L ‘73,: . , ‘ a 'In ’ 'I "W 'I' W“ «I ' g _{ ‘ , VINE-".1. ‘1 ‘3 3?)“; "I ‘ .l.‘ “a a. "I “In“ W.',‘t- 'IIHI" N. t. ..|.‘*..‘ u ..‘ LI 1 ! .I-U‘I .N'u‘ l'l . " I ' . 11 it .7 51* . ‘ ‘u‘x '. ,| " I I ’ . (3.1.: 5H; ‘ -) _" ‘- __1- . a ' D lllllllllllll‘llllll\l\l\\ ”at”: 319 Michigan State University This is to certify that the thesis entitled THE DEVELOPMENT OF COGNITIVE STRUCTURES ABOUT ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES AMONG PRESCHOOLERS presented by Gregory Scott Greenberg has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for M. A. degree in Clinical PsycholOgy éZL/iéflx Major profes Date 1/15/85 Robert Zucker 0.7639 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution MSU RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to remove this checkout from LlBRARlES Ala-(SHIIL. your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. .aél',az;“;“ THE DEVELOPMENT OF COGNITIVE STRUCTURES ABOUT ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES AHONB PRESCHOOLERS By Erogory Scott Eroonborq A THESIS Subaittod to Hichigan Stat. University in partial fulfill-Int o! the requirloonts for tho door-o of HASTER OF SCIENCE Dopartaont of Psychology 1985 3SQl7z‘fib ® COPYRIGHT BY GREoom soon-1' GREENBERG 1985 ABSTRACT THE DEVELOPMENT OF COGNITIVE STRUCTURES ABOUT ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES AHONG PRESCHOOLERS By Gregory Scott Sreenberg The present study investigated cognitive, eaturational, and experiential influences on acquisition of concepts about alcoholic beverages. Sixty-five feeale, 66 eale children, ages 2 1/2 - 6 years, and their parents were recruited from local preschools. The children were assessed on their knowledge of beverages and usage patterns, and general cognitive status. Results show a developeental trend in awareness of cultural drinking nor-s; six-year-olds have a such greater awareness of adult nores than do three-year- olds, but even three-year-olds have a clear sense of the age-graded nature of alcoholic beverage consueption and of sex differences in drinking patterns among adults. The ability to identify alcoholic beverages is also linked to age. Little evidence was found to support cognitive capacity differences as a detersinant of those factors. Lastly, parental and deeographic influences were found to exist. Children whose parents drink eore were eore accurate in distinguishing age appropriate drinking nores. ACKNOHLEDGEHENTS I would like to thank Dr. Robert A. Zucker for his guidance and encourage-ent. His deeanding nature and constant challenges forced ee to always eaintain high standards of work. Hy other coeeittee eeebers, Dr. Robert Noll and Dr. Hade Horn, deserve thanks for their conceptual input and willingness to always help and answer questions. I would also like to express special thanks to Cheri Ostroff for her skillful, aleost eagical contribution to the analyses, and for her coeforting support. The children, parents, and staff eeebers of the Resurrection Eastside Daycare Center, Edgewood Village Children’s Center, Gerber Children's Center, and Kindercare Learning Center deserve ey gratitude; without their eager participation this project would have been neither possible nor as enjoyable. Thanks also goes to John Taylor for his hard work and dedication to data collection and coding. Lastly, I would like to thank Deborah Fried-an for graciously donating her tiee and artistic abilities in drawing the stieulus figures for this study. TABLE OF CONTENTS LISTwTMIOICIOICOCO-OOCIOOIIOCDOOIICIIO.... LIST m FIMSCOCIOOOCOICOCO-O'CCDCCCIOOCCCCIIOO CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION AND REVIEH OF THE LITERAWOIDIOOOIOIOOIOIOIIOOOOOIIOOOO Cognitions Regarding Alcohol and Their Relation to Behavior........... Individual Differences in Problees with AlemOIOOIOIIOOI.III-0.0.0.0.... The Developeent of Cognitions Regarding Alcohol and Drinking M.ViWIOII0.0000IOOIIIOCIOOIOIIIIII Stateeent of Problee................... II. mp.IC.0......IOOOIOOIOIOOOOIOOOIOOO... Mjnt........lCOCO-OOOIIIIOOOOIIIOIOI "mum-“O...DID-.00....-OIOOOOCOOOIOO m.wnfilOI.-IIIOIOIIIIOIIIIIOIIOIOO Appropriate Beverage Idmti‘i.t‘m.III-ICIIIOIIIICOIO. Cognitive Neasure.................. Parent Cuestionnaires.............. Mllym0000OOIOIIIOIOIOIOO0.000.000... III. EMTSOIOOIIOOOOIIIIOOIOOIOICCOO-.00....- Appropriate Beverage Task.............. ”tilt Md wild StiwliIIOCOIIIIIOOOI “x 0" stimlioflIOIOIIIOIDOOOIIIIIII. Typ.“ SitultiNOOIIOOIOIOOOO0...... Relationship to Race of finchml"...00000000.00.0.0...O.- Alcoholic Beverage ldentification...... Relationship of Alcohol and Drinking Knowledge to Parent Variables...... Iv. Di““'.ifl.eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee Knowledge of Traditional Socio— cultural Drinking Nores.............. iii Page viii $8 93333 $831! 293 Page Hypothesis 1: Developeental Differences with Respect to Preschoolers’ Knowl- edge of Usage Patterns and Beverage Naees................................ Drinking Norms..................... Knowlege of Beverage Naees......... Hypothesis 2: Cognitive Capacity Dif- ferences with Respect to Pre- schoolers' Knowledge of Usage Pat- terns and Beverage Nanes............. Drinking Norms..................... Knowledge of Beverage Nanes........ Hypothesis 3: Parental Influences on Children's Perceptions of Drinking Nores and Knowledge of Beverage mu..DOC-.00...III-IDOIDIIIIIIIIOII. kink‘m wn-IOOIOIOIIIIIOICOODCI Knowledge of Beverage Naoes........ Hypothesis 4: Demographic Influences on Knowledge of Cultural Drinking Nores and Beverage Naees................... 98 Drinking Nores..................... 98 Knowledge of Beverage Naees........ 99 Sueeary................................. 100 Other Issues............................ 102 FUture Directions....................... 103 833 .338 383 WICESIIIIIOIO.C.O.-.IOIDOIOCOOOOCOIIIIIIOOO 105 1. Appropriate Beverage ldentification..... 105 II. Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test - M1”...-OOOIOIOIIOIIIIIIIOIOOI.OI. 140 III. Parent Questionnaires................... 146 LISTwms...O...GUCCI-ICIUICCICOUCICIO 1“ iv Table 10 LIST OF TABLES Deeographic lnforeation froe Parents of Child PvtiCipmt'IOIIIOIIOIOOIOIIODDOOOOO List of Occasions Depicted in the Stieulus W‘“inq.............l.OIOOOIOOCOOCOOCUOCOC Hean Nueber of Alcoholic and Non-Alcoholic Beverage Drinking Choices Made by Pre- schoolers for Adults as Coepared to Child Stiwli.I.O.ICCU...-O'COOCCCCIOCCOICCIIIIC The Relationship of Alcoholic Beverage Drinking Choices Nade by Preschoolers to Their Age, Receptive Vocabulary Ability, and Type of Stieulus Figure............... Nean Nueber of Alcoholic Beverage Drinking Choices Nade by Preschoolers as Related to Their Age and Age of Stieulus Figure...... Hean Nueber of Alcoholic Beverage Drinking Choices Hade by Preschoolers as Related to Their Age and Sex, and Age of Stieulus Figur..DOC-C....0....I.................... Hean Nueber of Alcoholic Beverage Drinking Choices Nade by Preschoolers as Related to Their Age and Discrieination of Stieulus Figur” by M.-OIIOCIIOIOIIOIIIIOIIO...... Nean Nueber of Alcoholic Beverage Drinking Choices Made by Preschoolers as Related to Sex and Age of Stimulus Figures........... ANOVA of Alcoholic Beverage Drinking Choices Nada by Preschoolers as Related to Their Age and Sex, and Sex of Adult Stieulus Figures.......................... Nean Number of Alcoholic Beverage Drinking Choices Made by Preschoolers as Related to Their Age and Sex, and Sex of Adult Stieulus Figures.......................... Page 32 42 46 49 52 55 Table Page 11 Relationship Between Nean Nueber of Alco- holic Beverage Drinking Choices Made by Preschoolers for Different Types of Situa- tim. md 11"." M...ICC-IIIIODIIIIOOIOIII 59 12 Hean Nueber of Alcoholic Beverage Drinking Choices Hade by Preschoolers for Different Types of Situations as Related to Their “GI-COOOIIOICOOICC-CIOOUIIOICCIOOOCICC... 61 13 Nean Nuaber of Alcoholic Beverage Drinking Choices Nada by Preschoolers as Related to R.‘.I..I.....I.....III-ICIOOOCCOOOOOIIICOO M 14 Nean Nueber of Alcoholic Beverage Drinking Choices Made by Preschoolers for Adult and Child Stieuli as Related to Race.......... 65 15 Factor Analysis for Identification of All “V".OHIOOIOD.D.OIOIOOOIIIOOOIOIOCIIOOIO w 16 Preschoolers' Identification of Alcoholic Beverages as Related to Their Age and Receptive Vocabulary Ability.............. 70 17 Mean Nuaber of Alcoholic Beverages Identi- fied by Preschoolers as Related to Their M.IOI.DIG...OCCOOOIOICICCOOOOOOIICCCOO... 71 18 Nean Nueber of Alcoholic Beverages Identi- fied by Preschoolers as Related to Race with Receptive Vocabulary Ability as a covv1.t.............OIIIOIOOOOIOIOOI0.... 73 19 Preschoolers’ Identification of Alcoholic Beverages and Their Choices of Alcoholic Beverages (Nean Nueber of Alcoholic Bever- ages Chosen) as Related to Parental Drink— ing 8t.tu'..I...O.-OOIOIOOOOIOIOOOOIOOOII. 76 20 Regressions for Choice of Alcoholic Beverages (Based on Choices Nade to Adult Stieuli Ninus Choices Node to Child stimli,fll.lI...IOOOOIOOIOIOOOOIIODI....0. 78 vi 21 Regressions for Identification of Alco- "011: “V".g“.....I...III........I...... vii 79 Figure LIST OF FIGURES An Organizational Structure for Classes of Influences Upon Drinking Behavior..... A Heuristic Nodel For Changes in Influ- encing Structures Affecting Drinking Behavior Over Developeental Tiee......... Nean Nueber of Alcoholic Beverage Drink- ing Choices Hade by Preschoolers as Related to Their Age and Age of Stieulus F1°W.OOIICCOOCCCU-ICCCOCICOUCOIIIIIII... Nean Nueber of Alcoholic Beverage Drink- ing Choices Nade by Preschoolers as Related to Sex and Age of Stieulus Fiour..DID....-O....OIIOICCIOUUOCCCCOCOOO Nean Nuaber of Alcoholic Beverage Drink- ing Choices Made by Preschoolers as Related to Their Sex, and Sex of Adult Stimlu. FigurnotflillIIIOOIIIOIIIOIOOOII viii Page 26 47 57 The Developeent of Cognitive Structures About Alcoholic Beverages Aeong Preschoolers CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION AND REVIEH OF THE LITERATURE Alcohol problems have been a significant public health problem for a long tine, that is evidenced in deaths due to cirrhosis of the liver, alcohol involved vehicular hoaicides and other autoeobile accidents, alcohol involved criee, and faeily and personal disruptions (NIAAA, 1983). Also, there are a substantial number of young people who experience difficulties with alcohol. The data froe the 1974 and 1978 national studies of adolescent drinking practices conducted by the Research Triangle Institute (RTI), as reported by Rachel, Naisto, Guess, and Hubbard (1982), indicate that about 8 out of 10 high school youths have experieented with alcoholic beverages. In general, the proportion of adolescents who use alcoholic beverages has stabilized since 1974, but at a high rate. The data also reveal that a significant proportion of 10th to 12th graders report drinking weekly (25 percent) or eonthly (60 percent). Overall, the RTI studies indicate that adolescent drinking increases quickly between the ages of 13 and 15 and increases less quickly thereafter. Boys drink more than girls; however, about four out of five 10th to 12th grade girls do drink. It is clear from these data that most adolescents drink. In order to explore teen-agers’ thoughts and actions regarding alcohol, Naddox and HcCall (1964) administered a pretested questionnaire to Hid-Hestern public high school students. From the evidence presented, the researchers concluded that young people do not invent the idea that they should or should not drink; they learn it. The acceptability and desirability of drinking behavior is constantly suggested to young people by “elaborate integration” of alcohol use with American culture and adult social behavior. Thus adolescents are socialized to become adults; significant persons to whom one is most likely to be exposed first, longest, and most intimately are adult members of one’s family life. These significant persons become role models and through their teaching/learning role they legitimize the idea of alcohol use. Naddox and McCall assert, an adolescent’s “drinking behavior is associated with growing up in an environment in which an important status to which he legitimately aspires, that of becoming an adult, is perceived typically as involving alcohol use“ (p.106). Davies and Stacey (1972) questioned boys and girls, 14-17 years old, attending schools and colleges in Glasgow. The majority of boys and girls reported that although their parents were the people who first introduced them to alcohol (i.e., in the home), with increasing age more alcohol was consumed outside of the home where there is less direct adult influence (i.e., with peers). Group activities such as dances and parties tend to be associated with heavier drinking. In addition, with increasing age, alcohol is more often consumed on "non-special” occasions (i.e., excluding Christmas, New Years, birthdays, etc.). Also, the quantities consumed in a variety of different situations increases with age, though boys usually drink more than girls. I At an early age children's perceptions are jUIt forming and attitudes are not yet set. If children can understand the concepts concerning alcoholic beverages, then they may not be too young to understand communications regarding alcohol and its usage. Thus, data on predrinking influences and sensitive periods for when children normally learn about alcoholic beverages may suggest when parents and teachers should begin education of young children about alcohol and may help to diminish the incidence of excessive alcohol use in adolescence and/or adulthood. The present project is concerned with obtaining more information on these early influences in relation to a developmental frame of reference. A developmental perspective can link age to knowledge of drinking phenomena which, in turn, can elucidate acquisition and maintenance processes. These processes include maturation and learning in connection with specific time points in which environmental influences have significant impact upon individuals. Cognitions Beoacdinn elsoool eon logic Balatigo to fisheries Jessor and Jessor (1977) studied the acquisition of deviant behaviors (i.e., problem drinking) and their development in youth. In order to investigate this acquisition and development, they examined perceived environment and problem behavior in a longitudinal study. Hale and female high school and college students were followed by questionnaire over four consecutive years. The proximal structure of the perceived environment that directly implicates problem behavior includes: (1) perceived approval/disapproval from friends and parents for engaging in problem behavior; and (2) the perceived prevalence among friends of models or examples of such behavior. The distal structure of the perceived environment that indirectly implicates problem behavior includes: (1) aspects of the perceived environment including general support and control from parents and from friends; (2) perceived compatibility between parents and friends in their norms and expectations for a particular youth; and (3) the relative influence they exert on the subject. Findings suggest that adolescents who are likely to engage in problem behavior... perceive less compatibility between the expectations that their parents and their friends hold for them, they acknowledge greater influence of friends relative to parents, they perceive greater support for problem behavior among their friends, and they have more friends who provide models for engaging in problem behavior (p.237). Thus, the development of problem behavior can be based on both personal and environmental variables. Since excessive consumption of alcohol is one type of deviant behavior, cognitive aspects of personality structure and the perceived environment should be further examined and considered as possible causative elements in the etiology of problem drinking. In order to trace the development of concepts and attitudes relating to alcohol and drinking among children, Jahoda and Cramond (1972) tested 240 six-, eight-, and ten-year-old Scottish children on a variety of tasks. The authors underscore the importance of utilizing assessment techniques that are appropriate to young children's cognitive development; they also stress the importance of utilizing age-appropriate dependent variables. For example, a recognition of smells test was administered in order to investigate the children's familiarity with alcohol, rather than survey methods employing questionnaires. Such survey methods may be useful for studying people who possess the necessary skills, but they are quite unsuitable for children. Thus, techniques which are appropriate for children’s language skills and development were utilized in the investigation of children’s perceptions and attitudes regarding alcohol. The recognition of smells test was utilized as an objective measure of one aspect of children's familiarity with alcohol. The children were presented with nine substances to smell, including beer and whiskey. At age six approximately 40% of the children were able to identify at least one of these as an alcoholic drink; by age ten approximately 60% were able to do the same. Another task in Jahoda and Cramond's study entailed children’s Judgment of photographs. The purpose of this task was to attain an indirect assessment (i.e., without questioning) of children's attitudes to people’s drinking behavior. The children were shown photographs of people engaging in a number of different activities, including ones related to drinking and smoking. The children were then asked to sort the photographs according to how much they liked or disliked the people in the pictures. Results showed that children’s Judgments of drinkers (and smokers) become more unfavorable with increasing age; also, both boys and girls maintained a more negative attitude toward women drinkers. The next task in Jahoda and Cramond's study focused on what children considered to be the normal or usual approach to drink by three categories of people or social I'roles", specifically children, women, and men. In other words, the investigators were interested in finding out at what stage children become capable of differentiating between alcohol usage of people in these roles. A number of various activities recorded on tape were played to the children while a child, adult female or adult male doll was positioned in front of them. The children were asked to press a button to demonstrate how much the doll liked or disliked doing any of the recorded activities, including drinking and smoking. Results showed that even the youngest children had clear conceptions about adult drinking and smoking behavior. The investigators note that, in other words, the children were aware of 'social norms“. Later analyses suggested that the children’s perceptions varied somewhat according to the drinking behavior experienced within the home. The next task, called the Concept Task, was utilized to determine at what stage children come to understand that all alcoholic drinks have something in common which differentiates them from non-alcoholic beverages. The children were presented with an array of bottles; half were alcoholic drink bottles and half were non-alcoholic drink bottles. The children were asked to divide them into two groups and then to explain the difference between them. Even among the six-year-olds, approximately 40% grouped the bottles correctly. The investigators concluded that as early as eight years old most children master the concept of alcohol, without however knowing the actual word "alcohol“. In fact, less than 30% of the oldest children were able to use the term “alcohol“. The last experimental task examined the point at which children begin to understand the behavioral manifestations of excessive alcohol consumption. The children were shown a film of a drunk man staggering in a street, and then they were questioned about his behavior. Results showed that as early as age six only one in seven of the children failed to interpret the behavior correctly as being due to drinking. To summarize Jahoda and Cramond’s study, children begin to learn about alcohol and drinking early in life. By age six the majority recognize the behavioral manifestations of being drunk, and many can identify some alcoholic beverages by small alone; they also perceive people in different social roles to like alcohol in different degrees. By age eight, most children understand the concept of alcohol. Nith increasing age, the proportion of children with negative attitudes rises steadily and children's self— 10 reports that they will be drinking in the future decreases. Despite this increase in negative attitudes, by age 14 a large majority of both girls and boys have tried alcohol and continue to do so with increasing frequency. The authors believe that this increase is due to factors of peer group influence, rebellion against parental authority, parental permissiveness, and the behavior of models in the child’s environment. Based on social learning theory, the consumption of alcohol is considered to be acquired through modeling and imitation of significant others (i.e., parents). Penrose (1978) utilizes this theory to examine children’s awareness of cultural drinking norms and attitudes toward the use of alcoholic beverages. Thirty-eight 5-year-old and 51 six-yaar-old children were shown pictures of festive and nonfestiva occasions, and of alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages. They were then questioned about what the people in these pictures would probably drink. In addition, parent data concerning drinking customs, drinking patterns and frequencies as well as alcoholic beverage preferences were obtained. The findings strongly support the conclusion that young children are ll aware of alcohol consumption in their own homes and are possibly aware of a cultural drinking norm; they recognize that adults drink and children do not, and that alcoholic beverages are served on festive and nonfestive occasions to adults and not to children (appropriate usage). The data suggest that by age five to six children's perceptions of alcohol and drinking are jUIt beginning to clearly emerge along with their attitudes towards alcohol; therefore, they may be tractable to influence in ways which could prevent later alcohol problems. Thus, Penrose suggested that some directions for future research are: (1) testing preschool children to determine the nature and extent of their perceptions regarding alcohol and drinking; (2) obtaining a sample of children which could be followed over time to determine how and why perceptions and attitudes toward alcohol and drinking develop and change as the child grows older; (3) examining the kinds of guidelines parents give their children about alcohol and drinking; (4) testing children of heavy or problem drinkers to determine the effects of excessive drinking on young children. In another study by Jahoda, Davies and Tagg (1980), parents own self-reported alcohol consumption 12 was compared with children’s knowledge of specific drinks and normative usage patterns. Fifty-nine boys and 54 girls from predominantly middle-class families were interviewed. The parents each completed a self- completion inventory which requested basic demographic information and a broad indication of consumption patterns in four categories of alcoholic beverages: spirits, wines, beers and light alcoholic drinks. To compensate for the differences in language skills and development, different procedures were utilized in gathering information from the children. Six color PthOOFIPhI of bottles containing alcoholic beverages and six color photographs of bottles containing non- alcoholic beverages were placed on a table in front of each child. Next, four figure drawings were shown to each child, one at a time; these figures depicted a boy, a girl, a man and a woman, all engaged in the act of drinking something from a glass. The child subjects were then asked to choose the three bottle photographs which contained the drinks the figures portrayed in the drawing “would like the most“. Next, the children were shown the bottle photographs one at a time in a random sequence and asked to name each one. Lastly, the photographs were divided into an alcoholic and non- 13 alcoholic set, and the children were then asked to explain the difference between the two groups. Results from the above study showed that more than one-third of the youngest children, several of whom were preschoolers, were able to accurately differentiate between the drinks likely to be consumed by adults and children. In addition, approximately half the children in the youngest age group (4 to 5 1/2 years) displayed the ability to give an appropriate alcoholic label to the pictures of bottles; there was no significant increase in the second age group (5 1/2 to 6 1/2 years). For the age group 6 1/2 to 7 1/2 years there was an increase to about two-thirds of correct responses to both tasks. The investigators comment that what changed drastically was the relationship between them, indicating that the two tasks had become linked in the structure of children’s cognitive processes in this older age group. In addition, as in Penrose’s study (1978), no significant relationship was found between children's responses and parents' self-reported drinking behavior. Thus, the investigators note that there is a strong suggestion that the learning by children about alcohol occurs independently of the type of drinking behavior observed 14 by the children at home. They suggest that the mass media, especially television, are a likely source of information; they so often present drinking scenes not simply by advertising but as part of the entertainment content. Jahoda et. al. conclude, ”It would, of course, not be justifiable to deny any parental influence on the basis of this evidence, but it would appear that it interacts with media effects in such a complex manner that the separate contribution of parental models is attenuated or masked” (p.302). In another study, Spiegler (1983) traced the development of attitudes relating to alcohol use among male and female children six to ten years in age. Sixty children were presented with two tasks. First, they were shown ten pictures of men and women engaging in alcohol drinking activities (i.e., drinking beer, drinking whiskey, going to a bar and being drunk) or various other activities (i.e., reading, eating, talking on the telephone, etc.) and then were asked to rate them on a 1-4 like/dislike scale. Second, they were shown 24 cards specifying various activities and were then asked to rate on a 1-4 like/dislike scale for the same sex child, adult females and men. In other words, the children were asked to rate how they would 15 feel, how a same sex child would feel, how a woman like their mother would feel, and how a man like their father would feel about engaging in the pictured activities. The data revealed: (1) for each age group, children’s attitudes are more negative toward people drinking than other activities; (2) women drinkers were not jUdQId significantly more harshly than were male drinkers; and (3) men were consistently perceived as liking alcohol related activities more than either women or children, and women were perceived as liking such activities more than children. Spiegler suggests that while childrens’ perceptions of social drinking norms for men and women begin as early as age six, their attitudes toward drinking develop more slowly, and become more negative as they grow older (i.e., from age six to ten). In addition, the author suggests, “The lack of increasingly negative perceptions of how much people in different roles IfljOY drinking activities may have already been learned by even the youngest children” (p.8). In a recent study, Noll (1983) assessed young children’s (age 2 1/2 to 6) cognitions about alcohol by utilizing three different tasks. (1) The smell recognition task (a modified version of Jahoda & 16 Cramond, 1972) was used to assess children’s ability to verbally label various substances, including alcoholic beverages, by small. The children were asked to smell, name, and answer questions regarding various substances (including beer, wine, and whiskey) and their appropriate uses. (2) The appropriate beverage task (developed by Penrose, 1978) was used to determine whether children are aware of which beverages are appropriate for adults and children on various occasions. Children were shown a variety of photographs of different types of alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages and than were shown drawings of adults and children in different situations. The children were asked what the person(s) in the drawing would like to drink. (3) The alcohol concept task assessed children’s knowledge of the logical category ”alcoholic beverage". The task examined whether children can sort beverage containers into groups of alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages (based on procedural work of Jahoda & Cramond, 1972; and Santostefano, 1978). Although his sample was very small Noll’s data convincingly show that the group of young children from blue collar families which he tested (average age four 17 years) could correctly identify by small some forms of alcoholic beverage, and nearly all of the children could correctly label by photographs some forms of alcoholic beverage. The children's responses also indicated an awareness of beverage consumption in their own homes, or knowledge of social norms (i.e., that adults would be more likely to drink alcoholic beverages on various occasions than would children). In addition, although the large majority (90%) of these children reported that they currently do not like alcoholic beverages, they also reported that they expect to drink alcohol when they are adults. Indium}. 911me9:: in Enables: 21.!!! 91:91:91 In his theoretical discussion of individual differences in drinking, Zucker (1979) suggests that alcohol consumption at any point in an individual's life span may be seen as an attribute of personality- traits, attitudes, motives, or habits that lead to a greater likelihood that drinking behavior will occur. Drinking can also be viewed as a result of situational influences-availability of alcohol, social support pressures for drinking and deviance among peers, presence of other drinkers, or such environmental factors as time of day, setting, and type of community 18 where the drinker lives or does his drinking. Sociocultural theories attempt to explain drinking behavior in terms of contextual impacts which include variables of social environment and nonsocial elements (e.g., biological age, sex, setting, etc.) that have social representations. These representations are manifested in normative attitudes towards the appropriateness or inappropriateness of certain types of behavior. Drinking behavior is displayed in significant social groups with which an individual identifies; it is also learned and regulated by cultural traditions, social controls, and social roles. Biological and biochemical oriented theories stress the importance of the pharmacological effects of alcohol. lucker notes, This theoretical position is concerned with differences in initial response to the drug and with individual biochemical differences in both the metabolism and the metabolic by-products of alcohol ingestion...the understanding of these processes is deemed to be a vital link in explaining individual differences in alcohol consumption, in tolerance, and in understanding the mechanism of the presumptive addictive disorder found among long-term, heavy consumers of the drug (p.92). Alcohol problems may also be partially caused by 19 genetic factors or prenatal influences which predispose an individual to greater risk for and susceptibility to alcohol effects. Problem drinking is not necessarily a result of any one of the above factors; it may, in fact, be due to some combination of them. In: 9221;192:393: 9.1 mama. Buggies 91591.21. and 25195139 fisheries Zucker (1979) discusses two types of theory about the development of drinking, (1) drinking specific theories that explain the learning of drinking behavior solely in terms of alcohol variables such as the amount of drinking in the subject’s environment, the availability of alcohol, attitudes toward prior drinking, etc, and (2) non-drinking-specific theories that view the process... in terms that include alcohol consumption, but that first concern behaviors and need patterns more central to human functioning, and not directly related to the drinking act and its sequelae...For example, if heightened aggressiveness were conceived of as a necessary precondition for earlier drinking, a complete conceptualization would include initial temperamental differences in activity level, parental modeling of aggression as a stimulator of heightened aggressive drives, cultural tolerance of aggressive behavior, and the like. These factors, in turn, should lead to greater aggression-related needs in the child. If alcohol consumption 20 allowed for the heightened display of aggressive behavior and or aggressive fantasies, then earlier and/or heavier drinking would be construed as one potential outcome of the matrix of these nondrinking-specific elements, provided that alcohol were available in the environment (pp.95-96). The longitudinal method of study must be used to answer etiological questions regarding the development of alcohol problems. Longitudinal studies offer the possibility of establishing continuity/discontinuity in developmental processes; when involving more than two points in time, they allow the researcher to make predictions concerning various outcomes. For instance, Kandel (1978) stresses the importance of prospective longitudinal studies of normal populations, for they generate a number of propositions about patterns of involvement in drugs and about some of the antecedents and consequences of drug use. She notes that there are sequential stages in the initiation into drugs (e.g., alcohol or cigarettes almost always precede involvement with illegal drugs). The notion of stages may help pinpoint the role of specific factors in transitions to alcohol use. For instance, modeling of and reinforcement by peers and parents during the stage of adolescence may be important in the involvement of alcohol. Kandel notes that longitudinal studies 21 starting with normal populations in natural settings are advantageous, for they provide baseline data about normal development. Thus, the deviant development of those who become involved with drugs in general, or alcohol, specifically, can be evaluated. Kandel and her associates (1978) conducted a longitudinal study on the antecedents of adolescent initiation into stages of drug use. They concluded that parents influence adolescents’ initiation to hard liquor through role modeling; the frequent use of hard liquor by either fathers or mothers is a moderately good predictor of beginning alcohol consumption. Pointing out negative consequences of drinking to children has some impact on the prediction of drinking. Behavior of peers is also important in predicting adolescent hard-liquor use; thus, the adolescents’ and their friends’ perceptions of how many of their friends are using it is an important predictive item. Thus, Kandel proposes multiple modeling effects in which adolescents imitate the behavior of significant others who are using hard liquor. Cahalan and Room (1974) utilized national survey data in order to describe the behavior, experiences and attitudes related to drinking of representative cross-sections of a non-institutionalized population. Using a path analytic model but a cross-sectional data base, childhood unhappiness, disadvantaged ethnicity, and father’s heavy drinking provided the best prediction of adult problem drinking, while father’s heavy drinking, disadvantaged ethnicity, and youthful acting-out behavior were the best predictors of problematic intake. The implication of this research is that more work is needed to figure out the crucial issues of how drinking problems develop and how they diminish over time. The authors posit that it is important to obtain detailed information on environmental influences, "particularly those which impinge upon a person at the critical periods (usually early in life) when perceptions and values in relation to alcohol are being formed“ (p.227). Nhether these influences are long term or short lived, and which of the longer—term ones are likely to result in drinking problems, are also questions that deserve investigation. Zucker (1976/1979) postulates a multiple influence framework for developmental processes related to the acquisition and maintenance of both normal and abnormal 23 drinking behavior. This multi-level heuristic model provides an organizing framework for influencing factors at two levels. The model is represented in Figures 1 and 2. The first level specifies the components which should be considered at any one point in time in the developmental course of individuals. Zucker proposes that since both alcohol-specific (proximal) and non-alcohol-specific (distal) factors contribute to the prediction of drinking, a distinction should be drawn between drinking-specific and nondrinking-specific factors at all levels of influence. Class I influences (sociocultural and community) include variables of culture, immediate community, and setting. Class II influences (primary group and intimate secondary) include family of origin variables; children are socialized to alcohol use and to types of behavior acceptable within and outside the family unit. Indirect effects include parents’ modeling of their own adaptations to alcohol and their communication via their own behavior of standards and appropriate conduct. Class III influences (group influences) include peer variables which also consist of direct socialization effects and indirect effects of modeling. Class IV influences (intra-individual) are 24 those within-the—individual such as psychological structures, temperament, and physiological influences. Insert Figures 1 and 2 about here The second level of interaction specified by the model focuses on interactions and changes in the salience of these influences over organismic time. For instance, classes of influence not pertinent at one point (e.g., peer influences at birth and early childhood) become important at another point (e.g., adolescence); however, family effects may lessen their importance as developmental time progresses. Thus, the influence of various factors change as a person matures. According to Zucker and Noll (1982), education about alcohol by age 12-14, which is oriented toward modification of cognitions regarding alcohol, is conducted at the developmentally most inappropriate time. There is a "maximum observational learning of an opposite message" from one’s peers--that learning to drink is fun and that drinking may increase affective involvement with those who are most important to the adolescent (i.e., peers). Therefore, a better understanding of predrinking influences on later drinking behavior, including drinking and nondrinking- 2E5 I. Sociocultural and -$ociooconoeic status 0! Con-emit)! Intluancca family -£thnicity, lcligioua HOS intlucncaa 6 Behavior alternativel -Noighborhood Value intluancaa & Iahavior alternatives f ~Availability of alcohol \ and valuca about drinking OS -Typaa of Drinking Settings D ( Pearl & Vasily II 5 III. Prieary Group ‘ Easily of Origin of 47 Procrcatiog_ Intieata Secondary In No Sin: 'aara Group Intiuancaa -Parant Parronality -Paar Personality 5 -Intaractional 1} International NOS Inlluancaa NDSI Intluoncaa -Child Roaring -Paar Socialization Patterns Inlluancoo -Drinking Pattarna. -Drinking Pattcrna. os Attitudes and as Attitudaa. and Sattingo Santiago l, IV. ::;::;::::vidual -Cognltivo Structure (Including Attitudaa. NOS Beliefs. Values) -?araona11ty Structure (Motivations. Traits. Temperaeant)° -hon-Rapraaantational Ila-onto; including Ganatic 6 0thar -Biochaeically Nadiatnd lnlluancaa ~Drinking Attitudi: and Cognitions to alcohol 05 ~raychopharoacological. Katabolic. Other Biological Actiona of Alcohol (lvantual) iiinking lahavior (Acquirad. Naintainca. Increased. etc.) and Con- aaquancaa (behavioral!Physiological) figure 1. in Organizational Structura Ior-Claaaoa o! (alluancea Upon Drinking Iahaviur Note: Soaauhat noditiad Iroe'zachcr,lfi7i A; 08 ralara to Drinking Spaciiic Iactora. IDS raIara to londrinking Spaciiic onaa. 26 3:: £833 5 332.8 3 3135333 "2. afizeaoogua «26 «055.3 usages:— ozaauun: wage—S 9:83.35 5 $0.25 :8 ammo: 8558: < ooo:3_:o N e8: , :53 a :25 3032:: 33265.82. —l ' I ' ' | J l I Amozamommoog. “ $3... .53.: .02. " masocoés gmfi “means 32;...3... _ =3 z _. tn Fill. ‘ «to as one 290,. L to \l «353::— s._caEEoo \ Yr sea I 3.2.3200...» 800:5:0< imam. 4‘ \.‘ Suzusaumaou .92 V ‘ angina uzaxzoa - ‘I. in“ I.“ MO- a) \ ' 2:232 3o: 27 specific factors, deserves investigation; essential to this understanding is an examination of children’s early cognitions and perceptions regarding alcohol. Statutes at Babies The purpose of the current study is to find out how much preschoolers know about alcoholic beverages and drinking. Although Jahoda and Cramond (1972), Penrose (1978), Jahoda, Davies and Tagg (1980), and Spiegler (1983) found that children do begin to learn about alcohol and its uses early in life, with the exception of Noll’s work (1983) no research has been conducted on perceptions of preschool children concerning alcohol and drinking. In fact, very little research has been conducted in the area of young children’s perceptions and how these relate to the child’s stage of cognitive development. The paucity of research in this area may be due to the difficulty of finding appropriate procedures to study these attitudes and cognitions in young children. Hany researchers believe that children lack the necessary verbal skills (possibly cognitive capacities); others believe that young children know very little about the concepts being identified (i.e., they have not had the appropriate experience). However, the present study 28 effectively tests these alternative developmental explanations. Therefore, it is essential that the subject population consist of preschool age children. In addition, since family variables (i.e., Zucker’s Class II influences) may have great impact upon children’s attitude, belief and value development, parental drinking and demographic information were gathered. The following issues are addressed in the study: (1) Due to their advanced exposure to and experience within their own environments, older preschool children are expected to possess greater knowledge than younger children concerning which beverages are appropriate for consumption by adults or children on various types of occasions; in addition, older children are expected to have greater knowledge of alcoholic beverage names. Thus, the older preschool children should have a more developed concept or cognitive structure concerning alcoholic beverage names and usage patterns. They should be more aware of appropriate uses of alcohol (i.e., drinking by children vs. adults) and be better able to correctly name or identify photographs of alcoholic beverages. (2) Significant cognitive capacity differences (as measured by the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test- Revised) are expected as related to these children’s knowledge of normative drinking patterns and alcoholic beverage names. That is, it is anticipated that children’s knowledge of alcohol is explained by cognitive capacity differences as well as by exposure, experience and learning. (3) The children from heavier drinking families as compared to lighter drinking families should have a better developed concept or cognitive structure concerning alcohol. Because of their greater exposure to drinking they should be more aware of appropriate usage of alcohol and be better able to correctly name or identify photographs of alcoholic beverages. (4) Ethnic and cultural differences are known to play a significant role in differentiating among types of drinkers in adulthood. In addition, family environmental variables are likely to play a large role in children’s attitudes, values, beliefs and knowledge development. On both these grounds, it is expected that differences in cultural background should be differentially related to preschool children’s knowledge of normative drinking patterns and alcoholic beverage names. 30 mu missile Sixty-five female and 66 male children, ages 2 1/2 - 6 years (mean age 4.25 years), participated in the present study. The children were recruited from preschools within the Greater Lansing metropolitan area. In addition, the parents of these children were asked to complete questionnaires. Demographic information on the respondents is reported in Table 1. These data show that the sample is preponderantly white, approximately 1/2 Protestant and 1/4 Catholic, and has a mean family social prestige score of 45.4 (Nueller n Parcel, 1991), indicating occupational statuses that are skilled blue collar and lower level white collar positions. Insert Table 1 about here Egg-.9042; Families were recruited from preschools in the Lansing area. A letter explaining the project was sent to the children’s parents. Thereafter, informed consent was obtained from the parents who expressed 31 32 Table 1 Demographic Information from Parents of Child Participants Parents MotherS‘ Fathers Mean Age (in years) 3l.7 34.2 Race (percent of parents) Caucasian 77 8l Black l0 ll Hispanic 7 8 Other 6 0 Religion (percent of parents) Protestant El 40 Roman Catholic 27 26 Jewish 2 3 Other Religions 6 3 No Religion 14 29 Mean Family Social Prestige Indexa 45.4 (so = 19.4) aBased upon Duncan TSEIZ (1980) index (Mueller & Parcel, l98l); a score of 45 is indicative of skilled blue collar occupations (e.g., forester), and lower level white collar occupations (e.g., R.N., health records technician). 33 willingness for themselves and their children to participate in the study. The staff of these preschools also received a letter explaining the study. Upon permission from the directors of the preschools and upon consent from the children’s parents, the children were asked to participate. At this point the study commenced, with children of parents who agreed to take part (93% of possible children participated). Children were introduced to the study by asking if they liked picture games and, if so, would they like to go play some of these games. The study procedures assessed: (1) knowledge of norms concerning appropriate beverage use in different situations; among other things this might involve knowledge of differences in use of alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages; (2) knowledge of alcoholic beverage names; and (3) receptive vocabulary ability. The beverage knowledge measures were utilized in order to examine whether young children are aware of such appropriate usage (i.e., norms), and whether they have verbal and/or nonverbal knowledge of beverage names. The cognitive measure was utilized in order to examine the children’s cognitive capacities. In addition, parent information was gathered in order to examine any 34 differences that exist between the parents of these children, as well as to examine the relationship between child responses and prior family attitudes and exposures. The procedure was conducted in the child’s preschool by an experienced examiner in child assessment who was quite familiar with the instruments. Also, relevant questionnaires, which took approximately 15 minutes to complete, were sent to the parents’ homes. If the forms were not returned, the project coordinator contacted the parents by phone thus helping to minimize incomplete data returns. Ninety-two percent of these questionnaires were returned by mail. Breasts: (1) energetics! m: Idntiiiscsiou The Appropriate Beverage Task, developed by Penrose (1978) and modified by Noll (1983), was designed to determine whether children are aware of which beverages are consumed by children or adults on various occasions. Children are first asked if they like picture games and, if so, if they would like to play some of these games. The children are then shown a number of color photographs of different types of beverages; these beverages include beer, coffee, gin, 35 lemonade, milk, orange jUICE, sherry, soda—pop, whiskey, and wine. Next, the children are shown drawings of adults and children in different festive and everyday activities. (See Table 2.) These activities are the same ones utilized by Penrose (1978) and Noll (1983), with the exception of the family baseball game. Also, the present study utilizes different combinations of adult/child and male/female stimuli in the activities than does either the Penrose or Noll study. (See stimuli in Appendix 1.) Photographs and drawings are randomized in a pre-planned order for each child participant. The children are then asked what the person(s) in the drawing would like to drink from the array of photographs. (See Appendix 1 for complete description of procedures in the Appropriate Beverage Identification Task.) Insert Table 2 about here After all drawings are presented, the child is asked to name all of the photographed beverages he has not already named. This questioning occurs to determine whether the child actually knows the names of the beverages. Responses on the beverage identification section of the Appropriate Beverage Task .36 Atazpamoe m_ttw my guess seesaw caressed Acmspmmoe whom NV goes; mcwumm cmcupwgu Lease: av cosms>mpme message: s_=a< Asa: PV cosms>msae message: sF=u< mumeamcve a so peace cw mcwpuwm mpazou ap=u< mama Ppmnmmmm spasm“ enema ascentcm m.=mtu__;u autos m>m mamm> 3oz upsc< accuse s_ssac seas to gusset smegma spasm; mcp>wmmxcmze mmwow>vpo< smvscm>u mcovmmuuo m>wumma masseuse mapsewum use cw uwuumomo mcoemmuuo so owe; m anme 37 were coded on a four point scale. The code is as follows; (1) gxggt ingntifiggtigg-identifying a beverage by its exact name (e.g., naming beer when the beverage they pointed to was beer); (2) gggchiggtg identifiiggtigg--identifying a beverage approximately or by general class (e.g., calling a whiskey picture wine, or calling a beer picture booze); (3) cgggggitigg ggly-indicating that the child merely pointed to the correct photograph of the beverage when asked by the examiner to do so; (4) inggccggt igggtitiggtign- indicating that the child was unable to identify a beverage in any of the first three ways. A mean alcoholic identification score was computed for each IUbjICt by summing the identification score received for each of the five alcoholic beverages and then dividing by five. (2) 999mm: banana In addition to the above alcohol tasks, the Peabody Picture vocabulary Test-Revised was utilized in order to examine the children’s receptive vocabulary ability. Thus, a standard developmental marker of children’s general cognitive status was obtained. In this manner, any cognitive ability differences which existed between preschool children could be evaluated. 3B The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised (PPVT-R) was developed by Dunn in 1959, and was revised in 1981 (Dunn & Dunn, 1981). It is a nonverbal, multiple-choice test designed to examine the receptive vocabulary ability of children and adults. The concurrent validity index with the HISC-R full scale measure is .58 (Sattler, 1982). The PPVT-R is not a general intelligence measure; however, it does measure one facet of a child’s cognitive abilities (receptive or recognition vocabulary) which is related to general intelligence. The test can be utilized with ages 2 112 through adult. The examinee must have sufficient hearing and be able to indicate “yes” or 'no' in some way. The test takes between 10 and 15 minutes to administer. (See Appendix 2 for complete description of the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised.) (3) Eaten! Quefiimnsim The parents of the child participants were requested to complete two questionnaires. The first one asked for demographic information: age, sex, race, occupation, income, religious preference, and religiosity. Respondents were informed that they could omit any information they felt uncomfortable about disclosing. The second questionnaire requested 39 information regarding their consumption of a variety of foods and beverages. (See Appendix 3 for complete description of the parent questionnaires.) accuses The primary analysis for this study was correlational. The between group variances were heterogeneous in many cases; thus, ANOVAS were inappropriate. However in some cases, ANOVAS and t-tests were computed to delineate differences between groups. Because between group variances for several variables in this study were unequal, it was necessary to use a different method for computing t-values. In these instances, the separate variance estimate was utilized when computing t-values. In this type of variance estimate,the variances of each group are used separately, rather than pooling them in standard CHAPTER III RESULTS Two separate issues are relevant in understanding the data set. One issue concerns the extent to which children have different conceptions of alcoholic beverage use as a function of different stimuli and situations. Presumably whatever differences are present as a function of age of the stimuli (adult vs. child), sex of the stimuli (male vs. female), and situational type indicate the extent to which the child believes these beverages are differently used. The second issue is strictly a cognitive one-that is, how well can children in fact identify alcoholic beverages at all. The dependent variable for this task is the number of alcoholic beverages correctly identified. Quarantine Manna Inst anus and em: Stimuli. Data relevant to the selection of alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages for adult and child stimuli are reported in Table 3. Preschool children selected alcoholic beverages significantly more often for adult stimuli than for child stimuli, t(130) - 20.67, g<.0001; they also selected significantly more non- 4O 41 alcoholic beverages for child stimuli than for adult stimuli, t(130) - -20.67, g<.0001. In addition, preschoolers chose significantly more non-alcoholic beverages than alcoholic beverages for child stimuli, 1(130) I -34.69, p<.0001. No significant difference between number of alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages picked for adult stimuli was found. Thus as a main off-ct. children axateeatisallx dish altehel in: adult atiehlil and not is: child ntleulil as their Dextrose at their:- In addition. chlldtsh axatcactlsallx nick oohzalsdhells harshness in: adult allouli anncnaieaielx halt an eush a! the! do is: shild ailedll- Insert Table 3 about here Correlational results examining the selection of alcoholic beverages for adult stimuli, child stimuli, discrimination between adult and child stimuli, and all stimuli in relation to preschoolers’ age and Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test - Revised (PPVT-R) are found in Table 4. These analyses were performed in order to investigate preschoolers’ perceptions of alcohol use by adults and children as a function of their own age and cognitive capacities. Results showed preschoolers’ age was significantly related to the number of alcoholic 42 Table 3 Mean Number1 of Alcoholic and Non-Alcoholic Beverage Drinking Choices Made by Preschoolers for Adults as Compared to Child Stimuli (1i.= 131) Stimuli Type of Beverage Chosen Adults Children * Alcoholic 5.244— 0.55 ‘In.s. * * + Non-Alcoholic 4.77 ::9.45 Note. Two-tailed t-tests for correlated means were computed for these data, and an arrow with asterisk indicates a significant difference between means. 1Reported means are weighted scores based upon choices with 10 stimuli. *Q_< .0001. 43 beverages chosen for child stimuli (; I -.375, d<-001H1-I-. elder children etched taear alcdhclic hazaradac as drihaind chalcaa 19:: the child stimuli). for discrimination (: I .255, p<.01)(i.e., glggr children diccrialhatad tc a draatar distant in diction acre alcoholic entrance tcr adult atiadli ac ceaearad 19 tenet in: child gtiggli), and for all stimuli combined (5 I -.157, g<.05)(i.e., plug; guilgggn gigggg near alcoholic hararanaa ca drinking choices tar all stiguli gaggingg). The relationship between age and the number of alcoholic beverages selected for child stimuli (; I -.165, g<.05) and all stimuli (c I -.l42, g<.05) holds when PPVT-R is controlled for. Further, PPVT-R is significantly correlated with child stimuli (c I -.360, g<.001) and discrimination between adult and child stimuli in I .313, g<.001). Yet when age is controlled in these relationships, only the correlation between PPVT-R and discrimination remains significant (5 I .189, g<.05). Therefore, age has the strongest relationship with children’s perceptions of alcohol usage patterns, while PPVT-R has considerably less effect by itself. Insert Table 4 about here Table 4 The Relationship of Alcoholic Beverage Drinking Choices Made by Preschoolers to Their Age, Receptive Vocabulary Ability, and Type of Stimulus Figure (fl = lBl) Type of Stimulus Figures Age Variables Adults Children Adults Minus All Children Stimuli Discrimination Age .049 -.375*** .255** -.157* PPVT Age Equivalent .l25 -.360*** .3l3*** -.087 Age with PPVT Age Equivalent Controlled -.075 -.165* .024 -.l42* PPVT with Age Controlled .137 -.l21 .189* .053 Note. These data were analyzed using Pearson correlations. The drinking choice measure is the mean number of alcoholic beverages chosen for a given type of stimulus figure. *p_< .05. ** < .01. < .001. 45 To further describe the relationship between preschoolers’ age and the selection of alcoholic beverages for adult and child stimuli, preschoolers’ age was categorized into three groups and t-tests were computed between these groups. Preschoolers’ age was categorized into the following groups: (1) 30-41 months (5 I 36.4 months); (2) 42-53 months (5 I 47.0 months); (3) 54-72 months (g I 61.8 months). The results of these analyses are depicted in Table 5 and Figure 3. Results showed that: (1) all an: 9:922! aalactad aioniiicantlx acre alcoholic hazaraoac tor addlt ctiooli than tor child atiaoli. o<-00013 (2) the zoonooct aoa orooo oichad aioniiicantlz core alcoholic hadrons! tor child etleoli than did the oldcet on: ozone. ti25) ' 3-31. o<~013 (3) the riddle ado orooo calactcd ainniiicantlx aorc alcoholic haxcraocc tor child atiauli than did the oldest aoa erode. t¢54) - 2.56, p<.01. Insert Table 5 and Figure 3 about here The means for the number of alcoholic beverages chosen for adult stimuli and child stimuli are presented in Table 6 by preschoolers’ age and sex. (Sex differences are discussed in detail below.) As 46 Table 5 Mean Number1 of Alcoholic Beverage Drinking Choices Made by Preschoolers as Related to Their Age and Age of Stimulus Figure (fl_= 131) Age Stimuli 30 - 41 42 - 53 54 - 72 months old months old months old “.5 , Adults 4.94 "'5' 4 5.31 "'5' s 5.40 ** ** ** Children 1.40 .fi "'5' 0.66 I * 0.05 L I * Note. Two-tailed t-tests for correlated means were computed for these data, and an arrow with asterisk indicates a significant difference between means. 1Reported means are weighted scores based upon choices with 10 stimuli. *3 < .01. **p_ <.0001. 47 Alcoholic beverage choices for adults ----- Alcoholic beverage choices 5.5 - for children 5 6.0 - U) 2% 5.5 - . '5.40 3 5.0 - 5.21 a) . a 4.94 E 4.5 - g 4.0 - .2 E 3.5 - O ,2 3.0 - e: t; 2.5 — a “o 2.0 - § 2: 1.5 - 1.40 ' ~~~~~~ z 1-0 - ~~~~~~~~ 0.66 .5 - ~~~~~~~~~~ 0.05 I ' ~‘S’ 30-41 42-53 54-72 Age of Child (in months) Figure 3. Mean Number1 of Alcoholic Beverage Drinking Choices Made By Preschoolers as Related to Their Age and Age of Stimulus Figure (_N.=131) 1 Note. Reported means are weighted scores based upon choices with 10 stimuli. Figure 3 shows there is a trend for increasing discriminability of what adults versus children do in their use of alcoholic beverages. Table 7 presents t- tests examining discrimination of the number of alcoholic beverages chosen for stimulus figures as related to preschoolers’ age. Discrimination was computed by subtracting the number of alcoholic beverages chosen for adult stimuli from the number chosen for child stimuli. This discrimination score allows an examination of the number of alcoholic beverages picked for adults and the number picked for children, simultaneously, in order to assess if children are responding in accordance with the appropriate norms. Results indicated that children in the oldest one orodo diacriaineted acre in the selection oi hexeraoee tor adults zarada children than did children in the xoonoeet aoe orooo. ti37> - -2-94. g<.01. No other significant differences were found for discrimination between other age groups. Insert Tables 6 and 7 about here den oi dtieoli Analyses were performed to determine whether preschoolers perceive differences in the amount of 49 Table 6 Mean Number1 of Alcoholic Beverage Drinking Choices Made by Preschoolers as Related to Their Age and Sex, and Age of Stimulus Figure (fl_= 131) Age: 3 year oldsa 4 year oldsb 5 year oldsc Males Females Males Females Males Females n: 15 10 22 30 29 25 Adult Stimuli 4.95 4.93 5.33 5.12 5.42 5.37 Child Stimuli 0.71 2.43 0.81 0.55 0.07 0.03 Note. The analysis is based upon beverages chosen for adult and child figures across all situations. 1Reported means are weighted scores based upon choices with 10 stimuli. aThree-year-olds were between 30 and 41 months. bFour-year-olds were between 42 and 53 months. CFive-year-olds were between 54 and 72 months. 50 Table 7 Mean Number1 of Alcoholic Beverage Drinking Choices Made by Preschoolers as Related to Their Age and Discrimination of Stimulus Figures by Age2 (fl_= 131) Preschoolers' Age 30 — 41 months old 42 - 53 months old 54 - 72 months old 3.54 "'5' I; 4.55 "'5' e 5.34 j * Note. Two-tailed t-tests for correlated means were computed for these data, and an arrow with asterisk indicates a significant difference between means. 1Reported means are weighted scores based upon choices with 10 stimuli. 2Discrimination of stimulus figures by age is computed by the number of alcoholic beverages chosen for adults minus the number of alcoholic beverages chosen for children. *E< .01. 51 alcoholic drinks consumed by males and females. T-test results of the drinking choices made by preschoolers in relation to the sex of adult and child stimuli are presented in Table 8 and Figure 4. ID! ggggghgglggg selected eioniiicentlx aere alcoholic hexaram tor! (1) adult ealee sore than tor adult males. 9130’ " 7-52. E<-°°°1l (2) adult sales eore than tor child galgg, t(130) I 21.62, p<.00013 (3) egglg figgglgg EEC! than in: Child ieealea. “130) " 12-00o o<-0001- Insert Table 8 and Figure 4 about here Several other analyses were performed to examine in more detail the relationships between sex of stimuli and characteristics of the preschoolers. For these analyses only adult stimuli figures were utilized, as sex differences for child stimuli were non-significant. Analysis of variance results examining the number of alcoholic beverages selected for adult male and female stimuli by preschoolers’ age and sex are presented in Table 9. A significant main effect was found (5(1) I 59.65, p<.00001) as well as a significant interaction effect between preschoolers’ sex and adult stimuli sex (5(1) I 4.91, g<.05). Each of the cell means from this ANOVA are reported in Table 10. Figure 5 depicts 52 Table 8 Mean Number1 of Alcoholic Beverage Drinking Choices Made by Preschoolers as Related to Sex and Age of Stimulus Figures (p131) ‘ Sex of Stimulus Figure Age of Stimulus Figure Male Female * Adults 6.45 <~ 4.02 1* 1* Children 0.52 ".5. c 0.58 Note. Two-tailed t-tests for correlated means were computed for these data, and an arrow with asterisk indicates a significant difference between means. 1Rep0rted means are weighted scores based upon choices with 10 stimuli. *2 < .0001. 53 Adult Stimuli Child Stimuli Mean Number of Alcoholic Beverages Chosen Male Female Stimuli Stimuli Figure 4. Mean Number1 of Alcoholic Beverage Drinking Choices Made by Preschoolers as Related to Sex and Age of Stimulus Figure (_N_=131) Note. 1Reported means are weighted scores based upon choices with 10 stimuli. the cell means and interaction effect of preschoolers’ sex and adult stimuli sex. Specifically, iggglg oreechoolere nicked sore alcdaolic heteraoee tor adult sale etiauli (h - 6-75) than did aale oreechoolere (h - 6- 15) . and role oreecheelera chose sore alcoholic hexeraoea tor adult iaaale etieuli (h - 4-42) than did 1m}; 911335599135; (Li I 3.63). Nonetheless, Mill. children oi hoth eeeee eelect aore alcoholic hexeraoea tor adult aalea than the! do tor adult ieealee- Insert Tables 9 and 10 and Figure 5 about here Ixoeoidituation Correlational analyses and t-tests were coqauted to test for differences in children’s perceptions of alcoholic use as a function of different types of situations. Results of correlational analyses between the selection of alcoholic beverages in different types of situations and preschoolers’ age are presented in Table 11. No significant correlations were found between preschoolers’ age and the number of alcoholic beverages chosen for adult stimuli in situations where adults alone are present, or in situations where both adult and child stimuli are present. However, preschoolers’ age was negatively and significantly 55 Table 9 ANOVA1 of Alcoholic Beverage Drinking Choices Made by Preschoolers as Related to Their Age and Sex, and Sex of Adult Stimulus Figures (fl_= 131) Source df MS F A. Preschoolers' Age 2 2 1.76 0.34 B. Preschoolers' Sex 1 0.29 0.06 C. Adult Stimuli Sex 1 188.11 59.65** A X B 2 0.10 0.02 A X C 2 5.64 1.79 B X C 1 15.49 4.91* A X B X C 2 4.82 1.53 Note. 1These data were analyzed using an analysis of variance with adult stimuli sex as a within subjects factor and unequal Ns accounted for. 2The age groups utilized for these analyses are: 30-41 months, 42-53 months, 54-72 months. *p.< .05. ** < .0000]. 56 Table 10 1 Mean Number of Alcoholic Beverage Drinking Choices Made by Preschoolers as Related to Their Age and Sex, and Sex of Adult Stimulus Figures (fl_= 131) Age: 3 year 01dsa 4 year oldsb 5 year oldsc Males Females Males Females Males Females .Q: 15 10 22 30 29 25 Adult Male Stimuli 5.81 5.86 5.52 6.71 6.80 7.14 Adult Female Stimuli 4.10 4.00 5.13 3.52 4.04 3.60 Note. The analysis is based on beverages chosen for adult figures in all situations where adults were present. 1 aThree-year-olds were between 30 and 41 months. bFour-year-olds were between 42 and 53 months. CFive-year-olds were between 54 and 72 months. Reported means are weighted scores based upon choices with 10 stimuli. 57 7 _ /6075 c: 5 - .6.l5 CD (I) 2 U 8 5 - U) E m 4.42 > \ cu a.~ m 4 _ ~~~~~~~ .2 ...... E ~‘~ 3.63- .2 O .9 3 - < q. 0 S. B 2 - 5 z Choices for adult male stimuli g ------ Choices for adult female stimuli é? 1 F Male Female Preschoolers' Sex Figure 5. Mean Number1 of Alcoholic Beverage Drinking Choices Made by Preschoolers as Related to Their Sex, and Sex of Adult Stimulus Figures (fl_= 131) Note. 1Reported means are weighted scores based upon choices with 10 stimuli. 58 correlated with the number of alcoholic beverages chosen for child stimuli in situations where only child stimuli are present (c I -.336, g<.001) and in situations where both adult and child stimuli are evident ([ I -.379, g<.001). This shows that gldg; children etched toner alcoholic hazeraoes tor child stieuli in situations share onlx children are oreeent and share both adults and children are oresent - Insert Table 11 about here To further delineate the relationship between preschoolers’ age and the selection of alcoholic beverages in different situations, t-tests were performed using the previously mentioned categories of preschoolers' age. The results of these analyses are depicted in Table 12. Only one significant finding emerged for adult stimuli: children in the oldest age group selected significantly more alcoholic beverages for adult stimuli in situations where only adults are present than in situations where both adult and child stimuli are present, 3(53) I 2.37, g<.05. In other words, results for child stimuli indicated that: (1) the youngest age group chose significantly more alcoholic beverages than the oldest 59 Table 11 Relationship Between Mean Number of Alcoholic Beverage Drinking Choices Made by Preschoolers for Different Types of Situations1 and Their Ag (1! = 131) Situation Age Adult Only .137 Adult in Mixed -.072 Child Only -.338* Child in Mixed -.379* Note. These data were analyzed using Pearson correlations. 1Situations include: adults in situations where only adults are present; adults in situations where both adults and children are present; children in situations where only children are present; children in situations where both adults and children are present. *p_< .001. 60 age group in situations where only child stimuli are present, t(24) = 3.00, g<.01; (2) children in the middle age group chose significantly more alcoholic beverages for children in situations where only child stimuli are present than the oldest age group, t(52) = 2.08, g<.05; (3) the middle age group picked significantly more alcoholic beverages for child stimuli in situations where both adult and child stimuli are present than for child stimuli in situations where only child stimuli are present, 3(51) I -.276, g<.01: (4) the youngest age group selected significantly more alcoholic beverages than the oldest age group for child stimuli in situations where both child and adult stimuli are present, t(25) I 3.17, g<.01: (5) the middle age group selected significantly more alcoholic beverages than the oldest age group for child stimuli in situations where both child and adult stimuli are present, t(58) I 2.91, g<.01. Insert Table 12 about here Belatinshio to Bace oi Breschoolers Data were further analyzed examining the relationship between preschoolers’ race and the number of alcoholic beverages selected (race of child was 61 Table 12 Mean Number1 of Alcoholic Beverage Drinking Choices Made by Preschoolers for Different Types of Situations2 as Related to Their Age (fl_= 131) Age of Preschoolers Situation 30 - 41 42 - 53 54 - 72 b months 01da months old months oldc 1 ' ' 1 Adult Only 4.55 "'5 5.51 "'5' e 5 69 lns Ins [* Adult in Mixed 5.47 e "'5' 4.81 "'5' e 5.00 4 n.s. A] 1 n s ** , 1 Child Only 1.15 e - 0.51 e 0.02 n.s. I“ [n.s. a) n S ** Child in Mixed 1.73 l - - 0.87 c 0.09 *'k I Note. Two-tailed t-tests for correlated means were computed for these data, and an arrow with asterisk indicates a significant difference between means. 1Reported means are weighted scores based upon choices with 10 stimuli. zSituations include: Adults in situations where only adults are present; adults in situations where both adults and children are present; children in situations where only children are present; children in situations where both adults and children are present. (table continues) Table 12 (cont.) a_n_=25. bn= 52. c ’1‘ .05. ** < .01. D. 54. 62 63 based on mother’s report of her race). Analysis of variance results showed a significant effect of race on the number of alcoholic beverages chosen by preschoolers for all stimuli, 5(2) I 4.62, g<.05. To depict race differences, t-tests were computed and are reported in Table 13. Results indicated that Caucasians selected fewer alcoholic beverages than the Other category, (includes Hispanic and other racial groups) 5(108) I -2.81, g<.01: and Blacks selected fewer alcoholic beverages than the Other category, t(108) I -2.64, g<.01. However, no significant difference was found between Caucasians and Slacks. Hhen examining the relationship between race and the number of alcoholic beverages chosen for adult and child stimuli, some differences appear. These results are presented in Table 14. A significant difference was found in the number of alcoholic beverages selected for adult stimuli between Caucasians and Other, 5(22) I -3.24, g<.01. For the number of alcoholic beverages chosen for child stimuli, a significant difference resulted between Caucasians and Blacks, 5(85) I 3.45, g<.001: the difference between Blacks and Other approached significance (g<.07). Insert Tables 13 and 14 about here 64 Table 13 Mean Number1 of Alcoholic Beverage Drinking Choices Made by Preschoolers as Related to Race (g_= 111) Race Caucasian Black Other2 6.42 < "'5' 5.27 * e- 7.88 1 i Note. Two-tailed t-tests were computed for these data, and an arrow with an asterisk indicates a significant difference between means. 1Reported means are based upon choices with 28 stimuli. 2Includes Hispanic and other groups. *p_ < .Ol. 65 Table 14 Mean Number1 of Alcoholic Beverage Drinking Choices Made by Preschoolers for Adult and Child Stimuli as Related to Race (h= 111) Race Stimuli Caucasiana Blackb Otherc Adults 4.98 e "'5' 4.81 "'5' + 6.63 1 l 9: . ** n 5. Children 0.53 see 0.00 ' <+ 1.12 1 I 11.5 Note. 1Reported means are weighted scores based upon choices with 10 stimuli. afl= 86. bg= 11. C5:14. *g< .01. “g < .001. 66 91598911: EQXQEQOQ lésnllilEQSlQQ. Analyses of beverage identification included two classes of beverages: alcoholic and non-alcoholic. In order to determine empirically whether these two types of beverages were orthogonal, a factor analysis of identification scores with the five alcoholic and five non-alcoholic beverages was performed. Table 15 reports factor analysis results for the identification of all beverages. The results of the factor analysis indicated that there were three beverage factors. Factor 1 is comprised of alcoholic beverages, as these beverages load highest on this factor. Lemonade and orange Juice have the highest loadings on factor 2, and all other beverages have low loadings on factor 2. This factor is considered a Juice factor. Finally, coffee and soda-pop load highest on factor 3, and all other beverages have low loadings. This factor is considered an “unnatural“ beverage factor. Hilk did not load highly on any of the above three factors. However, only the eigenvalue of factor 1 was greater than one: therefore, this was the only factor worthy of further consideration. Results clearly indicated an alcoholic beverage 67 factor was present; all the alcoholic beverages had the highest factor loadings on factor 1 (above .55), while non-alcoholic beverages showed very low factor loadings on factor 1. Although three factors resulted from this analysis, the loadings on factors 2 and 3 are generally low making it difficult to distinguish between the two factors. However, both factors are defined by non— alcoholic beverages: non-alcoholic beverages have higher loadings on these factors than on factor 1 and higher loadings on these factors than alcoholic beverages. Due to these findings, it was decided to confine further analyses to the alcoholic beverage factor (factor 1). This factor was clearly defined and of most interest to the current study. Further analyses utilize a combined score based on the identification of all alcoholic beverages. Insert Table 15 about here Results depicting the relationships between identification of alcoholic beverages and preschoolers’ age and PPVT-R age equivalent are shown in Table 16. Breschaelers: ass is sioniticantlx correlated eith alcoholic hexeraoe identiiication (r - ~437. o<-001)- This relationship remains significant when the effect Table 15 Factor Analysis for Identification of All Beverages (fl_= 131) Factors Beverages 1 2 3 Whiskey .785 .112 .119 Gin .726 .117 .046 Sherry .756 .308 .125 Mine .631 .264 .258 Beer .566 .104 .427 Coffee .046 .208 .496 Soda-pop .214 .116 .675 Lemonade .090 .749 .207 Orange Juice .175 .463 .228 Milk .100 .279 .024 Percent of Variance 71.8 18.1 10.1 Eigenvalue 3.388 0.856 0.475 69 of PPVT-R age equivalent is controlled for (c I .242, g<.01). Further, PPVT—R age equivalent and alcoholic identification are significantly correlated ([ I .383, g<.001): yet, men age is controlled, this relationship disappears. This indicates that when the effect of age is partialled out, the resulting effect is attributable to age differences rather than vocabulary ability (PPVT-R). Insert Table 16 about here Further analyses of the relationships between alcohol identification, age and PPVT-R age equivalent were performed to delineate more specific age group differences. Analysis of variance results showed that preschoolers’ age had a significant effect on the mean alcoholic identification score, 5(2) I 12.03, g<.00001. T-test results shown in Table 17 indicate a significant difference in alcohol identification scores between children in the youngest age group and the oldest age group, 3(1) I 4.59, g<.00001: and between children in the middle and oldest age group, ;(I) I 3.41, g<.001. No significant differences were found between children in the youngest and middle age groups. Insert Table 17 about here 70 Table 16 Preschoolers' Identification of Alcoholic Beverages as Related to Their Age and Receptive Vocabulary Ability (N_= 131) Age Variables Alcohol Identification Age .437** Receptive Vocabulary Ability .383** Age with Receptive Vocabulary Ability Controlled .242* Receptive Vocabulary Ability with Age Controlled .082 Note. These data were analyzed using Pearson correlations. *3 < .01 **p_ < .001. 71 Table 17 Mean Number of Alcoholic Beverages Identified by Preschoolers as Related to Their Age (fl_= 131) Age 30 - 41 months old 42 - 53 months old 54 - 72 months old n.s. * 2.26 4—2.59 4 3.06 I *1: Note. Two-tailed t-tests were computed for these data, and an arrow with an asterisk indicates a significant difference between means. *2 < .001. ** < .00001. 72 Analysis of preschoolers’ identification of alcoholic beverages was not found to be significantly affected by race, 5(2) I 1.62. However, when the effect of vocabulary ability (PPVT-R) was Controlled for, race was found to affect alcohol identification scores, 5(2) I 3.08, g<.05. Table 18 reports the t- test results for the latter analyses. Data revealed significant differences between Caucasians and Blacks, 3(1) I 2.04, g<.05: specifically, Black preschoolers identified significantly more alcoholic beverages than Caucasian preschoolers. No other significant results between race groups resulted. Insert Table 18 about here Bentlm 81 81le and Drinkino W9! is Em yariahles To investigate possible parental influences on preschoolers’ knowledge of alcoholic beverage names, several classes of parent variables were examined. The parent variables utilized in the analyses were coded as follows: mothers’ and fathers’ drinking status was categorized using the same coding system as utilized in categorizing national drinking practices (Cahalan, Cisin, & Crossley, 1969: Cahalan & Room, 1974). 73 Table 18 Mean Number of Alcoholic Beverages Identifiedgpy Preschoolers as Related to Race with Receptive Vocabulary Ability as a Covariate (n_= 111) Race Caucasian Black Other1 2.65 * > 3.02 4 "'5' 2.91 n.s Note. Two-tailed t-tests were computed for these data, and an arrow with asterisk indicates a significant difference between means. 1Includes Hispanic and other groups. f2'< .05. 74 Drinking level is coded on a five point scale ranging from a low score of 1 for abstainers all the way to the high (5) score, heavy drinker. Hhether or not the mother and the father drink for escape reasons was also established. A parent was considered an "escape“ drinker if he/she endorsed two or more escape drinking items on the Cahalan, Cisin and Crossley (1969) drinking motivations questionnaire. This categorization also parallels that used in national survey reports. Correlations between preschoolers’ alcohol identification and alcoholic beverage choices in relation to the parent variables are reported in Table 19. Fathers’ index of drinking as a means to escape (Father-escape drinkers) was significantly related to both the number of alcoholic beverages chosen for adult stimuli (5 I .238, g<.05) and to the discrimination score-the number of alcoholic beverages differentially selected for the adult over the child stimuli (c I .246, g<.05). Also, fathers’ drinking level (Father status) was positively and significantly related to preschoolers’ ability to identify alcoholic beverages (; I .229, g<.05). Only mothers’ drinking status was significantly correlated with the 75 discrimination score (5 I .173, g<.05). This suggests that fathers’ drinking behavior is more closely tied to children’s perceptions about alcohol than is true of mothers’ behavior. Insert Table 19 about here From these analyses and the previous results, it is evident that the parent drinking characteristics, race, and preschoolers’ age all have influences on children’s knowledge and perceptions of alcohol. In order to combine these variables and to examine their relative influences on children’s alcoholic knowledge and perceptions, two separate regression analyses were performed. A step-wise regression procedure was used to evaluate relative importance and amount of separate variance accounted for by each of these factors. Regressions were run on the adult minus child discrimination score and the measure of ability to accurately identify alcoholic beverages. The adult minus child discrimination score is the most sensitive measure of alcohol choices. It summarizes the number of alcoholic beverages picked as a difference score based upon one stimulus situation where there is significant variability--viz. with adult stimuli-—and '76 .3. v m... .mcmgpme as can mcmnuoc FFF cog: women are meowpmpmccou comcmma umpcoqmm .muoz P emce. mmo.- use. mac. meeeem emcee: mmo. cmo. mmo. mwo. deletes aaeemm-eeeeoz meo. meo.- one. imam. esteem reaper teem. mmo.- immu. coo. reclaim eeeemm-eaeeeu eoceeececeemca emceeceu cor me_=e< rec eoceeeccceeeee earecceu meets meeee< nature eoeoeea eaters eeeoece coeoecq mm—nmwrm> Fozoup< maneum unexcwco Pmucmcma p mapepm mcwxcwro Feucmcma o» umumme we Acmmosu mommmu>mm owpogoup< to emaczz cmwzv mmmucm>mm uwponoop< to meowogu cease use momecm>mm owpocoup< to :omumuwmwpcmuH .mcmpoosommca mp m—nm» 77 contrasts this against choices made for the child stimuli, where there is virtually no variability. Table 20 reports regression analysis of preschoolers’ discrimination of alcoholic beverages picked for adults vs. children, and Table 21 reports regression analysis of preschoolers’ identification of alcohol. Insert Tables 20 and 21 about here An examination of Table 20 shows that the multiple regression for all six variables combined in the prediction of preschoolers’ discrimination of alcoholic beverages is marginally significant (3 I .421, 5 I 2.045, g I .074). Fathers’ escape-drinking is most influential: preschoolers’ age and mothers’ escape- drinking contribute noticeably. Also, mothers’ and fathers’ drinking status contribute somewhat, while race adds almost nothing to the prediction of preschoolers’ discrimination scores. The F level and significance are enhanced if race is deleted from this equation (5 I 2.837, g I .022), even though the amount of variance accounted for is virtually unchanged. Table 21 shows that the multiple regression for all six variables combined is significant for preschoolers’ identification of alcohol (8 I .538, 5 I 78 Table 20 Regressions for Choice of Alcoholic Beverage; (Based on Choices Made to Adult Stimuli Minus Choices Made to Child Stimuli) (g_= 64) r B Standard B R R2 change Father-Escape Drinker .281 3.822* .435 .281 .079 Preschoolers' Age .205 .067 .187 .344 .039 Mother-Escape Drinker -.062 -l.858 -.183 .381 .027 Father Status .045 —.682 -.231 .404 .018 Mother Status .108 .498 .141 .419 .013 Race1 .011 .450 .044 .421 .001 R = .421 R2 = .177 Adjusted R2 = .091 F = 2.045 p = .074 Note. These regressions are based on all subjects who had complete data from mothers and fathers. ‘This is a binary variable coded 1 = Caucasian, 2 = Black (the "other" race category is omitted from this analysis). *p_ < .05. 79 Table 21 Regressions for Identification of Alcoholic Beverages (g_= r 8 Standard B R R2 change Preschoolers' Age .400 .034** .415 .400 .160 Father Status .155 .269 .401 .438 .032 Father-Escape Drinker -.119 -.661* -.330 .525 .084 Race1 .192 .305 .132 .535 .010 Mother-Escape Drinker -.058 .157 .068 .537 .003 Mother Status -.010 -.024 -.030 .538 .001 R = .538 R2 = .289 Adjusted R2 = .215 F = 3.867 p = .003 Note. These regressions are based on all subjects who had complete data from mothers and fathers. 1This is a binary variable coded 1 = Caucasian, 2 = Black (the "other" race category is omitted from this analysis). fig < .01. ** < .001. 3.867, g I .003). Examination of the individual variables shows that children's age contributes the most to predicting their alcohol identification scores. In addition, the two father drinking variables and race contribute a noteable amount to the equation: however, the two mother drinking variables contribute virtually nothing. Here also, the amount of variance accounted for using only the first four variables produces a similar 5 (I.535) but an elevated 5 and g (5 I 5.902, g I .0001). Examining these two regressions together shows clearly that the two most reliable sources of effect are child’s age and father drinking behavior. Hother drinking and the contribution of sociocultural differences are less reliable contributions across the two analyses. Nonetheless, these analyses provide some basis for considering the leflt influence of developmental familial and sociocultural influences on the formation of these concepts. CHAPTER IV DISCUSSION This research investigated four hypotheses regarding children’s perceptions of alcohol use and knowledge of beverage names. These hypotheses are: (1) Due to their advanced exposure to and experience within their own environments, older preschool children are expected to possess greater knowledge than younger preschool children of which beverages are appropriate for consumption by adults or children on various types of occasions. The older preschool children are also expected to possess greater knowledge of alcoholic beverage names. Thus, the older preschool children should have a more developed concept or cognitive structure concerning alcoholic beverage names and usage patterns. They should be more aware of the appropriate uses of alcohol (i.e., uses by children vs. adults) and be better able to correctly name or identify photographs of alcoholic beverages: (2) Significant cognitive capacity differences (as measured by the Peabody Picture Vpcabulary Test-Revised) are expected as related to these children’s knowledge of normative drinking patterns and alcoholic beverage names. That 81 82 is, it is anticipated that children’s knowledge of alcohol is explained by cognitive capacity differences as well as by exposure, experience and learning: (3) The children from heavier drinking families as compared to lighter drinking families should have a better developed concept or cognitive structure concerning alcohol. Because of their greater exposure to drinking they should be more aware of appropriate usage of alcohol and be better able to correctly name or identify photographs of alcoholic beverages: (4) Since family environment variables are likely to play a large role in children’s attitude, value, belief and knowledge development, demographic variables such as parental race should be differentially related to preschool children’s knowledge of normative drinking patterns and alcoholic beverage names. Two relatively separate issues are addressed within each hypothesis: normative drinking patterns and knowledge of beverage names, i.e., are these factors related to the perception of normative drinking patterns and are they also related to the knowledge about alcoholic beverages. Issues related to normative drinking patterns reflect a social learning task for 83 the subjects and were tested by the presentation of a variety of stimuli. Several assumptions of socio- cultural expected patterns of behavior concerning alcohol comsumption guide the discussion of normative drinking patterns. These stereotypes are: (1) children do not usually drink alcoholic beverages: (2) men consume alcoholic beverages more often and in greater quantity than women: and (3) alcoholic beverages are more likely to be consumed on occasions where there are adults present. The preschoolers’ knowledge concerning these stereotypes was assessed by way of their responses to the task in which they were asked what adults and children (portrayed in ten drawings) might like to drink in certain situations. The second issue addressed within each hypothesis concerns knowledge of beverage names and relates to a cognitive task for subjects. Subjects were required to name alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverage stimuli (Alcohol Beverage Identification Task). I General findings concerning children’s perceptions of the sociocultural drinking norms will be discussed first. Following, each hypothesis will be discussed in turn, in relation to the normative usage patterns and knowledge of drinks evidenced by IUDJOCtI. hnoeledoe of. Iraditional dociocultural Drineino horas Several general findings emerged in examining children’s responses with respect to sociocultural drinking norms. when preschoolers were asked what adults and children in many different situations would like to drink, their responses clearly evidenced an awareness of traditional cultural norms. They declared that adults would have a greater tendency to drink alcoholic beverages than would children. They also stated that children would be more likely to drink non- alcoholic beverages than alcoholic beverages, and that children are more likely to drink non-alcoholic beverages than adults. It can be inferred from their responses that a cognitive structure exists that is concerned with the appropriateness of use of alcoholic beverages in different settings: such a structure increasingly comes closer to the one which in fact exists and guides adult behavior. Further, one can infer that their structure indicates an awareness that adult males would be more likely to drink alcohol than adult females, and that adult males and females would be more likely than child males and females, respectively, to drink alcoholic 85 beverages across a variety of occasions. Finally, results indicated that children differentiate the amount of alcoholic beverages chosen for different types of situations. In situations where adults are present, preschoolers perceive that children drink more alcohol than when there are no adults present. However, preschoolers do not differentiate the amount of alcoholic beverages chosen for adults by the type of situation. There was not a significant difference between the number of alcoholic beverages chosen for adults when only adults were present and for adults when children were present. Taken together, these findings indicate that preschoolers as a group respond to questions posed about alcohol use in accordance with the sociocultural norms identified above. These findings are discussed in more detail below with respect to preschoolers’ age, cognitive abilities, and parental influences. hasthesis ll Dexelooeehtal Dittorsncss filth Besoect toEreschoclerslmohlsdoeotmEetternsehd Eexeraoe hares Qrinhiho horas As hypothesized, there are some developmental differences evident concerning alcohol usage patterns. 86 In examining the number of alcoholic beverages chosen for adult stimulus figures, there are no differences with respect to preschoolers’ age. 15;; 1; 9! egg three the coonition is oresenti and it does not chance tuggggfiggc! Preschoolers of all ages perceive that adults will choose alcohol as their beverage of choice approximately 50% of the time. However, there are developmental differences apparent in preschoolers’ perceptions of appropriateness of use of alcoholic beverages for children. The older the child, the less likely he/she will choose alcoholic beverages as a drinking choice for a child stimulus. Developmental differences in drinking choices for child stimuli are clear. Five-year-olds (the oldest group) chose alcoholic beverages for child stimuli less often than did four-year-olds, and they in turn chose less alcoholic beverages than did three-year-olds. Furthermore, all age groups perceived that adults choose more alcoholic beverages to drink than children. Yet, there is a developmental trend concerning the degree to which preschoolers discriminate between the number of alcoholic beverages chosen for adults and for childr-n- as children not older; thex discrieinate sore hetueen aoorooriate nuahers oi alcoholic heteraoes 87 £2: adult; and gnilgceg. The older the child, the more alcoholic beverages he/she perceives as appropriate - by way of his/her choices - for use by adults, and the less alcoholic beverages he/she perceives being used by children. This developmental trend is also evidenced when examining differences in preschoolers’ age groups. Eixezxearzolds discriainated sore in their attrihutieas oi alcohol ceasuaotion heteeen adults and children than did threezxear:olds- Nonetheless, even three-year-old children are somewhat aware of the cultural drinking norm that alcohol is not appropriate for children: this awareness is increasingly present with increasing age. Breechoolers also exidence auarerleu of. the sociocultural ours that sales drink sore than teealesc Ihis eiiect is not related to oreechoolers: aoel seen three:xear:olds thou it- The final drinking norm examined with respect to preschoolers’ age concerns different types of occasions. There is a developmental trend regarding preschoolers’ selection of beverages for stimulus figures in different types of situations. The four types of situations include: (1) adults only-adult stimulus figures in situations where only adults are present: (2) adult mixed--adult stimuli figures in situations where both adults and children are present: (3) child only-child stimuli figures in situations where only children are present: and (4) child mixed- child stimlus figures in situations where both adults and children are present. Age of the preschoolers interacts with differences in the number of alcoholic beverages chosen for different types of situations. Only the five-year-olds perceived that the presence of children in situations moderates the amount of alcohol consumed by adults. That is. older oreschoolers stated that adults chose sore alcoholic hexeraoes in adultzonlx situations than in adultzaiaed situations- Further. three-year-old- did not distinguish between the amount of alcohol consumed by children in child-only and child-mixed situations. The middle age group (four-year-olds) did distinguish between these two situation types. Children were perceived to be more likely to consume more alcohol in child-mixed situations than in child- only situations. Finally, the five-year-olds did not distinguish between the amount of alcoholic beverages consumed by children in child-only and child-mixed situations. It is important to note that these 89 preschoolers did not choose alcoholic beverages for childr-n- Apparently, he the tire oreschoolers r.ach ca eonths oi ace; they realise children do not drin. alcohols reoardless oi the situation- The above results regarding developmental differences in the amount of alcoholic beverages chosen in different situations suggest that there is a steady pattern of learning: by a certain age children can make certain distinctions. It may be that not until children are around 4 1/2 years or older do they recognize that adults drink more when they are with other adults than when with children. Also, the results suggest that some change in children’s perception of appropriateness of alcoholic beverages for children occurs as they develop. At young ages, children chose more alcoholic beverages for children than they did at older ages, and younger children did not differentiate between types of situations. At middle ages, preschoolers chose fewer alcoholic beverages in general for children but they distinguished between types of situations. By the time preschoolers are older, they simply do not choose alcoholic beverages for children. It may be that younger children have a different concept of appropriateness of alcoholic beverages than older 90 children. A more plausible explanation is that younger children are either confused about the appropriate norms for alcoholic beverages or they simply do not yet know what the norm is. There is some evidence in the data to suggest that this is the case. The standard deviations for the number of alcoholic beverages picked by children in the youngest age group was significantly larger than the standard deviations in the oldest age group in all cases. In addition to the above results suggesting that some sensitive period may exist in which children learn about traditional cultural drinking norms, modeling processes may also help provide an explanation for how and why children learn about these norms. For instance, children may be socialized by parents to alcohol use and to drinking behavior acceptable within and outside the family unit. Also, parents may model their own adaptations to alcohol through their own behavior and communication of drinking standards and appropriate drinking conduct. Last, television and media influences undoubtedly also play some role (Atkin, 1980). It is also interesting to note two consistent and related trends found in the above data. First, when 91 examining differences between age groups, significant differences never emerged between the first and second age groups in relation to any of the above issues. That is, a child’s concept of age-grades in this area only emerges around age five. Second, the variances of the first and second age groups were much larger than the oldest age group. It appears that the children in the older age groups were more consistent in their responses. These two aspects of the data lend support to a sensitive period notion. Overall, the data suggest that there are developmental differences with respect to awareness of sociocultural drinking norms. Older children respond in accordance with these norms more than younger children do. Hore specifically, older children are more aware of the appropriateness of alcoholic beverages for adults and not for children, and are more aware of differences in the appropriateness of alcohol consumption in different types of situations. These results are quite similar to those obtained by Penrose (1978), Jahoda, Davies, and Tagg (1980) and Noll (1983). Penrose concluded, “The findings from this study strongly support the hypothesis that five and six year old children in kindergarten and first grade are 92 aware of a cultural drinking norm in this country“ (p.83). Although there are similarities between our results and the investigators’ results mentioned above, the present study is the only one to date that delineates developmental differences from ages 2 1/2 to 6 years old. Further, Penrose (1978) and Noll (1983) were unable to find differences in alcoholic beverage drinking choices based upon the type of occasion (i.e., festive vs. nonfestive). Yet, the present results suggest that it is not festive versus nonfestive that is important, but rather, gngtng; adult; and childcgg are alone or tooether in the situation - hnoeledoe oi Eexeraoe hares The data clearly show preschoolers can correctly identify alcoholic beverages. This finding is consistent with that of Noll’s (1983) study. As hypothesized, developmental differences were noted in the correct identification of alcoholic beverages. In general, the older the preschooler the better able they were to identify alcoholic beverages. This relationship was true even when cognitive ability of the child (PPVT-R) was controlled for. Thus, ability to identify alcoholic beverages is influenced by chronological age. Again, there may be a sensitive 93 period in children’s development in which they acquire certain cognitive structures which enable them to learn about alcoholic beverage names. Support for this notion is derived from examining differences in the preschoolers’ age groups in relation to their ability to identify alcoholic beverages. Children in the oldest age group were better able to identify alcoholic beverage names than children in the middle age group and children in the youngest age group. There was not, however, a difference in children’s identification ability between the youngest and middle age groups. droothesis 2| doonitiue anacitx Qiiierences hith Besoect to Breschoolers: Shoelaces oi Usage Batterns and oeueraoe hares Drinhiho Horas Overall, little evidence was found to support cognitive capacity differences of children in relation to sociocultural drinking norms. There was no relationship found between cognitive capabilities of preschoolers (derived from PPVT-R IO measure) and the number of alcoholic beverages chosen for adult stimuli. Nhile there was a significant negative relationship found between cognitive capacity and the number of alcoholic beverages chosen for children, this 94 relationship diminishes when the effect of age is controlled for. However, cognitive functioning does appear to have a minor influence on preschoolers’ discrimination of alcoholic consumption between adult and child stimulus figures. A possible explanation for the moderate to weak findings regarding cognitive capacity differences in children may be the type of cognitive measure used. Although the PPVT is a good measure of receptive vocabulary, it is not a comprehensive measure of children’s cognitive abilities. This measure did allow for discovery of standard developmental marker differences which existed between preschool children. However, a more thorough cognitive measure might have been more informative in assessing children’s cognitive status, and might as well have yielded stronger cognitive differences related to children’s perceptions of sociocultural drinking norms. A second possible explanation for the moderate to weak results concerns restriction of the relationship. It is possible that cognitive capacity differences concerning alcoholic beverage norms do exist but only play a role in certain age groups (most likely younger ages). It may very well be that intellectual ability 95 differences play no role at all, once the concept is learned. If this is so, it would weaken the overall correlation that was obtained. hnoeledoe oi dexeraoe dance The findings regarding children’s ability to identify alcoholic beverages in relation to their cognitive capabilities are similar to the cultural norm findings. It appears that children with higher cognitive status were better at identifying alcoholic beverages: yet when age is controlled for in this relationship, there are no significant findings. Again, the lack of significant results for cognitive capacity differences in identifying alcoholic beverages may be due to the type of cognitive measure utilized, or to restriction of the relationship. hxoothesis :8 Baronial lniluences on Childraels Barceotions oi Drinkino horas and hnoeledoe oi dexeraoe Eases Drinkino horas Preschoolers’ awareness of traditional cultural drinking norms are influenced by their home environment. Fathers of children in this sample reported drinking more heavily and more often than mothers, and fathers’ drinking patterns influenced 96 preschoolers' choices of alcoholic beverages for the stimulus figures. Preschoolers with fathers who drink alcohol as a means to ”escape" chose more alcoholic beverages than did preschoolers who do not have escape- drinking fathers. This finding holds up in the most sensitive measure of the child’s perception that this is a drinking world (i.e., in the discrimination measure) and is especially important when considering that a cognitive capacity measure (PPVT-la) had no influence on the number of alcoholic beverages chosen. These findings are further delineated in the regression analysis, where father escape-drinking was the most powerful variable in the regression. These results may be explained by an exposure hypothesis in which observational learning takes place within the context of increased exposure over time. Preschoolers responses may be reflective of the parental exposure to drinking behavior. It is likely that those children whose fathers drink to escape in fact have seen that adults (in their own environment) drink more alcohol, thereby influencing the number of alcoholic beverages they choose for adults. These children may, in fact, be expoeed to drinking to a greater degree than children with parents who are not 97 escape drinkers; consequently, because of their greater exposure to drinking they are more aware of appropriate usage of alcohol. Children who are older have seen these phenomena more often. mounds; oi flour”: floor; Drinking patterns of preschoolers’ fathers, but not their mothers, also influence their identification of alcoholic beverage names. Preschoolers who identified the most alcoholic beverages have fathers who drink more alcohol. Further evidence for this is found in the regression analysis for alcohol identification. Both father drinking variables contribute greatly to the predictability of alcohol identification. However, both of the mother drinking variables have very little influence. Age also clearly plays a role. Thus, fathers’ drinking status is related to the child’s knowledge of alcoholic beverage names. Children who live in an environment where more alcohol is consumed are more acquainted with alcoholic beverages and may learn their names earlier than their Motown: is Doeooroohir ioilooooss on. figuring oi Gout-1:21 Drinking Sores on! 92:13:29: Hoes: Drinkioo Horas The sociocultural norms concerning drinking that children learn may also be influenced by the cultural environment to which they are exposed. The preschoolers’ race has a significant relationship to the number of alcoholic beverage drinking choices made by the preschoolers (the race categories were Caucasian, Black, and Other). Specifically, preschoolers from Black families were less likely to select alcoholic beverages for the stimulus figures than preschoolers of other races (excluding Caucasians). Further, Caucasian preschoolers selected less alcoholic beverages than children in the Other race category. These sociocultural differences in drinking perceptions can again be explained by an exposure hypothesis. For instance in general, Blacks are noted to be from both abstaining and lighter drinking families than other sociocultural groups (Haglund & Schuckit, 1982). Therefore since Black children may be less exposed to alcohol than children of other cultures, it is not surprising that the Black preschoolers selected fewer alcoholic beverages for 99 stimulus figures. Several other race effects emerge when examining preschoolers’ selection of drinking choices for adult and child stimulus figures separately. Preschoolers from Caucasian families chose fewer alcoholic beverages for adults than did preschoolers from the Other category. Also, Black preschoolers selected fewer alcoholic beverages for child stimuli than did Caucasian preschoolers. In fact, the mean number of alcoholic beverages chosen for child stimulus figures by Black preschoolers was zero; none of these preschoolers selected alcoholic beverages as a drinking choice for children. Thus, it appears that the different values which different national groups inculcate and maintain within their cultures may have a large influence upon children’s knowledge of cultural drinking norms, and that this influence can be found even early on in the life of the child. Eooolsooo oi Boxoroos 329.92 There are also differences in identification of alcoholic beverages with respect to race. After controlling for the preschoolers’ cognitive capabilities, Black preschoolers were better able to identify alcoholic beverage names than Caucasian 100 preschoolers. One explanation is that if these families are militant abstainers, the children will become aware earlier about the saliency of alcohol. Nonetheless, a note of caution is in order--the sample sizes of the Black and Other groups were small, less than 15. Thus, sampling error may have influenced the results. gosoorx The results found in this study based on the four previously presented hypotheses are briefly summarized below. (1) There are developmental differences with respect to preschoolers’ awareness of traditional sociocultural drinking norms and knowledge of alcoholic beverage names. The older children in this sample were more aware of drinking norms and exhibited greater knowledge of alcoholic beverage names; (2) Cognitive capacity of preschoolers (after controlling for their chronological age) has minimal influence on their awareness of drinking norms or on their ability to identify alcoholic beverage names; (3) Fathers’ drinking patterns and habits influence children’s perceptions of and knowledge about alcohol. Preschoolers whose fathers report drinking alcohol as a means to “escape“ perceived that adults drink more 101 alcohol than children whose fathers do not report “escape" drinking habits. Preschoolers whose fathers drink more heavily also have greater knowledge of alcoholic beverage names; (4) Parental race is related to preschool children’s perceptions of normative drinking patterns and their knowledge of alcoholic beverage names. Black and Caucasian children chose fewer alcoholic beverages as drinking choices than did children of other groups. Also, Black children are better able to identify alcoholic beverage names. Zucker’s (1979) model provides a theoretical base with which to explain some of these results. The findings of this study lend support for lucker’s heuristic model specifying the influencing factors on alcohol perceptions in early childhood. Specifically, sociocultural and community influences such as ethnicity, neighborhood value influences, availability of alcohol and values about drinking, types of drinking settings, etc. may help explain why children of various races had different perceptions of normative drinking patterns and knowledge of alcoholic beverage names. In addition, family influences such as parent personality, interactional influences, child rearing patterns, and drinking patterns and attitudes may help explain why 102 preschoolers with heavier escape drinking fathers had different perceptions of normative drinking patterns and knowledge of alcoholic beverage names. Thus, the above influences are most likely impacting upon the children’s cognitive structure (i.e., attitudes, beliefs, values) concerning alcohol. Qiosr Logos; Possible design and methodological issues will be examined. Some factors can be ruled out at the start. There was no selective bias in recruitment since four preschools from different locations within the Greater Lansing metropolitan area were selected. This attempt was aimed at obtaining a representative cross-section of the Lansing area. In addition there are no effects of selective participation since 93% of the total possible population of children within the four preschools participated. In addition, 92% of the children’s parents completed the parent questionnaires. Even though we attempted to recruit a varied sample based upon socio-economic status, race, religion, etc., it is possible that our population is generalizable only to specific geographic locations such as Hidwestern states. 103 Eotors Dirsotiooo One area of future work should focus on further assessment of very young children’s knowledge and perceptions of alcohol. For instance, the administration of the Smell Recognition Task (modified from Jahoda & Cramond, 1972) with all of the preschoolers would provide another index of the children’s knowledge of alcoholic beverages. In addition, further assessments might include a variety of questions to ask children concerning drinks and usage patterns. Examples of such alcohol related questions are: 'How do people feel when they drink this stuff?”; 'Hhat happens to peeple when they drink a lot of that stuff?'; “Have you ever seen anyone drink a lot or too much of that stuff?'; ”Have you ever drank this stuff?“; “what does getting drunk mean?'; 'How much of this stuff is too much to drink?'; 'Is this stuff good or bad, and why?'; etc. Ouestions such as these may not only enable investigators to better understand children’s concepts regarding alcohol, but may also help elucidate the processes of how children learn about drinks and their usage patterns. These issues are currently being investigated in another study (Zucker, Sonzalez-Hauer, Sreenberg, & Noll; in 104 progress). The age at which assessment of alcohol related measures should take place also deserves further thought. For instance, tasks such as the Appropriate Beverage Identification Task might be quite useful in determining if children as young as two years old have any knowledge of alcohol. In addition, new measures concerning alcohol knowledge might be developed in order to work with children two years old and younger. Certainly children’s perceptions of alcohol are an important area of research and should not be ignored. Investigations of very young children’s knowledge and perceptions may help explain later drinking patterns and attitudes. This information, in turn, has great implications for health education of both children and parents concerning alcohol. APPENDIX 1 Mpropri ate Beverage Identi f i cati on APPENDIX 1 Appropriate Beverage Identification 52:12:21 Izsiioo Qoooiooroiiooo fiSQOQQEQ EEQSIQHCII The Appropriate Beverage Identification Task should be administered by a trained examiner who carefully follows the directions given in this manual. The intention of this task is to assess a child’s knowledge of normative drinking patterns among adults and children, including knowledge of different types of alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages. The examiner must not alter the phrasing of a test item, spell a word, or provide help beyond the permissible bounds. Adherence to procedures does not imply that the task need be administered in a rigid and unnatural manner. The words used to introduce the task and task items should be spoken in a natural, conversational tone. The experienced examiner will remark with appropriate comments to promote the child’s interest in the task, to reinforce his/her effort when this is needed, and to aid in the transition from item to item. In general, the examiner should create a testing situation that is cohesive and pleasant, though structured. 105 106 11111139 1152 Approximately 10 to 15 minutes are required to administer the Appropriate Beverage Identification Task. The task should be given in a single sitting and preferably in the morning, when children are likely to be most alert. If the task cannot be fully completed due to inadequate motivation, interfering disabilities such as inadequate language comprehension or sensory- motor handicaps, the examination should be discontinued. If the child appears frightened or anxious before and/or during the examination, the examination should be discontinued and a second attempt should be made-for the next day, if possible, but at no greater interval than one week. I!!! 1111:111an The testing room should have good ventilation and lighting, and be free from noise and other outside interruptions. The furniture should be of adequate size for the child so that he/she is able to see and point to the test materials easily. It is recommended that the testing room be a familiar place in which the child feels at ease. For instance, children tested in their preschool should be tested in a room that is separate from all other children and preschool staff. 107 No one other than the child and the examiner should be in the room during testing. The presence of other people may inhibit the child’s spontaneity and result in an invalid assessment of his/her knowledge. In cases when it is necessary for a preschool staff member to remain in the room because of a child’s anxiety concerning the testing situation, the staff member should be asked either to sit out of view and remain silent during the test or leave after the child begins to feel comfortable (usually after the first stimulus is presented). minimums ooo Molina! Baooort The examiner begins establishing rapport at the moment of contact with the child. It is recommended that the examiner should first kneel or bend down to the child’s eye level, say the child’s name, and tell the child his/her own name. The child is then asked if he/she likes picture games and, if so, if he/she would like to go play some of these games. Upon either verbal or nonverbal consent (i.e., an affirmative nod) to participate, the child is led to the examining area. Thus, the child is put at ease before the actual testing begins. In addition to keeping the child at ease during the testing, the examiner must keep him/her 108 interested in the task at hand, and encourage him/her to do his/her best. Remarks such as “You’re really good at this game” or “This is fun' are sometimes helpful in motivating the child to continue with the task. The examiner should be careful, however, not to reinforce a particular type of response. For example, if the examiner praises a child after he/she picks coffee for an adult’s beverage of choice, then the child might be more likely to choose the same beverage for another adult. Therefore, a friendly interaction and reinforcement of a child’s effort (not success) will help prevent discouragement. Expressions of enthusiasm and support, when appropriate, are also helpful. For instance, if a child has difficulty on a particular test item, the examiner might say, I'That’s a hard one; let’s try another one.“ Since children vary in their reactions to reinforcement from adults, the examiner must be aware of the particular needs of each child. The examiner should not show dissatisfaction with any response the child has given; also, the child should not be led to expect approval for correct responses, so that no comment might be interpreted as disapproval. 109 fisosrsl Qirooiiooo ior eooioistroiioo oi Ins eooroorisio onsroos logosiiiotioo look The child is presented with ten color photographs (5 X 7') of various beverages in a 5 X 2 display in a pre—planned random order. The beverage photographs are of: beer, coffee, gin, lemonade, milk, orange Juice, sherry, soda, whiskey, and wine. The examiner should say to the child in an enthusiastic manner; I'Aren’t these pictures pretty?...You know what these pictures are of?...(That’s right.) these are things to drink... I want you to look very carefully at each of these pictures, because I’m going to ask you some questions about them.‘ Allow the child to look at the pictures for 10 to 15 seconds. The examiner then tells the child, 'I have some drawings here showing kids and grown-ups. I want you to look carefully at the people in the drawings and then tell me what each one would like to drink." “hen the child is ready, he/she is presented with the first drawing and asked, “Can you tell me and/or point to what each person in this drawing would like to drink (persons are numbered from left to right)?” The children are then shown drawings of adults and children in different festive and everyday activities. The festive activities include: 110 a Thanksgiving family dinner, a Fourth of July family picnic, an adult New Years Eve party, and a children’s birthday party. The nonfestive, or everyday, activities displayed are; two drawings of children eating lunch (2 boys/2 girls), a family baseball game, an adult couple sitting in front of a lit fireplace, and two drawings of adults watching television (1 man/l woman). These drawings are randomized in a pre-planned order for each child participant. In the course of asking what the person(s) in the drawing would like to drink, each drawing presented should be described to the child. For instance, for the Thanksgiving family dinner drawing the examiner might say, "This is a family eating a Thanksgiving dinner...See the turkey?...Nhat do you think this little boy is drinking (or would like to drink) at the Thanksgiving dinner? (point to cup/glass) (wait for response)...How about the little girl?...Hhat would the daddy, the adult grown-up man, like to drink?...how about this mommy, the adult grown-up woman7', etc. For the Fourth of July family picnic the examiner says, 'This is a family at a Fourth of July picnic...They’re watching fireworks and having a really good time...Nhat do you think this little boy is drinking with his 111 Fourth of July picnic lunch?...flhat’s this grown-up lady, this woman, this mommy drinking?...how about this grown-up man, this daddy-what’s he drinking here?...and what about the little girl, the daughter?” For the adult New Years Eve party the examiner says, “This is an adult, grown-up New Years Eve party...and these grown-ups are laughing and dancing and talking and having a really good time...and they’re drinking something over here (point to beverage containers... Hhat do you think they’re drinking?...Nhat’s this grown-up man, this adult, drinking at the New Years Eve grown-up party?...Nhat’s this grown-up, adult lady, this woman, drinking?...how about this grown-up adult woman?...and what’s this grown-up, adult man drinking?" The instructions for the children’s birthday party are: “This is a children’s birthday party...See, look at the pretty balloons and the yummy birthday cake...Hhat are these children, these kids, drinking at the children’s birthday party?...Nhat’s this little boy drinking?... how about this little girl?...and this little boy?...and what’s this little girl drinking?“ For the two drawings of the children eating lunch, the examiner says, “These are two little boys (girls) eating lunch...and they’re drinking something with their 112 lunch...ahat’s this little boy (girl) drinking with his (her) lunch?...and what’s this little boy (girl) drinking with his (her) lunch?” For the family baseball game the instructions are; “This is a family playing baseball together and they’re having a real good time...and they’re drinking while they’re playing (point to the beverage cooler and beverage containers)...Hhat’s this adult lady, this women, this mommy, drinking?... how about the daddy, the adult, grown-up man?...and what’s the little boy drinking?...and how about the little girl?“ For the drawing of the adult couple sitting in front of a fireplace the examiner should say, "These are two grown-ups, two adults, sitting in front of a fire...flhat do you think this grown-up man is drinking in front of the fire?...and how about this grown-up woman, this lady?‘ For the two drawings of adults watching television the child is told, “This is a grown-up woman, a lady (man), and she’s (he’s) watching T.V....and she’s (he’s) drinking something while she’s (he’s) watching...Hhat’s she (he) drinking here (point to beverage container)? After all drawings are presented, the child is asked to identify by recognition and/or name all of the 113 photographed beverages he/she has not already named during the course of the task. If the child selected all of the beverage photographs at least once, the task is completed. If the child did not select all of the photographs, the examiner should pick up the photographs he/she selected and correctly named and leave the others on the table. The examiner then asks the child to name, in alphabetical order, each photographed beverage. The examiner does this by pointing to each beverage on the table and asking, “what drink is this?...Hhat do you call this drink?“ The examiner records verbatim the child’s response to each photograph. Lastly, any beverages that the child cannot name should be left on the table and the others should be picked up (if only one photograph remains, omit this step). In alphabetical order, the examiner should ask the child to point to the beverage being named. Thus, the examiner asks the child, “which drink is the ?...Point to the .' The examiner then records which beverages the child could and-could not recognize. Bsooroioo the onus: Besooosso As the child offers his/her responses throughout the testing, record verbatim what the child says as 114 well as which beverage photograph he/she points to. It is helpful in later reconstructing the testing session if the examiner records which photograph the child points to, and places quotation marks around what the child says. In addition, it is in the nature of preschoolers that they play around. They typically will play games, either with a smile or a questionning tone. For instance, when preschool children offer a beverage response of alcohol or coffee, they will often smile at the examiner and respond in a questioning tone of voice. If this behavior occurs it is critical that the examiner que or probe the child. For example, if a child responds that the male child in a drawing is drinking whiskey the examiner should record the response and ask the child, "no little boys cggllx drink this (point to photograph)? It is important to record the probed or qued responses so that the examiner can later reconstruct the events which occurred. For instance, the examiner should place a '9' next to the probed response and then record any further responses if there are any. I; 115 APPENDIX Appropriate Beverage Identification - Instruction Booklet Place the ten color photos in a 5x2 display before the child. in the pre-planned random order. A. Instructions: "1 have some drawings here showing kids and grown-ups. I want you to look care- fully at the people in the drawings and then tell me what each one would like to drink. 00 B. When the child is ready, present him with the first drawing and says ”Can {on tell me and/or point to what each person in th a drawing would like to drink? (persons are numbered left to right) person #1 person #2 person #3 person #4 116 Drawing 0 "Can you tell me and/or point to what each person in this drawing would like to drink?"(persons are numbered left to right) person 01 person #2 person #3 person #4 Drawing 3 "Can you tell me and/or point to what each person in this drawing would like to drink?"(persons are numbered left to right) person #1 person #2 person #3 person #4 Drawing # "Can you tell me and/or point to what each person in this drawing would like to drink?"(persons are numbered left to right) person 01 person #2 person 03 person 04 Drawing I "Can you tell me and/or point to what each person in this drawing would like to drink?"(persons are numbered left to right) person #1 person 92. person '3 person 54 Drawing I 117 "Can you tell me and/or point to what each person in this drawing would like to drink?"(persons are numbered left to right) Drawing I person I1 person I2 person 03 person I4 "Can you tell me and/or point to what each person in this drawing would like to drink?"(persons are numbered left to right) Drawing I person I1 person I2 person 03 person #4 "Can you tell me and/or point to what each person in this drawing would like to drink?"(persons are numbered left to right) Drawing I person I1 person I2 person I3 person I4 "Can you tell me and/or point to what each person in this drawing would like to drink?"(persons are numbered left to right) person I1 person I2. person I3 person I4 118 Drawing I "Can you tell me and/or point to what each person in this drawing would like to drink?"(persons are numbered left to right) person II person 02 person I3 person 04 Drawing I "Can you tell me and/or point to what each person in this drawing would like to drink?"(persons are numbered left to right) person I1 person I2 person I3 person I4 Drawing I "Can you tell me and/or point to what each person in this drawing would like to drink?"(persons are numbered left to right) person I1 person I2 person I3 person I4 Drawing I "Can you tell me and/or point to what each person in this drawing would like to drink?"(persons are numbered left to right) person Il person I2. person I3 person I4 119 11. Identification of photographs not selected. A. After the ll drawings have been shown to the child. pick up all the photographs which the child has selected. l. If the child selected all of the beverage photographs at least once. this task is completed. Go to the Concept Task. 2. If the child did not select all of the photos. pick up the photos he selected and correctly named and leave the others on the table. Beer A. Ask the child to name each photographed beverage. Coffee Child's Child's Gin Photograph Response Photograph Response Lemonade 331k Sherry 2 2 Soda 3 3 Whiskey Nine '8. Any beverages that the child cannot name should be left on the table and the others should be picked up. (If only l photograph remains. omit this step). In alphabetical order. ask the child to point to beverage you are naming. Record here what beverages the child ' could not name and if the child pointed correctly. l. yes no 5. yes no 2. yes no 6. yes no 3. yes' no 7. yes no 4. yes no. 8. yes no This task is now complete. Go to Concept Task. 120 121 is, 5434343“!!! 7 1.. 122 ..... \. 123 .2 __.. “AHHH and .— 1:} 124 125 126 .. w .w - 4.4.1.1-: Lid» 127 128 Inuit ..\.. ‘ m. M l D A h A C .N. D , r. H n W. 129 a N «.3 s an. 130 132 133 APPENDIX II Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test - Revised 140 Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test—Revised INDIVIDUAL TEST RECORD FORM L by LLOYD M. DUNN 8: LEOTA M. DUNN. __, H.-- --- SEX: M F lrn-ddenlid) (tide) HOME . _ PHONE_M--__-, , GRADE SCHOOL -PLACEMENT. WW_ «II mm) (or causal—Ion)— TEACHER EXAMINER («WI LANGUAGE OFTHE HOME: DStandard English; [jOther .,_i_ "m--- A _____~_. ._ (matriaregnlanguaoebIIweoIErghaheaeaapoun) Notice to Users The PPVT—R is not intended tor use in situations where truth-in- testing legislation stipulates that copies ol test items and correct responses be distributed to sm- use. Hparents orthe generalpub- Such disclosures may make . menorrns maninglessinluture lltttenurrberutaayeexoeedets.addarnonth testing totheage(eeePartlotthe ROCCO" IOI' TOSIIOQ (may include retenal source and person authorizing testing) Copyrimttmt byLlode. DunnendLeoteM.Oum.usegeirIetIIecopyrtghtlawtoreproduoettxareoord by computer. office machine. or any other means mm mm AGS' \ 141 Obtained Test Scores Raw score ........ Q (from page 4) eqtlvdent” (tromTable 1. Appendix A) Percentlerank. . .. (lrorIITeble3. AppendxA) .b- .l-flr'X-wq. ..> Stenhe (froInTable 3. Appendx A) Age alent. (from Table 4 Appendix A) __Datafrom0therTests Test Date PPVT-R FORM M Mark the obtained standard score equivalent on the top scale. Then draw a heavy. straight. vertical line through it. and across the three scales. This line will extend through the three obtained deviation type test scores Depending upon the obtained standard score. shade in a band on both sides of the vertical ine using the schedule to the right. An example is given in Figure I 4 ol the Manual. EXTREMELY LOW SCORE - ___,__-._—____-..... .._.. MODERATELY LOW SCORE Observations —— Briefly describe the subject's test behavior. such as interest in task. quickness ol response. signs of perseveration. work habits. etc: 142 This shaded area provides a confidence band: the range at scores within which AR 1 AR ‘3, 0 5”“ 3:33; We the subject 5 true scores can be expected to tall 68 times in 100. (These band or m 3?; Scott at I»: m width values are based on a median standard error at measurement (SEM) cl 5 o u 1 ONO. 7 7 : 7.with the band widths made increaingply asymmetrical toward the extremes 2 ‘2 110-114 a 6 to allow lor reason to the mean )See an lol the Manual and the Technical 4 ‘0 "542‘ ‘0 ‘ Supplement or more precase values and a discussion at SEM confidence 6 0 125,3, ‘2 2 bands. AlsoeeetheManualloradiscussionolhowtocalculalethetrue score 7 7 135 ‘ m '4 o confidence band lorthe age eqrfivalent. 85 a: fi ‘1 1 110 115- 1 l 1!) 135 140 145 15) 15 160 317"" A A ' I ' I ' I I l I I 1 I 1 3 4 - 5 6 7 8 9 LOW l HIGH MODERATELY EXTREMELY menace scone HIGH scone HIGH scone .._ Performance Evduation _____... - .. --___. W..- sees—mfi This standardized test provides an estimate only at this individual‘ 5 hearing vocabulary' In Standard Iish as compared with a cross- section of U. S. A. persons at the same age. 00 you believe the pawn ormance at this subject represents lairly her orhis true ability In this area? Yes No ~ ll not. cite reasons such as rapport problems. poor testing situation hearing or vision loss. visual . perceptual disorder. test too easy ortoo hard (automatic basal oroeiling used). etc. ._ Recommendations av . - -_. _.._. L Enerwier‘a m 2 143 I’M TEST ITEMS AND .FQRM L ABBREVIATED INSTRUCTIONS Administering the TRAINING ITEMS For most subjects under age 8: Use Plates A. B. and C. Administer as many training item series as necessary to secure three consecutive correct responses. For most subjects age 8 and over: Use Plates D and E. Administer as many training item series as necessary to secure two consecutive correct responses. :23?“ aoomorm. PRACTICE woaes a xevs Trd'lhg SERtEs Alternate Alternate Alternate an. woaossitsvs Series! SeriesY Seriesz A doll (4) fork (1) table (2) car (3) 8 man (2) comb (3) sock (4) mouth (1) C swinging (3) drinking (4) walking (1) climbing (2) 0 wheel (4) zipper (2) rope ( 1) rake (3) E giant (1) bride (3) witch (4) royal (2) (Complete directions are given in Part I of the Manual.) Administering the TEST ITEMS Basal: Highest 8 consecutive correct responses Ceiling: Lowest 8 consecutive responses containing 6 errors Starting Point: For a subject assumed to be of average ability. find the person's age circled in the margin. and begin the test with that item. Otherwise consult Part l of the Manual for further instructions. Recording Responses and Errors: Record the subject's response (1 . 2. 3. or 4) lor each item administered. For each error. draw an oblique line either through the plate number 01 the item missed. or through the geometric figure. asillustrated below: Béenvelope... .__(2) 4 (I or 32 envelope” ..(2)_4_fl Eve ryeighth figure Is identical to help determine the basal and ceiling. (Complete directions are given in Part lo! the Manual.) :3. Ward lav m Inar NOTE: ”whammy” an a 1 bus .......... (4) __ O thelowestageinaG-or 2 hand ......... (1) __ D 12—month interval. For .mp'e' "01111 ism 3 OOO .......... (3) _— A 31:19 “03:;ng 4 tractor ........ (2) .__. (l r ' . “(113003399550 5 CIoset ........ (1) ___. V through 5-5. Use item "Manama“ 6 snake ........ (4) ____. it over. 7 boat .......... (2) __ O 8 We ........... (3) __ 0 p3994 9 cow .......... (1) __ D I?“ M I” m I!" 10 Iamp ......... (4) __ A 11 drum ......... (3) __ Q 12 knee ......... (4) __ Q7 13 helicopter ..... (2) __ ‘3? 14 elbow ........ (4) _ 0 15 bandage ...... (4) __ O 16 feather ....... (1) __ C] 17 empty ........ (3) __ A 18 fence ......... (4) __ Q 19 accident ...... (2) __ Q7 20 net ........... (2) __ fi' 21 tearing ........ (4) __ O 22 sail .......... (1) _ O 23 measuring ..... (2) __ D 24 peeling ....... (3) __ A 25 cage ......... (1) _. 0 26 tool .......... (4) __ Q7 27 square ........ (4) __ 1’: 28 stretching ..... (1) __ O 29 arrow ......... (2) _ O . 30 tyIng ......... (2) __ C] 31 nest .......... (1) __ A 32 envelope ...... (2) ...___. 9 33 hook ......... (3) __ Q? 34 pasting ....... (4) __ 1’3! 35 patting. ....... (1) __ O 36 penguin ....... (1) _ O 37 sewing ....... (2) __ CI 38 delivering ..... (1) __ A 39 diving ........ (2) __ Q 40 parachute ..... (3) __ Q? 41 furry ......... (4) _. it 42 vegetable ..... (4) __ O 43 shoulder ...... (3) __ O 144 tantra-r were Kay nae-- Error 44 dripping ....... (2) __ Cl 45 claw ......... (4) __ A 46 decorated ..... (3) _ 0 47 frame ........ (1') __ Q7 48 forest ......... (3) __ ‘fi' 49 faucet ........ (2) __ O 50 group ........ (3) __ O 51 stem ......... (3) __ Cl 52 vase ......... (3) __ A 53 pedal ......... (1) __ (I 54 capsule ....... (2) __ Q7 55 surprised ...... (4) __ if? 56 bark .......... (2) __ O 57 mechanic ..... (2) __ O 58 tambourine . . . . (1) __ C] 59 disappointment .(4) __.__ A 60 awarding ...... (3) __ Q 61 pitcher ........ (3) _ Q? 62 reel .......... (1) __ «e 63 signal ........ (1) __ O 64 trunk ......... (2) __ O 65 human ........ (2) __ C] 66 nostril ........ (1) __ A 67 disagreement . . (1) __ (I 68 exhausted ..... (2) __ Q? 69 vine .......... (4) __ 'fi 70 ceremony ..... (4) __ O 71 casserole ..... (2) __ O 72 vehicle ....... (4) _____ E] 73 globe ......... (3) __ A 74 filing ......... (3) __ 0 75 clamp ........ (2) __ Q? 76 reptile ........ (2) __ i} 77 island ........ (1) __ O 1:... were ”I m 78 spatula ....... (3) __ 79 cooperation. . . . (4) __ a 80 scalp ......... (4) __ 81 twig .......... (2) __ 82 weasel ....... (2) __ 83 demolishing . . . (4) __ 84 balcony ....... 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(1) __ O 114 citrus ......... (3) __._ C] 148 inclement ..... (4) .__. O . 115 pedestrian ..... (2) .__ A 149 trajectory ...... (1) __ Cl 116 parallelogram . . (1) _ Q 150 fettered ....... (1) __ A 117 slumbering ....(3) __ V 151 waif .......... (3) __ 0 118 peninsula ..... (4) __ i? 152 jubilant ....... (2) __ Q? 119 upholstery ..... (2) __ 0 153 pilfering ....... (4) __ fr 120 barricade ...... (4) __ O 154 repose ........ (2) __ o 121 quartet ....... (4) .__—.__. U 155 carrion ........ (3) .__. O 122 tranquil . .5 ..... (3) .__ A 156 Indigent ....... (2) __ El 123 abrasive ...... (1) _ 0 157 convex ....... (1) __ A 124 fatigued ....... (3) __ Q7 158 emaciated ..... (2) .__ 0 125 spherical ------ (2) _— ‘3? 159 divergence . . . . (4) _. C7 126 syringe ....... (2) __ O 160 dromedary ....(2) __ it 127 feline ......... (2) _ O 161 embellishing . ..(2) __ o 128 arid .......... (4) __ El 162 entomologist. . . (3) __ O 129 exterior ....... (1) __ A 163 constrain ...... 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Q meehvaanhimeetbasalandlewestcailingonty. APPENDIX III Par-Int Cunt 1 onnai rn 146 I-t C3 ' -O C; be y's Date Michigan State University Food and Beverage Questionnaire The following questions incuire about your own use of various types of foods and drinks. All information will be used for research purposes only. If you are not sure of the answer to a question, just answer it the best you can. Try to answer each item. (Please note that these questionnaires are only identified by a number and preserve anonymity.) A. THE FOLLOHIHG QUfSTIOES ASK ABOUT YOUR REGULAR USE OF DIFFEREJT K EDS OF FOODS. l. OVER THE LAST 6 ROUTES, OD THE AVERAGE, HON MANY DAYS A MOUTH DO YOU EAT THE FOLLOUTHU FOODS: a) bread, or other grain products including pastas: days a month b) candy, cakes, or cookies: days a month c) dairy products including cheese, oops, ice-cream, yogurt, etc.: days a month d) fish, red meat. or poultry (chicken, duck, turkey, etc.): days a month e) fresh fruit. green vegetables, or yellow vegetables: days a month 2. OVER THE LAST 5 QOHTHS, OK A DAY ”5E1 YOU ARE ERTIIG ONE OF THESE FOODS, HOV NAVY SEDYIJnS GR UELPINGS OF THE FOOD DO YOU USUALLY HAVE 1% 24 HOURS? THRT IS, HON MUCH DO YOU ON THE AVERAGE HAVE IN A 24 HOUR PERIOD? a) bread or other grain products includinf pastas: servings per 24 hours b) candy, cakes, or cookies: servings per 24 hours c) dairy pr ducts including cheese, eggs, ice-cream, yosurt. etc.: servings per 24 hours d) fish, ed meat, or poultry chicken. duck. turkey, etc): servings ner"?4 hours n vegetables, e) fresh fruit, - ee ables: servings per 24 hours gr or yellow veget (TURN PACE OVER} 1 147 THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS ASK.ABOUT YOUR REGULAR USE OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF [DH-ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES. IN ANSWERING THE QUESTIONS. PLEASE THINK ABOUT WHAT YOU HAVE DONE ON THE AVERAGE OVER THE LAST SIX MONTHS. I. HHEN DRINKING COKE, PEPSI, OR ANY OTHER SOFT-DRINK CONTAINING CAFFEINE: a) b) C) d) HON OFTEN DO YOU USUALLY HAVE COKE. PEPSI. OR ANY OTHER SOFT- DRIHK CONTAINING CAFFEINE? PLEASE CHECK ONE. __3 or more times a day (1) ____2 or 3 times a month (7) _____2 times a day (2) ___About once a month (8) ___0nce a day (3) ____Less than once a month but __Nearly every day (4) at least once a year (9) ____3 or 4 times a week (5) ____Less than once a year (10) ___0nce or twice a week (6) ____ilever (11) THINK OF ALL THE TIMES RECENTLY YOU HAD COKE. PEPSI. OR ANY OTHER SOFT-DRINK CONTAINING CAFFEINE. WHEN YOU DRINK THESE, HOW OFTEN DO YOU HAVE MORE THAN SIX GLASSES OR CANS? ___ilearly every time (1) SKIP TO QUESTION #2 BELOW ___i-lore than half the time (2) SKIP TO QUESTION #2 BELOW __Less than half the time (3) ____0nce in a while (4) ____llever (5) HHEN YOU DRINK COKE. PEPSI, OR ANY OTHER SOFT-DRINK CONTAINING CAFFEIilE. HOW OFTEN DO YOU HAVE AS HAilY AS FIVE OR SIX GLASSES OR CANS? __I'lcarly every time (1) SKIP TO QUESTION #2 BELOW ___i~lore than half the time (2) SKIP TO QUESTION #2 BELOW ___Less than half the time (3) ___0nce in a while (4) ____l.'~ever (5) WHEN YOU DRINK COKE, PEPSI, OR ANY OTHER SOFT-DRINK CONTAINING CAFFEINE, HON OFTEN DO YOU HAVE THREE OR FOUR GLASSES OR CANS? __iiearly every time (1) SKIP TO QUESTION #2 BELOW ____I‘iO?‘€ than half the time (it) SKIP IO QUESTION #2 BELOW __Less than half the time (3) __Once in a while (4) ____ilever (5) (GO TO NEXT PAGE) 2. 148 9) WHEN YTU DRIUK COKE, PEPSI, OR ANY OTHER SOFT-DRINK CONTAINING CAFFEIIE, HON OFTET DO YOU HAVE ONE CR THO CLASSES OR CANS? ___flearly every time (I) ___fiore than half the time (2) ___tes than half the time (3) ___0nce in a while (4) U1 __ jever (5) 'IHE' D"I' Ii' SEVE? up SPPITE LIKE COLA cannot causuLna AJY area: SOFT DRII' K !OT CON IAIHI.'C CAFFEINE: -..-- 3) HO” OFTEN DO YOU USUALLY HAVE SEVEN-UP. SPRITE, LIKE COLA, ORANGE CRUSH OR ANY OTHER SOFT-DRINK QQI.CONTAINING CAFFEINE? ___3 or more times a day (l) ___2 or 3 times a month (7) ___2 times a day (2) ___flbout once a month (3) ___0nce a day (3) ___Less than once a month but ___flearly every day (4) at least once a year (9) ___3 or 4 times a week (5) ___Less than once a year (l0) ___9nce or twice a week (6) ___flever (ll) b) TIMI K OF ALL THE TIIES RECENTLY YOU HAD SEVEN-UP, SPRITE, LIKE COLA, '.P?.;‘CE CPUSIE OP ANY OTHER SOFT-DRINK HQ: CONTAINING CAFFEI E ”NEH YOU D;:INK THESE, HON OFTEN DO YOU HAVE MORE THAN SIX GLASSES OR CANS? ___Nearly every time (I) SKIP TO QUESTIOJ #3 BELOH I___H0re than haIf the time (2) SKIP TO OUESTIOH #3 BELOH ___Less than half the time (3) ___Once in a while (4) _____i-iever (5) C) ”HE’ YOU DPII" SFVEH- UP SPPITE, LIKE COLA ORANGE CPUSH 01R AIW OTHER SOFT- DRI:H{ NOT CO'TAIJIHG CA.FFEINE FIOH OFTEND DO YOU H.“tVE AS HAXY AS FIVE OR— SIX CLASSES OR CAIS? ___fiearly every time (I) SKIP T0 QUESTION #3 BELOW ___jbre than half the time (2) SKIP TO QUESTION #3 DELOU _Less than half the time (3) “Once in a while (5) S I'EGSVY’( —_. (TURN PAGE ovum) 149 d) WHEN YOU OR NK SEVEN-UP, SPRITE, LIKE COLA, ORANGE CRUSH OR RY OTHER SOFT-DRINK no: CONTAIR no CAFFEIHE, How OFTEN DO YOU HAVE THREE OR FOUR GLASSES OR CANS? ___f-learl y every time (l) SKIP T0 QUESTION #3 BELOI'! ____i-iore than half the time (2) SKIP TO QUESTION #3 BELOH ___Less than half the time (3) __0nce in a while (4) ____i!ever (5) e) WHEN YOU DRINK seven-up, SPRITE, LIKE COLA, ORANGE CRUSH OR ANY OTHER SOFT-DRINK EIOT COEITAIEHEEG CAFFEINE. HO"! OFTEN DO YOU HAVE ONE OR THO GLASSES-OR CARS? ____§iearly every time (1) __Hore than half the time (2) ___Less than half the time (3) ___0nce in a while (4) ____Hever (5) ? UHEE! DRINKING COFFEE: a) HOT! OFTEN DO YOU USUALLY HAVE COFFEE? ___3 or more times a day (l) __2 or 3 times a month (7) ___2 times a day (2) ___About once a month (8) __Once a day (3) __Less than once a month but _!‘!early every day (4) at least once a year (9) ___3 or 4 times a week (5) __Less than once a year (l0) ____0nce or twice a week (6) ____i:ever (ll) b) THINK OF ALL THE TIT-IE5 YOU HAD COFFEE RECENTLY. THEN YOU DRINK COFFEE. NOH OFTEN DO YOU HAVE iDRE THAI! SIX CUPS? ____i!early every time (I) SKIP T0 QUESTION #4 [IRON ___i-lore than half the time (2) SKIP T0 QUESTION #4 BELOH ___Less than half the time (3) ____Once in a while (4) _____i£ever (5) (GO TO NEXT PAGE) 4. C) d) e) 150 WHEN YOU DRINK COFFEE. HOH OFTEN DO YOU HAVE AS MANY AS FIVE 0R SIX CUPS? _ilearly every time (1) SKIP TO QUESTION #4 BELOW ___Hore than half the time (2) SKIP T0 QUESTION #4 BELOW ___Less than half the time (3) _Once in a while (4) _iiever (5) WHEN YOU DRINK COFFEE. HOH OFTEN DO YOU HAVE THREE OR FOUR CUPS? _liearly every time (1) SKIP T0 QUESTION #4 BELOW ___§iore than half the time (2) SKIP TO QUESTION #4 BELOW _Less than half the time (3) _Once in a while (4) _ihver (5) WHEN YOU DRINK COFFEE. HON OFTEN DO YOU HAVE ONE OR TWO CUPS? _E‘Iearly every time (1) ___I~lore than half the time (2) _Less than half the time (3) _Once in a while (4) ____i.£ever (5) WHEN DRIRKIHG TEA: a) HON OFTEN DO YOU USUALLY HAVE TEA? ____3 or more times a day (1) ___2 or 3 times a month (7) __2 times a day (2) _About once a month (8) _Once a day (3) ”_Less than once a month but _i'iearly every day (4) at least once a year (9) ____3 or 4 times a week (5) _Less than once a year (10) _Once or twice a week (6) _____Never (11) (TuFi 91:: ave?) b) e) d) e) 151 THINK OF ALL THE TIMES YOU HAD TEA RECENTLY. WHEN YOU DRINK TEA, HON OFTEN DO YOU HAVE MORE THAN SIX CUPS? ____Nearly every time (1) SKIP TO QUESTION #5 BELOW _More than half the time (2) SKIP TO QUESTION #5 BELOW _Less than half the time (3) ______0nce in a while (4) _i-iever (5) WHEN YOU DRINK TEA, HON OFTEN DO YOU HAVE AS MANY AS FIVE OR SIX CUPS? ___Nearly every time (1) SKIP TO QUESTION #5 BELOW ____Hore than half the time (2) SKIP T0 QUESTION #5 BELOW ___Less than half the time (3) _Once in a while (4) _Tiever (5) WHEN YOU DRINK TEA. HON OFTEN DO YOU HAVE THREE OR FOUR CUPS? _iiearly every time (I) SKIP TO QUESTION #5 BELOW ___Nore than half the time (2) SKIP TO QUESTION #5 BELOH _Less than half the time (3) _____0nce in a while (4) _Never (5) WHEN YOU DRINK TEA. HON OFTEN DO YOU HAVE ONE OR TWO CUPS? _Jlearly every time (1) ___i-iore than half the time (2) ___Less than half the time (3) _Once in a while (4) _ilever (5) (GO TO NEXT PAGE) 152 5. HHEN DRINKING MILK: a) b) C) d) LON OFTEN DO YOU USUALLY HAVE MILK? ____3 or more times a day (l) ___2 or 3 times a month (7) _2 times a day (2) _About once a month (8) _Once a day (3) _Less than once a month but _liearly every day (4) at least once a year (9) _3 or 4 times a week (5) _Less than once a year (10) _Once or twice a week (6) ___Never (11) THINK.OF ALL THE TIRES YOU HAD MILK RECENTLY. NHEN YOU DRINK MILK, HON OFTEN DO YOU HAVE MORE THAN SIX GLASSES? _iiearly every time (1) SKIP TO QUESTION #6 BELOW ‘___Nore than half the time (2) SKIP TO QUESTION #6 BELOW _Less than half the time (3) _Once in a while (4) _iiever (5) WHEN YOU DRINK MILK, HON OFTEN DO YOU HAVE AS MANY AS FIVE OR SIX GLASSES? _iiearl y every time (1) SKIP TO QUESTION #6 BELOW ___N0re than half the time (2) SKIP TO QUESTION #6 BELOH _Less than half the time (3) _Once in a while (4) __Never (5) WHEN YOU DRINK.MILK, HON OFTEN DO YOU HAVE THREE OR FOUR GLASSES? _liearly every time (1) SKIP TO QUESTION #6 BELOH ___Nore than half the time (2) SKIP TO QUESTION #6 BELOW _Less than half the time (3) _Once in a while (4) _liever (5) (TURN PAGE OVER) 153 e) WHEN YOU DRINK MILK, HON OFTEN DO YOU HAVE ONE OR TWO GLASSES? ___Nearly every time (I) ____l~iore than half the time (2) _Less than half the time (3) _Once in a while (4) _i‘iever (5) 6. NHEN DRINKING JUICES {ORANGE JUICE, APPLE JUICE, GRAPE JUICE, GRAPEFRUIT UICE, TOP TO UICE, ETC.): a) HON OFTEN DO YOU USUALLY HAVE JUICES? ____3 or more times a day (I) _2 or 3 times a month (7) ___2 times a day (2) _About once a month (8) _Once a day (3) _Less than once a month but _Nearly every day (4) at least once a year (9) __3 or 4 times a week (5) _Less than once a year (10) _Once or twice a week (6) _liever b) THINK OF ALL THE TIMES YOU HAD JUICES RECENTLY. NHEN YOU DRINK JUICES, HON OFTEN DO YOU HAVE MORE THAN SIX GLASSES? __Nearly every time (1) SKIP TO QUESTION #7 BELOW ___JNore than half the time (2) SKIP TO QUESTION #7 BELON _Less than half the time (3) _Once in a while (4) ___Never (5) c) WHEN YOU DRINK JUICES, HON OFTEN DO YOU HAVE AS MANY AS FIVE OR SIX GLASSES? _i-iearly every time (1) SKIP T0 QUESTION #7 BELOW ___Nore than half the time (2) SKIP TO QUESTION #7 BELON _Less than half the time (3) _Once in a while (4) ___Never (5) (GO TO NEXT PAGE) 154' d) WHEN YOU DRINK JUICES, HOW OFTEN IX) YOU HAVE THREE OR FOUR GLASSES? _Nearl y every time (I) SKIP TO QUESTION #7 BELOW ___i~iore than half the time (2) SKIP TO QUESTION #7 BELOW _Less than half the time (3) _Once in a while (4) _____Never (5) e) WHEN YOU DRINK JUICES, POW OFTEN II) YOU HAVE ONE OR TWO GLASSES? _Nearly every time (1) ____ilore than half the time (2) ___Less than half the time (3) _Once in a while (4) _iiever (5) 7. WHEN DRINKING WATER: a) HOW OFTEN DO YOU USUALLY HAVE WATER? ___3 or more times a day (1) __2 or 3 times a month (7) ___2 times a day (2) _About once a month (8) _Once a day (3) _Less than once a month but ___Nearly every day (4) at least once a year (9) ___3 or 4 times a week (5) _Less than once a year (10) _Once or twice a week (6) __Never (11) b) THINK OF ALL THE TINES YOU HAD WATER RECENTLY. WHEN YOU DRINK WATER, HOW OFTEN DO YOU H VE MORE THAN SIX GLASSES? ______Nearly every time (1) SKIP T0 PART C BELOW _____More than half the time (2) SKIP TO PART C BELOW _Less than half the time (3) _____Once in a while (4) _iiever (5) (TURN PAGE OVER) 155 c) WHEN YOU DRINK WATER, HOW OFTEN DO YOU HAVE AS MANY AS FIVE OR SIX GLASSES? _ilearly every time (1) SKIP TO PART C BELOW _Nore than half the time (2) SKIP TO PART C BELOW _Less than half the time (3) _Once in a while (4) __Never (5) d) WHEN YOU DRINK WATER, HOW OFTEN DO YOU HAVE THREE OR FOUR GLASSES? _iéearly every time (I) SKIP TO PART C BELOW ___i~iore than half the time (2) SKIP TO PART C BELOW _Less than half the time (3) _Once in a while (4) __Never (5) 6) WHEN YOU DRINK WATER, HOW OFTEN no YOU HAVE ONE OR TWO GLASSES? _Nearly every time (I) _____i~‘iore than half the time (2) _Less than half the time (3) _Once in a while (4) _Never (6) THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS ASK ABOUT YOUR REGULAR USE OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES. IN ANSWERING THE QUESTIONS, PLEASE THINK ABOUT WHAT YOU HAVE DONE ON THE AVERAGE OVER THE LAST SIX I~K3NTHS. 1. WHEN DRINKING WINE: a) HOW OFTEN DO YOU USUALLY HAVE WINE OR A PUNCH CONTAINING WINE? __3 or more times a day (I) ____2 or 3 times a month (7) ___2 times a day (2) _About once a month (8) _Once a day (3) ____Less than once a month but _Nearly every day (4) at least once a year (9) __3 or 4 times a week (5) _Less than once a year (10) _Once or twice a week (6) ____Never (11) (GO TO NEXT PAGE) 156 b) THINK OF ALL THE TIMES YOU HAD WINE RECENTLY. WHEN YOU DRINK WINE, HOW OFTEN DO YOU HAVE NORE THAN SIX GLASSES? ____Nearly every time (1) SKIP TO QUESTION #2 BELOW _More than half the time (2) SKIP TO QUESTION #2 BELOW __Less than half the time (3) _Once in a while (4) _Never (5) c) WHEN YOU DRINK WINE, I-DW OFTEN 00 YOU HAVE AS MANY AS FIVE OR SIX GLASSES? _iiearly every time (1) SKIP TO QUESTION #2 BELOW ___Nore than half the time (2) SKIP TO QUESTION #2 BELOW _Less than half the time (3) _Once in a while (4) _____Never (5) d) WHEN YOU DRINK WINE, i'DW OFTEN DO YOU HAVE THREE OR FOUR GLASSES? _iiearly every time (1) SKIP T0 QUESTION #2 BELOW ___Nore than half the time (2) SKIP T0 QUESTION #2 BELOW _Less than half the time (3) _Once in a while (4) __Never (5) e) WHEN YOU DRINK WINE, HOW OFTEN DO YOU HAVE ONE OR TWO GLASSES? _iiearly every time (1) __iiore than half the time (2) _Less than half the time (3) _Once in a while (4) ___Never (5) (TURN PAGE OVER) 157 2. WHEN DRINKING BEER: a) b) C) d) HOW OFTEN DO YOU USUALLY HAVE BEER? _3 or more times a day (1) _____2 or 3 times a month (7) _2 times a day (2) _Less than once a month (8) _Once a day (3) _Less than once a month but _l-learly every day (4) at least once a year (9) ___3 or 4 times a week (5) _Less than once a year (10) _Once or twice a week (6) _Never (11) THINK OF ALL THE TIMES YOU HAVE HAD BEER RECENTLY. HHEN YOU DRINK BEER. HON OFTEN DO YOU HAVE PURE THAN SIX GLASSES OR CANS? ____Nearly every time (I) SKIP TO QUESTION #3 BELOW ____l~lore than half the time (2) SKIP TO QUESTION #3 BELOW _Less than half the time (3) _Once in a while (4) __Never (5) WHEN YOU DRINK BEER, l-DN OFTEN DO YOU HAVE AS MANY AS FIVE OR SIX GLASSES OR CANS? ___Nearly every time (I) SKIP TO QUESTION #3 BELOW _____More than half the time (2) SKIP TO QUESTION #3 BELON __;Less than half the time (3) _Once in a while (4) ___Never (5) NHEN YOU DRINK BEER, I'DW OFTEN DO YOU HAVE AS MNY AS THREE OR FOUR GLASSES OR CANS? _Nearly every time (I) SKIP TO QUESTION #3 BELOW _Fbre than half the time (2) SKIP TO QUESTION #3 BELON _Less than half the time (3) _Once in a while (4) _Never (5) (GO TO NEXT PAGE) 158 e) WHEN YOU DRINK BEER. HOW OFTEN DO YOU HAVE ONE OR TWO GLASSES OR CANS? _Iiearly every time (I) __Nore than half the time (2) _Less than half the time (3) _Once in a while (4) _llever (5) 3. WHEN DRINKING WHISKEY 0R LIQUOR: a) HOW OFTEN DO YOU USUALLY HAVE WHISKEY OR LIQUOR (SUCH AS MARTINIS, WINHATTANS, HIGHBALLS, 0R STRAIGHT DRINKS INCLUDING SCOTCH. BOURBON. GIN. VODKA, RUM, ETC.)? __3 or more times a day (I) _____2 or 3 times a month (7) ____2 times a day (2) _About once a month (8) _Once a day (3) _Less than once a month but _Nearly every day (4) at least once a year (9) _____3 or 4 times a week (5) _Less than once a year (10) _Once or twice a week (6) ____Never (11) b) THINK OF ALL THE TINES YOU HAVE HAD DRINKS CONTAINING WHISKEY OR OTHER LIQUOR RECENTLY. WHEN YOU HAVE HAD THEM. l-DW OFTEN DO YOU HAVE MORE THAN SIX DRINKS? ____Nearly every time (I) SKIP TO QUESTION #4 BELOW _Plore than half the time (2) SKIP TO QUESTION #4 BELOW _Less than half the time (3) _Once in a while (4) _iiever (5) c) WHEN YOU HAVE HAD DRINKS CONTAINING WHISKEY OR LIQUOR, HOW OFTEN DO YOU HAVE AS MANY AS FIVE OR SIX DRINKS? _iiearly every time (I) SKIP TO QUESTION #4 BELOW ______More than half the time (2) SKIP TO QUESTION #4 BELOW _Less than half the time (3) ____Once in a while (4) _Never (5) (TURN PAGE OVER) 159 d) WHEN YOU HAVE HAD DRINKS CONTAINING WHISKEY OR LIQUOR, HOW OFTEN DO YOU HAVE AS MANY AS THREE OR FOUR DRINKS? ____Nearly every time (I) SKIP TO QUESTION #4 BELOW ___!iore than half the time (2) SKIP TO QUESTION #4 BELOW _Less than ha'lf the time (3) _Once in a while (4) _Never (5) 9) WHEN YOU HAVE DRINKS CONTAINING WHISKEY OR LIQIXIR, HOW OFTEN DO YOU HAVE ONE OR TWO DRINKS? _____Nearly every time (I) _More than half the time (2) _Less than half the time (3) _Once in a while (4) ____Never (5) WHEN DRINKING ANYTHING. CHECK HOW OFTEN YOU HAVE ANY DRINK CONTAINING ALCOHOL WHETHER IT IS WINE. WHISKEY OR ANY OTHER DRINK. MAKE SURE THAT YOUR ANSWER IS NOT LESS FREQUENT THAN THE FREQUENCY REPORTED ON ANY OF THE PRECEEDING QUESTIONS. ____3 or more times a day (I) ___2 or 3 times a month (7) ___2 times a day (2) _About once a month (8) _Once a day (3) _Less than once a month but _Nearly every day (4) at least once a year (9) ____3 or 4 times a week (5) _Less than once a year (10) _Once or twice a week (6) ___Never (11) (GO TO NEXT PAGE) 160 ASIDE FROM THE SINPLE REASON OF STAYING ALIVE PEOPLE EAT FOOD (INCLUDING CANDY. CAKES. HANBURGERS, VEGETABLES. FISH, CHICKEN, FRUITS, ETC.), DRINK NON-ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES (INCLUDING COFFEE, TEA, POP, MILK. JUICE, ETC.), AND DRINK ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES (INCLUDING NINE, BEER, WHISKEY, OR LIQUOR) FOR DIFFERENT REASONS. HERE ARE SOME STATEMENTS PEOPLE HAVE MADE ABOUT WHY THEY EAT AND DRINK. HOW IMPORTANT WOULD YOU SAY EACH OF THE FOLLOWING IS TO YOU AS A REASON FOR USE--VERY IMPORTANT, FAIRLY IMPORTANT, OR NOT EACHLITEEPORIANT? PLEASE CIRCLE THE STATEMENT YOU MOST AGREE WITH FOR FOODS (THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS APPLY TO YOUR REASONS FOR EATING. DO NOT INCLUDE REASONS FOR DRINKING IN YOUR ANSWERS; WE ASK ABOUT THIS LATER. VERY FAIRLY NOT AT ALL IMPORTANT IMPORTANT IMPORTANT I eat different fbods because it is important fbr me to have a balanced diet ......... 1 DJ on 01 b. I eat more on the basis of taste preferences rather than nutritional value ........ 1 3 5 c. Eating helps me to relax when I am tense and nervous ..... 1 3 5 d. Social events are more fun when they have fbod than when they don't. . . . ........ . . l 3 5 e. Eating can help me forget my worries ............. 1 3 5 f. I eat what other people like rather than what I like ..... 1 3 5 9. Special occasions are better celebrated when I eat ...... 1 3 5 h. Eating increases my desire for something to drink ....... 1 3 5 i. Eating increases my desire for a beer. or a glass of wine . . . 1 3 5 j. I sometimes eat things that I don't like because it is the polite thing to do on some occasions ............ 1 3 5 k. Eating helps cheer me up when I am feeling down or in a bad mood ....... . . ..... 1 3 5 (TURN PAGE OVER) 161 I‘iON-ALCOl-iOLIC BEVERAGES (THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS ASK ABOUT YOUR REASONS FOR CONSUNING BEVERAGES LIKE COFFEE, TEA, POP, MILK. AND JUICES. IN YOUR ANSNERS DO iDT INCLUDE REASONS FOR CONSUNING BEVERAGES LIKE BEER. WINE. WHISKEY. ETC.; WE ASK ABOUT THOSE LATER.) VERY . FAIRLY NOT AT ALL IMPORTANT IMPORTANT IMPORTANT d . I like the taste of coffee or tea. 0 O O O O O O O O I O O O O 1 3 5 m. I drink milk because it helps me to relax ........... 1 3 5 n. I drink coffee or tea or other beverages with caffeine to help me stay awake .......... l 3 5 0. Having a pop helps cheer me up when I am feeling down or in a bad mood ............ 1 3 5 p. I drink based on taste preferences rather than nutritional value. . 1 3 5 q. Drinking increases my desire for fead ............ 1 3 5 r. Social events are more fun when they have drinks like pop, coffee, or tea than when they don't. . ....... . . . . . 1 3 5 5. Desserts taste better when served with milk, coffee, or tea ............... 1 3 5 ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES (THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS ASK ABOUT YOUR REASONS FOR CONSUHING ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES--THESE INCLUDE WINE. BEER, WHISKEY. GINS AND OTHER HARD LIQUOR.) VERY FAI RLY WT AT ALL IMPORTANT IMPORTANT IMPORTANT t. I drink because it helps me to relax .......... . . . I 3 5 u. I drink to be sociable ..... 1 3 5 v. I like the taste ........ 1 3 5 (GO TO NEXT PAGE) aa. bb. CC. dd. 162 VERY IMPORTANT I drink because the people I know drink. . . . . ...... 1 I drink-when I want to forget everything. . . . . . ...... 1 I drink to celebrate special occasions . . . . . . . . . . . . I A drink helps me to fbrget my worries ....... . ..... 1 A small drink improves my appetite for fbod . . ...... 1 I accept a drink because it is the polite thing to do in certain situations. . . . ........ 1 A drink helps cheer me up when I' m in a bad mood ........ 1 I drink because I need it when tense and nervous ........ 1 FAIRLY IMPORTANT MT AT ALL IMPORTANT 163 Background Information We would like to ask you a few background questions about yourself. Answer all_of them as completely as possible. All of your answers will be kept confidential. Thanks. ' l. ”hat is your date of birth? MONTH DAY YEAR 2. Hhat is your sex? (CIRCLE ONE) 1. Hale 2. Female 3. Nhat is your race? (CIRCLE ONE) 1. Caucasian 2. Hisoanic 3: Black 4. American Indian 5. Asian A 6. Other (please explain) 4a. Hhat is your religious preference now? (CIRCLE ONE) 1. Protestant . Roman Catholic . Jewish awn: . None, no religion . Other (please explain) (:1 4b. Hhat denomination? (Please try to specify fully) (TURN PAGE OVER) 4c. 5c. 5d. 164 About how often did you attend religious services in the last year? (CIRCLE ONE) l. several times a week 2. about once a week - 3.,2 - 3 times a month 4. once a month or less than that L"! . never Regardless 0f your attendance at reli ious services, how religious do you consider yourself to be? (CIRCLE ONE 1. not religious at all 2. not very religious 3 . fairly religious 4. very religmous What kind of work are you doing (what is your occupation)?. (Fer Example: electrical engineer, sales person, stock Clerk, farmer, homemaker) What are your most important activities or duties? (ForTExample: keep account books, filing, sell cars, operate printing press, finish concrete) What kind of business or industry is this? (For ExampTe: TV and radio mfg. , Retail shoe store, State Labor Dept. , Farm work) . Are you: (PLEASE CHECK ONE) an employee of a PRIVATE company, business or individual for PR wages, salary, or commissions? a GOVERNMENT employee (federal, state, county, or local GOV government)? (GO TO NEXT PAGE) Be. 165 self-employed in 0H” business, professional practice, or farm? own business not incorporated OWN own business incorporated INC working WITHOUT PAY in a family business or farm HP Approximately what is your present annual family income? (If both spouses work, add the income from both in giving your answer) (CIRCLE ONE) l. under $4,000 2. $4,001 - $7,000 3 $7,001 - $10,000 4. $l0,00l - $l3,000 5. $l3,00l - $16,000 6. $16,00l - $20,000 7. $20,00l - $30,000 8. $30,00l - $50,000 9. Over $50,000 LIST CF REFERENZES LIST OF REFERENCES Atkin, C.K. (1980). Effects of television advertising on children. In E.L. Paleer & A. 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