara) . 21 Synopses Most of the prasangas are mainly concerned with battles and marriages which clearly suggests that the main rasas22 are vira (heroic), raudra (furious) and srt'ngara (erotic). In some prasangas all three main rasas are-present. One of the best examples is Sudhama Kalaga adapted from ZlG’lrija Ka-Zyana (The Marriage of Girija), once a very frequently performed prasanga, is taken from Shiva Parana. 22According to P. K. Kale's thesis inThe [Vatyashastra of Bharata: A Selective Critical Exposition for the Western Theatre Scholar (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University. Microfilms, Inc., 1969) it has been impossible to find an English equivalent for the term rasa. Many scholars have written books attempting to explain rasa. Following are some of Kale's ideas on-the meaning of rasa according to his interpretation of Bharata's use of the term andsome verses that he quoted from the Natya Shastra regarding rasa. He suggests that the meaning of the term lies somewhere between ,"the essence of being and Pleasure“ and "the bliss manifest through contemplation of an aesthetic object" (p. 120). ' Kale states that Bharata gives no etymological explanation of the word, but explains it‘ through an analogy (p. 134). As gourmets eating gourmet food, umde with a variety of ingredients and enriched by a number of condiments, savor the taste of static modalities [Such as pleasure, mirth, sorrow, wrath, vigor, fear, disgust and wonder] SUPPOIted-by the dynamic modalities [such as energy, peace, happiness, 34 Jaimini'Bharata. The storyvconcerns the roaming of the Pandavas' sacri— ficial horse after the Battle at Kurukshetra. When the Pandavas' kingdom is restored to them King Dharmaraya is encouraged to perform any Ashvameda23 in an attempt to be recognized as emperor of a number of contentment, even temper and humility] and form of theatrical presentation [oral, bodily movement, outward reactions of supposed internal feelings such as fear represented by trembling]; material and external [make-up and costume]. These are held as the rasas in the theatre (PP. 129—130). Kale's deduction is that "the difference between these two experiences is one (food) is a sensory experience while the other (theatre) is a mental experience" (p. 139) . However, Pravas Jivan Chaudbury says that "rasa is nothing but the relish of a principal or elemental human emotion, like love, pity, fear, heroism and mystery, which forms the pervasive dominant note of a dramatic piece” (p. 155). But he also believes that the audience does in a way experience the emotions depicted on the stage; they laugh and cry as in real life, but they do not feel these emotions as real but "symbolic, charged with meanings." This, he says, is the secret of aesthetic delight or rasa. He seems to indicate that the experience of rasa is both mental and physical. "Dramatic experience on this traditional theory [rasa] is as much a matter of emotional exaltation as of intellectual penetrations into the emotions enjoyed" (p. 160). "One feels an emotion intensely yet one does it, not as in life, but only to be intensely aware of it. We must not stress one element at the cost of the other and thus lose the wisdom of the ancients (p. 160). Pravas Jivan Chaudbury, ”Catharsis in the Light of Indian Aesthetics," Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, XXIV (Fall 1965), pp. 151-163. According to Monomohan Ghosh's translation of The [Vatyasastra (rev. 2nd ed. Calcutta: Granthalaya Private Limited, 1967), pp. 105—118, rasa means sentiment and the eight sentiments are as follows: hasya (comic), Smngara (erotic), vira (heroic), bibhatsa (odious), raudra (furious), karuna (pathetic), bhayanaka (terrible) and adbhuta (marvelous). 23Ashvameda is the horse—sacrifice during which the horse is allowed to roam the country—side at will. If those into whose kingdom the horse 8°eS do not want to fight the army following the horse, they pay some tribute to the invading king. The one who conducts a successful ashwameda becomes emperor over those kings that have submitted and those who have been overcome in battle. émtiful _[_——_i w 35 kingdoms.‘ The story includes numerous battles inwhich both vira and raud'ra rasa occur; the first is between Krishna and the demon who by magic makes the horse disappear; the second is between Pandavas' army and a king who finally concedes defeat; and the third is between the Pandavas and Sudhanwa's father. In preparation for war Sudhanwa's father orders him to take his troops to the front lines. Dutifully he bids farewell to his mother and wife. The scene between Sudhanwa and his wife is beautifully written; sringara rasa occurs when both express sorrow at their imminent separation (and his wife expresses her desire to give him ' a son for the perpetuation of his death rites should he‘die on the battle field. Sudhanwa succumbs to his wife's pleas and stays the night with her; for this he is later punished. The story ends with the death of Sudhanwa and the triumph of the Pandavas over his father's kingdom. However, neither Sudhanwa nor his father arevconsidered defamed because Sudhanwa has died by Krishna's arrow (shot by Arjuna) and this insures Sudhanwa of immediate salvation and releases him from the cycle of rebirths. And Sudhanwa's father has fulfilled a life-long ambition: ' to see Lord Krishna. Raudra and vira rasas usually appear together rather than separately inthe prasangas. Even if one opponent initially does not want to fight with the other, somehow they both become irate before the battle beginS. Oneprasanga containing mainly these two rasas is AbhimanyuKaZaga adapted from the Mahabharata. In the battle between the Pandavas and the Kauravas, Arjufla (a Pandava) receives two invitations to battle at the same time. Cleverly Krishna arrangesfor Arjuna to fight with a demon-—one of Kaurava's allies——and arranges for Abhimanyu, Arjuna's son, to fight with Kama, Drona and other of the chief Kauravas. Arjuna defeats the demon, but his son Abhimanyu is killed. And 'Arjuna vows to destroy those who h destr ilanhna m \ " IV] 36 have destroyed his son. The story illustrates that God Vishnu in the form of Krishna has come. to relieve the world of evil. Unknown to Arjuna hisson Abhimanyu is a rebirth of an evil one called Kamsa. In some prasangas the dominant rasa is sringara; for example, in Uhmdramali, adapted from the Bhagavata Parana. This prasanga is most unusual in that no battles occur thus eliminating the potential for vira and raudra rasas. The dominant characters are Krishna, Chandrawali and her husband. Lord Krishna flirts with Chandrawali and when she returns his attentions, her husband becomes angry with Krishna and reprimands him, but Krishna explains that when one gives oneself in love to God that action is enough to win him salvation. Although vira, raudra and sringara are the predominant rasas in most prasangas, karma (pathetic) does occur on occasion. But bhibhatsa (odious), bhayanaka (terrible) and acflyhuta (marvelous) rarely appear in the prasangas. Hasya (comic) rasa does not appear in the written drama,24 but is introduced by the actor—dancers into the improvised sections usually through messengers and servants. Bhakti (devotional) and Shanta25 (peaceful) rarelypappear in the prasangas with one exception: in Rukmangada Charitre, bhakti and sringara are the dominant rasas. Rzkmcmgada Charitre, adapted from Skanda Purana, deals with the ritual of ekadash’ll--the eleventh day of the waxing or waning of the moon on which the Vaishnavas, Ramanujas and Smarta groups of Brahmins wake and fast. Therstory goes that one day the King was hunting in the forest and k— . 24The one exception may be the cowardly actions of Prince Uttara 1n Vtrata Parva, but this would depend on‘the reader’s interpretation. ZSBhakti and Shanta rasas are not among the traditional rasas mentioned in Bharata's. Natya Shastra. 5m i: l w" 'r *9. I m 3. saws beautiful lady, .Mohini. He became infatuated with her charms and proposed marriage, to which she agreed on the one condition that he shOuld never refuse any of her desires. Completely enchanted with this : lovely lady, the king agreed and for some time he and his new, bride lived happily in thepalace. Then came the time for the ekadashi rites. While the king was preparing himself, Mohini insisted that he satisfy her physical desires, but he refused, protesting that he must give up all worldly pleasures during the performance of the ritual. She reminded himof his promise and demanded that if he did not keep it, he would have to sacrifice his son. Although tempted to fulfill her sexual desires Rukmangadalsfaith in god and his belief in the importance of the ritual gave'him strength to resist and he agreed to sacrifice his son. Just before the son was to be killed, Mohini disappeared and in‘her place Stood‘the God Vishnu who praised Rukmangada for his faith and promised the king salvation. Generally the-prasangas focus ona situation that occurs between two characters, as in Kamarjma KaZaga (The Battle Between Karna and Arjuna) and LavakushanKaZaga (Lava and Kusha's Battle) or an event that happens, to one'character such as in Subadra Katyana (The Marriage of Subadra), Draupadtsvayarrwara (The Engagement of Draupadi) , .Babhruvahana Kalaga (Babhruvahana's Battle) and Tamradhwaja KaZaga (Tamradhwaja‘s Battle). In many prasangas the. poets have combined a series of loosely related chronological events in an episodic fashion. As anexample let us consider the prasanga, Kamarjuna .KaZaga, adapted from the Mahabharata. The first main event is Karna's appointment as commander-in—chief of the Kaurava's army, his defeat at the hands of the Pandavas, then King Shalya's agreement to become Karna's charioteer, and lastly Karna's mace V7 38 preparation for the second attack on the Pandavas. Thevnext sequence of eventsshifts the emphasis to Draupadi, wife of the Pandavas, who complains that even though she was dishonored by Dushshasana in the presence of her five husbands, none,had yet'removed this disgrace. Then the storyvreturns to Karna's-victory over Dharmaraya. Once again the emphasis shifts, this time to Bhima's killing of Dushshasana after which Draupadi visits Bhima on the battle field and praises him for defending her honor. The next sequence'of events concerns the death of Karna's son at the hands of Arjunaand Karna's mourning scene. Finally the climax of the prasanga culminates in the :Battle of Karna and Arjuna, in which Karna dies. At the beginning of every new season each troupe gives a special performance at the temple of its patron diety and other deities for whom the troupe has special attachment; this is called devaseva (a service to god). And thevprasanga most performed at that” time is Subadm Katyana. The story teaches about the gandharva style of marriage, an ancient custom which allowed two people to marry by mutual consent; sexual conSumation served as the ceremony. The main rasa is sringara and the main characters are'Arjuna, Krishna and his brother Balarama, ~ and Subadra, Krishna's sister. The prasanga describes Arjuna's wandering during his year in exile disguised as a mendicant during which time he comes to Krishna's palace and receives the hospitality of the family. Subadra isrequested to take care of Arjuna's needs. Romance develops and Arjuna slopes with Subadra. Each troupe of Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata has its own favorite Prasangas for which it is well known among the villages of South Kanara. One of the prasangas most frequently performed by the Mandarthi Troupe is Draupadtswayamvara; it describes the unusual method by which , k8hatr73yas (warriors and kings) in ancient times chose husbands for their m .um W W. m .m... m M» h M... H I H bi .m. e m. h b - X I - P a , . 1 a c P . a . mi m. "m, it h a u u.» m. m ,m . . a m. u. h. E h .4 u. it». h ..n a. .-'—r.- . a 39 daughters. The main'characters are the five Pandavas—~Dharmaraya (Yudhisthira), Arjuna, Bhima, Nakula and Sahadeva——Kunti, their mother, and Draupadi. The poet begins the prasanga when the Pandavas go to a place called Varanavati to attend a Shiva festival; they are warned that their cousins will try to destroy them during their visit. After escaping from a burning palace the Pandavas and their mother, disguised as beggars, proceed to a place called Ekachakra where they learn that ayoung boy is soon to be eaten by the demon, Bakasura. Soon thereafter Bhima destroys the greedy creature. In the. next episode‘the Pandavas, having heard of Draupadi's beauty, go in disguise and succeed in winning her in marriage through Arjuna's» accomplishment of a superhuman feat. One of the main teachings of the storyvis that good, personified in_ Bhima, overcomes evil, personified in Bakasura. Also included is a description of one type of svayamvara, the ancient method used by kshatriyas-for choosing mates for their daughters. An unusual circum— stance in this prasanga is the marriage of Draupadi to five husbands, the Pandavas. Another interesting point is that often in.Yakshagana stories when Draupadi is angered she assumes the form of Chandika (Durga, the Goddess of Destruction) who has come to be known as the consort of Shiva. The Pandavas are generally considered worshippers of Vishnu rather than Shiva although Bhima often wears the mark of Shiva on his forehead and Arjuna meditated on Shiva in order to receive from him the PaShupa, especial powered arrow. A prasanga commonly performed by the Perduuru Troupe is Lavakusha KaZaga adapted from Yoga Vasishta Ramayana. The first part of the pra— sanga that explains the cause of Sita’s exile to the forest is rarely Performed; the story usually begins with the education of Lava and Kusha (sons of Rama and Sita) during which Valmiki, (the supposed author of the Th . I and i the he md 5v a is man ~ RU 'm hi I u t . . h h A“ n “h . ,A 40 Ramayana, teaches them to read and write, to use the bow and arrow, to sing and to play the Dina (musical stringed—instrument) . Finally he tells them the story of the life of Rama. One day while hunting in the forest Lava and Kusha discover a beauti- ful maiden (the demoness Shurpanaka in disguise) who lures Lava into a magic swing with her where she immediately assumes her ugly form, seizes him and takes off into the sky. Kusha shoots her with his arrow and saves Lava. Having lost all her teeth as a result of the fall, Shurpanakaangrily complains to her brother in the h0pe of receiving his help, but he drives her from his kingdom. In revenge she goes to Rama's kingdom and unknown to him brings misery and disease on the people until she extracts a- promise from Rama that he will find two boys for her to sacrifice. Meanwhile in the forest, while Kusha goes homevto replenish their stock of arrows, Lava, still in the forest, is captured by Rama's brother, Lakshmana. Through the help of Bhudevi (Goddess of Earth) and Sita, Kusha is able to find and free Lava and together they return to the forest. Both Rama and another of his brothers seek to recapture the boys, but in the meanwhile Rama's mother has discovered from a servant that these boys are Rama's sons. Lakshmana who had been ordered to kill Sita after taking her to the forest, had spared her life when he saw reflected in the blade of his knife the unborn child in her belly. Eventually King Rama, his queen Site, and their sons are reunited and the royal family returns to Ayodhya. Rama is an incarnation of God Vishnu and Sita is considered an incarnation of Lakshmi, Vishnu's wife. A prasanga frequently performed by Kamalashile Troupe is Bath’Wahana KaZaga adapted from the Jaimint' Bharata. In chronology this Story occurs after Sudhanwa Kalaga previously discussed. The sacrificial hfla new h ————————— 41 horse continued to roam and eventually went into the territory of Queen Pramila who tied the horse because she was interested in marrying Arjuna, not fighting with him. But he was not interested in marriage so a battle ensued. In time a heavenlyvvoice persuaded Arjuna to marry her. Next the horse wandered into the kingdom of a demon who fought with the, Pandavas and was defeated. From there thehorse roamed into the kingdom of Babhruwahana, a brave youth who caught the horse without fear of the Pandavas and informed his mother that he would fight for their kingdom. Unknown to the boy Arjuna was his father. Once in the past when passing through this same country Arjuna married a woman who after his departure bore him a son-— Babhruvahana. When she told her son this news he agreed not to fight but to take gifts to his father‘s camp. But Arjuna, also unaware that Babhruvahanawas his son, saw these gifts as an act‘of cowardice and challenged Babhruvahana to fight. The challenge was accepted and Babhruvahana, to the amazement of his mother, killed both Arjuna and ‘ his minister. She prayed to Lord Krishna who came and restored life to ‘ all. The wife told Arjuna that Babhruvahana was his son and with the ‘ assurance of Krishna that this was true, Arjuna embraced his wife and son and all was well. 3 One of the Maranakatte Troupe's most frequently performed prasangas is Tamradhvaja KaZaga, also adapted from the Jaimiml Bharata. Once a king wanted to, see Lord Krishna. So Narada, the sage, informed him that he mustvconduct seven Ashwamedas and that the king's son, Tamradwaja, must follow the horse. During this same time the Pandavas were also conducting an Ashwameda and the two horses met on the plains. The servant guarding the king's horse defeated the Pandavas' servant and Tamradhvaja defeated both Krishna and Arjuna and left them tied on the battle field. In his, "ms 80c :I‘ed 42 When Tamradhvaja and the servent proudly returned with the two horses, the king reprimanded them because he thought this would mar his chances of seeing Lord Krishna. Soon after freeing themselves, Krishna and Arjuna disguised as Brahmins came to test the king's reputation——that he would not refuse anyone's request. Before thinking, the king agreed to help them with their problem which they explained was a lion that wanted to eat the young brahmin. And they wanted half of the king's body to satisfy the lion's hunger. Numerous mannerisms and the speech of the Brahmins aroused suspicion in Tamradhvaja and he demanded to know who they were. Finally Krishna and Arjuna revealed their identity and Krishna proved his divinity by reuniting the king's body. The story ends happily becausethe king's wish has been ,fulfilled——he has seen Lord Krishna. Cons truc tion Each prasanga contains passages written in poetry, song patterns typical of Yakshagana, and prose, but there are no rules regarding the arrangement of these elements in‘the prasanga; the poet is free to write in any poetic metre or song pattern he chooses and to combine these elements in any order he selects. 32:91 Poetic metres of two different languages are used: Sanskrit and Kannada. Most‘of the poems written in Sanskrit poetic metrehave been written in Shardulavikriditam which consists of four lines, each of which has the same metrical pattern. Two of the most prevalent Kannada POetic metres are Bhamini and Vardhika Shatpadis which havesix lines each; the difference between the two is their internal rhythms. In addition there are two others that frequently occur: Kanda and Dwipadi. '77 _ 43 Kanda censistsofvfour lines of which the first and third, and the second and fourth, have the samemetrical pattern. And Dwipadi has two lines each having the same metrical count. Song Patterns A study of the song patterns is a major project within itself. Songs written to be sun in raga and tala seem to be written in whatever metre the poet has designed. However, a few patterns are extant that have been used by several different authors for songs to be sung in the same raga and tala. Since the bhagavata is not obligated to repeat a specific metrical pattern of a song this may account for the absence of rules regarding the construction of songs. The prose‘contained in the prasanga is called vachana or gadhya. Whereas the poetry and songs tell the actual story, the prose informs the audience about the events that will follow in the performance of the Story, off-stage actions, items of religious and philosophical signifi— cance; and informs the readeror listener of any other ideas or actions \ the poet deems necessary for the understanding of the story ,to follow. rat_u Now that the characteristics of the prasanga have been considered, the purpose‘of this next section is to discuss and illustrate the second element of the drama, the matu-—conversation, dialogue, talk that is Created'by the actor-dancers. Whereas the purpose‘of the prasanga is to instruct, the purpose of the matu is both to instruct and to entertain. There are~two types of matu, that between the character and: the bhagavata, and that between or among the characters. The following paragraphs hm 44 illustrate: these types of matu, the difference between two troupes' matu for the same story, and the dialogues of one particular group ofacharacters: the clowns . Matu Between Bhagavata and Characters The first prose‘to be spoken in a Yakshagana Badagatittu performance is that of the bhagavata. After the introductory dance of each character or group of characters the bhagavata asks: "Who are you? From where did you come?" or "Where is your native place?‘ Why did you come?" or "What is your trouble?" One of the characters answers the questions and relates some background details about the story to follow. For example, after the Pandavas' introductory dance in the. prasanga Dmupadiswayanwara, the bhagavata asks the above questions to which Dharmaraya, the oldest of the Pandavas, replies that they are the Pandavas and they have'come from Hastinavati. He states that the kingdom has been divided and that they must leave for Varanavati to occupy their half of the kingdom. Then the bhagavata sings the first song of the I story; if it is in raga and tala,- theactors dance. When the song ends, the extemporaneous dialogue begins. If a character is alone on the stage the bhagavata responds to each Phrase or sentence spoken by the actor with a "huh" to show the audience and the actor that he is listening. If the character asks the bhagavata a question a response is given. An example of this responsive dialogue occurs in Lavakusha Kalaga when the demoness Shurpan'ika smells human flesh. Seeing the young boys, Lava and Kusha, she plans a banquet for herself, but first she has to catch them. After the actor in the make-up 0f the demoness exits, and another actor in gentle female character attire enters, the following dialogue ensues. h 45 Shurpanika: Do you know who I am? (in disguise) Bhagavata: Yes. Shurpanika: ‘Did a big demoness come here? Bhagavata: Yes. Shurpanika: Well, I am she. Do I look all right? Bhagavata: Yes, you look beautiful. Shurpanika: I didn't know. Pe0ple were looking at me all along the way. Let me see a mirror. (The bhagavata pre- tends to hand her a mirror.) Oh, yes! I am wearing precious jewels, therefore I am attractive. I have a swing that is going to be a death trap for my victims. I'm going to decorate it with fragrant. flowers. It's a magic swing, did you know? I'm going to sing with a voice as beautiful as the cuckoo and they will be spellbound by the beauty of my song. In a similar instance from another prasanga, the demoness Hidembi appears for the first time inDraupadiswayarmara. She asks the bhagavata if she is pretty. The'bhagavata says: ”No, just look at yourself in the mirror," and pretends to hand her a mirror. She pretends to look in the mirror and agrees with the bhagavata that she is ugly and that she will return in the guise of a beautiful girl in the hope that Bhima will marry her.27 Matu Between Characters Often, when there is more than‘one character on the stage, a character Will call the nameof the person being addressed who responds with the R‘— 26Dialogue from a, performance of Lavakusha KaZaga at Kadiyali Temple, Udipi, South Kanara, by the Kadiyali Temple Troupe, February 20, 1971. Translation into English by Shrimati Puttur Leela Bhat. 27Dialogue from a performance of Draupadiswayamara in Brahmavara, South Kanara, by Mandarthi Troupe, November 25, 1970. Translation into English by Shri H. Subbanna Bhat. sat MSG L 46 name of the person addressing him. The addressee will then begin the conversation. Throughout the conversation each character will respond to phrases, sentences, and/or questions with the expression "huh." For example, in the performance of Krishnarjuna KaZaga, Krishna is questioning the sage Narada as to the whereabouts of Gaya. Narada: Krishna! Krishna: Narada! Narada: Your face always has the radiance of the moon, but today the lustre has gone. What is wrong? A song is then sung in which Krishna asks Narada to listen to his problem. Krishna dances to this song and then addresses Narada. Krishna: Narada! Narada: Krishna! Krishna: One day when I was offering ablution to the Sun God, Narada: Huh! Krishna: Gaya was crossing the sky in his aerial car. Narada: Huh! Krishna: Something evil fell from the sky into my ablution. Narada; Huh! Krishna: I have vowed to kill him within eight days. If I do not keep myvow I will cast myself into the fire. Seven days have already passed. Tomorrow is the last day. Narada, you are a wanderer in all the worlds. If you have any news of Gaya, you must tell me.28 According to his knowledge of the epics and puranas an actor deve10ps his dial°gue based on the content of the preceding song. An experienced actor is expected to clarify and/or dEVGJ-OP the theme 0f the song more than an inexperienced actor might. \_ 2 8This dialogue was told and translated by Shri Hiriadka .mpala Kao and Shri Nilawara RamakriShnayya as lines similar to those spoken In an actual performance. 31a! hay 47 Development of the Matu The fiflJowing is_a typical example of the process by which this {mrthNIOf Yakshagana Badagatittu develops. In.Rati Kalyana, a song inflnmm the audience that Krishna is in his court and that his wife Rukmini has come to him. Bhamini In the great city of Dwaraka, Vasudeva was holding his court with different groups of praisers. Then Rukmini, the lotus-eyed-one came to the court with her ladies-indwaiting and knelt at the feet of the one whose vehicle is Garuda. When she was waiting on Krishna he said:29 In the dialogue which-follows this poem, the actor playing Rukmini exnkflns how Rukmini came to marry Krishna and her rank among Krishna's wives: Rukmini: There is nosone so blessed by serving Krishna as I. Inspite of his having numberless wives, I was the the one who had decided to marry him, having heard of his glorious exploits when I was a young girl. But my brother had decided to give me in marriage to Shishupala. I asked Krishna to marry me and now I am first among his eight main wives.30 Hm achn:continues partly exPlaining why Rukmini has come to the court. Rukmini: I am most fortunate among women. God is my husband; still I have no satisfaction. I have no want of saris or jewelry. The happiness of being the mother of children is quite different from the happiness of being a wife. Krishna should have given both happinesses as he is omniscient. >I \\ , zgfiati Kalyana (Moodabidri, South Kanara: Vivekanand Press, Ocumer 13, 1967), p. 3. This is an unusual publication because it con- tmhm the old prasanga with dialogue recently interspersed. The author ofthe Prasanga is unknown; the dialogue was written by Sundara Rao of'hmmale: Kerala State. And for the purpose of this thesis this prasanga Efidtme dialogue were translated into English by Shrimati Puttur Leela at. 30 . Raft Kalyana, p. 4. L 48 am worried. I must make a decision today. In the company of these ladies I am going to speak to Krishna, the lord of my life. Greetings, my lord!31 Atthis point the actor playing Krishna might say: "Rukmini, why have you come? Sit here." to sing the 32 And this would serve as a cue for the bhagavata next song. Raga Kedaragaula Ashta Tala Self-respecting Rukmini, why did you come? What is the matter? Why do you appear so worried? Why have you greeted me so affectionately? After this song Krishna speaks. Krishna: Lady of my life, looking at your face I feel that there is something strange today. Why did you enter my court in such haste? Your mind seems restless. What is the reason_for your sorrow? Rukmini, don't hesitate to tell me about the matter because the conversation between husband and wife is full of love. Tell me. I am listening. Hm song continues. Lord, listen and try to understand. You arranging the marriage of Manmatha. have not fulfilled your duty of35 Rukmini: Husband, who is God, how can I tell you, who is the ocean of kindness, and who is all—knowing. Listen lovingly, my lord, our son has come of age for marriage. Did you forget that it was the father's duty according to customs and tradition? I have come to discuss the matter with you. I have been disappointed for days waiting for some news of the ll._______________ 31 . Hurt Kalyana, p. 4. 32 . Barr KaZyana, p. 4. 33 _ Rafi KaZyana, p. 4. 34 . ante KaZyana, pp. 4—5. 35 . Raft Kalyana, p. 5. 49 marriage of Pradhyumna, our son. For one who is as wise as you, it is not proper to neglect this issue. Often the song supplies only a few details about the setting of a mmneleaving the actor free to create an elaborate description. An example of this is found in Rafi KaZyana. Raga Bhairavi Tripude Tala Here in Gajapura [Hastinavati] Draupadi was in her bed— room at that time.37 Draupadi: It is midnight and I am in the bedroom with Partha. I hear someone's voice. I have gotten up but I don't see anyone. Dharma and Bhima are asleep. Who would call me? Even if I listen attentively, I canYt make out the voice, but it is not a strange voice to me. Ah! It must be my brother Krishna's voice, but why.shou1d he call me so late in the night? This cannot be true. I was thinking about him before I went to bed. Unless Lord Krishna had shown his grace upon us we would never have regained our position; the Kauravas would never have been destroyed. How can I forget his kindness. Though I am Queen of Hastinapura now, Lord Krishna is all pervading in our various states of sleeping and awakening. Let me listen carefully now.38 The next illustration demonstrates how the Hindu concept of rebirth caibe stressed through drama. Krishna has persuaded Draupadi to find awife for his son; she has chosen Rati, but Rati's father refuses. Then Ratiexplains to her father the reason that she must marry Krishna's son. Raga Bilahari Eka Tala Listen, father. Don't hesitate. I am going to tell you about my previous birth. I know why the daughter of Drupada approached you. Please listen to what I am saying. N 36 . fintt Kalyana, p. 5. 37 . sat; Kalyana, p. 12. 38 . Raft Kalyana, p. 12° 39 . Herr KaZyana, p. 36. "Hon 50 Rati: Father, please don't think that I am trying to provoke you. So far no one knows that secrets I have in my. mind. I realized that Draupadi came here only to "fulfill my desires. I want you to know about my past life and my future. Please don't doubt my words. Hm song continues. Krishna, the One who is beyond the Intellect, is in Dwaraka. He has a son called Mara. Draupadi came to arrange my marriage with him in the right way, that of pouring water over my hands 1....In the olden days, Kama killed the demon, Shambarasura and released those whom he had imprisoned. Then Narada came to Kama and told him that he would lose his prestige married to a girl older than himself.42 Rati: Long ago, I was imprisoned and working in Shambarasura's palace. Then Kama was born from Rukmini's womb. He killed the demon Shambarasura and saved me. One day Narada came. Although he was pleased by our hospitality he told us that our marital relationship was against the rules of the world. To rid myself of that sin I entered the fire. Have you not heard the story?43 Hm song continues. Having listened to Narada's advice, I am reborn. Why hesitate? If you agree to the marriage Mukunda [Krishna] will protect us all. Rati: Father, this Rati, your daughter is that same one. Now it is time for me to return to my husband. If you perform your duties as my father, Lord Krishna will' protect us. Who knows how anxious my husband will be to see me. M 40Rati KaZyana, pp. 36-37. 4lfiati Kalyana, p. 37. 42Rati KaZyana, p. 38. 43Rati KaZyana, p. 39. 44Rafi Kalycma, p. 39. 45 Rafi KaZyana, p. 39. if]! min 51 Often in dialogue a character recollects his past. A delightful remembrance mi ht occur when one of Drau adi's husbands, Ar'una, wakes P J mm finds that she is not there. Raga Bhairavi Tripude Tala Here in.Gajapura, Partha awoke but didn't find his wife by his side, so he went to look for her. 6 Arjuna (to himself): Ah! It is still dark. The universe seems to sleep in darkness. I think of the many nights in the past like this that we have slept in the forest, wandering in the day like beggars from forest to forest. Because of wicked Kaurava's orders those were difficult days for us. There seemed to be no connection between the race into which we were born, the atmosphere in which we lived, and our life of poverty in the forest. Even so, dharma had the final victory. All the luxuries of.life and royal glory eventually came to us. Although we are completely happy now, we are still sometimes haunted by thoughts of Kaurava's wicked acts. Especially those that hap- pened in the gambling hall. Dushshasana tried to disrobe Draupadi and dishonour her. What? Draupadi is not here. What is this? Where has she gone? I want to find her. Ah! Draupadi! Sometimes the song tells only the name of the character and where heis at the moment. It is then left up to the actor to improvise the (Halogue to elaborate the character's environment, temperament and his fimughts at the time. Dwipadi The lord of that great forest was ' wicked Meghasura who immediately became.aware of their presence.48 46 . Ratt-Kalyana, p. 47. 47 . Raft KaZyana, p. 47. 48 . Rats Kalyana, p. 62. 52 After these lines are-sung the demon dances his introductory dance and then begins his boasting. Meghasura (to himself): How wonderful! This vast forest in the midst of these large mountains, has been under my control for so many years. Even the sun is afraid of sending rays to this place, so spreads them beyond the mountains which border this inaccessible region. All the animals are under my power. Whatever I say is law. So far no one has trespassed this abode of mine. I have been living here a complete sovereign with my sister. We have no difficulties. Aaaam! What is this? I hear the noise of trumpets. Who is trespassing this region of the sky with— out my permission? Sister, come here. Do you hear? Go, climb the mountain and see who it is. Tie their hands and bring them to me. I will see about the matter and remove their pride.49 There are usually many places in the stories that allow the character to philosophize. lammms the death of his son at the hands of Kaundlika. One excellent example is in Rafi KaZyana when Krishna In the conversa- thnlwhich follows the song, however, sadness at the death of his son is anunor point; the major emphasis is on the power of divine energy. Krishna (to himself): Raga Nadanamakriye Ashta Tala In this way the flower—arrowed one fell on the ground. The Gods became very sad. Krishna knew in his heart what had happened. But like a human being, he was also very sad. All the Gods including Indra are feeling sad realizing the defeat of Manmatha in the battle with Kaudlika. But now I must enact a drama. If I show that I am also defeated before others are defeated, Brahma and other Gods will follow me. What difference does this make? When everyone has been defeated, the personification of destruc- tion, Chandika, will appear. Then it will be clear to the world that the divine energy is not in .._______________ 49 , Raft KaZyana, p. 62. 50 . Raft KaZyana, p. 87. in t1 am a?" V .. Shankara or other Gods. Therefore, I must pre- tend and cry like other human beings at the defeat of Manmatha.51 Afier the defeat of Kaundlika by divine power, Krishna summarizes in. histalk the meaning of the story of Rati's marriage to Manmatha and the evils of Kaundlika. Krishna: Draupadi, the world has a new experience because of your valor and adventure. The power protecting the world is not limited in Hari [Krishna] or Hare [Shiva] or in the Gods. Your achievement is an example of how power reveals itself when there, is necessity. Listen, Gods like Brahma, today the world realized that by the marriage of Rati and Manmatha, the presence of the protective power cannot be challenged. If anyone causes hindrances to an auspicious work, he will be destroyed by that power. Again, it is clear from this marriage, that only when you submit to the will of God will there be happiness. What more is there to desire! We must all think of the better- ment of the world and journey to our homes. Differences Between Two Troupes' Dialogue for the Same Story Each time a prasanga is performed the dialogue is different even if thesame-actors are portraying the same characters. They are free to the different illustrations to support their philoSophical views and different stories to clarify the contents of the songs. The following paragraphs illustrate the differences in dialogues for om troupes performing Vidhyunmati KaZyana. The story deals with the Disamtions of Indra's son for the daughter of a Gandharva. In a per- formance of this story by Mandarthi Troupe, the actor playing Jayanth, Indra's son, took about fifteen minutes to reveal his love for the beauti- flfl girl he had discovered in the forest. Finally he asked the girl her “NE SlRati KaZyana, p. 87. 52 . Bart KaZyana, p. 108. w Wu 'ie an l .. name’and cameto know that her father was a servant of his ownfather. Jayanth told Vidhyunmati, the Gandharva's daughter, of his desire to marry her. In her reply .she emphasized the difference between their two castes and said that it was not proper for one of a superior casteto marry one'of an inferior caste. Jayanth replied that they need not cling ' to the old ways, but should introduce a new way. The sonof Indra sug— gested that Vidhyunmati's father would not oppose their marriage. She states that she could notspeak for herself, that a woman is never inde— pendent in society, and that until .she was married she would be under the authority of her father. Jayanth was interested to know that if her father had no objections, would she object. She replied that he was handsome and had pleasing manners, but beyond that she had no comment. In this same scene performed by Maranakatte Troupe, the actor took much less time than did the actor of Mandarthi; he did not elaborate but simplydescribed Vidhyunmati's beauty and told how much he was affected by it. When he asked about her, she explained that she was not her own master andthat her father is Sulochana, the Gandharva. She also pointed out the difference in their castes. When asked by Jayanth if she would accept him as her husband if her father agreed, she said only that she would not go against the wishes of her father. In the next scene Jayanth approached the girl's father on the question (If marriage. In Mardathi Troupe's performance Jayanth asked the servant tO-report his presence to Sulochana, Vidhyunmati's father. While in his court Sulochana explained to the audience that he is the guardian of the amusement gardenof Indra. When Jayanth was admitted by Sulochana, he (Sulochana) thoughtthat it was unusual for his superior's son to call on him. He said: V "Have you come on public business or for your own sake?" in his! NflVx \uHW 55 Jayanth: I came to relax in the water of the lake and to watch others enjoying themselves in the same way. I came upon a most beautiful girl. After admiring her beauty I inquired who she was and said that I desired her hand in marriage. mediately Jayanth began to address Sulochana as father—in—law. Sulochana criticized him for his actions. Sulochana: We are not of equal rank and no such marriage can take place. What would your father think? You approaéh your own father and let him come forth with the proposal, then I will consider it. Yours is merely a youthful passion; you do not know what you are doing. This action ill befits your position and may bring evil to both our families. I cannot conceive of such a marriage. hmanflicasting off all courtesy said that if Sulochana did not consent hewouhitake the girl away in spite of him. The actor is playing Jmmnflxas a head—strong youth who acts first and thinks later. In contrast to Mandarthi's Jayanth, in this same scene Maranakatte's Jayanth is a more gentle character. As he approaches Sulochana he speaks. Jayanth: I saw the girl and was bewitched by her. I elicited her name.and learned that she was your daughter. If you would consent to give your daughter to me in marriage, I would be pleased to call you father— in—law. Sulochana: No such marriage has ever taken place between two unequal parties; you can't think of it. Jayanth: You must give her to me whatever the consequences. Sulochana: You can't force that idea on me. You, the deity- class, have imposed yourself on mankind. You all have swolleneheads. You forget that it was with our support that you were able to conquer the demons and establish your rule. Don't push matters by forcing an issue like this. I will not yield. M 53Dialogues from Vidhyunmati KaZyana performed by Mandarthi Troupe mm Maranakatte Troupe, on February 21, 1971, in Kundapura, South Kanara. Trmmlations into English are by Dr. Kota Shivarama Karanth. hb his in: 56 The Clowns' Matu Since the general tone of the prasanga is serious the humor in the drama is usually introduced through the dialogue. And although conversa— timibetween or among the non—comic characters might be clever and witty flm-comic mood of the performance mainly depends on the abilities of the clmnm (called Hanumanayaks). They are free to base their comments on Hm content of the prasanga and/or create improvisations which are non- samical and often—times risque. The clowns also sing local folk—songs to provide added amusement. The clown actors play the roles of sages like Narada and Valmiki, guards, messengers, and servants of royalty. One of the most enjoyable nfles of the clown is that of being the guard for the Pandavas' Ashwameda lmrse in Babhrwnahana KaZaga. The horse roams into the kingdom of Queen Prmmla. Pramila's lady guards find the clown sleeping instead of wauflung the horse. Clapping their hands and shouting, the ladies try U>wake him. But he rolls over and yawns. When he is finally awoken, herwtices with much delight that he is surrounded by lovely young maidens. Hesings a comic folk—song entitled ”Hurdugi Ninu" (You, Girl). Lavani Eka Tala Who are you? How many came with you? Who came with you? Tell me quickly . Clever one, who is your father? Here, show me your face. Married or unmarried? Tell me quickly. Mara's flowered—arrow is shot. My mind is filled. Lady, I promise you I am telling the truth. I am in a state.of emotional frenzy. is ‘n' («u 57 Furthermore, you forget everything else. I will make‘you happy. I won't leave'you. It's getting dark and I'm getting hungry. Don't wastetime, come quickly. Don't you want to come?54 With comic facial movements he flirts with, chases the girls, and tells them how infatuated he is with them.55 If the clown is playing the part of the gate-keeper and must protect his master's kingdom or possessions, he is usually the loser. The clown's only weaponis a long stick. The victor pulls the clown's arms back and bends them at the elbows. Through the opening caused by the bent elbows the victor puts the clown's stick and leaves him defeated. - The clown bemoans his situation to the bhagavata and asks the bhagavata to remove the stick. In one scene from Abhimanyu‘KaZaga, a king's messenger comes to invite Arjuna to battle. The clown playing the role of the messenger created an aura of nonsense as he entered miming a deformed person and speaking asthough he were hare—lipped. Arjuna asked how he had come to this state. The clown replied that when his wife was pregnant she craved paisam (a liquid sweet) made from tamarind (a sour fruit). He had climbed the tree to get the fruit and had fallen. Arjuna cured him with a magic arrow.56 In another scene from Abhimanyu KaZaga, Kaurava's servant came to announce the arrival of Kaurava's friend, the demon Samasaptaka from M 5 4A Kannada folk—song translated by Shrimati Puttur Leela Bhat. 5 5From performances of Babhruwahana Kalaga by Saligrama Troupe in Saligrama, South Kanara, November 16, 1970, and in Udipi, South Kanara on January9, 1971'. 56 . From a performance of Abhrmanyu Kalaga by Kamalashile Troupe, in Brahmavara, South Kanara, December 7, 1970. mi N! CI 3111 kl! 58 Pathala. The‘servant said to Kaurava: "He has come from Pathala." Kaurava said: "Who has comefrom Pathala?" Then the clown ran to ask Samasaptakawhat to tell Kaurava. Samasaptaka beat the clown and said: "I have come from Pathala." The clown, then ran to Kaurava and said: "I have come‘from Pathala." Kaurava beat the clown and said: "You have not come from Pathala. Now you go and ask the name of the person who has come." Finally the clown got the message straight and Kaurava received his friend. Later on (in the same sequence Samasaptaka has volunteered to fight for Kaurava against the Pandavas.‘ In olden days when agreements were made between two persons. the vilya——areca nut and betel 'leaf-—were given and accepted. When Kaurava was about to give the vilya he requested the clown not to make any noise. Pretending he could not help himself the-clown sneezed, tripped onhis own feet and fell on the floor and yawned loudly. After each incident the annoyed Kaurava beat him with a handkerchief . 5 7 The clown rarely escapes without some beating from his superior. In Kanakangi Kalyana, the servant accompanied Abhimanyu in search of Abhimanyu's mother, Subhadra. When they found Subhadra shewas sleeping soundly. The clown said that she must have died therefore they were not able to wake her. As Subhadra awoke, Abhimanyu beat the clown with mango leaves for trying to fool him.58 Often the clown plays the role of a main character when that char— acter is in disguise. In ,Kicheka Vadhe, Bhima disguised as a cook is played by the clown._ Draupadi, disguised as handmaiden to the queen, M . 57From a performance of Abhimanyu Kalaga by Kamalashile Troupe, lnsBrahmavara, South Kanara, December 7, 1970. 58 . j , From a performanceof Kanakangt Kalyana by Perduru Troupe in Hiriadka, South Kanara, January 8, 1970. ' his ! m: he ! WEI he! 59 has been attacked several times by Kichaka, the queen's brother, who lusts for her. Draupadi agreed to meet Kichaka one night ina dancing mantapwn. But Bhima disguised himself as Draupadi and killed Kichaka. There were some humorous moments when Bhima was attempting to disguise himself as a female. Draupadi said: "How will you dress?" "I'll wear a sari," saichima. "What about your mustache?" said Draupadi. "I'll cover it with the end of the sari," said Bhima. "But, what aboutyour voice?” said Draupadi. "0h, I'll talkvin a high voice like this." And he demonstrated . 59 59From a performance of Kichaka Vadhe by Amriteshwari Troupe in Padukere, near Kota, South Kanara, November 21, 1970. . «Hr—.7" C! ! L?! h. H: l}; CHAPTER IV THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT The requirements for staging a Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata performance are both simple and temporary. Because of favorable weather conditions during the theatre season--predictably clear skies and temperatures ranging from 70 to 90 degrees Fahrenheit——it is not necessary to use solid protective structures. And since the troupes' move from village to village a temporary structure is sufficient. Consequently, the raugasthala (the acting area) and the chauka (the dressing room) must be constructed atthe request of the patron each time there is a performance. The rangasthala is marked off either in the property adjacent to the patron'shouse, 'inthe middle of paddy fields enclosed byforests, or in front of atemplesurrounded by the village environment. The. floor of the acting area is usually a fifteen by twenty foot rectangle of earth. * Because the soil often contains stones, and perhaps remnants 0f paddy stubble, the patron supplies sand to cover it. It is the responsibility of the-stage—hands to smooth the sandif the actors scatter it during their dance. The acting area is covered by a tall box-like frame-of bamboo decorated with mango leaves, and sometimes flowers, coconuts, plantains, and colored paper. There are two types of bamboo frames (Figures 1 and 2); the reason for choosing one over the other is not known. 60 v'jW—iiiew , 61 Figure l. Box—like frame rangasthala. fizfi‘ Figure 2. Bent—bamboo frame rangasthala. u I. - WU. Nun. .3 vM. . We MW . h.» dew 1a ed III-lsniir; ————i 62 At‘the center of oneof the narrow ends of the rangasthala the patron has a wooden table placed; actors usually enter the rangasthala stage—left of the table and make their exits stage—right of it. The customary seating arrangement for the musicians is shown in Figure 3. Theaudience sits opposite and to both sides ofvthe musicians as ina Western theatre designed in three—quarter—round (see Figure 3). Sometimesvwomen and children sit apart from men as they generally do in daily practice. At other times everyone sits where one likes. The illumination of the performance can come from any or all of three sources: thetraditional oil-lamps, gas lamps resembling Coleman lanterns, and electric lights. The two traditional lamps shaped like shovels which are used only in Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata performances contain coconut oil and cotton r0pe wicks and are secured either to palm frond ‘or forked—tree branch supports, one on each side of the rangasthala. Even though the reflection of flickering flames on the actors creates the atmosphere of a mysterious and superhuman world, today's audiences would rather have less atmosphere and see more detail, so inaddition to the oil—lamps gas lanterns are suspended from the rangasthalastructure by‘means of rope orwire. The stage-hands are responsible for keeping the lamps burning throughout the long hours of the night which means that they must move about the acting area during a performance filling the oil—lamps and lanterns with the fuel supplied by the patrons and pumping the lanternsmuch to the consternation of Western spectators, but without seeming to disturb Indian audiences who are accustomed to the practice. If electricity is available often bare light bulbs are strung along the horizontal poles of the rangasthala structure and glare brightly into the 8Yes of the spectators. 63 0 at“ _‘ - J ( MaddalegaO .ag ata Chaanar Oil-lag O' —lamp AUDIENCE AUDIENCE AUDIENCE Figure 3. Customary arrangement of the rangasthala. n1 die 64 Unlike most Western theatrical productions, Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalatahas no scenery, which allows the spectators to imagine the audience halls of kings, the enchanted forests of a demon, and the, sanguine corpse—strewn battle fields of warriors. The only stagefurniture used in a performance is the ratha—-a sturdy yet collapsible, unpainted wooden stool with four wheels1 (Figure 4). Without any additional decorations to alter its appearance, the ratha is used as a throne, a chariot, or a mountain and is kept out- side the rangasthala until needed. A curtain hand-held at the rangasthala's entrance is used for the introduction of all the maincharacters (see Chapter VI on Dance, Oddolagas), for the entrance of characters who are asleep or dead, and for the exit of those characters who are fatally wounded or who have died on stage. It is held vertical to and about one foot above the ground. When the dancers approach the rangasthala all but the tops of their headdresses and their feet are concealed from the spectators who are seated opposite the musicians. As the dancers perform the first part of the introductory dance they dramatically puSh the curtain forward, making it curve. Hiding behind the curtain they tease the audience by showing themselves little by little. The curtain is usually a six—by— five foot rectangular piece of medium—blue cotton cloth with the name 0f the troupe, and the name of the troupe's deity appliqued on it in white, pink, light blue, and green. Sometimes elephant and flower aPPliques are added for decoration. ”M 1Sometimes a chair or stool is brought from a nearby house and used in place of or in addition to the ratha, but this is not a common Practice among the troupes studied. 65 Figure 4. The ratha. A: The fe Krishna's c thurama The sw vile; they 324' by the lib and is firm, 1 111d Irish: “all six “in gold I lack wooh 33‘ desig1 ?' l0rd SI 1:11 W 1: Gas, is a} “he 9) 1‘“ and a 0 are w, dilated ill herding h, wool is "rows film 11 The c Esmnsibj hEasthal '- tip The 66 The few properties used in the performances are swords, maces, Lord Krishna's chakra (discus—like weapon), Lord Shiva's tmlshula (trident), Parashurama's axe, and bows and arrows. All of these are carved of wood. The swords are approximately one and a half feet long and two inches wide; they are painted silver (Figure 5). For the most part they are used by the demon and demoness. The mace is approximately four feet high and is painted gold and silver (Figure 6); it is 'used mostly by Balarama, Indra, and Ghatotkacha (son of Bhima by the demoness Hidembi). Lord Krishna's chakra, which he alone uses, has two sides and is approxi- mately six inches in diameter excluding the extensions. It is covered With 801d‘paper, decorated with bits of red cloth and mirror pieces and blackwoolen balls are attached to the upper and both side extensions. Some‘designs used in the centerof the chakra are illustrated in Figure 7- Lord Shiva's trident, used only by him, is approximately six feet tall and is painted silver (Figure 8). Parashurama's axe, which he alone uses, is approximately one and. a half feet long and is painted silver (Figure 9). Thevbows are thin but sturdy pieces of wood approximately four and a half feet long; they are used by the remaining characters who are warriors. Some of the bows are painted silver; others are painted in silver, red and black stripes (Figure 10); the designs vary according to the craftsmen-who construct the. items. Either two or four black woollen balls arevtied to the bow at different places (Figure 10) - The a171-”0WS are either painted silver, or silver with red arrow—heads (Figure 11). The ChaUka (dressing room), the construction of which is also the 1.esPQHSj-bility Of the patron, is situated approximately 200 feet from the rangasthala. The ground area is a rectangle approximately 12 by'18 feet' The two 18—foot sides and one lZ-foot end are walled‘with six-foot 67 FigIIre 5 . Swords Figure 6. The mace 68 The chakra Figure 7. The trident Figure 8. l 69 it Figure 9. The axe Figure 10. The bows Figure 11. The-arrows b g: . it c1 el sh he ‘5: d w 1 m is Ed 0 l! D.»_' 70 high bamboo pole frames to which palm frond mats are looselytied. And the. ground is also covered with palm frond matting. Along the poles on the inner—sides of the walls, the‘stage-hands hang some of the ornaments and crowns. Other costumes are usually left in the large straw storage baskets. About 6:30 p.m. as the drummers play to invite people to the per- formances, the chief stage—hand places a large straw costume storage basket near the closed end of the chauka. With its face toward the open end of the chauka, he leans the head of the Ganapati idol on the front edge of the basket allowing the elephant trunk to rest on the ground. Then he decorates the idol with areca flowers, jasmine, or any flowers in season. In a lid of one of the straw baskets he places two kings' crowns referred to as the Ramalakshmana crowns, the warrior queen's crown, Krishna's chakra, Shiva's trident, green and red pigment used in make—up, and peacock‘feathers. The reason for using these particular items is not known. In front of the straw lid he sets a small pot for offering money to god and a simple oil—lamp which he lights and keeps burning until the next morning when the concluding rituals are finished. The actors take their places (see Chapter VIII on Rituals) in the chauka, greet their fellow members, friends and other visitors, chew betel and areca nut, drink coffee and tea, laugh and talk until time for the first worship. Attending Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata is somewhat like going to a small county fair. People come to be entertained, to visit with their friends and to enjoy food and drink from the vendors' small shops M 2The only exception to this rule is Maranakatte Troupe that uses a framed poster—painting of Kolur Mukambika (Mother Goddess). that are 51' m a few t spread ms the prespe< htheir g< ith a few wife, te: 31 (a com] nines ‘ Since aim the it! perfor 3'3 lathe Ll“ gods, Mar to hi} “the " Plate E '4' his“ m'fi the 3“had 1 1" '“diu 1"“ the :o 1eavE ‘ h “to: to ”fend we 71 that are situated about 200 feet from the audience area. Some merchants use a few boxes to form a singlevstall, some have a push cart, and others spread their wares on a piece of cloth on the ground. Gas lanterns allow the prospective buyer to peruse the wares. Some merchants sit quietly by their goods, whereas others ring bells or try to allure the customer with a few persuasive words. A Variety of products is usually available: coffee, tea, carbonated drinks, puffed rice, sweets, fruits, peanuts, pan*(a combination of chopped areca nut, a betel leaf, spices, and sometimes tobacco), flowers, bangles and ribbons. Since the out—door shows are financed by a patron the audience enjoys the experience free—of—charge. As soon as people are aware of the performance they stroll to the area carrying their mats to sit on. Some gather around the chauka fascinated by the actors' transformation into gods, demons, superhumans, female characters, and clowns. Others prefer to find places close to the rangasthala, sit and chat with friends. Still others are tempted by the vendors. People move about from place to place enjoying themselves throughout the night. If spectators are not interested in a particular portion of the story they often talk among themselves or leave the audience area. This seems to be an accepted practice in many forms of traditional Asian theatre. Usually the audience members sit close together making it cumbersome for one to leave the area. Therefore, those sitting near the rangasthala who want to leave usually walk across the acting area and exit in the place where the actors exit, even.during the performance. This, too, does not seem E to offend the audience. In an attempt. to organize the audience area in a more orderly fashion some patrons have roped off areas leaving aisles between sections to provide easy access and discourage people from using the PErforming area as an aisle. For an example see Figure 12. 72 2| \ K usicians ‘— Audience Audience Audience Audience Audience Audience Figure 12. Patrons' audience arrangement. 73 During the night audience members who get tired or sleepy but do not want to leave and miss their favorite part of the story go to sleep on their mats and have a friend wake them up at the appropriate time. To provide toilet facilities for a crowd of peOple in a remote setting is not considered the responsibility of a patron. So usually one takes a flashlight and goes either to the nearest clump of bushes, or some other place a respectable distance from the audience area and finds an appropriate spot to meet his needs. Intel lsdee as the mica th 0 the ef the CHAPTER V MUS IC The purpose of this chapter is to discuss both the vocal and instru- mental aspects of Yakshagana Badagatittu music. The first section is devoted to vocal music, the elements of which are defined and commented on as they become'relevant in the discussion. Also included in this section is a discussion of the features that make Yakshagana a unique musical style. The second‘section is devoted to the function and descrip- tion (of the musical instruments and how they are played. The‘third section describes how vocal and instrumental music are combined as part of the total pattern of this dance—drama. Music is an integral part of Yakshagana Badagatittu because the words of the songs and poems tell the story. And the rhythms of the songs dictate the timing of the percussion instruments and the dance. Vocal Music The vocal music of Yakshagana Badagatittu includes poems and songs written especially for the dance—drama and folk and devotional songs which are a part of everyday life. Before a discussion-of these is Possible, knowledge of three terms is essential: raga, shruti, and tala. The term raga refers to a melody that conforms to a set of notes grouped ina particular ascending and descending scale. Those ragas used in Yakshagana performances are generally named for such entities as villages, flowers, animals, deities, rivers and countries. And each 74 HP has its own peculiar lien is no system of rec tiefoilowing illustratio hgiven; then it is expl nation. For Carnatic music 0 ho! the Western system. moi this name there is hatter (shruti), half 0 lie. Aeimple explanat' he basic Indian ra first they are named Sa, mgaoomanto Yakshag thematic system in t Sa Rl2 Ga 53 N12 Da Ma note and Pa note “he the bhagavata's h iliihestern notes free “th his shruti, Ci wi h , 'ieh note 1n any r: with Sa note my 75 raga has-its ownpeculiar ascending and descending scale. Because. there is no system of recording raga scales in Yakshaganal have used the following illustrations: first the Carnatic musical notation system is given; then it is explained through the use of Western musical- notation.. For Carnatic musicof South India the notation]: is quite different from the Western system. 'Each note of the scale has a name and under— neath this name there is a number that informs ,how far inhdistance of quarter (shruti), half or whole tones this note is from the preceding note. A simple‘explanation of this notation is as follows: The basic Indian raga scale has eight notes: starting from the first they are named Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Da, Ni, Sa.2 For Raga Janjuti, a raga common'to Yakshagana and Carnatic style, they would be noted in the Carnatic system in, this manner. Ga Ma Pa Da N12 Sa (ascending) 2 Sa N12 Da2 Pa Mal Ga3 R12 Sa (descending) The Sa note andPa note are always constant. That is, the Sa note is always-the. bhagavata‘s basic note (shruti) and the Pa note is always 3'1/2 Western notes from the Sa note. Therefore if the bhagavata chooses C# for his shruti, C# will be the VSa note and A flat (G#) will always be the Pa note in any raga scale. Inthe octave betweenone Sa note and the next Sa note according tothe Carnatic system of music, there ..__________ 1According to P. Sambamoorthy systems of musical notation for Indian music did not appear in print until 1892. P. Sambamoorthy, South Indian Music (3rd ed. Madras: Indian Music Publishing House, 1963), Book‘IV, p. 278. Previous to this time the information was Passed from teacher to student by word of mouth. 2The complete names are :shadja, rishaba, gandhara,.,madhyama, Panchama, dhaivata, .mlshada. neltnonnda; these are e hahlcmnerall (one) pla Mote my be lllo or 1/1 1(tno) generally means t heprevious note; the one liltor11/2 tones away 'tenerally“ because there In Hestem notation his the shruti note wh Mi note is either 3/ Iitjtlti scale it is one fine that the Ga note 3“there is a complica Mane as 8 R1 note, 2 liking the Ga note F. l '1“ tone from the Ga no llins the Ma note Fit. filing the Pa note A H h“ the Pa note; here ”lit. N12 generally "'7 from the Da note, Mane as Hi there 1; 76 are'22 sounds; these are eleven quarter tones and eleven half-tones. The Arabic numeral 1 (one) placed under the scale namegenerally means that thenoteymay be 1/4 or l/2 tone from the previous note; the Arabic numeral 2 (two) generally means that the note maybe 3/4 or one whole tone from the previous note; the number 3 (three) generally means that the note is 1' 1/4 or 1. ,1/2 tones‘away. from the previous note. I use the term "generally" because there are many exceptions to these basic rules. In Western notation Raga Janjuti scale could appear in this way: |_{ . J __l | X I Ian J. M 1 | (q 1 . DD V ‘7 " I IL Jnn F) 310 j J N 7* #6- Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Da Ni Sa Se is the shruti note which in this case is C#. R12 generally means that the Ri note is either 3/4 or one‘whole tone from the Sanote; in the Janjuti scale it is one whole tone away, that is, E flat. Ga3 generally means that the Ga note is 1.1/4 or 1 -l/2 tones away from the Ri note. Here there is a complication; in this particular scale the Gal note is the same as a R12 note, the Ga3 is then one whole note from the R1 note making the Ga note 1?. Mal means that generally the Ma note is 1/4 or 1/2 tone from the Ga note. In this case' it is one half tone distant making the Ma note F#. The Pa note is always 3-1/2 tones from the shruti making the Pa note A flat. Da2 generally should be 1 or 1 ‘1/4 tones from the Pa note; here it is one whole tone away making the Da note 3 flat. N12 generally means that the Ni must be 3/4 or one whole tone away from the Da note, but here it is l/Z tone. In this case D32 is the same as Nil; therefore Ni2 is only a half tone awaytfrom Nil. - In Raga Janjuti scale m and the scale contain monies in which cert; ton: in the descending s ngaoonnon to Yakshagana gfi Selina Pa finalist when singin “allowed to use those hesnbicb occur only i hnhe is rendering the In some raga scales stine sound whereas the ‘mbe another sound. InYalnhagana and Garnet io- 33 R1 Ga Ma Pa Rages Co There are 40ragas ““18 prasangas there 77 Raga Scales In Raga Janjuti scale the ascending and descending notes are the same and the scale contains one each of the eight scale notes. There are raga scales in which certain notes are absent in the ascending scale but. occur in the descending scale. The raga scale for Raga Kedaragaula, a raga common to Yakshagana and Carnatic music, illustrates this type. Egg h t “U3 $1M Sa Ri Ma Pa Ni Sa Sa Ni Da Pa Ma Ga R1 The vocalist when singing the song in this raga in an ascending direction is allowed to use those notes in the ascending scale, but not Ga and Da notes which occur only in the descending scale. They can be used only when he is rendering the song in a descending direction. In some‘raga scales a certain note name in the ascending scale will be one sound whereas the note of the same name in the descending scale will be another sound. The scale of Raga Sarang, another raga common. to Yakshagana and Carnatic, illustrates this point. ‘ o A»... I ‘fi A "V DO A .. J —‘l LA 0 v ' V (L630 1’5ij #6 VV ' 7v *9— 33 R1 Ga Ma Pa Da Ni Sa Sa Ni Da Pa Ma Ga Ma Ri Sa Ragas Commonly Used in Yakshagana Badagatittu There are 40ragas commonly sung in ,YakshaganaBadagatittu, although in the prasangasthere are 110 ragas mentioned that are no longer primed} There is muck taxes. of the 40 ragas, 3The results of my Innth‘s in his book Yak m. Consultation with Hiriadka Gopala Rao, Shri thentegorization of tag «hols. Some names list mes; other unrecogniza Mel are no longer remen mic metre; bhoga shat; mom, a metre genera listed in extant Yakshagz rotly being performed 1: hr the rendering of the: (QJDharbar (C); Dwija hahpmtu (C); Jogivar (Chhechali or Mechabha ’ij (C); Saurashtra ( Karanth believes th in either those peculia or that they are ragas llieson the part of th iIrocognizable. Even t “to or more known ra (Incoming to Bhagavata khW4), that these ra [this might have origina Mukunda Aheri; AI tilled); Ananda Nilambz livali; Dhurdhari (this “Mara; Dhurjabanti (1 Minimal); Gaula Keda: E‘flafluambari; Gaula~1 la“1“ (this might be a 5‘} Hindustani; Hindust “opening of Javali, ”EkagaParaju); Khujur l“860; Kalyani Gaula; 13thiniacummadm; Ma PW“); Maravi; Mishra 11°16; Mishra Todi; “Raga (this night In “”113; Nflambari Vilaml might be the 3am d3; Shankarabhara‘ abharana Mishra s31H Raga; Srngari; h I 0dHegade; Todi Gaul lavantu, a C raga; asantaMadI-nzvi; Vilase 78 performed.3 There is muchneed for further research into these lost ragas. Of' the 40 ragas, one raga is common to North Indian Hindustani 3Theyresults of my own search through prasangas added to that of Karanth's in his book Yakshagana Bayalata revealed 147 different raga names. Consultation with Bhagavata Nilawara Ramakrishnayya, Maddalegar Hiriadka Gopala Rao, Shri Rajagopala Acharya and Karanth made possible the categorization of ragas into Carnatic, Hindustani and Yakshagana schools. Some names listed as ragas were found to be names of poetry metres; other unrecognizable names are thought to be names of ragas which are no longer remembered. Some names listed were arya, a Sanskrit poetic metre; bhoga shatpadi, a six—line Kannada poetic metre; and sangathya, a metre generally sung in Raga Todi. Some names of ragas listed in extant Yakshagana prasangas are those of ragas which are cur- rentlybeing performed in either one or both of the classical style but the rendering of them in.Yakshagana style has been lost: Deshakshi (C); Dharbar (C); Dwijawuntu (C); Ghurjara (H); Gundkriye (C); Gaula (C); Gaulapantu (C); Jogivarali (H); Kedara (C); Kliravanji (C); Mayamalavagaula (C); Mechali or Mechabhali. (C); Pahadi or Padi (C); Palamanjari (C); Paraju'(C);‘Saurashtra (C); Shahana (C); Varali (C); and Vasanta (C). Karanth believes that the remainder of ragas named: in the prasangas are either those peculiar to Yakshagana that the scales have been lost or that they are ragas already mentioned but because of spelling mis— takes on the part of the authors, and/or copyists or printers, are unrecognizable. Even though some of the raga names are combinations of two or more known ragas it is possible, but highly improbable (according to Bhagavatas Nilawara Ramakrishnayya and Rajagopala Acharya), that these ragas are combinations of known ragas: Adibhairavi (this might have originally meant Raga Bhairavi to be sung in Adi Tala); Ananda; 'Ananda Aheri; Anandamaravi (this might be Anandabhairavi mis~ Spelled); Ananda Nilambari; Bhuri Kalyani; Charitre; Chandhoti; Devadi; Dilvali; Dhurdhari (this might be a misspelling of the Hindustani Raga Ghurjara; Dhurjabanti (this might be the same as Carnatic Raga Dwijawantu.); Gaula Kedara (this might be the same as Raga Kedaragaula); Gaula Nilambari; GaulaMukhari; Gopavanite; Gaula Saveri; Haraju (this might be a misspelling of Carnatic Raga Paraju); Haradhi; H11; Hindustani; Hindustani Bhairavi; Huseni; Javadi (this might be a misspelling of Javali, a C or H? raga); Jahaju (this might be a misspelling 0f Raga Paraju); Khujuri (this might be a misspelling of Ghurjara, a H raga); Kalyani Gaula; Khamboj emishra; Katapu; Koravi; Kapi; Kore; Madhvi; Madhumadhvi; Mahalavi; Maraja (this might be a misspelling of Paraju); Maravi; Mishra Deshi; Mishra Aheri; Mishra Bilahari; Mishra Kambhoje; Mishra Todi; Mecchu; Mecchu Gaula; Nadanamakriye Mecchu; Navaraga (this might be a misspelling of Navaroju); Nepali; Nilambari 931113; Nilambari-Vilamba; Pantuvarali Gaula; Pantuvarali Panchagati; Phuvu might be- the same as Hu; Pun‘nuguj avvaji; Punnaga; Ritigaula Panchagati; Sanvada; Shankarabharana Panchagati; Sarang Bhairavi; Sarang Todi; S‘hankarabharana Mishra; Shudda Deshi; Suru'might be Suruti; Shuraga might be Shri Raga; Srngari; Thalaku; Todi Dhavalara; Todi Mishra Nilambari; Todi‘Begade; Todi Gaula; Todi Punnaga; Tujanvuntu might 'be the same as ‘DWj-javantu, a C raga; Varaligaula; Vasanta Nilambari; Vasanta Todi; Vasanta Madhvi; Vilasa; Vrani; and Yamuna. shoolof msic, South Ind 036 is comma to Hindustan hhhagana; and the remai! styles, They are: Arabhi (Elihhupali (C); Begade h]; hhanyasi (e); Deshi hhspite of its name is C Ethje (C); Kamachu (C) hhhuhhari (C); Mohana h]; havaroju (C); Pantux llhagavarali (C); Regupi hihri (C); Suruti (c: “Carnatic raga only KW that some sugge hamlet uS consider th things: a shruti is t tinned; a shruti is also 3th - nod 1n the dis cusc 13:: Want on Which the Th “hiredebscales f°r t qdhat y Wing s E ten“ in whiehe] C 1 ‘ 77% )7 79 school‘of music, South Indian Carnatic style of music, and Yakshagana; oneis commonto Hindustani and Yakshagana; three are found only in Yakshagana; and the remaining ragas are common to Carnatic and Yakshagana styles. They are: Arabhi4 (C); ‘Aheri (C); Anandabhairavi (C); Bhairavi (C); Bhupali (C); Begade (C); Behag (C and H); Bilahari (C); Dhavalara (Y); Dhanyasi-(C); Deshi (mainly H); Ghantarava (Y); Hindustani Kapi (inspite of its name'is C); Janjuti (C); Jangal (C); Kalyani- (C); Kambhoje (C); Kamachu (C); Kedaragaula (C); Kanada (C); Madhyamavati (G); Mukhari (C); Mohana,(C); Nati (C); Nadanmakriye (C); Nilambari (C); Navaroju (C); Pantuvarali (C); Panchagati‘ (Y); Purvi (C); Punnagavarali (C); Regupti (C); Sarang (C); Saveri (C); Shankarabharana (C); Shri (C); Suruti (Ch); Todi (C); Yarakala Kambhoje (C). Athana is a Carnatic raga only recently adapted for use in Yakshagana.5 Now that some suggestion of the meaning of the term raga has been given let us consider the term shruti. This term has three different meanings: a shruti is the bhagavata's basic note as previOusly men— tioned; "a shruti is also the distance of awquarter tone as previously mentioned in the discussion of raga scales; a third definition is the instrument on which the shruti note is played and this will lye-discussed M 4The'letter C designates ragas common to Carnatic and Yakshagana; H designates those ragas which are common to Hindustani and Yakshagana; and Y designates those‘ragas which are found only in Yakshagana. 5Each of the ragas in Carnatic and Hindustanimusic has a‘known scale; they vary in pattern, not sounds, according to the school of Cérnatic of Hindustani music in which one is trained. Shri Rajagopala Acharya, interview, Udipi, South Kanara, January 10, 1971. Shri Vasudeva Nayak, interview, Kundapura, (South Kanara, February 14, 1971. The scales for the three ragas peculiar to Yakshagana canbe dis— cOVered by noting several songs in each raga and then noting the sounds and Patterns in which they are used. hulater section on the this point is the bhagava Ihmti, that is, he choos sale; all other notes t than in relationship t me on the shruti inst thhhagavata is singing. The poems are sung ' mitten in Shardulavakri neither chanted in a pmpriate raga chosen hm which are repeated h{aragh as mentioned 3 tires (see Chapter III, Men by the bhagavata Ithelmets are also ace the of the most uni hthed voice of the bha thindering of a poem aWt abruptly ends ‘ 1. ‘hhgana music is the "W In some case I ”W its natural \ he “left {tell ehammlillhl] who 20th“ mush htehamonh “Petites Karanth, may 80 in a later section on the musical instruments. The shruti discussed at this point is the bhagavatais 'base note. Each bhagavata chooses his shruti, that is, he :chooses the note on which he will start the raga scale; all other notes thatfollow will be according to the raga scale pattern in relationship to this basic note. The bhagavata sets this note on the shruti instrument and it is played in the background whenever the bhagavata is singing.6 The poems are sungin raga and shruti: Sanskrit poetry such as that writtenlin Shardulavakriditam (see Chapter III, Elements of the Drama) are either chanted ina monotone and ended with a modulation of an appropriate raga chosen by the bhagavata, 'or they are chanted in several tones which are repeated a number of times and then ended in a modulation of a raga as mentioned above; those poems written in Kannada poetic metres (see Chapter III, Elements ofthe Drama) are always sung in a raga chosen by the bhagavata for its appropriateness in representing the song. ‘ Thesepoems are also accompanied by the shruti only. One of the most unique features of Yakshagana music isthe high— pitched voice of the bhagavata. This is especially noticeable when in the rendering of a poem or song the bhagavata goes up to a high pitch and then abruptly ends the musical phrase. ' Another peculiarity of Yakshagana music is the singing of one or two words and then abruptly Stopping. In some‘cases the bhagavata is known to elongate a syllable far beyond its natural length in order to achieve a special effect.7 \— 6The-harmonium player's job is relatively (simple compared with that of the other musicians; all he must do is extend and compress the bellows of (the harmonium by moving the back part of the instrument to and fro. This creates the air pressure necessary to produce the sound. 7Karanth, interview, Kota, South Kanara, March 24, 1971. In Yakshagana style Widen is smooth and finances between succee Often-times the son attire raga scalebut co Folk-songs are ofte Mare-not actual folk dtherin melody or rhyt Because of the open it lends itself to bei hunts for the high p' sings for such long per' malted; he must then if the songs must expre ht. surprise, and her 'ith the exception of or Who relate this drar mate as .well as dym hhidered a classical \— h This quivering 9Findings from t Elisha“ chose so m an c01!)th to Yakg ham Yallshhgana Style. 1 this 3M) mannaAQhal’ya sang “hie mm“ and record; is: EEgrfliri iadka G01 “the What we foum Karanth, inter a hath, inter 81 In Yakshagana style when the voice quivers between two notes8 the transition is smooth, and the breath flows without a break. Also the distances between succeeding notes seem to be quite long.9 Often-times the songs sung in Yakshagana style do not cover the entire raga scale .but cover only—half the scale.10 Folkrsongs are often included in the prasangas. And even some songs 11 that are not actual folk—songs show an influence of the folk—song, either in melody or rhythm. Because of the open air environment the music must be of astyle that lends itself to being heard for some distance. This factor probably accounts for the high pitch of the bhagavata's voice. And since he sings for such long periods of time at a high pitch his voice becomes strained; he must then rest and let another bhagavata sing. Execution of the songs mustqexpress devotion to God, love, hate, anger, bravery, fear, surprise, and horror of the grotesque. In all Yakshagana prasangas, Vwith the exception of one, the climax is a battle. Therefore the style used to relate this drama must also lend itself to the expression of delicate as .well as dynamic action. Although Yakshagana style is not considered a classical style, it by no means reduces its potential for M 8This quivering between two notes is called gamaka. 9Findings from the experiment in which Bhagavata Nilawara Ramakrishnayya chose songs from the Yakshagana prasangas which he sang in ragas common to YakShagana and Carnatic music. He sang these songs in Yakshagana style. Then using the same song, same raga and tala, Shri Rajagopala Acharya sang in a Carnatic style. Twenty songs were sung in this manner and recorded. After the experiment we--the two bhagavataS, Maddalegar Hiriadka GopalaRao, and I——listened to the recording and discussed-what we found to be some of the differences of the two styles. 10Karanth, interview, Kota, South Kanara, March 24, 1971. llKaranth, interview, Kota, South Kanara, March 24, 1971. thieving beauty and powe hmt considered a class aimlee, allows it the f hp to this point we their use in rendering p in the music is associ named with tala. The term tala refer to which the timing is nine to the musical t hater in the section on In Yakshagana Bade human ti ti tai. Ch hneTala has five in Marvels; Tishra Tripu mThis) has eight inter i1titai is an uneven 1 Using the symbol I Wing 0f fingers; an “13 med in Yakshagana Tu] he hm fig“)! While 1 82 achieving beauty and power. On the other hand the fact that Yakshagana is not considered a classical style of music frees it from the bondage of rules, allows it the freedom necessary in a living art—form. Up to this point we have been concerned with raga and shruti and their use in rendering poetry to which there is no dance. However, when the‘music is associated with dance, the bhagavata must also be concerned with tala. The term tala refers to both musical timing and the tiny cymbals, with which the timing is kept. In this particular paragraph the term refers to the musical timing. The other definition will be discussed later in the section on the musical instruments. In Yakshagana Badagatittu music there are six talas and one rhythm known as ti ti tai. Chaturashtral2 Eka Tala has fOur intervals; Jhampe Tala has five intervals; Chaturashtra Rupaka Talahas six intervals; Tishra Tripude has seven intervals; Adi Tala (Chaturashtra Tripude) has eight intervals; and Ashta Tala has fourteenintervals. Ti ti tai is an uneven rhythm that has seven intervals. Using the symbol / to represent a beat of the hand; 0 to represent counting of fingers; and X to represent a wave of the hand,13 the- tala used in Yakshagana can be described: ‘ “M 12The specific types of each tala common to Yakshagana and Carnatic music were explained to me by Shri Tanjore Ranganathan, Visiting South Indian Mrdangam Artist, California Institute of the Arts, Ventura, California, December 13, 1971. 13This method is borrowed from Gayanacharya Avinash C. Pandeya's The Art of Kathakali (Allahabad: Kitabistan, 1961), p. 149. Mi Ashta / o o 1 2 3 Ti :1 tai / x / 1 2 Songs not written Slugs and devotional so firecognized by their make, a song for mak’ morally sung in Raga Mife story of some :‘ ‘Weddings; tillani, a “'1. a Hindustani so: The musical instru [W311 cymbals). th shruti (harmonium). he tala are used h W1 diameter COME 5o no. brass and 311W at911th 0 r each C “w on] “a holding t] Eka /000 1234 Jhampe /X//X 12345 Rupaka /00000 123456 Tripude /OO/X/X 1234567 Adi /ooo/x/X 12345678 Ashta /oo/x/x//x/x/x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Tirtitai /X/X/00 1234567 Songs not written to be sung inspecific ragas and talas are folk— songs and devotional songs. They each have their own melodies and can be recognized by their individual rhythms and/or content. These include harake, a song for making offerings to God; jogula, a lullaby that is generally sung in Raga Navaroju; lavani, a work song or a song that tells the life story of some famous person; shobane, an erotic love song sung at weddings; tillani, a composition in praise of God or a king; and tumiri, a Hindustani song. Instrumental Music The musical instruments in Yakshagana Badagatittu are the tala (two small cymbals), the maddale (drum), the chande (drum) and the Shruti (harmonium) . The tala are used to keep the timing when there is dance. They are two inch diameter concave—convex cymbals made of a metal consisting of bronze, brass and silver. A four inch thong is pulled through. a hole in the center of each cymbal and knotted at both ends. This aids the bhagavata in holding the tala securely as shown in Figures 1 and 2. The Figure l . Ho Figure 2. Ho Figure 3. B Figure 1. How to hold the tala 8“ D Figure 2. How to hold the tala Figure 3. Beating the tala bhgmta touches the t herhythns of the songs lint-accent is put on hhavily accented beat ht the inside lower p0 (hm 3). 0n the ligh Whmhes against the Ihmard movement, or hwrtion above the c flardmovement. The 1 light hand for upward h Mather causing a non— henaddale is pla ht informs the audien lmince will occur), I: llhence that the prel [hadron song that inf WI!) and at any other henaddale is app meter at each end, a he Figure 4). It is Who. And the drum “Man-hide. 011 on Mound with cook honed from a small- isillicit-loop at each Gmetotood so he ,u! "d to each hide-loop: 85 .1.» bhagavata touches the tala to each other in various ways according to the rhythms of'the songs. The talaare not hit on every beat; heavy and light accent is put on special beats, whereas other counts are silent. 0n heavily accented beatsthe bottom edge of the right tala is made to hit‘the inside lowerportion of the left talawith a downward movement (Figure 3). 0n the lightly accented beats the bottom edge of the right tala brushes against the area inside the left tala below the center with a downward movement, or the top edge of the right tala brushes against the portion above the center of the inside of the left tala with an upward movement. The left hand turns the left tala slightly toward the right hand for upward hits. Sometimes the edges of the tala are put together causing a non—vibrating sound. The maddale is played during the chauka vwbadtige (the (drum song that informs the audience that a Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata per-V fomance will occur), the abbara badt’ige (the drum song that informs the audience that the preliminaries are about to begin), the prasanga pithike (the drum song that informs the audience that the story .is about to basin) and at any other time during the performance when dance occurs. The maddale isapproximately 16 inches long, about‘six inches in diameter at each end, and about seven inches in diameter inthe center (see Figure 4) . It is carved from kak‘ke wood--Cassia fistula-wr kadira—_ Catechu. And the drum ends are covered with calf—hide and tightened with oxen—hide. On one end is a small black patch made of iron slag Powder mixed with cooked rice and secured to the hide by means of glue obtained from a small seed called gurugunjanAbrus precatom'us. There is a hide—loop at each end of the drum. Approximately 30 years ago the drummerstood so heused these loops to tie a long piece of cloth (one end to each hide-loop) onto the drum and hang the drum around his neck. Figure 4. Th1 I 86 : Figure 4. The maddale today: he generally 81 resting onlone foot and lend with the small othroith the left han bhagavata's shruti. Th Iii blocks of wood un 11:th and tying them honed by applying th hdash. The addition hep sound. The names of the d Mhosonga Pithikes lhts the drum bole to monument of th Characters. Drummers Inferred to by these n: When on the madda.l Particular hols withou' “l Blight the melodic Wars, some maddale hmlistening to and Mddale are those 3“ there is dance tl ThEse‘differeut 5 5%to and in com} We are hit 81ml" 92 hsoundor cembium e _ “1? 3:3ng name‘ . and ”am. for l 87 Nowadays he generally sits cross—legged with the right end of the drum resting onione foot and the left end of the drum resting on the table. The end with the small black patch is played with the right hand and the other with the left hand. Both ends of the maddale must be tuned to the bhagavata's shruti. The black patch end is tuned by either putting small blocks of wood under the oxen—hide lacings, or by untying the lacings and tying them tighter or looser. The other end of the maddale is tuned by applying the appropriate amount of a mixture of cooked rice and ash. The addition of this mixture also produces a more hollow and deep sound. The names of the drum sounds are called bols. Yakshagana Sabhalakshana and Prasmga Pith'zlke, the handbook that contains the preliminary procedures, lists the drum bols to be playedvfor the announcement of the performance, the announcement of the beginning of the story, and the entrance of characters. Drummers who know the names and locations of the sounds referred to by these names can read a list of these bols and properly play ‘them on the maddale. There are drummers, however, who play these particular bols without knowing their actual names. Just as bhagavatas are taughtthe melodies and timing of the songs by listening to their teachers, some maddale drummers learn the sounds and timings to be played from listening to and watching the teacher. The sounds and timings of the maddale are those to which the dancer moves and steps; therefore, when there is dance the maddale is always played. These different sounds are produced from each end of the maddale saparately and in combination, when certain places on each end of the maddale are hit simultaneously. Sometimes there are several names for ’each sound or combination of sounds; sometimes two different sounds will have the same name._ Names of some of the sounds are ta, tai, da, ga, ttom, and ttam. For the production of each sound, or combination of nude, parts of the ha certain amount of force. Like the maddale th albuabadtige, and the powerful and high—pitch more during the perf htheoddolaga (the in neonates, battle dance bases of anger, won haphasize the comic It is a cylindric tight inches in diamet ltsopen ends are cove Ills and secured by CO he chande is played 0 moths tuned to the bl l1llltening or loosenin 6“small wooden box lifter wooden box with The shruti is an llam- Nowadays14 tl hlacuna chooses his M °f the instrumen m” the Shruti) the \ 1[‘1 th ~ ‘1 e past m ,The mukhavina bill on the “new 93 eplal’er's £1 to. Thi _ nge 3 ins trume 88 sounds, parts of the hands must be placed, in a certain way, and with a certain amount of force. Like the maddale the chande is played during the chauka abbadtige, abbara badtige, and the prasanga pithike. Because of its penetrating, powerful and high—pitched sounds the chande is played only at certain moments during the performance-—to reinforce the idea of prowess displayed in the oddolaga (the introduction dance of special characters), traveling sequences, battle dances, and those other single dances which express the rasas of anger, wonder and bravery. The chande sounds are also used to emphasize the comic movements of the clown. It is a cylindrical drum that is approximately 15 inches high and eight inches in diameter (Figure 5), carved from coconut tree wood and its open ends are covered with oxen or calf—hide stretched over iron rims and secured by cotton rope used by fishermen for making their nets. The chande is played on one and using two sticks made of cane. It also must be tuned to the bhagavata's shruti and this is accomplished by tightening or loosening the cotton rape. One end of the chande rests on a small wooden box far to stage—right where the player sits on a larger wooden box with the drum in front of him. The shruti is an instrument on which the bhagavata's basic note is Played. Nowadayslé the shruti instrument is the harmonium. When the bhagavata chooses his shruti note, he puts a stick inthe mechanical part of the instrument to hold this note down. The shrutigar (one who Plays the shruti) then moves the bellows of the harmonium to and fro N— 14In the past shruti instruments have been the mukhavina and the pungi. The mukhavina is a double reed instrument resembling the oboe in Shape with the exception of its up—turned bell. The open holes are covered by the player's fingers except for that one which produces the appropriate Sound. This instrument is still used as the shruti in Kola dances. Figure 5. Th Figure 5. The chande 89 iilithe air pressure nec Wuhan the bhagavata The Renderin 0 “WE can be rendered fihtheraga scales he is {like hoprovises within t '1' lot the competent bh With. It the bhagavata “hubs songs as they w IMithe bhagavatas do n “least the songs are s hacombined vocal an “latittu is illustrated if“ musical notation t I . The botto ““11 count and the toy “Masons. In this exa he Writs per measure. lithe; Jhamyse Tala to ”In“, 8“; Ashta ‘l‘al Following is a not. held Ganapati, It i hhte the actors begin lid is later danced by D [d5 0f the SOng are he melody and timing 90 . i producing the air pressure necessary to keep this note playing in the background when the bhagavata is singing. The Rendering of Vocal and Instrumental Music 3 The raga can be rendered in many ways. If the bhagavata is knowledge— able in the raga scales he is free to sing the words of the songs in any melody he improvises within the framework of notes dictated by the raga's scale. For the competent bhagavatathere is much latitude for creativity in melody. If the bhagavata does not know the raga scales he continues to sing the songs as they were taught to him by his teacher. Because most of the bhagavatas do not know the raga scales many of the old melodies of the songs are still sung. The combined vocal and instrumental music as performed in Yakshagana Badagatittu is illustrated below using Western musical notation. In Western musical notation the timing is shown by two numbers, for example . The bottom figure designates the type of note which gets One full count and the top figure refers to how many counts there are in one measure. In this example a quarter note gets one count and there are three counts per measure. Using this system Eka Tala canbe adapted to 4/4 time; Jhampe Tala to 5/4; Rupaka Tala, 6/4; Tripude Tala, 7/4; Adi Tala, 8/4; Ashta Tala, 14/8 and ti ti tai, 7/8. Following is a notation of the first verse of a song in‘praise of the God Ganapati. It is the first song of worship sung in the chauka before the actors begin their make—up and costuming for the performance and is later danced by the Balagopalas during the preliminaries. The Words of the song are first given in romanized Kannada and then English. The melody and timing are recorded in Western musical notation, with the mini the song in re K.“— ls'ihis song wa human Gopala "‘18 song in contempo léiakshagmca 5 We: Shri Krishna “33 listed in Sabhai ”It to Rags Nati. 91 1;: words of the song in romanized Kannada below the musical staff.15 i y Raga Nati Tripude Tala T Gajamukha dawage Ganapage h chelwa l6 . y Trijaga wandita ni garati yettire i h To the beautiful elephant—faced One, i Lord of the Ganas, i To him who is worshipped by all the ” three worlds, Let us wave the sacred flame. Shtuti C# Lul, n, i a #c) .443 n L 0 fl VD 'fi I V0 30 73““— J #49 " Vfiggi #49- Sa Ga Ma Pa Ni Sa Sa Ni Pa Ma Ga Sa Ga- ja- mu-u-kha—a—a-a—a—a—a-a—a-a I I1 4 n I r” :at 31 -#a if! I l i ::::i t* "51 da—a—wa ————— ge—e—e—e-e—e—e ga H l . 5This song was demonstrated by Shri Nilawara Ramakrishnayya and flui Hiriadka Gopala Rao in the raga and tala most commonly used for i this song in contemporary Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata performances. | 16Yakshagana SabhaZakshana and Prasanga Pithike (Udipi, South i Kanara: Shri Krishna Printing Press, 1968-1969), p. 5. Although the raga listed in Sabhalakshana is Raga Saurashtra, the song is generally sung in Raga Nati. 92 di— ta - a ni — i _ i _ i _ 1 ga NL I 1 .4 J/l I I ‘1 ra ti—i Ye '9 ‘e - e — e ti re—e_e_e_e_e In the performanc that measure, that is mnlinuing to sing, beg totals, accompanied by only by the tala and ti hastep referred to a imthough this is th( hagavata's introductit hatill referred to a mmhegins the song Mums and the dam: 0f the words of the so manure (sometimes two Mancers complete rendering of the last All songs writte Ry. Each media~-singi 'tilldalome as an ind: la“files“, and (:11de tahzhagana msic uniq —_i——'_” W 93 Performance of the Yakshagana Song with Dance In the performance the bhagavata, without using the tala, sings the first measure, that is Gajamukha-a—a-. On da of dazuage the bhagavata continuing tosing, begins the beat of Tripude Tala with the small cymbals, accompanied 'by,the maddale. The next fourteen beats are played only by-the tala and the two drums. During these measures, the dancers do 'a step referred to as the muktaya. Muktaya means a concluding step. Even though this is the beginning of the dance, it is the end of the bhagavata's introduction, so perhaps this is why the introductory step is still referred to as the muktaya. After these measures the bhagavata again begins the song with the word Gajmzukha accompanied by the.tala.and the drums and the dancers continue from the muktaya steps. At the end of the words of the song the last syllable is continued for at leastone measure~(sometimes two measures) and one count, elaborating the raga. V t The dancers complete their dance with a muktaya during the bhagavata's rendering of the last measure (or two measures) and one count. All songsvwritten to be sung in raga and tala are performed in this way. Each media——singing and drumming—-apart from the dance—drama can stand alone as an individual art—form. But together, the bhagavata, maddalegar, and Chandegar produce combinations of sounds that make Yakshagana music ‘ unique . The purposes of Y thehody to rhythms of the audience, or to in situation described in Mose. Unfortunately no imceor its develop thepattems in which today. Karanth has 0 (5% Chapter II, foot hyllata. Some dances follc has dances that fol? llimes, the traveling Battle dances. Those andWith certain step tell the story; durir ’EPEtoire that displ: War is also free ‘ "file of the dance. \w 1m these dan '59 step for another CHAPTER VI DANCE The purposes of Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata dance are to move the body to rhythms of the drums for the pleasure of God, self, and the audience, or to interpret the lines of the song, the emotion, and/or situation described in the song. Most of the dances serve the former purpose. Unfortunately no existing documents record any details about the dance'or its development so we do not know who created the steps or the patterns in which many ,of the dances are traditionally performed tOday. Karanth has observed that some of the steps invNagamandalam (see Chapter II, footnote 3) are also found in Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata. Some‘dances follow a conventional pattern and some dances do not.1 Those dances that follow a conventional pattern include the introductiOn dances, the traveling dance, the playing—in—the—water dances, and the battle dances. Those dances that are not performed in a certain pattern and with certain steps are those which are danced to songs that actually tell the story; during this time the dancer may choose any steps in his rapetoire that display the emotion or situation and fit the tala. The dancer is also free to create steps as long as he keeps within the Style of the dance. K“— 1 . . ' In these dances there is latitude for the performer to substitute one step for another. 94 The main features but knees that point adhent elbows. Th angular lines while da seen in Hestern ballet {on side to side with uvemuts of the hands wrist as a pivot, and some natural than reighboring art-form, hale characters quick, jumping and tub the female characters Wally perform qui odfduininity. The most import 0f foot movements wit isuecoudary, but is no the movements of 8adagutittu Bayalata indances such as the hoes the hand gestt the artist may perfo: “Gilt stop dancing a‘ “916th gestures one individual blu "We creation of u)fortunately this ; 95 Thevmainrfeatures of the Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata dance are bent knees that point outward, feet that are generally pointing outward and bent elbows. ' These characteristics require the body to display angularlines while dancing rather than the graceful flowing lines often seen in Western ballet. Other features of the dance are the head sliding from side to side without the shoulders moving, the eyes following the movements of the hands, the hands rotating back and forth using the wrist as a pivot, and shifts of weight from side to side. The expressions are more natural than the conventional stylized expressions used in the neighboring art—form, Kathakali. Male characters and the warrior queen generally perform masculine, quick, jumping and whirling steps denoting valor and confidence whereas the female characters (including the warrior queen in her romantic moods) generally perform quick, dainty, and graceful steps denoting gentleness and femininity. The most important characteristic of the dance is the coordination of foot movements with the various rhythms of the drums; hand movement is secondary, but is important-because it balances the line of the body with the movements of the feet. In the overall view of the Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata dance, hand gestures play a minor part, even though in dancessuch as the demon's, the demoness' and Krishna's introduction danCes the hand gestures are traditionally set. In other dances, however, the artist may perform the complete dance without a hand gesture orhe might stOp dancing anywhere during the song and interpret auline with Simple hand gestures and then continue to dance during the next line. AS the individual bhagavata's performances of the songs differ and each actor‘s creation of the ~dialogue‘varies, so no two artists dance alike. Unfortunately this is even true of the group dances at which time all the actors should sync Sole dances are rhyth- of the drums o decimation and/or t traveling dance, the p in: one place to anot situation. However, i tbuttle but also the Ming a battle. To become a well In years studying wi niparticipating in Item strange to the hie they themselves i[tented tradition in Unfortunately in f0Itruiuing in this 2 interested friends fit “Mama's hahalingl iii after a year furti haunt forthcoming a On May 30, 1971, “t. the Yakshagana. hum, Udipi, s than Sangeet Nata hem Education of 96 the actors should synchronize their steps and movement‘patterns. Some dances are not accompanied by song, but are performed to the rhythm of the drums only; the dancer must use his abilities to express the situation and/or the emotion of the situation. For example, in the, traveling dance, the performer must make it obvious that he is moving I from oneplace to another; there is no emotion to be expressed, only a situation. However, in the battle dance the steps must not only suggest a battle but also the emotions of anger and bravery that always occur during a bat tle . Training To become a well—trained dancer the apprentice must spend at least ten years studying with a private teacher, observing the dance—drama, and participating in the performances of a professional troupe. It seems strange to the Westerner but students do learn by observing others while they themselves are performing on the rangasthala; this is an accepted tradition in Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata. Unfortunately in the past there was only one professional school for training in this art and it was short-lived. Karanth with a few interested friends financially and morally supported a school at Brahmavara's Mahalingeswara Temple from October 1968 to October 1969, but after a year further moral and financial support from other sources Was not forthcoming and the school was forced to close. On May 30, 1971, another attempt at a school for training in this art, the YakshaganaKendra, opened at Mahatma Gandhi Memorial College, Kunjibettu, Udipi, South Kanara; it is financially supported by the central Sangeet Natak Akademi in New Delhi and the Manipal Academy of General Education of the local area. Students of the s apprenticed to the exi actors are paid so poo their families, node mission, or their if being a performer is thong to cope with t dance, sing and/or t ant, and until the iatkthem, and walk t Those who are apprent association with Yaks hm and it is the 3 That he receives from hate is ten to twe part of Yakshagana Ban The student begi 1Earus from a teacher Tithe audience patte iiflees contain both. it ”it expect the dances intents practicing 1 later scenes as compa houevho carries t The apprentice Wives into the to little Balarama. D“ “but of patterned 97 Students ofvthe school were selected from those who were at that time apprenticed to the existing professional troupes. Since Yakshagana actorsare paid so poorly that they can barely support themselves and their families, modernyouth are either not attracted to this art as a profession, orptheir families forbid them to choose it. The glamour‘of being a performer is often reduced by the fact that one must be physically strong to cope with the demanding daily routine of a troupe-~to play, dance, sing and/or talk at varioustimes necessarily throughout the night, and until the early hours of the morning, then to remove costumes, pack them, and walk to the next place of performance, night after night. Those who are apprenticed usually come from families with many years of association with Yakshagana. The rewards and disadvantages are thus known and it is the student's dedication to the art and the inner pleasure that he receives from it that encourage him to choose it as a career when he is ten to twelve years old and that encourage-him to remain a part of ‘Yakshagana‘Badagatittu Bayalata until he is in his late sixties. The student begins his career as a kodangi (little clown), He learns from a, teacher and from watching his fellow apprentices display to the audience patterned dances to songs in praise of deities. These dances contain bothmale and female character steps. The audience does not expect the dances to be perfect since they are aware that these are students practicing in front of on—lookers. The kodangis may appear in later scenes as companions, to the hunter or to Hanumanayak (the clown), as one'who carries the possessions of royalty, and in other minor roles. The apprentice usually dances as a kodangi for two seasons, then he mOVes into the roleof the Balagopala, either little Krishna or little Balarama. During his three seasons in this role he learns a number of patterned dances also in praise of deities. In addition he learns to wrap the ke hrto apply the basi We aim (the orange theomamenta. He a1 by the kodangi. When his trainin of the female charact in the preliminaries preliminaries the sec lady servants, or lad After four or fi apprentice is allowed his position is km in the roles of yo lalhmwohana. It is his own impromptu die fly, and on his own i lifect his prestige a Often the more experi stde~lines, especiall Mther troupe (see A ml to manipulate the five seasons the aCt< ”1690f the seconC,l Sometime during We which type 0f “Ups from which he “9 a major determin —:———=—- _,,, w 98 learns to wrap the kedage mundale (see Chapter VII, Make-up and Costumes), how to apply the basic male make—up, how to wear the skirt made from the kase‘sir‘e (the orange, red, and golden—checked sari), and how to wear the ornaments. He also continues to play minor roles like those played by the kodangi. When his training as Balagopala is complete he moves into the role of thefemale character played by the second and third striveshas who in the preliminaries represent two of Lord Krishna's wives. After the preliminaries the second and third striveshas usually play the roles of lady servants, or ladies—in—waiting to the queen or princess. After four or five seasons as the second and third strivesha, the apprentice is allowed to play his first major role as a young warrior. This position is knownvas the third actor and those in this position play the roles of young heroes like Arjuna's sons, Abhimanyu and Babhruwahana. It is during this time that the apprentice must develop his own impromptu dialogue, based on what he has heard his superiors say, and on his own ideas. The quality of his dialogue can greatly affect his prestige among his fellow participants and the audience. Often the, more experienced actors will coach the younger ones from the side-lines, especially if they are performing in competition with another troupe (see Appendix). Henow learns to wrap the kase sire and to manipulate the bow and arrow in dance. For the next four or five seasons the actor will play this young hero role, as well as the roles of the second strivesha. Sometime during this four— to five-year period, the actor must Choose which type of character will be his specialty. There are five groups from which he can select, although his physical characteristics are a major determining factor. These groups are: leading female hunters, demon and hportamt basic male Those who have y encouraged to pursue character, such as Dr Those who are t lest the necessary 1‘ rith these physical q dmoos' or demoness' the intricate design Those who are t (see Chapter VII, Ma miharvas and hunte . _ Those with lau soressions and body not likely to be (:86 Those who have I Than average height 1 loading male charactc later work their way (Called the Second At mot) who is the ma: kings like Arjuna, Bl I .. Once anactor c1 .’ Winder of his car kinds of roles befor r l I I . "f roles depending ° rm; A 99 characters, demon and demoness, wearers of the mundasu, comedians, and. important basic male characters. Those who have youthful faces and delicate—looking bodies are encouraged to pursue the art of the mukhya strivesha, the leading female character, such as Draupadi, Site, and Subadrac. Those who are tall, with sturdy bodies and stern—looking faces meet the necessary.requirements for demons and demonesses. A person wiflrthese physical qualities can easily carry the burden of the heavy demons' or demoness' crown and has sufficient facial surface to apply the intricate design in pigment and rice paste. Those who are tall, with thin faces, often choose the mundasu (see Chapter VII, Make—up and Costumes) roles such as Karna, Shalya, gandharvas and hunters. Those with laugh-provoking personalities and who can, with facial expressions and body movements, keep the audience in good humor are most likely to be cast as Hanumanayak (the clown). Those who have no special physical characteristics and are less than average height (5'8"—5'lO") and build become Purusha Vesha (a leading male character but second in position to the main actor) and later work their way up to the senior position, that of Eradane VeSha (called the Second Actor because the bhagavata is considered the First ACtOr) who is the main actor (star). These roles include heroes and kings like Arjuna, Bhima, Dharmaraya and Duryodhana. Once an.actor chooses his role he usually plays this role for the remainder of his career. However, since he has been trained in several kinds of roles before he has chosen.his specialty, he can play a variety 0f roles depending on his own abilities and the requirements of the play. — According to my ujor categories: th generally performed w creative dances. Inc. hhogis (little clam Balarama); the strive: lord Krishna); the in: dance representing per traveling dance; and ‘ the songs that tel; First there is a hg this there are del o the body and limbs: the clown (kodaggil Nowadays the fir: ‘TPIentices. The pur] dds (see Chapter VII givethese dances a o lineS and a number of Little protectors of The Balagopalas 1hel’llrooses of their bi‘alltlience for the dance1n honor of him W WNWlfi' 100 The Dance According to my observation the dances can be divided into two major categories: the choreographed dances, that is, dances that are generally performed with specific steps in a specific pattern; and creative dances. Included in the choreographed dances are those of the kodangis,(li-ttle clowns); the Balagopalas (little Krishna and little Balarama); the striveshas (usually Rukmini and Satyabhama, wives of Lord Krishna); the introduction dances called oddolagas; jalakride (a dance representing people playing in a river, pond, or tank); the traveling dance; and the battle dances. The creative dances are performed to the songs that tell the story. First there is a description of the choreographed dances. Follow— ing this there are details regarding individual dance—steps, movements of the body and limbs, and the execution of some particular steps. I Choreographed Dances Little clown (kodang i) Nowadays the first dances of the evening are performed by young apprentices. The purpose of these dances is to praise manyvdifferent gods (see Chapter VIII, Performance Rituals), but even so they deliberately give these dances a comic touch. The patterns used are circles and straight lines and a number of jumping steps are included. MPEGtectors of the cows (Balagopalas) The Balagopalas represent Krishna and Balarama in their youth. The purposes of their dances are to praise Lord Vishnu and to prepare the audience for the presence of the idol of Lord Ganapati and then to dance in honor of him‘ The Balagopalas enter the rangasthala. from — Mind a curtain that stage-left side of th other stage-hand imme‘ Their first two dance; Performance Rituals) I lines, and include mar the main movement is 1 ball of the foot on t] lard Vishnu have been The Ganapati idol theeurtain. Here the IIII, Performance Ritl the sacred flame. Th perform dances in hon finals), while the IInt of the curtain acireular pattern an I III-ale characters (St The next series , “0 female characters / ”Mord Krishna, R1110 “marrying the dam Krishna and his for hie‘ler, one of the RteDeere gentle, gr Eh” mugs. Sometime ”has. 101 behind a curtain that is held by two stage—hands; the dancers pull the stage-left side of the curtain from the hand of the holder and then the other-stage—hand immediately removes the curtain from the entrance. ' Their first two dances are in‘praise of Lord Vishnu (see Chapter VIII, Performance Rituals) and are choreographed in circles and straight lines, and include many steps in which the knees are extremely bent and the main movement is the raising and lowering of the heel leaving the ball of the footpn the floor (Figure 1). When the dances in -.honor of Lord Vishnu have been completed the Balagopalas exit. The Ganapati idol is brought from the dressing room to a spot behind the curtain. Here the Balagopalas execute their dance (see Chapter VIII, Performance Rituals) either in a circle or in one spotvwhile waving the sacred flame. Thenthey comevunder the curtain onto the stage and perform dances in honor 'Of Ganapati (see Chapter VIII, Performance Rituals), while the elephant trunk of the {idol is lowered over and in- front of the curtain in View of the audience. These dances are done in a circular pattern and include many prayer poses. Female characters (striveshas) The next series of dances are those performed by the striveshas, two female characters played by men who represent the lovers and wives 0f Lord Krishna, Rukmini and Satyabhama. The words of the songs accompanying the dance usually suggest the longing of the ladies for Krishna and his for them (see Chapter VIII, Performance Rituals). However, one of the songs concerns Shiva, Parvatiand Gangs. The dance Stepsare gentle, graceful and varied and they express the emotion of the songs.. Sometimes hand gestures are used to explain lines of the songs . \ There are at 1‘ dedencer is free likes best and repea of the dance are ale InIigure 2. ' Gener (see Chapter VIII, 1’ Introduction dances Introduction d "convening of the co naeveral character oddolaga is perform Pandavas, Rama and lfthe story is mi Other major charact Ihunters (with th oddolaga.- During t LIsuspended by int] Items are the only There are two ‘ abugle oddolagas . mp oddolagas It the main st 1! from the Mahabhc "9 the Pandavas-—I the Story comes fr: 103 There are at least twenty—five different steps used in this dance; the dancer is free to do all the steps, or he can choose those which he likes best and repeat them at will for as long as he wishes. The patterns of the dance are also varied; from a topographical View they appear-as in Figure 2.. Generally three dances are performed by the striveshas (see Chapter VIII, Performance Rituals). Introduction dances (oddolagas) Introduction dances are called oddolagas; the term oddolaga means 'honvening of the court."' The purpose of the dance is to introduce one or several characters to the audience. Before the play begins the first oddolaga is performed; it is usually a group oddolaga, either the Pandavas, Rama and his half—brothers, or the Vedic Gods. But sometimes if the story is mainly about Lord Krishna the first oddolaga is his. Other major characters appear throughout the story; and each of these characters (with the exception of the gentle females) performs an oddolaga. During the performance, then the progression of the story lis suspended by introduction dances of the various characters. Warrior queens are the only female characters who perform an oddolaga. There are two types of oddolagas——the group oddolagas and the single oddolagas.‘ Group Oddolagas If the main story to be presented during the evening‘s performance is from the Mahabharata the characters who perform the first oddolaga are the Pandavas--Dharmaraya: Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula and Sahadeva. If the story comes from the Ramayana generally the characters are Rama, _‘~.. \— Figure 2 - striveshas' da‘ . “*hi-..'. *or..- -~ '~. ' . 104 Figure 2. Ground plan view of patterns used in the striveshas' dance. hhhnana, Bharata, theeharacters are, The Pandavas an in songs in praise 2When the pro oddolaga with Valmi 3Although Rag Mg in Raga Bhaira lilakrishnayya, int aThe exact me nerds are spelled in Wyyists' or printer hit has proposed tln How mu (Head 3 God qua] Pro tet Hey ! 01‘ Hey ! 105 Lakshmana, Bharata, and Shatrughna.2 If the story comes from the Puranas, the characters are the Vedic Gods——Indra, Agni, Varuna, and Vayu. The Pandavas and the Vedic Gods perform the oddolaga to the follow- ing songs in praise of Lord Vishnu. Raga Bhairavi3 Adi Tala The first seven lines are untranslatable.4> Oh! God of Gods! Very kind God. I am always thinking of you with joy. Protect those who have kept faith in you, oh God! Destroyer of Mura, Lord of Lakshmi, you are a gem among the gurus. Treasury of kindness, one who has protected the elephant and who has made the serpent his bed, God, you have Garuda as your vehicle. You are as handsome as crores of moons! \ 2 When the prasanga is Lavaku3ha'KaZaga, Lava and Kusha dance the Oddolaga with Valmiki and Site standing in the background. 3 n . Although Raga Kambhoje is listed, the song nowadays ls always sung in Raga Bhairavi. Shri Hiriadka Gopala Rao, Shri Nilawara Ramakrishnayya, interview, Udipi, South Kanara, February.10, 1971. 4The exact meaning of these lines has been lost because the words are spelled incorrectly. This is probably due to either c0Pyists' or printers' (or both) mistakes. Shrimati Puttur Leela Bhat has proposed the following possible reading of the lines: How much can we say! How can we say! (Meaning how can we describe or discuss a God as great as you) One who is concerned with good qualities Protect us! Protect us! Hey! l° One who destroys enemies of the Gods 2. One who is a member of a group of scholars, brahmins, . or 3. One who is God 4. One who leaves the palms of the enemies of the Gods Hey! One who is pure, One who is the seat of virtue. Look: I W Snakshagm 6Although Ra we in raga Bhaira [whishnayya’ int 106 Raga Bhairavi Eka Tala Govinda, protect me, protect me. You have teeth like the jasmine buds. Ocean of bliss, handsome as crores of moons, Teeth like jasmine buds, lotus-eyed God, protector of Indra, salutations to you. Rama and his half—brothers dance the oddolaga to the following songs in praise of Rama (an incarnation of Lord Vishnu). Raga Bhairavi6 Adi Tala Rama, Rama, essence of kindness, Lord of the Earth, Lover of all the devotees, Lord of Saketa (Ayodhya), Sons of Dasharatha, Rama and Laksmana.obeyed the words of Kaikeyi and Raghuwa went with Sita [to the forest]. Raga Bhairavi Eka Tala Rama is playfully coming, with happiness, Rama is playfully coming. He is the one who blesses those who make.requestsn of Him. He is an ocean of virtue; he is generous. Look, Rama is coming. Rama has a body which emits the scent of the jasmine flower and has eyes like the blossom. He is like Manmatha in handsomeness. He is Kindness personified. He protected Ahalya who had become a stone. Look, Rama is coming. -———___________ 5Yakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 44. 6Although Raga Kambhoje is listed, the song nowadays is always sung in Raga Bhairavi. Shri Hiriadka Gopala Rao, Shri Nilawara Ramakrishnayya, interview, Udipi, South Kanara, February 10, 1971. the performers that inthe oddolaga vi]. the stage, and part Tamer in turn pays then by touching th because he is the d his and maddale be it then pays respec The first part and is done behind this dance individu The patterns 1 Figures 3, A, andf the dancer pulls a w 7Although R use in Raga Kambh 8Takshagaml 107 RagaKambhoje7 Adi Tala 0h mind, think on Rama's name. Why are you silent? Meditate on Rama's name, that name which fulfills the desires of all who worship Him.‘ Worship that name that has been worshipped by the great brahmacharya [celibate] Hanuman who had attained salvation. Meditate on Rama's name. It is the name that has been worshipped by Vibhishana[the demon Ravana's brother] who came to Rama for protection. Meditate on that name that has been taught to Lava and Kusha by Valmiki. Think on that Rama. A series of drum bols known as the prasanga pithike indicates to the performers that the oddolaga is to be done. The characters involved filthe oddolaga will come to the area behind the curtain. On entry to the stage, and partly concealed from the audience by the curtain, each dancer in turn pays respect to the bhagavata by-touching his feet and then by touching the maddale and the tala. He pays respect to the bhagavata because he is the director of the performance; he pays respect to the tala and maddale because God is thought to reside in these two instruments. He then pays respect to the audience by touching the stage-ground. The first part of the group oddolaga is called the tere digana and is done behind a half-curtain.' Each member of the group performs this dance individually. The patterns for the first section of the dance are shown in Figures 3, 4, and 5. When performing the pattern shown in Figure 3, the dancer pulls the curtain in a half-down position and quickly turns M 7Although Raga Kalyani is listed, the song nowadays is always sung in Raga Kambhoje. Ibid. 8Yakshagana Sabhalakshana, pp. 60-61. l I p his back to the audi 11th the dancer's bac hlignre 5 is execut and the stage-hands . In the next seq heandience as they inning from side sequence, the dancer the: catching the to position. In the third as hing the audience. side of the curtain. stage by the other 5 in dance imediatel hpattems shown 1 The steps perf Slaps performed behi the steps performed together comprise a The Pandavas at We dancers whil‘ nurtainand full-cu Itlll, lean-to the 1Milking straight at Other and together Hath other and 1101‘ IIltowards the - Sro‘ 108 his back to the audience. The pattern shown in Figure 4 is performed with the dancer's back still to the audience. When the pattern shown in Figure 5 is executed completely the curtain is pulled up by the actor and the stage-hands. In the next sequence ofysteps (Figure 6) all of the actors face the audience as they pull the curtain down half—way, and dance behind it moving from side to side to apbol sequence. At the end of this sequence, the dancers salute the audience by raising their right hands then catching the top of the curtain‘and lifting it back to its original position. In the third sequence of steps, the dancers stand behind the curtain facing the audience. On a certain drum beat they pull the stage-left side of the curtainvfrom the stage—hand (it is quickly removed from the stageeby the other stage—hand) and the dancers enter the stage proper. The dance immediately following the removal of the curtain is performed in patterns shown in Figure 7. The steps~ performed by individuals illustrated in Figures 3—5, the steps performed behind the half—curtain as illustrated in Figure 6, and the steps performed in the pattern series illustrated in Figure 7, together comprise a dance known as the Purusha oddolaga. The Pandavas continue their oddolaga with a series of steps done by the dancers while facing the audience behind and alternating half- eurtainand full—curtain. During part of the dance the actors stand still, leanto the left, and then lean to the right, while continuously looking straight at the audience. Then the first two Pandavas face each other and together hold one bow horizontally; the next two Pandavas face each other and hold‘the bow in the same manner; the fifth Pandava faces iii-towards the group and holds his bow horizontally .(Figure 8) . curtain half-do position Figure 3. of tere digana Figure 4. here digana da curtai half—d po siti Figure 5. texts digana d! 109 curtain in X \J K half-down :2: position \Figure 3. Ground plan View of pattern for the first steps of tere digana dance. curtain in half-down r—__.-:=:=a position Figure 4. Ground plan view of pattern for second step of tere digana dance. curtain in ____;§ hal f —down t.— po 3 1 tion ==——= Figure 5. Ground plan view of pattern for third step of tere digana dance. Figure 6 . PaHdav Figure 7. as' oddo lll Figure 7. Ground plan View of patterns used in the Pandavas' oddolaga. 1 Figure 8. 112 Figure 8. Pandavas' oddolaga than this sect the‘audience and d curtain, to staged by putting the pal Wkam. Then w aline taking the h During this move a execute the patter dances first, then Dharmaraya. When previous dancer so line. When Dharma! the stage area by 4t Then Sahadeva, pattern. When a cc Iquatting position heels raised from 1 ately get into this 53 a series of squ‘ They then ass Ci161%, execute ni Patterns. 9Although at the corners by, 10The step [MW step (k has far apart; . OIithe floor. Th heWhirls in small in too old to ex fi v 113 When this section of the dance is completed all the Pandavas face . the-audience and dance a progression step as they move, with the half— curtain, to stage-front. Here'they again pay respect to the audience bylputti-ng the palms of their hands together in prayer position, namaskam. Then while still facing the audience they move backward in a line taking the half—curtainwith them9 until they reach stage—rear. During this move a simple walking step is used. Thevactors individually execute the patterned dance shownlin Figures 7c, 7d,10 and 7e. Sahadeva dances first, .thenrNakula, then Arjuna, then'Bhima, and finally Dharmaraya. When each finishes his dance he forms a line with the previous‘dancer so that when the last one is finished they are in one. line. When Dharmaraya completes his dance, the curtain-is removed from the stage area by the stage-rhands. Then Sahadeva, using a skipping step, leads the group in.a circular pattern. When acompletecircleis made-Sahadeva will then assume a squatting position with the weight on the balls of the feet and the heels raised from the floor (Figure 9). The other dancers will immedi- ately get into this position and forming a large circle, together they do a series of squatting jumpsin small individual circles (Figure 10). They then assume a standing position and, remaining in theirgroup Circle, execute nine different steps both in circular and semi—circular Patterns . M 9Although the dancers manipulate the curtain, it is always held at the corners by _, the stage—hands. 10The step executed in the patternshown in Figure 7d is called the match: step (kneestep). The actor kneels on the ground with the knees far apart; the heels are together and the bottoms of the toes are- on the floor. Throwing his arms and hands out to the side for balance he whirls in small circles making a large circle. If any of the dancers are too old to execute this step they substitute another for it. Figure 9. 114 Figure 9. Squatting step in Pandavas' oddolaga o 0 o. 1" 2? Figure 10. Ground plan view of pattern used for squatting step. stage just in front here theykneel fir in their left hands he certain place of kneeling on the hand and facing d places in.the song until this portion They then ass execute a special s teach stage-rear. different steps in and execute a step execute a step 111.2 The dance is ( dance represented ‘t Although this dance to as. the Pandavas' Iinutes. Single Oddolagas Purusha Oddol The firs oddolaga coustitut however, there is The Purusha 0 appear at various 115 When these steps are completed the dancers form a line across the stage just in front of the bhagavata and then move toward stage front. Here they kneel first on the left knee, holding their bows vertically in their left hands,.and face diagonally to the right (Figure 11a). At.a certain place in the song they will change the position to that of kneeling on the right knee, holding the bow vertically in the left, hand and facing diagonally to the left (Figure llb). At the correct places in the song they continue to change positions back.and forth until this portion of the song is completed. They then assume a.standing position and still facing the audience, execute a special step as they move backward in a line until they reach stage-rear. There they form a semi—circle as they execute two different steps in a semi—circular pattern; they then form a circle and execute a step in a circular pattern; then they form a line and execute a step in,a figure—eight pattern. The dance is completed with each actor individually performing the dance represented by the patterns shown in Figures 70, 7d, and 7e. Although this dance is performed by different groups it is referred to as the Pandavas' Oddolaga and it lasts for approximately thirty minutes. Single Oddolagas Purusha Oddolaga The first three sequences of dance steps from the Pandavas' Oddolaga constitute the-entire choreography of the Purusha.0ddolaga; however, there is no song, only the rhythm of the drums. The Purusha Oddolaga is performed by other important_characters who aPpear at various stages throughout the performance as their roles are Figure 11. Kneeling step 116 written into the Pr dance alumsha 0d although it‘doee no danced immediately include mature king Salndhava, Vibhi'sha like Dushshasana, Babhnmahana, and queens.11 This ad The vesti azedkings such as the stage-hands er‘ concealed by the cl etage-hands remove audience . Krishna's add The intn entain'half-down exPlain the song 117 written into the prasanga. The introduction of those characters who dance a Purusha Oddolaga invariably follows that of the main characters, although it does not necessarily follow that the Purusha Oddolagas are danced immediately after the main oddolaga. These important characters include mature kings like Duryodhana, Karna, Jayadrata, Balarama, Saindhava,VibhiShana, Shalya, Dridavarma, and Virata; young princes like Dushshasana, Abhimanyu,Vrishasenaq Sudhanwa, Pradhyumna, Tamradhwaja, Babhruwahana, and Shishupala; Bhishma; the gandharvas; and the warrior queens.ll This oddolaga lasts approximately ten minutes. A ed kin isnoddola a' The vestige of an oddolaga is performed by dancers depicting aged kings such as Dasharatha and Dritarashtra. Prior to their entry, the stage-hands bring in a full—curtain. The aged king enters the stage concealed by the curtain and sits on the ratha. When he is seated,_the stage—hands remove the curtain, reVealing the seated dancer to the audience. Krishna's oddolaga * The introduction of Lord Krishna is done in two parts. During fim first part the actor sits on the ratha,12 The stage—hands hold a flIll-curtain in front of hima On a certain drum beat the actor pulls the curtain half—down with his right hand. He then uses hand gestures to exPlain the song that the bhagavata is singing. ._______________*_ 11 - . Female characters do not perform the mandt step; they substitute f0? it the squatting jumping steps used in the Pandavas' Oddolaga (Figures 9 and 10). 12 Sometimes during the first part of Krishna's Oddolaga he is seatEd'flanked by Rukmini and Satyabhama., They remain seated during the firSt Part and take no other part in the oddolaga. Although all ‘t S‘hldshrma,13 tr performances. Imme recorded in Sabhalc 50118 as sung nowadz God 1 One r One r One r Nara; Oner One r Oner Govi One v One . The. God God One The (rep One The One God The (rep (re; 1\ 11mph lit is POE the, thillitake; 1 ast rex YQkShagm Although all 118 but one line for the song is recorded in Yakshagana subhalakshana,l3 the order of the lines is different in the contemporary performances. Immediately below is the first part of the song as recorded in Sabhalakshana and following this is the first part of the song as sung nowadays. God One One One Raga Shankarabharana Adi Tala has come. God of Gods has come. (repeat) who has the serpent as his bed has come. who has Garuda as his vehicle has come. who has blessed Arjuna has come. Narayana has come. One One One who has killed Putani has come. who has been worshipped by Indra has come. who has killed his uncle has come. Govinda has come. One One The. The God God One God The who has lifted the Mandara mountain has come. who enjoys life has come. father of Manmatha has come. 1 one who gives blessings has come. Raga Nadanamakriye Adi Tala has come. God of Gods has come. of,Gods. who is a precious gem has come (repeat) has come. God of Gods has come. one who has lifted the Mandara mountain.has come. (repeat) One who enjoys life has come. (repeat) The father of Manmatha has come. (repeat) One who gives blessings has come. (repeat) God has come. God of Gods has come. The one who-has the serpent as his bed has come. (repeat) The one who has Garuda as his vehicle has come. (repeat) M 13 . It is possible that copyists and/or printers have omitted this llne by mistake; it is also possible that this line has been added since the last revision of SabhaZakshana, the date of which is unknown. 1 4Yakshagana Shbhalakshana, p. 61. The Or Narayz God be One wl One wl One or] Govim God h. it the end of each ‘ position. When the the dancer stands b On a certain d i“Be-hand and leap dance. KTiShna's d circular, semi~circ Words for the Wham 5(1th he reason for not 119 The One who has blessed Arjuna has come. (repeat) Narayana has come. God Narayana has come. God has come. God of Gods has come. One who has killed Putani has come. (repeat) One who has been worshipped by Indra has come. (repeat) One who has killed His uncle has come. Govinda has come. Hari Govinda has come. God has come. God of Gods has come.1 At the end of each verse the actor pulls the curtain up to full-curtain position. When the song is finished a stage—hand removes the ratha, and the dancer stands behind the curtain. On a certain drum beat the dancer snatches the curtain from the left stage—hand and leaps onto the stage directly into the first step of his dance. Krishna's dance is performed to the second part of the song in circular, semi—circular, and straight line patterns. Words for the second part of Krishna's Oddolaga are also included hrfakshagana SabhaZakshana, but the last stanza is not sung nowadays.l6 The reason for not singing the last stanza is not known. Raga Navaroju Eka Tala God of Gods has come° 0ne.who is as beautiful as crores of moons, He who is the brother—in—law of Indra's son [Arjuna], Elixir of life to the needy, You have the beautiful cloud—blue.color. Virtuous friend of Isvara who has the trident as His weapon, you have an auspicious body. You are the one who removes the fear.of death, killer of Kamsa. One who is praised by the Vedas,. protector of the humble, the great one of the Yadava race, you are Madhawa, killer of Madhu. Both parts together, the dance lasts approximately ten minuteS. 1 5Shri Hiriadka Gopala Rao, Shri Nilawara Ramakrishnayya, interview February 10,1971. ;§Ibid. ’ l7Yckshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 61. Kichaka f dance-step sequence with his back to th joined on-stage by they dance to the (1 hold it clear of th dance, another stag the dancers, the the to the audiene When this sect including step, at i“igures 7c, 7d a are finished the bl he” The king- thisdance- The f p the Curtain fro. little hflpers mak 1a he 1’10." Then) behind “Irate do es that P “the 18\ M Although I i bean Perfo “We“. Ud he he cw. 120 i Kichaka's oddolaga Kichaka first performs the tere digana dance (the first of the dance—step sequences of the Pandavas' Oddolaga) behind -a half—curtain with hiseback to the audience. When this is finished, Kichaka is usually joined on—stage by his fisherman friend, Chika (the clown), and together they dance to the drum bols, while the stage-hands, gather the'curtain and hold it'clear of the dancers about one foot above their heads. As they dance, another stage—hand holds an oil-lamp about chest high and close to the dancers, thereby illuminating their faces revealed for the first time to the audience. When this second part'of the danceis finished, the two performs concluding step, and then begins the third part of the dance (illustrated in Figures ‘70, 7d and 7e). When the concluding steps to this sequence arefinished the bhagavata sings: "Da dhinnam ta la 11 ho li ho la‘li ho."l8 Kirata' s oddolaga I The kirata (hunter) and his little helpers (kodangis) perform this dance. The first part of the dance is done by the kirata concealed by the curtain from the audience. While he is doing this dance the little helpers make the meaningless sounds: "la la la la la la la la, la keho." Then, behind the curtain, and with his back to the audience, the kirata does that part of the Pandavas' Oddolaga known as the tere digana . M 1 8Although it is known.to several performers, Kichaka's Oddolaga has not been performed for at least fifty years. Shri Hiriadka GOpala R30. interview, Udipi, South Kanara, January 14, 1971.‘ Behind the sta been placed beyond runs and jumps ontt theiire. At this he hunter perform the fire. He st0p: "la la la la la la nd "hurrande (I an hunger brother) ‘1: hi the young boys 1 hand the little 1 The kirata (is and makes the hunt intently, He then H allgrelieats the hu h id his f0110Wers stagearea, mica, mm the boys t hepateem Shown snersaupts’ back. The kirata an hdtogether do th to this effect; Kiratel: —7— , 121 Behind the stage entrance a fire has been built and the ratha has been placed beyond the fire in readiness for this oddolaga. The kirata runs and jumps onto the ratha and the young boys form a circle around the fire. At this time the curtain is removed from the stage entrance. The hunter performs some steps atop the_ratha as the boys dance around the fire. He stops, shakes his finger, and shouts the meaningless sounds: '13 la la la la la la," then says "Shabash! Shabash! (Bravo! Bravo!)" and "Annande (I am called the older brother), tammande (I am called the younger brother)." He jumps from the ratha to the ground and followed by the young boys shouts "Shabashl Shabash!" and waves a.handkerchief. He and the little boys then re—enter the stage dancing. The kirata dances to the stage—right oil—lamp, kneels beside it, and makes the hunting sounds "la la la 1a la la" and then listens intently. He then dances to the stage—left oil—lamp, kneels beside it, and repeats the hunting, shouting, and listening sequence. The kirata. ll/ hmd his followers then run.in sequence around the fire and then the stage area, twice, making a total of two figure-eights (Figure 12). Each of the boys then individually dances the jumping twirling dance in the pattern shown in Figure 7c. At random, the boys then do cartwheels, somersaults, back—flips and other gymnastic feats. The kirata and the boys then perform a step in a circular pattern, and together do the concluding step. The kirata would then say.words to this effect: Kirata: In which direction shall we go today? In which forest shall we hunt? We're very hungry. What animals and birds do we want to hunt today? We‘ll take the net and several dogs, knives, spears and bows. Who will go to drive the animals in our direction? (Looking at one boy) Where will you go? kirata Figure l 8 Odd 122 maddalega- entrance exit bhaavata O (3 <3 ‘0 Figure 12. Ground plan view of pattern used in kirata's oddolaga. One boy: Another boy: A third boy: The bhagavata will being performed, a At times during th shoot his arrow, 1: sequenee. He will they will approach With their backs t Thai re-entex there is alwayS sc the Story cofltinue The kiratals % The madc Entrance. He s tax a forest area nea] 13“th . The armers he rahshasa has I 19\ mists ailihzen s 123 One boy: I will sit on the river bank. When the animals come to drink I'll shoot them. Another boy: I will sit in the cashew tree. When the animals come to eat the fruit I will shoot them. A third boy: There are two hills and a salty stream running. There I will sit and catch the animals.19 The bhagavata will then start the hunting song specific to the prasanga being performed, and the kirata and his boys will dance around the stage. At times during this dance, the kirata.will stop, pretend to aim and Shoot his arrow, move in another direction and then repeat this shooting sequence. He will then enact a successful shot, and with the boys, they will approach the stage exit, dance a muktaya (concluding step) with their backs to the audience, and leave the stage. They re—enter the stage to pick up the animal they have shot, but there is always someone on-stage with a prior claim to the prey, and the story continues. The kirata's oddolaga lasts approximately fifteen minutes. Rakshasha's oddolaga ____________________ The maddalegar and Chandegar beat a characteristic series of drum bols. The Rakshasa hears them and knows that it is time for his Entrance. He stands just outside the chauka, or sometimes just inside a forest area nearby, and will shreik wildly, interspersed with wicked laughs. The drummers again.drum the specific drum bols. In the meantime the rakshasa has moved a little nearer the stage, yet is still in \ I 9This sentence is risque. The two hills symbolize a woman S breaStS and the salty stream represents her urine. fibn-fl I ‘- darkness-20 He SC Play the drum bels come to the Stage curtain. He begins his he turns to face t certain drum b018, the curtain reveal simultaneously he at the knee and th left index finger’ um the left Side audience and PullS hguliuualli (See at about hiP level Taking the CU twirling the ends hutcurtain, by II (including Shiva P74 his. First he b1 tater with ashes ( and fourth digits (in three stripes) it ea on each of hi 20\ Some ' hon fro times Iire~uork —— 124 darkness.20 He screams again and laughs wickedly. The drummers once more play the drum bols and by the time these bols are finished, the demon has come to the stage entrance, but he is concealed from the audience by the curtain. He begins his oddolaga dancing with his back to the audience. Then he turns to face them but he is still concealed behind the curtain. To certain drum bols, with his right hand he pulls down the right side of the curtain revealing only a partial side—view of his face and crown. Simultaneously he stands on his right leg, and with the left leg bent at the knee and the left foot about one foot off the ground, shakes his left index finger, shreiks, and laughs. To the same drum bols he pulls down the left side of the curtain and does the same. Then he faces the audience and pulls the curtain down to waist level. He takes the hagallu waZZi (see Chapter VII, Make-up and Costumes), one in each hand at about hip level, and whirls them around as he shreiks and laughs. Taking the curtain with him he moves toward center—stage still twirling the ends of the hagallu walli. Here at center—stage, with a half-curtain, by means of hand gestures he mimes his daily routine (including Shiva puja) to a different but characteristic set of drum bols. First he brushes his teeth and then takes a bath. He then mixes water with ashes (vibhuti) and simultaneously using the second, third, and fourth digits of each hand alternately, he applies this vibhuti (in three stripes) to his forehead, two areas on each upper arm, one area on each of his shoulders, and one place on each loin (Figure 13). M. 20Sometimes stage—hands holding grass fire torches accompany the demon from the chauka to the rangasthala. In addition there may be fire-works to further announce his arrival. As they approach handfuls of powdered reSin might be thrown into the grass torches to produce. startling fire—flashes in the darkness- Figure . in the demfl Figure 125 < r I Figure 13. Places on body for putting vibhuti marks in the demon's oddolaga. Figure 14. Making the linga for the demon's oddolaga. He makes a p11 between the cupped his right hand he ghee, and water or tends to put flows flame in a cloekw: is satisfied that takes a flower am have been done to The rakshasa ties to Stagefiea rear and with. the He dances a littl hesnatches the c audience, Shoutin circular Pattern, The rakshas; W The rah “Mil that mOmem hair, combs her 1 sure lice» and t1 QHEVe mirror 8' h' . art. In mime , r ———’— 126 He makes a phallus (Zingam) by bunching some of the hagallu walli between.the cupped palm.and thumb of the left hand (Figure 14). Using ins right~hand he symbolizes pouring milk, honey, tender coconut milk, ghee, and water over the lingam-—the ritual of abhis’heka. He then pre— tends to put flowers around the lingam and pretends to wave the-sacred flame in a clockwise motion between the lingam and his body. When he is satisfied that Lord Shiva has blessed the offerings, he symbolically takes a flower and puts it on his crown. All of these hand gestures have'been done to specific drum bols. The rakshasa then pulls the curtain up to full—curtain.position and goes to stage-rear.' The stage-hands follow him close behind to stage- rear and with the full-curtain keep him concealed from the audience. He dances a little while behind the curtain, then on a certain drum.bol he snatches the curtain from.the stage-hand, re—enters the View of the audience, shouting and shreiking, and performs his simple steps in a circular pattern. The rakshasa's oddolaga lasts approximately fifteen minutes. Bakshasi's oddolaga The rakshasi's oddolaga is the same as that of the rakshasa euuil that moment when the mime of the daily routine begins. The demoness first brushes her teeth, washes her face, washes her hair,cmnbs her hair-—first on one side then on the other side, kills some lice, and then throws her hair over her shoulders. In.a make- believe mirror she admires herself, pats her face, and smoothes her hair. In mime, she holds a box of kumkum in her left hand, and with the middle finger sign of Shiva on She puts the fingers into the as though they we this is done, she cWin position. The curtain ”Mame dust behind the t refiners the Ste ere Performed in The rnitshatsj W The mac‘ istic of that p01 hone den”Hie cha instead of Wild 5 inhumanta trills hashes the stage in certain t Partially reVEalj dedoes the Same \ 21 All derm 22 hmfimw Gen 1 e new,“ Udipij 127 the middle'finger of her right hand, dabs it in the kumkum and makes the sign of Shiva onher'forehead.21 She puts the pads of her index fingers together and curls the other fingers into the palm (Figure 15). She moves her hands in-this position as though they were a snake and applies collyrium.under~her eyes. When this is done, she reaches out, grabs the curtain and raises it to full- curtain position. The curtain is pulled to one side by the stage-hand and the demoness, carrying a fire torch in each hand, dances in a circle beyond the stage just behind the bhagavata. She dr0ps her torches outside the stage and re-enters the stage shouting and shreiking. The remainder of her steps are performed in a circular pattern. The rakshasi's oddolaga lasts approximately fifteen minutes. Hanumanta’s oddolaga}2 The maddalegar and chandegar beat those drum bols character- ‘istic of that portion of the rakshasa and rakshasi's oddolagas when those demonic characters come from.the chauka to the-rangasthala. Instead ofiwild shreiks and laughs of the demonic characters, however, Ehnnmanta trills his tongue making a "brrrrrrrrrrrrrrr" sound, and reaches the stage entrance behind the curtain. To certain drum bols he pulls down the right side of the curtain partially revealing the right side of his face and trills his tongue. He does the same with the left side of the curtain, reveals part of the h 21All demons and demonesses are worshippers of Lord Shiva. 2Although it is known to several performers, Hanumanta's Oddolaga has not been performed for at least fifty years. Shri Virabhadra Nayak, interview, Udipi, South.Kanara, January 10, 1971. i i i E Figure the demoHesS 128 Figure 15. Gesture used for putting on eye make—up in the demoness' oddolaga. left side of his curtain, pulls it his kirita to the curtain to full—( and does some jur Oddolaga, in a c: the left knee, he hands he scratch: iii“ he has done aIIOther, he stand touching the t0p noun. He does th 6 Story continr i Hanumanta r s The te. iurpleasure 0r “ there ladies of nduash their h. fitted in a Circe backward and tha hitting water 0 tune tidle the la and encourage the the Stick Dance, Perfumed in a c nether and hit toBeth Er last 313 ‘____4 129 left side of his face andtrills his tongue. He then stands behind the curtain, pulls it half-down, bends over the curtain, touches the t0p of hisrkim'ta to the ground, comes up trilling his tongue, and ‘raisesthe curtain to full-curtainflposition. He then snatches the curtain away and does some. jumping-squatting steps similar to thoserof the Pandavas' Oddolaga,- in a circular pattern (see Figures 9 and 10) .. Squatting on the, left knee, he stretches the right- leg out and with one, or both hands he scratches his right side, trilling his tongue the while. When he has donethis several times, alternating from one leg to another, he stands up, bends over, and‘pays respect to theaudienceby touching the t0p.of his kirita, and the palms of his hands, to the grOund. He does a concluding step, and exits, then he ere—enters and. the story continues. Hanumanta's oddolaga lasts approximately five minutes. Bathing-in—the-river dance (ialakride) The term jalakride means bathing in the river, pond, or tank for pleasure or amusement. Often in the prasangas there are scenes where ladies of the court or the ladies of. the gandharvas go to bathe and wash their hair. The dance depicting this scene is usually per- formed in a circular pattern using steps that move both forward and backward and that include simple hand gestures that suggest-each one throwing water-on the other and each washing her hair. - Generally after sometime the ladies pretend to be discontent playing among themselves and encouragethe gandharvas or other male guardians to .‘join. them in the Stick Dance, a folk-dance of Northern India. This dance is also performed in a circular pattern; 'characters weave in and out between one another and hit stickstogether in a specific rhythm. Both dances together last approximately tenminutes. Traveling dz During try stories comm many times in the social visits, e: advance to the b: and Perilous ford ifld animals, der the warrior queer right aunreprian Gentle fema.‘ not COHCerned wic Perfumed With g: it is “Wally OIL' anearhy bathing iing's esrate and In the trav. travel and trave coves f°mard in inflame, tOWard rams this sew diff Eac] erent Stet) . iidktaya) . The Semnd sequence, the da‘ Em. Here he e: “inter. The r, _4____-‘ 130 Traveling dance Cprayana). During the times of the Mahabharata, Ramayana, and other legend- ary-stories communication was accomplished solely through travel. So umny times in the prasangas the characters must travel either to make axial visits, especially for weddings; to deliver messages; or to advance to the battle field. Often they must go through dense, dark and perilous forests. To demonstrate this awareness of danger from wild animals, demons and other foes both male warrior characters and the warrior queens as they dance turn their head abruptly from left to right appr0priately coordinated with thesteps. ' Gentle female characters usually travel with male escort and are not concerned with these matters; therefore their traveling steps.are performed with grace. If there are a.group of ladies traveling together fl:is~usually only for a short distance, such as from the palace to ernearby bathing tank, and as such, the area would be a part of the. king's estate and would be protected by his guards. In the traveling dance there are two sequences: preparation for travel and traveling.' When the character is preparing to travel he nnves forward in a straight.line from.just in front of the stage mflmance, toward.stage-front, then back to the starting point, and repeats this several times. When he moves forward he dances one step umny times. Each time he moves in the opposite direction he dances a different step. At the end of this sequence is a concluding step (muktaya).‘ The-second sequence begins. Performing the first step of this sequence, the dancer makes a circular pattern ending at the stage-right exit. IHere he exits, goes to stage—left entrance, and prepares to re-enter. The remainder of the steps are performed in.a figure-eight pattern (Figure performed at the Even though complicated and Since (see Chapter III Generally the ba Mahabharata war The battle battle. The challenge During the the one Who is I listening Stan (1: established prov dances Centepsp dance at Center. he dancer who : 17) either Stag. ands his Speech Pl ace where the simultaneously ‘ dance, then beg When the Challe 131 pattern (Figure 16). When the last step is completed the muktaya is performed at the rear-center stage and the dialogue begins. Even though the pattern is simple, many of the most-vigorous, complicated and difficult steps are found in the traveling dance. Battle dance (yuddha) Since one of the main rasas of the prasangas is vira rasa (see Chapter III, Elements of the Drama) many battle scenes occur. Generally the battles fought are thosethat are a part of the Mahabharata war or those fought over the abduction of a woman. The battle dance has two sequences—-the challenge and the actual battle. The challenge During the challenge, when the warriors are abusing each other, the one who is talking stands center—stage rear. The one who is listening stands either stageeleft front or_stage—right front. The established protocol is that the performer who is going to talk, dances center-stage_while the_bhagavata sings. When he completes his dance at center~stage rear, he begins to Speak from the same position. The dancer who is listening stands, usually in a resting pose (Figure 17) either stage-left front or stage—right front. When the warrior ends his speech he walks in a half or three-quarter circle to the~ Iflace where the other dancer had been standing.‘ He who was listening, simultaneously moves to center-stage rear where he begins and ends his dance, then begins and ends his talk, while the other warrior listens. When the Challenge is over the battle dance begins. Figure dance‘ 132 beginning steps 0 maddal egar l _J entranc e exit a muk 0 0 Figure 16. Ground plan View of pattern for the traveling dance. Figurt vr‘ll‘l 133 Figure 17. Resting pose The Battle There are t defeated is a mi being done with the actor carryi defeated is impo fought with diff rents that depic arrow, the mace, shoulders and by The be Pattern, During the second acto] (lime 18)_ Ft actors altemat; The Heart 81 dppmach, Chall. original P°Siti( scheme in Whit hire a Short Sp they rethm to 1' . 1112, Jun}? high Positihns‘ The neXt f semicircular p dancers “rim 134 The Battle There are two kinds of battle dances. If the character to be defeated is a minor character and/or the song.describes the dance as being done with one weapon only, the dance is usually performed with the actor carrying the bow and arrow only. vathe character to be‘ defeated is important and/or the song describes the battle as being fought with different kinds of weapons, the dance will include mover ments that depict those described in the song-ethe use of the bow and arrow, the mace, the sword, fighting with fists, fighting by hitting shoulders and by kicking. Battle with one weapon only ‘ The battle dance using one weapon only begins with a sigmoid pattern. During the first step, one actor dances in a half-S pattern; the second actor-simultaneously dances the other half of the S pattern (Figure 18).‘ Four different steps are performed in this pattern, the actors alternating from one end of the S pattern to the other (Figure 19). The next step is performed in:a straight approach. 'The combatants approach, challenge, then turn around and retrace their steps to the original position (Figure_20).- This sequence is followed by another sequence in which the combatants approach.each other.in a straight line, “mkg a shqrE springing jump.into the air, a squatting turn, and then they return to their original stage positions. In the next sequence the dancers approach each other in a straight lhfia jump high into the air, turn, and then return to their original positions. The next.four sequences of steps are performed by each actor in a semi—circular pattern, thus making the pattern on stage a circle, as the dancersperform together (Figure 21)- Figure dance. Figure danc Figure dance 135 .+ V Figure 18. Ground plan View of pattern used in battle dance. 1/ Wk?) set 6M)??? Figure 19. Ground plan View of patterns used in battle dance. h Figure 20. Ground plan View of patterns used in battle dance. The next dz actor going in t direction (Figur The final 5 performed in fip Pretend to shoot Eight (Figure 21 deprived of his “T curtain will unreal his exit If th( the ProcEdure is 1 Points it at hi: T 1 how that has bet a inacircle bot] T Side of the bow: v Thl‘ner to the 0] again fmm Corn, 1 “Thbatant exits t The Chane] After this Weapc Tithaspmrd, a] IThen th e l; and then bullp e; and hit each or Each other with *7— 136 The next dance sequence is performed in tear—drop patterns, one actor going in one direction, his combatant going in the opposite, direction (Figure 22). The final steps of the battle with "one weapon only dance" are performed in figure-eight.patterns. The dance is completed when they pretend to shoot their arrows each from.the farthest point of the figure- eight (Figure 23). If one of the combatants is.merely defeated, that is, deprived of his weapon, he will exit; but if he is wounded, or has died, the curtain will be brought.in, and held in full-curtain.position to conceal his exit from the stage. Battle with multiple weapons and bodily contact If the battle dance is to be done with a number of weapons flmaprocedure is different. The challenger first twirls his bow and points it at his Opponent. He who is challenged grabs the end of the- bow that has been pointed at him and the two warriors dance clock-wise in a circle both holding an end of the bow. Then with one on either side of the bow, and bOth holding the boy, they dance from the entrance corner to the Opposite corner, first at a medium pace, then once gain from corner to corner at a faster pace, at which time the defeated ombatant exits. The victor takes the weapon, twirls it, and puts it Hlthe ground on one side of the rangasthala. The challenger returns with a mace and the same pattern is followed. fter this weapon is taken by the victor, the challenger will return 1th a sword, and the same.pattern is followed.‘ When the last weapon is taken, the warriors will dance in circles d then bump each other shoulder to shoulder, then againidance in a circle d hit each other with their fists,_then-again dance in,a circle and kick ch other with their feet. Figure dance. Figur dance. Figul dance. 137 “6 Q ‘5' Figure 21. Ground plan View of pattern used in battle dance. 3( Figure 22. Ground plan view of pattern used in battle dance. Figure 23. Ground plan View of pattern used in battle dance. The final others' hands, together and so: but with rapidi or if he is inj exit. The threat ing of the bows by the loud bea the flailing of of the dancers, climax of a Yak Dance in h occasion ( When generally perfo auspicious occa danced by one o Eiformance 'Rit In additic 5 8hinders, the ““18 in raga ar shrs he will I 0T the bhagavat Test dances a b93111 with a nu f - m -r»«-- '-- W} w an --=--‘ ~ - - "w“ 138 The final step.of the dance is done by the actors holding each' others' hands,.leaning their bodies backward, putting their feet close ’together and swinging each other in a circle, as in children's play, but with rapidity and violence. The defeated combatant then runs out, or if he is injured or has died, the curtain is brought to conceal his exit. The threatening and challenging shreiks of the.dancers, the draw— ing of the bows, waving of maces and whirling of swords is accompanied by the loud beating of the chande and the maddale. These together with the flailing of arms and legs, and the leaping and squatting movements of the dancers, keep the audience spellbound. This dance is usually the climax of .‘a Yakshagana performance. Dance.in honor of an auspicious occasion (mangalam dance) When the story is concluded, the mangalam dance-~a dance generally performed in a circular pattern-~that marks the end of an ausPicious occasion (the performance) is sung by the bhagavata and danced by one of the striveshas or Lord Krishna-(see Chapter VIII, egfirformance~Rituals). Creative Dances In addition to the dances Specifically choreographed for particular situations, the performersfusually dance to all other songs that are ung‘inrag‘arand tala. In these, the dancer is free to choose the- teps he will perform, provided that they can,be performed to the beat f-the bhagavata's tala.and also express the mood of the songs' contents. ese tdances are generally performed in.a circular pattern. The dancers" egin with a muktaya at the starting point. The dancers may at any time stop dancing and explain then begin the dance aga Hale characters The initial positio proximity of the heels w wide apart. Characteris Bayalata dance steps, th although many exceptions hatched; the elbows ar (Figure 24). Female characters The position of the the male-character when : The position of the 18the same as that of t] 1“lot arched but gently (Figure 25). Mt Thevbasic body movet the result of the -shifti1 Generally thehip of the. Strated position and is 8" that the thorax and s] 139 dancing and explain-the contents of the song in hand gestures, and begin the dance again. Dance Steps Position of the Body and Limbs characters The initial position for each dance sequence involves the close. mity of the heels with the feet spread wide and the knees bent and apart. Characteristically, throughout Yakshagana Badagatittu ata dance steps, the feet are kept relatively close together, Jgh many exceptions to this generalization can be seen. The back :hed; the elbows are bent and kept well away from the body re 24). characters he position of the warrior queen‘s body is the same as that of le character when she is playing the part of a warrior. he position of the striveshaYS (gentle female's) body and limbs same as that of the male character dancer except that the back arched but gently curved forward with the shoulders rounded 25). Movements of the Body and Limbs basic body movements in.Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata are t of the shifting of weight—bearing from one foot to the other. y the hip of the weight—bearing limb is thrust out in an exag— position and is compensated with a movement of the lumbar spine the thorax and shoulders are thrust to the opposite side. Figure 24 . P05 Figure 25. P03 140 0 <3 / Figure 24. Position of male character's body. Figure 25. Position of female character's body. Progressive change of we hips and shoulders come The sinuous movemen squatting, where weight- ie equa1;for both limbs. The shift of body—w the appearance of a step from one step to another A method by which t the dance is the raising other leg. This innnedia the'freed leg speed in sequences correct execu Upper limb movemen cannon hand gestures, In many of the male point of the shoulder e) the front and vertical 1 Shoulder ornaments. Upper arm and force but follow an aesthetic dance. In general, the Wally rotate both fo afoot away from the ch The cannon hand ge those which Kannada—spe are readily understood. Yalrehagana Badagatittu 141 gressive change of weight—bearing results in a sinuous movement of e and shoulders common to Yakshagana and many other Asian dance forms. The sinuous movement is not present in steps such as leaping or tting, where weight-bearing before and after, or during the step, qual;for both limbs. The shift of bodvaeight from one foot to another can markedly change appearance of’a step, and if not correct, will spoil the transition; one step to another. A method by which this transition is made with added liveliness to lance is the raising of the heel of one foot near the knee of the leg. This immediately shifts the weight to the other leg and gives reed leg speed in moving to its_next step (Figure 26). In some hces correct execution of the step requires this jerky kick. Jpper limb movements are a combination of general arm movements, 1 hand gestures, and classified hand gestures (mudras). In many of the male dances the upper arm is moved such that the of the shoulder executes a small circle with its diameter to out and vertical to the ground. This movement accents the er ornaments. :per arm and forearm movements depend on the chosen hand movements, ;low an aesthetic pattern appropriate to the character and the In general, the wrist is used as a pivot, and the hands horie y rotate both forward and backward, held at chest level, about away from the chest. e common hand gestures in Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata are nich Kannada-speaking people use in everyday conversation and so lily understood. Likewise, the few classical hand gestures of Lna Badagatittu Bayalata are easily understood by the least Figure 26. A 142 O O KI Figure 26. A method for shifting weight. educated person in t Lord Krishna playing of abhaya (God's mes examples. The neck—unveme that the head glides the shoulders immobi retained throughout structures relative. While executing the hands. It is possible Steps is due to the ing of the intricatr the most aesthetica.‘ the senior professit T'lllhe lost to pos All the steps ‘ Performed by both or thehandi step. Th inthe Pandavas' 0d Ehues bravery and Oddo1*1861 and dances ll 21 to Ray Ambr 6h and CharlEs (g: A 143 ted person in the audience. Gestures such as those used to represent rishna playing his flute, the opening of the lotus, and the sign aya (God's message:. "Do not fear while I am here."), are typical es. e neck-movement, reohakas,21 is the movement of the neck, such he head glides from side to side either slowly or quickly with oulders immobile. The vertical plane of the body and head is d throughout the movement, and the lateral movement of these res relative to each other is achieved by movement of the neck. ile executing the dance steps the eyes always follow either of ds. Patterns of the Steps is possible that the absence of written records of the dance s due to the difficulties associated with observation and record— the intricate and rapidly executed dance steps. Today many ofv : aesthetically pleasing steps are performed by only a few of .or professional dancers, and it is apparent that these steps lost to posterity if not satisfactorily recorded.. the steps used in Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata can be drby both male and female characters with the exception of i step. This step is executed by male characters only. It is andavas' Oddolaga, the Purusha Oddolaga, and dances which travery and/or anger. Female characters who dance the Purusha- and dances expressing bravery-and/or anger are.the warrior d their ministers. In these dances these female characters Kay Ambrose, Classical Dances and Costumes of India (London: Sharles Black, 1950), pp. 11—12. substitute the steps step. The Yakshagana ( Tithout the backgrour vigorous, fast-movin: their varied pattern: their special rhythm th e sensual response moments with the St 144 stitute the steps illustrated in Figures 9 and 10 for the mandi The Yakshagana dance can stand alone as a medium of expressidn. ,out the background of song or the use of costume and make—up, its rous, fast-moving, intricate, rough, gentle and delicate steps in r varied patterns can captivate the spectator and engross him in r special rhythms and movements.' The essence of the dance lies in. ensual response of the audience to the coordination of the danCe cuts with the-sounds of the gejje.and the drums.‘ The make-up: asPECtel‘cle of ti theoihlamps in Particular art's and Other charac For Purpose ““5 may be at basic female; as animall and bird; characters that CharaCters avariety of Pat traits “light be hhamaraya) king rears a green j a their fiat}, temp jacket elem, t htal Tank is a] rear Either a kj w . CHAPTER VII MAKE-UP AND COSTUME The-make-ups and costumes of Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata are ctacle of color and geometric design. Reflecting the flame of il—lamps in-their gilded ornaments and crowns, they express this cular art's conventional concept of the heroes, villains, deities, ther characters of the epics and puranic stories. Tor purposes of convenience the make-up and costumes of the char— ; may be divided into the following categories: basic male, and female; aerial and forest dweller; hunter; demon and demoness;‘ >and bird; deity; teacher; sage; comedian; and miscellaneOus ters that do not fit into any-of the previous categories. Basic Male raracters who wear the basic male make—up and costumes represent ty of personalities, ages, and ranks in royalty. Personality night be symbolized in the color of jacket worn; for example,. iya, king of the Pandavas and personification of righteousness, green jacket. Both Bhima and Arjuna, also Pandavas, known for ery temperaments, wear red jackets. Age is shown by length of Leave, type of headdress, color of hair, mustache, and heard. rk is almost always indicated by the type of headdress; kings er a kingfs crown or a large headdress peculiar to Yakshagana 145 Badagatittu Baya to Yakshagana Ba Types of ch slight variation include the youn king, and the 01 detail later in the actors wear basic costume an 15 the descriptj names 0f charact costume that e a The actor n with one h a1 f~t< adds one“lllartei mdone‘eighth 1 arsenic) to the desired miXture alPlied to the .; is patted 011 mi with a damp €10 are Edited and a forehead (Figur form °ne~qUa head (Figure 2) hdwith a Smal IIIIIIIIIIIIT____________________________——_________—“__—_______'__"‘“"’ *---:' 146 gatittu Bayalata and the princes wear a small headdress peculiar akshagana Badagatittu Bayalata.‘ Types of characters who wear the basic male make—up and costumes with at variation depending upon their personality, age and royal rank 1de the young warrior princes, the mature warrior princes, the mature ; and the old kings. Their individual costumes are discussed in .1 later in the chapter, but first there is a description of how mtors wear the basic make—up followed by a description of all the costume and headdress pieces and how they are worn. After this e description of the different types of basic male characters, the of characters who are included in these categories, and the specific us that each wears, Basic Male Make-Up ‘he actor mixes a teaspoon of white powdered pigment (zinc oxide) ne half—teaspoon of coconut oil in the palm of his hand. He then ne—quarter teaspoon of red powdered pigment (red oxide of mercury) a—eighth teaspoon of yellow powdered pigment (sulphurate of 1) to the white powdered pigment.and coconut oil mixture. When a ,mixture of light pink and yellow is obtained, the makeiup is to the face and neck. To set this make—up, white face powder ad on with a powder puff and then the face and neck are dabbed lamp cloth to solidify the oil. White pigment powder and water d and applied in a standard pattern near the eyes.and on the (Figure 1). Then red pigment powder mixed with water is used >ne~quarter inch wide lines and a red.tiZaka design on the fore— mre 2). Soot from a coconut flame is mixed with coconut oil a small thin stick the actor outlines the eyes and eyebrows, Figurc F1801 147 t0<0>i é Figure 1. Step A, basic male make—up pattern. @030 3 Figure 2. Step B, basic male make—up pattern. V) - Figure 3. Step C, basic male make—up pattern. and makes a b ing, the red coconut 011 i called kumktm heart-shaped the ”basic me The basj (Figure 4); g bidega‘mlum: (Figure 6); ; “Tapped in a jacket with : according to with silver 1 and “Wed in mi“ kirtt Silver Paper wind part of told Paper ( halt of Wh it Paper (Figur Colered with "that W First t high of the A“ f———4_ 148 makes a black tilaka design superimposed on, but not entirely cover- the red tilaka design. Next a mixture of the red pigment and rut oil is applied to the lips over which a dark rust—red powder ad kumkum is dabbed.’ The lips are made to appear small and somewhat z—shaped (Figure 3). Henceforth the above will be referred to as 'basic male make—up." Basic Male Costume idual items The basic male costume consists of ijaru——black loose—fitting pajamas re 4); gejje—-ankle bells worn by all characters (Figure 5); kalu z——aluminum anklets (or carved wooden anklets painted silver) re 6); kase sire——a teneyard red and golden—yellow checked sari d in,a way peculiar to Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata; tugaZe—-a with short or long sleeves and either red, green or dark blue ing to the character; wadhyana——a belt carved of wood and covered leer paper (Figure 7); yeddekattu-—a breast plate made of cloth, wed wood covered with gold paper and pieces of mirror (Figure 8);‘ irti—-shoulder ornaments made of carved wood and covered with paper (Figure 9); toZa bapuri——upper arm ornaments made of carved rt of which are painted red and part of which are covered with wer (Figure 10); kai chinna~—wrist ornaments made of carved wood which are.painted red and part of which are covered with gold igure ll); vira kase-—a girdle made of cloth'and carved wood with gold paper, woolen balls, and pieces of mirror (Figure 12). rwearing the items t the performer puts on a pair of black pajamas, gathers the :he pajamas on a draw string, adjusts the waist to his size, F iiiii F iiiii Figure 4. Pajamas Figure 5. Gejje Figure 6. Anklets Figure 7. Belt Figure 8. Basic male breast plate FiBure 9. Figure 11 Figure 9. Basic male shoulder Figure 10. Basic male armlets ornaments igure 11. Basic male bracelet Figure 12. Basic male girdle then ties tl pajama are around the 2 The anklets noderately ‘ Pajamas are dance which The hat the actor's lll)- Thep The bottom tlicked in a Secure the don] aPPro ”ately two “he at his mat and b proxinai e. waiSt in 01 the winding “her the 1 making a he legs and “I tape um” waist: wul: mats it 1 is free to hchitghed hips axon: l 51 ,1 hen ties the-two ends of the draw string securely. At the ankles, the jamas are-folded and one long string of tiny bells (gejje) are wound ound the ankles a number of times and tied over the t0p of the folds. e anklets are tied above the bells (Figure 13). The pajamas are tied derately tightly just below the knee with a red cotton cord. The jamas are left loose—fitting above the knee to accommodate the vigorous nce which includes jumping and squatting. The kase.sire (sari) is doubled lengthwise, the middle is placed at actor's waist back and the_two open ends are held out front (Figure . The parts of the fabric which meet at the navel are tied together. bottom of the back of the sari is then brought between the-legs and ked in at the waist front. A wide white cloth tape is used to ure the sari. The tape is made by quilting five layers of white th approximately two inches wide and six yards long. Leaving approxi— ely two feet of tape free, the actor begins by putting the rolled—up a at his left back waist, bringing the tape around the waist to the u and back to the left waist. At this point most actors 100p the imal end of the free two—foot—long end under the tape around the. t in order to free the left hand for subsequent use. Continuing winding of the tape to the back waist he passes the rolled—up tape r the tape already there, passes it over the tape already there 1g a half—hitch, then brings the rolled—up tape down through the and up to the front waist middle. Here he passes the rolled~up under the tape which has already been wrapped around the front -, pulls the tape over the top of the already—wrapped tape-and s it under the same place making a half—hitch in front. The actor e to choose whether he takes the tape back through his legs to Ched to the tape at center back, or he can alternate this with around his waist to either left or right, but generally alternating Figure Fig“: Figure 13. Tying the gejje and anklets Figure 14. Step A, wrapping the kase sire ties around keeping the feet of the brought up 2 ends of the sari comer: (Figure 18) The jaw of the jack. tied around and tied at W the cute hinted Fe, The free~ha atom the front of th Plate (Figu arm Ornamen Ml“ uuti “Pier arm a the am. i the Same the thVe will The be M wrapping 153 ; around his waist and between his legs. This he continues to do, wing the tape pulled tightly, until there is approximately only two Lof the tape remaining (Figure 15). The corners of the sari are ght up and loosely tied behind the neck (Figure 16). The remaining of the tape are wrapped around the waist and tied (Figure 17). The corners are untied from around the neck and allowed to hang free are 18). The jacket.is then put on and the bottom corners of the open edges is jacket are-pulled together and tied at the waist. The belt is around the waist, and just beneath the belt the girdle is placed Lied at the back. The shoulder ornaments (see Figure 9) are placed e outer side of the upper arms at each shoulder; the ornaments are ed permanently with a single cord which lies across the shoulders. ree—hanging cords attached to the bottom of the ornaments are tied i the respective arms. The free—hanging cords attached to the top of the ornaments are tied at the center of the chest. The breast (Figure 8) is laid over the-chest and tied at the back. The upper— ‘naments (Figure 10) are placed just below the shoulder ornaments, until sufficiently tight, then the cord is wrapped around the arm and the end of the cord tucked under that cord wrapped around n. The wrist ornaments (Figure 11) are secured to the wrists in ne manner mentioned for the upper arm ornaments. Henceforth the till be referred to as the "basic male costume" (Figure 19). Basic Male Headdresses e basic male headdresses are complicated by the number of lal items from which they are composed and the intricate system wing the head in preparation for wearing them. 154 it Figure 15. Step B, wrapping the kase sire % ,J L Figure 16. Step C, wrapping the kase sire 155 .1 Figure 17. Step D, wrapping the kase sire ‘9’ L~ Figure 18. Step E, wrapping the kase sire 156 Figure 19. The basic male costume l_nd_i_ nate some of c help tion with cars the the iron ftel blac he: 0f t the Individual items Basic male headdress consists of the following: scrap pieces of terial approximately one foot wide and two feet long used for wrapping he hair knot (mudi); peta——the cloth used for covering the head and in one cases for covering the headdress; bhuttu munthe--the~ornament made f carved wood covered with gold paper which decorates the forehead and elps to secure the headdress (Figure 20); karma patra——the ear decorar ions which are carved of wood covered with gold paper and mirror pieces 'th black woolen balls added (Figure 21); taware—-a decoration made of rved wood covered with gold paper which is tied on the front part of re headdress (Figure 22). thod of wearing headgear dage mundale' The actor pulls his long hair together at the back of the top of a head and makes a bun; the bun is referred to as the mudi (Figure 23). wund this bun he wraps several pieces of scrap cloth. When the actor is that there is enough padding around the bun (mudi) he takes a ck piece of cloth approximately one and one—half feet by four yards 3) and neatly covers the other cloth wrappings by placing the center he cloth at the center top of the forehead and extending it up over mhdi (Figure 24). One end of the cloth is taken behind the neck the mudi and head and allowed to hang down the side. The other end rapped from the other side in the same way. The hanging ends are in.a knot and left free for the time being (Figure 25). The bhuttu 1e, a decorative piece, is placed over the black cloth with the r part of the bhuttu mundale over the center of the forehead, then ords attached to the piece are tied behind the neck. Two strings LC Figure 20. The bhuttu mundale ii Figure 21. Ear decorations W W Figure 22. The taware ”Veal..- , — Figure 23. The mudi (bun) Figure 24. Step A, wrapping the mudi ) Figure 25. Step B, wrapping the mudi 159 160 are left free for securing the headdress at a later stage (Figure 26). A piece of scrap cloth two feet square is folded, two corners toward each other, until a band about two inches wide is made and this is tied around the pets just behind the bhuttu mundale (Figure 27). This is the maths and is used as a base for the coils of the headdress. These coils are made of dried rice grass and are covered with cotton scrap cloth (Figure 28); they are referred to as atte and are of different sizes. The first coil is placed on the head, stretching from ear to ear, and is tied at the back of the neck. The second coil, a little larger than the first, is placed on top of the,first coil and tied in the same manner. Subsequent coils, each a little larger than the previous one, are placed on the top of the other and tied at the back of the neck. When the desired height is reached, usually six or seven coils (depending on the size of the actor's face) they are secured with cord by means i of tying the cord around the mudi (the hair knot), then taking the cord to the left under the coils, diagonally across the front of the coil— stack to the top right side of the coils, over the top of the coils, diagonally down the back around the left side of the mudi to the right bottom side of the coil—stack. The cord is then taken under the right bottom side of the coil—stack diagonally across the front up to the left toP side of the coil—stack, over, diagonally across the back of the coil— stack around the right.side of the mudi up two inches from the cord placed previously, diagonally across in front and over the t0p right. side several inches distant from the cord already there. This radial- wrapping continues until the coils are securely fastened to the mudi and to each other (Figure 29). A dampened rice grass plait, thZu jade, is Placed on the top coil and wrapped around several times. Another piece. Figure 26. Wearing the bhuttu mundale Figure 27. Wearing the methe Figure 28. An atte 162 Figure 29. Step A, tying the kedage mundale Figure 30. Step B, tying the kedage mundale Figure 31. Step C, tying the kedage mundale 163 of cord is tied to the mudi and the coils and the grass plait are secured to each other and to the mudi in the radial design previously mentioned (Figure 30). The black cloth pieces that were allowed to hang are now untied and taken from the back, up over the top and down the front of the headdress, and once again tied in a knot at the back of the neck. This results in the entire headdress being neatly covered with black cloth. Over this black cloth the actor winds red, yellow, silver and gold ribbons, in a radial pattern (Figure 31). When this is completed the ear ornaments, karna patra or karna kundale (Figure 21) are put in place and their strings are taken upggver the front of the headdress and tied to the mudi. “ h The next addition to the headdress is the kedage ornament (Figure 32) made of carved wood covered with gold paper, red wool, small silver beads, and mirror pieces. The kedage is placed behind the bhuttu mundale and in front of the coils. An open—sided cone of red, white, and green ruffled paper called the suttu (Figure 33) is placed at the center top of the headdress. The two free strings attached to the bhuttu mundale are taken over the kedage and up over the suttu then down the back and tied to the mudi.‘ An ornament called the taware (lotus) (Figure 22) is placed on the CEnter front of the headdress, the strings are taken around the sides 0f the headdress and tied to the mudi. Paper flowers called kenchu (F18UIe 34) are tucked at the sides of the headdress under the strings attaChed to the taware. A decorative pin called the turai (Figure 35) is inserted into the apex of the top coil of the kedage mundale. This Pin is made either of silver, or of carved wood covered with gold paper, both decorated with small pieces of red woolen thread extending vertically’ from the top. A fan—like ornament called the mudi kedage (Figure 36) is Figure 32. Figure 33. The kedage The suttu 164 165 Figure 34. A kenchu s Figure 35. The turai tit Figure 36. The mudi kedage 166 placed on top of the mudi and tied around the mudi (Figure 37). The mudi kedage is made of carved wood covered with gold paper. The completed headdress is known as the kedage mundale (Figure 38). When the kedage mundale is worn a white cloth with red border (or a golden-yellow cloth) one yard by two yards is tied to the mudi and tucked under the sides of the girdle at the front. One end of the cloth is gathered together and tied with a cord; this cord is then wrapped around the mudi (before the mudi kedage is placed) and tied. Each side of the other end of the cloth This cloth is is tucked under the girdle of the respective side. referred to as the shaZZe (Figure 39). Mundasu. The mundasu is a larger version of the kedage mundale that consists of eight to ten coils depending on the size of the actor's head. The. rice grass plait is generally wrapped around the perimeter of the coil- stack seven times. The peta is either red (kempu mundasu) or black (kappu mundasu) (Figure 40). The mundasu is always worn with the shalle. Rajawkirita The raja kirita is carved of wood and covered with gold paper and mirror pieces; it is carved like an urn and is flanked on~either side by a swan. Attached to the swansare three black woolen balls- Peacock feathers extend from the top of the crown.‘ To wear this headdress the actor must pull his hair into a bun and wrap it in black cloth (peta) as described in the section on the kedage. mundale (Figure 25). The bhuttu mundale (Figure 26) is placed on,the black. cloth over the center of the forehead and tied at the back of the neck. TWO strings are left free for securing the headdress at a later stage. The ear ornaments, the karna patra (Figure 21) are placed over the ears. 167 Figure 37. Side view of the kedage mundale Figure 38. Front view of the kedage mundale Figure 39. Back View of the kedage mundale 168 Figure 40. The mundasu Figure 41. The raja kirita 169 The strings are tied on top of the head and then around the mudi. The raja kirita is then placed on top of the head and the cords attached to the crown are-tied at the back of the neck (Figure 41). Following this the kedage (Figure 23) is placed on the head just in front of the crown and tied at the back of the neck. Then the free—hanging strings of the bhuttu mundale are-tied around the crown at its smallest diameter. The taware (Figure 33) is placed just above the kedage and tied around the mudi (Figure 42). The kirita is completed by tying long black false hair to the mudi which helps to hide the strings used to secure the chest and arm ornaments (Figure 43). Procedure for Wearing the Basic Male Vesha (Costume.and Make—Up) The actors put on the make-up and costumes in an order that facili- tates both speed and convenience. For example, the actor ties his ankle bells early in the preparation stages because later the bulk of the ornaments will hinder his bending to tie the bells and also for fear of displacing the headdress; it is not feasible to tilt the head forward once the headdress is worn. The following is the traditional order of wearing the basic male ”QSha (costume and make—up). First the actor puts on black pajamas. Then holding the ankle bells in his hands he places them over each eye. over his heart, offers them to God, and often, if he is not a brahman, he asks a brahman to bless his balls. After this he ties the ankle bells, the anklets and wraps the kase sire (the red and yellow-gold cloth, see Figures l4—18). The make—up is then applied and then the head is Wrapped in the approPriate color peta (the red or black Cloth, see Figures 23—25). The bhuttu mundale (the decorative forehead piece, see FiBUIe 20) is put in place and secured. The actor dons the headdress Figure 42. 170 Complete raja kirita 171 a t .1 r .1 k a .1. a r f O W e .1 V k C a B Figure 43. 172 (with its ornaments) correct for his character. The karna patra (the ear ornaments) are placed over the ears and secured according to the instruc— tions (see above) for wearing the individual headdresses. Then the actor puts on the proper colored jacket. If he wears the red and white shawl he now puts it in place. Next he puts on the basic male ornaments in this order: girdle, belt, upper arm ornaments, wrist ornaments, and If the actor wears the raja kirita (the king‘s crown) he If breast plate. ties on the appropriate colored false hair to the mudi (hair knot). he is wearing the shalle (the large white cloth trimmed in red, see. Figure 39), he will secure it to the headdress and tuck it in under either side of the girdle at the front. The actor completes the veSha with the proper weapon. Basic Male Characters Young warrior princes These youths are usually portrayed as brave and valiant princes, always eager to defend their kingdoms. They include Dushshasana (a Kaurava prince) who appears in Karnarjuna KaZaga (The BattZe Between Karna and Arjuna); Abhimanyu (Arjuna's son) who is the hero of Abhimanyu Kalaga (Abhimanyu’s Battle); Lakshana (son of Duryodhana, the Kaurava king) who is defeated by Abhimanyu in Abhimanyu Kalaga; Vrshasena (Karna's son) who is killed by Arjuna in Karnarjuna Kalaga; Sudhanwa, the hero of Sudhanwa KaZaga QSudhanwa’s Battle); Babhruwahana (another of Arjuna's sons), the hero of Babhruwahana KaZago (Babhruvahana’s Battle); Shatrughna and Bharata (Rama's half—brothers, when not kings) in Ramapattabhisheka (The Coronation of Roma) and Lavakusha KaZaga (Lava and Kusha's Battle); Prasena, who is slain by the lion in Shri Krishnavivaha (The Marriages of Krishna); Vatsakya, the hero of Ratnavati koZyana (The 173 Marriage of'Ratnavati); Lava and Kusha (Ramals sons), the heroes of Lavakusha KaZaga; Shishupala (Rukmini’s betrothed) in Shri Krishnavivaha and RukminiWayamvam (The Engagement of Rukmini) ; and Nakula and Sahadeva (the twin Pandavas) rarely major heroes but usually appearing. instories concerning the Pandavas such as Draupadiswayamwara (The Engagement of Draupadi). Uttara (prince of the Virata Kingdom) is the only prince who is depicted as a cowardly braggart, who eventually improves his character; he appears in Virata Parva (The Story of the Kingdom of Virata). (For synopsis of some of the above stores see Elements of the Drama). All of these young warriors wear the basic male make-up, the basic male costume, the kedage mundale (see Figure 38), the red and white. shawl, a short—sleeved red jacket and carry a boy and arrow. The short sleeves denote youth and the red might symbolize velour and an easily moused temper. ture warrior The mature warrior princes vary in temperament from those who are ntle to those who are easily enraged but all exemplify the traits of roism. Although slight changes in the basic make—up and costumes stinguish one from the other all the mature warrior princes wear the sic male make-up with the additions of the black woolen mustache and e black painted—on beard. The black woolen mustache is made of approxi- Ely 20 strands of black wool yarn about six inches long, laid out allel to one another. The middle of a two-foot—long cord is placed the center of these woolen strands and there a knot is tightly tied Sure 44). When the mustache is put in place-the ends of the cord are d at the back of the head and the ends of the mustache-are tucked under _..—-r 174 W Figure 44. Black woolen mustache Figure 45. Black painted—on beard 175 the cords near the hair line. The tucked-in cords will be covered by the ear ornaments that are put in place after the mustache is put on and the painted beard applied. The beard is made by applying a soot and coconut oil mixture in a quarter—inch—wide stripe outlining the jaws. and chin, and extending inva peak almost to the lower lip, in the cleft of the chin (Figure 45). The lower border of this stripe is shaded gradually down into the neck area until it blends into the basic pinks yellow make—up. Arjuna, one of the mature Pandava princes, is noted for his bravery and slightly hot temper. He often acts without thinking and later regrets his actions. As an important member of the Pandavas he appears [5 a major character in most stories concerning them, such as Draupadiswayam- 7am, Abhimanyu KaZaga, Babhrwoahana Kalaga, Kamarjuna Kalaga, Sudhanzua aZaga, andThmradhwajaanaga. He wears the basic male make—up to which 3 added a black woolen mustache and painted—on beard; these additions ggest his maturity. But a short—sleeved red jacket worn with the basic e costume hints at some remnants of youthfulness and possibly his sily aroused temper. He wears the kedage mundale, shalle, and carries bow and arrow. Pradhyumna (Krishna's son also known as Manmatha_and Kama) is er cowardly but is always too gentle and physically weak to win a tle. He appears in Eati KaZyana (The Marriage 0f.Rati). Like Pradhyumna, Rukma (Rukmini's brother) is also not an agressive nce. He appears in the story of Rukmini's engagement contained in. ' Krishnavivaha and Rukminiswayamwara. Both Pradhyumna and Rukma wear the basic male make-up with black ache and painted—on black beard; the basic male costume, long—sleeved n jacket, red mundasu with kedage, shalle, and they each carry a bow 176 and arrow. The green.might suggest their gentle nature; the long sleeves, mustache and beard denote their maturity. Tamradhwaja is a valiant but non—aggressive prince who is the main character of Tamradhwaja KaZaga (Tamradhwaja’s Battle). He wears the basic male make—up with black.mustache and painted—on beard; the basic male costume, with a long—sleeved dark blue jacket (the significance of the color is not known), red mundasu with kedage, shalle, and he carries a bow and arrow. Vrishakettu is a hot—blooded warrior like his father, Karna, and his Vounger brother, Vrishasena. He appears in Sudhanwa KaZaga and Babhruvahana hZaga and he wears the basic male costumes with a red long—sleeved acket. To distinguish him from other mature warriors he wears the 2ku yelavastra which is made by wrapping a black mundasu to completion 1th the exception of the kedage (Figure 31). Then a piece of red cloth )ur feet by eight feet is used to trim the mundasu. The cloth is folded thalf so that as a piece it becomes two feet by eight feet. The nter of the folded edge is placed at the center bottom of the mundasu d extends an inch over the front bottom edge of the headdress (Figure )- The folded edge of the left side of the material is taken around 1 UP th6_front left side of the mudasu leaving one inch of the red terial covering the front border of the left side of the headdress. (right side of the material is taken around and up in the same ner (Figure 47). The two pieces of material will meet at the center 0f the mundasu (Figure 48). Behind the mundasu, at the bottom, the Wages of both sides of the material will be tied together in_a knot gure 49). Then the pieces of material at the top front are taken over toP and down the back, the left side of the material around the left of the mudi, the right side of the material around the right Slde fir‘ifi-h JF- - -‘ 177 Figure 46. Step A, wrapping the paku yelavastra Figure 47. Step B, front view of the paku yelavastra 178 Figure 48. Step B, wrapping the paku yelavastra, back View Figure 49. Step C, wrapping the paku yelavastra 179 >f the mudi. The two pieces of material are pinned together under the mdi and then left to hang free (Figure 50). The paku yelavastra is :omplete. He carries a bow and arrow. Bhima, one of the Pandavas, who is noted for his brute strength .nd highly explosive temper, appears in most stories concerning the 'andavas. He wears the basic male make—up with mustache and painted—on leard; he wears the basic male costume to which is added the hagallu aZZi and a long—sleeved red jacket. Although not a king he wears a ing's crown (raja kirita) and carries a mace. The hagallu walli is ,shawl that consists of one piece of white cotton cloth one foot by ine feet, and one piece of red cotton cloth one foot by nine feet. fter the jacket has been worn, and before the breast plate is secured, he hagallu walli is put around the neck with free ends of equal lengths anging in front (Figure 51). The ends are twisted and criss—crossed ver the Chest, taken around each side respectively, and tied in a not at the waist behind (Figure 52). After the knot is tied the ends re left to hang free (Figure 53). Mass The mature kings also vary in personalities; those who are more ntle wear the green jacket and those who wear the red jacket are more irited. Dharmaraya (King of the Pandavas) who usually appears in most >ries concerning the Pandavas;'Niladhwaja and Hamsadhwaja (kings in hanwa Kalaga);Mayordhwaja (father ofTamradhwaja in.Tamradhwaja aga); Satrajitu (brother of Prasena in Shri Krishnavivaha); Rama ro 0f the Ramayana stories) and his half-brother, Shatrughna who ear in Ramapattabhisheka (The Coronation of.Rama) and Lavakusha 180 0 A». Q Q Figure 50. Step D, back view of paku yelavastra 181 \ / Figure 51. Step A, wearing the hagallu walli Figure 52. Step B, wearing the hagallu walli J \. Figure 53. Step C, wearing the hagallu walli IIIII|IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIT"""""""""""""‘“t"""'——-—————r———rrrr----1--r 182 Kalaga all wear the basic male make—up with added black mustache’and painted—on beard; they wear the basic male costume to which is added the hagallu walli, a long—sleeved jacket, the raja kirita; and they each :arry a bow and arrow. Bharata and Lakshmana (Rama's other half—brothers) who appear in hmapattabhisheka and Lavakusha Kalaga; Duryodhana (King of the Kauravas) ho appears mainly in Karnarjuna Kalaga; Saindhava, the Sindhu king who elps slay Abhimanyu in Abhimanyu KaZaga;Dridavarma(father of atnavati) in Ratnavati KaZyana (The Marriage 0f.Ratnavati); and Virata father of the Prince Uttara) who appears in Virata Parva (The Story of Le Kingdom of Virata) all wear the basic male make-up to which is added black mustache and painted-on beard; they wear the basic male costume which is added the hagallu walli, a long—sleeved red jacket; and they ch carry a bow and arrow. BadraSena, the determined king who abducts Ratnavati in Ratnavati 1yana and Viramani the hero of Viramani KaZaga (Viramani's Battle) both 1r the basic male make—up to which is added a black mustache and ted-on beard; they wear the basic male costume with long—sleeved n jacket, a red mundasu with shalle; and they each carry a bow and w. For this costume it is difficult to speculate on the significance he colors. Perhaps the red in the headdress suggests his passiOn for avati and because a red jacket with a red mundasu would overrbalance color scheme, a green jacket is worn. Karna is one of the most outstanding warriors in the Mahabharata 'es; he is the hero of Karnarjuna Kalaga. His prowess in battle, etermination to win inspite of ill omens, his loyalty to those who befriended him (the Kauravas) and his devotion to Lord Vishnu are edeeming features. He wears the basic male make-up with added black 183 mstache and painted—on beard; the basic male costume with a long—sleeved ed jacket, the-paku yelavastra (Figures 46—50) and he carries a bow nd arrow., Karna and his son Vrishakettu wear the same vesha. Ld kings The elderly kings have become more mellow and wise through the years d are usually depicted as gentle characters. Dasharatha (Rama's ther) who appears in.Eamapattabhisheka; Dritarashtra (father of the uravas) who appears in DraupadtswayaMWara; Bhishmakka (Rukmini's ther) who appears in Shri'Krishnavivaha and Rukminiswayamvara; and irasena (Minakshi's father) who appears in Minakshi Kalyana (The adage of‘Minakshi) all wear basic male make—up with added white mache and white woolen beard, orblondeumstache and blonde false r beard; the basic male costume with added hagallu walli and a long— eved green jacket; they wear the raja kirita with long white or nde false hair attached to the mudi; and each carries a bow and arrow. terse 3 Political ministers are rarely called by their names so I have.not uded them. Some wear basic male make-up, with short-sleeved red at, basic male costume, the kedage mundale with shalle, and carry a nd arrow. This is the same vesha worn by the young warrior princes 's usually also worn by young political ministers. Some wear basic male make—up with the added black mustache and black ed-on beard; they wear basic male costume with long-sleeved green , red mundasu with kedage and shalle, and carry a bow and arrow. 8 the same vesha as worn by the mature warrior princes Pradhyumna kma. 71,. menu—‘2. , 184 Other political ministers wear basic male.make-up with the added black mustache and black painted-on beard; they wear basic male costume ith long-sleeved red jacket and the black mundasu with kedage and shalle; nd each carries a bow and arrow. No explanatidn was given as to why one inister wears a red mundasu and another the black mundasu. Basic Female The characters who wear the basic female Vesha are generally epicted as gentle females; they include the following: young princesses nd queens, matronly queens, ladies—in—waiting, and lady servants. After escribing and discussing the basic female make—up and the individual :ems of the basic female costume names of some of the characters who .t into each of the above categories are included followed by a descrip— on of their makeeup and costume. Basic Female Make—Up The base of the female make—up is the same pink—yellow mixture used -the basic male characters described above. In addition to this base :e—up which is set by dabbing with white face powder, the actor smoothes ittle red powder pigment on each cheek to make them pink. The eyes eyebrows are outlined with a mixture of soot and coconut oil and a ka is drawn on the forehead. A variety of tilaka design is used the most common is a large dark red dot. Henceforth the above will eferred to as "basic.female'make—up." However, as early as 1919 and up to the1940'sthe.basic female rup also consisted of white 3-shaped patterns outlined in red at the 185 outer corner of each eye and the tilaka was made of dark red powder in the shape of a tear drop.l Unfortunately these designs are not used in contemporary performances. Basic Female Costume The basic female costume nowadays is any six—yard sari wrapped in nodern fashion (Figure 54), any sort of bangles and any kind of necklace 1nd earrings. As early as 1919 and up to thel940's the basic female costume onsisted of a nine—yard Irakal black cotton sari with vermillion and olden—yellow border wrapped in a kaccha style-(Figures 55 and 56). A 1nda1e made of small pieces of carved wood covered with gold paper and :ads was worn on the forehead. Karna patra made of wood and covered .th gold paper and beads were worn over the ears. Other jewelry con— sted of black glass bangles and a variety of beaded necklaces and a se.ring. In 1962 Dr. Kota Shivarama Karanth designed a girdle, necklace, >er arm and wrist ornaments for the female characters. These were le of carved wood, some pieces of which were painted red and some of ch were covered with gold'paper.r Both red and black woolen balls were ached to parts of the girdle for decoration (Figures 57-59). Karanth igned these ornaments for ballets that he choreographed using shagana Badagatittu Bayalata dance. Actors who performed in these .ets often wear these ornaments when performing the dance-drama. ‘— 1 Shri Nilawara Subbanna Shetty, an old actor who began playing 1e roles at the age of 16, interview, Nilawara, South Kanara, March [971. ' J Figure 54. Modern style of wrapping six-yard sari / / slur Figure 55. One method of wrapping the nine—yard sari Figure 56. Back view of kaccha wrap of a nine-yard sari. 188 Figure 57. The female's girdle designed by Karanth Figure 58. The female's necklace designed by Karanth Figure 59. The female's armlets and bracelets designed by Karanth. 189 Basic Female Hairstyles and Decorations The basic female.hairstyles are either a single plait or a bun worn .ow'on-the head near the neck. Small flowers that are in season, such 8 jasmine, are woven with a piece of string into a floral rope and this s worn either long down the length of the plait or entwined or looped hrough the plait or around the bun. Basic Female-Headdress To this date there is no information concerning the existence of a aditional headdress for the basic female character. In 1962 Karanth signed a headdress for his ballets which is a small replica of the age mundale but with red covering, silver ribbons, and a small silver 3381 at the top (Figure 60). The base of this headdress is made of 3d with a six—inch long, half—inch wooden spike projecting vertically )m the bottom. The spike is woven through the plait or bun and is cealed by it; cord binds the upper part of the spike to the plait bobby—pins are used to further secure the headdress to the hair gure 61). This headdress is often worn in field performances by the >rs who have performed in Karanth's ballets. Basic Female Characters g princesses and gueens The young princesses include the following: Rati from Kati Kalyana; awati from Ratnawati KaZyana; Draupadi from Draupadiswayamwara; mawati (Sudhanwa's wife) from‘Sudhanwa’KaZaga; Subadra from Subadra ma; and Sita (Rama's wife) from.Ramapattabhisheka, Panchavati 'ugriva KaZaga (The Life of Rama and Sita in the Forest of Panchavati he Battle Between vaZi and Sugriva) and Lavakusha KaZaga. Figure 60. Female's headdress designed by Karanth \W Figure 61. Wearing the female's headdress 191 The queens-include the following: Draupadi (when Dharmaraya is King of the Pandavas) in fiati Kalyana; Sita (when Rama is king cf yodhya) in Lavakusha Kalaga; Rukmini and Satyabhama (wives of Krishna, ing of the Yadavas) in Shri Krishnaviuaha; Chitrangada (wife of Arjuna nd mother of Babhruwahana) in Babhruwahana Kalaga; and when depicted 3 young characters Kunti (mother of the Pandavas) in Draupadiswayamwana nd Kaikeyi, Kauslya, and Sumitri (wives of Dasharatha) in nmpattabhisheka and Lavakusha Kalaga. Both the young princesses and queens wear the basic female make—up d basic female costume with an elaborate sari; either of the basic male hairstyles with flowers, and if the actor portraying the character 5 performed in KaranthYS ballets he usually wears the Karanth style address and ornaments. tronly queens The matronly queens include the following: Kunti, who appears in. hanwa Kalaga and BabhruWahana KaZaga and Kaikeyi, Kauslya, and Sumitri appear in Lavakusha KaZaga. They wear the basic female make—up with the addition of black lines nded into the base makerup to appear as wrinkles, and a little black )thed into the area below the eyes to add age. They wear the basic tle costume with a sari of subdued colors; the basic hairstyle, a is worn and powdered with white face powder to make the hair.appear e greying. A minimum of jewelry is worn. ES-in~waiting Ladies—in—waiting are usually not called by name in the stories as role is generally very small; their main function is to listen, thize or make merry with the princesses or queens. 192 They wear the basic female make—up, the basic female costume with a less elaborate sari than that of the princess or queen, and either one of the basic female hairstyles decorated with flowers. Servants The lady servants are most often nameless humorous characters whose aim function is to run errands for the queens and princesses and eaves— rop and report their findings. The lady servants wear the basic female make—up, the basic female stumewithan old black cotton sari with a border of simple design in d and golden—yellow. Either of the basic female hairstyles is worn, t rarely with flowers. The jewelry consists of simple (usually glass) ngles and simple earrings. Aerial and Forest Dweller Male‘(Gandharva) Those in mythology who live in both the forest and the heavenly llms are known as gandharvas. Usually they are a bit scatter— ined and mischievous, but not evil. Chitrasena from Chitrasena aga (Chitrasena’s Battle), Gaya from Krishnarjuna KaZaga (The Battle veen Krishna and Arjuna) and Sulochana from Vidhyunmati KaZyana a Marriage oj’Vidhyunmati) are famous gandharvas. E332 An actor playing a-gandharva wears the pink—yellow base used in the c male makesup. A mixture of red pigment powder and coconut oil is around each eye in an oval pattern, down the ridge of the nose, and e center of the forehead as in an inverted triangle. The red areas e nose and forehead are outlined with a solid white line made of 193 white powder pigment mixed with water. The red area below each eye is outlined with a broken white line. A black tilaka like that used in the- basic male make—up is superimposed on the red triangle on the forehead. The eyebrows are lined in black. The gandharva wears the black woolen‘ mustache with painted-on black beard. Costume The gandharva wears the basic male costume with a long-sleeved green jacket. Headdress The red mundasu which he wears is decorated just above the-kedage ith wild-fowl feathers; a strand of beads stretches from either side f the bottom of the headdress and meets at the top of the headdress, 1nd a red squirrel's tail protrudes from beneath the mudi kedage at the ack of the mundasu (Figure 62). He wears the shalle attached to the ed mundasu and carries a bow and arrow. Female (Apsaras) The gandharvas enjoy their carefree lives in the forest and in the evenly realm with female companions known as the apsaras. The apsaras ar the basic female make—up, the basic female costume, and either the two basic female hairstyles. Hunter Male (Kirata) The hunter, like the gandharva, is also scatter-brained and mischievous His simple nature causes him to become involved in situa— not evil. Many times he is unable to find us for which he is not responsible. 195 a satisfactory solution to his problem, but much comedy results from his attempts. Make-up The hunter (kirata) wears the pink—yellow base used in the basic male makeeup. A mixture of red pigment powder and coconut oil is applied around each eye in an oval pattern;_down the ridge of the nose; and up the center of the forehead in an inverted triangular pattern. The red areas on the nose and forehead are outlined with a solid white line made of white pigment powder mixed with water. The red area below each eye is outlined with a broken white line. Differing from the basic male make-up the eyebrows are lined in black and a black tilaka is not worn. The kirata wears a black woolen mustache but does not-wear the painted— on black beard. Costume The kirata wears the basic male costume with a long-sleeved green jacket. The hagallu walli worn under the breast plate is put around the.neck and left hanging in equal lengths in front. A string of mango leaf branches is worn over the breast plate across the chest from left shoulder to right side of waist and from there across the back to the left shoulder. One end of a piece of red cloth, two feet wide by six feet long, is placed at center chest and held there while the remainder of the cloth is taken over the left shoulder and across the back to the right side of the waist covering the mango leaves behind. Both ends of the red material meet at the chest center, are tied in a knot and concealed under the mango leaves in front. The leaves displayed in front indicate that the character is a forest dweller whereas the leaves 196 covered by the cloth behind suggest that the hunter has bagged some,game. He carries a bow and arrow. Headdress The kirata wears one of two headdresses——the single slanted mundasu (kore mundasu) and the double slanted mundasu (jodu kore mundasu). Single slanted mundasu (kore mundasu) The actor pulls three—quarters of his hair toward the top—right part of the head and makes a bun; the other quarter of the hair is left free (Figure 63). After the actor has wrapped sufficient scrap material around the bun the red peta is wrapped around the bun and around the head, as in the manner of wrapping the kedage mundale (Figures 24 and 25), except that the mudi (the bun) is to the side—back rather than center—back of the head, and one quarter of the head is not wrapped (Figure 64). The headdress is completed with all the ornaments used for the red mundasu with the exception of the kedage (Figure 65). The shalle is not worn. Double mundasu (jodu kore mundasu) The actor parts his hair down the_middle from the forehead to the nape of.the neck. He pulls the left half of his hair to the left back t0p of the head and makes a bun; he pulls the right half of the hair to the right back top of the head and makes a bun. He then wraps each bun with sufficient scrap cloth (Figure 66). One set of nine coils is stacked between the right mudi and the hair part. The coils and grass Plait layers are stacked and secured as in the wrapping of the kedage mundale (Figures 24 and 25). A red peta is used for covering each side s Figure 63. Step A, preparing to wear the single— slanted mundasu. Figure 64. Step B, preparing to wear the single— slanted mundasu. Figure 65. The single—slanted mundasu 198 of the headdress and each side is decorated as though it were a red mundasu without kedage (Figure 67). The shalle is not worn. Female (Kirati) The hunter's female companion, known as the kirati, wears the basic female make-up, a black six4yard sari, with red and golden—yellow border, wrapped in modern style. Her hair is made-into a bun on t0p of the head; mango leaves are used to decorate the bun.‘ Demon and DemoneSS‘ Demon (Rakshasa) The demon is usually a braggart, a very strong character who from the moment he begins his entrance toward the rangasthala commands the. fearful respect of the audience. The most popular demonic roles are Ravana (King of Ceylon) who appears in Panehavati VaZisugriva.KaZaga and Muiravana KaZaga;Shambarasura who-appears in Shambarasura KaZaga (Shambarasura’s Battle); Narakasura and the captain of his army, Murasura who appear in Shri Krishnavivaha; Vidhyunlochana who abducts Ratnawati in Ratnawati KaZyana; Hidemba in Dranpadiswayamvara; Gatotkacha (Bhima's son) who appears in Krishnarjunalkalaga; Bakasura, the demon destroyed by Bhima in Draupadiswayamvara; Samasaptaka, a demon friend of Duryodhana (King of the Kauravas) in Abhimanyu KaZaga; Anusalva, the demon who magically makes the ashvamedb horse disappear in Sudhanwa KaZaga; Ghorabhishana, the demon in Babhruvahana KaZaga; and Meghasura, the demon who hinders the wedding party in Rati KaZyana. yMake-up Before making-up, the demon wraps his head leaving the face exposed (see section on headdress). Red powdered pigment is mixed with coconut 199 Mg 11» Figure 66. Preparing to wear the double—slanted mundasu. Figure 67. The double—slanted mundasu - 200 oil and painted in an inverted drop pattern on the forehead and extending partly onto the white cloth that has been wrapped across the forehead. The chin is covered with the same pigmented paste. The red tear—drop shape on the forehead is outlined-in black with a mixture of soot and coconut oil. Oval shapes enclosing each eye are made with this black' mixture. A black line one—half inch thick begins at the left side of the nose near the nostril, goes over to the cheek lateral to the eyes, and up the sides of the forehead to the bhuttu mundale. A red line the same thickness is made just inside the black line from the nostril to the bhuttu mundale. This same design is made on the right side of the face. Around the tear—drop shape on the forehead a white outline is made. Alternating lines of red, white, and black are painted in vertical parallel lines filling the space of the forehead from the eyebrows to the bhuttu mundale (Figure 68).* Rice paste is made from lime powder and from rice which has been soaked for at least two hours and then ground in a stone grinder. Two parts of'rice paste and one part of lime are mixed for the first application. The actor then takes a small stick, dabs it into the mixture and makes small dots on the face; he makes a line of white dots inside and outside the red and black lines previously, painted on the cheeks, on the white lines on the forehead, and along the jaw—line. Using the same white mixture he draws two canine teeth about two inches long extending onto the red area from the lower lip, at the commissures. When the first layer of dots dries, he adds another layer. The second and subsequent layers are made of a mixture of equal parts of rice paste and lime. The layers are built up until the dot protrudes about an inch from the face (Figure 69). These dots are called chutti. A scutiform pad of cotton one—half inch thick is stuck onto the nose with Spirit gum. 201 Step A, the demon's make—up Figure 68. Figure 69. Step B, the demon's make—up Figure 70. Step C, the demon‘s make—up 203 When the make—up is completely dry.the actor ties on a black woolen mustache and a beard made of white cardboard——kangari (Figure 70), the karna patra are placed behind the-cardboard beard and secured around the mudi. Costume The demon character wears black pajamas, gejje, anklets, kase sire, a long-sleeved red jacket, the vadhyana, and the demon's breast platea- yeddehara——made of cloth, and carved wood covered with gold paper (Figure 71). He also wears the demon's shoulder ornaments——rakshasa bhuja~kirtih- made of carved wood covered with gold paper (Figure 72); the demon's girdle—— rakshasa vira kase——made of cloth, and carved wooden pieces, some painted red and some covered with gold paper, and black woolen balls (Figure 73); the basic male,upper arm ornaments and wrist ornaments; and the hagallu 'walli. The demon characters usually carry a sword. Headdress The actor pulls his long hair together at the center-top of his head and makes a bun. He-follows the procedure for wrapping the head as is used for the kedage mundale, the only difference being the position of the bun. Either a black or red peta can be used as the peta will not be seen. When the head is wrapped, a white piece of folded cloth is tied around the upper part of the forehead and covers part of the peta (Figure 74). The bhuttu mundale'is put in place on top of the white cloth over the hair line and tied to the mudi (Figure 75). The make—up (see above paragraph) can now be applied. After the completion of the makevup the karna patra are put in place behind the cardboard beard, and secured to the mudi. Now the head is ready to receive the demon‘s headdress. The demon's headdress consists of two major parts, the bannada kirita——the demonis crown, and the hesari tatti rakshasa—-the 204 Figure 71. The demon's breast plate Figure 72. The demon's shoulder ornaments é: J.I.I ' I ‘I“‘I‘ 7 . ”if I‘ Q.‘“ ' m- Figure 73. The demon's girdle 205 Figure 74. Step A, preparing to wear the demon's crown Figure 75. Step B, preparing to wear the demon's crown Figure 76. The front part of the demon's crown 206 back piece of the headdress. The bannada kirita is made hollow in a semi—conical shape with an S—shaped design flanking each side.‘ It is‘ elaborately carved, covered with gold paper, mirror pieces, and red cloth (Figure 76). The hesari tatti rakshasa is a half—inch thick, two—foot diameter circular piece woven of thin cane and covered with red cloth. The front aspect is without decoration whereas the back surface is elaborately decorated with carved wooden designs covered with gold paper, mirror pieces, and gold cord (Figure 77). The bannada. I kirita is placed in front of the mudi and secured to the mudi by the cords attached to the kirita (Figure 78). A long piece of false black hair is placed at the nape of the neck, the cords attached to the hair piece are brought around the front of the crown and tied. The hesari tatti rakshasa is placed at the back of the mudi with its front aspect. closely apposed to the bannada kirita. The sets of cords attached to the hesari tatti rakshasa are wrapped around the front of the bannada kirita and tied (Figure 79). The rakshasa kedage is placed in front of the rakshasa's crown and then tied at the back of the neck. The free- hanging cords of the bhuttu mundale are brought up through the rakshasa kedage and tied around the crown.. The basic male ornament, the taware, is placed just above the kedage on the center front of the crown then tied around the crown with the cords attached to the taware (Figure 80). Procedure for wearing the vesha First the actor puts on the black pajamas, gejje and the anklets. Then he wraps the kase sire. The-head is then wrapped with the peta and the white folded cloth before the make-up, including the mustache and the cardboard beard is applied. When the make—up is complete, the karna Patra are placed and secured and the headdress is assembled on the head. 207 The back piece of the demon's headdress Figure 77. d a e h e h C n O O r C S m e d e h t f 0 t n m e C a l P Figure 78. 208 Figure 79. The demon's crown and back piece Figure 80. The demon's complete headdress 209 After this the actor puts on a red long—sleeved jacket. The hagallu walli is hung around the neck with equal lengths left hanging down_the front. The vadhyana and the rakshasa's vira kase are tied around the waist.‘ The rakshasa's'bhuja-kirti are tied at the shoulders and the basic male upper arm and Wrist ornaments are tied appropriately. The rakshasals breast plate is placed over the chest and secured at the, back. A sword completes the rakshasa's vesha (Figure 81). Demoness (Rakshasi) The demoness does not command the same respect from the audience as the demon; she is usually a humorous character who after her initial entrance often wears disguises to achieve her purposes. The-most popular of the Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata demonesses areShurpanika (the demon Ravana's sister) who appears in Panchavati VaZisugriva KaZaga and Lavakusha KaZaga; Adhombi (Shurpanika's daughter) who appears in Panchavati valisugrfva KaZaga; Hidembi (the demon Hidemba's sister), who becomes the wife of Bhima in Draupadiswayamwara; Karalanetre, who appears in Shwetakumara Charitre (The Story of'Shwetakumara); and Meghastani (the demon Meghasura's sister) who appears with her brother in Rati Kalyana. Make—up The actor mixes red pigment and coconut oil and with this mixture Paints two three—quarter inch lines, half an inch apart,_across the forehead. The lower line is about one—half inch above the eyebrows. A red two-inch diameter annulus, one—half inch wide, is painted on each Cheek. A half—inch wide red line is drawn from the top of one circle across the bridge of the nose to the top of the other circle. A red dot is put on the tip of the nose.‘ The lips and the chin are enclosed within 210 Figure 81. The demon in full costume and make—up 211 a red rectangle (Figure 82). A mixture of soot and coconut oil is used to make a filled—in black oval shape around each eye leaving a quarter- inch linear space below the eyebrow and a quarter—inch linear space between the black oval areas and the red pattern just below the eyes. The eyebrows are painted black. A triangle in black is made on each temple with one angle pointing toward center forehead, one angle pointing toward the hair line and the third angle pointing toward the jaw bone. A thick black line joins the two angles that point towards the forehead. A black dot is placed in the center of each of the red annuli on the cheek. The black mixture is used to cover the remaining part of the nose, lower cheeks, and area just above the lips. The actor must leave a clear quarter inch of unpainted skin between all painted areas of his face except that area where red and black join just above the lips (Figure 83). These remaining unpainted areas are now painted white. Chutti is put over all white areas except those white areas immediately below the eyebrows. When the make—up is completely dry the actor ties 0n a beard made of white and red cardboard like that of the demon. (Figure 70) and adds a nose ring. The karna patra are placed behind the cardboard beard and secured to the mudi (Figure 84). Costume The demoness character wears black pajamas, gejje, anklets, and a red long—sleeved jacket. Scraps of material are wound together to form balls eight inches in diameter. These are put into the jacket in order 2 that the demoness‘ breasts appear very large. Bunches of mango leaves ~_________________ 2 . . . Historically the demoness wore SlX-lnch long breasts, one on either side of the breast plate. The breasts were made of cotton and covered with black cotton cloth; the nipples were covered with red cot- ton cloth. Karanth, interview, Kota, South Kanara, March 24, 1971. 212 Figure 82. Step A, the demoness' make—up Figure 83. Step B, the demoness' make—up 213 1 Figure 84. Step C, the demoness' make-up 214 are tied around the waist to pad the hips. A black cotton sari, with red and golden—yellow border, is gathered on a piece of thick cotton quilted tape and tied over the leaves around the waist thus making a long skirt. The hagallu walli is put around the neck and equal lengths hang down in front. The demoness wears the basic male upper arm and wrist ornaments, the demonls shoulder ornaments, the demon's breast plate, and sometimes the Karanth style female girdle. Headdress The actor playing the demoness pulls his long hair together at the back center top of the head and makes a bun.- Using a black peta he follows the same procedure for wrapping the head as is used for the kedage mundale. The bhuttu mundale is put in place over the forehead 0n the peta and tied to the mudi. The karna patra are put in place behind the cardboard beard. The head is now ready to receive the henna bannada kirita——the demoness' crown. This crown is carved of wood in the shape of an inverted cone.3 On either side of the crown extend carved peacocks decorated with decorated black woolen balls. The kirita is covered with gold paper, mirror pieces, red and white cloth, and cord (Figure 85). The crown is placed on top of the head and tied below the mudi. The demon's kedage is placed behind the bhuttu mundale and in front 0f the crown and tied below the mudi. The free hanging Cords of the bhuttu mundale are brought up over the kedage and tied around the lower part of the crown. The basic male ornament, the taware, \ 3Historically, the demoness' crown was scutellate, with peacock feathers at the top; the presentation of the anterior aspect was simi ar t0 that of the modern headdress. Ibtd. 215 Figure 85. The demoness' crown 216 is placed at the center front of the crown and tied to the mudi. Peacock feathers protrude from the top of the headdress and long black false hair is tied to the mudi. Procedure for wearing the vesha First the actor dons black pajamas, ankle bells, and anklets. He next applies the make-up not including the cardboard beard. When the make—up is complete, the hair is pulled to the top back center of the head, made into a bun, and the head is wrapped with the black peta. The bhuttu mundale is put.in place over the peta, the karna patra and the- cardboard beard are tied and the headdress added. The red long—sleeved jacket is put on and stuffed with the large cloth balls to make the breasts seem extra large. Next the mango leaves are tied around the waist, then the skirt is tied over the mango leaves to make the hips appear extra large. The shoulder ornaments, then the upper and lower arm ornaments, are put in place and secured. The hagallu walli is placed around the neck and allowed to hang in equal lengths in front. The breast plate is put over the chest and hagallu walli, and secured. The girdle is tied and the vesha is complete. During the battle scenes the rakshasi often carries a sword (Figure 86). Animals The animals are the monkey characters from the Ramayana-—Vali, Sugriva, Mainda and_Dwivida (captains in the army), Hanumanta, Anjana (Hanumanta's mother), Taradevi (Vali's wife and after Vali's death, Sugriva’s wife);Jambava, the bear; Nandi, the bull (Lord Shiva's vehicle); and the Ashwameda horse. 217 The demoness in full costume and make—up Figure 86. 218 Monkeys Vali and.Sugriva Vali is a demon king, an aggressive, strong and valiant warrior as opposed to his weak brother Sugriva who is constantly defeated in battle with Vali.until he receives the help of Rama. In the story Vali.and Sugriva appear the same so it is difficult for Rama to distinguish Sugriva in order to save him. So in the final battle between Vali and Sugriva, Sugriva wears a garland around his neck to distinguish him from Vali. Both appear in Panchavati VaZisugriva KaZaga. Makeeup The actor mixeswhite pigmentwith coconut oil and covers the eyelids leaving oneehalf inch uncovered beneath the eyebrow. The pattern used for the basic male forehead design is put in white on the actor's fore— head. With a mixture of red pigment and coconut oil a line is drawn just below each eyebrow on.the uncovered area and just below each eye. This red mixture is also used to paint the chin area including the lips and to make the basic male red tilaka on the forehead. A mixture of soot and coconut oil is used to make black half-moon shapes, one above each eye, including the eyebrow and one underneath each eye below the red line. The points of the half—moon shapes come together one pair at each temple and one pair on each side of the nose. The black tilaka is Superimposed on the red tilaka, but not entirely covering it. The remainder of the face is covered with a light grey mixture made of white Pigment, soot, and coconut oil. Chutti is used to outline the black area beneath each eye (Figure 87). The lips are painted black and a black woolen mustache and a black woolen beard complete the make—up (Figure.88). 219 Figure 87. Step A, the make—up of Vali and Sugriva Figure 88. Step B, the make—up of Vali and Sugriva 220 Costume Vali and Sugriva wear the demon's costume with long—sleeved black jacket, and carry mango leaves in place of a sword. Headdress Vali and Sugriva wear the demon's headdress. Procedure for wearing the vesha The procedure for wearing the vesha is the same as that followed by the demon.with the exception of the make—up and the black woolen beard. Mainda and Dwivida Mainda and Dwivida are vivacious young captains in Hanumanta‘s army and they appear in Panchavati-Valisugriva KaZaga. Make—up The basic male tilaka design is made on the forehead in white, red, and black. A white stripe extends from the tilaka to the end of the nose. A black diamond shape includes each eye, the top point of the diamond being near the hair line and the bottom point at center cheek on a level with the bottom of the nose. The area from the left bottom diamond point, to under the nose (including the bottom of the nose), to the right bottom diamond point, and vertically down to the jaw line, around the chin, to the right jaw line, and vertically up to the left diamond point, is covered with a red—pink mixture, made from white and red pigments. Leaving a one—quarter inch makeeup free area around the diamond shapes and from the sides of the red—pink area, the actOr covers the remaining unpainted areas of the face and neck with a green—grey mixture made from green pigment, soot, white pigment, and coconut oil. These quarter—inch lines left unpainted 221 are now painted with a white mixture. These particular white lines are then covered with Chutti. Small tufts of cotton are stuck on the jaw line extending from ear to ear (Figure 89). Costume Mainda and Dwivida wear the basic male costume with short—sleeved red jacket and carry mango leaves. Headdress Mainda and Dwivida wear the kedage mundale with shalle. Procedure for wearing the vesha First the actor dons,black pajamas, gejje and anklets and then wraps the kase sire. The next process is the application of the make—up. When this is complete the kedage mundale is wrapped. After the headdress is worn the actor dons the jacket, the shoulder and arm ornaments, the belt, the girdle, and the breast plate. The shalle is tied to the mudi and then tucked in at either side under the girdle.~ The vesha is completed with mango-leaved branches for each hand. Hanumanta In the Ramayana stories Hanumanta is the general in Sugriva‘s army who flies over to the island of Lanka (the kingdom of Ravana, the demon) and finds Sita. Today in India he is Worshipped as a monkey—god. Usually in performance he is depicted as a humorous character, yet. still maintains his dignity. He appears in Panchavati Valisugriva Kalaga, Mairavana KaZaga, and Rati Kalyana. Hanumanta's costume and make—up have undergone two changes during the last fifty years. For the purpose of description the veshas are labelled old, middle, and new styles. 222 Make-up of Mainda and Dwivida Figure 89. 223 Old—style make—up The actor mixed red pigment with coconut oil and made a large inverted triangle on the forehead and upper nose and a small triangle from mid—nose covering lower nose and a small area on either side of the nostrils (Figure 90). Soot and coconut oil were used to paint a dot between the eyebrows. A line was extended from the dot up the center of the forehead, and another continuous line was extended from the dot down the midline of the nose, covering the bottom of the nose, then continuing down to the top of the upper lip. The actor enclosed each eye with a black diamond-shape, the top point of the diamond being just above the center of each eyebrow, the lower point being about an inch below the eye in line with the upper point. From the top point of each diamond the actor made a black spiral design out, then towards the midline of the forehead. From the outer eye point of'the diamond he made a black spiral design down, laterally, and up (Figure 91). The remaining areas of the face except those around the jaw and chin were covered with a green—grey mixture. All black—painted areas, with the exception of the small black line between the bottom of the nose and the upper lip, were outlined with small Chutti. Then with cotton tufts the actor made a line across the forehead near the hair line. More cotton was used to cover the eyebrows, and to cover the area just above the lip and the chin and jaw area, leaving uncovered the black line dividing the naso-labial plane. When the make—up was dry the actor tied on a white beard (Figure 92). Old-style costume The old style Hanumanta wore the basic male costume with long— sleeved white Shirt and hagallu walli, and carried mango leaves. _ I 224 Figure 90. Step A, old—style make—up for Hanumanta Figure 91. Step B, old—style make-up for Hanumanta 225 Figure 92. Step C, old-style make—up for Hanumanta Figure 93. Hanumanta's crown 226 Old—style headdress Hanumanta wore a headdress which was unique to his vesha. At least one old kirita is still in existence.4 It is a circular tiered crown woven of straw with a carved wooden-knob on top. This kirita was covered with gold paper and decorated with red cloth, small pieces of carved wood covered with gold paper, and mirror pieces. The basic male kedage and taware were added for further decoration (Figure 93). A cord to which long white false hair had been attached previously, was tied around the lowest tier such that the hair hung down behind like a veil. The tie of this cord was partly concealed by the curved tier of the kirita. Procedure for wearing the old-style vesha The actor put on black pajamas, gejje, anklets and the kase sire. Make—up was then applied and the head wrapped in a black peta as is that of the demon. The mundale was put in place and tied behind the neck. The crown was placed over the mudi and tied beneath the chin. The basic male kedage was placed between the mundale and the crown and tied at the back of the neck. The free—hanging cords of the bhuttu mundale were brought up through the kedage, wrapped around the crown, and secured to the knob on top. The basic male taware was placed at center front of the crown and tied around the crown. The actor then put on the long-sleeved White jacket. He twisted the hagallu walli and tied it around his waist at the right side, allowing the ends to fall free. He then put on basic male ornaments——belt and girdle; the shoulder, upper arm, and wrist ornaments; and the breast plate. The long white false hair was 4This crown has been kept in Brahmavara's Mahalingeshwara Temple for about fifty years without use in Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata PerformanceS. It is now being repaired. Shri Handardi Subbana Bhat and Professor B. V. Achar, interview, Brahmavara, South Kanara, March 17, 1971. 227 attached to the crown. The actor carried branches of mango leaves in his hands during traveling and battle scenes. Middle—style-make-up The actor mixed red pigment with coconut oil and made an houreglass shape.down.the middle of the face, the forehead and chin areas being the larger parts, the constriction coinciding with the bridge of the nose. He then mixed red and black with coconut oil to make a brown paint. Her applied this around each eye in.a diamond shape, the upper point of the diamond being about one and one-half inches above each eyebrow and the lower point being almost on a line level with the bottom of the nose. From the upper point of each diamond he made a brown Spiral design up and towards the center of the forehead. From the point near the outer corner of each eye he made a brown spiral design out and upwards. From the bottom point of the diamond he made a brown spiral design down and outward. A large brown dot was made at center forehead with one brown line extending up, in the midline, to the hair line, another line extend— ing to the end of the nose. The lips were painted brown. Thin lines made of the white mixture, formed an elongate inverted triangle extending from the tip of the nose to a narrow base at the hair line. This triangle completely enclosed the brown dot and its extended lines. The brown diamond Shapes with the attached spiral designs were outlined in White. The white outlines were then covered with chutti. Small white dots in groups of four were placed within the diamond shape just below the top point of the diamond, and just above the lower points of the diamond. Two small white dots were put on the tip of the nose. The remaining areas of the face and neck were covered with a green-grey mixture. When the make—up was complete the actor tied on a three-inch— long beard made of jute (Figure 94). 228 Figure 94. Middle—style make—up for Hanumanta 229 Middle-style-costume The middle—style Hanumanta wore a jute suit with long sleeves, and long legs. The suit was made of light tan cotton material and covered with jute fringe. A yellow-, brown-, and red—striped cotton material tail was tied to the waist at the back and a red cotton sash was tied around the waist. The middle—style Hanumanta carried mango leaves. Middle—style headdress The middle—style Hanumanta wore the same kirita as the old-style Hanumanta. The false hair attached to the mudi-was made of jute.to match the beard and the costume. Procedure-for wearing the middle—style vesha The make—up was applied first, the headdress placed second, and then the remainder of the vesha. New—style'make—up The make-up of the contemporary Hanumanta is identical to that of Mainda and Dwivida (Figure 89) except that cotton is used to make.the eyebrows and a thicker application of cotton tufts is stuck onto the jaw line. New-style costume The contemporary Hanumanta wears a suit made of green cotton material with long sleeves and long pant legs. Green fringe is sewn on the green cotton material. He wears short red paints over the green suit, a green cotton cloth tail, and a golden—yellow sash around the Waist. Large wooden beads painted gold are often worn around the neck and large pearl-dr0p earrings for added decoration. He carries branches 0f mango leaves. 230 New-style headdress The contemporary-Hanumanta has discarded the crown and wears in its With part of the hair he makes a bun on top of the place a white wig. head which he encircles with decorative beads. The remainder of the hair is left hanging. Procedure for wearing the new—style vesha The make-up is done first, the white wig and jewelry are put on next, then the green suit with tail next, and finally the red short pants and golden—yellow sash. Anjana and Taradevi Anjana (mother of Hanumanta) and Taradevi (wife of Vali and later the wife of Sugriva) are both gentle characters. Anjana appears in. Ehmajaneya (The Battle Between Rama and Anjaneya [Hanumanta]) and Taradevi appears in Panehavati VaZisugriva KaZaga. Make—up These two female monkey characters wear a black oval shape enclos- ing each eye, black painted lips, red around the chin and above the lips, and the remainder of the face and neck, grey. A large dark red tilaka is worn on the forehead (Figure 95). Costume The costume worn is a six—yard black cotton sari with red and golden—yellow border, and red cotton blouse. The jewelry consists of contemporary earrings, necklaces, nose rings, and bangles. 231 Figure 95. Figure 96. Anjana and Taradevi Hair‘style' The actor's own hair is pulled to the top center of the head and made into a bun which is decorated with mango leaves (Figure 96). Bear Jambava Jambava is the bear who-steals the gem from the lion in Shri Krishnavivaha and Jambavati KaZyana. After he is defeated by Lord Krishna and loses the gem he gives his daughter, Jambavati, to Lord Krishna in marriage. Make—up The actor covers his face with the pink-yellow make—up used by the basic male and puts on the basic male tilaka in red, white, and black. A black diamond Shape surrounds each eye. The top point of the diamond is just above the eyebrows and the bottom point of the diamond is on the Cheek at a level with the nostrils. These diamond shapes are outlined with a broken white line. Red pigment is rubbed into the pink—yellow. make—up around the chin to make it more red. Cotton is used to make the eyebrows. The lips are painted black and the actor ties on a white mustache and a white beard (Figure 97). Costume Jambava wears the basic male costume with a long—sleeved red jacket and carries branches of mango leaves. Headdress He wears the raja kirita with long white false hair attached to the mudi. 233 Figure 97. Make-up for Jambava 234 Procedure for wearing the vesha The actor puts on the pajamas, gejje, anklets, and kase sire. Now the make—up is done. The head is then wrapped and the crown put in place and secured. After this the jacket is put on with the ornaments, white false hair is tied to the mudi and the vesha is completed with branches of mango leaves. Bull Nandi The vesha of Nandi, Shiva's vehicle, has undergone some change in the last fifty years. Information was available on two styles which are labeled "oldestyle" and "new—style” for the purpose of description. Old—style make—up5 This make—up consisted of different colored crescent shapes both above and below each eye. The top row of two crescents on the forehead were painted red; the next two crescents just above the eyebrows were painted dark green; the eyebrow, white; the upper eyelids, dark green. The first crescent shapes belbw the eyes were painted black; the next, White and the bottom crescent.shapes, red. The remainder of the face was painted dark green. A three—quarter inch diameter dark red dot was painted in the center of the forehead; the lips were painted red and kumkum applied over—top (Figure 98). KM 5Letter and drawing from Shri B. Virabhadra Nayak, master Yakshagana artist, Udipi, South Kanara, September 13, 1971. 235 Figure 99. Headdress for Nandi Old—style.costume Nandi, in the old—style, wore the basic male costume with red long-sleeved jacket. Old-style headdress The head was wrapped in a red peta in the same manner used for. wrapping the kedage mundale. The bhuttu mundale.was put in place and tied at the back of the neck. The free—hanging cords were tied to the mudi. The taware was placed just above the bhuttu mundale and tied at the back of the neck. A pair of real bull's horns were placed on. top of the head and tied below the mudi. The head was then-covered with a long white wig, the horns protruding through the wig (Figure 99). Procedure for wearing the old-stylevvesha The actor first put on the black pajamas, gejje, anklets, and kase sire. The makeeup was then done and when complete the headdress was arranged. Then the jacket was put on and the ornaments secured. New—style make—up The areas surrounding each eye and the chin are painted in red. The eyebrows are painted black in a thick crescent-moon shape. The red area below the eye is outlined with a thin black line. A wide white line is made from the hair line down the forehead and to the end of the nose. This white area is outlined with both, a thin black line, and a thin red line. The basic male tilaka is painted on the forehead. Above and below the black lines outlining the red areas of the eyes a wide white line is made. Chutti is applied to these white lines. Under the white line on the cheek a wide yellow line is made. The yellow make-up is a mixture of yellow pigment with coconut oil. Small red 237 lines perpendicular to and extending down from the white line are drawn across this wide yellow line transecting it at oneequarter inch intervals. The remaining portions of the face are.painted green (Figure 100). New-style costume Nandi's new—style costume is a green jumpesuit with red shorts over the top of the suit. New—style headdress The contemporary Nandi wears the same headdress as the old-style Nandi. Procedure for wearing the new—style vesha The actor first puts on.the make—up and when complete the headdress is placed and secured,.then the actor dons the green suit and the red short pants. Horse Ashvameda horse6 The ashvameda horse requires two actOrs, one to be head, shoulders, and forelegs and the other to be loins, hind legs, and tail. Mask The front actor wears a wooden horse—head mask which has been. painted red. ___________________ 6See footnote 23 in-the chapter on "Elements of the Drama." 238 Figure 100. New—style make—up for Nandi 239 Costume The second actor bends with his head touching the back of the first actor and extends his arms around the first actor's waist and clasps them in front. Each actor will be wearing black pajamas, gejje, and anklets. The kase sire is draped over both actors and pinned at the front of the first actor.‘ The basic male vira kase (girdle) is tied around the horse's neck. A red cloth is draped over the horse's back.and a string of gold beads is pinned at the rear for the horse's tail (Figure 101). Bird Garuda Mask Garuda, Lord Vishnu's vehicle, wears a metal beak painted pink that is attached at its base to two large white painted metal rings resembling Spectacle frames (Figure 102). W7 Earlier this century the actor playing Garuda is said to have worn blaCk pajamas, gejje, anklets and the kase sire. Above the waist he wore a piece of white cloth made like a wide skirt gathered at the top. The actor slipped this skirt—like piece over his head, gathered and tied it at the neck, and allowed the rest to hang free. When he stretched OUt his arms this white material created the illusion of wings. h; 7Shri Hiriadka GOpala Rao, interview, Udipi, South Kanara, February 17, 1971. 240 Figure 101. The ashvameda horse Figure 102. Mask for Garuda /I\ W fa—J ‘7\ Figure 103. Old—style Garuda Old—style headdress The hagallu walli was tied around the head and left to fall free behind (Figure 103). New-style costume and headdress The new—style.costume consists of a pair of white pajamas and a six—yard white sari with red border. The demoan shoulder ornaments are tied to the actor's arms and'the sari is draped over the head and over the body. Deities Ma1e_ Indra and Balarama. Make—up Indra and Balarama wear the basic male make—up with the additions. of a black woolen mustache and the painted—on beard. Custume The basic male costume with long-sleeved red jacket is worn with the addition of the hagallu walli. Both Indra and Balarama carry the mace. Headdress The raja kirita is worn. Procedure for wearing the vesha. The vesha worn by Indra and Balarama is exactly the same as that we rn :by Bhima. 241 Figure 102. Mask for Garuda / J I L \ Figure 103. Old—style Garuda 242 Old—style headdress The hagallu walli was tied around the head and'left to fall free behind (Figure 103). New—style costume and headdress The new—style costume consists of a pair of white pajamas and a six—yard white sari with red border. The demon's shoulder ornaments are tied to the actor's arms and the sari is draped over the head and over the body. mare—g Male Indra and Balarama Make-up Indra and Balarama wear the basic male make—up with the additions of a black woolen mustache and the painted-on beard. Costume The basic male costume with long-sleeved red jacket is worn with the addition of the hagallu walli. Both Indra and Balarama carry the mace. Headdress The raja.kirita is worn. Procedure for wearing the vesha, The vesha worn by Indra and Balarama is exactly the same as that worn by Bhima. 243 Shiva Make-up The actor applies the pink—yellow make—up base to his entire face. The 3—shaped patterns in red and white at the outer corners of the eyes as in the basic male make-up are also worn by Shiva. Half—inch wide red and whitestripes are painted across the forehead. 0n the bridge of the nose, a small inverted bell—shaped pattern is made in white and outlined in red. Sometimes the white and redstripes on the forehead are curved upward at their outer extremities. Black is used to outline the eyes, paint the eyebrows, and for the painted-on.beard. An eye is drawn in black at center forehead, its axis being perpendicular to the normal plane of the eyes (Figures 104 and 105). The actor ties on a black woolen mustache and a black woolen beard. Costume Lord Shiva wears the basic male costume with a long—sleeved green: shirt and hagallu walli. He carries the trident (trishula). Headdress The frame of the headdress is a one and one—half foot cone made of onen cane.' It is covered with matted false black hair such that when the headdress is placed on the head, this hair hangs a foot or so below the base of the frame in uneven clumps. Atop the cone is a small carved and painted head of Ganga (River Goddess). From her head projects an eight-inch long wooden stick, three—quarters of an inch in diameter, Of which the terminal four inches is bent on itself in a semi—circle. This wooden piece is wrapped with gold ribbon. Twelve-inch long strings 0f small silver and red beads are attached to the free end of the 244 Figure 104. Make—up for Shiva Figure 105. Make-up for Shiva 245 semiecircular piece so that together they symboliZe the river Ganges. Serpent and crescent—moon decorations are attached to the front of the mass of black matted hair. A decorative circle is pinned on either side of the center bottom of the headdress (Figure 106). Procedure for wearing the vesha The actor first puts on black pajamas, gejje, anklets and the kase sire. Then the make—up is completed except for the black woolen beard. The head is wrapped in,a black peta, the bun being at the top center of the head. The bhuttu mundale is put in place. The headdress is set. on the head over top the mudi and‘tied under the chin. The black woolen beard is then tied and its cords hidden under the matted hair of the, headdress. The jacket is put on, the hagallu walli is twisted, wrapped around the waist, and tied behind. The ornaments and breast plate are secured. The shalle is tied at the top back of the headdress and tucked under either side of the girdle in front. The trident completes the vesha. Virabhadra Make-up The actor makes, in red, an oval shape enclosing each eye. A half- inch wide black line outlines the red area under each eye. This wide black line is then outlined with a half—inch red line. Under this red line is a broken white line. Red and white stripes are painted across the forehead and a one—inch diameter red dot is painted on the center of the-forehead. These lines can be straight across or slightly curved uPward at their extremities. The area of the cheeks is painted a green- grey (Figure 107). Cotton is used to make the eyebrows, and to cover the 246 ddress ‘s hea 106. Shiva Figure 247 Figure 107. Step A, make—up for Virabhadra Figure 108. Step B, make—up for Virabhadra —: i 248 nose. Enlarged teeth including two very over—size canine teeth and an over—sized tongue, are made of cardboard. The teeth are covered with silver paper and the tongue is painted red. This cardboard is placed just above the upper lip and secured to the mudi. A white mustache is placed over the upper aspect of the cardboard piece and tied to the mudi. The demon's cardboard beard is placed behind the cardboard tongue, over the edges of the mustache, and tied at the top of the head (Figure 108). Costume Virabhadra wears the demons' costume and carries a sword. Headdress The actor wears the raja kirita with the addition of a red, gold, silver and green decorative piece at the back of the crown. The piece is carved of wood and covered with colored paper. In the center of the decoration is a red and gold floral design encircled by.a wide silver annulus. Extending from the annulus are arrow-like shapes in alternating red, silver, green, and gold (Figure l09). Long white false hair is tied to the mudi. Procedure for wearing the vesha The actor wears black pajamas, gejje, anklets and kase sire. The make-up of the red, black, white and green—grey areas is completed, then the head is wrapped in a black peta and the bhuttu mundale is put in place and secured to the mudi. The cardboard teeth and tongue are secured, then the mustache and cardboard beard are placed and secured. The raja kirita is then placed on the head and tied beneath the mudi. The decorative piece is placed behind the crown and tied to the crown. The jacket and ornaments are then put on. The white hair is tied to the mudi. The vesha is completed with the sword. 249 Figure 109. The back piece for Virabhadra's headdress 250 Female Parvati The contemporary Parvati is not recognizable by her costume but by- her appearance with her husband Lord Shiva. Make—up The goddess Parvati wears the basic female makeeup. Costume She wears any six—yard.sari and the basic female ornaments.8 Headdress Lord Shiva's wife may wear the Karanth headdress and/or wear her hair in either one of the basic female hairstyles with flowers. Ganga The contemporary Ganga is not recognizable by her costume. Make-up She wears the basic female makeeup. Costumer She wears any Six—yard sari and the basic female ornaments.9 M 8Historically, Parvati wore a sinyard white sari with vermillion border and white blouse with vermillion border. Shri K. K. Hebbar, an artist and native of South Kanara, now residing in Bombay, interview, April 9, 1971. 9Historically, Ganga like Parvati wore a six-yard white sari with Vermillion border and white blouse with vermillion border. Ibid. Headdress The river goddess, Ganga, wears no headdress and may wear her hair in either of the two basic female hairstyles. Chandika The destructive form of Parvati wears the same vesha as the demoness. Avatars of Lord Vishnu Lord Vishnu appears in.the avatars Narasimha, Parashurama, Rama, and Krishna. Narasimha Narasimha, the ferocious and feared half-lion half—man avatar appears in only one prasanga, Prahlada Charitre (The Story of'PrahZada) which is rarely performed nowadays. Make—up The make—up consists of numerous red, green, black, and white crescent shapes, both above and below each eye (Figure 110).10 The top row of two crescents on the forehead are painted black; the next crescents below consist of two rows of chutti; the next two crescents below are red, then a row of green, and a row of black; just below these crescents are two rows of white chutti; then crescents of green, then. red and then a single row of white chutti. Next below the chutti are crescents of black, then red, and finally green. The first crescent shapes below the eyes are green, the next red and then black; below the black are two crescents of a single row of White chutti; below the chutti are crescents of red, then green, and the bottom crescents are a single row of white chutti. m 10The drawing is based on Plate 9 (black and white) in Karanth's Yak8hagana Bayalata and information regarding the colors of the vesha is from a letter from Karanth, October 10, 1971. .'// m V. '11 . " 4’ ’ 2 / V ' “3" IL / Q4“ 7 7 ,2 17.7 "y' (I, 2'4, '/l . ‘ ’i . I‘l ' r l “kg “"1 ,//’/. ‘4: . .' \/ Figure 110. Make-up and headdress for Narasimha 253 A White cotton puff ball is secured with spirit gum on each temple, on the forehead just between the eyes,-and on the tip of the nose. Enlarged teeth including two very oversized canine teeth and an over— sized tongue made of cardboard are placed just above the upper lip and secured to the mudi by means of cord. The teeth are covered with silver paper and the tongue is either painted red or covered with red paper. The actor places a white false hair mustache just above the cardboard teeth and secures it to the mudi. The remainder of the face, the neck and part of the chest is covered with alternate layers of black and white false hair beards representing the lower part of the lion's mane (Figure 110). These are secured to the mudi. Costume From the waist down the actor playing Narishima wears the basic male costume. And above the waist he covers his bare body with.white make—up; the only decorations are a few long garlands of fresh flowers that are in season and a few long strings of colorful beads that hang around his neck. Headdress The headdress consists of stiff cardboard pieces one and one-half inches wide and six to eight inches long, pointed at the top ends and secured to cord at the bottom ends. One row is covered with red paper and a second row is covered with green paper. On his head which he has previously wrapped in a black peta, the actor places the red row near the forehead and the green row a few inches back from the red row, and ties them below the mudi. In between these rows of cardboard shapes the actor places White false hair to complete the lion's mane. Parashurama This incarnation of Lord Vishnu is noted for his deStruction of the warrior class for their impiety; therefore he is depicted as fiery— tempered and valiant. Make—up Parashurama character first puts on the yellow—pink‘make—up used by the basic male characters. An oval shape in red encloses each eye. A quarter—inch line in black is put under the red area beneath each eye. The actor then makes a broken white line under the black line. A one- inch diameter red dot is placed in the center of the forehead. A thin black line extends up the forehead from the top of the red dot. Another thin black line extends an inch down from the bottom of the red dot. Cotton is used to make the eyebrows. The lips are painted red and kumkum powder is put over the red make-up. Parashurama wears a white mustache and a white beard (Figure 111). Costume Parashurama wears the-basic male costume with a long-sleeved red jacket and hagallu walli (as worn by Bhima). Parashurama's weapon is the axe. Headdress His headdress is the raja kirita, with long white false hair, attached to the mudi. Rama Makeeup Rama wears the basic male make-up with black mustache and painted- on black beard. 256 Costume. This avatar wears the basic male costume with a long—sleeved green, jacket and carries a bow and arrow. Headdress Rama wears the raja kirita. Rama's vesha is the same as that of Dharmaraya.. Krishna Make—up Lord Krishna wears the basic male make-up. Costume Above the waist, the costume of Lord Krishna is identical with that of the young warrior princes; however, instead of wearing the checked sari in kase wrap, his sari is gathered on a long piece of cotton tape, tied around the waist, and worn as a skirt. The hagallu walli is draped around the neck and allowed to hang in equal lengths down the front. He wears the basic female girdle. In his hand he carries the chakra, a decorated discus-like weapon. Headdress Lord Krishna wears the kedage mundale with shalle. Procedure for wearing the vesha The actor first puts on black pajamas, gejje and anklets. Then the make—up iS,completed and the kedage mundale is made. The sari is then gathered into a Skirt and tied, the short—sleeved jacket put on, the hagallu walli hung around the neck, and the costume is completed-with the ornaments. —: r 257 Teachers Ashwatthama and Drona Ashwatthama and Drona are unusual personalities because they are. both brahmins (members of the priestly class) and also teachers of the art of war. They reveal their class by wearing a sage's hairstyle and their profession by wearing the warrior's costume. Ashwatthama and Drona appear in Kamarjma KaZaga and Drona appears in Abhimanyu KaZaga. Make—up The actors playing these roles wear the basic male make—up and usually substitute the forehead design of Lord Shiva (Figures 104 and 105) for that of Lord Vishnu. They add a-black woolen mustache and a black woolen or black false hair beard. Costume They wear the basic male costume with long-sleeved red jacket; and they-carry a bow and arrow. Headdress The actors pull their hair to the top center of their heads and make it into a bun; then they tie the shalle to this bun and.tuck its bottom corners under the girdle at each side. Sages Make—up The sages wear the pink—yellow-make—up worn by the basic male characters. If the sage is a worshipper of Vishnu the basic male tilaka is worn on the forehead. If he is a worshipper of Shiva, Shiva's sign will be drawn on the-forehead. A floral design of four white petals and. 258 a red center is made at the outer corner of each eye (Figures 112 and 113). Sages who must frequently appear in the prasangas are Valmiki in Lavakusha‘KaZaga, Vasishtha in Ramapattabhisheka, and Narada in Lavakusha Kalaga, Rukmangada Charitre and 'Km‘shnarjuna Kalaga. . Costume The sages wear either a white dhoti with red border or a saffron dhoti. They wear either a saffron or white shawl with-rudrakshi (dried grape) beads around the neck, upper arms, and/or wrist. The contemporary sages carry a danda (a wooden stick used for resting the arm while medi— tating), peacock feathers,wooden prayer beads, and/or the musical, . ll instrument the tambura. Headdress The sages do not wear a headdress, but have distinguishing hair— styles. The actor either pulls all of his hair to the center top of the head and makes a bun, or pulls part of his hair to the center top of the_ head, makes a bun, and lets the remainder of the hair hang free. He decorates the bun with flowers. Procedure foerearing the Vesha The hair is fixed in either of the above mentioned styles and then the make—up completed. The dhoti can be wrapped in several ways. One: method is to place the left edge of the_dhoti at the front’right side 0f the body. Take the dhoti around the leftfside of the body and back to the right side. The-tOp edges of the dhoti together at the right waist. Bring the remainder of the dhoti to the center front and fold in four ._____~____________ 11Historically, the sage always wore a white dhoti with red border, a white shawl, rudrakshi beads, and carried only the danda and peacock feathers. Karanth, interview, March 24, 1971. 259 Figure 112. A sage wearing the sign of Vishnu Figure 113. A sage wearing the sign of Shiva IIIIIIIIIIIIIT__________________________________________________.__"____-____________"“ 260 inch wide pleats and tuck the top of this mass of pleats into the waist in front. Pass the bottom of the center pleat through the legs and tuck the bottom of the center pleat in the waist at the back. The actor then drapes the shawl over his shoulders and puts on the rudrakshi-bead The vesha is completed with necklace, upper arm and wrist ornaments. the danda and peacock feathers (Figure 114). Comedians The comic actors play the parts of guards, messengers, servants and major characters when in disguise.- In the former roles the characters are not generally referred to by name but as guards, messengers and servants." However, in the later category they may have names.such as Brihannala, the name assumed by Arjuna when he disguises himself as a. dancing teacher in Virata Parva. Comic characters appear in all prasangas. Contemporary clowns wear any make—up, any costume and any hairstyle which they consider humorous.12 The young.clowns, the kodangis, wear black pajamas, gejje, a long— sleeved green jacket and a red and white turban made from the hagallu walli. Make—up is not usually worn but if so it is only the pink— yellow make—up of the basic male characters and covers the face only. Special Characters Atikaya Atikaya is one of the sons of Ravana, the demon; however, he is not considered a demon himself. This combination of part demon and part - 12Historically, the clown wore a white dhoti with red border, a White longesleeved shirt with attached flared short skirt, and a red and White turban. 'Ibid. 261 Figure 114. Costume for a sage 262 human is perhaps illustrated in his make—up and costume:. the demon part represented by the floral patterns in his make—up which are similar to those on the demon's ornaments and the human part in the basic warrior's costume and king's crown. He is the hero of‘Atikaya KaZaga (Atikaya’s Battle). Make-up The actor mixes red pigment with coconut oil and makes an oval shape enclosing each eye. From center forehead near the hair line down to the tip of the nose he makes an inverted triangular design in red. In the» center of the forehead he superimposes on this red triangle a half-inch diameter black dot (tilaka). The red mixture is applied to the facial asPect of the chin and bounded by the line of the jaw to a point lateral to the commissures of the lips, but not above this line. This entire area is-filled in with red except for a narrow vertical triangular area in the cleft of the chin. A three—eighths inch diameter red dot is~placed. on the forehead on each side of the tilaka midway between.it and the hair line of the temple.' The actor puts a similar red dot on each cheek about an inch and a half below the red areas of the eyes. Yellow pigment mixed with coconut oil is then used to make a solid yellow line around the red triangular shape on the nose, just below the red areas of each eye, around the four red dots, and outlining the bottom margin of the red area painted on the chin. He paints on the black beard under the painted area on the chin, leaving a quarter of an inch between the yellow margin and the beard. A mixture of white pigment and water is used to make a solid line around the yellow line that outlines the red on the nose, just below the yellow line under the eyes around the yellow annuli that encircle the red dots, and to fill in the unpainted space on the chin 263 above the beard. A green mixture is then applied to all remaining un— covered areas of the face. All the white lines are covered with chutti,- the eyebrows are painted black, and the lips are painted red with kumkum powder applied over top. The black woolen mustache completes the make—up (Figure 115). Costume. Atikaya wears the-basic male costume, with a long—sleeved red jacket, hagallu walli placed around the neck, cries—crossed over the chest and tied at waist back, and he carries a bow and arrow. Headdress He wears the raja kirita with long black false hair tied to the mudi. Procedure for wearing the vesha The actor puts on black pajamas,.gejje, anklets, and the kase sire. When the make—up is completed the head is wrapped, and the headdress is put on. Next the jacket is put on and then all of the ornaments added. The vesha is completed with the bow and arrow. Jarasandha Jarasandha, like Atikaya, is not a demon, but possesses some demonic traits. He was born inva most unusual way--half of him was born to one woman and half to another; by fate a demoness found him abandoned in the forest and put the two parts together. Because of his physical ' strength, his aggressiveness in battle and his association with demons, the kings constantly feared his challenge and/or dominion. He appears in Shri Krishnavivaha and Rukminiswayamvara. 264 Make—up for Atikaya and Jarasandha Figure 115. 265 Make-up Jarasandha wears the same make-up as Atikaya. Costume. He wears the same costume as Bhima, including the mace. Headdress Jarasandha wears the raja kirita. Procedure for wearing the vesha The actor puts on black pajamas, gejje, anklets, and the kase sire. When the make-up is completed the crown is secured. Next the jacket is put on and then all ornaments added. The vesha is completed with the mace. Kichaka Kichaka is the commander-in—chief of King Virata's army and the brother of the Queen;.he is known for his vanity and his uncontrollable passion for Draupadi, the wife of the Pandavas, who is in.disguise as a handmaiden to the Queen. Kichaka's lust for Draupadi eventually causes his death at the hands of Bhima, one of Draupadi's husbands. Kichaka appears in Virata Earva and Kichaka Vadhe. Make—up Kichaka's make—up is identical with that of the gandharva except that the red areas beneath the eyes are underlined with a black (not a white) broken line. Costume Kichaka's costume is the basic male costume with a long—sleeved green jacket. He carries a bow and arrow. 266 Headdress The headdress worn by Kichaka is the red mundasu. Procedure for wearing the vesha The actor wears black pajamas, gejje, anklets, and the kase sire. When the make-up is applied and completed the red mundasu is wrapped. The actor then dons the jacket and all ornaments. The shalle is tied to the mudi and then tucked at each side under the girdle. A bow and arrow completes the vesha. Bhishma Bhishma is a prince who renounced his rights as heir—apparent to the throne in order that his father could marry a woman whom he loved and that her son could eventually become the king. He is depicted as a fearless and highly competent warrior, greatly respected even by his enemies. He appears in Bhishmavijaya (The Victories of Bhishma) and Krishnarjuna KaZaga. Make—up Bhishma wears the basic male make—up with the additions of the- black woolen muStache and the black woolen beard. Costume He wears the basic male costume with a long—sleeved red jacket, hagallu walli crossed over the chest and tied at the back waist, and he carries a bow and arrow. Headdress The headdress worn is the raja kirita. Long false black hair is tied to the mudi. 267 Warrior Queen The warrior queen, like Ashwatthama and Drona, is an unusual person— ality; she is a combination of heroic traits needed to defend her kingdom and those gentle and romantic traits usually expected for females. The most famous of the Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata warrior queens are Pramila who appears in Babhruvahana KaZaga; Minakshi, the heroine of Minakshi KaZyana (The Marriage of Minakshi); and Sheshiprabha of Sheshiprabha Parinaya (The Marriage of Sheshiprabha). Make—up The warrior queen wears the basic female make—up with the addition of small white dots which follow a line just above each eyebrow. An annulus of small white dots is applied around the red tilaka (Figure 116). Designs other than the red tilaka can be worn (Figure 117). Costume The warrior queen wears a black nine—yard sari with vermillion and golden—yellow border wrapped in a special kaccha, generally with a red blouse. Two cross pieces over the chest which may be of various colors, 3 female's girdle, upper and lower female arm ornaments, various kinds of beads, earrings, and a nose ring complete the costume. The instructions for wrapping the special kaccha are as follows. The actor places the left end of the sari at the front right side of the body hanging from his waist to feet. He takes the remainder of the sari across the front, around the left side, to the right-side. He ties the top borders of the sari together at the right side (Figure 118). Holding the upper free border just beyond this knotted edge with the right hand, the left hand pulls out the free upper border and holds it a little way out from the body to the left front, then passing the loose 268 Figure 116. Make—up for the warrior queen Figure 117. Make—up designs for the forehead of the warrior queen. 269 free upper end in turn from left hand to right hand, eventually the left hand will find the free end at the upper right hand corner of the sari—— this end is termed the palav (and is usually the most ornate,‘or decorative end of the sari piece). This upper right.corner is passed into the right hand and the left hand slides along the edge of the palav gathering it into loose folds and passing it, folded, into the right hand. The folded palav, now bunched, is-put into the left hand, and passed with this hand around the left side to the center back. Still bunched, it-is paSsed to the right hand, taken out to the right and held shoulder high in the right hand, passed across the front of the chest, dropped over the left shoulder and let fall loose down the back until the now free edge of the palav hangs to a level about ten inches above the back of the left knee (Figure 119). Again the left hand reaches for the upper free border a few inches from the knot tied at the right waist and, allowing this upper free border to slide between the fingers, the left hand is fully extended out to the left hand side such that the free border is held parallel: to the ground. At this point the free border is more firmly.taken with the left hand and passed into the right hand, which then gently pulls this point of the free edge back well clear of the body to a position at the right front of the body. The left hand again takes the free border beyond that point held in the right hand and allowing the free border, again, to slip between the fingers of the left hand, the left hand extends the free border to a point at the left front of the body at which point the left hand again grips the border more firmly. At this point a portion of the sari is held out in front of the body with the upper border parallel to the ground and the lower border just clear of the ground. That portion in the right hand is then dropped, and the portion of the upper border held by the left hand is passed over to the Figure 118. Step A, wrapping the warrior queen's sari Figure 119. Step B, wrapping the warrior queen's sari 271 right hand.~ That portion is then held more firmly in the right hand, and loosely taking the upper free border of the sari, the left hand is re—extended to the left front, allOwing the free upper border to slide through the fingers. When the left arm is partly extended to the left front, the free upper border is more firmly gripped by the left hand and again this portion of the sari is held out in front between the extended left and right hands with upper.border parallel to the ground and the lower border of this portion just clear of the ground. Repeat this step a number of times until much of the sari has been dropped by the right hand in a pile to the right front, and the left hand is now beginning to pull in that portion of the sari that has previously been draped around the back and up over the shoulder. A little tension is put on this portion such that the palav is not dislodged from over the shoulder (Figure 120). He then takes the top border of the right side portion of the sari and folds it into five-inch—wide pleats. When all of the material that was lying in front of him has been folded into the pleats, he tucks the top border portion of these grouped pleats four. inches into the waist of the sari (Figure 121). He then counts the pleats and finds the center pleat. He takes the bottom border of this pleat, passes it between his legs and tucks it into the waist at the back. At his waist at the back he then runs his fingers over the bottom border of the sari which is next to the portion that he has just tucked into the waist (Figure 122). He runs the border of the cloth through his left hand until he brings it to the center front waist. He does the same for the border of the right-side of the sari with the right hand.. The borders are each pulled into a pointed tuft and tied together at center front waist. He then pulls the border of the material extending 272 Figure 120. Step C, wrapping the warrior queen's sari Figure 121. Step D, wrapping the warrior queen's sari \v ’I Figure 122. Step E, wrapping the warrior queen's sari \ 3. ’ Q J. .1. r A‘I-“ujJ-w': t1?" 1 f (:1 L PA I Figure 123. Step F, wrapping the warrior queen's sari 274 from this knot, ensuring that this border is vertical and follOws the line of the center front of each leg. That part of the sari material that has already been wrapped around each leg is smoothed under the border. Black cord is tied around the legs just below the knees. The upper corner of that portion of the sari that was thrown over the left shoulder is brought back around the right side and tucked in at the left waist (Figure 123). When the kaccha has been wrapped the gejje are tied over the sari at the ankles and the anklets are tied juSt above the gejje. The cross pieces are pieces of cloth five inches wide by six feet long. The- center of one piece is put across the left shoulder and tied at the. waist on the right side (Figure 124). Hairstyle The warrior queen wears either one of the two basic female hair— styles with flowers. Headdress Special to the warrior queen isra crown made of silver. It is of triangular design in front with a band encircling the head (Figure 125). Procedure for wearigg_the vesha The make—up is completed first and then the hair is styled. Then the actor puts on the blouse, wraps the sari, secures the bells and anklets and places the cross—pieces over the chest and ties them at each side of the waist._ The actor then puts on the upper and lower arm ornaments and the girdle. The crown is put in place and secured with 275 Figure 124. Wearing the warrior queen's sari with decorations. b Figure 125. The warrior queen's crown —’——————i* 1‘ ' in: 91? 276 hair pins. The warrior queen carries a bow and arrow13 (Figure 126). Spirits Mask The spirits wear an oval-shaped mask carved from wood, painted in black, pink, white, and red (Figure 127). Costume The Spirits, if male, wear black pajamas, and either a red or green shirt, or one of the clown's top-pieces. If the spirit is female she wears a black sari. Headdress The spirits do not wear a headdress but they do wrap the head in a black peta in the same manner as that for the kedage mundale. a_— 13Historically the warrior queen wore a white sari with vermillion border wrapped in the special kaccha, and a white blouse with vermillion border. The hagallu walli were used as cross-pieces. The wooden ear pieces of the old strivesha (female-character), armlets, and bracelets were worn. The silver crown was the same as the one worn,today. Shri K. K. Hebbar, interview, April 9, 1971. Figure 126. The warrior queen in costume and make—up Figure 127. The spirit's mask CHAPTER VIII PERFORMANCE RITUALS Before and after the performance of most Indian dances and dance— dramas certain rituals, peculiar to each art-form, are carried out. The Natya Shastra (200 B.C. to 200 A.D.) a treatise on music, dance, and dramaturgy, dictates, among other things, all the rituals that Should be observed before the building of the performing area, and those that should be observed before and after the performance. The tradition of performing rituals before and after Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata performances has no doubt been influenced by this ancient work. There are no documents describing the functions of the rituals; however, having observed them in all performances used as sources for this study the primary function seems to be to praise the gods and in $0 dOing remind the people of all the gods' aspects and their relation— ship to man: protection for the devoted; destruction for the wicked. Some other functions might be: to inform the audience of the progressive Stages of the performance and to describe the different elements of the.performance such as the musicians, the musical instruments, the dance, and the troupe. Possibly the combined length of all the rituals was deSigned to entertain those who lived nearby until those who lived farther away could reach the performance area. 279 - -'- -udé_£u.‘.__z.__g_-L._;i_'_ui_. ._._._-.... .2 . .-. -' 280 With the exception of two items, all of the songs, poetry and prose in Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata rituals are found in Yakshagana Sabhalakshana and Prasanga Pithike, the date of which is unknown.1 Before the Prasanga Announcement to the Patron of the Troupe's Arrival The preliminaries begin in the morning when the sangitagar,2 wattu maddale,3 and shrutigar4 of the troupe arrive at the patron's house. The sangitagar sings a devotional song. Although Yakshagana SabhaZakshana and Prasanga‘Pithike contains devotional songs for this purpose to Ganapati, Vishnu, Shiva, Durga, Rama (a form of Vishnu), Brahma, and Hanumanta, nowadays the one song performed is usually; dedicated to Goddess Mukambika. And it is usually sung in Raga Mohana Adi Tala. Shri Mukambika, one who has the walk of an elephant, Whose feet are worshipped by Indra,~ Beautiful lady with the golden color and delicate body, 5 You who are fond of the name of Rama, You have great valor. The earliest extant version of this work is entitled only Sabhalakshana and is dated 1621 A.D.; it does not include most of the proceedings listed in the current edition. The palm-leaf manuscript is in the private collection of Karanth. 2A singer who performs the preliminaries, then learns the prasangas, and finally reaches the status of bhagavata (chief singer and director). A maddale drummer who performs the preliminaries, then learns to play for the prasangas, and finally achieves the status of maddalegar (chief player of the maddale). 4 . One who plays the constant sounding note (shruti) on the har- monium (also referred to as a shruti). 5Although the name Rama usually refers to the hero of the Ramayana, it is also one of Mukambika's names. 281 You who have a beautiful neck like the conch, You who have the lotus—heart of the yogis as your home, You who have all the powers, You who have the feet worshipped by all Gods, Auspicious one who is always keeping yourself happy, Your body is perfumed with the scent of sandal paste that has been applied by the great group of poets. One who walks slowly like the elephant. You are Shankara's wife, Shankari. You are ready to serve your best devotees. You are decorated with a ruby. You are terrible to the demons. You are omkara personified, omkari. You who have-the conch and the discus in your hands, are the protector of the world. Your fame is praised by the Vedas. Lotus-eyed one who has red lips as if marked by kumkum, you are responsible for the creation, pro tection and destruction . You are full of kindness, destroyer of the race of Diti. One who has a serpent—like plait, face like a beautiful moon, Uplifter of the whole world, you have teeth like the jasmine bud. You are very dignified, and courageous, lotus—eyed one. 6 Protect us, Hiriadka Pureshwari. The singing of this song signifies to the patron that the troupe has arrived and that they will perform. The patron gives a betel leaf and an areca nut7 to the sangitagar as a token that he will pay for the» 6Yakshagana Sabhalakshana and Prasangapithike'(Udipi, South Kanara, Mysore, India: Pavanje Guruvav and Sons, 1968—69), p. 4. All songs and dialogue found in this chapter have.been,tranSlated by Shrimati Puttur Leela Bhat, Lecturer in Kannada, Mahatma Gandhi Memorial College, Udipi, South Kanara, Mysore State, India. Hiriadka Pureshwari is the goddess by name of Kadgeshwari (Durga) in Virabhadra Temple, Hiriadka, South Kanara. 7In India and other Asian countries the betel leaf and areca nut, or these.two in a combination with lime paste, spices, c0conut, and/or tobacco are symbols of contracts and hospitality. 282 performance the following morning when the prasanga has been completed. The sangitagar, wattu maddale and shrutigar now join the rest of the, troupe, have breakfast and sleep until evening. Announcement of the Performance (Chauka abbara) In the evening, the performers arise from their sleep and have their evening meal. When this meal is finished, usually about 6:30 p.m., the maddalegar and the Chandegar go to a place just outside the chauka (dres— sing room) and play the chauka abbara, a series of special drum sounds and rhythms. While this is being played the kodangis (little clowns) join in with sounds like "le, le, le, le, ke, ho!"8 and then go quickly inside the chauka to put on their black pajamas, green jackets and red turbans. During the chauka abbara the head staff member prepares the idol which is-kept at the closed end of the chauka for ceremonial worship (puja). He decorates the god with areca palm flowers, jasmine, or any other flowers that are in season. Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata headgears and ornaments are placed in the upturned lid of a straw basket in front of the deity. On a small tray also placed before the god, he puts coconuts, flowers, and bananas. As the head staff member makes ready for the puja, other staff members unpack ornaments and crowns. and hang them on the horizontal poles of the chauka. Two staff members put cotton rope wicks into two shovel—shaped lamps, fill the lamps with- coconut oil, and light them from the lamp which is burning before the deity. 8Letter from Shri Hiriadka Gopala Rao, Maddalegar, September 26, 1971. 283 Also during this time the troupe-members take their places accord- ing to the traditional arrangement as shown below. THE IDOL9 Bhagavata and Maddalegar Eradana Vesha (2nd Actor)lo Rakshasa and/or Rakshasi (Demon or Demoness) Purushall Vesha (Second to the Wandane Mundasu (Actor of Eradane Vesha) most importance who wears the mundasu) Mukhya Strivesha (Main Eradane Mundasu (Actor of, female character) second importance who wears the mundasu) Murune Vesha (3rd Actor) Sakhya Strivesha (2nd female character) Murune Strivesha (3rd Balagopalas (Young dancers female character) representing Krishna and Balarama) Hasyagar (the Clown) and Kodangis (Young Clowns) After the chauka abbara the maddalegar and the Chandegar join the bhagavata in the chauka for the opening prayers to Lord Ganapati who is always worshipped before other deities because he is thought to remove difficulties and permit a show to succeed. The puja begins when coconuts are split and libation is offered to the god. Then the coc0nuts are returned to the tray and a ritual known as arati (waving of the sacred 9All professional troupes have a Ganapati idol with the exception 0f Maranakatte that uses a framed poster—painting of Kolur Mukambika (Mother Goddess). 10The name of "first actor" is given to the bhagavata. 11The word purusha means "man." 284 flame) is performed. In an ornamental vessel especially designed for arati, or in a flat metal plate, oil—soaked wicks are lit and waved in a circular motion, clockwise, before the god. As arati is waved, the bhagavata sings a particular song in praise of Ganapati. Bhagavatas of all troupes always sing this particular song for the beginning puja of every performance. And it is generally sung in Raga Ghantarava12 Tripude Tala. To Ganapal3 who has the face of the elephant, To the beautiful one who is worshipped in the three worlds, Let us wave arati. To Ganapa who has the face of the elephant, To one who relishes the best beaten rice, coconut, bengal gram, a sweet ball made of gingely,l sugar cane, and who dances with silver bells tied at his waist, Wave arati to the big—bellied Ganapati. T the elephant—faced one, To one who accepts-trophies from the Gods, To one who burns like the forest fire, To one who fulfills the desires of those who think about Him, Wave arati. 0 To the elephant-faced one, To the one who holds the axe, the rope, and the elephant goad in his hands, To one who is delighted in protecting the devotees, To the son of one who has decorated himself with snakes, Wave arati. 15 Elephant—faced one. 12Although in Yakshagana Sabhalakshana and Prasanga Pithike Raga Saurashthra is listed for this song, the raga nowadays is usually Ghantarava, but it is also sung in Raga Nati. Shri Hiriadka Gopala Rao, Shri Nilawara Ramakrishnayya, interview, Udipi, South Kanara, February 10, 1971. l3Ganapa means "the leader of attendants upon Lord Shiva." 14A tiny blackish seed, sesamum indicum,Bhatt, Kittel’s Dictionary, 1968, I, 298. lSYakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 5. 285 After the puja the flaming arati vessel is passed around to all who are in the dressing room. Each person passes his hand, palm down, in a clock—wise circle over the flame, and then touches it to his forehead, and sometimes to the eyes and/or the heart. A small portion of a sweet such as a mixture of brown.sugar and flattened cooked rice which has been specially prepared and offered to the god, is considered blessed and then given to each person in the chauka. This is called prasadam.l6 After this ceremony the sangitagar, the wattu maddale, the Chandegar, the shrutigar, and the kodangis (little clowns), with the two staff members carrying the lighted shovel-shaped lamps in the lead go in procession to the rangasthala (that specific area in which the per- formers enact the drama). During the procession the tala, maddale, and chande play special bols while the kodangis say: Listen, one whose uproar has spread like the smell of musk, One who is majestic as the Ocean, One who has elegance and grace.17 As the musicians take their places the oil-lamps are secured on the left and right sides of the rangasthala. The sangitagar, wattu maddale, and Chandegar all tune to the shruti (the harmonium's constant sounding note) and now perform a special Series of sounds and rhythms known as the abbarabadtige to inform the listeners that the performance is about to begin. ___________________ l6Prasadam is anything that is offered to god and returned to the giver blessed by god. 17Letters from Shri Hiriadka Gopala Rao, September 26, 1971, and November 5, 1971. Passages were translated by Shrimati Puttur Leela 286 The Kodangis' Dances The sangitagar now sings two songs in praise of Ganapati, the elephant—faced god, and a song in praise of Ganapati's mother, Mukamba to which the kodangis dance. According to the direction in Yakshagana Sabhalakshana and Prasanga Pithike, the following song is usually sung in Raga Nati Jhampe Tala. For this song and all songs illustrated henceforth, the name of the raga and tala is listed immediately above the song. Raga Nati Jhampe Tala With happiness I am praising you always, Vighneshwara, Lord of obstacles, Vighneshwara, Lord of all obstacles, Madawura. God, Lord of this universe, with happiness [praise] to you. You are God himself, You are a lover of the essence of the Vedas, You have divine lotus-feet that are worshipped by Indra. You are the son of Girija, You have the radiance of crores of suns. Raga Nati Rupaka Tala You are elephant—faced, an ocean of kindness, one who gives salvation. Hey! It is beyond my ability to praise your powers. Even Mahashesha serpent who has supported this earth cannot praise you, the delicate son of Ishvara. You are the personification of all the Shastras, You are a strange lord of obstacles of Madawura. With happiness [I praise you].18 This song is probably in praise of Lord Krishna Bhat, December 20, 1971. y in the form of because musk is associated with Vishnu particularl Krishna. lBYakshagana Sabhalakshana, pp. 5-6. All names of drum bols usually included in the preliminary songs have been omitted. 287 Raga Ghantarava Tripude Tala (fast speed) Shri Mukamba, I have complete faith in your two lotus feet. Shri Mukamba, you are the one who grants boons according to my request forever. You are very clever at playing your part in the world. Shri Mukamba, can anyone gauge your powers? Mother Mukamba, you are the only supporter to those who worship you in secret. Raga Ghantarava19 Ashta Tala You are the auspicious wife of Shiva, worshipped by all the Gods. Shri Mukamba, better half of Shiva, please protect me forever. 0 The sangitagar continues by chanting Sanksrit shlokas honoring the audience and the musical instruments used in the performance. There are two ways in Which the sangitagar might execute Sanskrit poetry: he might chant it in‘a monotone and then end it in a modulation of a raga; or he might sing the poem in several different tones, repeating these tones in different patterns, and then ending the poem in a modulation of a raga. Either way, the shloka is not accompanied by the small cymbals or the drums; therefore the singer can render the shloka in any rhythm and at any speed he wishes. M 19Although Raga Saurashtra and Ashta Tala are listed in Yakshagana Sabhalakshana for this song, nowadays it is usually sung in. Raga Ghantarava beginning in Tripude Tala and later changing to Ashta Tala. Shri Hiriadka Gopala Rao, Shri Nilawara Ramakrishnayya, inter— view, February 10, 1971. ZOYakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 6. 288 Shardulavikriditam (Sanskrit poetic metre) I salute the audience that is supposed to be very sacred and respected by all; that is always very generous; that is always going along the good path; that is virtuous; that is capable of protecting truth by destroying all the sins; that is thehome of the Vedas, Brahma, Vyasa and Maheshwa; that has been looking beautiful with the Vidhyadharas,2 exactly like the orb of the moon on earth with all its glamour. The sangitagar then sings two songs in praise of Rama to which the kodangis also dance. Raga Todi23 Tripude Tala. You are only seen by the Vedas and Shastras, You who are known only to the Shastras, eternal, lotus—eyed one with the bird as your vehicle. One who delights in the music of the Gandharvas, Bhrigu, Vasishtha, Valmiki and the brahmins have blessed you. Raga Todi Ashta Tala Raghurama, who is full of kindness and virtue! I praise you. Son of Dasharatha, destroyer of the demons, One who is praised by Shiva, the wearer of the moon and One who has granted boons to Guha24 Praise to Shri Raghurama. 21Heavenly beings who are well-versed in music and dance. 22Yakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 7. 23 Arabhi is listed in Yakshagana Sabhalakshana, Although Raga . ’ the song nowadays is usually sung in Raga Todi. Shri Hiriadka Gopala Rao, Shri Nilawara Ramakrishnayya, interview, February 10, 1971. 24The hunter who helped Rama, Sita, river from Ayodhya by boat; Guha might also be Shiva's son. and Lakshmana across the Karthikeya (Shanmukha), 25Yakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 7. After this song the kodangis salute the audience by putting their hands in prayer-like positions. Then they return to the chauka. On occasion they will re—enter later with the Balagopalas and practice what they have learned of the Balagopalas' dances. As the sangitagar will now perform a long series of poetry and prose concerned with deities and various aspects of Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata, and no accompaniment is needed except the shruti, the wattu maddale and the Chandegar leave the rangasthala. The first in the series of the sangitagar's renditions is,a poem in.praise of Lord Krishna written in Pariwardhini, a Kannada poetic metre. He sings Kannada poetry in ragas chosen by himself for their appropriateness to express the content of the poem. For all subsequent poems the metre is listed immediately above each poem. Poetry in Praise of Lord Krishna Pariwardhini (Kannada poetry metre) While the whole universe is in your stomach, Goddess of wealth, Lakshmi, does not even know your feet. You are the wearer of the amulet that protects the wearers from the evil—eye. Narahari, the sky is your navel. Vitthala, lord of Rukmini who has a long shining dark black plait, A cowherd boy always in the company of other cowherd boys, In your childhood you played with the cowherd boys. The sky is your navel. There is no one equal to you in virtue. Famous in the world, praised by the munis, Great Viranarayana of Gadaga, The sky is your navel. X. 26 A village in North Kanara. 27Yakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 7. 290 Prose and Poetry in Praise of the Audience Next in the series is a passage in prose (Dachana) which the sangitagar renders either in a monotone or in conversational style. During this time the sangitagar has an excellent opportunity to exhibit the qualities of his voice without the sometimes overpowering accompani— ment of the tala and the drums. Vachana After saluting the eight Gods of the eight directions like this and sitting like this in the audience, if you ask whether God is first or the king is first, I am saying that God comes first. In that case, who among the Gods comes first? Bhudeva, God of earth, comes first. So this audience is the God of the earth.28 Shardulavikriditam (Sanskrit poetric metre) Audience that is virtuous and of good character, Audience that is radiant with very good conduct, Audience that is famous for establishing the good dharma, This audience is famous for great heroes. This audience is complete with Vedas and Shastras. This audience has been decorated by the radiant princes (or shining with the brilliance of the moon.) This audience has been made beautiful by the music, and so forth. This audience is filled with poets, 29 This audience is supposed to be the kingdom's wealth. Shloka (Sanskrit poetic metre) Salutations to the audience that is the heavenly tree. You have the Rig Veda as a root. You have the Same Veda as the branches. 28Yakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 8. 29Yakshagana SabhaZakshana, p. 8. 30The heavenly tree grows in Indra's garden and grants any request made of it. 291 The six philosoPhies31 are'the white flowers. The philosophical knowledge gained is the fruit of the‘tree.32 Vachana (Prose) It was like this in Amaravati, the capital of Indra's kingdom, when Indra, the Sun'to the enemy's darkness, was holding court, as Lord to all his subordinates who-were decorating his court.33 Mahasragdhara (Sanskrit poetic metre) The lord of the audience (Indra) has great thoughts. He is one who is grateful; one who knows the art of appreciation. The Sabhindra (Indra) is courageous, has great valor, is one of sweet words, one of good reputation and is always in the> company of the lady called Fame! One whohas the beauty of Smara (Manmatha); one who has given up anger; One who has pure character; one who is very kind; Protects those who have sought his help. He is like the moon who-gives pleasure to the-scholars who are like the water lilies. Sabhindra.34 Vachana (Prose) You have just heard the main qualities of the audience. There are kings and ministers who are worthy of the nature and cleverness attributed to the audience. Do you know how they should be?3 ___________________ 31The six philosophies are Sankhya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa, Nyaya, Vedanta, Yoga. 32Yakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 8. 33Loo. cit. 34Yakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 8. 351mm, p. 9.” 292 Shloka (Sanskrit poetic metre) The kings should be like the earth; The ministers should be like the heavenly tree. The retinue should be like the sacred cow. The subjects are like the king in character. 6 Vachana (Prose) What kind of scholars should be in the audience that has been described?37 Shloka Those who are well-read, poets, great brahmins, scholars, musicians, jesters historians, writers of epics. é Vachana These are the seven features of the audience. When; the audience is complete with these seven features 39 then in what way should the scholars show themselves? Poetry Describing the Placement of Performers on Stage Shloka On the left there must be the player of the mrdhngam. On the right there must be the player of the tala. In the middle, the bhagavata, On his side, those who praise the King, In front those who dance, To the left, the jester, 40 Then the stage will complete with the dance. ___________________ 36Yakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 9. 'U \D 37Yakshagana Sabhalakshana, 38Yakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 9. 39Yakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 9. 4OYakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 9. 293 Poetry and Prose Describing the Stage Vachana The area of the performing area must be like this:41 Shloka Five hands length, ten hands height. 42 Like a crescent moon is the performing area. Poetry and Prose Describing the Bhagavata Vachana The main qualities of the bhagavata who stands on the stage.4 Shloka Bha signifies the devotee of God; Ga means one without pride; Va signifies one who is well—versed in sentences; Ta signifies good judgment. The qualities of the bhagavata are over. Bhagavata should be able to sing both night and day with his face either to the east or to the north. In the night he can face the west, but never to the south.4 41Yakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 9. 42Yakshagana SabhaZakshana, p. 9. ' According to A. L. Basham, The Wonder That was Indfa (New York: Grove Press, Inc., 1958), p. 503, one hasta (hand) measures 18 inches. The description in this verse does not fit the description of the per— forming area now used. It is possible that this was the type of perform- ing area once used for tala maddale. The musicians might have sat in the center of the crescent flanked on either side by the actors. 43Yakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 9. 44According to the verse the bhagavata is not to sit facing south because the kingdom of Yama, god of the dead, is in this direction, but today this practice is not always observed. __, 294 The stage set for dance is set in five dandas. In the middle of this kind of audience, think of Hari. 6 In the stillness of the night the sangitagar loudly and clearly continues singing the praises of the gods and descriptions of the dif— ferent aspects of the dance—drama. Poetry and Prose Mentioning Those Whom the Bhagavata Should Praise Vachana To whom should the bhagavata sing praises in song.47 Shloka Vani (Saraswati), Ganapati, Gauri, Brahma, Vishnu, Maheshwara. He must sing about the sky, the earth, Lakshmi, Guru, Vishvamitra, Vashishtha, Shuka, Kanva, Parashara, Agasthya, Gautama, and all the divine rishis. Poetry-Describing the Instruments and the Troupe Shloka Mr stands for Mahalakshmi; Da stands for Sharadambika (Saraswati) Ga stands for Parvati devi. 45A danda, according to Basham, p. 503, measures about six feet. Using this measurement this description also does not fit the present day rangasthala. 46Yakshagana Sdbhalakshana, pp. 9-10. 47Yakshagana Sabhaldkshana, p. 10. 48Yakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 12. 49Yakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 12. 295 Shloka The tala is eight inches.50 The tambura is six inches. The-khagawastu is two inches. The maddale is twelve inches. There are six features of the troupe: dancers, actors, jester, maddale, ’shruti, and bhagavata.52 51 Poetry and Prose Describing the Dance Shloka Your eyes should always be following your hands. Your emotiOns should be where your mind is. These are the characteristics of the dance.53 Vachana These are the characteristics of the dance: like this to the accompaniment of the tala, the troupe, shruti, and the gejje, Tumbura and Narada were playing while Hara (Shiva) was dancing in front of Andakasura (Darkness personified); like Hari (Krishna) was dancing on the hood of the Kaleya serpent (the serpent that was spreading poison which Krishna defeated); like this Rambha,Uruvashi,Menaka, and Tilottama (the four heavenly dancers) were dancing in the court of Devindra. I am incapable of explaining all the technicalities of the dance....You must listen to me, even though.there may be mistakes, some half-sentences, and words sound— ing like child's talk, I am doing nothing but praising Lakshminarayana (Vishnu). It is like children playing in front of their mother, disciples kneeling down, before the God Vinayaka (Ganapati). Victory to this audience and to the Sabhapati54 who are equal to 50It is thought that this refers to the length of the string con— necting the tala. 51Khagawastu is part of the pungi, a gourd instrument that was previously used as the shruti. SZYakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 13. 53Yakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 14. 54This could have been the king, or nowadays the patron, who Pays for the performance. 296 the sacred cow and-heavenly tree. They are like the sun to the lotus and they are like the beauty of Manmatha. Victory! As the sangitagar continues with the preliminaries, the actor- dancers are busy readying themselves for the performance. Before putting on their bells they might hold them in their hands and extend them toward the god; they might touch the bells to their eyes and to their heart and/or forehead; if they are not brahmins, they might ask brahmins to bless their bells. Each in his own way prays that he will do his best in the performance. Often when actors take the crowns either from the poles or from the straw lid in front of the deity and place them on their heads they offer another silent prayer. Songs and Poetry Concerning the Deities Shloka The human body is difficult to possess and the body is temporal. Even then it is very difficult to reach Vaikuntha. The muSic and dance pertaining to Vishnu is specifically very great. All the brahmins who have attained realization should do their daily rituals without faltering. Never delay because our life time is very short. Day by day our life span is shortened. We must sing the pgaise of Hari because Yama is not kind to us. During this shloka the drummers return to their places at the rangasthala and tune the drums in preparation for the songs to follow. SSYakshagana Sabhalakshana, pp. 14—15. 56Yakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 15. 297 Raga Kalyanas7 Eka Tala Ramabhadra, Govinda, Praise! Ramana, Govinda, Achyuta, Ananta, Govinda, Praise! Ramakrishna, Govinda.58 Shloka With a face like the moon,.eyes like the lotus petal and radiance of crores of suns, this audience deserved the salutation. Raga Kalyani60 Eka Tala Rama, Raghuwa, Govinda, Praise! Ramana Govinda, Achyuta, Ananta, Praise! Ramakrishna, Govinda. Shardulavikriditam First, born in.the womb of Devaki, grew in the house of Gopi, destroyed the-life of Putani, lifter of the mountain,Govardhana, killer of Kamsa, eradicator of the Kauravas, protector of the sons of Kunti. This is the story for the life—giving play of Krishna found in the Purana called Bhagavata.62 57Although Raga Maravi is listed in Yakshagana SabhaZakshana for this song, nowadays it is usually sung in Raga Kalyani. Shri Hiriadka Gopala Rao, Shri Nilawara Ramakrishnayya, interview, Udipi, South Kanara, February 10, 1971. 58Yakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 15. 59Yakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 15. 60Although Raga Maravi is listed in Yakshagana Sabhalakshana for this song, it is usually sung in Raga Kalyani. Shri Hiriadka Gapala Rao, Shri Nilawara Ramakrishnayya, interview, Udipi, South Kanara, February 10, 1971. 6lYakshagana Sabhalakshana, pp. 15—16. 62Yakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 16. 298 Songs for Balagopalas' Dances Interspersed with Poetry in Praise of the Deities By the time this poem is finished the Balagopalas are near the entrance to the rangasthala. The curtain about six feet wide_and five feet high is held at each top corner by two stage—hands so that it hangs vertically about one foot above the ground at the entrance (left of the sangitagar). When the dancers come to the rangasthala all but the tops of their headdresses and their feet are concealed from the audience. Before each dancer makes his first entrance in a role, he pays-reapect to the tala, the maddale, and the bhagavata (or sangitagar). He touches the tala with his right hand and then places his hand over his heart, eye and/or forehead; then he touches the maddale and the feet of the bhagavata (or sangitagar) in the same way. He respects the audience by touching the ground with his right hand and in the same manner. The BalagOpalas, representing Lords Krishna and Balarama in their youth, quickly enter the stage from behind the curtain and dance to the following songs. RagaKalyani63 Eka Tala. Praise Ramana, Mukunda, Narayana, Keshawa, Madhawa, Krishna, Mukunda, Murare. During the poetry the dancers do not dance but stand on the stage. They dance only when there is raga and tala. 63Although Raga Maravi is listed in Yakshagana Sabhalakshana for this song, nowadays it is-usually sung in Raga Kalyani. Shri Hiriadka Gopala Rao, Shri Nilawara Ramakrishnayya, interview, Udipi, South Kanara, February 10, 1971. 64Yakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 16. Hey! Hey! Hey! Hey! Hey! Hey! 299 Shardulavikriditam Gopalaka! Odean of kindness. Lord of the Ocean's daughter (Lakshmi)! One who showered kindness on Gajendra! Madhawa! Hey! Ramanuja! Teacher of the three worlds! Lord of the Gopis, protect me.65 I am always meditating on your feet.. Raga Kedaragaula Eka Tala, Hari, Narayana, Govinda, Achyuta, Ananta, Govinda. One who has taken the form of a fish, Govinda, tortoise form, Govinda, boar form, Govinda. Narahari, Vamana, Govinda. One who has endless powers, Govinda, Parashurama, Govinda, son of Vasudeva, Govinda, Buddha, Kalki, Govinda.6 Shardulavikriditam Praise to Vighneshwara. You are the only sun to rid us of the darkness of obstacles. You are the obstacles. You are the fire to the forest of~ eagle to the serpents (obstacles). You are the lion to the elephants. You are the lightning to the great mountain of obstacles. You are Agasthya to the ocean of obstacles. You are the breeze to the clouds of obstacles. Vighneswara, the lord over all the obstacles, protect me. As the idol is brought from the chauka to behind the curtain, Balag0palas exit and go behind the curtain. Balagopalas dance before the idol unseen by the audience. Arati is waved as the The song to 652akshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 17. 66Yakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 17. 67Yakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 18. 300 which they dance and to which arati'is aned is the Gajamukha song, sung during the puja in the chauka. From behind the curtain, the Balagopalas enter the stage a second time and the trunk of the Ganapati idol68 is hung over the top of the curtain and revealed to the audience. The Balagopalas then dance to the following songs. Raga Natiég Eka Tala Please, all of you peOple, worship that virtuous great Gananatha of Madawura. God of gods! Ocean of kindness. You have a sacred history. You are all goodness. You have never been caught by Manmatha. Son of Girija, the great, think of him. Think of him who has cursed the moon, that beautiful elephant-faced god. Think of him. The one who has applied the sandal paste and kumkum on his body. One who protects his devotees like Indra. Think of him. He is the overlord of all the Gods and the munis. Lord who is worshipped by the Gods and the munis, help us to cross the river of life. One who grants all the desires, you are Paramatma (God). You are feared by the sins. The one of Madawura who removes obstacles, Think of him. 70 68Those troupes that do not have a large idol of Ganapati's head use the vira kase (male girdle) to represent the trunk of the god's head (see Chapter VIII on Make—up and Costumes). 69Although Raga Saurashtra is listed in Yakshagana Sabhalakshana for this song, it is usually sung in Raga Nati. Shri Hiriadka Gopala Rao, Shri Nilawara Ramakrishnayya, interview, Udipi, South Kanara, February 10, 1971. 70Yakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 18. _ .- ..- __ . .ski ' _.. I'm-fa- -:.--—.- '- . "“ ' " ' 7 ' .""‘ Raga Kalyani71 Eka Tala Elephant—faced One, now I am meditating on your feet. Grant me a boon. You have the rat as your vehicle. You have modaka (a sweet ball) in your hand. You have the rope, the elephant goad, and the lotus in your hand. You have the fan-like ears and a long sacred thread. You are pygmy in form, son of Maheshwara, grantor of wisdom, holding the book in your hands. You are called the one who grants requests. Salutations. Your feet are worshipped by the lotus-born Brahma. 72 Son of Gauri, leader of the Ganas. - The Balagopalas now dance to a series of drum bols known as.Kautuk.73 During the next song the idol is returned to the chauka as the Balagopalas dance for the last time during this performance. They salute the audience with their hands in a prayer position and return to the chauka. Raga Nati Ashta74 Tala Oh God! God! After all you are God! Elephant—faced One, who gives, who is worshipped in the three worlds. Grantor of boons to the good people. Reputed Ganapati. k 71Although Raga Kamachu is listed in Yakshagana Sabhalakshana for this song, nowadays it is usually sung in Raga Kalyani. Shri . ‘ Hiriadka Gopalo Rao, Shri Nilawara Ramakrishnayya, interview, Udlpl, South Kanara, February 10, 1971. 72Yakshagana Sabhalakshana , PP . l8-l9‘. 73These bols are found in Yakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 24. 74Although Raga Kamachu and Eka Tala are listed in Yakshagana Sabhalakshana for this song, nowadays the first part of the song is usually sung in Raga Nati Ashta Tala; the second part is-usually sung in Raga Bhairavi Ti Ti Ti rhythm. Shri Hiriadka G0pala Rao, Shri Nilawara RamakriShnayya, interview, Udipi, South Kanara, February 10, 1971. 302 Raga Bhairavi Ti Ti Tai~ Salutations, son of Shambo, Ganapati, the rat-vehicled one.75 Songs and Poetry in Praise of the Deities Bhashashloka (Sanskrit poetic metre) Ganapati has come to the stage. Brahma has seen him. Vinayaka starts dancing. Salutations to you who are dancing in spirit by twisting your trunk and moving your shoulders. 76 You are the king over obstacles. Bhamini (Kannada poetic metre) Please protect me Lord Subramanya, lord of the three worlds, who is staying on the mountain to kill the demon Taraka. On the seventh day after your birth you killed the great demon by cutting off his head. 77 You-have the peacock as your vehicle. Raga'Bhairavi78 Eka Tala Decorated with earrings and diamonds Swami Subbaraya, very playful God, Subbaraya of Kailasa, son of the ‘ mountain!s daughter (Parvati), killer of Taraka, Swami-Subbaraya. —————______________ 75Yakshagana SabhaZakshana, pp. 24-25. 76Yakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 25. 77Yakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 25. 78Although Raga Vrindavanais listed in Yakshagana Sabhalakshana for this song, nowadays it is usually-sung in Raga Bhairavi. Shri Hiriadka Gopala Rao, Shri Nilawara Ramakrishnayya, interview, Udipi, South Kanara, February 10, 1971. 303 You who have the beautiful peacock as your vehicle. 79 I will praise your actions forever. - Shloka I worship the lord of the universe who has matted locks made beautiful by the waves of the Ganga. You have your left side decorated by Gauri who is ever occupying that place. You are very affectionate to Narayana. You are the one who has destroyed the pride of Manmatha. 80 You are the lord of Varanasi. Raga Shankarabharana Eka Tala Salutations to Shiva, Shambo. Salutations to Shiva, Hara, Hara, Hara, Shambo, who is fond of dance, whose ! feet are worshipped by Agastya and Gautama. A You have destroyed Manmatha. You are known only to the intellect, Shambo. 81 Salutations to Shiva. ‘ Songs for the Striveshas' Dances 1 Now the mood changes as it is time to sing about the striveshas { (female characters). The words of the songs indicate that the two striveshas represent Rukmini and Satyabhama, two of Krishna's many wives. The first song signals the striveshas to come from the dressing room to the rangasthala. During the second song the striveshas are on their way from the chauka. They dance to the remaining songs. 79Yakshagana SabhaZakshana, p. 25. 8OYakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 26. leakshagana Sabhalakshana, pp. 26—27. 304 Raga Madhyamavati Eka Tala Chandabhama, Hey! Chandabhama! Moon—faced One! Listen! Hey! Chandabhama! Listen! Chandabhama! Moon-faced Chandabhama, one who is smeared with the sandal paste, listen. Wife of the Nandagopa's son! Hey! Bhama! Show your beautiful art [dancing]. Salute the lotus-eyed one [Krishna]. Hey! Lotus-eyed Bhama, salute Him. Salutations to Him. Raga Ghantarava83 Tripude Tala How can I bear the burning sensation caused by Manmatha? The cock is crowing. By good luck only I came across this fellow [Krishna]. Raga.Ghantarava Ashta Tala My mind is like the butter exposed to the sun. 84 The cock is crowing. There are a number of songs in Yakshagana Sabhalakshana to which the striveshas can dance, but usually the bhagavata chooses only three from the most popular songs that follow. Raga Nati Adi Tala One who is immersed in Radha's love, small Gopala, small Gopala, who is immersed in Radha's love, Handsome one who has unwrapped my sari while I was asleep. 82Yakshagana SabhaZakshana, p. 36. 83Although Raga Nilambari is listed in Yakshagana SabhaZakshana for this song, nowadays it is usually sung in Raga Bhairavi. It begins in Tripude Tala and later changes to Ashta Tala. Shri Hiriadka GOpala Rao, Shri Nilawara Ramakrishnayya, interview, South Kanara, February 10, 1971. 84Yakshagana Sabhagakshana, p. 36. 305 Even though he steals the sari, he doesn't leave, the adulterer. He is strong in passion. He has discovered my round breasts. Who is he? I think I know. One who is immersed in Radha's love, small GOpala, in all the world he plays just like Manmatha. He is the father of that delicate Manmatha. Raga Nati86 Adi Tala Please lotus-eyed lady, show him to me, quickly. I can't bear this Manmatha's fire of passion. I'll give you a pearl necklace. Show him to me [Varaha——the boar] who coming up from the water killed the proud demon; [Kurma-—the tortoise] who brought the earth up from the water; [Narasimha——lion—man] who came out from the pillar; [Vamana-—the dwarf] who asked for three steps of land; [Parashurama] who as born among the rishis; [Rama] who couldn't leave his wife; [Krishna] who was always enjoying women; show me the one [Kalki] who came riding on the horse.87 Raga Todi Adi Tala Enough! Enough! This is the fruit I beer for trusting you. I am pleased with your conduct. Just like the birds, having been charmed by the nim fruits [bitter] eat them up, I am also thinking of the one who is causing me trouble. I am thinking of you both day and night. If the serpent is fed with milk, will he not become more poisonous?88 85Yakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 38. 86Although Raga Vasanta is listed in Yakshagana SabhaZakshana for this song, nowadays it is usually sung in Raga Nati. Shri Hiriadka Gopala Rao, Shri Nilawara Ramakrishnayya, interview, Udipi, South Kanara, February 10, 1971. 87Yakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 37. 88Yakshagana Sabhalakshana, pp. 37—38. 306 Raga Bhairavi Adi Tala You are really a virtuous one. There is reason for me to be angry with you. Why do you hate me who is afraid of Manmatha? Show me your smiling face. Raga Kalyani Adi Tala I can't bear this mischief, he is a great. adulterer, mother. He is a butter thief, he is strong in magic, but at the same time very charming. When the ladies are going to fetch water, he blocks their way and calls them to come to him. With such small hands he will lift the! big mountains and secretly enjoy the eight ladies.90 Raga Nati Adi Tala Dear lady, please bring Manjunathaswami. I cannot leave him. Dear lady, there is no equal to him on this earth. He is like Bhima in strength. He is the one who-will fulfill our desire when we pray lovingly. He [Shiva] gave his body to one wife. Dear companion, and bore another [Ganga] on his head. Looking at one he acquired five faces [Shiva]. He is the one whose fiery eye destroyed another's husband. The one who deceived me, leaving me to the mercy of Manmatha, has not yet come. I remember him who used to hold the fruits that were shining inside the upper garment. 89 Yakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 38. 90Yakshagana SabhaZakshana, p. 38. 91A combination of Shiva and Vishnu. 92Yakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 39. 307 Raga Kalyani Rupaka Tala Hey! Lady servant! What am I to do? My dear lord has gone to another wife, to a place where they will enjoy each other. I am feeling lonely here. These are the fruits I reap for marrying him. What am I to do? Shall I make a house in the water and keep him there? Shall I put my burden on him. Or by some native root, shall I cure him of his cruel ways? Whom can I tell? Whom can I ask? Can I call him a beggar by nature? [He has gone to beg someone's love] Can I give up this jealousy and once again join him? Shall I ever talk to him again or shall I leave him forever? Tell me if he has any affection, he [Parashurama] who has killed his mother; [Rama] who has monkeys as his companions. ‘ What is the use of giving him advice? How am I to bear this? He is so much taken up with Bhama. He has permanently settled there. This great fellow has no shame. What am I to do? Shall I get him [Kalki] a horse to ride in the end? Raga Nati Adi Tala Beautiful lady, rich in her virtues, come and let us enjoy. I am suffering from passion, come. I'll embrace you affectionately. Come, come, come, come. Beautiful lady, I am thinking of you ever in my dreams. Don't break my heart. It's not prOper! It's not proper! Lla, lla, lla, wife! Beautiful lady, Guru Venkateshwara is the only protection. How can you forget him? Ta, ta, ta, ta, wife!94 93Yakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 39. 94Yakshagana SabhaZakshana, pp. 40—41. 308 Raga Kalyani Adi Tala When am I going to see the handsome Madhawa? Clever lady, I am asking you? I can't stay without seeing the lord of my life. That handsome fellow! When am I going to see him? Father of Manmatha, who has great powers, one who is fond of Gangadhara [Shiva], When am I going to see that handsome fellow? Our lord, driver to Partha, Vitthala, who is directing this cunning drama of95 the world, when am I going to see him? The next song is always the last song to which the striveshas dance during this part of the performance. Raga Kalyani96 Rupaka Tala Mother, I am bidding you goodbye. I am leaving for my home. I don't know my destiny. I came here in the hope of staying for ten days as I was suffering from my mother—in—law's nagging. But, can we erase what Brahma has written or what actions we did in the previous life? How can I disobey my husband, shamelessly listening to others? 97 He's always punishing me by abuses. The striveshas then salute the audience with their hands in a prayer position and exit. The Beginning of the Prasanga A series of drum bols known as prasangapithike are played which inform the performers and the audience that the story is about to begin. 95Yakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 41. 96Although Raga Kambhoje is listed in Yakshagana SabhaZakshana for this song, nowadays it is usually sung in Raga Saveri. Shri Hiriadka Gopala Rao, Shri Nilawara Ramakrishnayya, interview, February 10, 1971, 97Yakshagana Sabhalakshana, pp. 39—40. 309 When these bols are completed the drummers begin the bols for the oddolaga.(see Chapter VI on Dance). Following the main oddolaga the prasanga begins (see Chapter III on Elements of the Drama) and continues until dawn. After the Prasanga After the final song of the prasanga, the strivesha comes to the rangasthala to dance to the mangalam songs which follow.98 Raga Saveri99 Jhampe Tala‘ Mangalam! Victory! Mangalam! Lotus—petal—eyed lady of the enemy of Kama [Shiva's lady] who has a. beautiful body. Sharvani! Victory to you, virtuous lady, mistress of the whole world. One who has the radiance of crores of suns. Mangalam! Victory! Mangalam! Victory to you who is the loving wife of Shankara. Victory to the one who has made the lion her vehicle and who is called Mukamba. Victory to the mother of Shanmukha, who is born of water. 0 Raga Regupti Adi Tala The original God, charming God of the Yadava race, originated by all the Vedas, Venkateshwara of Tirupati, lover of the sound of the flute, \— 98If Lord Krishna is on—stage at this time, he performs the mangalam dance. 99Although Raga Kambhoje is listed in Yakshagana Sabhalakshana for this song, nowadays it is usually sung in Raga Saveri. Shri Hiriadka Gopala Rao, Shri Nilawara Ramakrishnayya, interview, Udipi, South Kanara, February 10, 1971. lOOYakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 65. 310 I salute! I salute! Salutations to you, Narayana, salutations! You are worshipped byIshvara.and Narada.lOl The strivesha continues the dance to the sounds of the drum and then completes the dance with a concluding step. After the mangalam songs, the bhagavata says: ”Ah! ho! ho!"; the strivesha answers: "Ah! ho! ho!" The bhagavata tells the name of the troupe's village and the troupe's deity. The strivesha then. tells the name of the deity of the patron, gives the name of the patron, and says that what the devotees have offered [the performance] has been accepted by the deity and the prasadam has been granted. ”We have it. We have it," the strivesha says, referring to the prasadam.102 The bhagavata now chants a shloka in honor of God Vishnu and includes the name of the troupe's deity. Shloka Mangalam Bhagavan Vishnu, Victory to you, Madhusudana, son of Devaki, Vishnu, who has the eagle on his flag, Krishna, Vasudeva, son of Devaki, Nandagopa, [troupe's deity's name], Govinda.103 When the shloka is finished, the strivesha pays respect to the maddale, tala and chande by touching them with his right hand, and to the bhagavata and maddalegar by touching their feet with his right hand. Then the bhagavata, drummers, the strivesha, and the stage—hands carry— On the way the bhagavata ing the two oilrlamps, return to the chauka. sings about young Krishna and his brother Balarama. lOIYakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 65. lozYakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 65. 103Yakshagana Sabhalakshana, p. 66. 311 Raga Janjoti Rupaka Tala Rama and Krishna have come home. Open the door! It is like the heavenly cow coming home. Let us be happy. In the chauka the final worship of Lord Ganapati is performed; the flaming oil-lamp is waved before the idol as the bhagavata and the drummers perform a song in praise of Ganapati, and then Durga. Raga Mohana Ashta Tala Mangalam! Mangalam! One who has held the axe, the rope, and the elephant goad. Victory to One who protects the devotees, the son of one who has decorated himself with the serpent. Victory to the killer of Mahishasura, to one who has worn the armlet. Mangalam! Victory! Mangalam! Govinda! The performers then shout together: "Govinda," which means that. the performance is finished. The patron pays the manager for the performance; the troupe and the staff pack the costumes and equipment in straw baskets. With the basket containing the Ganapati idol carried in the lead, the staff and troupe walk to the place of the next performance. 104Yakshagana SabhaZakshana, p. 66. lOSYakshagana Babhalakshana, p. 66. CHAPTER IX CONCLUSIONS After the completion of this study it is now feasible to draw some conclusions, make some Speculations and suggest areas for further study. General Conclusions One conclusion is that Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata offers the Western theatre scholar different concepts in musical-play composition, in ways of performing music, in staging, in situations within a plot to interpolate dance, in choreography and dance-steps, and in costumes and make-up. These techniques might be used in Western experimental theatre. For example, a children's theatre might propose a production based on American and/or American Indian folk—lore in which they might introduce each major character through dance. For another example, segments of Western history could be written in the form of the Yakshagana prasanga and impromptu dialogue could be developed by the actors based on the content of the prasanga and their own background knowledge. This might appeal to educational television programmers. Or the construction of the kedage mundale and various mundasus (see Chapter VII on Make—up and Costumes) might be inspirational to costumers desiring to create fantastic headgear. 312 313 The content of the epics and legends are still very much a part! of the people's daily life: framed poster paintings of gods and heroes hang on the walls of homes; these gods and heroes are inspiration for vessel and fabric designs; and in the daily puja songs are sung in praise of these powerful personalities. In daily conversation people refer to current issues in relatiou to some incident that occurred in these ancient Hindu writings. Scenes from these stories are depicted in temple wall paintings and sculptures and on the carved wooden temple. festival chariots- Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata plays its part in further instilling the Hindu ideals by making the characters of these stories come alive 'for the pleasure of god and for the instruction and entertainment of the audience. Paintings of Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata characters can also be found on the walls of homes and temples and on the temple festival chariots and often while around the house or walking down the street people can be heard singing or humming melodies from Yakshagana performances. Knowledge of this dance—drama and the ideas that can be gained from it by the West in terms of theatrical techniques leads to the conclusion that such an art form should be preserved for the enjoyment and education. of its local audiences as well as for foreigners who wish to study its theatrical techniques and through its drama learn more about the culture it represents. Speculations To state the impact of the dance—drama on its audience was not the purpose of this study, but the following few observations are offered as a basis for speculation. The dance—drama.is still a highly religious 314 observance; the visitors, the patrons and the audience still partici— pate in the preliminary and concluding worship and this suggests that the artists consider the performance a sacred task. The content of the drama strongly suggests that most audience members attend the performance for some sort of religious experience. Another reason for each person's attendance is to be entertained, especially in the small villages where there is no other form of entertainment such as the cinema. There are a few devotees of the art for the sake of its aesthetic qualities, that is, the style and rhythms of its music and dance, the color combina— tion and design of its costumes and make-up and the creativity of the actors in their dialogue. Suggestions for Further Research There is another form of Yakshagana in South Kanara known as Thenkutittu and still other forms in other parts of India. A study of other forms and a comparison of them is an area for research. The search for materials for this study revealed areas in which little or no information was available, thus suggesting the potential for further study. The available history of the dance—drama is intriguing and if fully known might give us new insights into the purposes of meanings of the dance—drama. The difficulty of such a study is that it demands a proficiency in reading both Old Kannada and palm-leaf Kannada script and obtaining the permission of countless citizens to peruse their manuscript collections. However, Karanth, who has examined some of this material, has found very few facts. A second area of exploration is the history of the individual troupes, both extant and extinct. This would also require a working 315 knowledge of Old Kannada, and in addition, a knowledge of Sanskrit and the permission to search the records and manuscripts of all temples in the area where Yakshagana has been or is still being performed. The third area for research is that of ragas that have been and that are now being performed in Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata and a comparison of Yakshagana style of music with other styles of Indian. music. In the past Karanth has done work in this area and at present is continuing this study. Perhaps a formal survey of the audience members' individual reasons for attending a performance, their thoughts about the dance—drama as an art form and their opinions of individual performances and performers would reveal valuable sociological information. Another interesting area would be a study of the genealogy of families from which many of the Yakshagana performers come; such a study might add to the information on the dance-drama and the history of individual troupes. B IBL IOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Basham, A. L. The wonder That Was India. New York: Grove Press, 1959. Bhatt, M. M., ed. Kittel’s Kannada-English Dictionary, Vol. I. Mangalore, South Kanara, Mysore State, India: University of Madras (Mangalore Press), 1968. Bhatt, M. M., ed. Kittel’s Kannada-English Dictionary, Vol. III. Mangalore, India: University of Madras, 1970. Butcher, J., ed. A Kannada-English Dictionary. Mangalore: Kanarese Mission Press and Book Depot, 1923. De, Sishil Kumar. Aspects of‘Sanskrit Literature. Calcutta: Firma K. L. MukhOpadhyay, 1959. Diwakar, R. R., ed. Karnataka Through the Ages. Bangalore: Government of Mysore, 1968. Ghosh, Manomohan, trans. The Natyasastra. Rev. 2nd ed. Calcutta: Granthalaya Private Limited, 1967. Goswami, O. The Story of Indian Music. Calcutta: Asia Publishing House, 1961. Kale, P. K. The Natyasastra of Bharata: A Selective Critical Emposi— tion for the Western Theatre Scholar. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1969. Karanth, K. S. Yakshagana Bayalata. Puttur, South Kanara, Mysore State, India: Harsha Press, 1957 and a revised edition, 1963. Prajnanananda. Historical Development of Indian Music. Calcutta: Firma K. L. Mukhopadhgay, 1960. Rati Kalyana. Moodabidri, South Kanara: Vivekanand Press, October 13, 1967. Sambamoorthy, P. south Indian Music, 3rd ed. Book IV. Madras: Indian Music Publishing House, 1963. Seiger, Elizabeth. The Five Brothers: An Adaptation of the Mahabharata. New York: John Day Co., 1948. 316 317 Udipi: An Introduction. Udipi, South Kanara, Mysore State, India: Shri Krishnapur Mutt, August, 1957. Winternitz, Maurice. A History of Indian Literature. I, Part 2. Calcutta: University of Calcutta, 1935. Yakshagana Sabhalakshana and Prasangapithike. Udipi: Pavanje Guruvav and Sons, 1968—69. Articles Bhatt, M. M. "Yakshagana—Stage in Karnataka," Institute of Traditional Cultures Bulletin, part 2 (1963?), 235-237. Chaudbury, Pravas Jivan. "Catharsis in_the Light of Indian Aesthetics,” Journal of‘Aesthetics and Art Criticism, XXIV (Fall, 1965), 151—163. Fox—Strangways, A. H. "The Gandhara Grama,” The Journal of the Asiatic Society of‘Great Britain and Ireland, I (1935), 692—695. Karanth, K. Shivarama. ”Dance Rituals of South Kanara," Journal of the Mythical Society [Bangalore, India], XLVIII (1957—1958), 88—89. I Karanth, K. S. "The Dance of South Kanara," Asia, XL (February, 1940), 77—79. Karanth, K. S. ”Yakshagana," Marg, IXI, No. 2 (March, 1966), 18—29. Karanth, K. S. “Yakshagana: A Musical Dance Drama," Sangeet Natak Akademi,No. 10 (October, 1959), 11-17. Other Sources Personal interview with Puttur Leela Bhat, Lecturer in Kannada, Mahatma Gandhi Memorial College, Udipi, South Kanara, India, November, 1970. . Personal interview with A. J. Mojumdar, Acting Head, Department of Indian Studies, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia, June 24, 1971. Personal interview with K. S. Karanth, Kota, South Kanara, India, March 24, 1971. . Personal interview with Tanjore Ranganathan, Visiting South Indian musician, California Institute of the Arts, Ventura, California, December 13, 1971. Personal interview with Hiriadka Gopala Rao and Nilawara Ramakrishnayya, Yakshagana musicians, Udipi, India, February 10, 1971. 318 . Personal interview with Hiriadka Gopala Rao, Udipi, February 14, 1971. . Personal interview with B. Virabhadra Nayak, Yakshagana artist, Udipi, January 10, 1971. . Personal interview with Nilawara Subbanna Shetty, Yakshagana artist, Nilawara, South Kanara, March 17, 1971. . Personal interview with H. Subbanna Bhat and B. V. Achar, Brahmavara, South Kanara, March 17, 1971. . Personal interview with Hiriadka Gopala Rao, Udipi, February 17, 1971. . Personal interview with K. K. Hebbar, artist, Bombay, India, April 9, 1971. Letter from B. V. Achar, Professor, Mahatma Gandhi Memorial College, Udipi, May 2, 1972. . Letter and drawing from B. Virabhadra Nayak, Udipi, September 13, 1971. Letter from K. S. Karanth, Puttur, October 10, 1971. . Letter from Hiriadka Gopala Rao, Hiriadka, South Kanara, September 26, 1971. . Letter from Puttur Leela Bhat, Udipi, December 20, 1971. 319 Color slides of some Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalata character types and of some performances and a tape recording of the music are available at the Department of Theatre, Michigan State University. APPENDIX COMPETITION YAKSHAGANA A feature of Yakshagana with a parallel in few other theatre forms is Competition Yakshagana: a performance contest between two or three troupes, in which they perform simultaneously, on.an appropriate number of rangasthalas, the same prasangas. The term by which one refers to competition Yakshagana depends on the number of troupes participating. If there are two troupes, it is called jodata; if there are three troupes, it is called murata. The purpose of the competition is to entertain the public, papularize the art form, make money for the troupesl and satisfy the natural com- petitive spirit of the Yakshagana artists. Prizes are not awarded to individual artists but the profits are divided equally amongst the participating troupes after deducting exPenses. The troupe managers and the trustees of the temples to which the troupes are attached organize the function and arrange the place. The competition is advertized by word of mouth but often—times paper flyers are also distributed in the area prior to the event. lCompetition Yakshagana is performed by bayalata troupes only. 320 J J i _, 321 Two-Troupe Competition (Jodata) I have seen the following arrangement for the staging of jodata. The two stage areas each about 15 by 20 feet were about 10 feet apart. The entrances and exits were from each end. The-performance area was demarcated by bamboo poles sunk into the ground, decorated with mango‘ leaves and with straw matting as a roof. On two sides of.the stage, poles were tied to the corner poles such that they-were horizontal and about a foot from the ground. The temple trustees and troupe managers sat.in the 10 by 20 feet area between the two rangasthalas. The spec— tators sat in chairs on one side only and paid five rupees, three rupees, two rupees, or one rupee admission fee depending on how close they were to_the performance area (Figures 1 and 2). This performance? took place within the compound of a school, and classrooms were used as the dressing rooms. Where there is no compound, the entire area would be closed off by canvas walls. ThreerTroupe.Competition (Murata) For murata, the setting was in a terraced paddy field with the performance area on an upper level and the audience seated in chairs on a lower level. The stages were in a semi—circular pattern, each rangasthala.was about 15 by 20 feet with a 10 by 20 foot area on either side of the middle stage. The entrances and exits were from the back. The rangasthala surrounds were made of young thin bamboo poles sunk into the ground, one pole at each corner of each stage, with the four teps tied together over the center of each stage area. These poles were decorated with mango leaves. The dressing rooms, just 15 or 20 feet beyond the zJodata competition between Mandarthi and Maranakatte Troupes in Kundapura, South Kanara, April 11, 1970. 322 Maddal Exit Audience Figure 1. Staging for jodata 323 Figure 2. Staging for jodata —_m—WI . , :-..-'-~.' *1 19.-me 324 stage areas, were made of canvas wall with a straw mat floor. The three dressing rooms adjoined each other. The audience was seated in front. The entire area, stages, dressing rooms, and audience, was enclosed by canvas walls (Figures 3 and 4).3 The audience paid the same admission prices as for the jodata. The same amenities available for bayalata shows are also available for the competition shows. The Competition Around 7:30 p.m. the drums play the invitation, and as for a normal performance, each troupe simultaneously performs the preliminaries, that is, the bhagavatas sing the preliminaries, while the kodangis, the- Balagopalas, and the striveshas, perform their dances. A During the competition three stories are usually performed,4 and there is a time limit for each story. The first story generally begins at 9:30 p.m. and must end around 12:30 a.m., the second story begins immediately and plays until 4:00 a.m., when the third story begins and is finished at 6:30 a.m. At this time the troupes perform the mangalam dance and each goes to his own dressing room to participate in the final rituals. Beforehand the temple trustees and troupe managers will have decided these time limits, and also those parts of the prasangas to be omitted. The performers will have been familiarized with the 3Murata competition amongst Kamalashile, Mandarthi, and Maranakatte Troupes in the village of Kambadakorne (near Kundapura), South Kanara, January 26, 1971. 4Prasangas presented in jodata I have seen were presented in this order: Babhruwahana Kalaga, Vidhyunmati Kalyana, and Karnarguna Kalaga. Prasangas presented in the murata I have seen were presented in this order: Viramani Kalaga, Babhruwahana Kalaga, and Rati Kalyana. KHOZWMLTJ :3): 325 DI essing rooms exit entrance bhagavata maddalega Chandegar trustees managers Figure 3. Ex M B En T C T and and M M Audience Staging for murata 326 Figure 4. Staging for murata 327 edited version before the performance begins. With the expiration of the time allotted for each prasanga, one of the trustees will beat a gong. At this time the bhagavatas must stop at whatever point in the- story their respective troupes have reached, and immediately begin,the next story. The troupes watch each other closely and try to keep their performances at the same point throughout the prasanga. Each troupe's actors compete to see who can change costumes and make—up more quickly, yet be accurate,5 and then be first to reach the stage. If a certain character of one troupe makes his entrance, and his counterpart in the other troupe(s) has not yet made his entrance, someone either calls loudly for that character or someone runs to the dressing room to get him, regardless of his stage of dress. The clowns poke fun at the performers of the other troupes, and will do so especially when a character is late on—stage, compared to his counterpart from another troupe. The competition, however, is mainly in the dance. A dancer from one troupe will challenge his counterpart in the other troupe(s) by jumping into the air, raising his index finger, shreiking, and then. beginning the dance. The counterpart will accept the challenge and begin the same dance. This dance, or even one particular step will.be repeated numerous times. Such a contest can conclude in one of two ways. A dancer will reach the point of exhaustion and stop dancing,6 5 I have seen performers who would not ordinarily wear the complete vesha for the demoness, do so in competition, for fear that the other demoness would out—do him. 6 I have never seen a dancer concede defeat in this way in a contest. 328 or if neither dancer concedes, when the temple trustees think that the dancers have sufficiently demonstrated their artistry and endurance, one will beat the gong and the dancers will complete this particular dance.7 The most popular dance steps for challenge are those that involve jumping, twirling in the air, and twirling on the knees on the ground. If a very young dancer challenges an elderly veteran to do any of these steps, a trustee will immediately beat the gong. Often-times it is difficult for the older members to do the knee—dance or to jump vigorously into the air,.whereas other steps they can execute more gracefully and more perfectly than the younger performers. If middle—aged veterans challenge younger performers or vice versa the veteran can often "out— dance" the younger ones. Elderly veterans who are well versed in the tricks of competition will stand at the side—lines and will often coach the younger members of their troupe in both dialogue and dance. The bhagavata, however, has little competition and his voice is lost amongst the sounds of the drums, the shreiking of the challenging dancers, and the excited coaching from the side—lines. The duty of the bhagavata is to see that the story moves along. Most of the quieter parts of the story are excluded from competition so there is little chance for the bhagavata to show his abilities. There is no doubt that this type of performance is fun for the audience and for the performers. It is a time when the performers can show their skills in direct comparison with other performers of the same 7Sometimes the trustees will save face for an elderly dancer by ringing the gong when it is apparent that he is approaching the point of exhaustion. 329 roles; it allows for uninhibited exhibitionism and flambouyance; it is popular with performers, entrepreneurs, and the audience and provides an additional source of income for the troupes.‘ . LIBRQR ES mu 1 9906