3 1293 10636 9568 F“ .- war-Ms ——" ——-‘ din—w»a lllllllllllllllllllllillilllh|H|||||H0||ll5|ll1llllllllll L fine/If” C131,”. iruuwui—J;:1 “Lifii; Univ: r3127 This is to certify that the dissertation entitled The Career Preparation of College Presidents and Chief Academic Officers of Midwestern Colleges presented by Harold Duane Arman has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degree in Educational. Administration Major professor Date 7////f[9 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0- 12771 LASLJ LIBRARIES .—_. RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. be charged if book is FINES will returned after the date stamped below“. 5 ’(1(16 ”I. 181%» m 33 WNW 9' 65 K132 "Ls “’9 33 :99: .5324'W8 5‘ P3 mré K 1? 0 26kg 3g CAREER PREPARATION OF COLLEGE PRESIDENTS AND CHIEF ACADEMIC OFFICERS IN MIDWESTERN COLLEGES By Harold Duane Arman A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Educational Administration 1986 Copyright by HAROLD DUANE ARMAN 1986 ABSTRACT CAREER PREPARATION OF COLLEGE PRESIDENTS AND CHIEF ACADEMIC OFFICERS IN MIDwESTERN COLLEGES By Harold Duane Arman This study was designed to determine the demographic character— istics. career paths. amount and variety of academic preparation. and suggestions for improved academic preparation of presidents and chief academic officers. Questionnaires were sent to all college presidents and chief academic officers in public. private. and community colleges in Michigan. Ohio. and Illinois (excluding the very smallest colleges and very largest universities and their branches). Almost 70% com- pleted questionnaires. The demographic picture of college administrators suggested in the literature as males. 50 years of age. was found to be accurate. In addition. administrators were overwhelmingly found to be white. In previous studies community college presidents were reported to have earned the doctorate in smaller proportions than other college presidents. This study determined that the gap between them and four- year presidents was much smaller than previously reported. More four- year college presidents were found to have the doctorate in education than expected. Harold Duane Arman More than half of college administrators began their careers as college teachers. Among community college presidents it was as common for them to have started their careers in administrative work and progressed upward without every having taught. as starting with teaching. Promotion of presidents from within was much less common than hiring a person in from another college. Their previous institutions were similar to their new college. While preparation in educational administration was not the usual course of study. almost 60% of college administrators had taken at least one education course. Those who had taken courses in educa- tion generally found them to be helpful. A wide variety of suggestions were offered on how people should prepare themselves for college presidencies in the future. Most fre- quently mentioned was a balance between management skills and educa- tional theory. An appendix contains all of the suggestions on a curriculum in higher education administration. To my wife. Sally Hopkins Arman. my daughter. Beth. and my son. David. for understanding the many times when articles needed to be read. chapters needed to be written. and data needed to be coded. Itfls finally done! ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The conventions of academe dictate that the name of only one person appear as author of a dissertation. There were many others. however. who made significant contributions to this project and should share in the public credit for its accomplishment. At Michigan State University. Dr. Howard Hickey. my major professor and advisor on this paper. has been a constant source of encouragement and assistance. At every step in this long process. he has been an inspiration to complete the study. Drs. Richard Gardner and Ben Bohnhorst have been very valuablelnembers.of my committee who have made themselves accessible. offered good suggestions. and were eager to help. Dr. Richard Featherstone was a very supportive and helpful member of the committee until illness prevented him from continuing. [Ma Louis Hekhuis was kind enough to serve on the committee in the final stages when the prospect of enjoying the summer must have been more attractive than reading another graduate paper. My employer during all of my graduate work. Delta College. provided a supportive environment in which this work could get done. In particular. Don Carlyon. President of the College. has been a source of encouragement and has been willing to let me adjust my work schedule to conduct research at Michigan State or meet with my advisors. Gene Packwood. Director of Research and Development at Delta. was very generous with his time and expertise in guiding me through the laby- rinths of survey design. statistics. and data processing. When he was asked for a little help two years ago. Ihn sure he had no idea he was signing on to respond to dozens of questions. In that same office. Jeanne Laverty was very helpful in explaining the computer software at Delta used in the data analysis. and in getting the computer to do all of the things it said in the instructional manual it was supposed to do; Cindy Atwood generously entered the data into the computer and was very helpful in designing procedures to insure that the data were accurate and well organized. The staff of the Delta College Library have provided unlimited access to the services they provide. as well as creating a quiet. isolated place for me to work on writing the paper. My other colleagues at Delta have been very understanding of my inability over the last two years to talk about other things. Each of these people has been so kind and generous to me that I want to publicly acknowledge my deep gratitude and appreciation for their help and friendship. while not implicating them in any errors in the final version. They deserve most of the credit for any merit this paper may have. However. I accept responsibility for any shortcomings that remain. TABLE OF CONTENTS L IST OF TABLES O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O 0 0 Chapter I. INT-ROWCTION To WE stY I O O O O O O O O O The Problem . . . . . . . . . . Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . Importance . . . . . . . . . . General Uses and Limitations . Definition of Terms . . . . . . Hypotheses of the Study . . . . Organization of the Study . . . II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . Historical Origins of Higher Education Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Beginning Training for College Administration Other Views on the Preparation of College Administrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Differences in Preparation Between College Of and Types of Colleges . . . . . . . . . . Four-Year College Presidents . . . . . . . Community and Junior College Presidents . Chief Academic Officers . . . . . . . . . Questions Concerning the Presidential Career The Value of College Programs in Educational Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III. METHODmmY O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Research Methodology of the Study Research Population . . . . . Hypotheses of the Study . . . Mailing Lists . . . . . . . . Distribution of Questionnaires Design of the Questionnaire . Confidentiality of Responses . Processing of the Data . . . . ficials Ladder Page viii —J ddh§wW—I Page Stat1 Sti CS 0 O O O O O I O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O 0 SS Classification of Majors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S7 sumary O O O O O O O O C O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 58 IV. RESULTS OF THE DATA ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Results of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Gender of Administrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Age of Administrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Demographic Summary . . . . . . . 65 Academic Preparation of College Administrators . . . 66 Academic Majors of Midwestern College Adminis- trators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Previous Employment in Similar Colleges . . . . 74 Summary of Findings Concerning Demographic Patterns of College Administrators . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Starting Points of Administrative Careers . . . . . . 78 Career Paths of College Administrators . . . . . . . 82 Summary of Findings Concerning Career Paths of College Administrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Career Preparation for College Administrators . . . . 92 Suggested Preparation of College Administrators . . . 98 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lOZ V. SUMMARY. CONCLUSIONS. AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE AND FOR FURTHER RESEARCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lOS Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lO7 Implications for Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lll Implications for Further Research . . . . . . . . . . ll4 APPENDICES O O O I O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O C O O O O O O O O O 118 A. COLLEGES IN THE MIDWEST INITIALLY CONTACTED IN THIS stY O C O O I O O O O O I O C C O O O O C O O O O O O 119 Be RESPONSES To OWN-ENDED QUESTIONS 0 o o o o o o o o o o 125 C. QUESTIONNAIRES SENT TO COLLEGE ADMINISTRATORS . . . . . 172 D. LETTERS SENT TO COLLEGE ADMINISTRATORS . . . . . . . . . 179 vi Page E. PERMISSION LETTER FROM UNIVERSITY COMMITTEE ON RESEARCH INVOLVING HUMAN SUBJECTS .. .. .. .. .. . 183 F. mDIm MANUAL 0 O O O O C O O O O I O O O I O O O O O O 185 BIBLImRAH-{Y O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O 195 Table l0. ll. l2. l3. l4. l5. l6. LIST OF TABLES Response Rate to Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Response Rate for College Administrators. by Type of “11696 O O O I O O I I O O O O O O O O I O O O O O 0 Gender of Midwestern College Administrators . . . . . . Gender of Midwestern College Administrators. by Job . . Gender of Midwestern College Administrators. by Type of C011ege O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Age of Midwestern College Administrators . . . . . . . Age of Midwestern College Administrators. by Job . . . Age of Midwestern College Administrators. by Type of 0011696 0 O O O O O O O O O O O I O O I I O I O O O 0 Race of Midwestern College Administrators . . . . . . . College Administrators Who Hold Doctoral Degrees. by Jab O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O I O O 0 College Administrators Who Hold the Doctorate. by Type Of CO] 1 age 0 O O O O O O O O I O O O I O O O O O I 0 Do College Presidents Hold the Doctorate? . . . . . . . Leading Doctoral-Degree—Granting Institutions of Presidents and Chief Academic Officers in Midwestern Colleges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Doctoral Degree Areas of Community College Administrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Doctoral Degree Areas of Private College Administrators Doctoral Degree Areas of Public College Administrators . . viii Page 52 52 6O 6l 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 7l 7l 72 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. How Respondents Had Been Employed Before Current Job . . Similarity of Current Institution to Previous Institu- tions of Respondents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hypotheses and Conclusions of Section 1 . . . . . . . . First Full-Time Job in Higher Education of College Adm1n1 Strators O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 First Full-Time Job of College Administrators in Higher Education) by Type Of 0011696 0 o e o o o o o o o o 0 Teaching Activity in Previous Year of College Adminis- trators, by Type Of 0011698 0 o o o o e o o o o o o 0 Career Models of College Administrators . . . . . . . . Career Models of College Presidents. by Types of 00116965 0 O O O O O O O I O I O O O O O O O O I O O 0 Career Models of Chief Academic Officers. by Types Of CO11696$ I O I O O O O O I O O O O O I O O O O O O Hypotheses and Conclusions of Section 2 . . . . . . . . Number of Courses Taken in Higher Education Adminis- trati on O O O I O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Value of Higher Education Administration Courses to CO] 1696 AMI "I Strators O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I 0 Confidence in Preparation for Job of College Adminis- trators. by Types of Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . Importance of the Doctorate to College Administrators . Hypotheses and Conclusions of Section 3 . . . . . . . . ix Page 75 75 79 80 80 82 87 88 91 93 94 104 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY Ihe_E£th§m It has been traditional in academe to accept the view that the only proper way to prepare people for college administrative work was for them to excel as a faculty member until such time as a sage dean or department chairperson took notice and gave them an assignment or appointment that started them down the road to greater administrative responsibility. ‘This view suggests that no formal preparation or training is required to fulfill administrative responsibilities that might be given to a faculty member. 'There has been. in years past. a fair amount of truth to the old saw that the essential qualification for a college administrative position was to find a faculty member who answered his/her mail. This process of recruitment into college administration. depending as it did on an "old boy" network for identification of promising candidates. resulted in poorly defined career paths. an assumption that college administrative work had no logical preparation except teaching. and the absence of administrators specifically trained for the duties of their position. Evidence is now appearing in the research literature that this serendipitous route to college administration is slowly changing. (See Chapter II for a review of this literature.) Several factors appear to be causing a change in the type of preparation of college administrators. First. the effect of affirma- tive action and fair employment laws and administrative rules has reached the campus and forced colleges and universities to spell out qualifications for applicants seeking to fill vacant administrative positions. and the qualifications must bear reasonable relation to the job to be done. Second. the increase in the number of graduates of university programs designed specifically to prepare graduates for employment in higher education administration has resulted in the creation of a pool of people who possess credentials that appear to confirm that they are able to handle administrative work in higher education. It is not clear whether the development of university programs in higher education administration is a cause or an effect of other factors noted here; however. the result of such programs has been an expanded pool of credentialed administrators. Third. the growing number of internships and fellowships that provide intensive training for prospective administrators has opened up opportunities for adminis- trative preparation for the college employee. faculty or administrator. unable to take an extended leave from regular duties as might be necessary in a degree program in administration. Finally. the large number of community colleges created in the last 20 years has opened numerous job opportunities for qualified applicants outside of the traditional environment and processes of established institutions. As these factors suggest. there are powerful forces at work to alter the traditional methods of selecting and promoting college admin- istrators. At this point it is not possible to provide accurate data on the extent to which these changes have affected different types of colleges and different positions within colleges. or how well adminis- trators who have received training feel it has prepared them for their work. Human The purpose of this study was to investigate the academic and experiential backgrounds of college presidents and chief academic officers in public and private colleges in Michigan. Ohio. and Illinois. The primary focus of the study was the credentials these officials possessed at the time of appointment. the extent to which they participated in formal or informal training programs in prepara- tion for their current duties. the value of that preparation as they perceived it. and their suggestions for improvements for others con- sidering preparation for similar types of jobs in the future. Immense Students preparing for careers in college administration need reliable data on the kinds of preparation most beneficial to practicing administrators to assist them in selecting programs. majors. or individual courses. University faculty responsible for organizing and teaching in programs to prepare students for college administrative work need feedback from current college administrators to insure that collegiate programs are pertinent and timely. Administrators currently in the field need data on the directions the field is going as they consider how to upgrade themselves for promotion or job changes in the future. In short. improved data and understanding will be helpful to all who are interested in college administration as a career. Wham A shortage of timely information exists on the previous back- grounds of college administrators and the value to them of the training they received in preparation for entry into their jobs (if. in fact. they received any specific training). The literature contains few reports of systematic research on these subjects; therefore. the com- pletion of a study such as this will help to fill a void. The lit- erature is reported in Chapter II. The collection of data from a group of respondents provides a snapshot of reality as perceived by respondents at a particular time. It is difficult to determine those elements of the data that are changing because of the absence of comparable data from other periods. In addition. this researcher. like most others. was not able to contact all college administrators in the research universe to determine if. in total. the responses of those who failed to respond precisely coin- cide with those people who did respond to the survey. W The following terms are used frequently in the pages that follow. An effort has been made in the paper to use the terms consistently as defined below. The first few terms attempt to cate— gorize types of collegiate institutions. 'The system employed in this paper draws heavily on the work of the Carnegie Commission on Higher Education. which developed a system to help researchers classify and better understand the wide range of collegiate institutions in the United States. One of the first publications from the Commission was a technical report (Carnegie Commission. 1973). which placed virtually all United States colleges and universities in operation at that time into one of nine categories based on their principal mission and related factors. All universities fitting into Carnegie categories "Research I and II" were omitted from this study because it was felt that their national character and the anticipated national-applicant pool for vacancies in those institutions would be inconsistent with the focus of this study on theunidwestern pool of higher education adminis- trators. Euhllc_cglleges. The term "public colleges" is used in this paper to describe colleges in Michigan. Ohio. and Illinois that fall into Carnegie categories "Doctoral Granting Universities I and II" and "Comprehensive Colleges and Universities I and 11;" These categories omit private colleges or branch campuses of larger universities. E£1181§_9911§g§§. The term "private colleges" is used through- out the paper to identify those colleges in Michigan. Illinois. and Ohio that fit into Carnegie categories "Liberal Arts Colleges I and IL! No college is included in the final listing that had fewer than 500 students. as reported in the 1985_H1gher_Educa119n_D1Lectgny. The reason for this cutoff was the concern that the administrative staffs of such colleges might be so small as to have combined duties and titles that would make it difficult to assign them properly to one of the two groups of respondents in this study. .Cgmmgflity_ggllege. The term used to identify Carnegie category 'Public 2-Year Colleges and Institutes." Omitted from this listing are technical colleges. private junior colleges. business and trade schools. and branch campuses of state universities. Appendix A con- tains a list of all of the institutions initially contacted in the study. arranged in the three categories listed here. M}. The chief executive officer of a community college. private college. or public college in Michigan. Ohio. or Illinois. Heads of branch campuses were not included in this study. .Chiej_a§adem1§_gjiiger. 'The senior administrative official responsible for the direction of the academic program of the institu- tions surveyed in Michigan. Ohio. or Illinois. regardless of title. Designation of the specific individual with these responsibilities was done by the individual institutions in response to a request for infor- mation to be included in the 1285_fl1gher_§dgga119n_21negtgny. Warm. An earned doctoral degree in the fields of education. educational administration. higher education administration. or public administration. This category would include such degrees as Ph.D.. Ed.D.. D.A.. and D.P.A. ‘Eres1den11a1_ganeer_1adgen_mgdel. A perception of the career path most commonly followed by college administrators (Cohen 8. March. 19740. The model assumes formal academic preparation in one of the academic disciplines. but not the study of college administration. followed by full-time faculty experience. Following a period of teaching and research. career progression would include service as a department or division chair. dean or provost. and ultimately a college or university presidency. Egg::year_gglleges. The private and public colleges in Michigan. Illinois. and Ohio included in this study. anceptna1_§lgnijigange. A finding that research data are arrayed in a manner consistent with a written hypothesis. when those data are obtained from the entire research universe rather than a sample. This concept is explained in more detail in Chapter III. Administratgns. The presidents and chief academic officers of colleges in Michigan. Ohio. and Illinois who were contacted in this study. Emmi-Lam The literature offers several interesting descriptions of the personal and experiential characteristics of college administrators. One purpose of this study was to determine if the data from respondents are consistent with those descriptions. Such a comparison is particu- larly needed because many elements of the descriptions were based on articles written some time ago and/or studies prepared with less than rigorous methodology. Included in the demographic descriptions of college officials that were tested in this study were questions designed to determine if current college administrators are the product of an "old boy" network. at least insofar as their sex and age are concerned. Assumptions about the differences in formal preparation between community college and four-year college administrators were also examined by determining if there were differences in their level of attainment of the doctoral degree and the areas in which they obtained their degrees. Finally. conclusions about the road to the presidency involving movement from one college to another were examined. These subjects of inquiry were based on a review of the literature that is reported in Chapter II. along with appropriate bibliographic citations. The hypotheses devel- oped to investigate these areas follow: 1. Males will constitute at least 85% of all college adminis- trators surveyed. 2. The median age of college administrators will be from 46 to 55. 3. At least 95% of the presidents of four-year colleges will have earned the doctorate. 4. At least 60% of the presidents of community colleges will have earned the doctorate. 5. At least 67% of presidents of community colleges with the doctorate will have received it in education or administration. 6. No single academic discipline will be found to be the field of doctoral preparation of more than 30% of presidents of four-year colleges. 7. Immediately before taking their current position. a major- ity of presidents at all types of colleges will have been employed at different. but functionally similar. institutions. A second major focus of the study was to evaluate the presi- dential career ladder model that has been described by various authors. That model suggests that the point of entry to college administration is as a faculty member. with no formal preparation for administration. followed by progression into the administrative positions of department or division chair. dean or provost. and ultimately president. Because community colleges are viewed in the literature as being somewhat removed from the traditions and circumstances that gave rise to the model. it is further expected that presidents and chief academic offi- cers from community colleges will differ from their counterparts in four-year colleges. The hypotheses developed to compare the data concerning the career model were: l. A majority of all administrators will have taught as their first paid job in higher education. 2. At least 75% of administrators in four-year colleges will have taught as their first paid job in higher education. 3. At least 50% of administrators in four-year colleges will have taught a college class in the last year. 4. Less than 50% of community college administrators will have taught as their first job in higher education. 5. Less than 50% of community college administrators will have taught a college class last year. 10 6. At least 50% of college presidents in all types of colleges will be found to have a career pattern that corresponds to the presi- dential career ladder model. 7. At least 75% of the presidents of four-year colleges will identify the presidential career ladder model as accurately reflecting their own careers. A third focus of the study was to determine the career preparation that college administrators received before moving into their current positions and their evaluations of the adequacy of that preparation. The hypotheses developed for that section of the study follow: l. At least 75% of the college administrators who have taken courses in education or administration will conclude that the courses were extremely helpful. very helpful. or helpful to carrying out their duties. 2. A majority of college administrators who did not have the doctorate in education or administration at the time of appointment to their current position will feel that they were not very well prepared or not prepared at all for their current duties when they first assumed office. 3. A majority of college administrators will consider it extremely important. very important. or important that a person pre- paring for a position such as theirs complete a doctoral-level program in education or administration. 11 Finally. the paper concludes with suggestions from the respond- ents as to the type of preparation they think would be most helpful to a person considering a position such as theirs. to the extent that preparation could occur in a college or university setting. The open- ended questions used to elicit those responses made it difficult to organize the responses into concise tables or to measure them against specific hypotheses. The responses are. however. reported in summary fashion to offer suggestions from current practitioners in the field of ways to strengthen career preparation for college administration. 'The complete record of all of the open-ended responses is included at Appendix B. Will Chapter II of this study contains a review of the historical and analytical research that has been published to describe the general development of higher education administration. and more specific references to the presidential career ladder model and the kinds of preparation that administrators have had before assuming their current duties. The methodological procedures used to develop and implement the research survey to gather data from college presidents and chief aca- demic officers are outlined in Chapter III. In addition. the statis- tics used to evaluate the results of the survey are described in that chapter. 12 The results of the survey are reported in Chapter IV. along with comparisons with other research findings and the hypotheses devel- oped at the outset of this study. The conclusions. recommendations for further research. and suggestions for fitting the results of this study into previous research are contained in Chapter V. Reflections on the methodology used in this study are also provided in that chapter. An extensive bibliography follows the text material. followed by appendices that contain the questionnaire used in the survey. copies of various communications with respondents. and other documents related to the study. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE BMW American colleges in the colonial period were small institu- tions. presided over by presidents trained for the clergy. The primary responsibility for carrying out administrative tasks in those institu- tions rested with the president. and there were few other staff to assist (Brubacher a Rudy. 1958). In addition to the roles one would expect of a college president. it was not unusual for the president to write official correspondence in longhand. register students. teach. and do many other tasks that would now be assigned to lower-level administra- tors (Brubacher & Rudy. l958). ‘ During the first half of the nineteenth century. many colleges were founded and developed. However. the pattern of prior training of college presidents remained essentially the same. A survey conducted in l860 revealed that 90% of college presidents were trained for the clergy (Brubacher & Rudy. 1958). Even though the type of career prepa- ration of chief executive officers stayed relatively constant. the gradual growth in size of individual institutions and changing perspec- tives on proper divisions of labor on campus resulted in the gradual establishment of other college offices to share the burden of college administration with the president. 13 14 The order in which subordinate officers developed varied considerably from institution to institution. but on the whole the first specialization of the presidential function to occur was the appointment of a librarian. Next recognition was extended to the office of registrar. The 1880's can be taken as the median period of its greatest growth. . . . The median decade for the appearance of deans was the 1890's. with the subdivisions into deans of men and deans of women coming some time later. .. . Business officers. directors of public relations. directors of admissions. and many other posts were the product of the next century. . . . In their slow evolution nearly all these offices originally included some teaching duties. . . . Of course. as the duties of each of these offices increased. less and less time was devoted to teaching till none at all was left except as here and there a dean or even president . . . insisted on keeping a hand in teaching in order to be more sensitive to the pulse of the student body. (Brubacher 8 Rudy. 1958. pp. 352-53) As the nature of the responsibilities of being president was changing. a similar change was occurring in the type of preparation and backgrounds of college presidents. In contrast to the 90% of presi- dents trained for the clergy in 1860. by 1930 only 12% of college presidents had received such training (Brubacher & Rudy. 1958). As the nature of their preparation changed. a corresponding change was occur- ring in the geographic roots of college presidents. In the early part of the twentieth century. presidents headed institutions in reasonably close proximity to the geographic area where they had been born and raised. A study found in 1924 that presidents of all types of colleges had been born. on average. 363 miles from the location of the college they headed. By 1969 a comparable group of college presidents headed institutions that were. on average. 519 miles from the place of their birth (Cohen 8 March. 1974). Added to this picture of presidents of colleges with more diverse educational and regional backgrounds. an informed estimate of the percentage of college presidents who reached 15 their current positions by promotion from within changed from 51.25 in 1924 to only 32.1% in 1969 (Cohen 8. March. 1974). These data suggest that college administrators were. for most of the nineteenth century and part of the twentieth. clergymen who moved up to the position of president from within their institutions and who had been born and raised in the same geographic area as the colleges they served. Beginning with few offices. other than the president. the late nineteenth century saw the development of other college offices to assist the president with administrative tasks. ‘The absence of other administrative positions within colleges meant that most presidents. as noted above. either moved into their positions from the faculty or from outside the college. The dominant case was that presidents were drawn primarily from professorial ranks. ‘The teaching and research experience they possessed became principal factors by which they qualified for administrative positionSL Because faculty teaching and research were the usual preparation for administrative appointment. there was limited need for formal courses in higher education administration to prepare prospective college administrators for future duties (Lahti. 1970). Wanna While the large number of graduate universities in the United States makes it difficult to state with complete confidence. it appears that the first university course in higher education administration was offered at Clark University in 1893. Other early courses were devel- oped at the University of Chicago. University of Minnesota. and Johns 16 Hopkins University (Ewing 8 Stickler. 1964). Other universities may also have offered an occasional course or seminar in the study of higher education; however. it was not until about 1920 that such courses became a reasonably common feature in college catalogues. By 1936 there were more than three dozen institutions offering courses of advanced study in higher education in the United States (Ewing 8 Stickler. 1964). The initial growth of interest in the study of higher education and administration that occurred after World War I was a result of the substantial number of new institutions established at that time and the substantial enrollment growth of existing colleges and universities. The general prosperity of the 19205 resulted in funds being available to add administrators and faculty to the payroll. The specialization of function that was occurring in many other human enterprises as a result of the adoption of scientific management principles espoused by Frederick Taylor and others had also reached the college campus and resulted in strong pressure to divide tasks among various college offices (Ewing 8 Stickler. 1964). Finally. as the nature and role of the faculty changed. duties that had once been considered integral to the faculty were put aside and. as one observer noted. the common response of the faculty was to hire another assistant dean to do those things (Knapp. 1969). Even with the increased attention given to higher education administration in the universities. the number of courses remained small enough that no sizable pool of trained administrators moved into 17 the collegiate job market. As late as 1939 the Carnegie Foundation recognized that administrators came to their college positions from the faculty with limited formal training for their new duties. and estab- lished the Young Administrators Travel Grant program to permit young administrators to visit other campuses to at least have the opportunity to see how administrative tasks were carried out in other settings (Penn. 1966). The era following the end of World War II saw dramatic growth in enrollment in existing institutions and the opening of many new colleges. Heavy student enrollments. ambitious building programs. and substantial increases in the size and complexity of college budgets forced most colleges to expand their administrative staffs to bring order and system to the rapidly changing campus environment. In the period from 1953 to 1959. there was a 38.4% increase in resident faculty in American colleges and universities but a 106.9% increase in positions in general administration (Bolman. 1964). One part of the total national growth in higher education was the emergence of the junior college. Tracing its roots back to the latter part of the nineteenth century. the period immediately following World War II saw unparalleled growth of existing colleges and many new institutions established to accommodate the wave of returning veterans and women who had delayed career plans due to the war. At first. junior colleges relied on former secondary school administrators and a few administrators with experience in senior colleges. It rapidly became clear to such groups as the Kellogg and Carnegie Foundations 18 that traditional sources of college administrators would not be sufficient to accommodate the needs of the rapidly growing number of new junior colleges. If the new and expanding colleges were to function effectively. administrative training programs needed to be established. Perhaps the most ambitious program for training college administrators was the Junior College Leadership Program co-sponsored by the Kellogg Foundation and the American Association of Junior Colleges. Under this program. ten universities (including Michigan State University) were given grants to develop programs. recruit participants (who received stipends ranging from 51.500 to $3.600). conduct training activities. and evaluate and up-grade the program to insure that it met the needs of future junior college administrators (Giles. 1961). It appears that the junior and community colleges have seen the largest influx of administrators trained in either internship programs (such as the Kellogg program. which was specifically designed to produce administrators for junior and community colleges) or formal graduate programs. A national survey of junior college presidents found that. before 1952. only 25% had an earned doctorate; in the period from 1953 through 1963. 49.1% of junior college presidents had an earned doctorate. and from 1963 through 1964. 5738! possessed the doctorate (Schultz. 1965). The effectiveness of these specialized programs to prepare junior college administrators (or at least provide them with the necessary credentials to secure administrative jobs) can be seen by 19 noting that. of the participants in the Kellogg-American Association of Junior Colleges Leadership Program from 1960 through 1967. 68% were deans or presidents of junior colleges by 1979 or had held one of those positions at some point in their careers (Perkins. 1980). The picture that emerges from this review is that. by 1920. university training in higher education administration had become accessible to students at several institutions. as had internships and other types of practical training experiences for prospective adminis- trators. The dramatic growth in college enrollments and the opening of new colleges following World War II highlighted the need for more trained administrators. Formal university programs were developed to meet that need. and they had an influence. particularly among junior colleges. in raising the formal educational levels of college offi- cials. It should be noted. however. that while the level of educa- tional attainment of junior college presidents was increasing. at the end of the period surveyed only half of the presidents of junior col- 1eges possessed the doctorate. and very limited data are available to determine how many of those with the doctorate had received it as a result of advanced study in higher education administration. Ferrari found in 1968 among senior college presidents that only 29.7% had earned the doctorate in education. Numerous changes have occurred in higher education in the United States since the founding of Harvard in 1636. Even though the role of administration and the number of administrators on college campuses has grown substantially. there remain sharp differences of 20 opinion about the type of preparation required for administration in higher education. The discussion to this point has presented a progression of historical developments that appears to suggest that the debate over the need for trained administrators has been minor or that the debate is over. In the following section. the elements of the still lively discussion are presented to better understand the current status of the topic. WNW As noted above. it has only been relatively recently that colleges have had many administrative staff other than the college president. The presidents who governed early American colleges were not specifically trained for their administrative duties. moving instead from the classroom to administrative duties at some point in their professional careers. As the task of administering colleges grew. operating the institutions became a more substantial responsi- bility that required college presidents with broad knowledge of administrative subjects. as well as subordinates with more detailed preparation and training in specific areas. As Stoke (1959) summed up this trend. "The college president as the Man of Learning has given way to the Man of Management" (p. 3). The movement toward specialized preparation of college administrators had been strenuously contested by some elements of the higher education community. It may help to understand some of that reaction by pointing out that education is a highly ambiguous process. 21 Teaching and research do not lend themselves easily to efforts to categorize. organize. evaluate. measure. establish priorities. and the myriad other tasks that are the subjects of modern management in the business setting. The faculty in a college possess a value system that "rejects the technocratic. reveres the creative. and thereby de-legitimizes the practice of management and the deliberate prepara- tion of academic managers" (Green. 1981. p. 12; see also Simon. 1967. p. 68). Green pointed out the end product of this point of view: These beliefs and values explain the prevailing prejudices in university settings against administrators who have prepared for their work by earning a doctorate in educational administration. Armed with no true discipline. goes the argument. the professional administrator cannot completely understand the mind of the real academics. Therefore. professional administrators are generally barred from holding the positions heading the faculty ranks. In this value system. administration is not worthy of study. it is simply done. (p. 13) Other factors in the academic setting that work against the development of a trained administrative staff are the high value placed on shared governance and collegiality at many institutions and the perception that the creation of a group of bureaucrats who do not share those values will result in a loss of the sense of mutual direction and responsibility for the college or university. Second. in an era of strong faculty unions and/or carefully guarded faculty prerogatives. the receptivity of administrators to faculty concerns is enhanced when former faculty are in administrative positions instead of those with no such experience. Third. the societal emphasis on public accountability and productivity has also focused on colleges and universities because of constrained public budgets and taxpayer rejection of requests for 22 increased levels of support for education. This emphasis on efficiency and productivity has produced a counter-reaction on many campuses of rejection of the applicability of such concepts. as well as related administrative schemes to manage and control colleges and universities. and those administrators who appear to propose them (Blyn 8 Zoerner. 1982). Suffice it to say here that there is not universal agreement that colleges need administrators primarily trained in subjects related to the management of collegiate institutions. A long history exists of colleges and universities functioning reasonably well with administra- tive leadership provided by former professors who were trained in an academic discipline and who moved up the institutional ladder without additional preparation. In fact. in a significant study of the college presidency. Cohen and March (1974) pointed out that the traditional career ladder to a college presidency begins with some experience on the faculty. elevation to department chair. dean. provost. and ulti- mately to president. If all collegiate institutions operated outside of public opinion and public involvement. the debate over what types of officials should be placed in administrative positions might be confined to the level of internal debate which has characterized the discussion here to this point. In fact. the extensive investment of public dollars has forced the debate to include the question of the extent to which col- leges and universities are well-managed and careful guardians of tax monies. Colleges and universities are often large organizations. 23 employing many people. responsible for substantial amounts of funds. and subject to numerous laws concerning employment. health and safety of employees. fiduciary responsibility. equity of compensation. accounting principles. and so on. In view of the complexity of many of these areas and the need for colleges to operate efficiently and in compliance with laws. it may appear puzzling to those outside academe how college administrators could function without specialized training. Simon (1967) summed up this perplexing subject by noting. Comparing colleges with other organizations in our society. one sees that their most striking peculiarity is not their product. but the extent to which they are operated by amateurs. ‘They are insti- tutions run by amateurs to train professionals. NL 69) Scott (1979) presented a summary of the case for amateur administrators in higher education by pointing out that in the college setting a key role for the president and dean is mediation of conflicts between professionals. Central to the success of that role is adminis- trators having the confidence and trust of the faculty. When faculty deal with administrators who have gone through similar education and experience. share similar value systems. and who are not so tightly focused on one administrative area that they miss the larger picture of the institution. they feel more comfortable with such administrators and are more willing to accept their leadership and direction. Fur- ther. Scott noted that such subjects as mediation and persuasion are not likely to be learned in a formal degree program. ‘The traditional view of the appropriate preparation of a college administrator was summarized by Moore. Salimbere. Marlier. and Bragg (1983): "He or she is seen as an academic who can comprehend the managerial functions of 24 the institution rather than as an executive who must deal with the academic values present in the organization" (p. 503). The contrary view of the need for better-prepared administra- tors was summarized by Knapp (1969): The time is past when presidents could afford to learn their jobs by trial and error at their own and others' leisure. So. too. is the time when they could afford the luxury of an ill-prepared administrative staff. (p. 59) The most telling criticism of amateur administrators came from Knapp: There is good reason to believe that the amateur has a greater tendency toward bureaucratic behavior and attitudes than does the true professional. Without expertise in his position. yet working in a community in which expertise is prized and his own functions disdained. the amateur feels a strong need to prove his own impor- tance. This he achieves by becoming what others may consider an obstacle and bottleneck in the organization. (p. 58) As the comments in this section suggested. there is still substantial disagreement occurring in higher education concerning the amount and kind of training and experience required for college admin- istrators to function effectively. WW5 W The discussion to this point has focused on the position of college president (because in the early days college administration was almost synonymous with the presidentL. In more modern times. the term "administrator" has been used as a generic label to encompass a wide) range of positions in a wide range of institutions. In this section a brief analysis is provided of the office of president in various types of colleges. and the position of chief academic officer. In each case 25 the purpose is to attempt to determine if there are well-understood paths of preparation. the extent to which teaching experience is con- sidered a requisite for appointment. and other topics related to the issues raised to this point. E9ur:Iea£;9911999_firesldents A number of studies have been conducted to determine the principal characteristics of presidents of four-year colleges. It is perhaps historically noteworthy to point out at the outset that a 1968 study found that only 3% of college presidents were initially trained for the clergy (Ferrari. 1968). In view of the fact that the sample in that study included some private religious colleges. it appears clear that this type of academic preparation has been almost completely eliminated as a route to a college presidency. While religious training has declined as the expected prepara- tion of college presidents. the pattern of male domination remains relatively constant. A 1983 study found that only 9.4: of four-year college presidents were women (in spite of the fact that the sample did include some women's colleges) (Moore et al.. n.d.). Numerous studies have examined the types of preparation of presidents of baccalaureate institutions. Cohen and March (1974) assembled data from three separate studies to permit better comparisons of the findings concerning the major areas of academic training of college presidents. 'The three studies showed a remarkable consistency in the distribution of areas of graduate study that college presidents have taken. In addition. the studies noted with unusual consistency 26 that preparation in education is not a dominant area for presidents of four-year colleges. Bolman Ferrari Ingraham New Stud): Stud! Studx Education 255 305 245 Humanities 275 365* 275 Social Science 285 145 245* Other 205 205 225 *Includes history Brooks (1974) used a slightly different analysis criterion in 1974 and determined that 305 of senior college presidents had earned a doctorate in education. Hodgkinson (1971) found the following pattern of academic preparation of college presidents: Wm WM Administration. business. and legal 75 Education 345 Applied and technical science 55 Humanities 255 Natural science 75 Social science 175 Duea (1981). after surveying presidents of colleges that offer some teacher education courses. found that the most common discipline of the terminal degrees held by presidents was social science (28.25). with 14.55 holding degrees in education and 145 in unspecified admin- istration. These studies all appear to indicate that. while preparation in education or educational administration is not uncommon. it is far from 27 the dominant source of preparation of senior college presidents. Graduates of social science and humanities programs have experienced at least comparable success in progressing into presidencies. It should be noted that all of these studies were completed in a time span of 12 years. It is therefore difficult to determine if any long-range changes are occurring in the distribution noted in the studies. Based on earlier comments in the historical section of the paper. such a shift might have been expected. The limitations of nonlongitudinal data prohibit such a shift from being observed. While the conclusions of several authors concerning preparation of senior college presidents appear reasonably consistent. Moore (1969) reached a somewhat different conclusion regarding presidents with degrees in the field of education and the likely result for those who did earn a degree in that area. Few presidents of institutions of higher education have been formally trained for the administrative tasks they are asked to perform. In the main. presidents come from the ranks of reputable scholars. For that matter. earning a degree in any formal program of higher education seems to predict a career in a second-echelon position of the university. the presidency of an institution that is predominantly concerned with preparation of teachers. or the presidency of a community college. (pp. 291-92) The general trend toward higher levels of educational attainment. which has been the source of achievement and pride in many other fields of endeavor. also appears to be characteristic of presidents of senior colleges. A study by Rourke and Brooks in 1966 found that 885 of senior college presidents had an earned doctorate. By 1981. a study by Duea found that 975 of senior college presidents possessed a doctoral degree. It appears clear that it is considered essential by colleges 28 at the baccalaureate level for the president to have a doctoral degree. As the data in the previous section confirmed. however. there is sig- nificantly less agreement on the discipline in which that degree should be obtained. The position of college president is a demanding and challeng- ing one on most campuses. In addition to formal education preparation. experience of various types is usually considered essential. Accumu- lating both the necessary education and experience requires the passage of some’time. Cohen and March found in 1974 that the average age of college presidents serving at that time was 53. Hodkinson (1971) found that the age range of the presidents he surveyed went from 28 to 78; however. the mean age was 50. Brooks (1974) found the mean age of his sample of senior college presidents to be 50.9 years. The general agreement concerning the age of college presidents suggests that presi- dents have had enough time to accumulate the required experience in various elements of academe. However. they have not yet reached an age that the pressures and rigors of the job have resulted in substantial numbers moving out of the job for less-demanding responsibilities. In earlier historical periods. college presidents tended to remain reasonably close to the geographic area in which they had been born and raised. Data noted previously suggested that. by 1969. that pattern had changed somewhat. While comparable mileage data are not available to continue the earlier analyses. a study by Socolow in 1978 found that 845 of applicants for senior administrative positions in four-year colleges that were advertised in a series of issues of the 29 QhLgn191e_gj_fljgher_figugatign were residents of a neighboring city. the same state. or a neighboring state as the college advertising to fill a vacancy. These data suggest that mobility among college presidents may be confined to the region or section of the country in which they were born or raised. Additional insights to understand the pattern of movement of successful candidates for college presidencies have been provided by a series of studies that attempted to measure how many presidents reached their current positions by progression within the same institution. Hodgkinson (1971) found that 605 of his sample of presidents had held no other previous position in the college they were currently serving. Birnbaum (1971) found in one survey that only 245 of college presidents had been employed on their current campus in another position before selection to the presidency. and in a second survey he found that only 335 had been employed in a different position on the campus they then headed. Ferrari (1968) found in his survey that "about 1/3 moved to the position from inside the present institu- tion while the remaining 2/3 came to the presidency from a position in another institution or another organization" (p. 196). The consistency of these data lends support to the conclusion that it is much more common for a college president to be brought in from the outside than to be promoted from within. This pattern initially appears to be in conflict with the concept of the faculty member being promoted up the organizational ladder from initial teach- ing duties. In addition. the pattern contrasts with a survey of 30 presidential succession in 829 businesses. which found 50.85 of busi- ness presidents had come up through the organizational structure of the company they headed. Only 18.25 were selected from outside the com- pany. 13.85 were selected because of inheritance. 75 because of invest- ments they had made in the company. and the remainder for a variety of miscellaneous reasons (Birnbaum. 1971L Birnbaum (1971) attempted to explain this pattern of presiden- tial selection in colleges by noting that changing presidents is a disruptive and threatening time for a college (or any organization). It is unusual on a college campus for one person to be clearly desig- nated in advance as the heir-apparent to the presidency when it becomes vacant. The absence of planning for presidential succession which is typical of American colleges (according to Birnbaum) is one of the points of contrast with business. where such an important subject is sorted out well in advance. Where there is no clear successor to the college president. disruptive and emotional problems could develop if the position were filled from within. Former colleagues would become subordihates and previously estab- lished systems.of communication and prestige would be re-ordered. This could lead to conflict even when the promoted individual was the second-in-command on the campus. It would. of course. create even more severe problems if the individual came from a subordinate administrative or faculty position. (Birnbaum. 1971. p. 140) While promoting from within might.producerserious problems. a bad judgment about someone from outside the organization could produce equally unfortunate results. Birnbaunfls research suggested that 31 colleges tend to select presidents from very similar institutions. In his view. colleges perform a very important socializing and training function for other colleges that insures that top administrators brought in from another college will possess values consistent with the needs and desires of the college they seek to head. Administrators in this situation. Birnbaum argued. understand well that it is likely that they will have to leave their current college if they hope to move into a top leadership position. and the success of their search for such positions will depend in large part on how well their current col- leagues tell visiting committees or personnel officers they have mas- tered the informal rules of academe. One of the assumptions that undergirds the traditional view of the appropriate preparation for college administration is that success— ful candidates for senior administrative positions should have teaching experience. Bolmen in 1965 found that 815 of his sample of college presidents had served in a faculty position for 11 years (mean). In 1981 Duea also found that 815 of his sample of senior college presi- dents had served as a faculty member at one point in their careers. Brooks in 1974 discovered that 645 of the presidents he surveyed con- tinued to hold rank in an academic department in addition to their administrative assignment. The picture that emerges from these studies of the senior college president shows remarkable consistency over time and between studies. Presidents of senior colleges are no longer trained in only one way for their position (the clergy). but no comparably clear 32 educational track has emerged for prospective college presidents to follow to prepare for the jobs they seek. Only about a quarter of senior college presidents have degrees in education. and the remainder are spread among a wide range of disciplines. Despite well-publicized advances by women in other fields. males still dominate as college presidents. In a similar manner. presidents of senior colleges over- iwhelmingly possess the doctorate. While the energy level of a young person may be required to do the job well as a college president. the average age of current presidents is about 50. Presidents tend to be drawn from a regional job market. but not as local as in much earlier times. New presidents tend to be selected from candidates outside the institution; however. they have come from very similar types of col- leges. There is no apparent agreement on the proper discipline to prepare for a college presidency. but there is strong evidence that it is necessary to have teaching experience if a candidate for a presi- dency hopes to be selected. Wm Wants There is significantly less information available concerning the community and junior college president. Many research studies on higher education have specifically noted that the large number of community and junior colleges would make a project unwieldy if those colleges were included. In addition. the absence of a high priority on research and writing for publication at the community college contrib- utes to the lack of data that plagues analysis in this area. 33 While the level of instruction is different at a community college than at a senior college. the overwhelming fact of male domination of the president's office is the same as at senior institu- tions. A review of the 1983 name listings of presidents of all United States comnnunty. junior. and technical colleges revealed that only 6.6% were women (128W .tgry. 1983). Included in the group of 79 women college presidents were118 women members of religious orders that headed private. church- sponsored junior colleges. It is well recognized that this type of analysis is not precise (Is a college president from Georgia named Billie a man or a woman?). It does. however. offer an indication of the general state of the distribution of the sexes in community college presidencies. It is clear that the effect of sexually neutral recruit- ment practices has not.yet been felt in two-year schools. at least in the selection of people to head those institutions. Community and.junior college presidents closely resemble senior college presidents in terms of age. Moore (1972) surveyed presidents in the South and Southeast and found that their average age was 49. Schultz (1965) found that the median age at appointment of a national sample of presidents of.junior colleges in 1951-52 was 41. but by 1963- 64 it had increased to 47. Monroe (1976). after reviewing published reports of who are community college presidents. concluded that they are "male and over forty years old" (p. 315). The similarity between presidents of different levels of institutions ends when consideration shifts to their academic training 34 and previous experience. Schultz (1965) found that the level of preparation of comnunflty college presidents has been increasing steadily. In 1952 only 21.85 had the doctorate degree. and by 1963 the percentage had increased to 42.15. In Moore's (1972) regional study. by 1971 the percentage of presidents with the doctorate had grown to 575. Monroe (1976) reported similar findings from other studies. These patterns contrast sharply with the very high rates of presidents with the doctorate in senior institutions. Another point of contrast between presidents of community and senior colleges involves the discipline in which presidents received their degrees. Moore (1972) found that 675 of community college presidents received their advanced degree in education. Monroe (1976) reported that about half the doctorates held by two-year college presidents were earned in education. However. the difference between the results of the two studies may be partially explained by the problems of coding created because education degrees encompass such diverse areas as educational administration. higher education administration. junior college administration. educational leadership. and so on. It appears clear that junior and community college presidents do not possess terminal degrees in comparable numbers to senior college presidents. However. the gap appears to be narrowing rapidly. Those with doctorates among community college presidents are much more likely to have received them in the general field of education than senior college presidents. 35 There is very limited information on the previous positions held by community college presidents. Monroe (1976) concluded that only 25 to 35 are without teaching experience at either the college or secondary level at some point in their career. He further observed. Rarely do college presidents move directly from teaching to the presidency without serving an apprenticeship in lower administra- tion. . . . Community college presidents tend to be faculty members who have shown talent for leadership. (p. 315) Moore (1972) found that presidents had held a wide range of other positions before moving into their current job. However. the following administrative experiences were most common: WM 5 Dean at a junior college 40.9 President of another college (any level) 20.5 Professor. four-year college 13.1 Minister 12.3 Principal. high school Dean. four-year college 00) 0 00) In reviewing these data it may be helpful to note that the sample used by Moore was presidents of‘junior and community colleges in the South and Southeast. private or public. The high proportion of ministers is likely the result of the sample used. The absence of comparative data. or even current data on community college presidents. makes it difficult to generalize about the types of preparation they had before entering their current position. There are some data to support the view that community and junior college presidents have traveled the same path of teaching to administration that is characteristic of senior college presidents. 36 However. the data are not sufficient or timely enough to permit a generalized statement to be made. Contrary to the pattern in senior colleges. many community college presidents have prepared for their current duties by taking courses and degrees in education. in contrast to the high percentage of senior college presidents who have focused on an academic discipline that prepared them for teaching and research but not specifically for college administration. .thetJMzuEmuc_Q££uam:i The idea that the usual route to the college presidency starts with membership on the faculty and moves upward suggests that the top instructional administrator is well up the ladder from the point of entry and within sight of the top. Unfortunately. there are few data to determine if the concept is accurate concerning the position of chief academic officer. No small part of the problem is the great diversity in titles of chief academic officers. As noted earlier in the paper. the methodology used in this study was to rely on the institutional designation of the person with the principal responsibil- ity for the instructional program. regardless of job title. The source of that designation was response to a survey for a standard reference work. It is interesting that among the respondents to this research project. a total of 19 job titles were used by the person designated as the chief academic officer. The response to this survey resulted in the following array of job titles: 37 leLlith NumDeLcLIDsLitumns Vice-President 20 Vice-President of Academic Affairs 37 Dean of Instruction 15 Provost l7 Forty-three of the institutions responding called their chief academic officer a dean of some type. In view of the lack of agreement on job titles. it has been convenient in this paper to use the term "chief academic officer" as an umbrella label to ease the problem for the reader of sorting through a plethora of titles. ‘This approach causes problems. however. in attempting to search the literature to find studies that provide insights into the nature and characteristics of the position because the phrase "chief academic officer" is a category label rather than a job title. Various studies have been done of college administrative officers. Unfortunately. they have tended to focus on one job title. Given the proliferation of titles noted above. this is probably a logical approach. It does not. however. make the task of research simple for those attempting to do a study of higher education adminis- tration using a broader approach. The writer was unable to locate any studies that focused on the vice-president of academic affairs in behavioral terms. The position of dean has been studied in somewhat more detail (perhaps because of its more traditional usage). In this section the research concerning the position of dean is discussed. It is well recognized that the title of dean does not cover the bulk of respondentsfl.job titles. but research that reports on other instructional titles is so sparse that 38 this section could be omitted if only the most common titles were considered. It is further recognized that the absence of previous research into the characteristics of holders of other job titles makes comparisons with the results of this survey more difficult. Perhaps the data collected for this paper will establish some useful benchmarks for others in the future attempting to understand the nature of spe- cific groups of college officers. While the subject of some limited organized inquiry in the past. the position of dean has not been analyzed in great detail. Moore et a1. (1983) summarized the state of the literature on the position of dean: The literature on the academic dean position is equally encumbered with a large number of personal or prescriptive accounts. ‘The demographic or analytical accounts that do exist are dated. narrowly focused on a single kind hag. education deans. deans of graduate schools). or emphasize the role dilemmas and practical tasks of deans. Few works attempt to describe or analyze the academic dean position as part of the larger administrative career structure or to place it within an occupational or academic labor market context. (p. 504) Unfortunately. the absence of data on the dean's position is consistent with that of many other top-level administrative jobs in higher educa- tion (Moore et al.. 1983). Enarson (1962) prepared a description of academic deans based on a review of the limited literature and personal observation. He concluded that: The academic dean is not "trained" in any sense for the job. He may have served an apprenticeship as assistant to the president; more commonly he will have been a successful departmental chairman or dean of a college. In any event he is picked because it is felt. always on the basis of too little evidence. that he has administrative ability. (p. 122) 39 Pierce (1951) conducted a survey of public junior colleges in 1951 and found that deans tended to be men with an average age of 44.2 years. and almost all had a master's degree and averaged 24 hours of additional courses beyond their degree. No specific numbers were provided in the report. but Pierce noted that courses most frequently taken by deans at the graduate level were in education. educational administration. and guidance. More than 805 of the deans surveyed reported high school teaching experience. and 715 had taught previously in a college setting. So little methodological information was pro- vided concerning this survey that it is difficult to place great confi- dence in the results. Further. the date of the report suggests that caution should be exercised in considering the findings. The results do. however. provide a benchmark for comparisons with newer data about junior and community college deans. The most current study concerning college deans was prepared by Moore et a1. (1983) and involved a massive effort to contact the presidents and top administrators of all four-year colleges in the United States. As has been noted about earlier studies. the authors of the study omitted community and junior colleges because of the large number of respondents they would have to add to an already ambitious undertaking. A total of 647 deans (of all types) responded to Moore et ale survey. The tremendous amount of data generated by the pro- ject has not yet been analyzed fully. The first major publication to emerge from the project did not specifically address the characteris- tics of deans. Moore et a1. did note. however. that 805 of deans had 40 been professors at some point in their careers. The remaining 205 tended to be in fields with strong outside connections to professions. The idea that the path to a college presidency begins with faculty membership and movement up the administrative ladder was analyzed by Moore et al. in regard to the senior college deans in their sample. They found that only 65 followed that route precisely. Most of the deans began as faculty. but the path from that point varied widely. There is little reliable information on the preparation and work experience of deans. Strong data do exist to confirm that most deans had previous teaching experience. Other data reject as too simplistic the idea that there is a commonly defined career path to the dean's position. Finally. there are some data to suggest that. what- ever type of preparation they had for their jobs. it was not adequate to be confident deans possessed administrative skills at the point of hire. WW2: The idea that college administrators start as a member of the faculty and are promoted up through the organization without other training is well established in folklore and written reports. Socolow (1978) addressed a common belief on college campuses when he observed that: Senior positions in academic administration have long been the almost exclusive province of those who have served for a substan- tial time in academe. moving from one rung of the ladder to the next--most often from professor to chairman. to dean to vice presi- dent to president. (p. 42) 41 Despite the number of references to a presidential career ladder and the widespread acceptance of its validity in the literature. some authors have questioned the applicability and accuracy of the idea. Kanter (1979) challenged the idea. not with data but with logic. Given the large number of colleges and universities in the United States and the number of administrators in each institution. Kanter found it difficult to accept such a simplistic concept of what she perceived as a complex process for securing administrators. In addition. the diversity and independence of screening committees on college campuses precludes a single career track from being control- ling. Finally. Kanter observed that filling top administrative posi- tions requires a balancing of the abilities. personalities. and experiences of candidates with other administrators. Therefore. a single career model would not be sufficient to explain the processes involved. Moore and associates (1983) did perhaps the most substantial test of the concept of a presidential career ladder to date. However. they did not study community college personnel. In their preliminary discussion of the topic. they noted that the references to the presi- dential career ladder in the literature have been both prescriptive (identifying the kinds of jobs a person should seek to proceed up the ladder) and descriptive (summarizing the results of previous research on the most common routes to a presidency). Moore et ale research. however. showed that only 3.25 of college presidents' careers precisely followed the route suggested by the model. Their data concurred with 42 Kanter's assumption that the realities of hundreds of diverse careers are too complex to be explained by such a simple concept. Moore et a1. did note that the model effectively describes the entry point for academic careers: teaching experience. They also found that a few positions seemed to be good predictors of movement upward to a college presidency. with the most potent being the office of provost. In view of the restricted use of that office on college campuses (only 17 of the colleges surveyed in this study had such an office). even the best predictor of movement to a presidency may not be applicable to many individuals or colleges. lheJaluuLlemficosLamLin WM Those who advocate better preparation and training for college administrators in the future assume that such preparation will have a positive influence on the quality of work performed in college adminis- tration. If the preparation is to occur in educational administration (as opposed to business administration or public administration). there is limited information to confirm that such training has actually led to improved performance. A major portion of the difficulty of estab- lishing a causal link between training and performance is the great difficulty in developing a research design that permits quantitative measurement of the quality of decisions before and after such training. A second part of the problem is the great diversity of programs in educational administration at various colleges and universities. 43 A large number of dissertations have been completed that have attempted to evaluate graduate programs in educational administration at specific universities (Armstrong. 1974; Carter. 1967; Christiansen. 1975; Collins. 1972; Cummins. 1968; Currin. 1976; Douglas. 1976; Fehr. 1973; Fellabaum. 1982; Fighur. 1965; Gamnflll. 1983; Geren. 1981; Heckle. 1972; Kawchak. 1977; Marler. 1978; Mayfield. 1971; Nefstead. 1982; Orso. 1967; Plawecki. 1974; Reed. 1973; Rush. 1967; Vaught. 1974; Wilson. 1969; Woody. 1982; Yarnell. 1965). These studies tended to be concerned with the appropriateness of admission criteria. the value of specific courses. and the role of the dissertation in the graduate program under study. Some authors. such as Elsner (1984). have identified a number of subjects or skills they feel a college administrator should possess as a result of a graduate program. but the suggestions have been principally the result of perception and random observation. rather than rigorous inquiry. Other authors. such as Hahn and Mohrman (1985). have surveyed business people to find the kinds of skills and training they desire for managers in the private sector and. by reporting their findings in journals for educators. apparently hoped that the informa- tion might be accepted in programs for educational administration as well. Elsner (1984) recognized the need to begin to develop some agreement on what should be taught and the importance of internships in the preparation of the next generation of college administrators by suggesting that a national commission be established to study 44 appropriate courses of study and report the findings as soon as pos- sible. His own priorities were demonstrated in his laudatory state- ments about the Kellogg-Junior College Leadership Program discussed earlier. As noted previously. Green (1981) and Moore (1969) questioned the acceptability of administrators prepared in educational administra- tion programs to the broad college and university community. The bias against such types of preparation will likely be difficult and slow to erode. The literature provided numerous examples of evaluations of university programs in educational administration. However. the studies focused on single programs and addressed topics that are useful for the improvement of that program. but did not address the broader issues of the generic value of preparation and training of college administrators. Several authors questioned the value of such prepara- tion. and even those who favored it did so with logic and perceptions. rather than solid data. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY WW As noted in Chapter II. a body of literature exists on the general topics of criterion for selection and adequacy of training of college administrators. Unfortunately. much of that information is contained in anecdotal autobiographies. was gathered some time ago. or is so narrow in focus as to have marginal utility in a study of this type. 0f the various research strategies available for conducting this study. it readily became apparent that input from current college administrators was essential. The problems of cost and the logistics of personally interviewing a large number of administrators quickly narrowed the options down to using a mailed questionnaire. with approp- riate follow-up to insure a large enough rate of return to inspire confidence in the final results. Winner; Just as it was impractical to consider personal interviews with a large number of college administrators. it also seemed impractical to work with all higher education institutions in the United States. 'The Carnegie Commission typology (noted in Chapter I) was particularly helpful in identifying proprietary or technical colleges that are quite 45 46 narrow in focus. and with administrative recruitment and advancement dependent on specialized knowledge in those narrow subject areas. Similarly. using the Carnegie typology it was possible to conclude that colleges that are simply branch campuses of other colleges or universities should not be included because of the likely result that recruitment and advancement procedures of the parent college or univer- sity would be multiplied in the final results by the number of branch campuses included in the study. Even with these deletions. there remained several thousand colleges in the United States that could have been included. It did not appear feasible to undertake the study with participants from such a large number of institutions. The subject of the study-~career preparation of college administrators--suggests that participants should be individuals who have advanced in their careers. As noted in Chapter II. the theoretical framework of the study revolves around the idea that career progression in higher education begins with the faculty member trained only in his/her respective discipline. followed by service as a department or division chair. and ultimately moving into a presidency. If the accuracy of that career model was to be tested. it seemed axiomatic that data needed to be gathered from those who had reached the upper rungs of that ladder: presidents and chief academic officers. If those were the individuals to contact. it also appeared fruitful to determine how such individuals came to their current Positions. Ferrari (1968) found that almost a third of college presidents were promoted from within their current institution. and 47 Socolow (1978) found that applicants for upper-level college adminis- trative positions tended to come from the same section of the country. These data suggested that a study of a geographical section of the country would provide useful information about the regional pool of job applicants for upper-level positions. as well as those who actually hold those jobs in a geographic area. It was hoped a study of midwest- ern colleges would provide useful information about college administra- tors in the Midwest. While the assumption of a regional job market appears consis- tent with personal observation and experience. it does not appear to be congruent with the nature of the labor pool for the major research and teaching universities. These institutions are much more national in scope and appear much more likely to attract a national pool of candi- dates for top positions. The Midwest was thus identified as the region to be studied. with the exclusion of institutions with a national reputation as research and graduate centers. In two states in that region. Indiana and Wisconsin. special problems existed. Indiana has only one public community college. and the two major research universities have branches widely distributed across the state. Wisconsin has an exten- sive system of branches of the University of Wisconsin. as well as a number of technical colleges that do not compare well with community colleges in other states. ‘The decision was therefore made to restrict the states to be covered in the Midwest to Michigan. Ohio. and Illi- nois. 48 As noted in Chapter II. many studies have been done of administrators in public colleges and universities. somewhat fewer in private colleges. substantially fewer of community college administra- tors. but none has been done of administrators from all three types of institutions in the same study. One of the reasons noted earlier for failing to include respondents from diverse types of higher educational institutions is the large number of institutions and therefore the number of administrators involved. Because this project was regional in scope and because it appeared interesting to look for differences between administrators in various types of institutions. the decision was made to contact people at public. private. and public community colleges in the three states of the Midwest. Wining Hypothesjs_1, Males will constitute at least 855 of all college administrators surveyed. . The median age of collegeladministrators will be from 46 to 55. Hypothesis_1. At least 955 of the presidents of four-year colleges will have earned the doctorate. . At least 605 of the presidents of community colleges will have earned the doctorate. W. At least 675 of presidents of community colleges with the doctorate will have received it in education or adminis- tration. . No single academic discipline will be found to be the field of doctoral preparation of more than 305 of presidents of four-year colleges. W. Immediately before taking their current position. a majority of presidents at all types of colleges will have been employed at different. but functionally similar. institutions. 49 . A majority of all administrators will have taught as their first paid job in higher education. H1291h§§1§_2. At least 755 of administrators in four-year col- leges will have taught as their first paid job in higher education. . At least 505 of administrators at four-year colleges will have taught a college class in the last Year. flypojhesjsjj. Fewer than 505 of community college administrators will have taught as their first job in higher education. MW. Fewer than 505 of community college administrators will have taught a college class in the last year. .flypgthes1s_13. At least 505 of college presidents at all types of colleges will be found to have a career pattern that corresponds to the presidential career ladder model. .flypgjh§§1§_14. At least 755 of the presidents of four-year colleges will identify the presidential career ladder model as accurately reflecting their own careers. W. At least 755 of the college administrators who have taken courses in education or administration will conclude that the courses were extremely helpful. very helpful. or helpful to carry- ing out their duties. .flypgthe§1§_16. A majority of college administrators who did not have the doctorate in education or administration at the time of appointment to their current position will feel that they were not very well prepared or not prepared at all for their current duties when they first assumed office. .flypgthe51§_ll. A majority of college administrators will consider it extremely important. very important. or important that a person preparing for a position such as theirs compflete a doctoral-level program in education or administration. Eud11n9_L1§t§ Various lists of names of colleges and universities exist. Numerous professional organizations have developed lists of various kinds of administrators. Unfortunately. there is no common terminology or criteria regarding job titles between colleges. Each directory that 50 is available was completed in a somewhat different manner. using procedural techniques that matched the particular needs and wishes of the group or organization compiling the directory. After reviewing numerous directories and listings. it was concluded that the 1285_fljgher Education Directory would be used as the master list for this study. This directory had several advantages: (1) It has built its listing of colleges and universities from the lists of accredited institutions of various accrediting bodies; (2) the publishers have a reputation for aggressively contacting and recontacting all accredited colleges and universities to insure that the directory is comprehensive; (3) using short job descriptions. each institution is asked to designate the person who best fits that description. regardless of job title; and (4) all of the data are gathered in the same time interval. using the same methodology. It seemed particularly helpful to use the institu- tions' own identification of people in jobs. rather than attempting to rely on job titles for comparison when such titles may have limited comparative value from one institution to another. Using the Carnegie Commission list as a starting point and adapting that list of institutions to be included in the survey due to enrollment declines.lclosure of some institutions. and the founding of some new colleges. a final list of colleges and universities was iden- tified. (See Appendix A for a complete list of all institutions con- tacted.) 51 W The questionnaire and a cover letter (co-authored by Dr. Lawrence Lezotte. Chairman of the Department of Educational Adminis- tration at Michigan State University) were sent to the presidents and chief academic officers of 176 colleges in the Midwest on March 20. 1985. Included in the mailing were the cover letter. a self-addressed business reply envelope. and the questionnaire. The outside mailing address on the envelope. the letterhead. and the questionnaire all contained identifying wording that made it clear that the survey was affiliated with Michigan State University. A copy of the question- naires is included as Appendix C. Slightly more than two weeks later (April 8. 1985). a follow-up letter was sent reminding recipients of the earlier request and asking them to complete and return the questionnaire as soon as possible. On April 29. 1985. a third letter was sent. along with another copy of the questionnaire and a self-addressed business reply envelope. Copies of the various letters are included in Appendix D. The cooperation and assistance from participants were excel- lent. Tables 1 and 2 present the patterns of responses to the various mailings. The overall response rate seemed very satisfactory for a mailed questionnaire. It should be noted. however. that the final results contain proportionately more responses from chief academic officers than presidents. Several presidents indicated in handwritten notes on their questionnaires that they wanted to provide more information. but 52 time made it impossible to do so. It is assumed that time pressure on college presidents is one explanation for the difference in response rates. Table l.--Response rate to survey. Mailing 5 Returned Cumulative 5 First 46.3 (163) 46.3 (163) Second 4.5 ( 16) 50.8 (179) Third 18.7 ( 66) 69.6 (245) Table 2.--Response rate for college administrators. by type of college. Chief Academic Type of College Presidents Officers Community colleges (of 74 colleges contacted) 62.2 ( 46) 68.9 ( 51) Private colleges (of 75 colleges contacted) 57.3 ( 43) 80.0 ( 60) Public colleges (of 28 colleges contacted) 64.3 ( 18) 78.6 ( 22) Total (of 176 colleges contacted) 60.8 (107) 75.6 (133) WWW The questionnaire used in this project draws heavily on a questionnaire designed by Moore et a1. (nut). In several cases. 53 questions were modified because of the differing needs of the two studies. Once the questionnaire was developed in draft form. it was reviewed by Dr. Gene Packwood. Director of Research and Development at Delta College. who has extensive background in the design and use of mailed questionnaires. Based on that advice. the questionnaire was further modified for easier reading and understanding. particularly in the initial sections that solicit demographic data. A number of Delta College administrators were asked to complete various versions of the questionnaire. Following completion of the instrument. each respondent was asked to go over each item individually with the writer and comment on its readability. clarity. and the ease of understanding the information being requested. Because of the active involvement of the Delta staff who would otherwise be sent a copy of the questionnaire in the survey. a judgment was made to exclude Delta officials from the study. The questionnaires sent to presidents and chief academic officers were identical except in two aspects: They were printed on different colored paper to make the initial task of sorting responses easier. and the sets of career ladder models were modified to more accurately correspond to the two groups of respondents The career ladder models correspond to several perceptions of the career paths that college administrators are most likely to have followed to arrive at their current positions. Because the chief academic officer has not yet reached the career point of a college presidency. it was decided to print two versions of the questionnaire--one with the career model 54 including the position of president. which was sent to college presidents. and the second showing the top position in the model as dean or vice-president. In all other aspects the questionnaires were identical. Was: The plan for conducting this study was described in written form and submitted to the Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects at Michigan State University to be certain it conformed to legal and ethical standards. The Committee approved the plan as proposed (see Appendix E). The project was carried out as outlined in the plan. In all communications with participants. they were assured of confidentiality of response. ‘They were also advised that the top corner of the questionnaire had a box in which they could print their name and college as a way to have their name removed from the mailing list and therefore spare themselves further unsolicited mail and the project the cost of unnecessary follow-up mailings. 'The name and address data were only used for that purpose. No respondents are identified by name or institution in this paper. and grouped data are used throughout to insure that no responses can be attributed to specific individuals. The final page of the questionnaire contained several open- ended questions. All responses to those questions are recorded in Appendix B. In a few cases. words that might identify a person or college are omitted from the responses. 55 W Once the flow of questionnaires had stopped. the returned questionnaires were coded by the writer using the coding manual included as Appendix F. The coded questionnaires were then key punched and verified by the professional data-entry staff of the Computer Services Department at Del ta College. The data were entered and stored in a Prime 750 computer system. All analysis of data was completed on that system. using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software package that provides frequency tables and most of the standard statistical tests used in educational research. Statistics The respondents involved in this project represented poten- tial ly all of the research universe of interest to the inquiry. As noted in the section on response rates. not all possible respondents completed questionnaires. but all were contacted and encouraged to participate In view of the high percentage of returns of the ques- tionnaire. it was assumed for the purposes of this research that respondents and nonrespondents were similar. Care should be taken in evaluating the results because no additional interviews or follow-ups were done to confirm that respondents and nonrespondents were similar. Usually in studies of this type the data come from a sample of a larger research population. Most statistics measure samples of a research population to determine the likelihood that other samples from the same population would produce comparable results (Glass 8 Hopkins. 56 1984). Normally. data are reported from the sample. and efforts are made to generalize to the larger research population. In that process. null hypotheses are prepared and tested using one of several mathemati- cal formulas. Only after computing a score with the appropriate for- mula and comparing that score with a standardized table is it possible to conclude whether the initial hypothesis should be taken seriously or discounted (Craig. 1985). This process determines the statistical significance of the data. When data from the entire research population are being consid- ered instead of from a sample. the process is much simpler. The data are summarized in an appropriate manner and the results compared with a hypothesis There is no need to perform further mathenatical calcula- tions to general ize about the trends of the responses because the data already reflect the total research population as reported. This pro- cess produces what is called in this paper conceptual significance (Craig. 1985). In this paper much of the demographic data is reported and compared with hypotheses to determine if the trends are conceptually significant. When specific hypotheses contained differences between segnents of the population or variables to be tested. the hypotheses were tested by computing chi-square scores and using the .05 level as the decision point. In those cases statistical significance was determined and reported. The justification for using chi-square (or any statistic designed to measure differences in samples) is that it can be argued 57 that current college officers are not the entire research population. Some might view future and past college officials as part of the population as well. Other colleges might also be considered part of the research population as they are founded in the future or qualify for inclusion in a study of this type as a result of enrollment increases to the lower size limits of this study. While this position does not appear compelling. the reporting of the test statistic does provide the reader with one more tool to evaluate trends in the data. it inspires more confidence in the findings as a result of the addi- tional analysis. and it puts the results in a more familiar style for the reader. WW To evaluate the pattern of subject-matter majors of partici- pants. it was necessary to develop a system for grouping the data reported. Because several studies reported in Chapter II used such groupings. the system employed in this paper closely paralleled those noted. The discipline of history presented a special problem because it has been considered in some studies as a social science and in others in humanities. In this study. history was treated as a social science In addition. respondents reported some very specific disci- plines (bionucleonics and medieval literature) not mentioned in pre- vious studies Judgnents had to be made as to the most appropriate classification for them (the decision was to pl ace them in science and humanities. respectively). The list below indicates the way major fields of study were grouped in the paper. 58 Science: includes biology. bionucleonics. chemistry. geography. geology. physiology. physics. zoology. and astronomy. Social Science: includes economics. history. political science. psy- chology. public affairs. and sociology. Humanities: includes communications. German. language. music. medieval literature. English. philosophy. speech. theology. and ministry. Education: includes educational administration. college administra- tion. community education. community college. educational curriculum. guidance and counseling. higher education. math education. educational leadership. educational psychology. student personnel. science educa- tion. and teacher education. imam A questionnaire was developed and sent to all presidents and chief academic officers of public and private colleges and community colleges in the Midwest. Three mailings produced a final response rate of 69.65. The questionnaire was developed from one used in a previous study. expert advice. and trial completions by a group of college administrators. All applicable standards of confidentiality were observed in the project. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the data and. in cases where specific hypotheses required cross- tabulations. chi-square scores were computed to test the null hypothe- ses. The .05 level was used as the judgnent point concerning the presence or absence of a statistically significant relationship. CHAPTER IV RESULTS OF THE DATA ANALYSIS Introduction This project provided the opportunity to test a number of hypotheses concerning career preparation and career paths in higher education. In the pages that follow. data are presented that pertain to each of the hypotheses stated in Chapter I. At the outset. it may be helpful to explain one aspect of the data that are reported in the following pages. A total of 245 indi- viduals responded to the survey. Unfortunately. not all respondents answered all questions. In some cases the questions were written in such a manner that respondents were to ignore the question if it did not apply. In other cases respondents simply chose not to answer a specific question for unknown reasons. The tables presented at various points in this chapter contain a notation at the bottom of the number of respondents (N) who answered a particular question. BequtuLthejtudx We The literature reported in Chapter II contained numerous descriptions of a traditional career path in college administration that begins with the movement of faculty to administrative positions 59 60 without specific preparation or training for their administrative tasks. Some authors have viewed this career path as being the result of an "old boy" network in which initial appointment relies less on job-related credentials than friendships and intangible criteria. The responses from college administrators to this survey confirmed that women continue to be substantially underrepresented in the upper levels of college administration. It was hypothesized that males would constitute at least 855 of all college administrators surveyed. The data in Table 3 indicate that males represented more than 855 of those responding to the survey. Therefore. the hypothesis was confirmed. Table 3.--Gender of midwestern college administrators. Gender 5 of Respondents Male 89.5 (214) Female 10.4 ( 25) Total 99.9a (239) N = 239 aDoes not total 100.05 due to rounding. Even though no hypotheses were developed on the subject. it was interesting to break down the gender data on the basis of the jobs respondents currently held and the type of institution in which they 61 were currently employed. ‘Tables 4 and 5 provide the results of that analysis. Table 4.--Gender of midwestern college administrators. by job. Chief Gender Presidents (5) Academic Officers (5) Male 92.5 ( 99) 87.6 (113) Female 7.5 ( 8) 12.4 ( 16) Total 100.0 (107) . 100.0 (129) N = 236 Table 5.--Gender of midwestern college administrators. by type of college. Public Private Community Gender Colleges (5) Colleges (5) Colleges (5) Male 92.7 (38) 83.2 ( 84) 94.8 (91) Female 7.3 ( 3) 16.8 ( 17) 5.2 ( 5) Total 100.0 (41) 100.0 (101) 100.0 (96) N = 238 The small cell sizes that result when the data are divided prompt some caution in interpreting the results. It generally appeared that there was little difference in the gender of college presidents and chief academic officers. Similarly. both public and community 62 colleges appeared to have comparable proportions of male and female administrators. Private colleges deviated somewhat from other types of colleges. However. the presence of a few all-female colleges among the private colleges surveyed may explain some>of the differences identi- fied in the table. mm Data from several studies showed that the average age of college administrators was about 50. ‘The hypothesis developed for this study suggested that the median age of college administrators would fall in the 46 to 55 age category. Table 6 reports the age distribu- tions of the midwestern college officials who completed the survey. Table 6.--Age of midwestern college administrators. Age 5 of Respondents Cumulative 5 26 to 35 1.7 ( 4) 1.7 ( 4) 36 to 45 27.2 ( 66) 28.9 ( 70) 46 to 55 50.4 (122) 79.3 (192) 56 to 65 19.4 ( 47) 98.7 (239) Over 65 1.2 ( 3) 99.9a (242) N = 242 Median age = 50.18 aDoes not total 100.05 due to rounding. The median age of college administrators clearly fell in the 46 to 55 age group. Therefore. the hypothesis was confirmed. The actual 63 median age of respondents was unusually close to the median age of 50 reported in other studies. As in the previous section. responses were cross-tabulated by Job and type of institution to determine if any unusual patterns emerged. Because no hypothesis was stated concerning this tabulation and because cells in the tables contained fewer than five responses. in violation of the assumption of the chi-square statistic. no further statistical analysis of the results was done. Table 7.--Age of midwestern college administrators. by Job. Chief Age Presidents (5) Academic Officers (5) 26 to 35 0 3.0 ( 4) 36 to 45 11.4 ( 12) 40.6 ( 54) 46 to 55 56.2 ( 59) 44.4 ( 59) 56 to 65 30.5 ( 32) 11.3 ( 15) Over 65 1.9 ( 2) 0.7 ( 1) Total 100.0 (105) 100.0 (133) Median age 53.3 47.44 N = 238 The age distributions of chief academic officers and presidents differed. The data suggested that chief academic officers were younger than the presidents for whom they worked. 'This pattern. while not the subject of a hypothesis at the outset of the project. was consistent with the career ladder model. which identifies a progression from faculty to administrative positions and then to president. 64 Table 8.--Age of midwestern college administrators. by type of college. Public Private Community Age Colleges (5) Colleges (5) Colleges (5) 26 to 35 2.4 ( l) 1.9 ( 2) 1.0 ( 1) 36 to 45 11.9 ( 5) 30.1 ( 31) 31.3 (30) 46 to 55 54.8 (23) 45.6 ( 47) 53.1 (51) 56 to 65 30.9 (13) 20.4 ( 21) 13.5 (13) Over 65 0 1.9 ( 2) 1.0 ( 1) Total 100.0 (42) 99.9a (103) 99.9a (96) Median age 52.5 49.9 49.5 N = 241 aDoes not total 100.05 due to rounding. While administrators at all types of colleges surveyed clus- tered in the 46 to 55 age group. those employed in public colleges tended to be somewhat older than their counterparts in private and community colleges. In view of the relatively recent founding of several community colleges studied. it is not unexpected that community college administrators would be somewhat younger than administrators in other colleges. The race of college administrators was not considered as a focus of the study. However. a question to determine the race of respondents was included among the demographic items in the question- naire because it is a routine demographic inquiry for a survey such as this. The responses from that question are reported here because they 65 may provide helpful supplemental information. The data gathered in response to the question are reported in Table 9. It is clear that the vast majority of college administrators responding to the survey were white. Table 9.--Race of midwestern college administrators. Race 5 Black 3.3 ( 8) White 95.0 (229) Other 1.7 ( 4) Total 100.0 (241) N = 241 W This researcher attempted. in a preliminary way. to determine if the demographic characteristics of midwestern college administrators differed from those cited in earlier national reports. The data gathered in this survey suggested that earlier pictures of college administrators as male. 50 years of age. remain accurate. Analysis by type of job suggested that chief academic officers tended to be some- what younger and slightly more balanced between the sexes than college presidents. The data did indicate that college administrators in the Midwest were overwhelmingly white. as well. All of the conclusions in this section were based on conceptual rather than statistical signifi- cance. 66 W W The literature cited in Chapter II suggested that virtually all presidents of four-year colleges possess the doctorate degree in an academic discipline. with no single discipline dominating as the pre— ferred area of preparation. In contrast earlier reports of community college presidents showed them having the doctorate in smaller propor- tions. with many earning it in education. To begin the analysis. Tables 10 and 11 simply display the data. controlling for the variables most frequently referred to in this study. The data in Table 10 indicate that presidents and chief aca- demic officers possessed the doctorate in comparable percentages. The conceptual significance of this pattern is that the substantial major- ity of top college officials possessed the doctorate. with little difference between the top two positions. Table 10.--College administrators who hold doctoral degrees. by job. Chief Have Degree? Presidents (5) Academic Officers (5) Yes 85.2 ( 92) 86.5 (115) No 14.8 ( 16) 13.5 ( 18) Total 100.0 (108) 100.0 (133) N = 241 X2 = .093; not significant at the .05 level. 67 Inspection of Table 11 confirms that almost all administrators in public colleges possessed the doctorate. a slightly lower proportion of private college officers had the degree. and a much smaller percent- age of community college officials had the doctorate. Table 11.--College administrators who hold the doctorate. by type of college. Community Private Public Have Degree? College (5) College (5) College (5) Yes 77.6 (76) 90.4 ( 94) 97.6 (41) No 22.4 (22) 9.6 ( 10) 2.4 ( 1) Tbtal 100.0 (98) 100.0 (104) 100.0 (42) N = 244 The hypotheses developed to be tested in this aspect of the study focused on presidents in various types of institutions because the few studies done in the past were concerned with that office. It was hypothesized that 955 of four-year college presidents would have an earned doctorate. and 605 of community college presidents. It is conceptually significant that. counter to expectations. slightly less than 955 of four-college presidents had the doctorate and more than 605 of community college presidents (see Table 12L In the way that data have been interpreted in this study because the study involved the entire research population rather than samples of that population. the findings were conceptually significant. In the 68 statistical sense. as noted in the test statistic. the difference between the response patterns of the two groups was not significantly different. Table 12.--Do college presidents hold the doctorate? Have Degree? Community Four-Year College (5) College (5) Yes 80.4 (37) 90.2 (55) No 19.6 ( 9) 9.8 ( 6) Total 100.0 (46) 100.0 (61) N = 107 x2 = 1.995. not significant at the .05 level. The data presented in Tables 10 through 12 showed that the vast majority of college administrators in all types of colleges possessed the doctoral degree. In previously published reports. community college presidents had earned the doctorate much less frequently than other types of college presidents. The data in Table 12 indicated that community college presidents did possess the degree in higher numbers than reported in earlier studies. The gap in formal education between community college and four-year college presidents has narrowed. It appears clear that possession of the doctorate is an expected condition for any college presidency. In the next section. the major area in which the doctorate was earned is examined. Before turning to the topic of areas of prepara- tion of respondents. however. it may be interesting to consider briefly 69 the specific institution at which the doctorate was earned. No hypothesis was developed or literature presented on this subject because it did not seem central to the inquiry. The response pattern was interesting. however. Respondents were asked to indicate the college or university from which they had received their doctoral degrees. A wide variety of universities were identified. The most frequently mentioned institu- tions are shown in Table 13. Table 13.--Leading doctoral-degree-granting institutions of presidents and chief academic officers in midwestern colleges. University Number of Respondents Michigan State University University of Michigan Wayne State University University of Illinois Indiana University Northwestern University Ohio State University Harvard University University of Chicago University of Iowa dam U'IU'IU'IGGONON It should be pointed out. as previously noted in Chapter III. that the letterhead. envelopes. and questionnaires used all identified Michigan State University as being institutionally involved in this study; {Alumni of the university would be expected to respond to the survey in higher proportions than graduates of other institutions 70 because of institutional loyalties. Even with that caveat. the fre- quency with which Michigan StatelJniversity was listed as the institu- tion that granted doctoral degrees to presidents and chief academic officers of midwestern colleges was striking. AW 921W The studies reported in Chapter II suggested that no single academic discipline has served as the preferred route of college presidents. once beyond the colonial period when the ministry was the preferred route. lhe'studies did suggest that community college presi- dents. because of the different environment in which they function and the availability of special doctoral programs for community college personnel in the past. were much more likely to have earned a degree in education. It was hypothesized that at least 675 of presidents of community colleges would have received the doctorate in the fields of education or administration. and no more than 305 of presidents of four-year colleges would be found to have earned the doctorate in a single academic discipline. The doctoral areas of college administra- tors are presented in Tables 14. 15. and 16. 71 Table 14.--Doctora1 degree areas of community college administrators. Chief Subject Presidents (5) Academic Officers (5) Education 86.5 (32) 81.6 (31) All others 13.5 ( 5) 18.4 ( 7) Total 100.0 (37) 100.0 (38) N = 75 Table 15.--Doctora1 degree areas of private college administrators. Chief Subject Presidents (5) Academic Officers (5) Science 5.3 ( 2) 20.0 (11) Social science 23.7 ( 9) 18.2 (10) Humanities 21.1 ( 8) 21.8 (12) Education 39. (15) 34.5 (19) All others 10.5 ( 4) 5.5 ( 3) Total 100.1a (38) 100.0 (55) N = 93 6Does not total 100.05 due to rounding. 72 Table 16.--Doctora1 degree areas of public college administrators. Chief Subject Presidents (5) Academic Officers (5) Science 6.3 ( 1) 36.4 ( 8) Social science 25.0 ( 4) 13.6 ( 3) Humanities 31.3 ( 5) 27.3 ( 6) Education 37.5 ( 6) 13.6 ( 3) All others 0.0 9.1 ( 2) Total 100.1a (16) 100.0 (22) N = 38 aDoes not total 100.05 due to rounding. The nature of the data and the response pattern (several table cells with fewer than five responses) dictated that the hypotheses be evaluated by determining conceptual significance rather than statis- tical significance. The pattern of areas of study of community college presidents was consistent with the hypothesis. It was postulated that two-thirds of community college presidents would be found to have taken their doctoral degrees in education or administration. and the data revealed that the proportion was actually 86.55. Both private and public college presidents had earned their doctorates in a variety of disciplines. as anticipated. It was hypothesized that no single academic area would be found to be the field of doctoral preparation of more than 305 of presidents of four- year colleges. The data in Tables 15 and 16 indicated that among both private and public college presidents. the field of education was the 73 subject area in which more than 305 of respondents had earned doctoral degrees. In addition. 31.35 of public college presidents had earned their doctoral degrees in humanities. These data necessitated the rejection of the hypothesis. There existed considerable diversity in the subject area of doctoral preparation of midwestern college presi- dents. The diversity was not quite as great as expected. Education was the area of preparation of more four-year college presidents than expected. In this section an effort has been made to clarify the amount and type of formal academic preparation presidents and chief academic officers received. Previous studies have suggested that far fewer community college presidents obtained the doctoral degree than four— year college presidents. The data gathered in this study indicated that more community college presidents possessed the doctorate than had been reported in earlier studies. Previous studies have suggested that many of .the community college presidents with the doctorate earned it in education. whereas their counterparts in four-year colleges earned their degrees in such a variety of academic fields that no one field dominated. ‘The data in this study did indicate a wide distribution of areas of preparation. However. education was found to be the major field of concentration of more than a third of public and private college presidents. 74 W W The final area for which demographic data were gathered about college administrators in the Midwest involved the observation that movement into the position of college president usually requires changing colleges and that a great similarity would be found between the previous college and the current college of presidents. At least one author cited in Chapter II noted that colleges play a socializing role for other colleges by inculcating the values of academe into adminis- trative officers. The officers who display those values receive strong endorsement from their home campuses when they apply to similar col- leges for higher positions. Despite this socialization. colleges con- ti nue to look outside their own personnel when the president's chair is vacant. The questionnaire contained two separate items to determine if these perceptions were accurate. The first required respondents to indicate where they had been employed before taking their current job. The second asked them if they had been employed outside their current institution before taking their current job. to indicate if their previous college was similar to the one at which they were presently employed. Tables 17 and 18 contain the data gathered in response to those questions. Again. the demographic nature of the data did not necessitate completion of more sophisticated statistical tests to evaluate the hypotheses. 75 Table l7.--How respondents had been employed before current job. How Employed Presidents (5) Academiccgfgicers (5) On faculty here 1.0 ( 1) 18.9 ( 24) On faculty. other college 7.1 ( 7) 14.9 ( 19) At current college. other administrative job 27.3 (27) 34.6 (44) Different job. different college 56.6 (56) 27.6 ( 35) Outside education 8.1 ( 8) 3.9 ( 5) Total 100.1a(99) 99.9a(127) N = 226 aDoes not total 100.05 due to rounding. Table l8.--Similarity of current institution to previous institutions of respondents. Chief Similar College? Presidents (5) Academic Officers (5) Yes 64.4 (47) 46.6 (27) No 35.6 (26) 53.4 (31) Total 100.0 (73) 100.0 (58) N = 131 76 It appears clear that college presidents moved into their jobs from outside their current institutions. Only 28.35 moved into their current job from either a faculty or an administrative position within the same institution. Almost two-thirds of college presidents were members of the faculty or administrators at different colleges before taking their current assignment. In contrast to a heavy reliance on outside people to fill college presidencies. over half of the chief academic officers responded that they came to their present job from within their insti- tutions. ‘This pattern suggests some interesting preliminary insights into the next section on the presidential career ladder. Those college presidents who were hired from outside their colleges were most often employed previously in colleges similar to the one that they now headed. The proportion of presidents with that pattern was sufficient. on a conceptual basis. to confirm the hypothe- sis. ‘The response pattern of chief academic officers was quite differ- ent from that of presidents. Slightly less than half of the academic officers came from similar colleges. The responses to questions of previous employment confirmed that presidents were most frequently brought in from outside and from similar colleges. ‘The experience of chief academic officers did not parallel that of presidents. However. the absence of previously pub- lished data made it difficult to determine if this contrasting pattern was consistent with other time periods. 77 WW.) W142i. W This section of the paper focused on several demographic characteristics of presidents and chief academic officers in various types of colleges in the Midwest. The data gathered in the study indicated that the demographic picture of these types of officials as male and about 50 years of age was accurate. Someradditional data were reported to broaden the picture to include the characteristic of those officials being mostly white. A second demographic pattern studied was the formal academic preparation of administrators in the various types of colleges. The literature suggested that far fewer community college presidents would possess the doctorate than their counterparts at four-year colleges. The data from this study demonstrated that somewhat fewer community college presidents did have the degree. but the difference between the two groups of presidents was not found to be statistically significant. The issue of formal preparation was also examined in terms of the field of study in which college administrators received their doctoral degrees. The literature suggested that community college administrators tended to take their coursework in education. whereas four-year administrators studied in a wide variety of academic disci- plines. with none dominating. ‘The data from this study as to the areas in which community college administrators earned their degrees were consistent with expectations. However. many of the four-year college administrators also took their degrees in education. The 78 administrators from four-year colleges did demonstrate a variety of fields of preparation. with no single area being cited by a majority of respondents. The final characteristic of college administrators studied in this section demonstrated that presidents tended to come from outside their current institution. rather than through internal appointment. and the types of colleges they previously served were similar to their current colleges. The data from this survey indicated that only about a quarter of college presidents were promoted from within. Those presidents who came from the outside reported in substantial numbers that their previous institutions were similar to their current colleges. In total. the demographic characteristics reported in Chapter II from other studies seemed quite consistent with the data gathered in this project. ‘To assist the reader with comparisons of the findings to the hypotheses developed at the start of the study. Table 19 indicates the initial hypotheses and the judgments reached concerning their acceptability in light of the data. 79 Table 19.--Hypotheses and conclusions of Section 1. 1. Males will constitute at least 855 of all college administrators surveyed. Decision: Accept the hypothesis. The median age of college administrators will be from 46 to 55. Decision: Accept the hypothesis. At least 955 of the presidents of four-year colleges will have earned the doctorate. Decision: Reject the hypothesis. At least 605 of the presidents of community colleges will have earned the doctorate. Decision: Accept the hypothesis. At least 675 of presidents of community colleges with the doctorate will have received it in education or administration. Decision: Accept the hypothesis. No single academic discipline will be found to be the field of doctoral preparation of more than 305 of presidents of four-year colleges. Decision: Reject the hypothesis. Immediately before taking their current position. a majority of presidents at all types of colleges will have been employed at different. but functionally similar. institutions. Decision: Accept the hypothesis. We: The second major focus of the study was to examine the career paths that respondents followed to arrive at their current position. The literature suggested that the most common point of entry to higher education employment for college administrators was as a faculty mem- her. A hypothesis was developed that a majority of survey respondents would have begun their work in higher education as a faculty member. The data in Table 20 confirm that well over a majority of the adminis- trators surveyed started their higher education careers on the faculty. 80 Table 20.--First full-time job in higher education of college administrators. First Job 5 Teaching. college or university 62.4 (146) Administration. college or university 37.6 ( 88) Total 100.0 (234) N = 234 Other studies cited in Chapter II suggested that the pattern of introduction to higher education as a faculty member would be particu- larly pronounced among administrators in four-year colleges. It was hypothesized that 755 of administrators in baccalaureate institutions would be found to have started their higher education careers in a teaching role. It was further hypothesized that less than 505 of community college administrators taught as their first job in higher education. Table 21 presents the data gathered to test these hypoth- eses. Table 21.--First full-time job of college administrators in higher education. by type of college. Community Four-Year First Job College (5) College (5) Teaching. college or university 49.4 (44) 70.3 (102) Administration. college or university 50.6 (45) 29.7 ( 43) Total 100.0 (89) 100.0 (145) N = 234 x2 = 10.22. significant at the .01 level. 81 The proportion of similar career paths among four-year college administrators was less consistent than anticipated. Therefore. the hypothesis was rejected. Slightly less than 505 of community college administrators were employed for the first time in higher education as a teacher. Therefore. that hypothesis could be accepted. As the test statistic indicated. however. there was a statistically significant difference in the pattern of career beginnings of administrators from community colleges and four-year colleges. Despite the statistical judgments. the practical reality of these response patterns is that teaching is a common starting point in higher education for the person planning a career in college adminis- tration. whether at the community college or four-year college level. A second way to examine the accuracy of the perception that faculty service is appropriate background for a college administrator is to attempt to determine how many administrators continue to teach after going into administrative work. In this regard. teaching is viewed as an indication of a continuing interest in and commitment to teaching. Itlnust be immediately noted that an administrator deciding to teach may be motivated by many things: need for money. a desire to signa1 the faculty that teaching is still considered important by the administration. an attempt to stay aware of changing student attitudes. and so on. Teaching is included here as simply one piece of supporting data concerning the point of career origin of college administrators. It was initially hypothesized that at least 505 of four-year college administrators and less than 505 of community college administrators 82 would have taught a college class last year. Table 22 indicates the pattern of teaching activity of respondents. Table 22.--Teaching activity in previous year of college administra- tors. by type of college. Community Four-Year Taught Last Year? College (5) College (5) Yes 19.6 (19) 39.0 ( 57) No 80.4 (78) 60.9 ( 89) Total 100.0 (97) 99.9a(146) N = 243 x2 = 10.19. significant at the .01 level. aDoes not total 100.05 due to rounding. Four-year college administrators failed to teach last year in the proportions expected. Therefore. that hypothesis could be rejected. As anticipated. but much more consistently than anticipated. less than half of community college administrators taught last year. That pattern required acceptance of the hypothesis. The pattern of responses from the two sets of administrators was statistically sig- nificant at the .01 level. W In numerous articles cited in Chapter II. reference was made to a presidential career ladder that begins with service on the faculty. promotion to a department or division chair. further promotion to a 83 dean or vice-president. and ultimately appointment as a college presi- dent. This career path model has been identified by several authors as the most common route to a college presidency. It was noted in Chapter 11. based on logic or more recent analytical studies. that this concept may not be an accurate portrayal of the path by which college presi- dents commonly come to their positions. In the preceding section of this paper. data were reported from this study which revealed that about half of community college and almost three-quarters of four-year college administrators began their careers in a college-teaching situation. These data were consistent with the first part of the presidential career model. Data reported earlier from this study further indicated that more than half of col- lege administrators took doctoral degrees in academic disciplines that did not specifically prepare them for college administrative work. Community college administrators were the exception to the general pattern. The data presented to this point have helped to clarify various elements of the career history of college administrators. However. the writer has not directly addressed the question of the comparability of the presidential career ladder model with the actual career histories of survey respondents. To gather data that would focus specifically on the applicability of the model. a series of contrasting career models was developed and presented to questionnaire respondents to permit them to indicate which model most accurately reflected their experi- ence. It was considered necessary to develop the various models 84 because of the substantial methodological problems that would have been involved in attempting to interpret and compare lists of specific job titles held by respondents. Illustrative of the problem is the diffi- culty noted earlier in the study of understanding the plethora of job titles used in academe and accurately interpreting those titles in terms of career progression. If a respondent from one college reported moving from a departmental chair to dean. does that correspond to a respondent at another college who moved from a division chair to vice- president? The models were developed to reflect several common career patterns suggested in the literature. The various career models are included in the questionnaires in Appendix C. Model A presented the presidential career ladder that has been the subject of attention in this paper. Model 8 identified a career path that begins with entry- level administrative work in higher education and upward progression into other administrative jobs without any faculty experience. Model 0 suggested early career work outside of education and entry into higher education at a high level (dean or vice-president) and movement from there to a presidency. Model 0 suggested a variation on the theme of entry to higher education through teaching by identifying that the initial teaching job may have been in a K-12 setting. and progression into college teaching. administration. and ultimately a college presi- dency. Some of the literature on community college administrators suggested that this is a common career path. Model E also presented a career path that began with K-12 teaching. but subsequent steps 85 involved administrative positions in a K-12 system and then progression into higher education administration. In the 19605. when new community colleges were opening rapidly and experienced educational administra- tors were difficult to find to operate those colleges. there was some suggestion in the literature that this was a common career path by which administrators came to community colleges. Respondents were asked to circle the career model that most closely resembled their own career path and to note major variations from the model that approximated their career. Very few variations were noted. It should be mentioned again that the questionnaire was sent out in two forms. The form sent to college presidents showed the top rung of the career ladder as the college presidency. The top rung of the ladder in the version sent to chief academic officers was dean or vice-president. It was considered necessary to differentiate between the career models in this way because the focus of the study was on career histories rather than career goals or aspirations. Had the presidency been identified as the top rung of the career ladder for chief academic officers. it would have been necessary to explore the reasons people seek a college presidency. the proportion of college administrators who actually make it to the presidency. and other mat- ters that seemed tangential to the purposes of this study. Table 23 contains the data on career models from all respond- ents to the survey. Tables 24 and 25 contain the data broken down for presidents and chief academic officers. by type of college. It was hypothesized that at least 505 of college presidents at all types of 86 colleges would have a career path similar to the presidential career model (Model A). It was further hypothesized that 755 of four-year college presidents' careers would correspond to Model A. Table 23.--Career models of college administrators. Chief Career Model Presidents (5) Academic Officers (5) A (presidential career model) 42.2 ( 43) 63.8 ( 83) B (administrative career model) 32.4 ( 33) 20.0 ( 26) C (outside work career 7.8 ( 8) 1.5 ( 2) model) 0 (K-12 teaching to admin- istration model) 8.8 ( 9) 9.2 ( 12) E (K-12 to higher education administration model) 8.8 ( 9) 5.4 ( 7) Total 100.0 (102) 99.9“(130) N = 232 aDoes not total 100.0% due to rounding. 87 Table 24.--Career models of college presidents, by types of colleges. Community Four-Year Career Model College (5) College (5) A (presidential career model) 28.9 (13) 52.6 (30) B (administrative career model) 35.6 (16) 29.8 (17) C (outside work career model) 6.7 ( 3) 8.8 ( 5) 0 (K-12 teaching to administra- tion career model) 17.8 ( 8) 1.8 ( l) E (K-12 to higher education administration career model) 11.1 ( 5) 7.0 ( 4) Total 100.Ia(hs) 100.0 (57) N = 102 3Does not total 100.05 due to rounding. It appears clear from the data in these tables that the tradi- tional presidential career ladder model does not fit the experience of college presidents at the levels expected in the hypotheses. Both hypotheses were therefore rejected on the basis of their conceptual significance (or lack of same). Presidents of four-year colleges had followed a career trajectory that much more closely resembled the traditional model than had community college presidents. but almost half of four-year college presidents reported a different route to the presidency than the traditional model. Community college presidents almost as often came to their positions from a background spent essen- tially in administration. with little or no time spent in teaching. 88 Table 25.--Career models of chief academic officers. by types of colleges. Community Four-Year Career Model College (5) College (5) A (presidential career model) 45.1 (23) 75.9 (63) B (administrative career model) 29.4 (15) 15.5 (13) C (outside work career model) 1.9 ( l) 1.2 ( l) 0 (K-12 teaching to administra- tion career model) 15.7 ( 8) 4.8 ( 4) E (K-12 to higher education administration career model) 7.8 ( 4) 3.6 ( 3) Total 99.93151) 100.1ata4) N = 135 3Does not total 100.05 due to rounding. The presidential career ladder model (absent the top rung) seemed to fit the career of chief academic officers much better than presidents. Particularly in the case of four-year college academic officers. the fit was very substantial. Model A corresponded to the career histories of one of two four-year college presidents and three of four chief academic officers in four-year colleges. Despite the absence of conceptual significance. these levels of consistency were powerful indicators of the kinds of career paths most appropriate to persons considering a college presi- dency in a baccalaureate institution. It appears that community 89 college presidents as frequently came to their positions from the administrative staff as from the faculty. W0 W This section of the study has addressed the career paths of college administrators. It was anticipated that teaching would be the common point of entry to higher education. Administrators in four-year colleges were expected to be in substantial conformity to the presiden- tial career ladder model. with community college administrators some- what less likely to have started their careers in teaching. The data reported in this section indicated that the extent of a common career beginning point in college teaching was slightly less than anticipated. For both community college and four-year college administrators. many did begin with teaching. but not as many as suggested in earlier studies. A second approach used in this study to determine the impor- tance of college teaching to administrative careers was to ask how many administrators had taught in the last year. It was hypothesized that half or more of four-year college administrators would be found to have taught. and fewer than half of community college administrators. The data collected in this study revealed that somewhat fewer than half of four-year college administrators did teach. and far fewer than half of community college administrators. The third approach to understanding the routes by which college administrators came to their current positions was to construct five 90 career models and ask respondents to select the model that most accurately depicted their experience. with the opportunity provided for them to modify the printed models if their career histories varied substantially. It was hypothesized that the careers of 505 of college presidents would correspond to the presidential career ladder model. The data did not reflect that level of consistency in career histories. Community college presidents were much less likely to have followed the presidential career ladder than four-year college presidents. The purpose of this section was to attempt to understand the kinds of jobs most commonly held by college administrators in the past. to determine if there are common career paths. ‘The traditional model of college teaching as the point of entry was observed in fewer cases than previous studies would have suggested. Despite the lack of a commonly agreed upon career path for college administrators. college teaching is certainly a solid beginning point for the person consider- ing a career in college administration. Somewhat less common among community collegeladministrators was a beginning point in lower-level administrative work and progression through the administrative ranks. with no teaching experience. The nature of a study such as this is to provide a snapshot of reality at a particular time. It is not possible to chart changes in patterns because of the absence of longitudinal data. The data reported here concerning career paths hinted that changes may be occurring in types of career histories. as evidenced by the results of this study varying from those of earlier studies. Because of the 91 limitations of the research methodology. it was not possible to confirm or deny that such changes are occurring. Perhaps future studies can determine if changes are occurring in the kinds of career paths of college administrators. using some of the data reported here for com- parative purposes. Table 26 presents the hypotheses developed at the start of the study and reported on in this section. and the judgments made concerning their acceptability as a result of the data gathered in this project. Table 26.--Hypotheses and conclusions of Section 2. l. A majority of all administrators will have taught as their first paid job in higher education. Decision: Accept the hypothesis. 2. At least 755 of administrators in four-year colleges will have taught as their first paid job in higher education. Decision: Reject the hypothesis. 3. At least 505 of administrators at four-year colleges will have taught a college class in the last year; Decision: Reject the hypothesis. 4. Fewer than 505 of community college administrators will have taught as their first job in higher education. Decision: Accept the hypothesis. 5. Fewer than 505 of community college administrators will have taught a college class in the last year. Decision: Accept the hypothe- sis. 6. At least 505 of college presidents at all types of colleges will be found to have a career pattern that corresponds to the presidential career ladder model. Decision: Reject the hypothesis. 7. At least 755 of the presidents of four-year colleges will identify the presidential career ladder model as accurately reflecting their own careers. Decision: Reject the hypothesis. 92 W: A third major focus of this study was to determine the amount of academic preparation that college administrators received and their perception of the adequacy of that preparation. In previous sections academic preparation was considered only in terms of possession or failure to possess the doctorate degree in education or in other academic disciplines. In this section data are reported concerning courses that respondents may have taken and the perceived value of those courses to them. Each respondent to the survey was asked if he/she had ever taken a course in higher education administration. A total of 60.75 (148) reported that they had. If they indicated that they had taken at least one course. they were then asked to note how many courses they had taken in higher education administration. Table 27 contains the data on the number of courses taken by those completing the question- naire. The data indicated that about half of the respondents had taken seven or more courses in higher education administration. and more than a third had taken ten or more courses. The number of administrators who had taken several courses in higher education administration provided a reasonably sized group who had had multiple exposures to diverse course content. It was hypothesized that 755 of college administrators who had taken courses in education and administration would conclude that the courses had been extremely helpful. very helpful. or helpful to 93 carrying out their duties. Table 28 contains the results of the analysis of the value of those courses to college administrators. Table 27.--Number of courses taken in higher education administration. Courses Taken 5 Cumulative 5 10 or more 37.4 ( 55) 37.4 ( 55) 7 to 9 13.6 ( 20) 51.0 ( 75) 4 to 6 23.1 ( 34) 74.1 (109) l to 3 25.9 ( 38) 100.0 (147) Total 100.0 (147) N = 147 Table 28.--Value of higher education administration courses to college administrators. How Helpful? 5 Cumulative 5 Extremely helpful 17.0 ( 25) 17.0 ( 25) Very helpful 39.5 ( 58) 56.5 ( 83) Helpful 30.6 ( 45) 87.1 (128) Not very helpful 10.9 ( 16) 97.9 (144) Not helpful at all 2.0 ( 3) 100.0 (147) Total 100.0 (147) N = 147 The administrators who had taken courses in higher education administration generally found the courses of benefit to them in their work. The amount of agreement among administrators on this point permitted the hypothesis to be accepted. The strong consensus also suggested that aspiring college administrators should consider taking courses in higher education administration because of the value that this group of current administrators found in them. It should also be noted. however. that almost two-fifths of the respondents had not taken any courses in higher education administration. The next subject of inquiry was how well those administrators felt prepared for their duties when they moved into their current positions. if they had taken no formal academic coursework specifically designed to prepare them for college administration. It was hypothe- sized that a majority of college administrators who did not have the doctorate in education or administration at the time of appointment to their current position would feel that they were not very well prepared or not prepared at all for their current duties when they first assumed office. Table 29 contains the data gathered on that topic. Table 29.--Confidence in preparation for job of college administrators. by types of preparation. Had Education Did Not Have How Well Prepared for Job Doctorate Education Doctorate Extremely well. very well. or well prepared for job 99.1 (107) 94.1 (128) Not well or not prepared at all for job 0.9 ( 1) 5.9 ( 8) Total 100.0 (108) 100.0 (136) N = 244 95 The data in Table 29 indicated that those with the doctorate in education felt somewhat better prepared for their current duties when they began them. compared either with those without any doctorate or those with the doctorate in another discipline. The difference between the two sets of responses was so small. however. and in both cases current administrators overwhelmingly felt so prepared to assume their new duties. that the hypothesis was rejected because it lacked concep- tual significance. It appears safe to conclude that possession or the absence of the doctorate in education did not affect the sense of preparation of college administrators contacted in this survey. The final area in which data were collected involved the importance college administrators saw in a person preparing for a job such as their having a doctoral degree in education or administration. It was hypothesized that at least half of the administrators responding would consider it extremely important. very important. or important that such preparation occur. The data in Table 30 indicate that less than half of the respondents considered such preparation important. Therefore. the hypothesis was rejected. In view of the large number of respondents who did not possess such a degree themselves. and the large number who had actually never taken any courses in higher education administration. it perhaps should not be thought unusual that respond- ents would consider a doctorate in education unnecessary. Once again the findings forced the rejection of the hypothesis. but as a practical matter. almost half of current college administra- tors did consider it important that people preparing for positions such 96 as theirs possess a degree in education or administration. Prospective administrators debating appropriate types of career preparation should carefully consider this advice. even if it came from slightly less than half of the people responding to the survey. Table 30.--Importance of the doctorate to college administrators. Importance 5 Extremely important. very important. or important 48.7 (115) Not very important 34.3 ( 81) Not important at all 16.9 ( 40) Total 99.9a (236) N = 236 aDoes not total 100.05 due to rounding. The final focus of this paper was to report on the kind of preparation college administrators thought would have been most helpful to them before taking their current jobs. This information was sought in two ways. The questionnaire asked respondents. if they could have taken a one-year sabbatical before moving into their current job. what courses. specific skills. or knowledge would they have sought? Second. they were presented with the scenario of sitting down with a group of university faculty attempting to develop a curriculum to train college administrators for jobs such as theirs. and asking what advice 97 respondents would give concerning how the program should be structured. the courses that should be included. admission requirements. need for internships. the skills the students should be expected to master. and so on. The remainder of this section is devoted to reporting on the responses to those questions. By their nature. the questions noted above needed to be open ended to permit people answering to provide as much information as possible. in any format they desired. The negative aspect of using that type of question is that statistical comparisons of results are difficult. In the paragraphs that follow. the recurring themes from the responses are presented. Appendix 8 contains the actual responses taken from the questionnaires. Reference to them will permit the reader to determine if the major themes have been correctly identified and also provide a flavor of the actual comments. It should be underscored that the respondents to this survey occupied important positions on their respective campuses. with sub- stantial demands on their time. In numerous cases respondents noted that they simply did not have the time to answer therquestions as fully as they would like. For that reason. the responses should not be considered as comprehensive plans. but rather suggestions and key points that could be described in the limited time available to com- plete the questionnaire. In a few cases respondents obviously took a great deal of time to write detailed comments. The fact that all respondents completed the questionnaire is very much appreciated. 98 SMWLMWW The most common theme that emerged from reading the suggestions of college chief academic officers and presidents as to how they would have spent a sabbatical before stepping into their current position involved the development of management skills and knowledge. While specific topics varied from lists prepared by various respondents. many included knowledge of computers. finance. planning. legal issues. accounting. labor relations. and budgeting as the topics they would study. It is clear from the comments that many administrators had not been exposed to the management side of college administration in sufficient detail to feel comfortable with their knowledge level when they entered their current job. The fact that respondents were asked to hypothetically consider how they would use a sabbatical suggests that some care should be taken in evaluating the results. Without the assumption of a block of uncommitted time these respondents might have responded differently to the things they would have done to prepare for their positions. The second major theme that emerged from the responses was the need for more knowledge in human resource development. Many respond- ents noted the need to learn more about working with faculty specifi- cally. but also with all elements of the college community. Various respondents noted the need to better understand relationships with key groups outside the college (legislators. board members. alumni and/or donors. and the community). Some identified the need for a period for their own personal development (complete a degree. reread the classics. 99 read theory of educationL. These comments suggested that college administrators who completed the questionnaire felt it important to understand the people who work for them. as well as themselves. The third common thread in the comments of college administra- tors concerned the need for more knowledge about how to assess the need for college curricula. how to plan and develop curricula. and how to evaluate curricula. It is clear from the frequency with which these matters were mentioned that current and future educational college programs were an important concern of college officials. Determining how to measure the programs already in place and how to change them appeared to be a subject administrators wanted to know more about. The final theme that emerged from the comments was an interest in internships and personal visits to other institutions as a way to learn the things they needed to known Both the American Council on Education internship program and intensive Harvard summer workshops were mentioned as possible sources of valuable insights. Other respondents suggested travel to comparable campuses or visits with leading observers of higher education. The point of these suggestions seemed to be a desire to learn firsthand of new developments and strategies being used on other campuses. The second question assumed the hypothetical situation of the respondent sitting with a group of university faculty who were attempting to develop a curriculum to train administrators for jobs such as theirs. Respondents were asked what advice they would give concerning how the program should be structured. the courses that 100 should be included. admission requirements. need for internships. skills students would be expected to master. and so on. The responses provided were somewhat more detailed and complex than those to the previous question. Several administrators questioned the initial premises of the situation. Some argued that administration either could not be taught or could not be taught in a university classroom setting. Others questioned the capability of university faculty to conduct a solid program in administration because of lack of detailed and current knowledge about higher education administration. Most of the administrators responding to the survey appeared to favor a classroom component that blended courses in education (philoso- phy. curriculum development. instruction. learning theory. and evalua- tion) with courses in management (finance. personnel. legal. planning. marketing. and accounting). Several administrators noted that a basic understanding of education was essential to operate successfully in the field; however. without adequate knowledge of the administrative areas of a college the theory would be insufficient. As in the previous question. many respondents indicated that strong preparation was needed in management areas. Several noted that the program in higher education administration should begin with an MBA format. with adjustments to the particular needs of higher educa- tion. The case study method used in many business programs was par- ticularly recommended as a way to interject reality into classroom situations. In addition to the management areas noted in the previous 101 paragraph. mention was also frequently made of such areas as labor relations. supervision. wage and salary administration. fund account- ing. and evaluation. Many people expressed a strong commitment to an internship or mentoring component in the program. The opportunity to work with practicing administrators in a live setting was considered essential. It was recognized by several that internships create financial and time problems for some students. ‘The value attached to this kind of expe- rience was considered sufficient to override the logistical and human problems involved. A variation on the theme of the need for internships involved a recognition that movement into administration in some institutions required an academic-discipline degree and teaching experience. Educa- tional administration courses and programs for regular undergraduate and graduate students would not appear helpful or timely for those people moving through a traditional route to college administration. At the point such people make a decision to move into administration. or'just after doing so. the need for administrative information is acute. Short. intensive courses. perhaps in the summer. highly practi- cal in content. were suggested as being most likely to address the needs of people in this kind of circumstance. Regardless of the nature of the suggestions for the structure of a program. there seemed to be a great deal of agreement that those admitted to graduate programs in higher education administration should have some previous teaching or administrative experience in higher 102 education as a prerequisite for entry. There did not appear to be much support for permitting students to participate who simply wished to enroll in a graduate program immediately following completion of an undergraduate program. Other suggested admission requirements included finding people who are bright. gregarious. ambitious. and viewed as leaders by their contemporaries. Many people noted that a strong undergraduate program with heavy emphasis on liberal arts subjects should be required. The nature of administrative work suggested to several respond- ents that students in a proposed higher education administration program should receive instruction in public speaking. writing. inter- personal relations. organizational analysis. and public relations. Others expressed some doubts that personality traits could be taught or substantially altered by courses or seminars. In addition to the areas mentioned here. several respondents noted that their response to the question of how they would have spent a sabbatical before taking their current job contained many pertinent points for this question as well. 511mm The purpose of this section was to determine the amount of formal academic career preparation college administrators had received and the value of their preparation as they perceived it. The data indicated that more than half of the respondents had taken coursework in higher education administration. while half of that number had taken seven or more courses. Those who had taken courses in higher education 103 administration overwhelmingly found the courses helpful to carrying out their assigned duties. Almost all of the respondents felt well pre- pared when they took over their current job. with virtually no differ- ence between those with the education doctorate and those without. A majority of the college administrators responding to the survey also did not consider it important for a person preparing for a position such as theirs to hold the doctorate in education or administration. When asked how they would have spent a sabbatical year in preparation for taking on their current duties. the most common responses included development of management skills and knowledge. acquiring more knowledge of human resource development. more knowledge about college curricula. and learning these things and others through internships and personal visits as much as possible. If these respondents were to work with a group of university faculty on developing a program to train college administrators. they would advise a blend of educational and management courses. An oppor- tunity for an internship or mentoring with an established administrator seemed important to many administrators. In some college situations preparation for administration will likely continue to follow tradi- tional lines. In those cases some intensive management courses at the point of entry to administration would be most helpful. To make the program successful. it was commonly suggested that some work experience in teaching or administration be required of new students. Even with 104 all of these suggestions. some respondents doubted that administrative skills could be learned in a university program. The hypotheses tested in this section are presented in Table 31. along with the decision concerning their acceptance. Table 31.--Hypotheses and conclusions of Section 3. 1. At least 755 of the college administrators who have taken courses in education or administration will conclude that the courses were extremely helpful. very helpful. or helpful to carrying out their duties. Decision: Accept the hypothesis. A majority of college administrators who did not have the doctorate in education or administration at the time of appointment to their current position will feel that they were not very well prepared or not prepared at all for their current duties when they first assumed office. Decision: Reject the hypothesis. A majority of college administrators will consider it extremeJy important. very important. or important that a person preparing for a position such as theirs complete a doctoral-level program in education or administration. Decision: Reject the hypothesis. CHAPTER V SUMMARY. CONCLUSIONS. AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE AND FOR FURDHER RESEARCH Summarx The purpose of this project was to study administrators in higher education in the Midwest to attempt to determine their demo- graphic characteristics. the route they took to get to their current positions in terms of work experience and educational preparation. and to determine specifically how much academic preparation they had received and its value to them in their work. Finally. it was intended to give practicing administrators an opportunity to give suggestions on how college administrators should be prepared in the future. Questionnaires were sent to all presidents and chief academic officers in public. private. and community colleges in Ohio. Illinois. and Michigan (excluding the large research universities and their branches). Almost 705 completed the questionnaires and returned them. The demographic picture of college administrators suggested in the literature as males. 50 years of age. continues to be accurate. In addition. administrators were found to be overwhelmingly white. Counter to expectations. community college administrators most closely resembled the traditional demographic pattern of college 105 106 administrators. and private college administrators were least likely to resemble the traditional view. In previous studies it was reported that community college presidents had not earned the doctorate in similar proportions to other college presidents. The data in this study indicated that in the Midwest the gap between the two groups is much smaller than found in previous studies. Conversely. more presidents of four-year colleges were found to have the doctorate in education than expected. Education was the major doctoral field of the vast majority of community college administrators. Information on career histories was requested from respondents. and college presidents were usually determined to have been hired into their positions from outside the college. Their previous colleges tended to be similar to the institutions they presently served. The first job of more than half of the college administrators was teaching in a college setting. 'This pattern was particularly pronounced among administrators in four-year colleges. Less than half of college admin- istrators taught last year; However. four-year college administrators were much more likely to do so than those from community colleges. Through the development of five career models. respondents were able to summarize the path their career had followed. Less than a third of community college presidents began in teaching and worked up to their present position. Slightly more than a third began in an administrative position and continued to progress in administration until they reached the presidency. without any time spent in teaching. 107 About half of presidents of four-year colleges started as instructors. which was less than anticipated. While the proportion of administra- tors who followed a traditional career path was less than expected. teaching remains a common entry point for prospective administrators. About 605 of the administrators responding had taken at least one course in higher education adminiStration. with half of that number taking seven or more classes. Those who had taken classes generally found them helpful to their work. No differences were found in the perceived level of preparation before taking their jobs between admin- istrators who had earned the doctorate in education or administration and those who had not. Almost all felt well prepared to do the tasks assigned. Less than half of the administrators surveyed felt it important to have the doctoral degree in education or administration. A wide variety of suggestions was offered concerning how admin- istrators might have prepared themselves for their current jobs if they had a year on sabbatical. and how they would advise that university programs be structured to train future administrators. It was fre- quently mentioned that management skills should be taught. but balanced with courses in education. Great value was attributed to internships and mentoring programs. Respondents indicated the need to better understand people--their motivations. communications. and problems. Conclusions This study began with the intention of determining the accuracy of conventional and traditional wisdom concerning how people'move into administrative leadership roles in colleges. Are colleges governed by 108 "amateur administrators" who have little or no preparation for their duties? Have the numerous university programs in higher education administration had the result of producing many administrators in the highest college positions who received academic preparation for their positions? How well do the university programs actually prepare people for top administrative positions? Are there differences in administra- tors at different types of colleges and in different positions. in terms of their career paths and types of formal preparation? The data gathered in this research study permit tentative answers to some of these questions. 1. Colleges and universities have been consistent and tradi- tional in the types of people given the most important administrative jobs in the past. The data from this study indicated that this tradi- tional pattern continues. The demographic characteristics of college presidents and chief academic officers do not appear to have changed substantially from previous studies. 2. A similar traditional pattern of selecting candidates for the highest administrative positions who share with the faculty a common academic preparation and teaching experience has been suggested by numerous observers of higher education. The data from this study indicated that community college administrators usually did not acquire terminal degrees in academic disciplines. instead obtaining their formal training in education and administration to a considerable extent. Presidents and chief academic officers of both private and public four-year colleges were found to have received formal 109 preparation in academic disciplines as anticipated. However. many possessed graduate degrees in education and administration as well. which was not anticipated. While it was not possible to establish trends because of the research methodology used. if previous observers were accurate concerning the subject areas in which administrators were prepared. the picture has changed somewhat from those earlier patterns. 3. In view of the number of administrators from all types of institutions with graduate degrees in education and administration. it is likely that some of the previous stigma attached to that type of preparation will diminish in the future if. in fact. the stigma was present in appreciable amounts in the past. The stigma will diminish most rapidly if administrators with educational administration degrees are well prepared for their responsibilities and perform their duties well. 4. Another perception that is clearly changing concerns the level of formal academic preparation of community college presidents. The data from this study confirmed that the gap between community college and four-year college presidents in the level of academic preparation they bring to their office has been reduced substantially from previous reports. 5. The expected pattern of presidents moving into their current positions from other colleges was confirmed in these responses. It was noted in Chapter II that a much larger proportion of chief executive officers in business are promoted from within. One reason cited for the difference between the two arenas was the planning and 110 preparation for an orderly transfer of power that is more characteris- tic of business than education. As the size and complexity of colleges and universities increase. better planning generally and more specific attention to orderly leadership succession are likely to result. 6. The career—path data for college administrators suggested that. if it was ever entirely accurate that the road to a college presidency must begin with a teaching job and no formal training for administration. that period has now passed. Career paths in higher education administration are now diverse. A substantial number of administrators have received formal preparation in the work they are now doing. High-level administrators have pursued many career routes to their current positions. Teaching remains a solid point of entry to administration. but not the only one. Assuming that there are never enough people with the special blend of skills and talents needed to lead colleges and universities effectively. it may be a sign of healthy development in higher education that any college employee has an oppor- tunity for significant career advancement. not just those who have followed a rigidly prescribed career plan. 'L. If current administrators in higher education more fre- quently possess formal training for their job. how good was that train- ing? The data from this survey found education and administration courses were generally well regarded by those who had taken them. The nature of the courses taken generated some concerns from participants in the study because topics were not covered that current administra- tors felt necessary. In general. those subjects involved management 111 or administration. ‘There was considerable support in the responses received in this study to graduate programs with a balance between educational theory and educational administration. ‘The weight of cur- rent course offerings appeared to be on the theory side of the balance. This project resulted in some adjustments in perceptions con- cerning the type or level of formal preparation of college administra- tors. It further resulted in some adjustments in perceptions of the career paths by which college administrators came to their current positions. Finally. the project produced some insights into the types of courses and seminars that would be most valuable to prospective administrators. The data also revealed that college leaders have varied and extensive backgrounds. In view of the fact that current processes are producing people to fill top administrative jobs who have such rich backgrounds. any changes in preparation or training of people for higher education administration should occur only after very care- ful thought. W 1. Colleges and universities serve diverse audiences. It is difficult to find people who can successfully blend the diverse requirements of administrative work in higher education. Substantial efforts must be made to prepare people with highly diverse backgrounds and demographic characteristics for administrative work to insure that no potential source or group of future administrators will conclude 112 that they have limited career opportunities in higher education admin- istration. 2. As noted above. effective administrators are needed to manage colleges and universities. now and in the future. Previous observers have noted that the road to college administration usually begins with a college teaching position. ‘The data from this study suggested that career paths vary in different types of colleges and administrative positions. It may be helpful in the future to weigh carefully the essential experiential background for specific college administrative positions to determine if previous teaching experience is as important as reference to current higher education administration advertisements would suggest. Similarly. if administrative expertise is essential for success in entry- or midmanagement-level administra- tive jobs. inservice training programs. internships. or university courses should be developed to assist faculty who desire to prepare for such assignments. 3. University programs to train potential college administra- tors should be carefully designed to insure that graduates have both a solid philosophical grounding in education and a good grasp of the management duties of a modern institution. Failure to provide quality instruction in either aspect of academic preparation will diminish the potential for success of graduates of educational administration pro- grams. 4. Community colleges have grown dramatically in the last 25 years. in large part because they have been flexible and responsive to 113 the educational needs of the districts they serve. In many community colleges that growth has been led by presidents and chief academic officers who did not possess the doctorate in educational administra- tion. It would be very unfortunate if the educational requirements for leadership positions in community colleges in the future are so rigidly written that people with the capability to make substantial contribu- tions to community colleges are systematically excluded because they lack a doctoral degree. 5. Provision for the orderly transition of leadership is as important in a college as in any other complex organization. Research cited in this study and the results of this research indicated that it is uncommon for the main leadership positions in colleges and universi- ties to be filled by internal candidates. Boards of control. perhaps through their professional organizations. should carefully review their plans for orderly and systematic transfer of leadership. .Appropriate planning should occur. with input from all segments of the college community. to reduce the need to search for qualified people beyond the campus. 6. It appears that people come to the college presidency and chief academic office by a variety of career routes. The diversity of backgrounds of college officials has the potential to enrich the insti- tutions they serve. It is reflective of the diversity among the col- leges and universities themselves. It would be unfortunate if uniform qualifications and backgrounds were expected of administrators in higher education in the future. 114 7. If universities are to continue to offer programs to train potential college administrators. those programs should reflect the insights of those currently employed in the jobs for which students are being trained. Systematic efforts should be made to secure those opinions and adjust university programs in response to that input. WW As with most research projects. the data collected here raised a host of questions that other researchers may wish to pursue. 1. It is not clear from this study what administrators actu- ally do in their jobs. and to what extent formal courses. internships. or research papers can be expected to prepare administrators for their duties. A study that uses time-management record-keeping techniques might be a valuable way to determine the tasks that occupy most of the time~and attention of current administrators. With such data in hand. it would be much easier to consider the kinds of learning experiences that should be designed for those people preparing for such jobs. 2. The discussion in this paper of formal preparation. experience. internships. or other methods of preparing administrators for their duties has not permitted the crux of the preparation issue to be addressed: What type of preparation works best in producing capable people for administrative jobs? In this paper. respondents evaluated their own level of preparation. In subsequent studies. it would be helpful to devise ways to measure administrative effectiveness and determinerhow the most capable administrators were trained for their jobs. Until preparation can be linked to job performance. there can be 115 no final conclusions reached as to which is the best way to prepare college administrators. 3. It appears that more college administrators are receiving formal training in administration than in the past. The responses from administrators in this project suggested some concerns with the kinds of subjects included in university administration courses and programs. To accurately reflect the concerns and needs of current college admin- istrators. further investigation would be helpful. In that inquiry. using the data from this study as a baseline and using a variety of structured questions to reduce the time required by respondents to provide their input. more guidance should be sought concerning adminis- trative skills or subjects that should be taught. sequencing of learn- ing experiences. the role of internships and mentorships. admission requirements. and the necessary qualification for faculty. 4. Various authors cited in this paper have observed that administrators with advanced degrees in education or administration are not well regarded by college faculty. While some of that perception may be based on feelings that are difficult to measure. it might be interesting to attempt to determine the amount of this perception and the basis for it. The collection of such data could be very helpful for students preparing for administrative careers by pointing out some of the environmental parameters that must be taken into consideration if an administrator is to be successful. It would further be helpful to establish some baseline data on perceptions. which could then be the subject of various strategies for changing those perceptions. 116 5. ‘This researcher attempted to consider administrators at three types of colleges in the same analysis. .An unstated assumption of this plan was that presidents of colleges share many common duties. demographic characteristics. and structural pressures. The absence of current data concerning presidents and chief academic officers in various types of colleges prompted this research design. Future stud- ies of college administrators might consider closer analysis of such variables as size of institution. geographic setting of institutions. and age of college administrators. Said another way. do presidents of large institutions. regardless of type. have more in common than presi- dents of four-year colleges? Are officials in urban institutions different from those in rural settings? 6. Colleges and universities are not autonomous organizations. They are ultimately accountable to boards of trustees. state legisla- tures. alumni. and taxpayers for the way they operate. All of the discussion in this paper has focused on types of preparation faculty will accept or that administrators would prefer. It might be interest- ing to compare perceptions of faculty and administrators with people who have direct and indirect oversight responsibility for colleges to determine if they have a shared vision of the necessary formal and experiential backgrounds of college administrators. 7. This study focused on the midwestern portion of the coun- try. Studies of other regions might produce useful comparisons and contrasts with the data collected here. 117 8. The sections of this paper that analyzed demographic char acteri sti cs of college administrators noted that traditional patterns remain largely unchanged. In view of governmental and societal attempts to remove barriers to advancement of all people. the absence of change in the nature of the people filling key administrative roles in higher education was somewhat unexpected. A useful study might be done to explore in detail perceived or real barriers to career advance- ment for minorities and women in higher education. 9. This study has focused on how colleges. through their top officials. can be staffed and operated to function best—in Peter Drucker's words. 'how to do things right.” Due to the purpose and research design. it was not possible to oonsi der the closely related subject that Drucker considers even more important. "how to find the right things to do“ Hopefully. other researchers will focus on topics of the appropriate priorities in colleges. the values that administra- tors should possess. and ways to insure that the unusual and innovative thought does not get organized and managed out of existence. APPENDICES 118 APPENDIX A COLLEGES IN THE MIDWEST INITIALLY CONTACTED IN THIS STUDY 119 120 Colleges in the Midwest Initially Contacted in This Study Public colleges. as defined in this paper. potentially included the following institutions: 11191119811 Western Michigan University Central Michigan University Eastern Michigan University Ferris State College Grand Valley State College Michigan Technical University Northern Michigan University Oakland University Lake Superior State College Saginaw Valley State College ILLINOIS Southern Illinois University Illinois State University Northern Illinois University Chicago State University Eastern Illinois University Western Illinois University Northeastern Illinois State College .0819 Kent State University Ohio University Bowling Green State University Miami University University of Akron University of Toledo Central State University Cleveland State University Youngstown State University Wright State University Ohio Northern University 121 Private colleges. as defined in this paper. potentially included the following institutions: MICHIGAN Albion College Adrian College Alma College Andrews University Aquinas College Calvin College Concordia College Hillsdale College Hope College Kalamazoo College Madonna College Marygrove College Mercy College of Detroit Nazareth College Northwood Institute Olivet College Sienna Heights College Spring Arbor College ILLINOIS Augustana College Aurora College Barat College Blackburn College College of St. Francis Columbia College Concordia College Elmhurst College George Williams College Greenville College Illinois College Illinois Wesleyan University Knox College Lake Forest College Lewis University MacMurray College McKendree College Monmouth College Mundelein College North Central College North Park College Principia College Olivet Nazarene College 122 Quincy College Rockford College Rosary College St. Xavier College Trinity College Wheaton College .QNIQ Antioch College Bluffton College Cedarville College College of Mount St. Joseph on the Ohio University of Steubenville College of Wooster Defiance College Denison University Findlay College Heidelberg College Hiram College Kenyon College Lake Erie College Malone College Marietta College Mt. Union College Muskingum College Notre Dame College Oberlin College Ohio Dominican College Ohio Wesleyan University Otterbein College Rio Grande College Urbana University Ursuline College Walsh College Wilberforce University Wilmington College Community colleges. as defined in this paper. potentially included the following institutions: MIQNIEAN Alpena Community College Bay de Noc Community College Charles S. Mott Community College Glen Oaks Community College Gogebic Community College 123 Grand Rapids Junior College Henry Ford Community College Highland Park College Jackson Community College Kalamazoo Valley Community College Kellogg Community College Kirtland Community College Lake Michigan College Lansing Community College Macomb County Community College Mid-Michigan Community College Monroe County Community College Montcalm Community College Muskegon Community College North Central Michigan College Northwestern Michigan College Oakland Community College St. Clair County Community College Schoolcraft College Southwestern Michigan College Washtenaw Community College Wayne County Community College West Shore Community College ILLINOIS Belleville Area College Black Hawk College Carl Sandburg College City College of Chicago College of Dupage College of Lake County Danville Area Community College Elgin Community College Highland Community College Illinois Central College Illinois Eastern Community College Illinois Valley Community College John Logan College John Wood Community College Joliet Junior College Kankakee Community College Kaskaskia College Kishwaukee College Lake Land College Lewis and Clark Community College Lincoln Land Community College McHenry County Junior College Morain Valley Community College 124 Morton College Oakton Community College Parkland College Prairie State College Rend Lake College Richland Community College Rock Valley College Sauk Valley College Shawnee College Southeastern Illinois College Spoon River College State Community College of East St. Louis Thornton Community College Triton College Waubonsee Community College William Rainey Harper College OHIO Cuyahoga Community College Edison State Community College Lakeland Community College Lorain County Community College Shawnee State Community College Sinclair Community College Southern State Community College APPENDIX B RESPONSES TO OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS 125 126 Responses of Chief Instructional Officers to Question of What They Would Have Done to Prepare for Current Job if They Had a Year to Prepare Skills with statistics. computer literacy. management techniques. Management. Management. curriculum. statistics. Budget planning. cost analysis. Courses in the dynamics of human organization. Management of human resources. Knowledge of computer to assist in decision making regarding technology. Educational theory. Budgeting. college finance. staff evaluation. union interaction. community college fiscal process. I could have used some instruction on regulations (governmental) affecting institutional relations with faculty. staff. and students. Higher education. educational administration. law in education. Probably I would have liked to liked to have had management psychology. Computers. budgeting. strategic planning. Some workshops in planning. financial administration. curriculum. legal affairs. Management theory. strategic planning theory. More skill in higher education finance. particularly public support. greater preparation in the legal aspects of university personnel work. Internship at three colleges/universities of different sizes in different administrative positions. preferably in different states. Primarily reading in values in higher education and history of higher education in the USA. Secondarily workshops in personnel management and budget. . Higher education and the law. 127 Rigid writing course. higher education budgeting process. higher educa- tion personnel concerns. higher education law or legal concerns. higher education curriculum development. Understanding regarding power and the political influence in design making. Short- and long-range planning strategies. micro-computing operations. enrollment projections. Computer science. higher education management. Workshops for deans and presidents. Management skills related to participative governance. role of management "team" member who does not control the team. Public policy analysis. school law. (1) Chance to do extensive reading in the area of higher education. particularly on curriculum. educational reform. and academic planning. (2) Course in computer science. (3) Course in management. College law and finance--1earned finance as a hospital trustee and an accreditor. Budgeting and finance (never know enough about this). strategic planning. Accounting/statistics. Fund accounting courses. education law courses. Budget. planning. delegating. (1) Management and communication skills. (2) Computer resources! skills. Legal issues in higher education. personnel management. resource management (budgeting). Bureaucratic politics. Personnel management. public speaking. MBA. The care. feeding. and politics of faculty: diagnosis of the internal and external environment. 128 Courses and specific work in following areas: collective bargaining. time management. computer forecasting and strategies for planning and impacting postsecondary policy. Planning. budgeting. faculty evaluations. staff evaluations. labor negotiations. group dynamics. and program evaluation. Computer usage for administrators. financial courses. Accounting/personnel administration. higher education finance. building and construction processes. state politics and lobbying processes. negotiations and contract administration. tax or tax structure. millage campaigns. board psychology. computer use. public relations and fund raising. and how to write a novel. Intensive management seminar--example one-month program offered by Harvard during the summer. A course dealing with current issues in technical/vocational education. A course in comparative administration (one that deals with administrative skill utilized in a number of different settings: business. industry. education. etc.). Fund accounting. participative management strategies. personnel management. budgeting strategies. Brush-up/refresher on research skills. Mastering the politics realities of the campus. problem solving with team approach (techniques not philosophy). Academic master planning. financing of higher education. organizational behavior. Budgets. union negotiations. salary structures. It would have been disadvantageous to have taken a sabbatical for such purposes at that critical time. An enhanced knowledge of the history/traditions of undergraduate education in U.S. Courses dealing with community college finance. course on legal matters in administration. Overview of management systems outside those experienced as a department head. e.g.. computer systems. business affairs. public relations. etc. 129 Faculty selection. faculty evaluations. curriculum evaluation. departmental budgeting. Probably finance...perhaps management. Some accounting-~to read such data better. experience in using correct personal computer technology. None. Curriculum budget. personnel relations. legal affairs. Finance. personnel. management. Decision theory. financial forecasting. Curriculum planning. human resource development. teaching and learning methods. Program evaluation and assessment methods. word processing and spread sheet. financial and other institutional research analysis skills. appropriate legal training. contemporary trends in higher education. (1) Theories of administration and of personality. (2) time management and stress management. (3) legal overview of academic matters. (4) planning of 3-5 years. Fiscal management. Some legal training; computer science. Institutional budgeting. collective bargaining. strategic planning. Finance--budget. Word processing/spread sheets (micro-computers). public speaking. strategic planning. Management coursework. higher education finance. Issues in private. church-related colleges. working with combination of clergy and lay faculty. dealing with personality quirks. Basic accounting for not-for—profit. higher education environment. time management. An internship with someone in a similar position. 130 Courses in financial administration of higher education. knowledge about the types of problems first-year deans have and ways to go about solving those problems. Academic governance structure study. curriculum trends analysis. strategic planning. Too many changes have taken place for courses of 10 years ago to now be of much help. However. some things have not changed at all re: to basic management principles. Work toward a Ph.D. in community college administration. Courses in organizational theory and behavior. higher education management. budgeting. strategic planning in the college/university environment. Courses on college fiscal administration and curriculum theory. also computer theory and personnel procedures. Financial planning. information systems. Labor relations (general). budget (general). Computer literacy. collective bargaining. (l) The Illinois community college system. (2) the culture of rural Illinois--also politics and sociology. Would have been useful to study the law of higher education. Apart from that. the most useful study would have been the study of education itself. most profitably pursued by advancing my own education through study of the classics. Fiscal operations. Personnel Management. financial skills (budgeting). Law economics. Budgets. computers. but these can be picked up with the job. None—-I was ready. In-depth study and analysis of formal and informal modes of organiza- tion and policy formulation at both universities in the system. Nineteenth Century British parliamentary history. the Green stoics. 131 Additional work/courses in organization. management. psychology. human relations. budgeting. planning. No. I wouldn‘t have done it. In most instances I would consider such a leave as a career mistake. (1) Faculty evaluation--administrative. (2) college personnel law. (3) collective bargaining in higher education. (4) faculty and staff development. (5) budget preparation in higher education. (6) board authorities and responsibilities. Computer training. budgeting. power politics. conflict resolution. curricula reform. etc. College finances. care and feeding of idiosyncratic faculty. Personnel. law. curriculum. Accounting and computer skills. and law as it pertains to colleges. A sabbatical in my field (more faculty credibility). Personnel policies and practices. budgeting in educational institu- tions. management in higher education. Seminars at Carnegie Foundation with Boyer. discussions with: local panel members of Nation at Risk. Mark Curtis of MC. NIE's study group. Rouche at University of Texas. Naisbitt. Thomas Peters. Sven Groennings of FIPSE. and various leaders of Fortune 100 companies. Vocational education leadership. long-range financial planning. Management. personnel. financing of private higher education. budgets in higher education. Administrative internship in the President's office. Immersion in the literature on the intellectual developments most significant for West and East over the last 100 years. Collective bargaining. personnel administration. management theory (other than educational. more business oriented). Courses in strategic planning. higher education finance. and personnel policies. Collective bargaining. public relations. higher education finance. 132 An internship with an academic dean at another. or several other similar colleges. Data-base management. No courses--internship at another institution. I did take such a sabbatical at the Center for the Study of Higher Education at the University of Michigan. a research sabbatical on partnerships between higher education and industry. Nothing in higher education administration. Models of other academic organizational structures. Management theory(ies). finish master's degree in teaching discipline of the community college. Collective bargaining. strategic planning. financial modeling. MBA program. Financial planning. philosophy of liberal learning. 133 Responses of Presidents to Question of What They Would Have Done to Prepare for Current Job if They Had a Year to Prepare (l) Finance--budgeting. (2) public and community relations. Shakespeare: summer seminar at Oxford University. Oxford. England. Strategic management. instructional management. Finance. collective bargaining. planning. stress management. Skills in reorganization. Strategic business planning. financial management at a first-class graduate school of management. Faculty governance and community relations. Management. budget. planning. Unknown except for finance and fund-raising. Accounting. law related to personnel. labor relations or negotiations. One-year internship. no courses. Financial management. legal issues. financial development. Management and leadership skills. More work in academic administration. How to handle the press. collective-bargaining practices. fund raising. Illinois state finance as it affects community colleges. A year of internship such as that offered by ACE might have been helpful before I became dean [written by a president]. I was about as ready for the presidency as any sabbatical could make me. Application of automation to routine administrative tasks. Accounting labor law. On-the-job preparation working with a successful administrator. 134 I would like to have visited selected outstanding community colleges to study what they are doing. how they were doing it. and how they main- tained a highly motivated staff. Management information systems. Marketing. strategic planning. personnel management. Public speaking. time management. collective bargaining--process. issues. legal aspects; strategic planning. personnel management. Data processing. group processes. I participated in the ACE Internship Program in 1970-71. Knowledge of higher education. contacts in higher education. experience in another institution. Finance/accounting. fund raising. No particular courses--but completion of my PhJL. probably in econom- ics. simply to put me on an academic and knowledge par with my good friends and colleagues in the faculty. Simply completed a Ph.D. Public relations. marketing. finance. I did. Organization. Additional course work in labor relations and college finance. (1) Additional budgeting and financial. (2) Down-to-earth approach to effective political lobbying. Shouldn't have to learn all of this the hard way. Financial management. financial analysis. international travel (com- parative educational systems). political dimensions of higher educa- tion. Principles of management and planning. economics. finance. data processing. Courses in law which are relevant to higher education. economics. and business management. Would have gone to an island in the Mediterranean to read classical literature. Higher education finance courses. develop skills in dealing with legislators and influencing the legislative process. 135 State government. information systems management. Information about current management theories. e.g.. In much .91 Excellence. "Theory 2." One Minute Manager. Higher education development--strategies. tactics. and techniques. Spend a year with a successful community college president as an intern. Fund raising and external development abilities. especially with corporations. Organizational behavior in a business school. short course in fund raising/deferred giving. but neither high priorities. Personnel management. labor relations. institutional research methods. data processing. Fund raising. accounting. personnel management. The Harvard experience was extremely helpful. and I wish I could have spent a year on the program rather than six weeks. Academic govern- ance. financial administration. student development. faculty develop- ment. and institutional advancement are the key areas. .As an adminis- trator of a church-related college. I also see the need to steep oneself in the philosophy of the church-related education. Legal issues in higher education. external fund development. development of legislative relations. Courses in fund raising. curriculum development. and power and politics. IHn not sure that I would have wanted a leave. but I would have valued a series of visits to other liberal arts colleges. Administration of higher education. personnel management. finance of higher education. and planning of higher education. (1) General management. (2) dynamics of leadership. Accounting. investments. estate planning. Board-president relationships. Finance. management. public relations. A year in industry-~high-tech based. 136 Public relations. marketing. fund raising. Management. labor negotiations. computer applications. Business management. general management. and motivational types of courses. (1) Budgeting. (2) development. (3) admissions. (4) lobbying. (5) governance. I don't think I needed a year's sabbatical. Finance. personnel. (1) Technical skills in fund raising and grantsmanship; I have consid- erable practical experience; (2)(one or more readings courses (only have time to read the essentials): (3) planning with heavy emphasis on process and analysis; (4) organizational development. I would not place a high value on such a year. If I did I would focus on basic principles of management. history of higher education. and history. literature. and philosophy. Personnel management. accounting. marketing. development. organizational management. Fiscal management. Additional study concerning university curriculum. Need more knowledge in finance and computer operation. Management--business rather than educational administration. Educational--legal considerations. budget controls. Finance. accounting. perhaps management. Coursework in elementary computer science.(elementary accounting. some higher education philosophy. I think this would have been interesting. probably helpful. More on fiscal management. fund raising. creative financing options. public speaking. law and higher education. Business applications of computers. intensive strategic planning skills. marketing skills for nonprofit organizations. Business skills/legal courses. 137 Budget forecasting. the art of retrenchment. time to write 20 speeches with the same message in 20 different versions. curriculum development. Fund raising. labor law. I would have liked to use the year to read American history. ‘Trained as a French historian. I believe that I could bring added preparation to my position with a greater knowledge of 20th century American literature and art. After completing the Ph.D. I had a one-year internship at St. Louis University. which was an excellent experience and preparation for becoming president. Union management. psychology. Budget. conflict resolution. planning. small-group skills. Office management. interpersonal skills. Fund raising. working with legislators. school law. more work with school finance. Strategic planning. human resource development. labor-management relations. Twenty years of experience in upper-level administration prepared me well for my current position. I did have a sabbatical and attended Harvard prior to my becoming president at . External relations (alumni. state and federal government. corpora- tions). School law. budgeting and accounting. personnel administration. higher education finance (community colleges). Accounting. marketing. law. administration. organization. curriculum. technology. finance (noneducation). Conflict resolution. personnel management and evaluation. program evaluation. quantitative methods and modeling. History and current issues in higher education. management and finance. organization and management. finance. Internal politics. financial decision making. priority setting--use of time. 138 Presidents' Advice on Curriculum to Train Administrators I think it is essentially impossible to teach administration. While some people enter such programs. they are mainly lacking in the inher- ent capacity to be good administrators. Course content is barely platitudes. The truisms are useless without the knack of knowing when to use them. how to use them. and whether to use them. This comes from experience and common sense. One special caution: There is at least one higher education program in which the administrator. in his anxiety to recruit prospective students. leads them to believe graduation will open doors to important positions. Most of his students are attracted to his program only because they are not progressing in their careers (and donFt have the capacity to do so) and never will. The cruel hoax leaves them more frustrated than ever--when management job offers don't materialize. P.S. Those misled to exaggerated expectations are largely women. In order to avoid the difficulty I experienced twelve years ago. we have arranged for a year's internship for two persons. followed by their pursuing a doctorate in higher education. One is taking the doctoral studies at Boston College and the other at Kent State. This year's internship has been very beneficial to the person being brought in from outside of higher education. The semester internship for a person within higher education did not go so well. I would like to answer the rest of your question but time does not permit my thinking through a curriculum. I trust that you understand. Would include more courses from the business school such as personnel management. labor relations. collective bargaining. accounting. federal regulations concerning affirmative action and other areas where federal laws impact higher education. A course in budgeting and investments would be helpful. In the higher education area courses in curriculum. philosophy. history of higher education. physical plant planning could be helpful. Today‘s college presidents need to have a background in curriculum development and implementation. including the development of special- ized programs to meet the short- and long-range needs of business and industry. Because of their wide-ranging responsibilities. presidents need to have knowledge about finance and budgeting. basic computer literacy. a basic understanding of the maintenance of buildings and campus grounds. and also have a reasonable understanding of the collec- tive bargaining process. With respect to the latter need. course experience should include case histories or an internship in the area of labor relations and personnel conflict resolution. Some study should also be done regarding personnel motivation and evaluation. as well as leadership styles and techniques. Because of the importance of relationships with legislators at the local. state and national levels. 139 some familiarity is needed with the legislative process and the impor- tance of communications with legislators. Persons with ultimate career goals which include a college presidency should also understand the relationship of a president to his/her board of trustees and the responsibilities of a board. whether elected or appointed. While classroom experiences are valuable. greater exposure to practical applications would be gained through internships. Listen and hear (I don't know how this might become a course. but it should be a constant point of reference). Group dynamics. accounting. leadership methods. Having good people skills. having good communication skills--including listening. having good knowledge of the budget and financial process. understanding that nearly every decision has a financial implication. having a well-developed future focus. having planning skills and understanding the planning process. knowing the difference between ends and means. having a personal educational philosophy. recognizing that students are very important people. Curriculum for administrators: (A) Three major areas internally: (1) Personnel policies and procedures. (2) Budget planning and development. (3) Curriculum and program development. (8) Three major areas exter- nally: (1) Corporate and legislative relations. (2) Strategic plan- ning. (3) Marketing an institution. including admissions. recruitment policies and procedures. (C) Administrative internship experiences: Should include the development of familiarity with role of chair. dean. and academic vice-president. experiences in the presidentus office of a university or college would be helpful. Following a well-developed liberal arts prerequisite. course work should include all phases of business administration and education administration. Teach basic administrative type skills. devote 3/4 time in field. Preparation for a position in higher education administration should include coursework which focuses on budgets. curriculum. and people. Iifls not necessary to have extensive background in business and finance. However. we must be sufficiently knowledgeable and confident to make decisions based upon a sound understanding of fiscal opera- tions. Since education is the business in which we operate. the compe- tent administrator should have a sound base of knowledge regarding educational processes. He/she should have an understanding of teaching learning theories. Perhaps the most important of the three areas identified above is that of working with people. The greatest chal- lenge. and I believe the area in which most administrators who fail have shortcomings. is in dealing with people. The need to communicate. motivate. direct. support. and provide leadership calls for intelli- gence. sensitivity. and strength. It also calls for information and 140 training in human relations. Prior to program completion it would be best for students to have work experience. Though I indicated that doctoral-level program in higher education was not very important as preparation for a position such as the one I hold. I think a degree in that field can provide an important track toward a college or university presidency. It is my contention that there can be more than one track to success in that position. ‘Twenty- five years ago. when I first became a college president. I did not realize what effect both the federal and state government would have on the private college that I served. There is no doubt in my mind that some preparation or experience with government and political agencies that affect higher education will be useful to the aspiring college president. Another major development during my career was in the field related to information management. ‘Though experience in the field will not guarantee success in the presidency. preparation in the field will be useful to a new generation of university administrators. ‘The devel- opment of an educational philosophy and an ability and sensitivity in human relations are still the most important attributes for an educa- tional leaden. A.curriculum in higher education administration should take that into account. I would advise them to get serious training for whatever they are doing as faculty. Training for administration should be mostly on-the-job training. An intelligent candidate could add on special courses in skills such as budgeting. financing. and some appreciation of computer science. Personally. I would recommend a "gradual" career: from faculty to chair. to dean. to vice-president. and so on. The knowledge of the world below one's level of administration is critical and must be realistic. Train scholars. teachers. professors (e.g.. people who know the busi- ness). not administrators per se. Priority 11: A well-rounded education is one of the disciplines usually found in most colleges and universities. Also. at least some experience in teaching that discipline. Other considerations: (1) A selected number of courses in higher education and cognate areas. (2) Research experience in issues of higher education (broadly defined). (3) Structured internship in higher education (supervised by first- or second-level administrator on location). A business management education. in addition to terminal degree prepa- ration in a discipline. is the most useful preparation. Additionally. legal development education and legal environment training along with negotiation skills are critical. Collective bargaining. group process. community development. curricu- lum development. educational psychology. educational sociology. evalua- tion and measurement. institutional planning. personnel practices. data 141 processing. an internship. Anyone aspiring to community college employment should have a working knowledge of that type of institution. Emphasize application. case studies. rather than theory. Utilize current administrators as speakers. Broad perspectives as opposed to specificity. leadership as opposed to management. future oriented. philosophically based on basics of education in this country. Finance. MIS. communication skills (oral and written). Ph.D. in some discipline as the goal. psychology. some courses from every family: math. science. humanities. social sciences. Research techniques. I am not much for internships. I believe that one cannot accomplish preparation for the role I play other than by a career which includes teaching for several years in a liberal arts college. service in a system of faculty governance. and several years of full-time work as an academic dean. I cannot conceive of courses which could be substituted for such experience. Learn how to deal with people in real life situations. Education course should include psychology preparation. I don't believe that one should prepare for my job by way of a series of courses. Best preparation--good liberal arts undergraduate education. Doctorate in an academic discipline. A1191: the Ph.D.. short courses and workshops. Role of differentiated missions of institutions. governance patterns (external and internal). personnel relations. fiscal operations in collegiate settings. planning process. curriculum review. I would advise the requirement of a least one full year of internship in the type of institution in which the candidate expects to work upon completion of his/her study. and that the type of experience during that year be rotated every three or four months. A solid foundation of studies in politics. economy. sociology. litera- ture. and the arts. law. rhetoric. accounting. and the development of a discipline for personal physical fitness. Educate them. don't train them. (1) Start with a discipline base (e.g.. chemistry. physics. history. philosophy) and direct first-hand experience with teaching at a univer- sity level and active research. (2) Practical experience with univer- sities (e.g.. committees. senates) and procedures of campus governance. (3) Period of intense study in an executive training program at a strong business school (9.9.. AMP program at Harvard). 142 Coursework cannot replace on-the-job experience. Possibly required internships could help. More work needs to be in the business arena. Computer knowledge is a must. Admission requirements need to include a commitment to the comprehensive community college philosophy. Work experience at this level should be a must. communication skills are also essential. This includes spoken and written. Little emphasis on spoken communication skills was included in my graduate work. Finally. it is highly recommended that work in interpersonal skills be required. This is a daily requirement. History of education. education philosophy. etc.. are not very practical! I believe that the training of university administrators should include significant courses in budgeting. planning. curriculum (even for those who are better grounded academically than I). and communications (call it public relations. marketing. whatever). I think a major university administrator should have doctoral work in a discipline other than professional education. My most valuable prepa- ration for administrative work was an ACE (American Council on Educa- tion) internship experience for a year. In my opinion. upper-level administrators should be selected most frequently from among subject area specialists who have involved them- selves actively in the life of one or more institutions. ‘They should then seek specialized training on the job. through workshops. etc. I feel that what one is as a person is far more important in a college president than taking courses in higher education administration. working under 9999 administration is excellent preparation. Since my preparation for the presidency was all on-the-job training. I have trouble answering this question. Had I had academic preparation for the job I would probably have wanted courses in the following: (1) the history of American higher education. (2) the present structure of American higher education. (3) computer skills. (4) abnormal psychol- ogy. (5) political action at state and federal levels. (6) demography. (7) sociology of higher education. Naturally. given my background. I would strongly suggest internships at many administrative levels. from the registrar's office on up--but especially in continuing education. The program must have credibility with the administration of higher education in 1985 including faculty who have some legitimate personal experience which is timely. is focused. and learning that is not overly theorized. Instruction should demonstrate that there is a body of knowledge in the same sense as exists in the more traditional disci- plines. It is advantageous to include some internship experience. In addition to skills/courses previously cited. I would encourage the 143 following: (1) marketing. (2) governance. (3) collective bargaining. contract management. (4) interpersonal relations and communications. (5) time management. (6) data base management. Although course work at an institution is valuable. in my opinion. a mentor program and actually learning on the job is more beneficial than any doctoral program in operation. Most of the real problems that I encountered in my thirty-five years in education were never talked about in education cl asses. e.g.. the "pol itical game." evaluation of staff. the trauma of negotiations. how to employ force during confrontations without inflicting serious injury. How to protect the integrity of the institution and maintain quality when the student body and faculty wanted self-di rected study and no-penalty grading. How to resist credit for remediation without being labelled a person that didn't care because students were being deprived of financial aid because they couldn't qualify even if they couldn't read or write. These reflections may not seem important but they can tear an institution apart and destroy it if they are not addressed. Theory is important but too many doctoral programs have the same'hurdles. core courses. "X" number of hours in prescribed courses. GRE. Miller's Analo— gies. My suggestion would be to require a master's degree from an accredited institution. Find out what the candidate's experiences are. what he/she hopes to do when he/she completes the degree. assign him/ her to a mentor if he/she is already employed in an institution (col- lective bargaining agreements permitting). assign a research project that will lead to the dissertation research. reduce the number of courses required beyond the master's. and if the person shows he/she can do the work. award him/her the degree. I realize the above is too simplistic an approach. but I have too many good administrators at the division and dean levels that have been turned off by all of the "hurdles" that confront them when they are employed full time—-must pass GRE with certain scores. must complete residency program with a limited amount of ti me. must spend semester on campus on a ful l-time basis. must compTete core courses even if they have had years of on- the—job training. I recognize standards of quality must be maintained. but there are ways of doing this. I was one of those who persevered and hung in for eleven years part time while employed in a full-time job. so I know it can be done. but there has to be an easier way. You lose too many good people. Hardball politics. hardball negotiations. experience in private busi- ness or industry at the administrative level. accounting. philosophy and ethics. creative writing. public speaking. public relations. inten- sive management as offered by the firm that does this. job interview- ing. conflict resolution. all students should read everything Peter Drucker has ever written. It would be most helpful to have a course in fund accounting. At the time I entered higher education it was almost impossible to find a course which was geared to the needs of higher education. 144 (1) Course in strategic planning. (2) course in fund balance account- ing. (3) course in 20th century architecture. (4) course in deferred- giving instruments. (5) course in portfolio analysis for endowment management. (6) course in legal affairs in higher education. (1) Give credit for "on-the—job experience." (b) be practical. (3) internships in areas which need strengthening. (4) budget capabilities should be developed. (5) strong liberal arts background. (6) school and labor law. (7) statistics. (1) Have the faculty serve an internship with a president for one month: (2) practical experience in planning; (3) admission marketing; (4) external relations. development. alumni. etc.; (5) how to give shag; speeches. (6) budgeting. (7) curriculum development. (8) faculty and staff development planning. (9) investments. practical relating to endowment. (10) group dynamics. (11) the power of positive thinking (avoiding the Chicken Little mentality). (12) student affairs. the students need opportunities to fail as well as succeed. the students' needs always come first. .53111§_need§d: a tolerance for ambiguity. a sense of humor. and because of the number of meetings. the ability to yawn with your mouth closed. Choose very bright. gregarious. ambitious individuals and given them coursework in business. legal. and fund-raising aspects of the small college. Select students who have had someeteaching and/or administrative expe- rience in higher education (or business). Include the following course work in the program: organizational theory. sociology of organiza- tions. higher educational finance. leadership in administration. busi- ness applications of computers. strategic planning. marketing for non- profit institutions. a structured internship of at least one semester would be desirable. a field study would be preferable to a theoreti- cally based dissertation. IHn impressed with the Institute for Educational Management at Harvard. I doubt that any form of doctoral degree program will see many of its graduates move into college or university presidencies. given the strange routes by which people continue to enter the profession! Given this fact. 13d prefer a series of short-term learning experiences based in one's current administrative and/or faculty life. which would provide further essential skills in areas such as I mentioned in answer to an earlier question. I should begin by saying that I have little faith in a curriculum designed to train university presidents. I do believe that people going into administration can learn some basic skills which will be helpful to them. however. and that some of them will. through luck. ill-luck. political clout. or longevity become university presidents. 145 By the way. I like being a president. and really have no desire to tell you how tough it is. To the extent that a person learns how to cope with people through structured coursework. that coursework would be valuable. I have always thought that speech courses helped in this regard. but perhaps that is because I am a speech professor. There is some (but not much) helpful literature about administration. but none of the many studies I have read which attempt tauquantify the art of much use. Joe Kaufman has written about the presidency in a sensible fashion. and the recent AGB publication is worth reviewing. Basically I believe internships should be central to learning about being an administrator. Some may come to realize that it is not for them. and that would be excellent. I would construct a curriculum which would be heavy on internship experiences. light on classwork. In my biased view. one should be admitted to the administrator curriculum without having served his/her time in other academic pursuits. I do not share the enthusiasm of some for administrators from the business world. They have not. through a process akin to osmosis. learned the sensitivities which are innate to academe. I do not believe much preparation for a college presidency can be acquired through course work. A Phil in a traditional academic discipline is much more valuable. However. if education administration course work is necessary. I'd recommend: management seminars with case studies. a general public relations course. finance. fund account- ing. auditing. organizational behavior. group dynamics. psychology of personality. history of American higher education (detailed course. not just a quarterh A program in higher education should be structured around blocks of knowledge or skill development areas related to higher education leadership and management. Coursework should relate to these blocks. Program advisors and faculty should interact to assure a sequence of knowledge and skills are presented as important to the professional preparation program. Both field experiences. related to class work. and an internship program are important to degree completion. ‘The case study methodology should be used whenever possible. (1) Opportunities for both full-time and part-time attendance: (2) early internship opportunities and/or on—the—job training: (3) research and statistical methods. modeling; (4) planning skills; (5) labor relations: (6) communication skills. debate; (7) comparative education (international scope); (8) finance and accounting principles; (9) interpersonal skills; (10) curriculum development. I would require concentrated courses in business. courses in statistics. marketing. finance. and personnel are useful. .Also. I would only admit students with a strong academic not education course background. Unfortunately. education schools are so accommodating to students the degree has the reputation of being a lesser academic achievement. My work in the political science department at Michigan was far more 146 demanding and rewarding. Education courses are not very demanding and often repetitive in content. I think the practice of courses offered through academic departments is a good approach. Courses or demonstrated competencies: cost accounting in higher education. budgeting and finance in higher education. personnel administration in higher education. higher education law with emphasis upon personnel. M13 as related to higher education. collective bargaining in higher education. use of computers in higher education. foundation development. administrative internships. The most able presidents I know (generally at the major research institutions) have a strong background and performance record in a specific discipline. They understand quality. in both teaching and research. and the environment necessary to foster excellence. The professional administrators that are presidents seem to be primarily concerned with procedure rather than results. As a consequence they develop strangled bureaucracies that sharply limit creative and effec- tive faculty (usually resulting in faculty unionization). In my opin- ion. educational administration should be a professional development program for people interested in higher-level management in a univer- sity. but with their major education experience in a traditional disci- pline. The best experience is coming through the ranks or a line manager. More stress on: funding models. legal issues. organizational systems. employee relations. required internship. governmental relations. Be selective. Mix business administration. entrepreneurship. market- ing. labor relations. finance. strategic planning. Rigorous research component. Creative infusion of humanities. liberal arts. Internship experience. Very high level of expectation. professional writing. Philosophy. Courses in area of higher education specialization. Involve people in administration in the development of the curriculum and in the teaching. I would relate everything to their experience. I believe the best preparation for a college president is on-the-job experience. That is. classroom teaching (all through his/her career) in an academic discipline. This would most likely lead to department chairman. division chairman. assistant dean of instruction. dean of faculty. vice-president of academic affairs. and then a presidency. Seems to me that the most important knowledge is “what is a college?" and "how does it operate?" and people skills. Use an ongoing advisory committee of active practitioners. Most teachers in educational administration or higher education programs have never been an administrator and need a good dose of the real 147 world. The university faculty are too caught up in the theoretical publications (P.S.. I was one of those). Most helpful courses were in higher education. Next most helpful were in the branches of human understanding including psychology. sociology. and history. Also anthropology. The IEM at Harvard is extremely helpful. View each person as an individual. View them in light of their strengths and weaknesses. Provide experience to support weak areas. Do not allow them to repeat study in areas where they are well experi- enced or trained. Train those potential administrators as generalists. Discuss the ethics. politics. and expectations of the office. but require hands-on experience in budgeting. law. management. and human relations. Psychological and political skills are yeny important. Public-speaking ability is valuable. Polished writing style is critically important. For those with no prior experience. an internship may be the most useful experience they can get. A broad program in the humanities and social sciences with some courses in technical education would be good preparation for a community college administrator. I think Algo Henderson's model at Center for Higher Education. Univer- sity of Michigan. made sense. (1) Courses in higher education. (2) postdoctoral seminar. (3) internship. (4) time to read widely and think undistressed. (5) some travel or visits to other colleges. Spend more time developing people skills. Know something about labor negotiations. Develop knowledge in community relations. Look into developing creativity. Good analytical skills in budget analysis. And planning needs to be developed. Skills: sociopolitical understanding. human relations. budgeting/ planning. collective bargaining. Admissions: M.A. holders in another discipline or returning professionals. (1) Should be a postdoctoral program for academics; (2) courses in marketing. management. accounting. finance. negotiations; (3) one intern year with a sitting president; (4) skills to be imparted: budget preparation and management. leadership of complex organization with high local autonomy. fund raising (this is assuming the person has developed the interpersonal skills that give rise to administrative aspirations in the first place. (1) Definitely gear program to higher education; (2) summer programs would be helpful; (3) independent studies with competent direction; (4) keep program flexible. I have found this helpful at the University of Cincinnati; (5) internship would be profitable. 148 (1) Principles of higher education. (2) prof who.£§nll¥.knows administrative issues. (3) internship. (4) role of college and community. (5) how does a president survive. (6) too many presidents learn how to do things right. [rather than] to do right things. I cannot be terribly helpful because I came from a history Pth. full- time teaching. and an academic deanship to my presidency. ‘That is the usual path for a liberal arts college president. For such a position an advanced degree in one form or another of administration doesnht make much sense. To work with the faculty and students. to lead the college effectively. one needs to have been a teacher in a liberal arts subject. to be a faculty member. and to play down the management side. The ACE institutes that I have attended and colleagueship with other liberal arts presidents have been very helpful. But mostly one learns on the job. First. the courses which should be offered: power and politics. budgets for higher education. group interaction. counseling and confrontation skills. Second. hire each year one practicing administrator to be in residence and teach courses as well as be available to students for discussion. Each year change the position and person but never go below the VP or president level. Third. look for management and people skills for admission. Do not use tests as the requirements. Look for a growth in management upwards in higher education and someone who has moved around to several schools. Fourth. students must understand and master two things: .nugget_ang_nglitlg§. Fifth. students should be required to work full time for one year in one position under one mentor as a paid internship before the degree is given. Critically important is a grasp of the role. function. and nature of higher education in all its complexity. One has to have a fix on the mission of a particular institution in the broader context of higher education. for example. liberal arts. No substitute for light in the head and fire in the belly. Respect for professional expertise of faculty. Must be a person person. Must know the joy of pursuit of excellence. Must understand the larger environment. Understand that administering "the arts" is as much an art as the "arts" we administer. Vision. ideals. and the skills to institutionalize them. I would suggest that the university faculty meet with a cross-section of community college presidents (probably at least six). These would represent large. mid-size. and small community colleges. mostly in Michigan. but from one or two other states. Also rural/urban/inner- city representation. Then these community college presidents and the university faculty could work on the above topics together. (1) Understand the business/economic climate as it relates to: (a) enrollment. (b) curriculum. (c) jobs. (d) private giving. (e) credita- bility of curriculum; (2) managing faculty. need for involvement. i.e.. 149 governance. public relations. budgets. board affairs; (3) long-range planning-facilities. curriculum. finance; (4) effective legislative relations; (5) marketing and recruiting; (6) board relations. I graduated from the Center for the Study of Higher Education at the University of Michigan when Algo Henderson and John Brubacher were on the faculty. ‘The program prepared me very well. Courses on philosophy and history of higher education were very helpful. Also good was the practice of having CSHE students take a substantial number of courses elsewhere in the University. I recommend a close relationship with the College of Business Administration. I find that my job more closely parallels that of chief executive in corporations than other positions in higher education. Financial analysis. long-range planning. public relations. and fund raising are all functions with which a college president should be familiar. as well as the more traditional fields. Internships should be held in areas where the individual has little previous experience. Organizational development is important for everyone. Start with an MBA and add courses: (1) Student affairs (3-6 hours); (2) academic affairs (6 hours);(3) public and government relations (3 hours). (4) duties and functions of the governing board (1-2 hours); (5) historical/traditional overview of higher education. especially protocol. ceremonies. and educational politics (2—3 hours); (6) grant reasonable experience credit-~a person with 20 years of executive experience should be able to translate some of that to credit; (7) the major focus should be on writing a broad-overview dissertation. Emphasis on the empirical experience--case study. internships. role play. statistics instead of language requirements. Emphasis on learn- ing skills and process vis-a—vis content. Exploration of personal management style. Planning skills. Indexes for measuring institu- tional health/vitality. Accreditation criteria. Plus the tradition: theory. issues of education. labor management. history of higher education. curriculum development and evaluation. institutional research. theory of learning. art of instruction and evaluation. Graduate level. seminar approach. Cannes: management theory. busi- ness and finance. higher education and the law. strategic planning. institutional advancement. Extensive reading and discussion with those who are college and university presidents. .Intgnnsnip: would suggest several seminar experiences with academic leaders rather than an internship at a special institution. Wants: back- ground and experience in higher education. Academic record of high caliber. (1) Program should be for experienced people only--e.g.. three years of administrative or "successful" teaching experience. (2) Should admit only people in top 105 academically as measured by tests and grades. (3) An internship with a major administrative officer to learn what the 150 position entails. (4) Skills would include the ability to express oneself in written and oral communication. an ability to work with a variety of constituencies (faculty. students. staff. alumni. general public. politicians. etc.). (5) An aptitude for dealing with complex financial and other data. an ability to delegate wisely. the ability to provide academic leadership when necessary. the ability to plan new programs. the ability to keep line of communication open. skills in working with individuals and groups. a sensitivity to the concerns of others. the ability to deal with conflicting points of view. a willingness to accept new ideas. and the ability to make executive judgments that are usually sound decisions (this may be intuition). Courses: (1) considerable work with speech and communication skills. (2) several courses in finance and school law. (3) seminars with prac- ticing CEO's and state legislators with regard to working with elected boards and effective lobbying efforts. (4) acquaintance with major educational sources--discussion of research that should be done by local institutions that would enhance their own effectiveness. (5) how to construct effective staff in-service models. Experience: (1) work on accreditation teams-~of nothing but a recorder. (2) internship with practicing CEO. (3) submission of several articles for publication to educational journal s--should be part of classroom experience. (4) opportunities to interact with representatives of labor unions and directors of state community college organizations. The task you have stated here would take pages and pages to even minimally answer. However. I would suggest the following as a very sketchy minimum: Admission requirement: In addition to the normally required tests such as GRE. I believe it essential to administer some type of personality. that is. one that would possibly detect those with the necessary personal characteristics that could work in top adminis- trative positions. Requirements for the degree: In addition to the courses in curriculum. administration. budgeting. etc.. generally taught in Ph.D. programs. I believe there should be several evaluative stages prior to the general and dissertation defense where students may be evaluated. This could serve to aid the student in proceeding in the program. heeding the advice or a committee or individual faculty member or cause the student with noted deficiencies to change career plans. Internships: I would believe that an internship at a nearby college or university would be very beneficial. Lacking a separate institution. an internship at the college or university granting the degree would still be in order. The one item I lacked in my program was dealing effectively with faculty. staff. administration. and the university community. I should also include the student body. This own item actually takes up over half of my time and energy and yet I cannot remember disCussing this aspect in any of my graduate courses. (1) Select only the most promising. even if it means that the VP questions your credit-hour productivity. I have some ideas how to select best people in noncognitive areas but time prohibits lengthening 151 response. (2) Provide inservice experiences for those that didntt undertake their study in educational administration but who end up in administration Week-long mini courses and summer institutes could be a big contribution. (3) Be certain that all graduates have background in traditional discipline (e.g.. if Ph.D. takes 60 hours. 24 hours in traditional discipline not necessarily connected to educational administrationh This would insure greater campus credibility and would also give graduates perspective not gained in the usual educational administration courses. (4) Have high standards for faculty. both in terms of teaching and research. It would be nice to have a university's English department speak highly of a program in education administration. (5) Have faculty from political science. psychology. and sociology criticize the program. (6) Programs should be made more academic as we are interested in long-term development of graduates. Internships should be required. but it shouldnkt be seen as a "practitioners"‘degree. The following courses should be included: (1) history and philosophy of community colleges; (2) community college curricula--(a) liberal arts. (b) vocational-technical. (c) community education; (3) educa- tional psychology; (4) finances and budgets in community colleges; (5) computer introductory course; (6) public relations. including letter writing. memos. and English; (7) fund raising and foundations; (8) administration. A student should have at least three and preferably five years! teaching experience. Included should be a one-semester internship at a community college. Students should know federal programs. state legislative programs. and procedures in addition to regular course work. Course content essentially the same. but more emphasis on Theory 2. Admission requirements: strong emphasis on administrative experience. More writing requirements. more speaking requirements. ti me-management courses. Use practitioners as resource people; get the profs out of the ivory towers. A strong major in one academic discipline at the graduate level. One course in organization of higher education. One course in finance of higher education. One course in college governance including collec- tive bargaining. One course in strategic management. One course in futurism. One course in national and international society. govern- ment. trade. international relations. Courses: student oriented (understanding of students). person oriented courses (psychology). finance. goal setting. marketing. governmental relations. planning. development. admissions. financial aid. curriculum development. athletics. ethics. Internships: involve working with 152 board. governmental agencies. current president (evaluated to be out- standing). development. Personal observation: board meetings. budget preparation or presentation. president's cabinet meeting. I wish I could answer this respectfully. but one's background experien- tially suggests the amount of academic work in education administration needed. Basically. the course should be taught by (or at least supple— mented or team taught by).pnagtjging administrators who are able to analyze their jobs and various roles. Include. for president's position. areas such as these: development. planning. admissions. management. budget. public relations. Include opportunities for conversations. interviews. interactions with those in the field. Remember that the field and the needs keep changing. If useful. I'd be willing to meet on some occasion with a group of stu- dents interested in some of the positions in which I've served: stu- dent affairs. development. presidency. To answer your question as stated would take more time than I can devote to it; however. briefly. I would make the following suggestions. (1) A college president should have a liberal arts undergraduate educa- tion. (2) I believe a program leading to an advanced degree in admin- istration of higher education should have a strong emphasis in the following areas: management. finances. personnel administration. legal issues. public relations. and financial resource development. (3) A cognate area should include issues in higher education curriculum. and sociological and philosophical fOundations. (4) If possible. the stu- dent should be given an opportunity to expand his or her undergraduate major as part of the graduate program. (5) Those instructing in the area of higher education should have practical experience in the field. Areas: educational administration. educational sociology. educational psychology. philosophy of education. The courses in education adminis- tration. education sociology. and philosophy of education should all emphasize the purpose of schools in a democracy and how to organize and administer a college to achieve the proper objectives. An internship is essential. whether as an on-the-job employee in an educational institution or else a specially designed experience. 153 Chief Instructional Officers' Advice on a College Curriculum for Administrators Overview of trends in higher education. mechanical skills such as statistical applications. attention to the delicate balance of being a go-between between the president and the faculty. study models for effecting change. find a president of a very successful college/univer- sity and try to work out a brief internship. solid academic field credentials more important than higher education credentials in leading the faculty. There are many obvious areas which would be helpful to cover in courses: management skills. budget preparation and interpretation. being examples. I would strongly endorse an internship program both because it shows a student good and bad procedure and because it gives practical experience. I would also emphasize interpersonal and commu- nication skills development as of primary concern (oral and written communication and personnel management courses). In my experience academic administration does not come at the profes- sional entry level so I see a need for a base in a discipline. teaching experience. credibility with a faculty as prerequisites to the appoint- ment. Then. with immediacy of an appointment to be carried out. the graduate work will be doubly or more effective. I speak from a back- ground in history and political science. so I admit that certain disci- plines may include more transferability of learning than others. I prefer to mix up the studies (perhaps with varied assignments) so that management is studied with business and public administration. curriculum is studied with elementary. secondary. and higher educators. finance and budgeting with those in various other career plans. Summer workshops of two to four weeks on a university campus under the auspices of the North Central Liberal arts study and the direction of Lou Mayhew. Alan Pfuster. and Brad Sagen were extremely helpful to me as was meeting of academic deans at Stillwater. Oklahoma. There are surely records of these for study of structure. courses. etc. Internships more important than courses: Skills: (1) leadership. (2) personnel management. (3) budget planning. (4) problem solving. (5) oral and written communication. Thorough grounding in: (l) cur- riculum development. (2) program development. (3) faculty development. (4) faculty and program evaluation. Most important: several years' experience as full-time faculty member (teaching and research). I don't believe that formal education in educational administration is important. My administrative career began 20 years ago. and times have changed. Greater need now for good graduate instruction. The problems and issues now are more complex. In my opinion the best preparation for me 154 was time spent in athletic coaching. There I learned to make decisions and to accept responsibility for good or bad decisions. There also I polished the interpersonal skills (motivation. encouragement. disci- pline. eteJ so essential to administration. In administration you work with people all the time. In my opinion "people skills" are the #1 priority. Any course content and practical experience which can develop and enhance such skills should have a major role in prepara- tion. Internships should be an absolute requirementr-the more and the more diversified the better. Budget knowledge and management. planning. Sorry--no time for this--it would take a while to do a good job. These faculty (university) should have a good insight into the day-to- day operations of positions. Internships of at least one full year should be required. Students should gain usable (immediate) skills: college finance. government-agency relations. staff evaluations. working with unions. program evaluation. grant writing. organizational theory. budget development. use of computers and services. community networking. School law. labor law--student and employee rights. due process. etc” policy manuals--interpretation and enforcement. behavior modification-- use of positive and negative reinforcers. group dynamics--how working with organized groups differs from working one-on-one with individuals. school finance--budget-building process and budget control. technical writing-~a course in writing policies and procedures where each word must have a meaning or change the meaning of the policy. I think courses in administration. psychology. business curriculum--and an effective internship. (1) Would emphasize academic values and faculty as a profession; (2) knowledge of organizations generally. and academic organizations spe- cifically; (3) broad coverage of major fields: student affairs. busi- ness and finance. law. curriculum and philosophy. governance and admin- istration; (4) some'exposure/hands-on help with computers. budgets. strategic planning. I would not go the degree route (in education) for academic administra- tors; they need the Ph.D. and faculty experience. Primary emphasis would be on internships. i.e.. "on-the-job training" under the tutelage of an executive-level administrator. I would advise them to abandon the plan for a degree program (in education). There is no substitute for experience. plus possibly something like ACE workshops and/or the IGM at Harvard (which I com- pleted three years after entering ful l-time administration. The 155 effective administrator needs. I believe. a grounding in an academic discipline and teaching experience. as well as a record of at least some scholarship (as opposed to researchh My recommendation would be that they be grounded in a standard academic discipline--have experiencelas a faculty member at all ranks. serve as a department chair. associate dean or dean. etc.. i.e.. "go through the chairs." I would recommend attendance at one of the good summer administrative programs such as Harvard. Stanford. If they could pick up a law degree it would be helpful. How can "a faculty" design a curriculum for a profession they know nothing about? Hope you get an advisory group of administrators to assist and guide you. or you're apt to have a sterile curriculum. Good luckl The best preparation for my position [provost in small liberal arts college] is experience as a faculty member in a variety of academic institutions. Were I in such a position at a larger institution I might be able to help you by suggesting the specialized instruction needed. Group dynamics. psychology. accounting. legal matters. Course work should include leadership skills. psychology. courses focusing on learning theory and personality traits. planning and bud- geting. employment. evaluation. and retention/dismissal of employees. collective bargaining dealing with grievances. etc.. delegating respon- sibility and authority as well as the normal courses in administration. the history of LLS. higher education. and the like. Role playing/ simulations should be used as much as possible to lend practical appli- cations to otherwise theoretical concerns. In addition. internships should be required to expose students to some of the everyday dilemmas faced by administrators. and these internships should be spread throughout the program and not a concluding course. Admissions requirements should include the traditional "previous grades plus GRE scores" emphasis. supplemented by aptitude test results and/or leader- ship index (indices) results from the 16 Personality Factor Question- naire (16 PF). The end result of the curriculum should be production of an administrator who has theoretical knowledge and practical skills and who can exercise differing leadership styles. depending upon the type of person/group being worked with or the environment in which a group dynamic encounter occurs. Harvard Institute of Management Curriculum is excellent. In addition to the standard fare. emphasis should be placed on planning. financial planning and management. people management skills. collective bargaining. labor law (specific to state). I also believe that a degree in a specific discipline (at least at the master's level) 156 is necessary for faculty leadership (a series of "higher education" degrees does not command the same respect). Internships are also important—there is a need for both theoretical framework and practical application. If anything other than standard graduate admissions requirements are applied--then I would suggest X years of administra- tive experience instead of the internships. Since I have not had any courses in education or administration. I do not feel qualified to advise faculty regarding the development of a curriculum to prepare higher education administrators. However. based on my experience. I would suggest that a strong liberal arts education plus courses in computer science. economics. and higher education management should be included. In regard to admission requirements. I would suggest that any undergraduate liberal arts major or a major in education would prepare a serious student for admission. It seems to me that an internship in administration would be beneficial. However. skills in interpersonal relations. communications. and common-sense judgments are essential. Although specific coursework in higher administration would be beneficial. I think that the tradition of people from a variety of academic disciplines is healthy. The training offered by first-rate FUtD. granting institutions produces people who are skilled in researching new ideas. etc. It is that training which enables one to move into new areas (administration being one) and succeed. There are several areas where specific instruction would help new administrators such as management styles. problem solving. long-range planning and procedures. and perhaps budgeting. For the most part. however. these options can be discerned through reading and observa- tion. Set methods are not always applicable or transferable. so too much "indoctrination" in specific theories can be a disadvantage. Ultimately. intelligence. adaptability. integrity. and experience are the best teachers. Any good curriculum can't teach these--but short. intensive workshops can help point direction or relieve frustrations. Training at the graduate level for senior administrators in higher education should be focused on a cognate area. This is essential to the conduct of the ongoing dialogue between a dean and the faculty. Faculty do appropriately expect the academic dean to have mastered a body of knowledge. For this reason. the development of the curriculum would include support courses in law. management. policy analysis. research. etc. However. the “critical mass” of the curriculum would be a conventional graduate program in any academic discipline. What may be identified as skill-development courses should be secondary to those which develop a core area of theory. Admission requirements should be similar to any comparable academic program at the graduate level. Internships could be valuable as an option. but not as a requirement. 157 There is no better training than to be a faculty member who takes his or her teaching seriously. engages in continual professional self- development. and who is also involved with the governance of the col- lege. However. if I were setting up a curriculum. these are the areas I would stress: required previous teaching experience. Courses in educational philosophy. curriculum planning. interpersonal communica- tions. speech. psychology. state and local government. management. computer science (at least computer literacy). word processing. and writing (perhaps business writing). Internship is a good idea. even if it was a shadowing kind of experience. Academic administration is not just administration; it requires a level of commitment that is very high and a willingness to take risks. cajole rather than coerce. and an ability to balance autonomy and accountability. Please review the offerings of Bryn Mawr College Summer Institute for Women in Higher Education Administration. Harvard's Institute for Educational Management. Carnegie-Mellon's Summer Program for Higher Education Administrators. These programs cover all the necessary topics. some in more detail than others. No sense reinventing the wheel! Critical skills: public speaking?. public relations skills. written communication. financial accounting. statistical analysis. Admission should be on the basis of possessing the above skills in developmental stage with good potential for further development. Of the above-mentioned. I would only be capable of making a reasonably strenuous case for longer-term internships. Much of the rest of administration. byzantine as it tends to be. is so very situational-- and so reliant upon political and interpersonal "strategizing"--that I am becoming less and less confident about how well any of it can be taught. apart from internship/mentoring circumstances. In light of my above response. a few general comments might be more appropriate. (1) Much of what I have to know I learned earlier within and outside ________ by experience: personnel. academic curriculum. faculty values and sensitivities. communication skills. problem solving. My personal and professional values. goals. and elements can't be taught. If I have the right ones. that helps a great deal. If not. I'm dead. (2) I. and others I have seen in this position. could have benefited from specific training in budget. planning. how and what to delegate. time management. 'Those can be taught; however. doing so. in my view. does not require a full doctoral program. Nor would such a pregram substitute for the experience of having been a faculty. and in most cases it would not be viewed by faculty as an adequate substitute. (3) Formal instruction in many areas would be very helpful. but I view that as a supplement. not the basic preparation for administration. 158 Ihn not at all sure that you can train a person for the standard college administrative position. Some individuals simply do not have the appropriate interpersonal skills necessary regardless of their training. It may be more appropriate to select academicians with the appropriate credentials and give them the training--short term or between terms--necessary for this responsibility. Courses in governance (including comparisons of alternative models) and in finance--accounting--are important. I think that a person should come to a job like mine through the administrative line. Experience as chairman or dean and the experiences as a faculty member that must precede a chairmanship or deanship provides most of the information a person needs. But these are governance-managerial and finance- accounting issues that are unique to the job. My own bias is that academic administrators ought to be prepared in one of the disciplines offered in higher education institutions. rather than developing a special curriculum (in the most academic sense of the wordh I prefer that administrators be brought along through mentor relationships within institutions; a strong program that fosters development of administrators ought to be designed for most campuses. Such a program ought to provide experiences with managing resources. planning. leading. evaluation. Specific training in interpersonal relations. training in personnel management and public speaking. For admission. require a sound liberal arts education. regardless of field of expertise. The chief academic officer and the president of a four-year or four- year/graduate college or university should hold the Phxh in an academic discipline. have taught full time in higher education. and have published the results of research in his/her field. Frankly. doctoral programs in higher education (administration) are. I believe. of value only to those who may want to enter student affairs work and. perhaps for those who may want to be in fund raising/public relations. A V.P. for business should have an MBA or equivalent. At a university with graduate degrees such a person should also have an earned doc- torate. probably in an academic field. but perhaps one in educational administration could be of some benefit. I dontt believe that there is any one right way for any of these areas. although there are ways that are more right than others given a par- ticular situation. (Administrative training should include examples of the different models that exist in a given area. but the real "trick" is to help the administrator assess the problems and the resources and then to develop an optimum solution that is supported by the faculty. students. and administration. Situation planning in other words. My best advice to the faculty designing this "curriculum" would be to take a one-year leave and get out in the field themselves. There is a 159 great deal of missed communication between practitioners and university faculty because the practitioners usually have neither the time nor inclination to really try to get through. If I was designing a pro- gram. it would mix practitioners and those seeking entry in short courses built around practical topics. I would stress practical man- agement skills and intense seminars with project-development periods between sessions. I would require only that faculty teaching in the program spend at least one semester every three years in some kind of field experience. Courses--see previous comments. Internships—-yes. with more than one institution. Skills-~speaking. debate. listening. interpersonal relations. writing. group leadership. how to evaluate: faculty. staff. programs. Administrators need coursework in human relations. financing of educa- tion. computer usage (not programming). and curricula development. They should have general skills in communication (oral and written) and a sense of history. Philosophy of higher education is basic in higher education. particu- larly as it applies to the type of institution that the would-be admin- istrator wishes to be part of. Since administration is mostly a "doing" field. I would be sure to arrange "field" experience for all the students who were out on the job in some administrative capacity. ‘The genuine field experience has several advantages over "in-basket" cases: The student will witness all the kinds of things that happen spontaneously in the normal admin- istrative day. he/she will get a first-hand sense of the need for an administrator to be flexible and creative when organizing his/her day. the student will make valuable contacts in a field experience. The more field experiences available. the more contacts he/she will be able to generate. Since administration is really a people job. the more people a future administrator deals with. the better. Therefore. I would structure the program. if it were mine. around field experience. The theory is critical. but theory looks much more real when it is seen in the light of the job. The administrative learning experience then could be a continual process of theory followed by practical applica- tion. No theoretical principle of administration would be presented without application. Among the course areas that should be included (partial list): manage- ment/supervisory/delegation skills. short- and long-range institutional planning. internal institutional dynamics (institutional politics). external institutional dynamics (external politics. development. eth. research tools and skills (statistics. methodology. computer applications). (Although I didn't consider it too important during my iflnD. program. this [research tools and skills] has turned out to be one of the most useful tools for effective decision making I have found 160 in my current positionJ Such a program should definitely include an extensive internship program. Although I did not have an internship as a part of my Phi) program. I later found that the learning I acquired through a mentor was the most valuable aspect of my career/professional development. Characteristics of effective and ineffective administrators. political realities (both on and off campus). working with public boards. effec- tive decision-making practices. Admission to the program should place emphasis on prior administration experience. Appeal should be made primarily to students with some experience already in higher education--probably teaching in one of the traditional liberal arts disciplines. Coursework should be planned to train applicants in traditional management skills (conflict resolution. personnel matters. use of human and financial resources. academic master planning. etc). Practicums and internships in the type of institution in which the applicant hopes to serve should be arranged-- need to be about one year in length at least. Supporting coursework in psychology. sociology. helpful; also literature and history. Would add courses in negotiating with unions. eliminate most of the research currently being required. Doctoral dissertations are. generally. not good research. Admissions requirements seem to be too "academic." I believe experience should be more strongly considered as an admission requirement. Interpersonal skills vital. research skills important. A variety of courses dealing with practical problems and issues. The theory courses are good as background but donFt prepare you for some»of the real human problems. The dean of a small liberal arts college should not secure a terminal degree in academic administration. Instead he/she should have a degree in an academic discipline and should have experience teaching it. Courses in academic administration. however. would be helpful in a summer term. for a sabbatical or on an internship basis. The specific courses that would be helpful are found at the bottom of page 2. I canttlanswer all these. I would encourage much greater use of case study material (much more. that is. than in my own doctoral program in higher education) and would limit admission to persons with five years' teaching experience. IDd also do much more in history of higher educa- tion. Administrative positions in the academic area of community colleges will require a subject matter master's degree or a significant amount of course work in a discipline to be accepted by the faculty. Strong teaching skills with knowledge of curriculum and instruction. Too many 161 graduates of higher education programs are weak in instructional design and learning styles. Make sure the graduates have: subject matter master's degree. community college teaching experience. course work in curriculum and instruction. doctorate in higher education administra- tion. I feel that my success is a result of: high respect by the faculty as an educator who understands the teaching and learning process“.better than most. a positive attitude toward experimentation that involves risk/constantly encouraging professional growth via 3 support. a real concern for the faculty. placing the greatest priority on the faculty member/student relationship and doing everything in my power to enhance and improve that relationship. generally (not always) though to be 111:. with all of the above. administrators need to be intrusive where appropriate to encourage growth and not allow persons to become too comfortable with the status quo. Give people that work for me the authority/responsibility to do their job and then hold their feet to the fire. If they can't produce get a person that can...Don't waste years trying to turn a person around. students suffer! Keep your expectations for performance high. achievable but high". Could write forever on this; best of luck. good study! By personal philosophy I would have no admissions requirements other than possession of an undergraduate degree and interest in the program. The program should be very flexible. tailored to the individual goals and interests of the student. At the same time it should be clearly defined. e.g.. satisfactory completion of X courses selected with the advice of a faculty committee. rather than an open-ended program that drags out fro years. As I review my own experience not all the most valuable courses I took were in professional education (these included a graduate course in modern geometry. one in the English novel. an undergraduate survey of astronomy. and a graduate course in advanced psychological statistics). Thus I would insist on a heavy nonprofes- sional component in the program--general education continue through the graduate progrant Among the professional education courses I found most valuable were graduate courses in educational philosophy. person- nel work in higher education. and foundations of curriculum develop- ment. As is often the case. it is difficult to separate the content from the quality of person teaching the course. These were taught by exceptionally fine people who opened my eyes to a host of new insights. The same courses could have been duds in the hands of a different faculty. One thing which I learned "on the job" which would have been useful in my course of study was how to find my way around the law library. The most important factor is to determine whether the person has the natural aptitude and inclination for an administrative position. If they do. they can be taught the skills they need to have and the information that is necessary. If not. no amount of instruction will make them successful. Assuming they have the ability. they must know 162 how to deal with people and be able to lead by getting others to cooperate and assume a shared participation in accomplishing the desired objective. Develop a program similar to Nova's program. Activities designed to develop management and interpersonal skills. Activities to develop a vision of what education and the school are able to be. Activities to develop leadership abilities. Activities designed to discourage people who do not have vision. interpersonal skills. and leadership abilities. Most programs do not encourage those who have the skills. and they do not professionally screen out those who don't. A degree should not be a legitimization of incompetency. The program should promote development of a class of managers who can combine teaching. research. and management. ‘Too many of our adminis- trative colleagues give up and settle for one or the other. Would require an internship. Internships would be useful. skill in writing (proposals. correspond- ence. policies. memoranda. eth a must. an advanced disciplinary degree to compliment education/administration degree. respect for the limitations of jargon. theory. and paradigms. as for their usefulness. some)teaching experience. some administrative experience; these could be by internship. interpersonal and organizational skills for setting up. conducting. and evaluating colloquia. committee meetings. etc. Include sessions by administrators from a variety of colleges. try to match kind of college to administrative needs. include use of computer- generated data. ask administrators to provide their flow chart of personnel. build in regular reporting structures. e.g.. monthly or weekly depending on importance of the area being considered. saying no without being too abrupt. general management skills should be included too. discuss value of off-campus planning sessions. Emphasis should be placed on psychological interpersonal skills!!! Reduce emphasis on internal organizational concepts. particularly the manner in which they have traditionally been presented should be changed. Second. please teach administrators to write in plain English. From my background. you can tell that I have had little formal educa- tion (courses) that emphasized preparation for becoming a dean-and yet I felt prepared for the position. The PhJL in an academic area has been useful because of the discipline the degree entailed plus the experience of knowing an academic area in depth. Also. I had been a successful English teacher in several high schools and at this commu- nity college. My peers elected me to an administrative position-- English Division Head-~and kept me in that position for 13 years. When my present position opened. I knew the institution very well--its inner 163 workings. the staff in general. and the upper administration in partic- ular. Experience and performance have made the difference--but I'm afraid that's not very helpful to anyone planning curriculum. Possible courses: systems analysis. computer programming. human resource development. cost accounting. organizational development and behavior. personnel management. higher education and the law. collec- tive bargaining. principles of marketing. history of higher education. curriculum development. ethics. educational philosophy. The dean of a small college must be prepared to work in many different areas: cur- riculum. promotion and marketing. budget preparation. personnel devel- opment and evaluation. management. state and federal government. and communication. An internship would be helpful. The list of skills to be developed would include the following: running meetings. group decision making. problem solving. verbal and written communication. and ti me management. Prerequisite: full-time college/university teaching experience. Coursework: management science--including strategic planning. higher education finance. internship or other practical experience would be invaluable. This question might best be answered by reviewing the doctoral program I am currently pursuing. With the close of the current winter term I have completed all coursework and the comprehen- sives. The program has been very valuable in my day-to-day work life. I must confess. however. that because of my administrative experience. the course work was more valuable to me than if I were to have com- pl eted the course work without administrative experience. My job provided a laboratory setting in which I could apply the theoretical side of the coursework. Without this combination the coursework alone would not have been as meaningful. Internship or practicum n:19:_tg the formal coursework. courses in time management. problem solving. living with stress. personality disorders. higher education and the law. budgeting and finance. at least workshops in curriculum models. team approaches to planning. long-range planning mechanisms. Admission requirement: doctorate or A80 in a traditional discipline. Curriculum: basic accounting. marketing. management (organizational. personnel. time) and planning. curriculum development. faculty develop- ment. higher education environment (government. alumni. BOT. demograph- ics. etc.). philosophy of education (history of education). managerial economics. internship. Perhaps also an institutional research project. Management-style workshops on: personnel management. planning. budget- ing. Students should have a minimum of five years of full-time college-level teaching experience with some administrative experience. 164 Any would-be academic administrator ought to have a minimum of 10 years of full-time teaching in an institution similar to the one in which he/she will becomeran administrator. ‘That has been the most valuable training for me. The ideal arrangement would be ten years of teaching experience (achieve a tenure faculty position). then a year's sabbati- cal for coursework which should include the following courses: basic course in the financial administration of higher education. basic course on management theory and practice. basic course on curriculum and instruction (view of the different types of curricula and instruc- tional methods). and then a course involving case studies of real administrative situations. what was done. how it worked out. and then an analysis. I guess another valuable course would be one emphasizing techniques for interpersonal relationships-~a course that is pretty heavy on social psychology. After this year's sabbatical a one-year internship on the ACE model and then a position as academic administra- tor. All of this assumes. of course. that the individual going through the training has the proper characteristics of an administra- tor-ability to organize to get task done. a certain sensitivity and ability to relate to a wide range of people. courage to make decisions. and the wisdom to know when to make them. If all of this sounds impossible. remember I said this was the ideal arrangement. Perhaps it would be best to concentrate on summer sessions where the courses I mentioned above could be introduced to in-service faculty-members who aspire to be administrators. They must be well-constructed. no-nonsense courses. however. and I would make substantial teaching experience a prerequisite for admission. There is severe fragmentation within urban educational programs-- particularly at the college level. Teachers and administrators alike should be able to observe. detect. and coordinate signals which when analyzed could permit one to interpret the meaning of socioeconomic dependency on education. In short. there is need for problem assessment and how it affects the behavior of the student's ability to learn. Students have a sensitivity to self. other students. instructors. administrators. and the educational environment at large. Stress and anxieties are generated within the academic community through response to several means as: (l) the physical site. its location and accessibility to the student. i.e.. lighting. days opened and class times offered. (2) teachers assigned. are they college graduates or trained personnel appointed by or certified by a Board of Directors? (3) attitudes of instructors or teachers toward the students. their peers and administration. Administration is often complained or heard about but the students rarely or never see it (them). (4) and intensive bargaining of the union which involves the wel- fare of the student. I point out the above in an effort to build a case for internships. Indeed. internships are a necessary requirement for educating adminis- trators. Before any administrator-leader can start to lead. he or she 165 must have some perceptions and perspectives of whom they are proposing to lead. Different people (students) prize different values and beliefs that they feel are legitimate about themselves and the institu- tion. As educational administrators. we must remember legitimacy is not an absolute but a relative concept. , Institutions must be able to reach students. instructors. and administrators. This can be done only if we first comelto a consensus on what legitimacy is and how we can develop an environmental situation that makes for compatibility rather than conflict. It is then and only then that our teachings will be successful as we expose each student to exploring his or her learning capacities and abilities. giving us a reasonably reliable and responsive return. Viewed over the long term. administration is. to me. a function of coordinating the learning processes of a whole society. constantly on the alert for new problems which cannot be solved by old answers. Administration is truly a task of constantly coordinating human expec- tations. preferences. and perspectives in a fashion that affords every student his/her rights to obtain his/her goals. Study the practical aspects of administrative jobs. tasks. responsi- bilities. environment. etc. .Ihen relate to the theoretical body of knowledge. Strong emphasis on need to understand communication theory and group processes. Case study (limited) approach would be benefi- cial. Short. tightly structured internships after previous exposure to the environments to be experienced. People management (including collective bargaining). financial manage- ment. and internships in a variety of roles. Require five years of teaching experience. include one one-month full- time internship. Emphasis in coursework: supervision. law. finance. group dynamics. public institution management. self-awareness. and image building. I donFt have broad or original suggestions. I do offer a caution-- avoid an over-emphasis and over-dependence on theory. For academic administrators. I think it far more important to have depth in a disci- pline and established credibility as a teacher/scholar. First of all. there should be separate curricula for school administra- tors. university administrators. and community college administrators. with a minimum of cross-listing. Within the community college curricu- lum. there should 1191 be a course entitled "the community college." This is as ridiculous as a course entitled the "university." Courses in community college finance. community college personnel practices. and most important. community college philosophy would be appropriate. Also included should be courses in law and organizational theory. Internships would be helpful. 166 Generally. I feel that my combined public school and higher education teaching and administrative experiences adequately prepared me for an education deanship. However. nothing seems to prepare one for the ml or actual experience. An internship with an outstanding administrator might be the most helpful part of a training program. While academic preparation could be helpful. the actual on-line experience is more important. I now realize what would be useful to me. and will work toward updating my skills. I feel that ongoing training and education for administrators would be very valuable. Must blend theory with the real-world environment of college adminis- tration. Admission requirements: master's degree pl us three years of experi- ence in higher education administration. Internships: none required if admissions requirements (recommended) followed. Structure: one full-time semester on campus should be the residence requirement. The rest of the courses should be able to be taken on a part-ti me. commut- ing basis. Course topics (could be general or could focus on community colleges): higher education budgeting. higher education personnel and collective bargaining. state systems of higher education. organization and management of colleges and universities. types of higher education organizations--history. philosophy. and mission. higher education cur- ricula. higher education traditional classroom instructional tech- niques. higher education nonclassroom. nontraditional instructional techniques (tv. microcomputer. independent study. etc.). leadership and change in higher education. supervision of faculty and faculty evalua- tion. program planning and evaluation. administrative roles and faculty roles. The need for this kind of education is not clear to me. If some such training were provided. it should concern itself with the same kinds of information and skills as are provided to business managers. Added to that kind of training should be training in the law of education (i.e.. the likeliest legal issues in connection with higher education. as personnel issues connected with faculty. tenure. academic freedom. students' rights. issues concerning college publications. handling records. tort liabilities peculiar to higher education. and so on). and a substantial education in the nature of education and the educa- tional process. Admissions requirements should focus on suitability for the business and legal aspects of the kind of job under discussion. but also for serious interest in. concern for. and involvement with higher education. That is. the best administrators have a lively. personal relation to education. I don't think internships are neces- sary or particularly useful. I would hope students would master skills in business administration. personnel management. possibly in market- ing. in the law of education. and other related areas. In addition. I would like to see educators emerge with a serious commitment to their own continuing education (not more job training. retraining. upgrading. etc.). principally in the liberal arts broadly conceived. This need 167 not entail the pursuit of additional credentials. Indeed. administra— tors who TEACH and are seriously concerned to teach well. to learn more. and to keep living contact with education and the educational process are undoubtedly the best. Internships are most important. Some basic training in fiscal opera- tions (basic accounting. data processing. eth. Internship absolutely necessary (on-the—job training is important). Time management. Add more law and business training. I would recommend a PhJL in a discipline and a track record of research. teaching. and service. Courses in public administration would be helpful. but universities are different animals. I would emphasize history of higher education. policy studies in higher education. sociology of higher education. I would require at very least a master's degree in an academic discipline outside of adminis- tration. and college-level teaching experience. Internships of increas- ing complexity would be required during each year of the program. I believe that most higher education curricula contain courses that are appropriate for persons expecting to fill senior-level positions in higher education. .Additional course work. however. is needed in the area of organization. management. psychology. human relations. budget- ing. and planning. It is especially important that students be given the opportunity to develop skills in getting things done. It is extremely difficult today to find administrators who know how to accomplish completed staff work or. when given a job. turn in a com- pleted project. I view this as a critical situation and I would be very interested in knowing the results of your survey. particularly as they might address the issues I have referred to. A_program in educational administration is not essential. given the "right" person. but it would be helpful. I am not impressed with any number of Ph.D.'s in "higher education administration." Administration has a basic theoretical base that transcends the levels that some try to make of it. Theories of administration--essentia1. Supervision of instruction. improvement of instruction. school law. curriculum theory. personnel management all are essential. Admission requirements: M.A. in a field of study. successful teaching experience at higher education level. leadership potential. personal characteristic ability to work with people. (Persons who get B.A.. M.A.. Ph.D. in higher education without successful teaching experience. department chair or other administrative experience are missing the most valuable educational and training ground for deanships.) 168 (1) Provide relevant text and support materials. Too much is written by university professors who have gotten out of touch. (2) Provide internships with best individuals and courses known (two-year or four- yearh (3) Attract and enroll only professionally oriented potential students. Screen carefully and enroll only the very best. Education is suffering tremendously due in large part to poorly selected and trained leadership. (4) Bring in experts and dynamic thinkers from outside to teach units or courses in parts of the degree. Why not try to become the veny_he§t higher education program in America? What a great challenge! People skills. communication skills (verbal and written). budget. critical thinking skills. strategic planning skills. case studies. practical experience through internships. Developing collegiality with responsibility. administrating wide varia- tions in faculty personalities. interests. and abilities. Developing quality with modest resources. One-year internship. Clear speaking and writing. Abilities to lead large and small groups. Continue a strong content minor with a higher education major. (l) Orientation to academic processes at a college/university; (2) historical review of the system-~traditions of academe. social systems and their effects. technological impacts on the system; (3) various financial means of keeping the institution alive; (4) orientation to the systems of higher education institutions. roles. functions. size. effect of bargaining units; (5) serious look at meaningful evaluation systems. We don't need more education courses! We do need: people skills (especially listening) and group process skills. more grounding in the law. computer skills (and perhaps some'accounting). sales skills (to help sell our institutions and higher education in general). writing skills for grant proposals. For the position of Dean of Academic Affairs at a liberal arts college. the person should be qualified for a tenured position in one of the academic departments in order to have the respect and support of the faculty. .A doctorate in higher education administration would be useful. but not sufficient by itself. I believe that a semester or year program in higher education administration. on top of experience in college-level teaching and the qualifications attending such a position. would be a valuable program for me to have had. The admis- sion requirements and courses to be included are implicit in my responses above. An internship or variety of short experiences in various settings would be extremely valuable. Skills necessary include. but are not limited to: budgeting. personnel administration. history and philosophy of American higher education. management. col- lege curricula. trends in higher education. etc. 169 I feel it is very important to have an administrative internship with on-the-job training. Admittees should be restricted to PthJs in regular academic disci- plines who have been through tenure tracks and published. Teach them how to do 12 things at once. operate a school on a shoe- string. manage time that sometimes you don't have. how to eliminate jobs of friends you have known and respected for years. dealing with state legislators. dealing with taxpayers who think that community college is administratively too heavy. How to get that'job in Michigan that I almost had six long years ago. Start with a history of higher education. including history of curricu- lum. funding. governmental relations. and labor relations. Insist that these courses be taught by historians and that they include extensive written work. Include coursework in finance. personnel. collective bargaining. strategic planning. and corporate communication. Require an internship of at least one semester. Admit students with a master's degree in a university discipline or offer as a graduate program which includes a complimentary master's. The program should involve on-the-job training--an internship of at least one semester. During this period of time the student would be involved in working directly with an administrator at the college level. day and night. and putting into practice the decision-making procedures learned at the college level. Included in study should be courses in higher education finance. planning. programming. curriculum design. public relations. collective bargaining. organization. research (not statistical). and technical education. One admission requirement should be experience at the administrative level in at least secondary education. Preparation in a content area and teach at college/university level. participation on major committees in the college. read widely on higher education. learn theory of curriculum (not necessarily a course). learn effective management and organization skills. I have some skepticism about administrators who are "career administrators." From my perspec- tive I have not found them to be effective because they lacked real knowledge of the central issues about/in academics: learning. teach- ing. research. Very strong credentials in an academic discipline so one can attain full professor status. Not confident one can develop a curriculum to train persons to become provosts or chief academic officers. simply not route of most persons. Possibly for student affairs or continuing vice-presidents or deans a curriculum as suggested above would be more appropriate and have higher probability of success. I would really emphasize the need for long-term internships. 170 (1) Students should consider earning master's in community college teaching discipline if entering community college administration. (2) IHternships are very valuable. (3) The admission requirements should be high but pure intellectual capacity does not ensure success. A personality inventory might prove helpful. (4) Courses on decision- making theory need to be well taught. (5) Mock situations and simula- tions are very valuable. especially faculty-administration contexts. board-administration contexts. and administrator-administrator con- texts. (6) Personnel-management training is valuable. Curriculum should include: courses in school law. course in time management/stress management. courses inIadministrative decision making (especially involving a system of accountability). budgeting cycles. long-range planning. Structure: papers/seminars/practicums/internships. Courses: history of higher education. organization of community colleges. budget devel- opment. personnel law. marketing. strategic planning. collective bar- gaining. curriculum development. financial modeling. organizational development. organizational theory. learning theory. philosophy of higher education. statistics. program-evaluation techniques. Admission requirements: 34) undergraduate GPA and three years' work experience. Internships: critical for practical application of theoretical learn- ing. Should be full time for at least one semester. Skills: fiscal management. personnel management. planning. marketing. negotiating. curriculum development. organizational development. communication (verh bal and written). time management. personnel and program evaluation. Accounting and budgeting. working knowledge of computers as a tool. personnel management and labor relations. faculty-development programs. curriculum development. one semester of ful l-time internship. I com- pliment you on your survey. as to its intent. questions. and length. I explored the doctorate program in higher education administration at a local university and decided the program would be of very limited value to me. It seems to me crucial to have some knowledge of the difference among the sciences. the arts. the social sciences. and the humanities. I came out of the humanities and had a good feel for the social sciences. My greatest challenges have been in working with departments in the sciences and the arts. They do business differently. and I was not altogether prepared to understand their peculiar needs and problems. Essential components: (1) skill development in interpersonal skills. conflict resolution. and decision making; (2) internships; (3) educa- tional background in basic discipline (e.g.. English. history). 171 I have had that opportunity with a leading midwestern university which developed a Doctor of Arts degree in community college teaching. A cannot support any causal relationship between the two. but I have my suspicions. The only reason I bothered to complete this questionnaire is that your institution produced the Elementary Intern Program. which I feel was one of the finest experience-driven educational programs of its time. 1. Assemble human material such as listed on preceding page [of questionnaire] via video tapes. teleconferences. actual appearances. etc. 2. Hire adjunct professors who are actually employed in the field they are to teach. 3. Retain highly experienced senior administrators recently retired for terminal periods to provide boilerplate courses with a modicum of currency. 4. Follow a practical format of required coursework and projects which are real and applicable. 5. Use projects in lieu of traditional dissertation. Require such projects to be real--implemented and evaluated. 6. Employ mentor system (in lieu of internships) with administra- tor who will support. guide. etc.. student through project(s). 7. Do not require the students in your program to become unem- ployed to become "educatedJ' 8. Design the program for full-time working faculty and adminis- trators. Make use of intensive work sessions over week-ends or for periods of no more than a week or two. 9. Compact the total experience as much as possible to provide appropriate level of applicability and currency. 10. Admission-~completion of NLA. at accredited institution of education and recommendation from senior administrator who knows the candidate. APPENDIX C QUESTIONNAIRES SENT TO COLLEGE ADMINISTRATORS I72 173 Name (to help us remove vac ham the mating l'sv so Michigan State University Em...“ "°' °f..°""°'°° °°°'" -.... mm” Higher Education Study 5 College .............................................................................. Biographical Dara Current positron n’rle Sex _ Male _ Female Age ar lcnr Burrhday- __ 21 to 25 __ 46 to 50 _261030 ___511055 _ 31 to 35 _ 5o ro 60 __Oor040 _61roo5 _ 41 to 45 _ Over 65 Whar is your erhnlc or rocral group? __ Black/Negro/AfroAmencan _ M'lIIG/COUCOSIOH __ Hlsponrc _ Nanve NTTGI’ICOn/NTTQHCOF) Ifllef'l __ Orleniol __ Other (please speCIfy) Please llsr your earned advanced degrees Institution Major Degree or Certificate Masters Docrorare How long have you been employed in your current pcsmon? How many years n roral have you been employed 0! your current unsnrunon uncludlng currenr Job and any arhers you have held here? In what type of insnrunon are you currenrly employed (check as many as apply)? _ Tax supported __ Community College _ Private college _ Pumanly baccalaureare degrees _ Church OfflIlOIed _ Grant-both undergraduate 6 graduate degrees During the last academlc year dud you reach any college classes? I __ Yes. or my present lnsnrunon _ Yes. but at a drfierenr lnsnrunon __ No What was your (am full nme pond Job in higher education? When you were selecred for your current position. were you: __ Employed or the nme as a full time faculty member of this lnsnrunon __ Employed or rhe nme as a lull nme faculty member of another unsnrunon _ Employed at the nme ar thus lnsnrunon, but in a driierenr odmlnrsrrarrve pOSIIlon _ Employed ar the nme 1n the some kind of admmrsrranve )Ob. bur In a dltrerenr lmrrrunon ._ Employed oursrde of hlgher educanan 1714 If you were employed in a different insrirunon at the time of appointment to your current pasirion, was the insrirurion generally similar to your current institution? __ Yes _No Below are presented 5 models of careers in higher education. Please circle the model that most closely resembles the path your career has taken. As with all models these are generalizations rhar may not precisely hr the experience of all respondents to our survey. it your career has had a major variarion. from the closesr model. please nore the difference under the most appropriare model which you have circled. Mode! A Model 0 Model C President Resident President Dean or Vice President Dean or Vice President Dean or Vice President Department or Division Chair Mid level Administrative position Full time work outside education Full time Faculty Enrry level Administrative position Model D Model E President Pl’esidenr Deon or Vice President Deon in college setting or Vice President Full time Faculty in higher education PrinCipal and/or Superintendent in K-12 setting Full time Fawlry in K-12 setting Faculry or Administrative positions in K-1 2 setting Career Preparation Data Have you ever taken any courses in higher educanan adminisrrcrion? __ Yes __ No if yes. how many courses have you taken? _ 1-3 caurses _ 4-6 courses _ 7-9 courses .__iOormorecourses If you have taken courses in higher educanan administration. how helpful. as a grOup. was the course(s) to you in carrying out your currenr duties? Extremely Very Nor Very Nor Helpful Helpful Helpful Helpful Helpful At All 1 4 A. 1 J. i If you could have taken a one year sabbatical before taking your current job. what courses. specific skills or knowledge would you have liked to obtain to help you do your current job better? Ar the time you were appointed to your current position. how well prepared did you feel ro carry out your administrative duties? __ Extremely well prepared __ Very well prepared __ Prepared __ Nor well prepared _ Nor prepared or all 175 In your view, how important is it that a person preparing for a position such as yours complete a dacroral level program in a field such as educational administration. education. higher education administration. or pubiic administration? _ Exrremely Important _ Very lmponant _ Important __ Nor Very Important __ Nor Imponant at all if you had the opportunity to sit down with a group of university faCulty who were attempting to develop a curriCUlum to train administrators for jObS such as yours what advice would you give them concerning how the program should be structured, the courses which shOuld be included admission requirements need for internships. the skills the students would be expected to master. etc? Please use back of sheet or additional pages if necessary Thank you for participating in this study! Please check below if you would like to receive a printed summary of the results of the study. __ yes send me a copy of the results when tabulated 176 Name (to help u remove mu from the mailing list so Michigan State University you «i not a. fat...” man m ramp Higher Education Study i College Biographical Data ................................................................................. Current position title Sex __ Male _ Female AgeatlaaBirthday: _.21ta25 _.4th50 __2ot030 ____.51ta.'>5 __31t035 _56tooO _36t040 _61ro(35 _ 41 to 45 _ Over 65 What is your ethnic or racial group? __ Block/Negro/Afro-American __ White/ Caucasian _. Hispanic ._ Native American/American Indian _ Oriental _. Other (please specify) Please list your earned advanced degrees; Institution Major Degree or Certificate Masters Doctorate How long have you been employed in your current position? How manyyears in total have you been employed atyour current it'stitution. including current job and any others you have held here? _ In what type of institution are you currently employed (cheds as many as apply)? _ Tax supported __ Community College _ Private college _ Primarily baccalaureate degrees __ Church affiliated __ Grant-both undergraduate G gaduate degrees Duingthelastacademicyeardidyauteachanycallege classes? _ Yes. or my present institution _ Yes. but at a different institution _ No What was your first full time paid job in higher education? M'lenyouwereseleaedfaryouaxtentpasitian.wereyou: __ Employed at the time as a full time faculty member of this institution _ Employed at the time as a full time faculty member of another institution _ Employed at the time at this institution. but in a different administrative position _ Employed at the time in the some kind of administrative job. but in a' different institution .____ Employed outside of higher education I77 If you were employed in a different institution at the time of appointment to your current position. was the institution generally similar to your current imtitutian? _ Yes __No Below are presented 5 models of careers in higher education. Please circle the model that most closely resembles the path your career has taken. As with all models. these are generalizations that may nat precisely fit the experience of all respondents to our survey. If your career has had a major variation. from the closest model. please nate the difference under the most appropriate model which you have circled. Model A Model 0 Model C Dean or Vice President Dean or Vice President Dean or Vice President Department or Division Chair Mid level Administrative position Full time work outside education Full time Faculty Entry level Administrative position Model D Model E Dean or Vice President Dean in college setting or Vice Ptesident Full time Faculty in higher education Principal and/or Superintendent in K-12 setting Full time Faculty in K-12 setting Faculty or Administrative positiom in K-12 setting Career Preparation Data Have you ever taken any courses in higher education administration? ___.._ Yes _ No Ifyes.hawmanycouseshaveyoutaken? _ 1-3courses _ 4-6 courses __ 7-9 courses _100rmarecouses If you have taken courses in higher education administration. how helpful. as a group. was the course(s) to you in carrying out your current duties? Extremely Very Hot Very Not Helpful Helpful Helpful Helpful Helpful At All I J. A, J. l 4 If you could have taken a one year sabbatical before taking your current job. what courses. specific skills. or knowledge would you have liked to obtain to help you do your currentjab better? Atthetimeyouwereappointedtoyourcurrentposition.howwellprepareddidyouleeltocartyoutyaur administrative duties? __ Extremely well prepared _ Very well prepared _ Prepared _ Not well prepared _ Not prepared at all I78 In your view/haw important is it that a person preparing for a position such as yours complete a doctoral level program in a field such as educational administration. education, higher education administration. at public administration? __ Extremely Important _ Very Important ._ Important _ Nor Very Important _ Nor Important at all lfyou had the opportunity to sit down with a group of university facultywha were attempting to develop a curriculum to train administrators for jobs such as yours. what advice would you give them concerning how the program should be structured. the courses which should be included. admission requirements. need for internships. the skills the students would be expeCted to master. etc? Pleaseusebockofsheetoradditionalpagesifnecessaty Thank you for participating In thls study! Please check below if you would like to receive a printed summary of the results of the study. _ yes. send me a copy of the results when tabulated. APPENDIX D LETTERS SENT TO COLLEGE ADMINISTRATORS I79 l80 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY COUJGE Of EDUCATION EAST LANSING 0 MICHIGAN 0 “824-1054 DEPARTMENT Of EDUCATION“. ADMINISTIATION EIICKSON HALL February 1985 Dear Colleague: The student enrollment explosion of the 1960's and 70's resulted in dramatic college and university growth. To keep up with that growth colleges had to hire many administrators. This growth spurt in the number of administrators has resulted in a large number of college administrators currently being employed who are in the same general age group, and that group will be starting to think about retirement in the not too distant future. Hho will be hired to replace those administrators and what kinds of skills should they possess? What kind of preparation would be most helpful for the next generation of college administrators to make them successful in their jobs? we at Michigan State University have been considering what role we might play in the preparation of that next generation of higher education administrators. To assist us in that discussion we have prepared the enclosed questionnaire which we would like you to complete and send back in the enclosed envelope. Ne ask you to include your name on the questionnaire only to permit us to take your name off our mailing list when your response is received. This saves us the cost of unnecessary mailings if a follow-up mailing proves necessary, and you the bother of receiving duplicate mail. You can be assured that you will not be identified by name or institution and all responses will be grouped into similar categories. The results of this survey will be very helpful to us in planning our programs for the future. He will make every effort to publish the results in professional journals so that our colleagues at other universities who are considering these same issues will also benefit from your imput. He would be very grateful if you would take a few minutes to complete the questionnaire and return it to us. Sincerely, ~,//. (j\ a i I - - ‘ ; l/t/sz—Ird/o‘o?l’;/Z éc D A ' ‘Lawrence H. Lezotte ' ' Hal Arman Professor and Chairperson Research Associate LHL/HA/lh MS! ' u all Alina-w Arno- ’Equl Onion-run humme- l8l MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE Of EUCATION EAST IANSING 0 IICIflGAN 0 0824-1034 WAITIEN'T Of EDUCA‘HONAI. ADMINISTRATION MN HALL Dear Colleague: Recently we sent you a questionnaire as part of a study of the kinds of preparation required to prepare future college administrators. We are interested in this topic because it appears that many college administrators are in the same general age category and, when they as a group reach retirement age, a significant void will exist which must be filled by competent new people. He at Michigan State University are considering the role we should play in preparing that next group of administrators for their future duties. In a study such as this it is important to receive input from as many individuals in as many different positions and colleges as possible. The final report will be much more meaningful if we are able to include your responses to our questions. If you have set the questionnaire aside for now, would you please take just a few minutes now to supply the requested information and send the completed form back to us in the reply envelope which was included with it? Thank you for your cooperation and involvement in this project. Sincerely, (32!:1MMhect 5‘,/¢3;§;;;ZZZ::: rlhli first :3 Lawrence W. Lezotte Hal Arman Professor and Chairperson Research Associate LHL-HA/lh Mil ' a ll Minn-urine Anim- ’£qniiel W‘Ilil“ hurt-mow 182 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY MUM“ EASTWOIICHIGANOUu-IOM nomamucamwummw mum. Dear Colleague, Recently we sent you a questionnaire as part of a study of the kinds of preparation required to prepare future college administrators. We are interested in this topic because it appears that many college administrators are in the same general age group and, when they as a group reach retirement age. a significant void will be created in our colleges and universities which must be filled by competent, well prepared people. He at Michigan State University are considering the role we should play in preparing that next group of administrators for their future duties. The list of people contacted for this project was carefully developed to include comparable numbers of college officials from different types of colleges, different geographic settings, and different types of jobs. The successful completion of the project depends upon receiving back enough questionnaires to permit us to generalize about the larger group of administrators from which our list was drawn. In the event that you have mislaid the original questionnaire, we have included another copy and a business reply envelope. Ne need your assistance to make this project a success. Please take a moment now to complete the questionnaire and send it back to us. Thank you. Sincerely, Www mini ble/A Lawrence H. Lezotte Hal Arman Professor and Chairperson Research Associate LHL/HA/lh USU it . Mun-m Arm/Equal Opportunity ham-tio- APPENDIX E PERMISSION LETTER FROM UNIVERSITY COMMITTEE ON RESEARCH INVOLVING HUMAN SUBJECTS l83 181i MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY WTVERSITY comm-res as RESEARCH mvarvmc EAST LANSING . MICHIGAN - «s24 HUMAN SUBJECTS (UCRIHSI 25. ADMINISTRATION BUIL DING uninsnu. September l2, ISBA Mr. Harold D. Arman Educational Administration Dear Mr. Arman: Subject: Proposal Entitled, ”Preparing College Administrators: The Extent and Value of Formal and Informal Preparation“ UCRIHS review of the above referenced project has now been completed. I am pleased to advise that the rights and welfare of the human subjects appear to be adequately protected and the Committee, therefore, approved this project at Its meeting on September IO, lSBh. You are reminded that UCRIHS approval is valid for one calendar year. If you plan to continue this project beyond one year, please make provisions for obtaining appropriate UCRIHS approval prior to September l0, i985. Any changes in procedures involving human subjects must be reviewed by the UCRIHS prior to initiation of the change. UCRIHS must also be notified promptly of any problems (unexpected side effects, complaints. etc.) Involving human subjects during the course of the work. Thank you for bringing this project to our attention. If we can be of any future help, please do not hesitate to let us know. Sincerely, ‘4,{<—- Henry E. Bredeck Chairman, UCRIHS HEB/jms cc: Dr. Howard H. Hickey USU-nwm/Eqadmtymm APPENDIX E CODING MANUAL l85 General Layout of Data Fields for Higher Education Project l0,ll,l2 l3,lli l5,16,l7 l8,l9 20,21 22,23 2h 25 26 27 28 29,30 3l 32 33 3h 35 l86 Data to Be Entered Respondent Code Position Title Code Sex Code Age Code Ethnic Code Institution Where Master's Earned Master's Degree Major Institution Where Doctorate Earned Doctorate Major Years Employed in Current Job Total Years Employed in Current College Type of Current College Taught Classes Last Year? First Full-Time Job in Higher Education How Employed Before Current Job Has Last College Similar? Career Model Courses in Higher Education Number of Education Courses How Helpful Vere Education Courses? How Well Prepared for Job? Importance of Doctoral Degree in Higher Education 187 Higher Education Study--Coding Manual Field Code Data l,2,3 OOl-ZAS Number assigned to each questionnaire A,5 IO President ll Acting or Interim President 20 Chancellor 2] Associate Chancellor 3i Vice-President 32 Vice-President for Academic Affairs 33 Vice-President for Student Affairs 3A Acting Vice-President 35 Associate Vice-President 36 Vice-President and Provost 37 Executive Vice-President 38 Senior Vice-President AD Dean hi Academic Dean AZ Dean of the College #3 Dean of Instruction Ah Dean of Faculty #5 Dean of Academic Curricula A6 Dean of Liberal Arts A7 Associate Dean for Academic Affairs #8 Executive Dean of Instruction #9 Dean of Academic Education 50 Provost Sl Assistant Provost 60 Director of Educational Services 00 No Title Given 6 1 Sex Code--Male 2 Female 0 Na Response 7,8 OI Age Code--2| to 25 02 Age 26 to 3O 03 Age 31 to 35 Oh Age 36 to 40 05 Age hi to A5 06 Age #6 to 50 Field 10,12,13 Code 07 08 09 10 OO‘U'l-PUJN— 001 002 003 00k 005 006 007 008 009 010 011 012 013 Olh 015 0l6 017 018 019 020 021 022 023 02A 025 026 027 028 029 030 031 032 033 03A 035 l88 Data Age 51 to 55 Age 56 to 60 Age 61 to 65 Age 65 or over Na age given Ethnic Code--Black/Negro/Afro-American White/Caucasian Hispanic Native American/American Indian Oriental Other ethnic group No ethnic group indicated Institution Where Master's Earned--American Univ. Auburn University Ball State University Boston College Boston University Bradley University Brown Cal. State--Fullerton Cambridge University Carnegie-Mellon Case Western Reserve University Catholic University Central Michigan University Columbia University Concordia Theological Seminary Cornell Claremont Brigham Young Creighton University Duke University Eastern Illinois University Eastern Michigan University Emporia State University Fordham Fort Hayes State University George Washington University George Williams College Gangzaga University Harvard University Henderson STate University Holy Cross Howard University Illinois State University Indiana University Indiana University of Pennsylvania Field Code 036 037 038 039 040 Ohl 0A2 0h3 Ohh OAS 0A6 Oh7 0&8 049 050 051 052 053 05A 055 056 057 058 059 O60 O61 O62 063 06k O65 066 O67 068 069 070 071 072 073 07k 075 076 077 078 079 080 081 082 083 08A 189 Data Iowa State University Johns Hopkins Kent State University Laral University Long Island University Loyola of Chicago Loyola University Marquette University Massachusetts Institute of Technology McCormick Theological Seminary McGill University Memphis State University Miama University of Ohio Michigan State University Murray State University New York Theological Seminary North Carolina Northeast Missouri State Northern Colorado University Northern Illinois University Northern Michigan University North Texas State University Northwestern Notre Dame Nova University Oberlin Ohio State University Ohio University Oxford Pennsylvania State University Princeton Purdue University Renselaer Poly Rutgers St. Francis Seminary St. Louis University Simmons College Seattle University St. Johns Southern Illinois University Stanford University Syracuse University Temple Seminary Trinity Evangelical Divinity School Tufts UCLA Union College University of Akron University of Arizona Field Code 085 086 087 088 089 090 091 092 093 094 095 096 097 098 099 100 101 103 10k 105 106 107 l08 109 110 III 112 113 11A ll5 ll6 ll7 ll8 119 120 121 122 123 12k 125 126 127 l28 129 130 131 132 133 13h 190 Data University of Arkansas University of Buffalo University of California--Berkeley University of Chicago University of Cincinnati University of Colorado University of Connecticut University of Dayton University of Denver University of Detroit University of Edinburgh University of Florida University of Houston University of Illinois University of Iowa University of Kansas University of London University of Maryland University of Massachusetts University of Michigan University of Minnesota University of Missouri University of Nebraska University of Montana University of Oklahoma University of Pennsylvania University of Pittsburgh University of Tennessee University of Toledo University of Toronto University of Southern California University of Utah University of Virginia University of Washington University of Wisconsin Vassar Waldan University Washington University Wayne State University Webster University Western Illinois University Western Michigan University Western Washington University Willamette University William and Mary Wright State University University of Puget Sound Yale Na college listed Field l3,lh 191 Data Georgia Tech Indiana State University Andrews University New York University Major Field of Study--Accaunting Agriculture Education Bible Biology Bianucleonics Chemistry Church History Botany Classics Communications Community Economics Education Education Education Education Education Education Education Education Education Education Education Education Education Education Education Education Education Health (Administration) (College Administration) (Community) (Community College) (Curriculum) (Elementary) (Guidance and Counseling) (Higher) (Math) (Leadership) (Psychology) (Secondary) (Special) (Student Personnel) (Science) (Teacher) Engineering English French Geography Geology German History Journalism Labor Relations Language Law Library Science Management Mathematics Music Field 15,16,17 18,19 20,21 22,23 2% 25 26 192 Data Music Medieval Literature Philosaphy Physiology Physics Physical Education Political Science Psychology Public Administration Public Affairs Religion Sociology Speech Theology Zoology Metallurgy Ministry Business Administration Astronomy No major listed Institution Where Doctorate Earned, use listing in fields IO,ll,12 Doctoral Major, use listing in fields 13,1A Years Employed in Current Job, use actual years 00 used to designate no years listed Total Years Employed at Current College, use actual years 00 used to designate no years listed OWN“ OWN-fl OrkWN-i Community college Private or church-affiliated college Public college or university No response Taught Classes Last Year--Yes, present institution Yes, other institution No No response First Full-Time Job in Higher Ed.--Teaching K-IZ Teaching college or university Administrative, K-IZ Administrative, college or university No response Field 27 28 29.30 31 32 33 3A Code OUT-L‘WN-t N—a II 12 13 IA 15 21 22 23 2A 25 00 ON-‘ OU'I-PWN— O-fl'WN—f OU‘I-l-‘WN-f 193 Data How Employed Before Current Job--On faculty here On faculty at another college At current college in different admin. job At different college in same kind of job Employed outside education No response Was Last College Similar? Yes No No response Career Models--Presidents Model A Presidents Model B Presidents Model C Presidents Model 0 Presidents Model E CIA Model A CIA Model 8 CIA Model C CIA Model 0 CIA Model E No response Taken Courses in Higher Education? Yes No No reSponse No. of Courses Taken--l to 3 courses A to 6 courses 7 to 9 courses 10 or more courses No response How Helpful Were Courses? Extremely helpful Very helpful Helpful Not very helpful Not helpful at all No response How Well Prepared for Job? Extremely Very well prepared Prepared Not well prepared Not prepared at all No response 19A Field Code Data 35 Importance of Doctoral Program in Educ.--Extremely Very important Important Not very important Nat important at all No response OW-E'UJN-fl BIBLIOGRAPHY I95 BIBLIOGRAPHY Armstrong. George E. "A Study of Doctoral Training Programs for College and University Administrators. 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