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dissertation entitled

INTERCULTURAL EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING PROGRAMS
IN SELECTED INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION
IN THE UNITED STATED

presented by

Bradley Jackson Smith

has been accepted towards fulfillment

of the requirements for
Department of

 

 

  

 

Ph . D. degree in Educat ional Administrat ion
\J Major professor \
Dr. Ted Ward

Date quuj /, [989‘

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INTERCULTURAL EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING PROGRAMS
IN SELECTED INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION

IN THE UNITED STATES

BY

Bradley Jackson Smith

A DISSERTATION
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Administration and Curriculum

l984

ABSTRACT

INTERCULTURAL EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING PROGRAMS
IN SELECTED INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION
IN THE UNITED STATES
By

Bradley Jackson Smith

The descriptive study examined the structure of existing full-semester
intercultural experiential education programs in selected institutions of higher
education in the United States. Attention focused on whether there exists a
consensus of educational rationale and a primary cluster of programmatic and
logistical factors central to program design and management.

The population was 239 CAEL-member (Council for the Advancement of
Experiential Learning) institutions. A random sample of 25 institutions was drawn
from institutions which offered full-semester, immersion-type, intercultural,
experiential learning programs.

Three research questions were developed:

l. What intercultural program outcomes have been identified in the existing
research for contending that intercultural experiential education programs are
effective in producing student development?

2. What crucial programmatic and logistical factors essential to program
effectiveness can be identified in intercultural experiential learning programs
within the scope of the sample?

3. What major barriers have institutions encountered in making their
intercultural programs succeed?

A Short-Form Survey was designed to collect information on varieties of

intercultural experiential learning programs. the direction of program growth, and

the existence of printed statements of educational rationale. The Telephone
Interview Guide, was designed to focus 25 data-gathering interviews with sample
institutions.

The findings indicated that 88% of the programs are stable or growing.
Students tended to identify the leading benefits in terms of changed perspectives
on culture (44%). on life (44%). and on self (28%). A particularly key variable in such
programs seems to be the quality of interpersonal relationships. Major problem
areas seem to be essentially academic. such as faculty distrust. willingness to
accept international assignments, development and assessment of the academic
program. and intra-institutional coordination. There is a need for empirical studies
on the educational outcomes of intercultural programs which can be consolidated
into a clear academic rationale. indicating level of legitimacy. and which can be

communicated to the professional academic community.

Dedicated to
My parents.
R00 and RUTH SMITH:
who nourished in me a love for learning
and whose life-long love and confidence

have inspired me to invest my abilities in noble endeavors,

and to my wife.
JOYCE.
whose constant love. sacrifice. and encouragement

have made the accomplishment of this project a reality.

ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The successful completion of this dissertation is the cooperative effort of
many people. To some I want to give special recognition.

Dr. Ted Ward. Guidance Committee Chairman and friend. whose scrutiny.
suggestions. and encouragement have made this program of study an exciting
experience of personal growth.

Dr. Norman Bell. Dr. Charles Blackman. and Dr. Eldon Nonnemaker. Guidance
Committee Members. who each in his own way was a source of encouragement and
assistance.

Dr. Joyce Smith, wife. for loving counsel and consistent confidence.

Mrs. Barbara Rose. statistician and sister, whose patience. assistance. and
suggestions were absolutely invaluable.

Dr. Roderick and Ruth Smith. parents. for their many hours of encouragement
and help with everything from quiet to computers.

Dr. Morris Keeton. for his sincere spirit of cooperation. and commitment to
help CAEL be an encourager of research efforts.

The many people of Michigan State University. who allowed me the privilege
of study and a vision for professional development during very difficult times.

My sons. Andrew. Timothy. and Jeremy. for always believing their Dad could

do anything.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE
LISTOFFIGURESIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII v1.
LISTOFTABLESIIIIIIIII IIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII V.“
CHAPTER

II INTRODUCTION I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1
NeEd for the StUdy I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 3
StatementoftheProblem... ..... 4
Purpose Of the StUdy I I I I I I I I I I I IIIIII I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 5
Importance Of the StUdy I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 5
Scope and De1imitations I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 6
Definition Of Terms I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 7
ResearchQuestions........ ....... 7
overvjeWeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee IIIIII IIIIIIIIIII 8

L0

III REVIEVOFTHELITERATUREIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

Theoretical Relationship of Experience and Learning . . . . . . . . 9
NeedforResearch.............................. l0
Growth................ ........ ...............l0
Interactive Learning ..... . ......... . . . ......... . . l2
TheoreticalModels...............................l3

Developmental Matrix of the College Learner.............. l7
CognitiveDevelopment............................18

Cognitive and Ethical Development . ........ . . . . . . . . . . .18
E90 Deve10pment I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 22
FaithDevelopment............ ...... 25

TheoreticalCorrelates............................26
Appropriateness of Experiential Learning Programs . . . . . . . . . 29
Counterbalancing Traditional Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
LearningShifts................................. 33
Contributions to Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Diversity of Experiential Learning Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Intercultural Experiential Learning Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Brief History of Intercultural Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Value of Intercultural Experiential Learning Programs . . . . . 38
Varieties of Intercultural Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Factors of Intercultural Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4l
Implications for Program Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont'd.) Page

BarrierstoOvercome...............................55
AssessmentConcerns.............................55
Organizational Barriers to Innovation................. 56
Conditions for Institutionalization................... 56

III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . ...... . ..... . . . . . . . . 58

ResearchQuestions................................ 58
PopulationandSample.............................. 58
InstrumentDevelopment............................. 60
DataCollectionProcedures................ ...... .....62
Summary........................................64

IVI FINDINGSOFTHESTUDYIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII65

SummaryoftheLiterature......................... 65
Prevalence of Experiential Learning Programs. . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Developmental and Theoretical Validity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Complementary Educational Approach 67
Student-Reported Interest 68
Analysis of Statements of Rationale 69
Programmatic and Logistical Components 70
Results of the Short-Form Survey 7l
Telephone Interview Results 72
Starting Intercultural Programs 76
Components of Current Intercultural Programs 79
Institutional Barriers 90
Summary and Limitations 96
Current Status of the Programs 96
Programmatic Factors 97
Miscellaneous Findings 98

V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 99
Academic Legitimacy 99
Developmental Potential lOO
Problem Areas lOl
Limitations lDl
Program Recommendations l03
Implications for Future Research l04

APPENDIX A Important Components of Experiential Learning Programs. . . . . .l05
APPENDIX 8 Comparison of Goals of University and Overseas Education. . . . .l l2
APPENDIX C Meta-Goals of Traditional vs. Intercultural Instruction . . . . . . ll4
APPENDIXD SampleInstitutions................................llS
APPENDIXE Short-FormSurvey................... .......... ....ll6

APPENDIXF TelephoneInterviewGuide...........................ll7
V

TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont'd.) Page
APPENDIX G Survey Non-Respondents Follow-up Letter . . . . . . . .
APPENDIX H Advance Letter to Sample Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .l23
APPENDIX I Suggested Interview Guide . . . . . . . . . ..... . .
APPENDIX J Interview Appointment Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

BIBLIOGRAPHYIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

vi

TABLE

l0

ll

12

l3

14

l5

l6

l7

l8

l9

LIST OF TABLES

Types of Sponsored Experiential Learning Programs
in CAEL and NOD‘CAEL IDSITIUITODS e e e e e e e e e e e e e e

Loevinger's Theory of Ego Development . . . . . . . . . . .
Comparison of Models of Stage-Theory Development . .
Student Values and Experiential Learning Outcomes . .
W-Shaped Hypothesis of Satisfaction . . . . ..... . . .

Comparison of CAEL and Non-CAEL Institutions . . . . .

Summary of Short-Form Survey Returns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Kinds of Intercultural Experiential Programs in CAEL-Member
InstitutionSIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

Direction of Growth of Intercultural Programs Over the Last

Five Years in CAEL-Member Institutions . . . . . . . . . .
Statements of Intercultural Program Rationale . . . . .
ProgramExistenceinYears..................

First Intercultural Program at Institution. . . . . . . . .

Use of Consultants in Program Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Components of Student Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Mechanisms Used in Screening Students for Intercultural

ProgramSIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

Class Levels of Intercultural Program Participants . . . . . . . . . . .

Average Group-Size in Intercultural Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Page

ll
23
27
32
44
59

7l

73

74
75
76
77
78

80

Bl
82

82

Frequency of Student Group-Meetings on Foreign Locations . . . . . . 83

Kinds of Student Documentation of Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . .

vii

84

Table Page
20 Range of Credit in Intercultural Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
2l Single Greatest Benefit to Intercultural Program Participants . . . 86
22 Methods of Faculty Preparation for Intercultural Assignments . . . 87
23 Characteristics of Effective Faculty Leading Intercultural Groups 88
24 Incentives for Faculty Involvement in Intercultural Programs . . . . 89
25 Personnel Responsible for Arrangements Abroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
26 Institutional Problems in Starting Intercultural Programs . . . . . . 93

27 Institutional Problems in Maintaining Intercultural Programs . . . . 95

viii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page
l IntersectionofLifeandLearning..........................2
2 Kolb'sLearningCycle................................. l4
3 Kolb'sComplete4MatSystemModel....................... l5
4 Kolb Model: Experiential Learning and Learning Styles . . . . . . . . . 16
5 Kolb's Theory Modified by Argyris and Schon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l7

6 Lickona's Summary of Kolhberg's Developmental Stages
OfMoralReasoningIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII19

7 A Description of Perry's Scheme of Cognitive and Ethical
Deve1opmentIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 2]

8 Perry's Model of Cognitive and Ethical Development . . . . . . . . . . . 20
9 Contrasted Approaches to Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
l0 Differentiating Factors in Experiential Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
ll W-ShapedHypothesis................................ 43

l2 Comparison of Numbers of Students in First Year and Current
YanOfProgramIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII79

ix

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Intercultural experiential education is vying for a place of significance
within American higher education. As American society moves rapidly from an
industrial to an informational society, the pressures on higher education are
increasing. Change is impacting student populations. Between l980 and the year
2000. the l8-24 year-old student population will decrease by 23% (Carnegie
Surveys. l975-76). In addition. the student population is becoming steadily older.
and reflects changing aptitudes. learning styles. and interests. Such a shift
impacts the entire chemistry of higher education.

Given declining student populations and revenues. the pressure is on for
institutions to offer creative programs responsive to a set of complex and
changing student needs. Recruitment and retention are becoming increasingly
competitive. Under the growing pressure of competition for survival. educators are
concerned about the potential impact upon the quality of education. The drive for
self-preservation will either compromise educational standards (soft credits,
grade inflation. lower admission standards) or it will revitalize education in new
directions. One such potential direction is a new concern for the relationship
between learning. experience. and culture. If learning is. as Dewey implied. the
interpretation of experience, then should not educators be pressing for a deeper
understanding of the dynamics of experience and a more skillful management of the

life-learning relationship? If one of the aims of education is to enlarge the

2

intersection of the spheres of life and learning (Figure l). then a cluster of

questions arise as to how that task of enlargement can best be facilitated.

\
3:. §

 

 
 

Sphere

0f
Learning

 
 

 

Figure l
Intersection of Life and Learning
How is experience translated into learning? Can the learning process be
compressed at the undergraduate level or expanded into a variety of domains of
development through a deliberate sequencing of certain kinds of experience? Is
intercultural experiential learning a legitimate approach for new directions in
American higher education?

The life-learning connection has been important to American society from
the very beginning. and traces its roots to its European antecedents. Lord Ashby
recounts an old story:

. . . that in the medieval University of Paris the professors were

disputing about the number of teeth in a horse's mouth. They agreed

that the number could not be a multiple of three. for that would be an

offense to the Trinity; nor could it be a multiple of seven. for God

created the world in six days and rested on the seventh. Neither the
records of Aristotle nor the arguments of Saint Thomas enabled them

to solve the problem. Then a shocking thing happened. A student who
had been listening to the discussion went out. opened a horse's

mouth. and counted the teeth. That anonymous student gave us far
more than the hardy cliche about the trustworthiness of what comes
'straight from the horse's mouth'; his brash act also signaled the
beginning of objective inquiry. the revolt against authority. the
empirical attitude. and the linking of academic study with the facts
of life. His act introduced research into the university. (Ashby. l963.
P.37)
Historically. the commitment of American education has been to prepare society‘s
leaders and to contribute useful knowledge to the task of building the American
society. The spirit of American expansionism in the l9th century broke the bonds of

the classical curriculum and co-opted the energy of higher education into the

experiential. technological. and industrial revolutions taking place.

NEED FOR THE STUDY

Education has come to understand its responsiblity for building a better
world. World Wars I and II shattered the complacency of American provincialism and
awakened the United States to its global responsiblities. The frightening reality
that an entire world was at war raised the concurrent awareness that an entire
world could be at peace. though not without deliberate effort. Intercultural
understanding is recognized as the price of that peace. though it has remained a
complex and illusive reality.

Such understanding is no longer optional however. given the magnitude of
global problems. The days of a justified ethocentricity have passed. The
international news media bombards society daily with accounts of religious
hostilities. apartheid. nuclear buildups. terrorism. political and economic
instability. and life-threatening ecological contaminations. The complexity of
these interrelated problems along with the combination of power and antithetical
ideologies demands a new response of global concern. cultural understanding. and
effective communication.

If the American educational enterprise is to continue to serve the critical

needs of society. then the deep issues which divide or bind relationships within the

4

global family must be encountered. understood.and resolved. If peace is to come to
the global community. history suggests that it will not be by coercion. but by a new
level of understanding. Acknowledging the relationship between education and
global well-being. the United States government passed the International Education
Act in l966:

The Congress hereby finds and declares that a knowledge of other

countries is of the utmost importance in promoting mutual

understanding and cooperation between nations; that strong

American educational resources are a necessary base for

strengthening our relations with other countries; that this and future

generations of Americans should be assured ample opportunity to

develop to the fullest extent possible their intellectual capacities in

all areas of knowledge pertaining to other countries. peoples and

cultures . . . An essential aspect of educational curriculum is its

responsiveness to the needs of culture and society. This connection

implies that education needs to be preparing individuals who will be

effective participants and change agents in their own culture and in

light of growing global inter-dependency in other cultures as well.

(80 Statutes At Large. Section 2. l066. l966)

Can intercultural experiential learning programs provide an effective means
to intercultural understanding? The question is difficult to answer. however it is

related to the direction of the present research project.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

By providing an experience in cultural microcosm. some intercultural
curriculum strategists claim that the educational outcomes are more holistic and
impact more deeply future perspectives. If these claims can be substantiated. they
dare not be overlooked. Intercultural programs deliberately place students in
cultural environments which challenge one's assumptions on nearly every level as
to why attitudes. beliefs and behaviors follow a given pattern. This innovation
claims to be an effective approach to: the cultivation of an inquiring mind. cultural
sensitivity. values development. and self-understanding. Intercultural experiential
programs are viewed by many as experimental. if not moderately high-risk

approaches to educational objectives. Consequently. most formal institutions of

5

higher education have not been convinced of the educational legitimacy nor
broadened their program options to significantly utilize the potential contributions
of intercultural experiential education. Skepticism and indifference continue to
characterize their attitudes. Because of these attitudes. a significant gap exists
between the potential of intercultural experiential learning programs and the
reality of their level of acceptance as a legitimate dimension of American higher

education.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The purpose of such a research study is to examine descriptively the
structure of existing full-semester immersion-type intercultural experiential
education programs in selected American institutions of higher education.
Specifically. the study is conducted in order to see if there exists a consensus of
educational rationale and a primary cluster of programmatic and logistical factors
central to the design and management of these programs. The objectives will be
accomplished by examining three critical areas: l) a review of research evidence
for the educational legitimacy of intercultural experiential education programs; 2)
an analysis of programmatic and logistical factors essential for program
effectiveness; and 3) the identification of major barriers and/or difficulties
overcome by educational institutions in order to make intercultural programs

succeed.

IPPORTANCE OF THE STUDY

Given the current pressures for the concerns of quality in higher education.
it is important to ask if intercultural experiential education programs can improve
the quality of learning. Are there dimensions of understanding important to the
aims of American higher education. which can be better learned through

intercultural experiential programs? In addition. it may be that such a study holds

potential value for evaluation of existing programs. and new program development.
Many institutions of higher education are struggling for survival in today's
competitive educational market and are looking for distinctive ways to enhance
quality and package the educational experience with appeal. The attractiveness of
a new array of locations. experiences. delivery systems and activities
(characteristics of intercultural experiential education) provide increased
potential for program diversity. The development of new programs is a costly
process. Studies like the one at hand could possibly save a costly period of trial
and error experimentation by providing an understanding of the essential
components for successful program construction. Conceivably. such an information
base could likewise encourage institutions to take the risk of the intercultural
experiment. and in so doing. move a part of the American society a small step in the

direction toward intercultural understanding.

SCOPE AND DELIMITATIONS

Many intercultural experiential programs presently exist within the context
of American higher education. A random sample of 25 institutions offering full-term
jntgrgultural immersion programs will be drawn from a population of 239
institutions within American higher education which are members of the Council for
the Advancement of Experiential Learning (CAEL). Most member-institutions
sponsor specific programs of intercultural learning. although the programs
represent a broad range of diversity. difficulty and maturity. CAEL institutions
are representative of a larger population through their wide diversity. Implications
hopefully may be drawn from the study for the applicability of the findings for

several different types of educational institutions.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Culture: "Culture" is used in a broad sense to describe the activities of the
members of a given society in their particular way of living. All aspects of a
society's life-patterns are included. from the metaphysical world-view to the
artifacts which they produce.

Intercultural: "Intercultural" describes a member of one culture
encountering and interacting with a member of a different culture. The earlier
literature used the term "cross-cultural" in this same way. however. a growing
distinction is being made between the two terms. Currently. cross-cultural studies
tend to examine common variables across several different cultures. giving the
term a meaning of “constant across cultures."

Experiential: "Experiential" pertains to those things encountered and
learned through direct experience. Such a direct contact-type learning with the
realities at hand stands in contrast to vicarious kinds of exposure.

Immersion Programs: "Immersion Programs" classify programs which involve a

full-time. in-context experience for the learner.

RESEARCH QIESTIONS

Question 1: What intercultural program outcomes have been identified in the
existing research for arguing that intercultural experiential education programs
are effective in producing student development?

Question 2: What crucial programmatic and logistical factors. essential to
program effectiveness. can be identified in intercultural experiential learning
programs within the scope of the sample?

Question 3: What major barriers have institutions encountered and overcome

to make their intercultural programs succeed?

OVERVIEW

Given the scattered nature of the existing research in areas relating to
intercultural experiential education. an examination will be conducted in Chapter II
of the relevant studies in the fields of: (l) experiential learning; (2) developmental
change relevant to college-age students; and (3) intercultural effectiveness. In
Chapter III. the instruments and methodology of the research project will be
described. The findings will be described and displayed in Chapter IV. and the
implications of the study for application and further research will be presented in

Chapter V.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Research on intercultural experiential learning programs involves several
related bodies of literature. It is theoretically complex; yet to avoid the difficulty
of examining the complex interrelationships involved. is to miss the essential
legitimacy in this integrated approach. Attention must be given to the theoretical
work done in the area of the connection between experience and learning. At the
same time. the specific context is undergraduate higher education which implies an
examination of the developmental matrix of the college-age learner. The literature
describing the programatic dimensions of experiential education must likewise be
investigated. Finally. the distinctives of the intercultural dimension must be
examined from a variety of viewpoints.

Although the primary focal point of the study at hand is intercultural
programs. the larger context of experiential education. learning theory. and

developmental change are inseparable considerations.

Tl-EORETICAL RELATIONSHIP OF EXPERIENCE AND LEARNING

Philosophers and educators have long struggled with a fundamental question
of human learning which probes the relationship between experience and learning.
Must an individual "discover" that which is worth knowing. or is the individual

"taught" knowledge?

10
Need for Research

Experiential education has eased its way into higher education through the
back door. Faculty observe the enthusiasm and obvious growth which has taken
place in students as a result of field experiences. yet have done little research and
systematic analysis as to "how" and "why" the development has occurred (Doherty.
Mentkowski. and Conrad. l978). Consequently. there has been relatively little
empirical research to justify. on educational grounds. using experiential learning
options in preference to others (Keeton. l978). Knapp and Davis (l978) have
concluded that so few studies have been made of the "genus and species" of
experiential learning. no commonly accepted framework or taxonomy yet exists by
which all the kinds of programs can be sorted and evaluated. The problems of
definition and validity continue to distress curriculum and program developers.
Evaluation studies are currently needed so that educators might be able to make
decisions based upon which programs are of substantial educational benefit to
students and which are not.

M

The rise of experiential learning programs has been astronomical. Generic to
American culture is the appetite for "useful" knowledge. Tough (l977) and Penland
(1977) claim that 80% of all American adults engage in self-directed or
"do-it-yourself" learning through life-experience. Peterson. Cross. and others 0978)
estimate that out of HS million deliberate learners in organizational settings in the
U. S. during any one year. 72% of those studying at the post-secondary level are
learning from non-academic institutions. Undergraduate institutions of higher
education reflect a similar popularity of experiential education programs. The first
state-of-the-art survey of experiential learning was conducted in l977 by the
Council for the Advancement of Experiential Learning (CAEL). in cooperation with

the Educational Testing Service and the Kellogg Foundation. Of the 300

11

CAEL-member institutions. 75% were found to offer one or more sponsored
experiential learning programs. Of the 302 Non-CAEL institutions surveyed. 66%
offered one or more sponsored experiential learning programs. A wide diversity of
kinds of programs were found to have a common experiential dimension (Table l). The
sponsored programs identified were; career exploration. career development.
cooperative education. pre-professional training. public service internships. service
learning internships. personal growth and development. cross-cultural experience.
and field research studies.
Table l

Types of Sponsored Experiential Learning Programs
in CAEL and Non-CAEL Institutions

 

 

CAEL Programs Percentage Non-CAEL Programs Percentage
Field Research 87.9 Pre-professional Train.83.3
Pre-professional Train.85.9 Cooperative Education 74.2
Career Exploration 80.l Field Research 72.5
Public Service Intern. 80.l Career Exploration 70.9
Cooperative Education 78.2 Career Development 69.2
Career Development 74.2 Public Service Intern. 62.5
Service-Learning Inter.74.2 Service-Learning Inter.5l.7
Cross-Cultural Exper. 64.5 Personal Growth 50.9
Personal Growth 63.l Cross-Cultural Exper. 48.3

 

Knapp and Davis (l978. p. l2)

The indications of growth among the experiential approach were clearly
evident. Growth has continued. Current percentage extrapolations estimate that
1.500.000 students and 50.000 faculty participate in out-of-class experiential
learning every year (Little. l983a). The practice has preceded the theoretical
justification in most instances. Only recently has experiential learning begun to
surface as a coherent idea that encompasses the variety of programs listed above.
It is still awaiting full recognition as a legitimate and effective approach within

American higher education. In discussing the phenomenon of experiential learning.

12

Little (1983) points out two striking observations: first. the extent and rich variety
of experiential learning from an inter-institutional perspective; second. that at a
single institution. the dimensions of this movement are almost never appreciated.
InteLactive Learning

Experiential learning has been gaining momentum throughout this century.
Educational philosopher .John Dewey exerted the most influence in promoting the
educational legitimacy of experiential learning. Dewey (l938) recognized the high
value of "experience" within American culture and sought to provide a philosophical
framework for its justification within the formal educational process. If
"experience" was essential to the advancement of knowledge and skill in the building
of the American society. then why not recognize it as an overt dimension in the
formal process of learning? Dewey would not deal with the concept of learning
without addressing the issue of personal experience. He postulated one permanent
frame of reference for learning--namely the organic connection between education
and personal experience. For Dewey. experience was simply the interaction between
the individual and his environment. It was continuous. As soon as a certain
interaction had taken place and had been reflected upon. it became understood in
ways that affected subsequent interactions. Thus. Dewey's conception of the notion
of "continuity" came to stand for the process of continuous restructuring. To
Dewey. the critical educational issue focused upon the deliberate shaping of
learning environments which could best facilitate certain kinds of experience.
Selective experiences. in turn. would produce valuable learning. He was not
simplisticly advocating "experience" as a magical shortcut to knowledge. but
recognized that some experience was consistent with the goals of American
education and some experience was miseducative. The task of the educator. from
DEWEY's perspective. was to strategically design appropriate learning environments.

given the abilities and interests of the learner and the educational objectives.

13

These growth experiences could then be carefully sequenced into a meaningful
continuum. Strategizing growth through experience was central to Dewey's
conception of progressive education. Learning was inherently related to life.

Researchers continue to validate Dewey's theories. The gap that existed
between the learner and the curriculum could best be bridged by direct personal
involvement (Tumin. 1976). It is not sufficient to merely read. hear. write. and talk
about the realities being studied. Experiential learning. by contrast. puts the
learner into direct contact with the phenomenon being studied (Keeton. l978).
Immediately. the dimension of action is central--testing. improving. applying. At the
heart of experiential education is a belief that learning occurs in various and often
unexpected ways (Sexton. 1976). that learning goes on throughout life. and that it
must be integrated with all other activities of the individual.

Theoretical Models

The dynamics of experiential learning have become a fertile question in
theoretical research. Steinaker and Bell (1979) have investigated the possibility of
a hierarchy of experience; positing a sequence of steps through which an individual
proceeds or progresses from the initial exposure to an experience. through the
dissemination of the experience. Their resulting experiential taxonomy attempts a
more holistic view of'human experience than has been provided through the single
dimensional views of cognitive. affective. or psychomotor taxonomies. Essentially.
this gestalt taxonomy identifies a five-step sequence: 1) Exposure. 2) Participation.
3) Identification. 4) Internalization. and 5) Dissemination.

Given the dynamic of experience. the "how" of experiencial learning became
the focus for Kolb's theoretical research (1976). Kolb describes his model as a
Simple description of the learning cycle in which experience is translated into

Concepts which are used as guides in the choice of new experiences ( Figure 2).

14

 

 

 

 

 

 

Immediate
/ Concrete Experience
and followed by is the basis for ‘-‘-.:‘
Testing Implications Observation
of Concepts in New and
Situations Reflection

 

 

 

 

 

 

which are assimilated into the

Formation of
Abstract Concepts K
and Generalizations
from which implications
for action are deduced

 

which lead to

 

 

 

 

(Doherty. et al.. 1978. p.24)
Figure 2
Kolb's Learning Cycle

The model also reveals a dialectical interplay between contrasted
abilities--concrete/abstract. reflective/active--as predominant learning styles
(Figure 3). Through the Learning Style Inventory(1976). Kolb is able to identify which
of the learning styles (concrete.reflective. abstract. active) the individual has
tended to rely upon and which have been underdeveloped. If one or more of the
learning modes is seriously underdeveloped. the learner may be unable to complete
the learning cycle successfully since all four occur in sequence (Doherty.
Mentkowski.and Conrad. 1978). It is therefore imperative that the learner's dominant
style be identified. and their ability to use other learning styles expanded (Figure
4). Traditional educational approaches have encouraged the development of
Perceptual and symbolic abilities through the emphasis upon reflective observation
and concept formation. The behavioral and affective skills. however. are best

developed through active experimenting and concrete experience.

15

   
    

 

 

 

 

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Figure 3
Kolb's Complete 4Mat System Model

16

 

 

Concrete
Experience
Practical; action oriented Imaginative; emotional
At ease with people People oriented
Focus on doing things Broad cultural interests
Good at decision making; ”pushy" Good at brainstorming
ACCOMMODATOR DIVERGER
Business administration Humanities
Marketing, sales, training, admin- Counseling, organizational development
istration personnel
Active Reflective
Experimentation Observation
Application of ideas Ability to create theoretical models
Relatively unemotional Assimilates disparate observations into
Less people oriented integrated whole
CONVERGER ASSIMILATOR
Physical sciences Math; Basic Sciences
Physical sciences; engineering Research and planning
Abstract

Conceptualization

 

(Claxton and Ralston. 1978)

Figure 4

Kolb Model: Experiential Learning and Learning Styles

Kolb's learning cycle theory has been further modified by Argyris and Schb’n

(1974).They have concluded that the object of the field experience is to learn to

become more reflective under real-time conditions. so that effective ad hoc theories

of action can be created and tested.

refinement in one's applied theory against the ideal espoused theory.

Mentkowski.

(Figure 5).

This reflectivity facilitates a constant

Doherty.

and Conrad (1978) summarized this modification diagrammatically

17

 

 

[Concrete Experience

. subjected to
which
leads to

 

 

 

 

Testing Espoused Observation
Theories in New and
Situations Reflection

 

 

 

 

 

followed by“\\\\\ e(//////

Modified to
form a new

Espoused Theory <E————————-—- Theory-in-Use

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

(Doherty. et al.. 1978. p.27)
Figure 5

Kolb's Theory Modified by Argyris and Schtin

DEVELOPENTAL MATRIX OF THE COLLEGE LEARNER

Research conducted in the fields of philosophy. psychology. and education
have revealed fascinating findings in the area of human development. Two distinct
approaches have emerged within developmental theory. The first is "phasic" or
"life-span" theory (Levinson. 1978). A "life-span" approach addresses the
chronological periods every person passes through. Although it is an interesting way
of looking at adaptations to changing conditions. persons respond differently to
even similar conditions because of their levels of development in various
Psychological domains. The second approach is known as the
"structural-developmental" or "stage-theory" approach. This theory involves an
ordered sequence of increasingly complex forms and capacities. In contrast to the
environmentally conditioned drive of the phasic approach. the stage-theory

approach appears to be much more intrinsically organized and self-governed.

18
ngnitivefDevelopment

The stage-theory approach of cognitive development has largely been the
product of the research of Piaget (1952). Cognitive development represents the
structure of an individual's thinking about the nature of reality. Piaget theorized a
sequential progression of increasingly complex patterns of thinking. These
sequential stages began with elementary levels of thinking called "concrete
operations" and evolved toward more abstract forms called "formal operations." His
findings were subsumed in Kohlberg's research (1963) and extended specifically into
the moral decision-making dimension of cognitive development. The basic
characteristics of moral development stage-theory are as follows: 1) Stages are
invariant. that is. development is step by step; 2) Development can terminate at any
stage; 3) An individual's reasoning is predominantly one stage. with occasional
reasoning one stage above or one stage below; 4) An individual can be attracted to
reasoning one stage higher than his predominant stage; 5) Movement from one stage
to the next higher stage occurs when conflict demands a more complex framework for
resolution; 6) Development is not governed by age; and 7) Cognitive development is a
necessary but not a sufficient condition for moral development. Kohlberg's
six-stage theory of moral development (Figure 6) locates most college-age students
in stages 3-5. This is strongly related to locus of control shifts taking place in the
normal maturational pattern. Results from the Defining Issues Test (Rest. 1979)
based upon Kohlberg's theory. show that change occurs more during the first two
years of college than the last two. The implications for influencing the direction of
change during the college years is tantalizing to curriculum developers and
educators commited to character development.

ngnitiveiid Ethical Development
Perry (1968) has studied the intellectual and ethical development of college

students at Harvard and Radcliffe. Although his research has not yet established

19

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20

broad generalizability because of this highly select student sample. it is growing in
acceptance. Perry interviewed college students from the classes of 1958. 1962. and
1963 at the end of each of their four academic years. Using an open question format
in the interviews. Perry gleaned changes in student perceptions over time which
presented an interesting pattern of development. The basic movement was from a
simplistic dualism toward varying degrees of relativism. The resulting scheme (1968)
was somewhat less delineated than the work of the cognitive developmentalists. but
very useful for understanding how students interpreted their educational
experiences (Figure 7). For students at the lower developmental levels (1-3).
findings indicated that they expected educators to have all the answers. When
answers were not forthcoming. the resulting ambiguity was highly threatening.
Students at the middle developmental levels (4-5). tended not to believe in set
answers. They had let go of their confidence in authoritatively correct answers. yet
were not able to conceive of post-relativistic commitment. They were consequently.
caught in epistemological despair. Students at the higher developmental levels (6-9).
discovered that personal commitment was an effective avenue to personal meaning.
Even for the unanswered questions. commitment. even tentative. was a helpful way

of organizing oneself in the ongoing search (Figure 8).

 

 

 

> DEVELOPMENT )
R
e
Dualism Modified 1
by Multiplicity a Evolving Commitments
4a t
/ \
Positionl ——-—>2 -—->3 and/or 5 -—->6—-)7 ——-.*8 -—-—)9 —-—>
\ /.
4b 1.
v
i
s
m
Retreat Escape
(Perry. 1981. p. 80)
Figure8

Perry's Model of Cognitive and Ethical Development

Position 1

Transition

Position 2

Transition

Position 3

Transition

Position 4a

Transition
(and/or)
Transition

Posttion 4b

Transition

Position 5

Transition
Position 6
Transition
Position 7
Transition
Position 8

Transition

Position 9

21

Authorities know, and if we uoxk hard, read every word, and
learn night Ans-e:s, all will be well.
But what about thosetJtners I hear «beat?
10ns? And Uncertainties?
with each other or don't seem to know. and some give us prob-
lems instead of Answers.

True Authoritirs mUat be Right, the others axe frauds. We
remain Right. Others mu.t be different and kiong. dood
Authorities give us problems so we can teeth to tinJ the
Right Answer by our own intiegentitnt than “it.

But even Good Authorities admit they don't know all the
answers yet)

Then some uncertainties and different opinions a'v real and
ligitimate temporarily, ever rcr Authorities.
on them to get to the Truth.

But there are so many things they don't know the Answers tot
And they won't for a long time.

where Authorities don't know the Right Answers, everyOne has
a right to his own opinion; no one is wrong!

But some of my friends ask me to support my opinions with
facts and reasons.

Then what right have They to grade us? About what?

In certain courses Authorities are not Asking for the Right
Answer; They want us to think about things in a certain way,
supporting opinion with data. That's what they grade us on.
But this “way" seems to work in nest courses, and even out-
side them.

Then all thinking must be like this, even for Them. Every~
thing is relative but not equally Valid. You have to under-
stand how each context HOtfib. Theories are rot Tiuth but
metaphors to interpret data with. You haae to think JDOuC
your thinking.

But if everything is relative, am I relative too?
know I'm making the Right Choice?

I see I'm going to have to make my own decisions in an uncer-
tain world with no one to tell me I'm Right.

I'm lost if I don't. When I decxde on my career (or marriage
or values) everything will straighten cut.

Well, I've made my first Commitment.

Why didn't that settle everything?

I've made several commitments. I've got to balanCe them-

how many, how deep? how certain, how tentatiVe?

Things are getting contradictory. I can't make logical

sense out of life's dilemmas.

This how life will be. I must be wholehearted while ten-
tative, fight for my Values yet respect others, believe my
deepest values right yet be ready to learn 1 see that I shall
be retraCinq this whole JOJLney over and over - Let. X nope,
more wisely.

Ani differtrt )pin-

They ' 1c wurkltlu

how can I

Figure 7

Some of our own Authorities iisigree

1:13.}:

Basic Duality

mum-.1 mt...

Pt¢°lngitimotc

thllylivlty

2.1.:in .1 l r... t ._-

Multig‘iieity
(sniipslsm)
Cot-rd i mitt:

Ruletivism
suburdinatc

Relativism
(contextual)
generalized

Coannitmum
foreseen

lili 1. 131

Count uncut
Orientation

i n ("awn tments

Evolving
Ctaofltments

A Description of Perry's Scheme of Cognitive and Ethical Development

22

Perry's key terms are as follows:

Dualism: Division of meaning into two realms--Good versus Bad. Right versus
Wrong, We versus They. All that is not Success ‘is Failure. Right answers exist
somewhere for every problem. and authorities know them. Knowledge is quantitative.

Multiplicity: Diversity of opinion and values 'is recognized as legitimate in
areas where right answers are not yet known. Opinions remain atomistic without
pattern or system. No judgments can be made among them so "everyone has a right to
his own opinion; none can be called wrong."

Relativism: Diversity of opinion. values. and judgment is derived from
coherent sources. evidence. logic. systems. and patterns allowing for analysis and
comparison. Some opinions may be found worthless. while there will remain matters
about which reasonable people will reasonably disagree. Knowledge is qualitative.
dependent on contexts.

Commitment: A process of affirmation. choice. or decision (career. values.
politics. personal relationship) made in the awareness of Relativism. Agency is
experienced as within the individual.

Temporizing: Postponement of movement for a year or more.

Escape: Alienation. abandonment of responsibility. Exploitation of
Multiplicity and Relativism for avoidance of Commitment.

Retreat: Avoidance of complexity and ambivalence by regression to Dualism
colored by hatred of otherness.

Ego Development

Loevinger (l976) has developed one of the most inclusive theories of
personality development to date (Table 2). Her research involved extensive clinical
studies and the use of a projective test. The approach was highly descriptive rather

than philosophical or analytical. but is being validated by a growing body of similar

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24

research. Essentially. Loevinger has taken a holistic approach to the study of
human development. Such an integrative theory assimilates findings from moral
development, cognitive development, and socialization and personality studies. Her
thesis has been that there is a core process by which an individual understands the
self and the world. Loevinger used the term "ego'I (not in a psychoanalytic sense) to
denote her central way of sense-making. Ego development is the mental process by
which an individual creates and maintains a consistent frame of reference.
Loevinger's theory has also been called social development theory or maturity
theory because of the interpersonal and interactive nature of its development.
Loevinger has envisioned ego development as the context in which other lines of
development have their expression in the personality. Chickering (1983) suggests
five implications of Loevinger's findings:

l. Development in the cognitive and affective domains is inextricably linked.
Full development in one area is difficult to achieve without concomitant development
in the other major area.

2. Learning and human development are additive. Learning always occurs in
the context of our past history. personal characteristics, and current motives; it is
always based on current knowledge and abilities.

3. There is a substantial range of individual differences in developmental
stages. Therefore. a variety of approaches to learning is appropriate for
individualized education. self-paced instruction. mastery learning, and contract
learning.

4. Being better educated. more complex. more competent at a higher stage of
development does not automatically lead to greater happiness. better adjustment. or
sounder mental health.

5. It demands . . . the creation of a human lifelong learning system that

involves the collaborative efforts not only of educators and employers. but also of

25

libraries. public and private television. newspapers and magazines. churches. and
community organizations (pp. l4-l5).
F_aith Development

Fowler (l975) has discerned a pattern of faith development in his detailed
interviews with over 100 subjects. which has resulted in a six-stage theory of faith
development. Fowler's theory closely parallels the cognitive development models.
The movement likewise is from simplicity to complexity. from external/literalistic
expressions to internal/principled values.

Stage One:INTUITIVE/PROJECTIVE FAITH Fowler characterized stage one as
a childhood stage covering ages 2-7 when the rise of imagination is in full power.
Often images which occur during stage one have life-long effects. either positively
or negatively. Fowler described this period in a child's life as a time when the mind
is religiously pregnant.

Stage Two: MYTHIC/LITERAL FAITH Fowler describes this stage as the stage
of stories. The child can now create and retell powerful stories. The symbolism is
largely taken at face value and interpreted with a quality of literalness.

Stage Three: SYNTHETIC/CONVENTIONAL FAITH Fowler identified stage
three as beginning with the teen years but may characterize adult experience as
well. Essentially. it is during stage three that identity is formulated. It is a
synthetic stage in that it pulls together one's valued images and values,
conceptualizes God as an extention of existing relationships. and struggles for a
sense of worth and selfhood.

Stage Four: INDIVIDUATIVE/PROJECTIVE FAITH Fowler suggests that this
stage four may begin in the late teens, but more probably in the early 20s. Some
individuals may not encounter it. however. until the late 305. During this stage. the
individual steps outside of the circle of interpersonal relationships which have

sustained his life previously. Now comes the task of sorting out who he is apart

26

from the group and supporting structures. The concern here is boundaries. where the
self ends and others begin. Stage four is very much concerned with a "fit" between
an authentic self and a set of ideological commitments.

Stage Five: CONJUNCTIVE FAITH What has been made clear in stage four is
now made more permeable and porous. Not only is there an awareness of personal
identity. but there is much more about personal identity which is now owned but not
yet understood. There is a readiness for a relationship with God in all of His
mystery. There is likewise a correlative readiness for a relationship with persons
and groups very different from ourselves. Stage five is a time in which paradox is
alright. and truth lives within a broad context of paradoxical tension.

Stage Six: UNIVERSALIZING FAITH In the highest stage. the individual
experiences a shift from the self as the center of experience and meaning. The
center now becomes a participation in God. at home in a commonwealth of being. For
the Christian this is living in the Kingdom of God. These are liberating people.
subversively liberating. People like Martin Luther King. Jr.. Thomas Merton. Mother
Teresa. Dietrich Bonhoeffer. and Ghandi all became vibrant and powerful selves in
negating themselves and affirming self only for the sake of affirming a higher
meaning.

Fowler is careful not to limit his theory of faith development to just a
religious frame of reference. Faith is defined in the broadest of terms. and refers
to one's orientation to and conception of the ultimate determining realities in one's
life. Faith may apply to religious. philosophical. or political concerns.

Theoreticarl Correlates

As these several stage theories have been considered. it has become
apparent that they appear to be isomorphically parallel. distinct yet similar.
Correlational studies are very difficult in developmental theory because of the

continual refinement of scoring systems which affect reliability. These models can

27

 

 

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28

be said to be related. though not developmentally identical (Table 3). It is observed
in the comparison offered that cognitive development is both the threshhold and
ceiling for other related forms of development. Thinking must be at least functioning
at the concrete operations level for other kinds of development to begin.

Developmental research has significant implications for higher education.
though general practices expose a very large gap between themselves and the
research. Nonetheless. several inferences might be drawn from the comparison of
the several stage-theory models presented:

l. Most traditional college students age 18-22. can be located at stages 3-5
on most of the schemes. At this level. cognitive development moves into the sphere
of formal operations in a normative sense. Self-awareness becomes primary in a
psychological and social sense.

2. Stage advancement is almost always made via a sense of disequilibrium. As
dissonance is set up. the individual is motivated to resolve it by moving to the more
adequate structures of the next higher stage. The college years are filled with
disequilibrium. Students leave the home base. They face a new set of social
freedoms and responsibility. They are exposed to new value systems and world
views. All the potential for stage-theory development across a number of domains is
present. If there is not a sufficient level of disequilibrium. students remain content.
then become increasingly apathetic and bored. If there is too much disequilibrium
present. students may become overwhelmed. discouraged. and regress
developmentally.

3. Deliberate learning experiences which challenge the inadequacy of
conventional thinking (stage 3-4). are essential to the development of maturity in
most models presented.

4. When individuals reach the level of stage 5 on most schemes. decisions are

primarily internally guided.

29

5. There seems to be a "curricular fit" for experiential learning programs at
the college level. There need to be legitimate experiences which enable a person to:
objectively examine one's own cultural context; develop skills of self-reflection;
process different points of view without confusing these with personal positions;
identify one's personal value system; develop respect for others; and define the

boundaries of one's own self and potential limits.

APPROPRIATENESS OF EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING PROGRAMS

The American commitment to education has traditionally been a commitment
to knowledge with a purpose. Traditional approaches to higher education have
stressed the classroom as the place of learning. the teacher as the leader. the
written word as the transmitter and essence of thought and ideas. and the course
as the organizing structure for teaching and learning (Valley. l976). Although this
has been a successful approach for some. it has also served to create an
unfortunate learner passivity. Children are conditioned into attitudes of docility.
compliance. and dependence in the formative years of education. For most students.
the classroom is a familiar environment in which all the needed information is
provided in lectures and the textbook. or through the reserve shelf in the library.
The problems that are assigned in the course usually have predetermined correct
answers. and neither the problems nor their solutions impinge directly on the
student's lives or others. In coursework. students have little need to develop
interpersonal skills or to learn to work through emotionally difficult relationships
(Duley. l98l ).

Counterbalancing Traditional Edugtion

Experiential education has the potential to counterbalance the learner-
passivity encouraged in students by the present educational system (Sexton. 1976).
Tumin (l976) does not see experiential education as the answer to the present

educational woes. but he does insist that many important things are not learned well

30

in traditional schools. and many important things are not learned at all. These basic
weaknesses affect virtually all students. Experiential education complements the

traditional approaches in its emphasis upon the theory/action connection (Figure 9).

 

INFORMATION ASS IMILATION EXPERIENTIAL
Strengths: Highly efficient, Strengths: Highly effective,-
rapid transfer through symbolic action comes first, intr1n51c
medium, quantity predicted motivation, contact With

direct realities, integrative,
connects theory to action

Weaknesses: Less effective, Weaknesses: Less efficient,
students must know symbolic time consuming limitations
medium, confusion of meanings, on the predictability and
action comes last, little quantity of learning

intrinsic motivation, unclear
connection between theory and
action

 

Figure 9

Contrasted Approaches to Learning

It is the central role which experience provides which brings it to the heart
of the curriculum that sets experiential learning in a different category. Yet. just
"experience" is no guarantor of learning. Wallace (l977) suggests that experiential
education must be characterized by four objectives: l) planned; 2) affective; 3)
individual; and 4) thoughtfully evaluated. From a program planning perspective.
educators must design ways in which the students will be prepared for the
experience. activities which will facilitate certain kinds of experience. and ways in
which the experience might be meaningfully evaluated. Wilson (l982). however.
cautions that learning cannot always be easily explained nor planned.

One of the advantages of experiential education is that it expands the

range of learning options for students. This becomes particularly significant for

31

students who are less academically inclined. Action has the power to motivate
these learners. help them feel more comfortable in the learning process. and tap
more deeply their own ailities (Tumin. 1976). The reason it is such a powerful
motivator for learning is because it is success-oriented. meaningful. and real. It
offers opportunities for real-life problem solving in which feedback is uncontrived
and immediate. The results. likewise. are real physical and emotional consequences.
Since experiential learning programs tend to involve students in the design.
implementation and management of their own learning. they have a vested interest
and are more internally motivated. Little (l98l) has identified l2 outcomes of
experiential learning relating to student values. These outcomes for students
include opportunities to do the following:

1. apply. integrate. and evaluate the body of knowledge and the

method of inquiry of a discipline or field via firsthand participation;

2. acquire skills and values specific to a profession. occupation.

social institution. or organization;

3. acquire and develop functional skills and attitudes necessary for

effective adult life;

4. develop the ability to learn in a self-directed fashion;

5. develop and use an ethical perspective or stance and develop moral

reasoning or judgment in ethically complex situations;

6. test careers by exploration or confirmation of career choices and

gain documented work experiences;

7. become responsible citizens of the community by identifying issues

of social concern and developing skills for citizen participation;

8. have access to knowledge not easily attained through classroom

instruction (such as exercise of political power);

9- identify Problems for further study;

32

Table 4

Student Values and Experiential Learning Outcomes

 

Value Saught by Students

Came to college ‘to get a better job“
(76 percent of freshmen; Astin. 1981).

“Have a specific goal in mind after graduation‘
(85 percent of res ndents; Roizen. fulton. and
lrow. 1978. p. l05 .

feel it is important “to be well off financially“

(two thirds of respondents; Roizen. fulton. and
lrow. l978. p. lOb).

Hant autonomy in deciding what is learned

i es ecially true for adult learners; Cross.
978 .

Hant 'to be an authority in my field“ as a major

life)objective (72.9 percent of freshmen; Astin.
198) .

Hant ‘to help others in difficulty“ as a major

life)objective (62.9 percent of freshmen; Astin.
l98l .

Hant 'to formulate the values for my life" ( 62
percent; Astin. I974).

Uant to finish school in a reasonable amount of
time.

heed money to pay for educational and living
expenses.

Hant access to opportunity for status. careers.
education. and so forth. especially if this acc-
ess has traditionally been denied.

Hant flexibility in scheduling tine for education

(especially true for adult learners.

(Kendall, 1983. PP. 30-31)

".DL-‘gr—JE ‘o’r"cb‘.i}.’r1.'c‘.ft‘c’ of Dies .5 Va l'u’t-"s' wi ii.“

Outcomes and features 0| tagiei‘iciitlal train-
ing Programs

-w.---a~-.—- »._... .—-.. . u -

highly congruent with outt0mes 2. 3. and a. lhe
contacts nude thrOugh experiential learning upp-
ortunities also support this goal

highly congruent with Outcones l. 2. c and a.

Congruent with cutcOues 2 and 6. In addition.

many argue that graduates with experience have

higher earning potential in the first job after
graduation.

Highly congruent with outcune 4.
to outcones l. 3. 7. 8. and 9.

Also relevant

highly congruent with cutc0ues l. 2. 6. 8. and 9

highly congruent with Outcomes 7 and )0. Man.
service learning programs stress the importance
of a synergistic relationship between Service
outcomes and educatioiial goals.

highly congruent with ootcoues 3. 4. 5. and I.

Must experiential learning programs do not delay
graduation. however. some programs do requifc
more time than classroom-based curricula.

highly congruent with potential finantial assis-
tance from experiential leaining. Partitipatiun
in experiential learning can hurt it the work is
unpaid and takes large auwunts ui tluw. lhis
factor needs careful attention from faculty and
Supervisors in order to mate caperlcntldl learn-
ing available to low-and middle°intone students.
Outcone ll.

congruent with all outcomes. Accomplishment of
each Outcone increases the probability of access
to future opportunities.

Can be congruent or incungruent with the fea-
tures of eaperiential learning programs. this
is an important factor to include in the can-
sideration of fair exchange anong the three
primary parties.

33

ll]. provide service to the community and contributing to the solution

of social problems;

ll. earn money to pay for living expenses or to support one's education;

12. have a stimulating and valid change of pace from classroom learning.

A number of interesting correlations have been identified between student
learning expectations (Little. l983. pp. 28-29) and commonly experienced outcomes
of experiential learning programs (Table 4).

L__e_arning Shifts

The college years are particularly strategic years for shifts in perception.
In a seven-year longitutional study (Mentkowski and Strait. l983). evidence
suggested students at Alverno College changed in the ways they perceived and
understood learning. First. students changed from an understanding of learning as
comprehending knowledge and content. to seeing "learning as a process". and
developing a variety of ways of learning and ways of thinking. This was evidenced
by a gradual upward movement on the Perry positions of intellectual and ethical
development. Second. students shifted in learning styles from concrete and
reflective/observing to abstract and active/experimenting as measured by Kolb's
l=e_arn_irm Style Inventory (l976). Movement was toward a more balanced pattern.
Students shifted in seeing learning in terms of "how to perform" which involved the
process of thinking about "doing" and about the "context" of performance.

At least three patterns of developmental change have been observed by
Doherty. Mentkowski. and Conrad (1978) in the experiential curriculum: from
particular skills toward integrated effectiveness. from "closed" to "open" learning

situations. and from other-directed to self-directed learning.

34
Contributions to Higher Education

The impact of experiential learning upon the field of education has opened up
a new range of educational options. In a time of a shrinking pool of l8-22 year-old
college students (23% l980-2000). new opportunities afforded by the development of
new delivery systems have attracted a new. wide market of adult learners as well as
provided new flexibility to traditional undergraduate programs. The contribution of
experiential learning programs has made educational programs attractive in a
number of distinctive ways (Weathersby and Henalt. l976):

--They offer relevant. real-life experience which many students seek.

--They are concerned with the affective process in learning.

--They allow greater freedom and responsibility on the part of the

student for his or her own education.
--They are more flexible and can accommodate a variety of learning styles.
--They provide financial incentive for those students who could not
otherwise afford to spend a large amount of time in a traditional
institution.
--They provide advantages through wages or stipends paid to them as a
part of their work placement.

--They allow earning while learning increases the attractiveness of these

kinds of study programs.

--They open opportunities to older people. women. low-income groups. and

minorities. giving them access to higher education (pp. 144-147).

A by-product of the knowledge explosion has been a proliferation of new
SPlatialities of knowledge. Many of these have come about through cross-disciplinary
BXPerimentation. Sub-disciplines have combined with other sub-disciplines to
address a new need in society. For instance. political science and business combined

to form public administration. They then combined with recreation (a sub-disciplne

35

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36
of physical education) to form recreation administration. These new sub-disciplines
need internship experiences to help define and interpret them (Little. l98l).
Experiential internships have served to bring the issues of education and society

closer together in the learning process.

DIVERSITY OF EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING PROGRAMS

As the American society has become increasingly information-oriented.
significant groups of people have found it difficult. if not impossible. to gain access
to formal educational systems. The entrenched 19th century model of education was
too inflexible. At least four groups (Houle. l976) were largely excluded from the
system: 1) people who gained their experience before they acquired their theory
(acquired theory inductively); 2) people who preferred to guide their own learning; 3)
people who wanted guided but personalized programs of study; and 4) people
attempting to build a learning plan of life-experience equivalencies. Experiential
learning programs became a viable response to this market. Consequently. programs
began to be developed which conformed to the shape of student needs rather than
pre-determined structures (Table l). Faculty within experiential education have
redefined their roles more as experience facilitators than the traditional roles of
information disseminators. Experiential educational programs have continued to
expand in innovative ways bringing the worlds of work and education closer together

and redefining learning in non-collegiate settings.

INTERCULTURAL EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING PROGRAMS
The specific additive of the intercultural dimension to experiential learning
may become a potent agent of the kinds of student development envisioned in the

aims of American higher education.

37
Brief History of Intercultural Studies

American students began to sojourn abroad in significant numbers with the
development of junior-year-abroad programs between World Wars I and II. These
sojourns were viewed in the tradition of the British Continental Tour and seemed to
require no additional justification. Following World War II. intercultural
understanding assumed new importance. The American awareness of global
inter-relatedness spawned an explosion of studies and projects focused upon
functional efficiency. Most research in the era of the 1950's was dominated by
business and government. In the early 1960's. researchers began to examine the
factors which influenced intercultural success or failure. One of the first studies
to examine interpersonal effectiveness was the Carnegie Project (Cleveland.
Mangone. and Adams. l960). Oberg's descriptive studies (l958) focussed on
adjustment dynamics and introduced the term "culture shock." Hall (l959)
contributed to the field with a study of non-verbal cross-cultural differences.
During the 1960's. a wide variety of non-traditional college programs were
developed in response to student discontent with the traditional university model of
education. Students responded strongly to the new opportunities for intercultural
learning programs and community-based experiential programs. The Peace Corps
contributed much of the research during this period. The Peace Corps studies
attempted to predict intercultural success by examining personality traits. small
group training. background analysis. situational factors. total-person analysis. and
a wide variety of variables. The results of the Peace Corps studies were largely
inconclusive. but did produce the development of a variety of audio-visual and
experiential training resources. As funding diminished for the Peace Corps. other
studies were undertaken by the business community and U.S. military (Gudykunst. et
al.. l977; Tucker. 1973). The research of the l970's has been primarily concerned

with "adaptiveness" and understanding the dynamics of cultural integration.

38

There have been numerous difficulties with the quality of the early research
in intercultural or "cross-cultural" studies. Many of the studies are
bivariate-relationship studies or anecdotal treatments of the subject rather than
comprehensive multivariate empirical examinations. Consequently. much of the early
literature is non-analytical. non-rigorous. and lacks a solid conceptual base. In
addition. many of these studies are characterized by a macroscopic perspective.
dealing with problems at a general level. using the group as the lowest unit of
analysis. These seem to overlook the most critical level. the interpersonal level.
Finally. much of the research has been conducted in an isolated way. unrelated to
the larger framework of intercultural learning and other fields of research. The
difficulty of controlling the variables in the early research has somewhat reduced
its credibility and created a piecemeal picture of a very complex issue. Currently.
the movement in the research seems to be toward a more inclusive view (holistic) of
the intercultural experience as a developmental process.

V_a;ue of Intercultural Experiential Learning Prom

If the concept of culture includes all the dynamic interactions of a people. in
addition to just an understanding of language. values. norms. and artifacts. then
the concept of intercultural experience will involve what happens to people who
represent different cultures when they interact. To program this kind of dynamic is
to invite a vast array of processes to take place. The Council on International
Educational Exchange (CIEE) and Michigan State University issued a joint statement
(l979) describing some of these processes:

Cross-cultural experiential learning can be defined as the acquisition

of skills. knowledge. and competencies through a learner's contact

with and reflection upon the direct realities of a host society . . . .

Cross-cultural experiential education is pre-eminently integrative in

nature. The student connects with the host culture at all levels of his

being. Such programs offer opportunities for the acquisition of

factual knowledge. for synthesizing data. for determining patterns of

meaning. for developing powers of independent observation. and for

the application of knowledge and understanding to the immediate
situations at hand. At the same time. the student is provided

39

opportunities for greater self-confidence. awareness. and

understanding of his or her own culture and values; for the testing of

effective patterns in interacting with people and situations; and a

corresponding potential for the development of personal maturity and

capacities in the learning process itself (”Statement of the Task

Group . . .." 1979).

Most formal educational programs have been reluctant to incorporate
cross-cultural experiential education into the received curriculum. Of those who
have. many deal only with marginal samplings of cross-cultural experiential
education or else restrict it to highly defined traditional academic objectives.
Many institutions misperceive cross-cultural experiential learning as being either
haphazard insights of random experience or simply studying the traditional
subjects in a different cultural setting.

In contrast to the institutional indifference to experiential learning. college
students indicated a different attitude. The Carnegie Surveys (1975-76) of 25.000
faculty. 25.000 undergraduates. and 25.000 graduate students indicated that
although only 13% of the undergraduates had received credit for experiential
learning. 55% of the students were interested in being able to do so. Until recently.
student enthusiasm for the value of an intercultural experience was more of an
intuitive rationale than an established. empirical fact. It has been assumed to be
important for self-development. however. that has been difficult to measure.
Although there is a large body of research on cross-cultural interaction. relatively
little research has focused on the impact of cross-cultural experience. Hull and
Lemke (1975) found that. in a survey designed to indicate whether students had
gained a better understanding of their home culture. 84% of the students involved in
an intercultural experience responded positively. 80% of the students involved in an
experiential placement in their home country responded positively. and only 53%

responded positively who had remained in the traditional campus-bound program. In

the same study. 87‘]. of the off-campus students indicated that their experience

40

forced them to question their values. A survey of 387 institutions (Baker. 1978)
found that 77% of the student teachers were in fact working with culturally
different students. In Abrams' (1978) research which looked at long-term results of
students in the Antioch Education Abroad program. he noted that students reported
that it was largely their contact with the culture outside the classroom that had
the most significant effect upon them within their study-abroad experience.
Henson's (1979) survey of 301 undergraduates at the University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign who had cross-cultural educational experiences indicated that
67% rated their out-of-class experiences to have been of greatest value to them.
and an additional 33% rated both experiences to be of equal value!

Hull (1981) suggests that formal cross-cultural experiential learning
programs have extraordinary educational value and at times ought to be ends in
themselves within the undergraduate curriculum. He asserts that they complement
and strengthen the traditional goals of liberal arts education. They are not to
duplicate educational experiences. delivery systems. or learning activities available
at the home campus (Harrison and Hopkins. 1967. APPENDIX B). Rather. Hull suggests
five goals: (1) personal awareness (a context of distinctly different cultural
values); (2) development of personal competence (learning to cope with change); (3)
understanding and acceptance of other peoples and other ways (being among them);
(4) perceptual knowledge (dealing with stereotypes. new ways of thinking and
feeling); and (5) practical understanding (testing theories and concepts for use). A
major value of experiential learning is what Schein and Bennis (1965) have called the
"meta-goals” of learning. This is the value of "learning how to learn." Aside from

specific content. this involves the development of problem-solving processes.

Varieties of IntercultiLal Programs
Intercultural learning programs have evolved into a number of specialized

educational options. The most traditional program is simply a study abroad

41
program. Most international study programs involve consortium arrangements
whereby students enroll in a foreign institution and take traditional courses which
are then credited at the home campus. This is particularly popular for language
study and specialized appreciation courses. Some students choose intercultural
contexts in which to do field research. such as historical research. archaeological
research. or ethnographic research in anthropology. Advanced students
occasionally qualify for honors programs in foreign research centers which are
often tied to a specific project. Senior students can choose to do internships in
international contexts: teaching. engineering. and medicine have been areas
frequently used. Service experience programs. such as the Peace Corps. have
involved thousands of young people in community-action projects in developing
countries. Cultural immersion programs have used the intercultural context as an
environment for personal development often focusing upon attitude change and
values clarification and development. By far the most populated program is the
travel study approach in which a small group travels together to various locations
which relate to a particular topic. Students generally are involved in background
reading prior to the travel. listen to lectures on site. and write a major report at
the conclusion of the tour. Nearly all the program options can range in length from
one month to a year. and carry equivalent levels of academic credit as might be
earned should a student be involved in full-time study on the home campus.
Factors of Intarcultural Effectiveness

A major difficulty in intercultural research has been the problem of
definition and control of variables. This has posed the chicken and the egg
dilemma: are the outcomes of intercultural experiential learning programs the
result of variables which define the individual prior to the experience or variables
which are inherent in the experience itself? Some of the prior variables mentioned

in the literature are: age and sex. prior intercultural experience. the nature of

42

that experience. skill level. personality structure. language ability. ability to take
initiative and deal with ambiguous situations. amount of orientation training. and
status within the individual's own culture. Some of the cultural variables which
have been identified are; length and nature of the experience. the need for
language acquisition in the new culture. the "strangeness" of the new culture.
transcultural common interests. the political context. the degree of value
difference and world view in the new culture. the presence of cultural mediators.
the status of the people most frequently encountered in the new culture. mobility.
and the degree of cultural immersion (Pearson. 1981).

Several interesting phenomena have come to characterize intercultural
adjustment. The first is "culture shock" (Oberg. 1958). This process is described by
Oberg as an anxiety which results from losing one's sense of when to do what and
how. The progression he describes is: (l) euphoria; (2) hostility; (3) understanding
and humor; (4) acceptance; and (5) reverse shock upon reentry. The symptoms
(Brislin. 1981) may include: excessive preoccupation with the cleanliness of one's
drinking water; food and surroundings; great concern over minor pains; excessive
anger over delays and other minor frustrations; a fixed idea that people are taking
advantage of or cheating one; reluctance to learn the language of the host
country; a feeling of hopelessness; and a strong desire to associate with persons
of one's own nationality. Victims of culture shock also experience a decline in
inventiveness. spontaneity. and flexibility to the extent that it interferes with
their normal behavior. Culture shock does have some positive aspects to it which
are sometimes overlooked. Adler (1975) suggests seven ways in which it may
facilitate learning:

(1) Learning involves change and movement from one cultural frame of

reference to another. This provides changes in the cultural

landscape.

(2) Individuals undergo a highly personal experience in culture shock
which is of special significance to themselves.

43

(3) Change becomes provocative. Individuals are forced into some
form of introspection and self-examination.

(4) Adjustment is extreme in its ups and downs.

(5) Confrontation forces personal investigation of relationships.

(6) New ideas force behavioral experimentation. This becomes a

trial-and-error process until appropriate behavioral responses

emerge.

(7) Individuals have at their disposal an unending source of diversity

with which they can compare and contrast their own previous

experiences (pp.13-24).
Ruben and Kealey (1979) have found tentative evidence to suggest that. in some
cases. the persons who will eventually be the most effective may undergo the most
intense culture shock during transition.

After studying the adjustment patterns of sojourners over time. Gullahorn
and Gullahorn (1963) suggested that the ups and downs of satisfaction followed a

predictable pattern. This became a widely recognized phenomena labeled the

"W-shaped hypothesis" (Figure 11).

HIGH

MODE RATE

\/

A B C D E F

Beginning Middle End of After Return
Sojourn Home

 

(Gullahorn 8: Gullahorn. 1963. PP.33-47)
Figure 11
W-Shaped Hypothesis

44

The W-Shaped Hypothesis suggested a six-point adjustment pattern (Table
5). Trifonovitch (1977) described point A as the "honeymoon stage". during which the
individual is excited about all the new experiences. Point B. however. begins when
frustrations arise at not being able to solve problems in familiar ways. This
typically results in hostility. At point C. an individual's sense of humor returns and
the settling in adjustment is made. At point D. an individual begins to feel at home
in the culture and is able to meet the day-to-day challenges successfully. At point
E. reverse culture shock sets in. People return to their home culture and feel

confused at not being able to fit in. At point F. the readjustment is finally made.

Table 5
W-Shaped Hypothesis of Satisfaction

 

A B C D II F
“Honeymoon ”Hostility“ “Humor" "At Home“ "Reverse “Readjustmcnt
Stage” Culture
(Trifonovitch, Shock“
1977)
Enthusiasm Frustration, Beginning Comfortable, Confused and
with new inability of adjust- coping with alienated
experiences to solve ment problems at reentry
problems efficiently to home
in familiar culture
ways

 

 

 

 

 

(Trifonovitch. 1977. pp.18-22)

In an analysis of long-term experiences of foreign students and sojourning
professors. Klineberg and Hull (1979) could find no evidence for a W-shaped curve.
The downswing from A to B could not always be found. which of course eliminated
the upswing to C. This finding seemed to be at first confusing. There are several
possible explanations. however. The Gullahorn and Gullahorn study was conducted
in the late 1950's and was widely known. The Klineberg and Hull study was

conducted in the late 1970's. It is entirely possible that the earlier study had

45

affected the field of intercultural preparation so significantly that the downswing
had been largely prevented. It is also possible that foreign hosts were much more
accustomed to sojourners in the 1970's than in the 1950's.

Studies have indicated a number of common barriers to intercultural
effectiveness. Ethnocentricity is a major barrier. This is the tendency to view
people unconsciously by comparing them to our standards instead of their own
(Porter. 1972). As a response to this problem. Gudykunst. Hammer. and Wiseman
(1977) suggested the development of an intermediary "third-culture" point of view.
This point of view would be different from both one's own cultural perspective and
from that of the new culture. The "third-culture" perspective is characterized by:
(1) open-mindedness toward new ideas and experiences; (2) empathy toward people
from other countries; (3) accuracy in perceiving differences and similarities
between the host culture and one's own; (4) nonjudgmentalness; (5) astute
non-critical observation of one's own and other's behavior; (6)
relationship-building skills; and (7) a lack of ethnocentricity.

Another major barrier to intercultural effectiveness is stereotyping. Allport
(1958) developed the conception of an exaggerated belief associated with a
category. This is observed in intercultural encounters in which an individual is
lumped into a certain category simply because of certain characteristics. not
because they have been considered on a differentiated basis. In stereotyping. the
areas of greatest contrast are likely to be given the greatest prominence in the
stereotype. Inaccurate and highly simplistic stereotypes obviously provide a rich
source of misunderstanding at the interpersonal level. The inverse has also been
demonstrated (Pool. 1965): the greater the degree of first-hand experiences gained
in an intercultural relationship. the less prevalent becomes the actual

stereotyping.

46

A variety of attitudinal and communigtional factors have been examined
for their impact upon intercultural effectiveness. A great number of the earlier
studies were concerned with identifying personality types which could be classified
for predictive purposes in intercultural effectiveness. Many of the Peace Corps
studies were of this nature. Current opinion however. is that personality is not
very useful in predicting intercultural adjustment (Guthrie. 1975). Instead. clusters
of variables have been identified through research in the areas of cross-cultural
communication. social psychology. and intercultural education.

A study by Cleveland. Mangone. and Adams (1960) suggests that technical
skill. high motivation. cultural empathy. political sensitivity. organizational
ability. and personality are the central elements of intercultural effectiveness.

Guthrie and Zekrick (1967) described the ideal Peace Corps volunteer as
sensitive to feelings of others. patient. soft-spoken. service-oriented. intelligent.
initiative-taking. wishing to help others. tolerant of inconveniences. extroverted.
and having a "live-and-let-live" attitude. Assertiveness. excessive frankness.
argumentativeness. and derisiveness were characteristics to be avoided.

Arensberg and Niehoff (1971) suggested a number of behaviors: be honest;
begin discussions with subjects which will be least threatening to the other party;
respect local values. conventions. taboos. and prejudices; maintain confidences;
refrain from making judgments about nationals or their culture; avoid nostalgic
comparisons between the new culture and one's own; avoid identification with
particular social groups or factions; be aware of the potential for discrepancies
between what people say and what they do; participate in the local culture; strive
to earn some ceremonial social customs; and learn some of the national language.

Barna (1972). identified barriers to intercultural effectiveness as;
language. nonverbal communication. preconceptions and stereotypes. the tendency

to evaluate or prejudge. and anxiety which inhibits expression.

47

Adler (l974) suggested three characteristics of the "multi-cultural man": (l)
he is psycho-culturally adaptive; (2) he is ever undergoing personal transitions;
and (3) he maintains indefinite boundaries of the self.

Ruben (1976) stressed behavior as opposed to attitudes. intentions. beliefs.
or values. He identified seven crucial communicative-behavior dimensions: (1)
display of respect; (2) interaction posture (judgmentalness); (3) orientation to
knowledge; (4) empathy; (5) role behavior; (6) interaction management. and (7)
tolerance for ambiguity.

Samovar and Porter (l976) identified eight variables relating to
intercultural effectiveness: (1) ethnocentrism. world view. absolute values.
stereotyping. prejudice; (2) social organization; (3) patterns of thought; (4) and role
prescriptions; (5) language; (6) use and organization of space; (7) time
conceptualization. and (8) nonverbal expression.

Gudykunst. Hammer. and Wiseman (1977) concluded that successful
intercultural adjustment depended upon three factors. each of which can be
described in terms of behavioral components. The first was the ability to deal with
psychological stress. Included were the abilities to deal with frustration. stress.
anxiety. different political systems. pressure to conform. social alienation.
financial difficulties. and interpersonal conflict. The second factor was the ability
to communicate effectively. Included was a meaningful dialogue with other people.
dealing with communication misunderstandings. and dealing effectively with
different communication styles. The third factor was the ability to establish
interpersonal relationships. Included were the abilities to develop satisfying
interpersonal relationships. understand the feelings of other people. work
effectively with other people. empathize with others. and deal effectively with

different social customs.

48

Klemp (1977). identified three inclusive factors for intercultural success;
cognitive and communication skills. empathy skills. and motivation. Since
aproximately 80% of communication is nonverbal. these skills need to be finely
tuned. Likewise fluency in verbal and written areas is important. Klemp cites four
cognitive skills essential to success: (1) information-processing skills related to
learning. recall. and forgetting; (2) conceptualizing skills which enable individuals
to bring order to the informational chaos that constantly surrounds them; (3) the
ability to understand many sides of a controversial issue; and (4) the ability to
learn from experience . . . to translate observations from work experience into a
theory that can be used to generate behavioral alternatives. The second factor of
success was empathy. which included: positive regard for others; giving another
person assistance; ability to control impulsive feelings of hostility or anger that
makes others feel powerless and ineffective. The third factor was motivation.
Klemp concluded that a person who takes a proactive stance. who initiates action
and works to dissolve blocks to progress. will. with few exceptions. have the
advantage over a person who is reactive. who does not seek new opportunities. but
sees the world as a series of insurmountable obstacles.

Duley (1977) has suggested seven skill areas for intercultural adaptation:
(1) information source development; (2) cultural understanding; (3) interpersonal
communication; (4) commitment to persons and relationships; (5) decision making; (6)
self-understanding; and (7) self-reliance.

Benson (1978) identified the major variables influencing intercultural
effectiveness as language skills. communication skills. friendliness. attitudes.
interactions. reinforcing activities. socially appropriate behaviors. job
performance. satisfaction. and mobility.

Kohl (l979). identified an extensive cluster of skills for overseas

adjustment: sense of humor; ability to fail; low/goal orientation; tolerance for

49

ambiguity; open mindedness; non-judgmentalness; empathy; communicativeness;
flexibility; curiosity; warmth in human relationships; motivation; self-reliance;
strong sense of self; tolerance for differences; and perceptiveness.

Hawes and Kealey (l981) studied technical advisors for the Canadian
International Development Agency and found two factors which were among the best
predictive measures of intercultural effectiveness: interpersonal skills and
self-assertion.

Implications for Program Design

What are the implications of these research findings for program
development? Despite the broad range of isolated factors researched. a gestalt is
needed in order to begin the planning process. Pearson (1981) suggests five steps:

1. A clear conceptualization and delineation of objectives is
necessary.

2. Some assessment of the individuals and the host culture
environment is essential.

3. Appropriate orientation training should be provided.

4. Selected reinforcing activities should be planned.

5. On-site contact people should be located and learning situations

planned.

The development of orientation programs has an interesting history. It may
be organized into three periods. In the early period of intercultural education.
essentially the two decades between World Wars I and II. a very traditional
orientation approach was employed. Students were generally preparing to study in
universities abroad and were given very introductory training. Area studies were
conducted to familiarize the students with essential information about a specific
country and its role in the world. Language study was encouraged if not required.
except for those who were going abroad specifically to study a foreign language.

Generally. students were expected to study corresponding areas of content such as

history. art. literature. political science. and mathematics as though they were

50

merely continuing their studies at their home university. A few “do‘s and don'ts"
were included which addressed stereotypical cultural norms. but little training was
provided which developed a genuine sensitization and appreciation for the culture
into which one was headed.

During the middle period of student orientations. the late 1950's and early
1960's. large numbers of students traveled to overseas destinations by ocean liner.
This provided a period of eight to ten days for shipboard orientations consisting of
discussions concerning cultural issues. lectures. films. seminars. area studies and
extensive interviews with resource persons from that culture. Careful planning
between students and their adademic advisors was possible. This was a fairly
effective transition time which allowed one to let go of the familiarity of their own
culture gradually and prepare for drastic changes.

The advent of jet air-travel destined shipboard orientations to become a
thing of the past. and ushered in the modern period. Often. the orientation which
replaced the shipboard variety was a very brief area study. some directed reading.
and in a matter of hours. students were deposited ”cold turkey" into a totally new
culture. Some programs continued the orientation on-site; however. many did not.
The result was often confusion and disorientation.

Presently. a variety of orientation approaches is available for trainers to
use. Most approaches can be categorized in terms of one of six basic orientation
models:

1. _f_i_e Intellectual Approafl assumes that a cognitive understanding of a
culture's people. customs. institutions and values is of major importance if a
Person is to function effectively in a foreign culture. Downs (1969) has described
this approach as using lectures. readings. films. and other multi-media
Presentations to transmit information. The cultural assimilator is an applied

training technique based on this approach. It was originally developed by Fiedler.

51

Mitchell. and Triandis (l97l). based on cognitive learning assumptions. to transmit
specific information about a foreign culture to members of another culture through
programmed learning materials. It has been found to lessen adjustment problems of
Americans in the host culture.

2. Ih_e Area Simulation Approagfi attempts to create a specific environment
which is as similar as possible to that of the host culture. Thus. programs have
taken place in areas that are similar to the host culture in climate. scenery. and
configuration. Much of the Peace Corps training utilized this approach.

3. The Self-Awareness Approac_tl is based upon the assumption that a person
who has an accurate self-understanding will adjust better to another culture.
T-group techniques and sensitivity training are characteristically used in such an
approach. The self-awareness approach is generally used in conjunction with
another approach rather than in isolation.

4. The Culture Awareness Approafich is designed to provide a
"culture-general" orientation. This approach. in contrast to the self-awareness
approach. focuses on the characteristics of culture in general. not the individual.
The assumption here is that an understanding of the nature of culture will enable a
person to interact with a person of another culture with greater understanding and
effectiveness. Kraemer (1974) has combined this approach with the self-awareness
approach under the label of a "cultural self-awareness". which assumes that if a
person is first aware of their own cultural being. then that person will be able to
better understand another person in a different cultural system.

5. The Befivioral APPYEQ focuses on teaching specific behaviors used in
the host culture (David. 1972). It is assumed that if persons learn the skills
necessary to behave appropriately in another culture. they will be able to function

more effectively.

52

6. The Interaction Approaglinvolves intense interaction between Americans
and host country nationals. By becoming aware of cultural backgrounds. values.
and learned behaviors which influence cultural perceptions. it is assumed an
individual will interact more knowledgeably once in the host culture.

Most orientation programs combine elements from a number of the above
approaches. With the mounting body of research indicating the need for
interpersonal skills and affective awareness. it seems evident that increased
emphasis needs to be placed on processing skills. Harrison and Hopkins (1965)
insisted early that the goal of orientation training was not to introduce new
content so much as it was to help the individual develop more independence from
external sources of decision-making and problem definition. Then motivation must
be developed to make choices and commitments to action in situations of stress and
uncertainty. One of the best recent resources in the area of intercultural training
is the three-volume series by Landis and Brislin (1983). Volume I deals with issues
of training theory and design. Volume II discusses training methodology with a
particular focus on the context of training. Volume III deals with international
education and area-studies. These works are definitely for the advanced trainer
and pose such key questions as: Whose reality prevails when action is required?;
What exactly does intercultural competence entail?; and Do trainers have a right
to change people. especially if the change involves a challenge to their core
values?

Brislin and Pedersen (1976) suggest seven goals for orientation programs:

1. Improve awareness of customs and interpersonal skills. including
techniques for dealing with culture shock phenomena.

2. Help the student develop basic communication skills by teaching
key phrases in the foreign language and teaching techniques for
speaking through interpreters.

3. Impart knowledge about the foreign culture. complete with
practical skills and know-how needed to get along satisfactorily in
the culture.

53

4. Attempt to impart sensitivity to others. reducing prejudice and

inducing respect. even toward those foreign cultural values and

practices that make little sense to the student.

5. Attempt to induce enthusiasm for the job.

6. Provide opportunities to maintain skills during periods of absence

from other cultures.

7. Above all. emphasize honesty in relations with others (pp. 2-5).

Intercultural education research has indicated some broad directional
findings which can be quite helpful in the preliminary stages of program
development. Heisler (1973). and Hursh and Brozak (1979). in independent studies
have concluded that there are no significant differences between students who are
interested in intercultural programs and those who are not. The findings of Hull
and Lemke (1975) suggest that domestic intercultural programs are rated highly
(96%) by students in terms of their willingness to recommend the program to others.
Compared with the already high ratings of students in overseas programs (89%). it
is even more impressive. There seems to be significant evidence to indicate that a
variety of intercultural options might be provided students with good results. The
area of the host country may be a factor which needs careful consideration. Of
students who participated in programs in Europe. Africa. the Middle East. Central
and South America. and the Far East. the students involved in non-European
locations responded more positively on experimental tests. Studies on the length of
stay have also provided interesting implications for program design. In a study of
attitude outcomes. the most positive student-reported outcomes came from those
who had studied off-campus 27-52 weeks. and the second most positive response
Came from students who had studied off-campus 10 weeks or less. These responses
may suggest that one semester may be too brief a time to permit an optimistic

upswing.

54

Hull and Lemke (1977) have made a number of recommendations for program
development:

1. Do not try to offer "all things to all people"; focus on one thing
and do it well.

2. Include your program within general education requirements.

3. Establish an office responsible for off-campus and intercultural
programs. Such an office would likely facilitate: coordination
between various non-residence programs; educational development
and assessment of program effectiveness; development of orientation
and post-sojourn experiences. programs and seminars to assist in the
educational and transitional adjustments of participants and to
increase the meaningfulness of the programs; selection and
overseeing of personnel; and recruitment and counseling of student
applicants to place students in programs best suited and relevant to
their own educational needs.

4. Have a regular course during the sojourn.

5. Orientation training should be open to affective concerns and
dynamics.

6. Select the sojourn directors very carefully. Qualities to look for
might include: experience with students. ability to understand their
developmental needs. and a positive feeling toward them; experience
with off-campus programs and experiential learning; personality
which is open and sensitive. willing to encourage close relationships
between himself and each student without serving "in loco parentis"
or as an armchair psychiatrist; enough academic background to gain
a fair hearing from faculties. remembering that he/she is primarily
an educator.

In a study done by Gray (1977). 320 institutions were surveyed to identify
program elements which contributed most to their ongoing intercultural programs.
Gray concluded that there were four central factors to ongoing success:

1. a formally specified public commitment;

2. strong administrative support (especially from the academic
sectorN

3. interculturally qualified faculty. experienced in fieldwork and
research;

4. interdisciplinary and inter-institutional links (p. 230).

55

BARRIERS TO OVERCOME

Change is one of the more threatening prospects to entrenched systems.
Educational systems are no exception. Tradition maintains a firm grip on the
status-quo of a system that has served the American enterprise so successfully.
In spite of the attractive potential of intercultural experiential learning programs.
they represent an approach which is not necessarily well served by the current
educational infrastructures. The difficulties need to be carefully identified and
responded to in appropriate ways and at an accommodating rate if genuine
acceptance is to come.

Assessment Concerns

Within the field of experiential learning. one of the current frontiers of
development is the refinement of assessment mechanisms. Defining the variables.
developing new instruments of measurement. and relating those appropriately to a
broad diversity of individual experience are tasks which must be effectively
addressed before experiential education will receive wide-scale acceptance. Duley
(NSIEE. #6). has summarized the assessment process as: (1) identifying the
learning; (2) articulating it with the rest of the learner's program; (3) documenting
the learning; (4) measuring; (5) evaluating; and (6) recording the outcomes. ..lenks
and Murphy (1981) report a survey of 85 faculty members in California. Utah. and
Nevada which revealed a variety of monitoring and assessing activities currently in
use: written journals. logs. and progress reports; concurrent seminars and field
experiences; supervisor evaluations; individual conferences with students;
occasional site visits; and frequent telephone contacts with field supervisors.
Research efforts presently underway are tending to interpret the assessment
process as an all-encompassing dimension of experiential learning--from

pre-planning to final evaluation.

56

 

OrganizationaLBarriers to Innovafition

Hefferlin (1969) identifies a number of obstacles to change in educational
institutions which apply to the predictable resistance on the part of institutions to
ready acceptance of intercultural experiential education programs. Hefferlin
observes that: (l) organizations are inherently passive; (2) volunteer
organizations. such as higher education. tend to attract members who agree with
their activities. thus. innovation is unlikely; (3) organizations tend toward
institutionalism and ritualism by which means are transformed into ends; (4)
organizations with paid personnel come to embody the vested interests of its
employees; (5) the purposes and support of higher education are basically
conservative; (6) academic professionals are socialized (18-22) to agree with the
practices and values of academia; (7) because of academic freedom. any change
must come by consensus not fiat; and (8) collegial decision-making is an extended
process and may come too long after it was needed.

Conditions for Institutionalization

Three factors have been identified by Little (1983). which must be addressed
if institutional change is to occur. The first factor is overcoming the
organizational barriers. As has been mentioned above. inertia comes in a wide
variety of forms within institutions. A commitment must be gained from the public.
trustees. faculty. and administrators if an intercultural experiential program is to
become a major educational program. It must be able to demonstrate to the
satisfaction of its various publics that it is of benefit. If advantage can be shown
in the areas of recruitment. retention. motivation. and productivity. then it is
likely commitment will follow. It is likewise essential to approach the introduction
of a new program in an evolutionary manner. taking care to highlight the factor of
compatibility with existing practices and institutional objectives. yet without

forfeiting its innovative character.

57

The second factor for institutional change is leadership. Faculty and
administrative support are necessary but not sufficient conditions in themselves to
produce change. There must be someone to lead the fight. A new cause must be
championed. and that leadership must be exercised with skill. influence. and
understanding.

The third factor involves the conditions for change. Good planning. which
demonstrates the incremental achievability of the program. is essential for
program adoption. Decision-makers need to see the stage-by-stage master plan of
the proposed change or the fear of the unknown will likely erode their support.
Once the plan has support. the distinctives of the new program must be clearly
communicated to all the publics who will be affected. Perhaps the most difficult
aspect of new program establishment concerns financial resources. Hefferlin (1969)
has suggested that a new program will be tolerated if it costs no money or if it
brings its own support. It will be resisted if the funds it requires could be used for
the expansion of existing programs. Trouble certainly will arise if a new program is
forced upon some part of the institution which requires existing resources to be

divided to include it.

CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The purpose of the study has been to examine selected full-semester immersion
intercultural experiential education programs in order to identify the consensus of
educational rationale and to understand the primary cluster of programmatic and

logistical factors central to new program development.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Question 1: What intercultural program outcomes have been identified in the
existing research for arguing that intercultural experiential education programs
are effective in producing student development?

Question 2: What crucial programmatic and logistical factors essential to
program effectiveness can be identified in intercultural experiential learning
programs within the scope of the sample?

ngstion 3: What major barriers have institutions encountered and overcome

to make their intercultural programs succeed?

POPLLATION AND SAPPLE

The population of the study was composed of 239 member-institutions of the
Council for the Advancement of Experiential Learning (CAEL). CAEL began in March
l974 as a project of the Educational Testing Service and has grown into a
significant organization interested in reviewing. trying out and validating
assessment procedures. and furthering the use and crediting of experiential

learning. CAEL member institutions are typical of colleges and universities in many

58

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60

ways and in the aggregate. represent a microcosm of American higher education
(Table 6). Knapp and Davis (1978) observed that CAEL consists of about the same
number of newly formed institutions as older traditional institutions. with about
38% having been founded before 1900. and 30% since 1960. Although there are
slightly more public institutions (18.4%) in the CAEL population than in the
non-CAEL population. few differences exist beyond that. CAEL member institutions
are found in all parts of the United States. The one common denominator is their
affiliated interest in experiential learning. The CAEL organization has been a
major contributor to the research and literature of intercultural and experiential
learning. It is the largest such member organization in the United States. and
therefore represents a generalizability advantage.

The CAEL population was slightly reduced by eliminating non-U.S.A.
institutions and agencies which did not represent a specific educational
institution. The resulting 239 institutions were mailed a Short-ForlSurm which
gathered information about the kinds of intercultural programs currently offered.
Since the specific focus of the study related to full-semester immersion programs.
returned surveys were sorted by whether they offered such a program or not. Each
institution offering such a program was categorized as a "Program Institution" and
each not offering such a program. regardless of similar programs offered. was
categorized as a "Non-Program Institution." Of the 54 "Program Institutions". 25
were randomly selected for the sample (see Appendix 0). Two alternate "Program
Institutions" were also drawn and held in reserve in case a selected sample

institution was unable to participate in the interview process.

INSTMNT DEVELOPMENT
Two kinds of information needed to be gathered in the study. The first
consisted of information which indicated the categories of intercultural

experiential learning programs being offered and the name and contacting

61

information of the person most closely associated with these programs within the
institution. A Short-Form Survay_ was developed and mailed to each institution in
the population. (see Appendix E)

The second kind of information desired would come from the responses to the
interview questions asked of each of the sample institutions. Because the sample
was drawn from a national base. on-site visitations were not feasible. Of the
interviewing options. telephone interviewing was selected as the most appropriate.
The telephone interview method. compared with a survey by mail. has the
advantages of: a higher percentage of completions; immediacy; greater capacity
for questioning emerging leads. and the ability to elicit greater amounts of data on
problem-related aspects. To standardize the direction of the telephone interview
and to address the issue of reliability. a Ieleehone Intgrview Guide was developed.
(see Appendix F)

The development of question items involved an extensive process:

l. A preliminary review of the literature was conducted to identify the
issues of current research. key figures in the field. and the most active
institutions. Validity concerns prompted the identification of crucial questions
indicated by the literature to be significant.

2. A one-week CAEL Institute (Learning and Personal Development: The
Synthesis of Knowledge and Experience) was attended at Georgetown University at
which time individual discussions were held with Arthur Chickering. Morris Keeton.
Lee Knefelkamp. David Kolb. Thomas Little. Marcia Mentkowski. and William Perry.
Each being related to fields germane to the study. several helpful suggestions were
contributed to narrow the focus of the project.

3. An on-site visit was made to Lewis & Clark College in Portland. Oregon.
Lewis & Clark College was cited in the literature as one of the most progressive

institutions in the nation in the area of intercultural programs. Through a personal

62

interview with the Coordinator of Overseas and Off-Campus Programs a great deal
of insight into the issues of intercultural programming was gained from an
institutional perspective.

4. A large number of college and university program descriptions were
examined for a consensus of the kind of approach and content being used in the
intercultural/international studies areas.

5. A master list of questions was developed from all of the above listed
activities.

6. Questions were clustered according to commonalities and relevance.

7. Clusters were rank-ordered according to the research questions of the
study. and the list reduced.

8. Validation interviews were conducted with Glen Heck (Executive
Vice-President. National College of Education) and Morris Keeton (President. CAEL).
after which further reduction in the quantity of interview questions was done. and
modifications made in order and approach. It was decided that an open-ended
question should begin each major topical area. to be followed by specific questions
if they had not already been addressed in the open-ended responses. The guide
allowed for generous writing space for note taking during the interview.

9. A pilot interview was conducted with Arlan Hunsberger. Director of the
SST Program at Goshen College. Goshen. Indiana. He suggested further delimiting
of the questions because of time constraints in telephone interviews.

10. Final revisions were made in the instrument resulting in a five page

Tglgengna Interview Guide. (see Appendix F)

DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES
Once the population had been targeted and a mailing list located. it was
necessary to develop the first data-gathering piece of correspondence. It was

decided that the Short-Form Sung}; (see Appendix E) should: be addressed to an

63

actual person at the institution; require no more than two minutes to complete;
include only a few pertinent items such as kinds of programs offered. direction of
growth. if printed program rationales existed. and the name of the key contact
person; be personally signatured by a known professional; and contain a stamped
and addressed return envelope.

A Survay Non-Raspondants Follow-Up Lafiaszee Appendix G) was sent to all
institutions in the population who had not returned the Short-Form Survey within 15
days.

After the Short-Form Survey returns ceased. an Advance Latter (see
Appendix H) was sent to each of the selected sample institutions. The Advancg
Latt_eL was addressed to the contact person designated by the information
contained in the responses of the returned Short-Form Suryay. The letter informed
the individual that he had been recommended by a named individual within their
institution (usually the Academic Dean) and he would be called within a few days.
The purpose of the research project was briefly explained. its potential value
mentioned. and appreciation was expressed for his/her cooperation.

Along with the Advance Letter. a Suggested Interview Guide (see Appendix
I) was enclosed. The purpose of the enclosure was to indicate the general topics
for the interview. the format involved. and the data areas he may want to have on
hand prior to the interview.

Sample institutions were categorized according to time zones. By working
from east to west across the four time zones. contact could be made with the
interviewee at the beginning of his/her work day.

An Interview [Mapointmgeknt Sheet (see Appendix .J) was developed to help with
the initial contact in each interview. This instrument. very briefly. identified the
purpose of the call. asked if the individual (by name) were available to talk. and

recorded a set time for a call-back if the call had come at an inconvenient time.

64

Using the Telephone Interview Guida the interview was conducted.
Open-ended questions were followed by probes into areas which had not been
volunteered. but were important to the interview. Notes were written on the
‘Legphonalntarview Guida and the interview was tape recorded.

The data (largely nominal) was tabulated by category and is displayed in
Chapter IV. Characteristic of descriptive studies. the data was not as amenable to
statistical manipulation as most other kinds of research studies.

Statements of program rationale submitted by population institutions. as
requested in the Short-Form Survey. were examined for philosophical. educational.
and theoretical common denominators.

Findings in the data collecting phase were interpreted. summarized. and

implications identified.

SWMARY

The methodology employed in the exercise of the research study has been
drawn from the research methodology literature. practioners who were interested
in the outcomes. and educational advisors concerned for the integrity of the
project. Because of the objectives of identifying programmatic and logistical
components of full-semester immersion-type intercultural experiential learning
programs. the interviewing instrument was deliberately skewed toward
implimentation concerns. The more philosophical aspects of educational rationale
for such programs was addressed through a separate analysis of printed
statements from population institutions. The constant process of delimiting and
refining has been a course of instruction beyond description. and invaluable for the

development of skills which respect academic thoroughness.

CHAPTER IV

FINDINGS OF THE STUDY

The purpose of the study has been to examine descriptively the structure of
existing full-semester intercultural experiential education programs in selected
institutions of higher education in the United States. The findings are presented in
several sections. the first three organized in response to the study‘s three
research questions. The first section presents a summary of implications from the
professional literature addressing the question of the educational legitimacy of
intercultural experiential learning programs. The second section presents the
programmatic and logistical components identified in the study. The third section
presents findings related to institutional barriers encountered in starting and
maintaining intercultural programs. A final section summarizes the findings of the

study.

SUMMARY OF THE LITERATURE

The literature which has been surveyed represented a variety of subject
areas: learning theory; structural developmentalism; experiential learning; and
intercultural programming. The summary presented here cites only the literature
which has a direct bearing on Research Question l.

Eagaarch Quastion 1: What intarcultural proggm outcomes ha_y_e been
identifLed in the existing research for arguing that intarcultural experiential

education programs are effectivain producing student development?

 

65

66

ELev_alenca of Experiential Learning Proggama

In the first state-of-the-art survey of experiential learning conducted in
1977. 75% of the CAEL-member institutions and 66% of the Non-CAEL institutions
offered one or more sponsored experiential learning programs. Programs have
continued to involve greater numbers and offer wider varieties of learning options.
Current percentage extrapolations estimate that 1.500.000 students and 50.000
faculty participate in out-of-classroom experiential learning activities every year
(Little. l983a). In spite of the rich diversity of learning approaches provided in
experiential learning programs. they have yet to be fully appreciated in most
institutions of higher education. Only recently have they begun to emerge as a
coherent idea in higher education.

Developmental—and Theoretical Validity

If learning and experience are inextricably related. as Dewey (1938)
suggested. then the kinds of experience an individual has will have a direct bearing
on the learning outcomes. A major task of education then. is to facilitate certain
kinds of experience. Kolb (1976) identified a basic learning cycle in which
experience tests and modifies theory. He suggested a dialectical interplay between
contrasted abilities (concrete/abstract. reflective/active) as learning styles (see
Figure 2). If one or more of the learning modes is seriously underdeveloped. the
learner may be unable to complete the learning cycle successfully. since all four
occur in sequence (Doherty. Mentkowski. and Conrad. 1978).

Traditional education has encouraged the development of perceptual and
symbolic abilities through emphasis on reflective observation and concept
formation. The behavioral and affective skills however. are best developed through
active experimenting and concrete experience. Both are important. and the
connection has become an active field of investigation (Piaget. 1952; Kohlberg.

l963; Perry. 1968; Kolb. l976; Loevinger. l976; Steinaker and Bell. 1979).

67

Cognitive development has been examined in its relation to one's experience.
Frequently. the variable which moves an individual to the next higher stage of
thinking and functioning is an experiential overload which motivates one toward a
more adequate means of dissonance resolution. The traditional college years
(18-22) are particularly prime times for such shifts. Most college students can be
located at stages 3-5 (on structural-developmental schemes) which is a critical
time of transition. Cognitive development becomes characterized by abstract
thinking and self-awareness becomes a critical psychological and sociological
focus. Transitions are generally made from dependency/conformity mode to a more
internal locus of control.

Perry's research (1968) indicates there exists a profound sense of openness
as well as transition. Students become less dependent on authority and move
toward personal clarification and commitment. Rest (1979) has found evidence that
more change occurs during the first two years of college than the last two.
Loevinger (1976) has indicated an individual must develop both the affective and
cognitive domains concomitantly. for full development to be reached in either.

Complementafiry Educational Approagfl

Given the reality that different people learn differently. it seems a variety
of educational approaches in higher education is appropriate. Experiential
education is a complement to a traditional educational program. Some educational
objectives of higher education can perhaps be better met through experiential
learning programs (Harrison and Hopkins. 1967). Experiential learning approaches
have the advantage over traditional approaches in that action comes at the
beginning of the learning process. thus motivating further inquiry. Consequently.
the effectiveness of the learning. based on direct contact with realities. is
increased. Hull (1981) contends that intercultural experiential learning is superior

to traditional formal education in five ways: (1) in the development of personal

68

awareness; (2) in building personal competence in coping with change; (3) in
understanding and accepting diverse viewpoints; (4) in dealing with stereotypes and
feelings; and (5) in testing theories and concepts for use. Schein and Bennis (l965)
have particularly claimed that intercultural experiential learning increases
problem-solving skills.

Mentkowski and Strait (1983) have researched the changes which take place
in college student's understanding of learning as a process. They have identified
three patterns of change as a result of students' involvement in experiential
education: (1) a change from an emphasis upon particular skills toward integrated
effectiveness; (2) a change from "closed" to "open" learning situations; and (3) a
change from "other-directed'I to "self-directed" learning.

Student-Reported Interest

Studies have indicated that there is no significant difference between
students who are interested in intercultural experiential programs and those who
are not (Heisler. 1973; Hursh and Brozak. 1979). The Carnegie Surveys (1975-76)
indicated that 55% of the students would be interested in college-level experiential
learning programs. Hull and Lemke (1975) reported that 84% of the students
involved in intercultural programs indicated they had gained a better understanding
of their home culture. compared with only 53% of the students who had remained in
the traditional campus-bound programs. In addition. 89% of the students involved in
overseas intercultural programs. and 96% of the students involved in domestic
intercultural programs indicated they would recommend the program to others.

Cross-correlational studies have indicated that the students with the most
positive attitudes about their experience are those who studied off-campus 27-52
weeks. and the second most positive group was students who studies off-campus 10
weeks or less. Henson (1979) found that among students at the University of Illinois

who had participated in off-campus intercultural learning programs. 67% rated

69

their out-of-class experiences to have been of greatest value to them. and an

additional 33% rated both kinds of learning experiences to be of equal value.

ANALYSIS OF STATEMENTS OF RATIONALE

The Short-Form Survey yielded 33 positive responses to the question of the
existence of a statement of educational rationale. Of the total institutional
response. which represented 16.8%. "Program Institutions" had a significantly
higher incidence rate (34.6%). and "Non-Program Institutions'l somewhat lower (9.9%)
(see Table 10). All 33 institutions indicating they did have such printed statements
submitted copies. It is possible that the respondents to the Short-Form Survey
were not aware of all the printed materials which might be available for specific
programs. Upon examination. only 42% of the submitted materials contained explicit
statements of educational rationale. The remaining 58% were largely program
descriptions.

Statements of educational rationale may suggest the perceived worth of a
particular program. The "why" of intercultural experiential learning programs is an
essential aspect of investigation before new program development is undertaken.
Existing statements of educational rationale have been analyzed and the central
concepts extrapolated. The findings are summarized in six basic values. as follows:

1. I_n_£arcultural Understanding was identified as an educational value of
intercultural programs by 24% of the institutions. Objectives related to the
concept of intercultural understanding identified by the analysis were: to
understand and appreciate the ways of people in other countries; to become
informed frsthand of the history. culture. and contemporary issues of the area; to
become more sensitive to the differences and needs of other peoples; to gain an
expanded awareness of our world; to be exposed to other modes of lifestyles; to

enlarge the global perspective; to produce people who can act locally but think

70

globally; and to experience a curricula which reflects the international structure
of the modern world.

2. Culturfielf-Perception was identified by 9% of the institutions as a
valuable outcome of intercultural programs. Objectives stated were: to learn about
your own culture from the viewpoint of others; to understand America's role in the
world; and to compare and contrast American institutions and values to those of
the host country.

3. Personal Growth was identified by 18% of the institutions as a valued
outcome by such statements of objective as: to acquire a fuller awareness of
oneself in terms of abilities. future. direction. commitments. and career interest;
to function successfully in an international environment; to achieve personal
development; to facilitate personal maturation; to increase human understanding;
and to prepare for increasing interdependence of the human family.

4. A_cademic Breadth was alluded to in 15% of the statements by objectives
such as the following: to gain a new perspective on your studies; to increase
academic competence; to evaluate educational systems and instructional
methodologies; to develop the ability to evaluate and analyze complex global
issues; and to provide a unique form of faculty enrichment.

5. Foreign Language Proficiancy was identified by 3% as an outstanding
virtue of intercultural education programs.

6. aner Davelopment was cited by 6% of the institutions as a valued
outcome. Statements relating to career objectives were: to build relevant career

skills; and to provide an advantage in obtaining employment.

PROGRAMMATIC AND LOGISTICAL COMPONENTS
Research Question 2: What crucial programmatic and logistical factors
essential to progr_am effectiveness can ba identified in intercultural experiential

laarningprogaams within the scope of the sample?

71

Two instruments were specifically designed to be used in collecting data
about programmatic and logistical components: the Short-Form Survey and the
Telephone Interview Guide.

R‘esults of the Short-Form Survay_

Several useful categories for the study were established through an
analysis of information provided in the responses to the Short-Form Sum (see
Appendix E). It was sent to all the institutions in the population. The results have
been summarized (Table 7). and the data processed as described in Chapter III.
Those institutions which indicated they did provide full-semester. immersion.
intercultural programs were classified "Program Institutions" and constituted the
pool of institutions from which the sample was randomly drawn. There were 55
institutions categorized as "Program Institutions". representing 28.1% of the
survey returns. "Non-Program Institutions" consisted of all the remaining
institutions (141) which did not provide full-semester immersion intercultural
programs. even though other kinds of intercultural programs were offered. Those
institutions not returning the survey within two weeks were sent a second mailing
(Appendix G).

Table 7
Summary of Short-Form Survey Returns

 

 

Description Number Percentage
Total Surveys Mailed 239 100

Total Surveys Returned 196 82
Response to First Mailing 158 66.1

Response to Second Mailing 38 15.9

 

72

Each of the Short-Form Surveys was mailed to a specific individual. initially
identified by CAEL. The individual was either the Academic Dean or the director of
the programs addressed by the study. Information was requested about the contact
person most closely associated with the target programs. with nearly unanimous
response.

The Short-Form Survey also provided a brief overview of the kinds of
intercutural experiential education programs in current use in CAEL-member
institutions (Table 8). Certainly the list is not exhaustive. but does provide a
profile of what programs are being used.

Data from the Short-Form Survey also indicated whether programs over the
last five years had increased. decreased. or remained the same (Table 9). General
trends are not the crucial factors necessarily in decisions pertaining to new
program development. but are a consideration for long-range planning.

Respondents were asked whether there existed a printed statement of
educational rationale for the institution's intercultural programs. If such
statements existed. the institution was requested to submit a copy. of which 33
were received (Table 10).

Information provided through the Short-Form Survey was understandably
general in nature. since the respondents may have been. to varying degrees.
administratively distant from current detailed information. The contact person
requested in the survey. who was in direct relationship to the program being
studied. provided more detailed information through the telephone interview.

lglephone Interview Results

In order to standardize the data-collecting process. the Telephone
Interview Guide (see Appendix F) was developed and used. Two clusters of factors

were addressed in the study. The first cluster involves information about how

73

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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76

interculural programs were started. The second cluster involves components
essential to maintaining the programs once they have been established.

_t_arting Intarcultural Program;

Age of Program. The majority of institutions in the study had intercultural
programs five years old or less. Such may indicate either the timely rise of such

programs. or perhaps the difficulty of maintaining such programs beyond the first

 

 

 

few years.
Table 11
Program Existence in Years

Years in Existence Frequency Percentage
1-5 13 52

6-10 8 32
Above 10 4 l6

n=25

First Program. When asked how intercultural programs started in their
institution. respondents identified a variety of first programs. The open-ended
responses indicated the consensus of different program types (Table 12).
"Short-Term Programs" are generally exposure approaches limited to just a few
days. perhaps even a weekend. In most cases these programs involve visiting
another cultural context; however. some institutions have attempted to import a
new cultural context to the campus for several days. "Travel-Study Programs"
generally depend on a "tour" approach to area or topical studies. These programs
often consist of a three to five week excursion accompanied by a faculty member.
Students are exposed to the actual objects of study. usually with the help of local

experts. "Exchange Programs" offer opportunities for students and faculty to take

77

the place of another student or faculty member in an institution in another culture.
These arrangements are usually made on an individual basis. "Intercultural
Internship Placements" provide experiential opportunities for students to apply the
expertise of their academic major in a work setting in another culture.
"Independent Studies" are individualized programs usually developed in response to
student initiative. They frequently involve working in a foreign research center or
a specific on-going project in another cultural setting. "Service-Learning
Placements" provide opportunities for students to participate in service-oriented
projects in another culture. perhaps best typified by the Peace Corps.

Table 12
First Intercultural Program at Institution

 

 

Type of Program Frequency Percentage
Short-Term Program 4 16
Travel-Study Program 3 12
Intercultural Exchange Program 3 12
Intercultural Internship Placement 3 12
Independent Studies 1 4
Service-Learning Placements l 4

 

Some respondents indicated the type of institutional mechanism by which
intercultural programs started. Consortium participation was identified by 24% of
the respondents. and 16% identified departmental programs instead of a specific
type of program. Although respondents confused the accuracy of specific
frequencies of program types by mixing categories. it did serve to both provide a

profile of program types and common institutional mechanisms.

78

Role of Initiator. Findings indicated that the individual responsible for
starting intercultural programs at an institution was most typically an interested
faculty member (60%). Administrators were responsible for initiation in 36% of the
institutions. but provided a supportive role in a much larger percentage of the
institutions.

Consultants. The role played by consultants in the early stages of program
development was mixed. Only 20% of the institutions used professional consultants
in designing their programs. No professional consultants were used in 48% of the
institutions. however. colleagial advice was sought both internally and externally
from those with intercultural experience.

Table 13
Use of Consultants in Program Design

 

 

Category Frequency Percentage
Consultants 5 20
No Consultants 12 48
NA 8 32

 

First Ye_ar Costs. Respondents were hesitant to give approximate costs for
the first year of their program. The complexity of cost variables due to the
diversity of programs. hidden costs of development. and cooperative efforts
between institutions made cost estimates nearly impossible. The consensus was
that the first year was more costly than additional years once the program was
established.

Locations. Findings indicate that the locations used for intercultural

programs varied widely due to the networks available to institutions. Literally.

79

programs have placed students all over the world. Cluster patterns did emerge
however. indicating that the predominant areas were the following: (1) Western
Europe. (2) Mexico. and (3) the Far East.

Components of Currant Intarcultufil Proggaaia

Student Numbers. Student participation in intercultural programs has
increased as programs have stabilized and earned a place in the curriculum. Two
clusters have emerged indicating the number of students participating in
intercultural programs (Figure 12). The first cluster involves 8-15 participants.
The second cluster involves 26-35 participants. These numbers may indicate either
program capacities or degrees of student interest.

Finances. Findings indicated that 68% of the programs were self-supporting.

and 24% still depend on subsidy finances. No data was given on 8%.

Percentage Number of
Institutions
40 10
36 9
32 3
28 7
24 6
20 5
16 4
12 3
8 2
4 1
“(other of Students 1 - I

 

 

 

D- - First year of program
- Current year of program

Note n=25

 

Figure 12
Comparison of Numbers of Students in First Year
and Current Year of Program

80

Student Preparation. A broad range of items were reported on the kinds of
things done to prepare students for intercultural experiences. The responses were
organized into eight related clusters (Table 14). The dominant pattern of
preparation consisted of one to four information meetings (44%). and assigned
readings (36%).

Table 14
Components of Student Preparation

 

 

Type of Requirement Frequency Percentage
1-4 Information Meetings 11 44
Special Readings 9 36
On-Site Orientation 7 28
Language Training 6 24
Advisor Sessions 5 20
Full-Semester Course 4 16
2-3 Week On-Campus Orientation 3 12
Area-Study Term Paper 1 4
No Preparation 1 4

 

Note: Institutions frequently employed more than one requirement.
Voluntary flarticipation. All the institutions in the sample depended upon
voluntary student participation with one exception. One institution had made an

intercultural experience an upper division general education requirement.

81

Screening Mechanisms. Students are involved in some kind of screening
process in 76% of the intercultural programs in the study. Seven clusters of
mechanisms were identified (Table 15).

Table 15
Mechanisms Used in Screening Students for Intercultural Programs

 

 

Screening Mechanism Frequency Percentage
Written Application 12 48
Personal Interview 11 44
Letters of Reference 9 36
Submitted Academic Transcript 6 24
Statement of Personal Objectives 5 20
Informal Assessment 4 16
Language Proficiency 2 8
No Screening Process 6 24

 

Note: Institutions frequently use multiple mechanisms.

glass Level of Participants. Respondents generally indicated that freshmen
lacked the necessary learning skills and maturity to be able to derive maximum
value out of an intercultural experiential program (Table 16). Often seniors. unless
the experience was incorporated into requirements of the major. found it difficult
to commit an entire semester away from campus. The prime years seem to be the

sephomore and junior years. both from a developmental and academic perspective.

82

Table 16
Class Levels of Intercultural Program Participants

 

 

Class Level Frequency Percentage
Freshman 4 l6
Sophomore 12 48
Junior 19 76
Senior 14 56
NA 3 12

 

Note: Institutions frequently allow a range of class levels.

Program Costs. Findings indicated that institutions are nearly divided on
the item of additional fees beyond the normal on-campus costs to students.
Additional fees are required by 44% of the institutions. and not required by 48%. No
data were given by 8%. Transportation costs were cited as the single most
significant variable.

Studant Groups. One way to keep intercultural programs as cost-effective
as possible is by organizing students into groups for preparation. transportation.
housing. and instruction. It was found that the most common group size consisted of
10-20 individuals (Table 17).

Table 17
Average Group-Size in Intercultural Programs

 

Group-Size Frequency Percentage

 

Individualized Program 4 16
10-20 5 20
Above 20 2 8
NA 14 56

 

83

Is there a consensus on how often students should meet together once they

are situated in an intercultural context to process what they are experiencing?

Respondents tended to favor daily (16%) and weekly (32%) meetings (Table 18);

however. several kinds of non-group programs impact these findings.

Table 18
Frequency of Student Group Meetings in Foreign Locations

 

 

Frequency of Meetings Response Frequency Percentage
Individual Basis l 4
Daily 4 16
Weekly 8 32
2-3 Times 2 8
NA 10 40

 

l=e_arning Objectives_and Outcomes. Respondents indicated that 40% of the
programs require students to to write learning objectives. The majority (52%)
however. do not require students to participate in the writing of learning
objectives.

By contrast. students in 68% of the programs are required to document their
learning outcomes. Only 24% of the programs do not require documentation. and 8%
were unsure of the policy concerning either learning outcomes or documentation.
Most documentation was made via traditional means. although a variety of means

was represented (Table 19).

84

Table 19
Kinds of Student Documentation of Learning Outcomes

 

 

Kinds of Documentation Frequency Percentage
Journal 11 44
Written Coursework 7 28
Final Paper 6 24
Learning Contract Specifications 2 8
Written Self-Evaluation 2 8
Research Project 2 8
Committee Interview 2 8
No Documentation 6 24
NA 2 8

 

Note: Institutions frequently require multiple documentation.

Asseésmants and Credits. One of the key concerns of those contemplating
the addition of intercultural programs to the curriculum involves the issue of
assessment and credits. Findings indicated that assessment by the professor was
the most common (48%). Only half as frequently was the assessment done by the
Program Director (24%). Other methods of assessment identified were major reports
or projects (20%). final examinations (8%). and seminar dialogue (4%). The amount of
credit to be attached to certain kinds of experience is a difficult decision. The
study indicated that two categories of individuals generally made the
determination. On-campus faculty were the determiners in 64% of the programs and
on-site instructors were the determiners in 32% of the programs. A cooperative
determination was the policy in 4% of the institutions. Intercultural Program
credits were transcripted as on-campus equivalents in 88% of the institutions. The

range of credit possible in intercultural programs essentially paralleled the range

85

available in traditional on-campus programs. The predominant range was 11-15

semester hours (Table 20).

Table 20
Range of Credit in Intercultural Programs

 

Amount of Credit in Semester Hours Frequency Percentage

 

3-10 8 32
11-15 10 40
Above 15 6 24
NA 1 4

 

Findings indicated that: 28% of the programs earned lower division credit
only; 36% earned upper division credit only; and 32% of the programs offered both
levels. Although few studies have been done (16%) on the impact of intercultural
experiential learning on subsequent academic performance. institutions are
committed to a broader range of educational objectives than mere grades. The 84%
of the institutions which did not carry out empirical studies on academic
performance seem to be satisfied with the variety of outcomes observed by faculty
and reported by students. Students have indicated to program leaders that the
single greatest personal benefits have been changes in perspectives on culture
(44%). life (44%). and self (28%). These outcomes provide a striking parallel to many
of the statements of educational objectives for intercultural programs cited in

Chapter II and traditional Liberal Arts goals.

86

Table 21
Single Greatest Benefit to Participants in Intercultural Programs

 

 

Benefit Frequency Percentage
Exposure to a New Culture 11 44
Expanded Perspectives 11 44
Personal Growth (Self-Confidence) 7 28
Employment Advantage 4 l6
Socialization/Good Feelings 4 16
New Perspective on U.S. Culture 3 12
Language Learning 2 8
Different Styles of Teaching 2 8
Improved Writing Skills 1 4
Adaptation Skills 1 4
Living with Host Family 1 4

 

Note: Some institutions reported more than one benefit.

Faculty Prepa_ration. As crucial as faculty are to solid intercultural
experiential programs. a troubling pattern of "no preparation" emerged in response
to inquiries into how faculty are prepared for intercultural assignments (Table 22).
Most institutions (84%) did not provide any formal orientation for faculty. Two
approaches depended upon faculty initiative: faculty request for information; and
international exchange Opportunities for faculty. Four approaches were provided
for faculty: information meetings about recruiting students. communicating
benefits. and program expectations; briefings by former program directors; joint
three-week orientation meetings with students; and organized faculty development

activities.

87

Table 22
Methods of Faculty Preparation for Intercultural Assignment

 

 

Method of Preparation Frequency Percentage
No Preparation 11 44
Contract Foreign Personnel 4 16
Teaching in Related Field 3 12
Informal Briefing 2 8
Send to Training Institute 1 4
Serve on Selection Committee 1 4
Faculty Exchange 1 4
Orientation Program 1 4
NA 2 8

 

Note: Institutions may use more than one method.

l;_e_a__der Cha_r_acteristics. Findings indicated that the predominant
characteristic essential to an effective intercultural program leader. is
interpersonal skill (Table 23). Those faculty that have proven to be effective
leaders are effective with students (32%). people in general (16%). and the host
population (12%). They also tend to be open. flexible. wise. knowledgeable. and
hardy. Cited also are the desirable qualities of initiative. good judgment. and
effective communication skills. These same qualities are in demand for leadership
needs on the home campus. which makes long-term use of veteran leaders in

intercultural programs somewhat unlikely.

88

Table 23
Characteristics of Effective Faculty Leading Intercultural Groups

 

 

Characteristics Frequency Percentage
Good with Students 8 32
Qualified in Their Field 5 20
Flexible. People-oriented. Good 4 16

Judgment. Administrative Ability.
Outstanding Teacher

Effective with Host Population. 3 12
Initiative. Previous Experience.
Spirit of Adventure

Openness. Stamina. Expert 2 8
Language Facility

Tolerance. Spends Time with Students. 1 4
Able to Function away from Family

NA 10 40

 

_aculty Incentives. Given the characteristics of effective faculty members
for intercultural program leadership. it is understandable that respondents
indicated the difficulty of recruiting good faculty personnel. Findings indicate that
institutional incentives for such program assignments seem to be quite minimal
(Table 24). Other than a few institutions whose commitment is reflected in
attractive benefits. little tangible benefit is to be gained through such an

assignment at most institutions.

89

Table 24
Incentives for Faculty Involvement in Intercultural Programs

 

Incentives Frequency Percentage

 

Paid Transportation 7 28
Paid Salary 5 20
Family Included 3 12
Paid Housing 3 12
Expense Allowance 2 8
Teaching Vacation 2 8
Professional Development 1 4
Personal Satisfaction 1 4
NA 9 36

 

Administrative Coordination. Respondents indicated that in 88% of the
institutions. there was a central coordinator for all intercultural programs. In only
12% of the institutions were arrangements structured differently. A variety of
assigned positions were delegated with regard to the detailed arrangements
overseas (Table 25).

Table 25
Personnel Responsflnle for Arrangements Abroad

 

 

Personnel Frequency Percentage
On-Campus Program Director 12 48
Foreign Director 7 28
Foreign Contact Person 4 16
Consortium Staff 3 12
Travel Agents 1 4
Placement Consultant 1 4
NA 3 12

 

Note: Institutions may combine administrative approaches.

90

INSTITUTIONAL BARRIERS

Research Question 3: What mflr barriers have institutions encountered in
making their intercultuLaUrogLams succeed?

Four clusters of factors have been identified in the study which respondents
indicated were crucial issues challenging the development of intercultural
experiential programs at their institution. The open-ended responses were not
exhaustive in detailing the problem areas. but provided a profile of problem
dimensions. The problem areas cited were: academic; financial; personnel; and
administrative.

The academic dimension posed the greatest number of difficulties in
starting intercultural programs for a variety of reasons. The academic area tends
to be quite conservative. Intercultural experiential programs represent a threat to
the status quo in that they generally defy the traditional structure of set classes.
written tests. timed lecture periods. and a geographically close community of
resources. Intercultural programs are typically less-contained and more remote.
They also demand a new category of systems from the academic establishment.
which is different and inconvenient at times. Orientation programs present a
specialized challenge and require costly amounts of human effort and detailed
curriculum. Institutions may not have personnel properly trained to conduct
orientations. or individuals who are knowledgeable about or interested in what
should comprise the curricular sequence. Registration problems commonly occur
because students are off-campus in intercultural programs when preregistration
plans need to be made. Students may find it difficult to register for the courses
they need to take the next semester or term. particularly since students often
rearrange their schedules several times during the registration period until a plan
is negotiated to best fit their time needs. The academic community tends to be

fearful of taking academic risks which may raise questions in the minds of

91

accrediting examiners and state education officials. These fears. together with
the above mentioned factors. must be addressed and resolved to gain the needed
support from the academic community.

A second problem area identified by the respondents was finances. The
exploratory stages of identifying what kind of program would provide the best fit
for both the students and the institution. where could programs be conducted. and
how could budgets protect the institution and still be within reach of students. all
require costly investigation. Program costs must either be subsidized or covered by
student fees. How these issues are decided will have an impact on the kinds of
programs which can be offered. and their appeal to students. Complications with
student aid requirements. what to pay faculty for extended assignments.
flucuations in the international monetary markets. and high costs involved in
moving people and materials all contribute to a complex cluster of issues which
must be resolved.

The personnel questions become even more significant as a program becomes
more removed from the home campus and less dependent on the infrastructures of
the institution. In many respects. the faculty leader. in an international situation.
becomes the institution incarnate. Consequently. the choice of the Program
Director and the faculty group leader are very significant (Table 23). The use of
foreign directors may potentially produce an even greater loss of control. and
create a sense of distance between the intercultural programs and on-campus
programs. Respondents indicated anxiety over expectations administrators seemed
to have about how "underused" (generally incompetent) faculty or staff might be
used in filling new positions in a fledgling intercultural program. The issue of
student recruitment is a significant one. New programs must communicate an image

which will attract student participants. If such recruitment undermines other

92

institutional programs. a politically destructive climate could result. Recruitment
then. must involve an internal and an external thrust.

The fourth problem area involves administrative concerns. New projects
present the insecurity of unforeseen crises. International policies often come into
the decision-making process when planning for intercultural programs. Language
barriers complicate communication. Foreign contracts. public relations materials.
an the total logistics of arranging for living and learning in another culture. can
become an overwhelming task.

Specific responses are presented in Table 26.

 

93

Table 26
Institutional Problems in Starting Intercultural Programs

 

 

 

Factors Frequency Percentage
Academic
Faculty distrust of new programs 5 20
Planning the academic program 3 12
Lack of coordination in programs 2 8
Registration problems 2 8
Developing orientation program 2 8
Complexity of assessment 1 4
Impact on accreditation status 1 4
State recognition of program 1_ fl_
1.7. £0
Financial
What to charge students 6 24
Start-up costs 4 16
Compensation to faculty 2 8
Student aid complexities l 4
Financially victimized internationally l 4
Cost of transporting materials 1_ _4_
1.5. £9.
Personnel
Recruiting students 5 20
Selection of Program Director 3 12
Faculty departmental replacements 3 12
Finding qualified foreign staff 2 8
Using existing institutional personnel _1_ _4_
1.9. 56.
Administrative
Publicity/Public Relations 4 l6
Ignorance of international mechanisms 1 4
Contracts with location resources 1 4
Language barrier l 4
Investigating on-site locations 1 4
Finding good housing 1 4
Last minutes decisions _1_ 4_
m 40

 

Note: Institutions frequently identified multiple factors.

94

The four same cluster areas of problems were identified by respondents
when they addressed difficulties encountered in continuing intercultural programs
(Table 27). The order of frequency of these clusters was altered in the on-going
programs. The area of financial difficulties moved from the second most mentioned
problem to the fourth. Administrative concerns moved from the fourth position to
the second position (Table 27). Fewer problems were mentioned for on-going
programs than for starting programs: Academic (68%)48%); Financial (60%)24%);
Personnel (56%)28%); and Administrative (40%)32%).

Once intercultural programs were underway. faculty distrust of such
programs gradually ceased to be a major barrier. Instead. but perhaps related. the
leading academic difficulty was recruiting faculty to accept intercultural teaching
assignments. The reticence was perhaps due to two other factors mentioned by
respondents: a lack of experiential knowledge of intercultural programs. and
resistance on the part of departments to releasing faculty for assignments outside
the on-campus teaching loads. Another factor related to several items mentioned
by respondents was the concern for the coordination of intercultural programs
with: departmental planning; on-campus and field personnel; and term
synchronization on campus.

Administrative concerns related primarily to communication needs internally
and externally.

Personnel issues centered on student recruitment. and behavior once in the
program. The important task of finding a replacement program director was
mentioned only 20% as many times as student issues.

Financial difficulties essentially involved budget planning. Fluctuating
international exchange rates provided a constant problem for set budgets. Program
costs could soar without warning. Some programs found it difficult to provide the

advance funding required to reserve housing and program space abroad. This

95
proved particularly difficult when the lending period crossed the fiscal year end. In
some cases. student financial aid packages were complicated by the kind and

location of the program they had chosen.

Table 27
Institutional Problems in Maintaining Intercultural Programs

 

Factors Frequency Percentage

 

Academic
Recruiting faculty 2 8
Lack of experiential knowledge by
professors 1
Departmental resistance to release
faculty
Need to internationalize faculty
Professors late turning in grades
Interdepartmental coordination
Assessment of student experience
Appropriate training
Linkage between faculty 8: field staff
Quality control of program
Complexity of term synchronization

J’s

..4
INI—Jd—J—J—Jd—J—Jc—l

b

mlbbbhbhbbb

Administrative
Better communication of program
to students 4 l6
Continued public relations
Continued support from top
administrators

(.0
—l
N

100 |-‘
I53 u:

Personnel
Student recruitment
Monitoring student behavior
Finding a new program director
Student illness and emergencies

bud—Aron)
.J
oops-boom

N

Financial
Exchange rates affecting costs
Yearly advance money for reservations
Financial aid for students

..a
0‘:

nail-04>
N
blurs

 

Note: Institutions frequently identified multiple factors.

96

SUMMARY AND LIMITATIONS

The research study which has been undertaken attempted to examine
descriptively the structure of existing full-semester immersion-type intercultural
experiential education programs in selected American colleges and universities.
The study has surveyed and interviewed practioners in the programming field to
identify what practices are actually in use. Attention has focused on the question
of whether there exists a consensus of educational rationale and a primary cluster
of programmatic and logistical factors central to the design and management of

such programs.

Current Status of the Program;

Although intercultural programs have involved large numbers of students
and seem to be providing legitimate learning experiences. the theoretical
distinctives of such educational approaches appear to be only recently concerns
within the educational dialogue. Developmental Psychology. Intercultural
Communication. Learning Styles. Cognitive and Ethical Development. Sociology. and
Curriculum Development are fields which have been brought together in the design
of effective intercultural experiential learning programs. A wide variety of
programs have emerged and continue to evolve as opportunities and needs change.
The practice in this field has largely preceded a unified theory. Just recently has
the vocabulary of intercultural experiential education even approached consensus.
Even so. there continues a lack of clarity in definitions about the kinds of
programs now in use. Nomenclature not only remains unclear to many. but is
changing. The use of such key terms as "cross-cultural" and ”international studies"
has shifted in meaning over the past two decades. Although institutions are very
ready to posit a claim for the value of their intercultural programs. few have done

empirical studies to firmly establish the kinds of learning outcomes which have

97

resulted from program participation. Although 88% of the sample report that their
programs are stable or growing (Table 9). only 24% have printed statements of the
educational value of their programs (Table 10). There appears to be a
correspondence between the core values cited in the statements of educational
rationale and the student reports of program benefits (Table 21).

Programmatic Factors

The study indicated that most of the programs were started from a small.
low-commitment base. Consortium participation was the most frequent entree (24%).
followed closely by departmental (16%) and short-term (16%) programs.

Most of the programs are young. 52% being five years old or less. As such. it
was possible for most individuals interviewed to recall the person who had initiated
intercultural programs at the institution. Most were either faculty (60%) or
administrators (36%). and developed programs without the help of professional
consultants (48%). Frequently. the faculty initiator was co-opted into directing the
program as it grew. therefore. changing categories.

Most intercultural programs are self-supporting (68%). and are nearly evenly
divided over whether program fees beyond a typical semester's costs are required.
Students must apply for acceptance in 76% of the programs studied. though a
variety of seven different kinds of screening mechanisms were identified by
respondents (Table 15). Intercultural programs tend to favor upper-division
students: Juniors (76%); Seniors (56%); Sophomores (48%); and Freshmen (16%). The
prime years from a developmental and academic perspective seem to be the
sophomore and junior years.

Most intercultural programs involve student groups of 10-20 individuals and
meet together at least weekly during the program. Findings indicated that only 40%
of the programs required students to write learning objectives for their

experiences. but 68% required students to document their learning outcomes.

98

Student work was assessed primarily by the instructing professor (48%). but
on-campus faculty were the primary determiners (64%) of the amount of credit to be
given for a student's experience. Findings indicated that: 28% of the programs
offered lower division credit only; 36% offered upper division credit only; and 32%
of the programs offered both levels.

Students report the greatest benefit to them in participating has been in
the areas of changed perspectives and personal growth (Table 21). These are areas
difficult to measure accurately and conceivably contribute to the lack of empirical

studies on student outcomes.

Miscellaneous Findings

Respondents indicated that students who had established a positive
interpersonal relationship with their group leader. program director. or host family
reported a more positive assessment of their intercultural experience. The
interpersonal skills quality emerged also as a leading characteristic of those who
functioned effectively as intercultural group leaders. The consensus reported was
that the more distant the relationship between the students and those leading the
program. the less powerful the program impact. The implications of such a

relationship should be carefully explored in future research.

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Intercultural experiential learning programs appear to represent a powerful

potential within American higher education.

ACADEMIC LEGITIMACY

Educational research is continuing to press the case for both cognitive and
affective development. Research indicates an interrelationship of both domains if full
development is to occur in either. Intercultural experiential learning appears to be
able to motivate affective development more effectively than the highly controlled
environment of traditional higher education. Both approaches. used in a complementary
strategy. contribute advantages which make the traditional aims of American
education more reachable. Intellectual development and character development.
historically characteristic of the commitment of American higher education. may be
approached through such a strategy. The education of the whole person should include
the ability to not only provide active leadership locally. but to think and choose
globally.

Intercultural experiential learning programs broaden the range of learning
opportunities which is increasingly important as the age-range of students continue to
expand. Such programs tend to provide responsive opportunities for a wide variety of
student interests. as indicated by the highly positive attitudes toward the programs by
most student participants. Findings indicate that the optimum time for most students

to participate in intercultural programs are either the sophomore or junior year.

99

100
Students are particularly receptive to new perspectives and will have time to bring a
more mature influence to the college campus in their final semesters of study.

Institutions of higher education are slowly accepting intercultural experiential
learning programs. As an emerging movement. the quality of programs is uneven from
institution to institution. The time seems to be appropriate for institutions to give
serious attention to quality preparation of faculty who are interested and willing to
contribute leadership to the area.

It appears that a significant bridge between a program and a student's
development. is the dimension of significant interpersonal relationships with program
leaders and other program participants. This interpersonal core ought not to be
taken for granted by program administrators. The careful selection of program

personnel is perhaps as important as the program activities.

DEVELOPlifiNTAL POTENTIAL

Research suggests that the mid-college years (20-21) are particularly prime
times for development. Students are maturing cognitively. socially. emotionally. and
ethically. Structural developmentalists indicate that most growth proceeds by
stages. induced by a sense of discontent or frustration. Such disequilibrium can be
strategically introduced. Students placed in very different cultural environments
seem to be particularly open to new kinds of understanding. The whole person is
engaged. If too much disequilibrium is experienced. the individual despairs and is
not open for new growth. The lack of sufficient disequilibrium will not challenge an
individual beyond his present state of adequacy. The question for educators it
seems. asks how optimum challenge can be strategically managed in the learning
process? If intercultral experiential learning can regulate the level of challenge. it
seems reasonable to assume that individual development can be accelarated and to
a certain extent directed. The foundational evidence for such potential growth has

emerged in the findings as students reported the resultant changed perspectives

101

about culture (44%). life (44%). and self (28%) (Table 21). If the relativistic thinking
of the reported expanded perspectives (44%) is combined with the reported cultural
introspection (12%). an even broader change in objective perspective (56%) is

evidenced.

PROBLEM AREAS

Findings suggest that the critical problem area in both the initiation and
maintenance phases of intercultural programming centers on the institution's
faculty. Academic barriers were cited by 68% of the institutions as representing
factors which must be overcome to start a new program. Faculty distrust of new
programs was the single most cited barrier (20%) in the Academic category (Table
27). Not only was there faculty inertia. but 44% of the institutions who had faculty
interested in an intercultural assignment had no method of preparing them (Table
23). Further. few incentives (Table 25) are offered by institutions to motivate
faculty toward overseas work. and 84% did not provide an orientation for faculty
who were accepting intercultural assignments. It would appear that for
intercultural experiential education programs to win a place of academic
respectability in the United States. the faculty dilemma needs to be addressed.

Another observation about problems identified in the study has to do with
the relative shifts between problem areas in the start-up phases. and those
encountered in on-going programs. In the starting phase of a program. financial
problems were rated the second most prevalent (60%). In the maintenance phase.
financial problems had moved to fourth most prevalent (24%). Administrative
problems followed the inverse pattern (Table 28).
LIMITATIONS

The study was subject to several limitations which may have had a bearing
on the outcomes. The population selected was the CAEL institutional membership in

the United States. There were several outstanding programs which could not be

102

examined within the scope of the study because their institutions were outside the
CAEL population. In addition. CAEL-member institutions. by their affiliation. would
likely represent a higher interest in experientially-oriented programs than
institutions at large. Generalization should not be extended unduly. given the size
of the sample.

Another limitation was the methodology of telephone interviewing. Although
it has many advantages. a telephone interview lacks the visual non-verbal cues
present in face-to-face interviews. The use of open-ended questions in the
interview make this even more important. Subtle cues can often take an interview
right to the critical issues. Telephone interviews are also at a disadvantage in
that they do not provide one with a sense of the atmosphere of a program
headquarters. which can either attract or discourage potential program
participants.

A third cluster of limiting variables involves the wide variety of kinds of
programs within intercultural experiential education. Given the problems of
definitions within the field. interview responses may have varying shades of
meaning. Individuals being interviewed chose among different programs at their
institution and focused on only one for purposes of responding with specific data.
The choice was often arbitrary. attempting to come as close as possible to the
full-semester immersion-type intercultural experiential education program
announced in the advance letter. A different program choice might have yielded
different results.

Institutions which relied primarily on consortium networks. were not able to
provide logistical data in several areas of the study. Consequently. numerous items
were not applicable (NA) to their program at the institutional level. These
institutions essentially contracted those functions to the organizational staff of

the consortium.

103

The orientation of the study was deliberately skewed toward program
implementation . The primary focus of the study revolved around "how" programs
were functioning. not the theoretical underpinnings which may affect their
legitimacy or appropriateness.

Time was also a limitation. The study necessarily brought together a number
of interesting disciplines: social-psychology; intercultural communication;
curriculum development; program administration; and educational research. Each
vied for attention in its own direction. which had to be carefully rationed. if the

study were to be kept in balance and workable.

PROGRAM RECOMMENDATIONS

To the institution interested in possibly starting intercultural experiential
learning programs. three suggestions are offered:

1. Bagin on a small sca__le_._ Perhaps the most problem-free approach is to
participate in a consortium of programs. In the consortium. the individual institution
has the fewest direct responsibilities. but also the least amount of direct control over
program content. emphasis. and outcomes. Another approach is to encourage
departments within the institution to sponsor specific intercultural experiential
activities related to their subject area. These often evolve into very fine additions to
the departmental program and offer students intercultural opportunities. Such
small-scale. low-commitment approaches allow an institution to experiment with
programs until the most appropriate kinds of programs have been identified.

2. Cultivate leadership. Encourage faculty to participate in opportunities
related to their field of interest. yet offering an intercultural dimension. Since
resistance to the development of most new programs begins in the faculty. champions
of new programs must be cultivated.

3. Explorathe full range of program development. New programs need to have

a wholeness to their development. Intercultural experiential learning programs are no

 

104

exception. Exciting brochures are not sufficient to produce a high quality educational
product. All phases of program development. operation. and evaluation should be
examined before the commitment is made to offer a new program (see Appendix A).

For those institutions already committed to intercultural experiential
education. several suggestions are offered:

1. Focus on growth. The temptation to recruit students to learn in exotic and
exciting places is perhaps to miss the most valuable potential. A change in cultural
context may be an end in itself. but the impact on life perspectives seems to be the
most powerful outcome.

2. Develop wholisticassessment. A wide variety of change is possible through
intercultural experiential learning programs. Assessment processes need to attempt to
identify the kind of change which has occured. Such change. as indicated by student
reports. often is not adequately reflected in academic performance alone.

3. Create a desire to participatag Faculty incentives for involvement need to
be seriously reevaluated. Quality benefits need to become associated with

intercultural programs and promoted so that new leadership is continually emerging.

IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

1. Need for empirical studies. Empirical studies need to be done consistently
on the educational outcomes of intercultural experiential learning programs. They
are needed to better understand the kind of changes which can be planned for. and
to contribute to the growing rationale of educational acceptance.

2. factors impacting change. A second area which needs research attention
is the effects of intercultural experiential programs on individual change over
time. Factors responsible for certain kinds of change need to be isolated so that
program designers can more effectively develop programs to encourage change in

specific directions.

APPENDICES

105

APPENDIX A

Important Components of Experiential Learning Programs

1. Developing a Program Rationale

A. Phi1050phical-educational justification

l.

2.

3.

Equivalence to actual offered coursework, transfer credit.
etc.

Recognition of learning that is only possible via expe-
riential learning (as in on-the job training).

Competency equivalencies.

B. Institution-oriented Justification

1.

0‘ ab “3 N
e

0'5
e

Attracting new types of students to the institution.
Expanding the size of the student body.

Using the institution's resources more efficiently.
Responding to faculty interest.

Moving into a new (Substantive) field or area.

Improving. strengthening, or making more relevant a partic-
ular existing major or cluster of majors.

C. Student-oriented Justification

Improving accessibility to job market or to graduate or
professional school.

Decreasing the time required for undergraduate education.

Improving breadth of experience and practical relevance
of a student's education.

Increasing goal-oriented motivation of students.
Enhancing self-directed change on the part of the student.
Responding to special needs of special groups of students.

Enhancing student participation in their assessment.

11. Defining Prggram Characteristics

1.
2.

Administration of the program.

Coordination of the program with other institutional
affairs.

III.
A.

106

Size of the program (number of individuals involved).
Duration of the program.

Location of the program, facilities required.

General educational objectives of the program.
Intended learning outcomes of the program.

General character of the processes involved in preparing.
educating. and assessing the students in the program.

Personnel in the program.

Developing Faculty Resources

Staffing

1.
2.

Additional hiring for the program.

Released time for existing personnel to the program.

Faculty and staff training in assessment techniques.

1.
2.
3.
4.

Extent and character of training needed.
Number of staff needing such training.
Faculty resistance.

Clarification of faculty responsibilities.

Relationship between non-traditional and traditional academic
programs and faculties

l.

2.

3.

Joint versus exclusive assignment to experimental and
traditional programs.

Involvement in policy formation by faculty not participat-
ing in the program.

Methods for defining released time in experimental
programs.

IV. Defining Criterion Standards

A.

Basis for standards

1.
2.

Institutional requirements.

Student goals..

3.

107

Employer requirements.

8. Nays standards can be defined

Minimum competence versus levels of competence.
Descriptions versus examples.
Checklist of skills versus overall level of functioning.

Expert judgment versus typical performance of a group of
competent individuals.

Competence demands in the field versus competence of
students in a generally comparable course.

C. People involved in setting standards

1.
2.
3.
4.

Faculty in the program.
Other faculty.
Students.

Field supervisors.

0. Properties of good standards

1.
2.
3.

Fairness.
Realism.

Consistency.

V. AdmittinggStudents

1.

Determination of appropriate qualities of prospective
students in relation to program objectives and
characteristics.

Dissemination of information concerning the program.
Recruitment of appropriate students.

Admission.

a. Comparison Of students against appropriate qualities
specified.

b. Selection or advising students regarding appropriateness.
Administration of financial aid to students.

Orientation of students to the program.

108

VI. Financing the Program

A. Expenditures

1. New personnel.
a. Experts needed.
b. Consultants versus full-time.
c. Advisors from other academic institutions.
2. Released time to current personnel.
3. Overhead direct and indirect costs.
4. Cost of alternate procedures.
5. Equating resource allocations to credit-hours or other
standard budget units.
8. Income
1. Special student fees.
a. Assessment fee.
b. Fee associated with credit granted.
c. Special program fees.
2. Other income.

a. Formula allocation of tuition, state funds. or
endowment.

b. Special programmatic allocation.

VII. Preparing Students for Assessmegg

A. Sponsored learning

1.
2.
3.
4.

Orienting students to off-campus learning possibilities.
Clarifying off-campus learning objectives.
Developing learning contracts for field experience.

Familiarizing student with assessment to expect.

8. Non-sponsored learning

1.

Seminars on portfolio construction.

109

2. Formative advice on portfolio development and how it will
be evaluated.

3. Identification of prior learning.

4. Articulation of learning to degree plan.

 

1. Measuring nature and extent of competence.

2. Determining whether competence meets requirements or
corresponds adequately to learning plan.

1. Determining whether credit is to be awarded.

1. Faculty agreement regarding interpretation of standards
and matching learning with requirements.

2. Faculty consistency (through tine across departments) in

VIII. Appraising Learning Outcomes
A. Defining requirements for appraisal
1. Documentation requirements.
2. Types of evidence of learning required.
8. Appraisal
C. Evaluation
2. Determining amount of credit.
D. Quality control of appraisal
appraising competence.
3. Educative benefit of assessment.
IX. IntegratinggLearning With Future Plans

 

1. Reporting assessment decisions to the student.
2. Discussing reasons for assessment decisions.

3. Reviewing original objectives with respect to the learning
process and its evaluated outcomes.

4. Relating assessed competencies with respect to original
objectives. degree requirements. and vocational interests.

5. Discussing in a formative. future-oriented sense the
instructional and situational conditions which best
fostered learning. Reviewing any which did not.

6. Initiating plans for future learning.

110

X. Coordinating Off-Campus Learning Sites

1.

Locating positions “in the field“ that satisfy the program
rationale and program characteristics.

Placing students in off-campus positions consistent with
individual student objectives and desires.

Coordinating field living and working arrangements as
necessary.

Maintaining contact with students and supervisors as
necessary throughout the off-campus work.

Conducting formative evaluation.

a. Progress toward learning objectives.

b. Satisfaction with position.

c. Recommendations for remainder of off-campus study.

d. Changes in learning contract.

 

XI. Advising Students
A. Exploration
1. Values clarification.
2. Delineation of interests.
3. Career exploration.
8. Planning
1 Setting of individual educational goals.
2 Development of a plan for meeting goals.
3. Development of competence statements.
4 On—going review of the plan in a formative. critical fashion.
C. Coping
1. Relating individual goals to learning possibilities that
exist in the institution or community.
2. Helping student understand the value and relevance of assess-

ment and learning outcomes.

111

XII. Defininngredit Policies

1. Delineating the domains of learning in which credit may
be awarded.

2. Setting limits on amount and type of credit permitted via
experiential learning.

3. Differentiating between records of experience and records
of learning outcomes as acceptable evidence for credit.

4. Establishing credit equivalencies for particular competence
requirements.

5. Determining procedures whereby amount of credit for unusual
learning is estimated.

6. Establishing review and appeal procedures.
XIII. Recording_Learning Outcomes
A. Objectives

1. Translating learning outcomes into appropriate academic
units.

2. Providing an account of the substance or nature of learning.

3. Characterizing the level or depth of learning to third
parties.

Monitoring progress toward degree.
Serving student needs for credentials.

Maintaining archives.

meh

. Protecting privacy.

B. Recording methods

Recording credit hours only.

Designating credits for degree, area requirements, etc.

Crediting equivalent course.

bWND-d

Recording credit and providing narrative description.

(Willingham & Geisinger, 1976. pp. 5-9)

112

APPENDIX B

Comparison of Goals of University and Overseas Education

Some Major Goals
of University Education

Communication: To communicate flu-
ently via the written word and, to
a lesser extent, to speak well. To
master the languages of abstraction
and generalization, e.g., mathema-
tics and science. To understand
readily the reasoning, the ideas,
and the knowledge of other persons
through verbal exchange.

 

Decision Making: To develop criti-
cal judgment: the ability to test
assertions, assumptions, and opin-
ions against the hard facts and the
criteria of logic. To reduce sus-
ceptibility to specious argument
and to be skeptical of intuition
and emotion. To search for the
best, most rational, most economi-
cal, and elegant solution.

 

Commitment: Commitment is to the
truth. It requires an ability to
stand back from ongoing events in
order to understand and analyze
them and to maintain objectivity
in the face of emotionally involv-
ing situations.. Difficult situa-
tions are handled by explanations,
theories,‘reports.

 

Ideals: To value the great prin-
ciples and ideals of Western soci-
ety: social justice, economic
progress, scientific truth. To
value the sacrifice of present
rewards and satisfactions for

 

Some Divergent Goals of
Overseas Education

Communication: To understand and
communicate directly and often
non-verbally through movement,
facial expression, person-to-
person actions. To listen with
sensitivity to the hidden con-
cerns, values, motives of the
other. To be at home in the
exchange' of feelings, attitudes,
desires, fears. To have a sympa-
thetic, empathic understanding of
the feelings of the other.

 

Decision Making: To deve10p abil-
ity to come to conclusions and take
action on inadequate, unreliable,
and conflicting information. To
be able to trust feelings, atti-
tudes, and beliefs as well as
facts. To search for the possible
course, the viable alternative,
the durable though inelegant solu-
tion.

Commitment: Commitment is to

 

peeple and to relationships. It
requires an ability to become
involved: to be able to give and
inspire trust and confidence, to
care and to take action in accord-
ance with one's concern. Difficult
situations are dealt with by stay-
ing in emotional contact with them
and by trying to take constructive
action.

Ideals: To value causes and objec-

tives embedded in the here-and-now

and embodied in the groups and per-
sons in the immediate social envi-
ronment. To find satisfaction,
enjoyment, and self-esteem from

113

future advancement of these ideals
and to find self-esteem and satis-
faction from one's contribution
toward distant social goals.

Problem Solving: A problem is
solved when the true, correct,
reasonable answer has been dis-
covered and verified. Problem
solving is a search for knowl-
edge and truth. It is a largely
rational process, involving intel-
ligence, creativity, insight, and
a respect for facts.

(Harrison & Hopkins, 1967, pp. 435-436)

the impact one has directly on the
lives of others who live mostly
in the present and to work with
them toward the limited, concrete
goals which are important to them.

Problem Solving: A problem is

 

solved when decisions are made and
carried out which effectively apply
people's energies to overcoming
some barrier to a common goal.
Problem solving is a social pro-
cess involving communication,
interpersonal influence, con-
sensus, and commitment.

114

APPENDIX C

Meta-Goals of Traditional Vs. Intercultural Instruction

Meta-Goals of Traditional
College and University
Classrooms

Source of Information: Infor-
mation comes from experts and
authoritative sources through

the media of books, lectures,
audio-visual presentations. "If
you have a question, look it up."

 

Learning Settingg: Learning takes
place in settings designated for
the purpose, e.g., classrooms and
libraries.

 

Problem-Solving Approaches: Prob-
lems are defined and posed to the
learner by experts and authorities.
The correct problem-solving methods
are specified, and the student's
work is checked for application of
the prOper method and for accuracy,
or at least for reasonableness of
results. The emphasis is on solu-
tions to known problems.

 

Role of Emotions and Values: Prob-
lems are largely dealt with at an
ideational level. Questions of
reason and of fact are paramount.
Feelings and values may be dis-
cussed but are rarely acted upon.

 

Criteria of Successful Learning:
Favorable evaluation by experts
and authorities of the quality of
the individual's intellectual pro-
ductions, primarily written work.

 

ApprOpriate Meta-Goals for
Cross-Cultural Training

Source of Information: Informa-
tion sources must be developed by
the learner from the social envi-
ronment. Information-gathering
methods include observation and
questioning of associates, other
learners, and chance acquaintances.

 

Learning Settings: The entire

social environment is the setting
for learning. Every human encoun-
ter provides relevant information.

 

Problem-Solving Approaches: The
learner is on his own to define
problems, generate hypotheses, and
collect information from the social
environment. The emphasis is on
discovering problems and developing
problem-solving approaches on the
Spot.

 

Role of Emotions and Values: Prob-

 

lems are usually value- and emotion-
laden. Facts are often less relevant
than the perceptions and attitudes
which pe0p1e hold. Values and feel-
ings have action consequences, and
action must be taken. '

Criteria of Successful Learning:
The establishment and maintenance
of effective and satisfying rela-
tionships with others in the work
setting. This includes the ability
to communicate with and influence
others. Often there are no cri-
teria available other than the
attituudes of the parties involved

 

(Harrison 8. Hopkins, 1967, pp. 437-438) 1“ the relatimship-

115

APPENDIX D

Sample Institutions

Adelphi University: Garden City. New York

American University: Washington. D. C.

Bloomsburg University: Bloomsburg. Pennsylvania
Broward Community College: Pompano Beach. Florida
College of St. Scholastica: Duluth. Minnesota
Evergreen State College: Olympia. Washington

Kent State University: Kent. Ohio

Linfield College: McMinville. Oregon

National College of Education: Evanston. Illinois
National University: San Diego. California

North Shore Community College: Beverly. Massachusetts
Northland Institute: Midland. Michigan

Ohio State University: Columbus. Ohio

Rockland Community College: Suffern, New York
Southern Illinois University: Carbondale, Illinois
Stephens College: Columbia. Missouri

Towson State University: Towson. Maryland
University of Connecticut: Storrs. Connecticut
University of Kentucky: Lexington. Kentucky
University of North Carolina: Charlotte. North Carolina
University of Northern Iowa: Cedar Falls. Iowa
University of Oklahoma: Norman. Oklahoma
University of South Alabama: Mobile, Alabama
University of Wisconsin: Platteville. Wisconsin

Webster University: St. Louis, Missouri+

116

APPENDIX E

Short-Form Survey

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

 

COULGE OF EDUCATION EAST [ANSING - NItLlllhAN o «cu-um
DEPAITIENT Of ADMINISTIATION AND CUIUIICUIUM
EMCILSON MALL

April 12, 1984

A research study is currently being conducted through Michigan State University
to identify and better understand what makes intercultural experiential education
programs succeed. Likewise, we hope to identify some of the critical difficulties

in developing and operating such programs and spell out implications for program
improvement.

We are particularly interested in obtaining your response because of the CAEL
affiliation of your institution. Would you take about two minutes right now

and respond to the following items and return them in thE_envelope provided?

Thank you for your assistance during this very busy time of the year.

1. What kinds of intercultural experiential learning programs do you presently
offer. ___Dne-month programs located in another culture
__ Foreign travel-study
.__ Study abroad options in foreign institutions

‘__ Full-semester (term) immersion experience in another culture

___Other:

 

2. Over the past five years have these programs in general:
___decreased ___remained the same ___increased

3. Do you have a printed statement of educational rationale about intercultural
experiential education and its place in your programs? ___Yes __.No

(If so, would you please enclose a copy of that statement in the return
envelope with this survey. or send under separate cover?)

4. Please complete the following information concerning the person in your
institution most closely related to the above programs who would have a
detailed understanding of program operations?

Name: Title:

 

Address: Phone:

 

Thank you for your kind assistance.

Dr. Ted Hard 1

‘

Prof. of Curriculum

MSUI) an AI/Imalnv Arum/(final ()ppornuul v [muffin-u

117

APPENDIX F

Telephone Interview Guide
Introduction:

From the information I have received from y0ur institution, I am aware

you have several kinds of intercultural programs, but the purpose of this

call is to focus upon only your full-semester interCuItELaLiflglierSlple‘Qgflllfl.
This is the kind of program that typically places a student for a semester
full-time in a culture different from the student's home culture, allowing

a “hands-on“ experience in intercultural learning. I am asking that all

your responses focus specifically on the full semester intercultural experiential
program. 0k?

 

I. Tell me how this intercultural semester program got started at you institution:

 

 

 

 

 

 

2. Hhen?

3. ' Who was the original instigator in getting the IP started at your instit?

 

4. What was their role at the time?

 

5. Did you use professional concultants to design y0ur program?

 

6. Where have you conducted IPs?

 

 

 

. Is the program self-supporting?

 

m N
0

Approximate start-up costs/first year?

 

U)

. Number of students first year?

10. Number of students on the average per year now?

 

118

MAJOR OBSTACLES
11. Tell me about some of the specific difficulties you encountered in
developing your program

 

12. Briefly, what kind of difficulties do you continue to face in y0ur
institution concerning intercultural programs?

119

13. Tell an about what kinds of things you do to prepare students for
intercultural experiences.

Prerequisite courses:

Orientation workshop:

14. Voluntary participation?

15. Screening process?

16. Class level?
17. Additional fees?
CURRICULUM

18. Do students write their own learning objectives?

19. Average size of a student group?

20. How often does a student group meet together on location?

120

21. Do students document their learning outcomes?

 

How?

22. What do you think a student would say is the single preatest benefit
of an IP?

23. How is a student's experience assessed?

24. Who determines the credit?
25. Possible range of credit?
26. Level of credit?

27 Course equivalences?

28. Has any research studies been done on academic performance of program
participants?

Results:

Send copy?
FACULTY PREPARATION

29. How are faculty prepared and involved in the IPS?

121

30. Essential characteristics of faculty group leader?

31. Special Faculty orientation training?

General Areas:

32. Specific incentives for faculty involvement?

33. Central coordinator of all IPs?
34. Who is responsible for arrangements abroad?
living?

working?

travel?

Dr. . you have been very helpful and I greatly appreciate

‘9‘—

your investment of tine. Have a good day.

122

APPENDIX G

Survey Non-Respondents Follow-up Letter

_§_§R§,WORRIED!

You have probably already returned the short
two-minute survey we mailed to you about two
weeks ago; just in case yours was lost along

the way, another copy is enclosed.

Your response will be greatly appreciated
since other phases of this research cannot
be carried out until we receive this necessary

data.

If your response has crossed in the mail with
this reminder, please disregard this reminder;
if however your response has not been sent in
yet, we would greatly appreciate your taking
about two minutes right now to complete the

attached page.

Thank you for your assistance,
xi

_ l

 

Research Project Director

This item was printed on yellow paper to gain attention.

123

APPENDIX H

Advance Letter to Sample Institutions

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

 

COUIGE OI EDUCATION EAST lANSING 0 MICHIGAN 0 ““440.“
warm OF ADHINISTIAHON AND CURRICULUM
MN HALL

This project involves interviewing selected individuals across the country
who are knowledgeable about intercultural and experiential learning programs
in general and full-semester—ihtercultural experiential education ro rams

in specific. Herhope to better understand what the key programmatic and log-
istical factors are which make such programs successful and effective. as
well as identify some of the critical difficulties.

I am writing in advance of our telephone call because I know how valuable
your time is, particularly at this time of year.

Altogether the interview should only take about fifteen minutes. If by chance
I should call at an inconvenient time. please indicate that. and we can set a
specific time for a later call.

Your help and that of the select others being asked to participate in this
effort to better understand what makes intercultural experiential learning
programs effective, will both strengthen the evaluation end of existing pro-
grams and give quality guidance to new program development. I will greatly
appreciate your assistance in this effort.

If you have any questions. please do not hesitate to contact me by phone at
(517) 524-6833 or (517) 750-1200 ext. 292.

Cordially.

Bradley J. Smith
Research Project Director

MSU is a all/imam Anion/Equal Opportunity hummu-

124

APPENDIX I

Suggested Interview Guide

SUGGESTED INTERVIEW GUIDE

 

During the telephone interview. we would like to touch upon the following sug-
gested content areas. There may be some information which would be helpful
for you to have at hand. He will attempt to follow the three-part sequence

in the interview. Please give brief thought to each of the areas below. and

I look forward to talking with you soon by telephone.

1m

1. How did intercultural programs get started at your institution?

2. What major obstacles were encountered in developing your programs?

3. How are students prepared for intercultural experiences?

4. How are faculty prepared for intercultural and experiential facilitation?

5. How are learning events structured and processed in your intercultural
experiential programs?

FIXED RESPONSES

This will involve YES. NO, and short-answer responses to what you have done
and currently do in your programs.

HARD DATA

1. How many students are in your programs?

2. what are the major cost factors?

3. what has been the impact upon specific majors?

4. Hhat data has been gathered on learning outcomes?

5. What impact have your programs had on academic performance?

125

APPENDIX J

Interview Appointment Sheet

Telephone Interviewgfiuide

NAME:

 

INSTITUTION:

 

ADDRESS:___

 

_— ..— .-

PHONE:

 

Goodmorning Dr.

 

This is Bradley Smith and I wrote to you recently indicating I would be calling
as part of a research project underway at Michigan State University, under

the direction of Dr. Ted Hard who is an international figure in non-formal
education. Dr. has recommended you as the most
knowledgeable person about intercultural experiential education programs at

, so I am interested in your response

 

to some questions about what you have learned in making your programs work.
I know your time is valuable and my questions should take only a few minutes.

Is this a good time for you to talk? Yes

No

Wu"—

When w0uld be a good time for me to call back?

Thank you. I will look forward to talking
with you then.

If you have any questions about this research study, I would be happy
to answer them now or later.

 

Date Time Result Suggested Time To Callback Secretary's Name

 

r—-.—m_- .a-‘v..- - -----—.-.—--s—-

 

--. -.-_-—--—-H--—.—.---—-----—o--1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

NA= No Answer NR= Will Return Call C= Completed
Ref- Refused IC= Incomplete Interview

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