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COMPUTER- BAS E D OFFICE AUTOMATION

AND THE DYNAMICS OF SOCIOTECHNICAL CHANGE:
SIX CASE STUDIES

presented by

SUZETTE S . LEE

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COMPUTER-BASED OFFICE AUTOMATION
AND THE DYNAMICS OF SOCIOTECHNICAL CHANGE:
SIX CASE STUDIES

By

Suzette S. Lee

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Administration and Curriculum

1985

ABSTRACT

COMPUTER-BASED OFFICE AUTOMATION
AND THE DYNAMICS OF SOCIOTECHNICAL CHANGE:
51x CASE STUDIES
By

Suzette S. Lee

This research, designed to examine the implementation
of computer-based office equipment, emphasized the role
of training as an intervention tool in planned change as
reported by staff, department managers, and trainers. The
intent was to present preliminary research unraveling the
effects of sociotechnical change on today's offices. The
literature reviewed delineated effects of technical change
on social structure in the work setting, job satisfaction,
and productivity.

The population included staff, managers, and trainers
from six computerized offices in the area of Lansing, Michigan.
Three of the sites with formal training were selected as
exemplary. The other three sites had no formal training.

The instruments used were the Short Form Minnesota
Satisfaction Questionnaire and four office automation question-

naires/interviews which were developed for this study.

Suzette S. Lee

Descriptive statistics were used as the primary
analytical tool. T-tests with a .05 significance level
were applied in some cases.

The central findings of the study were:

1. There was no significant difference in job satis-
faction between managers from sites with or without formal
training.

2. The degree of job satisfaction was significantly
higher for staff that received formal training.

3. The degree of automation satisfaction was signif-
icantly higher for staff and managers from sites which
provided formal training.

4. The staff who received formal training felt more
confident and became productive on the computerized equipment
sooner than those without formal training.

5. Staff and management from sites which provided formal
training had a higher degree of satisfaction with the quality
of work produced.

6. Personnel from the sites where there was formal
training consistantly reported higher satisfaction with all
elements of the training process. The key issue in training
was the presence of a supportive trainer and adequate

learning time without production pressures.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

It is with deep appreciation that I acknowledge those
-who have contributed to the completion of this thesis.

I have drawn upon the wisdom and expertise of many colleagues
and friends.

I am especially grateful for the support and guidance
provided by the members of my committee: Gloria Kielbaso,
Keith Groth, Larry Lezotte, and my mentor and committee
chair, Louis Romano. The impetus for this study came from
Mark Mulias, manager of the Office Systems Department at
Libby Owen Ford. The willing participation of the management
and staff at the six sites was invaluable.

Numerous friends and family members aided in the tasks
of compiling the data and tables, as well as providing
encouragement. The many hours of editing through several
drafts were provided by Jack Brahlek, Betty Foster and
Lynn Lewis. I am indebted to those who gave of their time

and energy in support of this research.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
LIST OF TABLES .................................. ...... V
Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION ............ ........ ...... ........ 1
Introduction....... ...... ... ................. . 1
Significance of the Problem........... ........ 3
Purpose of the Study . ..... ... ............ .... 4
Definition of Terms . ......... ...... ...... .... 5
Assumptions and Limitations ....... ........... 6
Research Hypotheses ....... ..... .......... .... 7
Research Questions ........................... 8
Overview of the Study ....... ................. 9
II. THEORY AND SUPPORTIVE RESEARCH ................ 10
IntrOductj-on ......OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO .......... 10
Communication and Organizational Cultures .... 11
Motivation and Reward O O O O C O ...... O O O O O O O O O O O O 13
Adult Learning ......... . ........... . ......... 20
Organizational Training .... ..... . ............ 22
Planned Change 0 O O O O O O O ..... O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 32
Sociotechnical Research ...................... 39
Summary . ..................................... 47
III. DESIGN OF THE STUDY ........................... 48
Introduction ..... ..... ..... .............. 48
Population and Sampling Methods .............. 49
Description of Sites ......................... 51
Instrumentation ............ .......... ........ 53
Data Gathering Procedures .................... 58
Statistical Treatment .... ......... ..........g 59
Summary . ..... . ..... . ......................... 62
IV. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA ...................... .... 64
Instrument Analysis ... ....... . ........ . ...... 64
Case Summary of Sites .................. ...... 107
Summary .............. ........................ 123

iii

Page
V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ....................... 127
summary ......OOIOOOOOOOO ....... ......OOOOOOOO 127
Findings ......OOOOOOOIOOOOO00.0.00...00...... 128
conCIUSionS ......OOOOOOOOOO......OOOOOOOOOOOO 138
Recommendations for Further Research ......... 145
_APPENDICES 0.0.0.000.........OOO.........OOOOOOOOOOOOO. 146
A. Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire ............ 147
B. Automation Satisfaction Questionnaire, Open-
ended Questionnaire, Patterned Interview,
Trainer Survey ........................... ..... 148

BIBLIOGRAPHY 00.0.00.........OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00...... 165

iv

Table
3.1
4.1

4.2

4.3

4.4

4.5

4.6

4.7

4.8

4.9

4.10

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Summary of Participants ....................... 59
Frequency Distribution of Demographic Data for

Management, Staff, and Trainers ............. 65

Frequency of Response on the Short Form Minnesota
Satisfaction Questionnaire of Managers at Sites
Where Formal Training Took Place ............. 67

Frequency of Response on the Short Form Minnesota
Satisfaction Questionnaire of Managers at Sites
Where Informal Training Took Place ........... 68

Frequency of Response on_the Short Form Minnesota
Satisfaction Questionnaire of Staff at Sites
‘Where Formal Training Took Place ............. 69

Frequency of Response on the Short Form Minnesota
Satisfaction Questionnaire of Staff at Sites
Where Informal Training Took Place ........... 7O

T-ratios of Management With and Without Formal
Training on the Minnesota Satisfaction Ques-
tionnaire O......OOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00.000.00.00.0 71

T-ratios of Staff With and Without Formal
Training on the Minnesota Satisfaction Question-
tionnaire ......IOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.00.00.00.00... 72

'Frequency of Response 0n the Automation Satis—

faction Questionnaire of Managers at Sites
Where Formal Training Took Place ............. 74

Frequency of Response on the Automation Satis-'
faction Questionnaire of Managers at Sites
Where Informal Training Took Place ........... 75

Frequency of Response on the Automation Satis-
faction Questionnaire of Staff at Sites Where
Formal Training Took Place ................... 76

4.11

4.12

4.13

4.14

4.15

4.16

4.17

4.18

4.19
4.20
4.21
4.22
4.23

4.24
4.25
4.26
4.27

Page

Frequency of Response on the Automation Satis-

faction Questionnaire of Staff at Sites Where

Informal Training Took Place ................. 77
T-ratios of Management With and Without Formal

Training on the Automation Satisfaction Ques-

tionnaire ......OOOOOOOOOOOOO ...... 0.0.00.0... 78
T-ratios of Staff With and Without Formal

Training on the Automation Satisfaction Ques-

tionnaire ......OOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOO......OOOOOOO 79
Percentiles of Selected Items from the Auto-

maiton Satisfaction Questionniare for Managers

and Staff With and Without Formal Training ... 82
Manager Concerns Prior to Automation ........... 85

Manager Reported Increase in Productivity
FOIIOWing Automation ............OOOOOOOOOOOOO 88

Manager Reported Length of Time before Satis-
factory Productivity Levels Were Reached
Following Automation ......................... 89

Manager Reported Loss of Productivity
Following Implementation ..................... 90

Staff Involvement in Decision Making ........... 93
Staff Concerns Prior to Automation . ............ 94
Staff Response to Training and Improvements .... 96
Staff Reported Helps for Implementation ........ 97

Staff Response to Degree of Change Resulting
from Automation ...O.....OOOOOOOIOOOOOOOOOOOOO 98

Staff Reported Stress Levels During Transition . 99
Staff Reported Fatigue Factors ....... .......... 99
Staff Reported Change in Job Satisfaction ...... 100

Staff Response to "What I Like Best About My Job,"
and "What Would Make My Job Better." ......... 101

vi

4.28

4.29

4.30
4.31

4.32
4.33

Page
Staff Reported Length of Time before Satis-
factory Productivity Levels Were Reached
FOIIOWing Automation 0.00.00.00.00...0.00.0... 103
Staff Response to "How Often Can Equipment Be
Upgraded Without Causing a High Degree of
Stress?" ...................... ....... ........ 103
Summary of Characteristics Present at Each Site 121

Summary Table of Management and Staff Percentile
Rating on Key Issues by Site ................. 122

Summary of Research Hypotheses ................. 124

Summary of Key Issues as Rated by Staff and
Management for Each Site ........ ............. 126

vii

...in the journey through the unknown, the most

valuable asset is one's acquired knowledge.

viii

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The computer-based technology that has brought auto-
mation to the doorstep of today's offices is in and of
itself not a significant phenomenon. The crucial factor
in computerization is the need for this technology. We
have become an information-oriented society. Smith states:

Most of us no longer produce tangible goods.
Instead our output consists of ideas, letters,
reports, proposals, and other "information
products. The office has become an information
clearinghouse in which data is gathered, pro- 1
cessed, edited, copied, stored and distributed.
The new computerized equipment is needed to help people
find their way through the maze of information which is
being produced at an astonishing rate.

Shane quotes Bell as estimating that the rate of in-

formation production will soon be doubling every two years

giving added meaning to the newly coined term "infoglut"

(information'overload).2 Martin also addresses this issue

 

1 Melborn Smith, "The High-Tech Baedeker: A Concise
Guide to Office Automation," Office Today, Supplement to
The New York Times, October 1983, p. 28.

2 Harold Shane, "The Silicon Age II: Living and Learning
in an Information Epoch," Phi Delta Kappan, October 1983,
p. 127.

2

in The Wired Society. He states that the production of

 

scientific journals alone has increased approximately ten-
fold every fifty years.

10 scientific journals in 1750

100 scientific journals in 1800
1,000 scientific journals in 1850
10,000 scientific journals in 1900
100,000 scientific journals in 1950

The new technology of information processing and
transmission has turned up just in time for the
needs of scientific progress.

The number of scientific papers is increasing at

a greater rate than the number of journals. The
sum total of human knowledge was estimated to be
doubling every ten years by 1950 and doubling every
five years by 1970. In most fields of research,
even one as old as medicine, more papers have been
published since World War 11 than in all prior
human history. Computers in 1960 had one instruction
manual; by 1965 they had ten; by the 1970's more
than one hundred. The total engineers' drawings

of a jet plane weigh more than the plane.1

 

This hand in glove growth of information and comput-
erized technology is changing and challenging the work force
as never before. There has been an explosive evolution
in the job market. Emerging are jobs which did not exist
five years ago, while traditional jobs are becoming obsolete
or changing; requiring further specialization of job function
and skills.2 Steinberger predicts that the average American
worker will need thorough retraining every five years, and

those in the professional fields cannot escape the need

 

1 James Martin, The Wired Societ , (Englewood Cliffs,
.NJ: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1978), pp. 116-117.

2 Randy Goldfield, "Office Today," Supplement to The
New York Times, October 1983, p. 18.

3

for continual upgrading. One can no longer rely on the
assumption "once-competent/always competent".1

An era of change, brought about by the prolific pro-
duction of information requires that the field of education
be taken beyond the walls of the classroom and extended
into the work setting where it can aid the adults in today's
work force as they strive to aquire the necessary skills

and adjust to the ever changing technologies that are

affecting the work place.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROBLEM

The identification of a new era in American Society

is clearly announced in John Naisbitt's Megatrends.

 

None is more subtle, yet more explosive, I think,
than this first, the megashift from an industrial to
an information society.

In 1956, for the first time in American history,
white-collar workers in technical, managerial,

and clerical positions outnumbered blue-collar
workers. The following year - 1957 - marked the
beginning of the globalization of the information
revolution; The Russians launched Sputnik, the
missing catalyst in a growing information society.
The real importance of Sputnik is not that it
began the space age, but that it intro uced the
era of global satellite communication.

The technical tools to aid in the processing and

communication of information are here and available with

 

1 William Steinberger, "Measuring Professional Competence-
???7" Training Liaison, Fall 1983, p.2.

2 John Naisbitt, Megatrends, (New York, NY: Warner Books,
Inc., 1982) pp. 11-12.

 

 

4
the potential of increasing knowledge-worker's (management's)
productivity an average of at least 15%, and that of the
clerical staff many times 15%.1 The cost of office
operations is rising faster than any other segment of
business - at least 12% to 15% a year.2 One effective
way for business to address this cost problem is improving
the productivity of office workers. The goal of automating
the office can be accomplished through a holistic implemen-
tation approach supported by a training program for all

managers and employees.3

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The advancement in computer technology now offers
a whole new realm of office and personal computing devices.
These have appeared on the market so quickly and in such
a vast array that users are confused, overwhelmed, and
lack the skills necessary to operate this new equipment
in an effective/efficient manner.

The purpose of this study is to describe the imple-
mentation of computer-based automated office equipment as

viewed by the staff, department managers, and trainers, with

 

1 Harvey Poppel, "Who Needs the Office of the Future?"
Harvard Business Review, November - December 1982, p. 150.

2 John Connell, "IRM vs the Office of the Future,"
Journal of Systems Management, May 1981, p. 9.

 

Thomas Conroy and Jacque Bieber, "Are Your Computers
Paying Off?" Personal Computing, December 1983, pp. 40-41.

 

5
special emphasis on the training which accompanied the
implementation. This in-depth analysis of six offices is
intended to serve as a vehicle for understanding the socio-
technical change occurring in today's offices, and the role
that training plays in the transition from manual to computer-

based processing of information.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

The definition of terms which follow are presented
to aid in the interpretation and clarification of this
study, and to facilitate any future replications of this
study that may be initiated.

Automated Office Systems: Computer-based office systems

 

that aid in the processing or transmitting of information,
such as: telecommunications systems, electronic message
systems, computer assisted information retrieval, personal
computing, electronic files, and word processing.

Implementation: The process of change associated

 

with a new system, including but not limited to: job re—
design, work flow, office design, and training.

Manager: The executive in the firm who makes key
decisions and allocates resources. Managers may also be
'users of the computerized system and are referred to as
knowledge-workers.

Operators: Staff that have daily contact with informa-

 

tion systems and work with input, output, and/or the design

of the system.

6
Vendor: Organizations that sell computerized equip-

ment and/or software.

Sociotechnical Systems: The production of goods or

 

services that require both a technology of machinery and
a work relationship that relates the workers both to the
technology and to each other.1

Formal Training: A well defined, structured instruc-

 

tional program conducted by a professional trainer.

Informal Training: Instruction that is casual, unstruc-

 

tured and not conducted by a professional trainer. Self-
instruction is an example of informal training.

Ergonomics: The scientific study and planning of the

 

work place and the work place environment in order to adapt
them as much as possible to the physical and mental needs

of the worker.

ASSUMPTIONS AND LIMITATIONS

The validity of this study is affected by the following:

Assumptions:

 

1. Computer-based office systems continue to reflect
technical advances in office equipment.

2. Computerized equipment is becoming an accepted,
integral part of office operations.

3. Job satisfaction and decision making are significant

factors in job performance.

 

1 Robert Cooper and Michael Foster, "Sociotechnical
Systems," American Psychologist, (1971), p. 457.

 

7
4. Organizations will train staff and management in
the use of computer-based equipment.

Limitations:

 

1. This study is limited to six offices located in
Lansing, Michigan. There is no attempt to general-
ize the results to other populations.

2. The collection of data regarding past events is
dependent upon the ability of participants to ob-

jectively recall their experiences.

RESEARCH HYPOTHESES

To determine the relationship that may exist among
formal training, job satisfaction and satisfaction with the
automated system for management and staff, the following
null hypotheses are included:

Hypothesis 1: There is no statistically significant
difference in job satisfaction between managers

at sites where formal training took place and managers
at sites where informal training took place.

 

Hypothesis 2: There is no statistically significant
difference in job satisfaction between staff at
sites where formal training took place and staff

at sites where informal training took place.

 

Hypothesis 3: There is no statistically significant
difference in automation satisfaction between mana-
gers at sites where formal training took place and
managers at sites where informal training took place.

 

Hypothesis 4: There is no statistically significant
difference in automation satisfaction between staff
at sites where formal training took place and staff
at sites where informal training took place.

 

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

This study is designed to answer the following research
questions:

1. How did implementation of computer-based equipment
affect office operation?

2. In what way(s) is automation compatible with the
rewarding aspects of staff and management jobs?

3. To what extent was staff involved in the decision
making process regarding the automation of the office?

4. What methods and materials were used in the training
of staff and management?

5. Did staff, management, and trainers perceive training
as efficient/effective?

6. What impact, if any, did training have on the imple-

mentation of computer-based office equipment?

OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY

This dissertation consists of five chapters, a select-
ed bibliography, and appendices. Chapter I included the
significance of the problem, purpose of the study, research
questions, assumptions and limitations, and definition of
' terms. Chapter II contains the theoretical background which
is derived from several interrelated fields of study:
communications, organizational training, adult learning,
motivation - reward structure, and social change. A review

of research in sociotechnical change is also presented in

9
Chapter II. Methods and procedures of the study are de-
scribed and explained in Chapter III. An analysis of the
data is presented in Chapter IV. Chapter V contains the
conclusions and findings of the study and recommendations

for further research.

CHAPTER II

THEORY AND SUPPORTIVE RESEARCH
INTRODUCTION

The field of computer-based office automation has
virtually blossomed overnight. Although there have been
many articles written about it, very few research studies
have been done. Subsequently, the theoretical basis for
this study draws heavily on the field of sociotechnical
research. Sociotechnical research origanated with a study
done by Trist and Bamforth (1951) of the Tavistock Institute
of Human Relations when they investigated the effect of
technological change on the social structure of British
coal miners. This study focuses on a similar phenomenon,
the effect of the new technologies on the operation of
today's offices.

Further support is derived from theories of communica-
tion and organizational culture, the psychology of motiva-
tion and reward, adult learning, organizational training,
and the dynamics of planned social change. This inter-
weaving of disciplines will provide a more complete framework
for analyzing the intricacies of how people adapt to and
learn the necessary skills required in the transition to

10

11

automated equipment. These theories from various disciplines
are presented below. The review of sociotechnical research
will be presented last since it applies directly to the

approach of this study.

COMMUNICATION AND ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURES

The communication process is a means of exchanging
information. This requires a set of mutually understood
symbols that are associated with "real-world" referents,
which are shared by the participants. This "message-
exchange" which occurs between two or more people serves
as a "linking-system" that forms the basis of all organi-
zations.1 It is this process that the new technologies
are designed to broaden and expedite.

Pacanowsky and O'Donnel-Trujillo are proponents of
the organizational-culture approach for researching organi-
zational communications. Their methodology is qualitative,
prescientific and descriptive. They stress that traditional
survey methods cannot match the richness of detail that
can be achieved via case study methods. This approach
focuses on the culture which emerges from the specialized
vocabulary, metaphors, stories, relevant constructs,

practices, facts, and also includes the rites and rituals

 

1 Richard Farace, Peter Monge and Hamish Russell,
Communicating and Organizipg, (Reading, MA: Addison-
Wesley Publishing Company, 1977), pp. 25, 43.

12

found in any organization be it a family, the Friday night
poker party, or IBM. It is through these elements that
people identify with and make sense from their surroundings.
The authors use this quote from Clifford Geertz's Th3
Interpretation of Cultures, as a guide for their approach:
"...man is an animal suspended in webs of significance
he himself has spun...culture [is] those webs, and the
analysis of it [is] therefore not an experimental science
in search of law but an interpretive one in search of
meaning".1
The importance of an organization's culture is also

discussed throughout Peters and Waterman's book, In Search

of Excellence.

 

The excellent companies seem to have developed
cultures that have incorporated the values and
practices of the great leaders and thus those
shared values can be seen to survive for decades
after the passing of the original guru.

In a piece of research that preceded this work,
we found that companies whose only articulated
goals were financial did not do nearly as well

financiallg as companies that had broader sets
of values.

Several examples of these culturally derived values are
listed throughout their book: Delta Airlines lives its

"Family Feeling", the reliability of Maytag washers owes

 

1 Michael Pacanowsky and Nick O'Donnell-Trujillo,
"Communication and Organizational Cultures," The Western
Journal of Speech Communication 46 (1982), pp. 121-127.

2 Thomas Peters and Robert waterman, In Search of
Excellence: Lessons from America's Best-Run Companies,
‘CNew York, NY: Harper and Row, 1982), pp. 26, 103.

13

a great deal to the Iowa work ethic, "IBM Means Service,"
Levi Strauss's "no layoff" policy following the 1906 San
Francisco earthquake. Peters and Waterman quote Pettigrew
who discusses the importance of management's role in the
process of shaping culture: "The [leader] not only creates
the rational and tangible aspects of organizations, such
as structure and technology, but also is the creator of
symbols, ideologies, language, beliefs, rituals and myths."1

Excellent companies build on these elements of culture
and use them as motivators. Nonmonetary incentives and

much hoopla are used to reinforce employees' successes.1

MOTIVATION AND REWARD

If the communication process, and thus organizations,
are to continue, human interaction must take place. Thibaut
and Kelly discuss rewards versus costs as a significant
guide post to the measurement of human interactions. Their
basic premise is that most socially significant behavior
will not be repeated unless it is reinforced in some way.
The essence of any interpersonal relationship is the inter-
action, which is defined as emitted behavior that creates
products in the form of communication. A reward is defined

as pleasurable, satisfying, or gratifying. Whereas cost

 

1 Peters and Waterman, pp. 103-105.

2 Peters and Waterman, p. 58.

14
is any factor which inhibits or deters performance.1
The authors discuss the fact that there are costs
in any relationship, the continuation of a relationship
is determined by the amount of the cost. The comparison
level (CL) is the standard by which satisfaction is measured.
The comparison level alternative (CLa) is the standard
used to determine whether to remain in or leave the rela-
tionship. Thus, as long as the relationship remains above
the comparison level alternative (CLa) people will chose
to remain in the relationship. The closer it comes to
or surpasses the comparison level (CL) the higher the
satisfaction. The comparison level (CL) is based on previous
experiences and fluctuates accordingly, continually adjusting
to the expected norms.2
Extending the theory beyond the dyad to small groups,
Thibaut and Kelly found that group cohesiveness is based
on the degree to which rewards are experienced as belonging
to the group.3
Csikszentmihalyi's study of human motivation uses
an unusual approach: people at play. The preface to his

findings states:

Most theories of human motivation depend on a

 

1 John Thibaut and Harold Kelly, The Social Psychology
of Groups, (New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons, Inc,, 1959),
pp. 5,10,12.

2

 

 

Thibaut and Kelly, pp. 22-24.

3 Thibaut and Kelly, p. 114.

15

"deficit model," which assumes that only a

limited number of pleasurable physiological states
exist; according to this model, behavior is simply
a set of innate and learned responses directed to-
ward satisfying basic needs. ...Therefore, life
must be inherently painful because scarce resources
of enjoyment lead to competition and only a few can
get more than intermittent satisfaction. ...All
theories of behavior that reduce enjoyment to the
satisfaction of needs, whether they are held by
economists or behaviorists, come to the same con-
clusion: the needs can never be fully satisfied.

But the study of play leads to a different picture
of motivation. One sees people involved in a great
variety of activities which provide none of the
rewards that a closed model predicts must be there.
One soon begins to realize that almost any object
or any experience is potentially enjoyable. The
task is to find out how this potential can be
translated into actuality. If it is true that
enjoyment does not depend on scarce resources, the
quality of life can be greatly improved.1
In this study Csikszentmihalyi looks beyond the observable
actions to the inner experiences.
It is not so much what people do but how they per-
ceive and interpret what they are doing that makes
the activity enjoyable.2
Management has typically held the belief that people
are primarily motivated by external factors: rewards and
the fear of punishment (the stick and the carrot). As
a result children and adults learn that what they do is
worthless in itself; its only justification is the pay-
check or grade they get in the end, thus the distinction

between work and leisure.

 

1 Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Beyond Boredom and Anxiety,
(San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1975), p. x.

2 Csikszentmihalyi, p. x.

16

Yet, man at play is not a new concept, many great
thinkers viewed play as the peak of man's freedom and
dignity. A quote from Plato's work summarizes this theory:
"live life as play". Thus, Csikszentmihalyi has studied
play so that the rewards found in these activities might
be applied outside the games.1

The activities choosen for study were defined as
autotelic (from the Greek "auto", meaning self and "telos",
meaning goal, purpose), they require formal and extensive
energy output but provide few if any conventional rewards.
Participants in this study were rock climbers, chess players,
composers of modern music, basketball players, modern dancers,
and surgeons.

Those who were surveyed and interviewed, consistently
rated intrinsic rewards higher than extrinsic rewards as
reasons for participating in their given activity. Many
described flow, the sensation of total involvement, as
the primary motivator. From these data Csikszentmihalyi
defined an autotelic experience as not boring, yet one
which does not produce anxiety. The activity represents
constant challenges, complete involvement, makes full use
of required skills,and receives clear feedback. He also

proposed the theory of the autotelic personality: those

 

1 Csikszentmihalyi, pp. xi, 3.

2 Csikszentmihalyi, p. 10.

17

who are drawn to autotelic activities.1
These findings were then used to evaluate normal day
activities, from which the concept of microflow developed.
These microflow activities, such as, stretching one's
muscles, watching T.V., taking a coffee break, or doodling,
serve to fill the gaps in the daily routine, thus giving
order to periods of boredom. The research in this area
found that when people are deprived of these microflow
activities, they feel more tired, less healthy, less
creative, depressed and more negative about themselves.2
In conclusion the author states:
...work is not necessarily more important than
play,and play is not necessarily more enjoyable
than work. What is both important and enjoyable
is that a person act with the fullness of his or
her abilities in a setting where the challenges
stimulate growth of new abilities. Whether the
setting is work or play, productive or recre-
ational, does not matter. Both are equally pro-
ductive if they make a person experience flow.3
Job enrichment programs have been undertaken as a
means of motivating employees. Proponents of job enrich-
ment link variety and challenge with improved job satis-
faction which leads to improved productivity. This is
perhaps too simple an explanation. Research in this area

points to the fact that although there is a relationship,

it is not one of direct cause and effect: job enrichment 9

 

1 Csikszentmihalyi, pp. 22, 23, 158.
2 Csikszentmihalyi, pp. 159, 176-177.

3 Csikszenmihalyi, p. 202.

18

job satisfaction 9'increased productivity. There are many
other variables which affect both job satisfaction and
productivity.

Orpen investigated the effects of job enrichment on
employee satisfaction, motivation, involvement, and per-
formance among federal clerical employees. The clerical
staff was randomly assigned to either an enriched or unen-
riched condition. In the unenriched condition, the employees
performed their orginal duties and tasks. In the enriched
condition, a systematic attempt was made to increase skill
variety, task identity3 task significance, autonomy, and
feedback. At the end of the six month experiment Orpen
found the following effects in the group assigned to the
enriched condition: employees in the enriched group per-
ceived their job as more enriched than before, there was
a significant increase in job satisfaction, absenteeism
and turnover decreased, with minimal impact on perform-
ance.

In the discussion of the results, Orpen points out
that performance levels may not have improved due to several
factors. The trying-out period is typically uneconomical,
and the study may not have run long enough to determine
future improvements. There may have been too much variety
and confusion over who did what task. Also, employees
were viewed as trying out more new things, even those with
a high risk factor. Orpen also discusses the fact that

some people have low growth needs and an enriched job has

19

very little, if any motivating power for those people.1

In a study done by Locke, Sirota, and Wolfson the
findings were contrary to Orpen's. Job enrichment did
not equal job satisfaction. The employees in this study
expected that promotions and increased salaries would come
with enrichment. When they didn't, job satisfaction
decreased. Other factors which must be considered when
interpreting results are the morale of employees prior
to the study and the level of participants' growth needs.2

Alber delineates the benefits and costs of job enrich-
ment. Benefits are found in improved work quality, more
effective resource utilization, improved operating con-
ditions, reduced absenteeism and a reduced work force.
The cost is in wages, training, and implementation. Alber
also stresses that productivity is not always an outcome,
particularily in the beginning.3

Hackman and Oldham have developed a formula which
depicts the relationship of factors influencing motivation.
Their theory is that positive personal and work results
(high internal motivation, high quality work performance,

high satisfaction with the work, low absenteeism and

 

1 Christopher Orpen, "The Effects of Job Enrichment
on Employee Satisfaction, Motivation, Involvement, and
Performance: A Field Experiment," ‘Human Relations 32,
(1979), 189-193.

 

2 Orpen, p. 211.

3 Antone Alber, "Job Enrichment Programs Seen Improving
Employee Performance, But Benefits Not Without Cost," World
of Work Report, (January 1978), pp. 8-11.

20

turnover) are obtained only when three crucial psychological
states are present: experienced meaningfulness of the

work (skill variety; task identity, task significance),
experienced responsibility for results of the work (autonomy),
and knowledge of the actual results of the work activities
(feedback). The following formula was designed to show

the relationship of the factors that yield a "motivating

potential score" (MPS).

 

skill task + task
variety identity significance 1
MP8 = X autonomy X feedback
3

As the preceding authors have pointed out, the issue
of motivation and job satisfaction is influenced by the
complexity of human nature. What is rewarding, that is
motivating, to one person will not necessarily be perceived

as such by another.

ADULT LEARNING

The accelerated growth of human knowledge, addition
of technological tools, and changes in the work place have
a direct impact on the direction of education. The newly
emerging theories of adult learning speak to this issue.
_ Adult motivation is different from that of children. The
majority of adult learners freely chose to enter (or leave)

a learning situation based on specific expectations of

 

1 Orpen, p. 192.

21
the needs or learnings that will be met. Adults also bring
with them their vast background of experiences.

Knowles stresses that adult learning theory can no
longer continue on the archaic premise that education is
merely the transmittance of knowledge. Although this theory
sufficed when major cultural change was greater than the
life-span of individuals, today this is no longer true.
Knowles emphasizes this need when he states:

...knowledge gained by the time a person is twenty-
one is largly obsolete by the time he is forty; and
skills that made him productive in his twenties are
becoming out of date during his thirties.1

This is vividly depicted in the following diagram from

Knowles' text.

A
1..

THE RELATIONSHIP or THE TIME-SPAN or SOCIAL CHANGE
'I'o INDIVIDUAL LIFE-SPAN -

 

Years of

individual

longevity 25 30 40 50 70 v _
Time-span

0' social Ancient Renaissance lath-19th 20ih
change Rome Centuries Century

Education must move away from the theory and practice
of pedagogy (the art and science of teaching children),
which views learning as the process of transmitting culture,
what is known; to andragogy (the art and science of helping

‘adults learn) which is based on the premise that learning

 

1 Malcolm Knowles, The Modern Practice of Adult Educa-
tion, (New York, NY: Association Press, 1970), pp. 37-38.

2 Knowles, p. 38.

22

is a life long process of discovering what is not known.
Knowles has identified the following characteristics
of the adult learner:
1. [The student's] self-concept moves from one of being
a dependent personality toward one of being a self-
directing human being.
2. [The student] accumulates a growing reservoir of
experience that becomes an increasing resource for
learning.
3. [The student's] readiness to learn becomes oriented
increasingly to the developmental tasks of [their] social
roles.
4. [The student's] time perspective changes from one
of postponed application of knowled e to immediacy of
application, and accordingly [theirH orientation toward

learning shifts from one of subject-centeredness to
one of problem-centeredness.1

ORGANIZATIONAL TRAINING

Training, when broadly viewed, is described as a social-
ization process or as an intervention tool in planned change.
Goldstein defines training more specifically as:
...the acquisition of skills, concepts, or attitudes
that results in improved performance in an on-the-job
environment.

This review will focus on four core aspects of training

as presented by Wexley, as well as Goldstein: needs assess-

ment, maximizing trainees' learning, training methods,

and evaluation.

 

1

2 Irwin Goldstein, "Training in Work Organizations,"
Annual Review of Psychology 31 (1980), 230.

Knowles, p. 39.

23

Needs Assessment

 

According to Wexley, needs assessment is designed
to answer three basic questions: whggg in the organization
can and should training be placed, yhgp should be the content,
and Egg needs the training. In his review of training
literature he divides needs assessment into three areas
of analysis: organizational analysis, task analysis, and
person analysis.1

Organizational analysis focuses on how an organi-
zation's climate, and thus the environment, affects training
needs. This should answer the question of where and when
training could be utilized in the organization.2 Several
authors stress that a common cause of training ineffective-
ness or failure is due to organizational constraints.

Huszczo, Blanchard and Camp discuss the need for an
organizational development perspective as a remedy for
this problem. Training must be an integral aspect of an
organization's long-term efforts at planned change. These

authors refer to trainers as ...front line soldiers in

an organization's battle to keep up with change". Thus,
it is necessary that trainers act as strategy planners
and look not only to the short-term individual goals, such

as increased productivity, but incorporate the long-range

 

1 Kenneth Wexley, "Personnel Training," Annual Review
of Psychology 35 (1984), 521-527.

2

 

Goldstein, p. 233.

24

goals of organizational change. Training, a major element
in organizational development, needs to be viewed as an
on-going process, not simply a program with a beginning
and an end.1
Task analysis should provide the trainer with relevant
information regarding what tasks are performed, what needs
to be learned to perform these tasks (knowledge, skills,
and abilities or other characteristics required to perform
the task), what ways these tasks should be performed, what
should be taught in training, and what should be learned
on the job.
Task analysis has received little attention in the
past, however there has been a very definite movement in
this direction within the last five years. This has revolved
around the use of subject matter experts (SME) who rate
the importance of knowledge, skills, abilities, and other
personal characteristics (KSAOs) as they relate to training
for job performance. The degree of consensus among the
experts is tested for statistical significance and reported
as a content validity ratio (CVR) for each KSAO. This
allows the trainer to focus content and training time on

the high need - job relevant KSAOs.

Linking task analysis to the design of training programs

still remains elusive and problematic, particularly for

 

1 Gregory Huszczo, P. Nich Blanchard and Richaurd
Camp, "Using OD Concepts to Improve Training Effectiveness,"
Midwest Academy of Management (1983), 381-383.

25
supervisory, managerial, sales, and other occupations where

effective performance is contingent on varied situations.1
Person analysis is a measurement of the discrepancy
between "actual" and "ideal" behavior. When a discrepancy
occurs where the actual behavior is less than the ideal
behavior, additional training may be indicated. Self-
assessments as well as assessments by management, subordinates
and peers have also been used as a means of determining
training needs. Self-evaluation of ability and performance
notoriously suffer from low validity; they are prone to
errors of overestimation. Validity is maximized when
employees expect that self-evaluation will be compared
with criterion measures, have previous experience with
self-evaluation, are guaranteed anonymity in the self-
evaluation, and are asked to make relative as opposed to

absolute judgments.2

Maximizing Trainees' Learning

 

Wexley discusses three aspects of learning: train-
ability, training environment, and transfer of learning.
Bahn's study of counter training and Allen, Silverweig's
work on group norms will also be presented in this section
as they have a direct effect on the utilization of training.

The high cost of most training programs requires the

establishment of criteria to determine the trainability

 

1 Wexley, p. 523.

2 Wexley, pp. 525-526.

26

of present or prospective employees.

Trainability refers to a person's ability to acquire

the skills, knowledge, or behavior necessary to per-

form anob at a given level and to achieve these out-

comes 1n a g1ven t1me.
Organizations have developed various methods for deter-
mining trainability: performance on a standardized test
(such as those used to determine intelligence levels),
miniature training and evaluation testing, and sampling
of trainee's ability level by measuring time spent early
in a self-paced training course. Wexley points out that
the majority of the studies focus on the "can do" (ability)
factors and neglect the "will do" (motivational) factors;
a third factor must also be considered - the situational
(interaction) aspect if high predictability is to be
achieved.2

The trainer's position as learning facilitator requires

the effective management of external/environmental condi-
tions of training. These include: amount of practice,
task sequencing, overlearning, feedback and providing for
individual differences (such as learning style and entry
level skills), as well as their own influence on a trainee's
learning. The degree of application of each of these areas

varies with the task, the learner, and the individual

trainer's approach.

 

1 Wexley, p. 527.
2 Wexley, pp. 527-528.

27

If a training program is to be effective it must provide
for a positive transfer of learning to the work setting.
Research findings indicate that people in favorable organ-
izational climates (e.g. freedom to set personal performance
goals, risk taking encouraged, growth-oriented) and those
with innovative personalities (e.g. high need achievement,
high activity level) are more likly to adopt new practices.1

Bahn has found that although final session evaluations
and short term measured effects of training are good, the
long term effects are disappointing. He states that this
is due to a number of complex factors such as: individual
motives, differences in environment, rigid supervisory
attitudes, and functional non-applicability of training.
Bahn has coined the term counter training as a means of
identifying those elements which nullify the effects of
training.2

The psychological basis of counter training is found
in resistance to change due to fear of the unknown, ego
involvement (not invented here syndrome), and the estab-
lished reward system of past behaviors, as well as the
built-in inertia of all social systems.

The working group is really a delicately balanced
social system. Changes of individual behaviors are

not only individual, but may upset the delicate
balance of the group structure.

 

1 Wexley, pp. 528-533.

Charles Bahn, "The Counter Training Problem," Personnel
Journal 52 (1973), 1068.

28

The new social interactions that will emerge...will
have to be worked out by the people as they enter
the new situation. Inertia against such change and
reworking is strong.

Other social factors which work against transfer occur
when only one particular level of workers is involved
in training, a supervisor's real (underlying) attitudes
are resistant to change, and in the difference between
the training environment and the work environment.1

Counter training messages are communicated informally
and are largely non-verbal. Merely "beefing up" a training
program will only be met with stronger resistance. Bahn
presents several factors that will augment training, yet
minimize counter training.

1. Train at all relevant levels. Counter training
often comes from the next adjacent affected level.

2. Bring the impact of the training right to the work
situation in every feasible way. The training mater-
ials should not be abstract, general or "canned",
but should contain many specific references to the
work situation.

3. There should be some physical blending of training
and work environments. One way to accomplish this
is to hold a final work session at the work site,
or if this is impossible, the trainer can make in-
dividual follow up visits to the work site.

4. The composition of the training group should reflect
an awareness of the work situation. What this implies
is that in most situations, it is advantageous to
have a homogeneous group that comes from relatively
similar backgrounds.

5. The trainer should be someone who has had the chance
to spend some time in the work situation and who
knows and understands not only the job itself, but
also work Conditions.

 

1 Bahn, pp. 1069-1070.

29

6. Clearly explain the reasons for or benefits of a
change. This means that the trainees must know the
specific benefits to the company and the benefits,
if any, to themselves.

7. A simple and easily accessible way of overcoming
counter training pressures is to come right out
and identify them.

Bahn concludes with the following statement:
Coping with counter training not only heightens the
efficiency of training, but it also helps significantly
to improve the organizational climate.1

Group norms also influence training effectiveness.
These norms are often elusive and unrecognized, yet they
have tremendous power. Norms are the product of the organi-
zational culture, nun“; training programs have been rendered
ineffectual because they have come into conflict with the
real training being done within the particular culture.
If a training program is going to be effective it must
be supported in the day-to-day experience of people on
the job. A good training program can help seed new norms
and refine old ones.2

The normative system approach is useful when: intro-
ducing new organizational programs, strengthening existing
programs, solving perplexing human factor problems, launching
new work groups or work teams, or planning a total system

of organizational intervention and change. Allen and

Silverweig speak to this issue of normative change as a

 

1 Bahn, pp. 1071-1072.

2 Robert Allen and Stanley Silverweig, Handbook of
Training and DeveIOpment, (Morristown, NJ: SRI Press,

1975), pp. 17-1 - 17-10.

30

three step process. The first step is to develop an under-
standing among the people in the organization regarding
the immense influence that norms have upon their own effec-
tiveness and the effectiveness of the organization. The
second step is to identify the specific norms of the culture
and determine the distance between these norms and the
end goals. Once this has been determined, priorities and
change strategies can be established. In order to bring
about change, the third step requires that peOple examine
and modify each of the various norm influences.1

Finally, Allen and Silverweig suggest that trainers
see themselves as change agents. The primary influences
within organizations are the cultural differences which
shape behavior. It is important that these influences
work to the mutual benefit of the individual and the organ-

. e 2
1zat1on.

Training Methods

 

In the review of training literature by Goldstein
(1980) and Wexley (1984) they lament the fact that rigorous
research studies of various instructional strategies have
produced many questions but few answers. The following
discussion will focus on the four training methods as pre-
sented in Wexley's review.

Behavioral role modeling appears to be an effective

 

1
2

Allen and Silverweig, pp. 17-7 - 17-10.
Allen and Silverweig, p. 17-11.

31

technique in both industrial and nonindustrial contexts.
Overall the studies suggest that behavior-modeling programs
influence behavior and resulting improvement.

Present research of computer-based instruction has
shown that it requires less time than more conventional
methods do to teach the same amount of material, and there
is usually no significant difference in achievement scores
between trainees taught by the two methods.

Simulation techniques are frequently used in manage-
ment development and sales training programs, yet there
is little empirical evidence that they can change attitudes
and behaviors that transfer to the work situation.

Research of behavior modification techniques showed
that partial schedules (trainees do not know when rein-
forcement will be given or how large it will be) improved
both effort and performance. Employees also perceived
their jobs as including more environmental variables such
as recognition and feedback with a partial schedule of
reinforcement than with a continuous schedule.

Behavioral self-management is a new technique on the
training scene. This method involves teaching trainees
to manipulate stimuli and rewards to help themselves make

. . . . 1
changes 1n any d1rect1on that they des1re.

Evaluating Training Programs

Evaluation is a value judgment, thus the criteria

 

1 Wexley, pp. 533-538.

32;
that will be used to evaluate training programs should
be agreed upon by all concerned parties before the research
begins. Goldstein discusses the need to establish multiple
criteria that reflects the various instructional objectives
as well as the organizational goals that the training is
designed to meet.1

Program evaluation, as it is currently practiced,
is reported to be quite poor in both the private and public
sectors. Organizations and their members tend to react
negatively to evaluation as a concept.

Several models have been designed by various researchers
to overcome this resistance. Evaluative research should
avoid an either/or approach, working instead to instill
a "spirit of inquiry" or "scientific attitude". Organ-
izations will make great strides in this direction when
they evaluate programs rather than people, reduce the tie
between evaluatitnl outcomes and resource allocation, and

establish neutral in-house evaluation consultants.2

PLANNED CHANGE

Change is indigenous to human culture. Although it

is resisted in an effort to maintain social equilibrium,

the boundaries of the social system are continually

 

1 Goldstein, p. 240.
2 Wexley, p. 539.

33
bombarded by the production of material inventions such

as tools, weapons, and technical processes. As this tech-
nical aspect of the culture grows, it forces changes upon
the social structure which is resistant and much slower
to change. Thus, the social structure lags behind the
technical changes, creating a state of maladjustment.1
Change is a vital part of man's cultural development, yet
the word change often produces emotional reactions that
many find threatening. Words that refer to the process
of changing people are more readily accepted: education,
training, orientation, guidance, indoctrination, therapy.2
Given that change will occur, and is in fact necessary,

it has been the focus of intense research in an effort
to understand the dynamics of change so that it might be
managed. Kaufman defines directed social change as:

...a planned attempt to modify the attitudes and

behavior of target individuals or groups by agencies

of change seeking to introduce ideas or innovations

into a social system in order to achieve the goals of
the agency or constituency.3

 

1 Don Martindale, "The Crisis in the Contemporary
Theory of Social and Cultural Change," in Creating Social
Chan e, ed. Gerald Zaltman, Philip Kotler, and Ira Kaufman
(New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1972), p. 17.

 

Dorwin Cartwright, "Achieving Change in People:
Some Applications of Group Dynamics Theory," in Creatin
Social Change, ed. Gerald Zaltman, Philip Kotler, and Ira
Kaufman (New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.,
1972), p. 74.

3 Ira Kaufman, "Change Management: The Process and
the System," in Creating Social Change, ed. Gerald Zaltman,
Philip Kotler, add Ira Kaufman (New York, NY: Holt Rinehart
and Winston, Inc., 1972), p. 22.

 

34
Zaltman, Florio and Sikorski's thesis on organizational

change is that it takes place when there are performance
gaps.- Some of the elements which influence the degree
of these gaps are: unrealistic or changed expectations,
new personnel or new treatment of existing personnel,
technological change, power structure changes, and perceived
change in a reference group. The barriers to change arise
from dynamics within the social structure, the organizational
structure, individuals' psychological make-up, competing
forces, or from the very nature of the innovation. Resis-
tance is an ever present phenomenon, and one that the authors
see as being necessary and healthy. They say:

...it provides useful information about organiza-

tional resources, constraints, attitudes, values,

norms, and external relationships which can help

the change planner in selecting strategies.1

House discusses the influence of rewards and costs

on the probability of adoption of an industrial innovation.
He uses a mathematical model developed by Slevin (1971,
1973) to show the relationship.

An individual will try new thin s if the probability

of success of the new thing (Pn minus the probability

of success of current strategies (P5) is greater than

the ration of cost (C) to rewards (R).

Pn - Ps > C / R

By manipulating costs, rewards, current success levels,

or aspiration hwels a person may be moved into an innovation

 

1 Geral Zaltmen, David Floris, and Linda Sikorski,

Dynamic Educational Change, (New York, NY: The Free Press,
1977), p. 47.

35

zone.

The primary focus in much of the change literature
is on affecting organizational or cultural change through
changes in individuals. Cartwright, however, discusses
individual change from a different perspective; individual
change as influenced by group dynamics. The group to which
one belongs sets standards for one's behavior. Therefore,
when instituting change a new level of influence can be
achieved should the group forces be brought into the situa-
tion.

In support of his theory, Cartwright cites studies
where productivity was greatly increased by focusing on
the organization of the work group rather than the individual.
This has implications for training as well. When individuals
participate in workshops as team members, rather than
isolates more enduring changes are produced because the
team provides continuous support and reinforcement for
its members.2

Groups enter the change process in three ways: as a

medium of change, the target of change, or as an agent of

 

 

change. When a group is a major source of influence it

functions as a medium of change. Group norms are a powerful

 

influence on individual members behavior. The group itself

may also become the target of change. To change individuals

 

 

1 Ernest House, The Politics of Educational Innovation,
(Berkeley, CA: McCutcham Publishing Corp., 1974), p. 91.

2 Cartwright, pp. 75-78.

36

it may be necessary to change the standards of the group,
its style of leadership, its emotional atmosphere, or its
stratification into cliques and hierarchies. The group

functions as an agent of change when organized efforts

 

are brought to bare on issues crucial to the group, such

as labor unions, employee associations, citizen groups,

committees, or any action group.1
Cartwright lists eight principles regarding groups

as a medium of change or a target of change.

The Group as a Medium of Change

 

Principle No. 1

If the group is to be used effectively as a medium of
change, those people who are to be changed and those

who are to exert influence for change must have a strong
sense of belonging to the same group.

Principle No. 2

The more attractive the group is to its members the
greater is the influence that the group can exert on
its members.

Principle No. 3

In attempts to change attitudes, values, or behavior,
the more relevant they are to the basis of attraction
to the group, the greater will be the influence that
the group can exert upon them.

Principle No. 4

The greater the prestige of a group member in the eyes
of the other members, the greater the influence he can
exert.

Principle No. 5

Efforts to change individuals or subparts of a group
which, if successful, would have the result of making

 

1 Cartwright, pp. 77-79.

37

them deviate from the norms of the group will encounter
strong resistance.

The Group as a Target of Chapge

 

Principle No. 6

Strong pressure for changes in the group can be estab-
lished by creating a shared perception by members of
the need for change, thus making the source of pressure
for change lie within the group.

Principle No. 7

Information relating to the need for change, plans for
change, and consequences of change must be shared by
all relevant people in the group.

Principle No. 8

Changes in one part of a group produces strain in other
related parts which can be reduced only by eliminating
the change or by bringing about readjustments in the
related parts.1

Change strategies can be divided into three categories:
empirical-rational, normative-reeducative, and power-
coercive. Each of these will be discussed briefly.

The underlying assumption in the empirical-rational
strategy is that man is rational and will follow his
rational self-interest when it is revealed to him. Some
of the typical approaches found in this category are basic
research and dissemination of knowledge through general
education, personnel selection and replacement, systems
analysis as staff and consultants, applied research and
linkage systems for diffusion of research results, utOpian

thinking, or perceptual and conceptual reorganization

through the clarification of language.

 

1 Cartwright, pp. 79-81.

38

The normative-reeducative 'strategies go one step
beyond the empirical-rational approach. The intellectual
changes must be supported by the sociocultural norms.
Individual attitudes and value systems must be considered
as an integral part of the change strategies. The Tavistock
Clinic in England applies this approach by using therapeutic
approaches to problems of change in industrial organizations
and communities. It is this institute that originated
the sociotechnical studies discussed in the next section
of this chapter.

Improving the problem solving capabilities of a system,
and the releasing and fostering of growth in the persons
who make up the system to be changed are two change strategies
which fit into this classification.

The third group of strategies is based on the appli-
cation of power, generally in the form of applied legiti-
mate power, or authority requiring compliance of those
with less power. These change efforts involve strategies
of nonviolence, use of political institutions to achieve
change, and change through the recomposition and the man-

ipulation of power elites.1

 

1 Robert Chin, and Kenneth Benne, "General Strategies
for Effecting Changes in Human Systems," in Creating Social

Chan e, ed. Gerald Zaltman, Philip Kotler, and Ira Kaufman,
(New York, NY: Holt Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1972), pp.

234-251.

39

SOCIOTECHNICAL RESEARCH

Three studies which focus on the effects of technology
on workers' social structure (sociotechnical change) will
be discussed in this section. These studies form the basis
from which this research stems.

The classical study by Trist and Bamforth (1951)
was the result of relatively continuous contact over a
two year period with approximately twenty workers in
various coal-face (mining) occupations. In addition,
many discussions and interviews were held with various
levels of management and three psychiatrists who had wide
experience in miners' problems.

Prior to mechanization, the social-work pattern was
independent working pairs to which one or two individuals
might be attached (occasionally the work group grew to
seven or eight). Many of the small groups were reinforced
by kinship ties. Over the years, stable relationships
resulted and were often extended beyond the work setting.
It was not uncommon in the case of death or injury for
the victim's work mate to care for the other's family.

A group was responsible for the complete coal-
getting task, generally working the small face that they
had contracted for, experiencing the entire cycle of oper-
ations and the full range of coal-face skills. Production
was adjusted by the team to fit the individual workers'

age and stamina. The authors use the term "responsible

40

autonomy" to define this mode of work where the leadership
and supervision are internal to the group. Trist and
Bamforth summarize the main attributes of responsible auto-
nomy in hand-got mining as wholeness of the work task,
multiplicity of individual skills, and self-selection of
the group. This is an ideal situation in mining conditions
where there is no possibility of continuous supervision
due to the darkness and separation. It is this responsi-
bility and skill range that fosters craft pride and artisan
independence.1

The new technologies (coal-cutters and mechanical
conveyors) made it possible to work more economically by
mining a single long face rather than a series of short
faces. This required a work relationship radically different
from the artisan type of pair. The unit became a cycle
group of 40-50 men who functioned in only one role (of
a possible seven) and spent most of their underground.life
in this one occupation. Role segregation was intensified
by the five different methods of payment.

The Longwall method required close interdependence
of tasks, yet the shifts were staggered in such a way that
workers from the three shifts never met. Mistakes and

difficulties made or encountered at one stage were carried

 

1 . .
Eric Tr1st and Kenneth Bamforth, "Some Social and
Psycholog1cal Consequences of the Longwall Method of Coal-
gett1ng, Human Relations, 4 (1951), 3-7.

41

forward, producing yet other difficulties in the next,
threatening a breakdown of the system and creating tension
and anxiety in the workers. The accumulated stress of

bad conditions and bad work left by others contributed

to wide spread psychosomatic and kindred neurotic disorders
among the workers.1

Trist and Bamforth discuss four types of defenses
which arose to counter the isolation and unequal odds.

A norm of low productivity existed when miners were faced
with disturbances that were beyond their control.

Informal, small groups arose, through private arrange-
ments, to help each other out. These groups resemble cliques
whose loyalities were oriented toward the small group rather
than the cycle system as a whole, and lacked the responsible
autonomy enjoyed by the more formal groups in the original
hand-got system. These groups did not get support from
the system and many individuals were left on their own.

The isolation and loss of control fostered a fear
of victimization which triggered reactive individualism.
Workers became secretive and often bribed members of the
other shifts in hope of getting a "good deal" in their
own coal length. The deputy in charge was seen as a per-
secutor and much energy was drained into the intrigue and

deception that the men practiced against him as well as

 

1 Trist and Bamforth, pp. 9-10, 19-29.

42

against each other. When problems arose on the shift,
"buck passing" was the typical response. The deputy was
not immune from the brunt of this irresponsible scapegoating.
The fourth form of defense was withdrawal. When
workers experienced ongoing difficulties due to previous
preparations of the coal surface, they would often take
a day offjJIdefiance of the system. When conditions on
the face deteriorated and absenteeism piled up, the others
would have to work extra hours to clear the face. If this
continued for more than a day or two, all workers would
return home. Absenteeism was also a respite from the wearing
conditions. Days off were seen as a means of prolonging
one's work-life at the coal-face. 1
The concluding recommendations presented by the authors
stress the need to restore responsible autonomy to primary
groups throughout the system, creating a social whole as
well as a technological whole. The training of face workers
for more than one role and allowing flexibility in the
work pace would increase the tolerance for each other's
situation and begin the rebuilding of work teams.2
Billings, Klimoski and Braugh's study examined the
effect of a technological change in a hospital's meal

assembly as it related to job characteristics, worker

satisfaction and absenteeism. The new technology centered

 

1 Trist and Bamforth, pp. 30-36.

2 Trist and Bamforth, pp. 37-38

43

on the use of a fifty foot-long conveyer belt which literally
overnight replaced the steam tables and elaborate delivery
carts which frequently broke down. The workers knew of
the change and participated in a committee that planned
and coordinated events. Three weeks before the installation,
workers became acquainted with the machinery and their
new roles by practicing on the new equipment in a nearby
gymnasium. Knowledge and raw materials remained the same,
only the operations and the rigidity of the work flow were
affected. This had the effect of reducing task variety
and task identity, in addition, the feedback from direct
contact with patients was lost. It also increased task
interdependency, time pressure, and closeness of supervision.1
The reported results were contrary to many of the
predicted results, and surprisingly, many of the changes
that did occur actually took place before the actual imple-
mentation. Seven work structure variables were measured
in this study: job importance, task variety, mobility, task
interdependence, time pressure, task effort, and feedback.
Job importance, task variety and mobility declined somewhat.
Task interdependence increased slightly, while time pressure
and task effort lessened. Feedback remained the same.

The three social structure variables that were measured:

closeness of supervision, satisfaction, and absenteeism

 

1 Robert Billings, Richard Klimoski and James Breaugh,

"The Impact of a Change in Technology on Job Characteristics:
.AQuasi-Experiment," Administrative Science Quarterly, 22

(1977), 320-321.

44

showed no change over the course of this study.

In the discussion of their findings the researchers
pointed out several factors which may have affected the
results: (1) the change was well managed, (2) employees
were informed and involved in the planning and timing of
the change, (3) employees also felt that the new equipment
was desperately needed. This early involvement no doubt
triggered the changes that took place prior to implemen-
tation. The authors also discussed the "growth need strength"
and its effects on the outcome of job satisfaction measures
and absenteeism. In summary, Billings, Klimoski and Brough
state that:

Effects may begin with the identification of the

need for change and the knowledge of the impending
change, continue through the preparations and the
actual change, and end only after a period of adjust-
ment.1

"Psychotechnical units" is a term used by Cooper and
Foster to describe the individual's work relationship
structure rather than the social group's work structure
which "sociotechnical units" refer to. These authors
apply recent psychological research to their discussion
of man's interaction with machines.

Man [is pictured] as a proacting, self-realizing
organism capable of considerable achievements
given the right environmental conditions, but who
becomes refractory when placed in a dependency

relationship and when forced to function at a
fraction of his capacity. Therefore, in considering

 

1 Billings, Klimoski and Breaugh, pp. 331-337.

45

the "fit" between man and machine, it is more

constructive to think of how they can complement

each other.

Man performs optimally when he knows he can control

environmental contingencies; when he lacks such

control, his performance becomes correspondingly

degraded. ...but no matter how well we relate

man to machine, unless he is pr0perly motivated

he will not function very effectively as a com-

plement to it. This motivation must derive from

the task itself.1
When designing man-machine systems, one must clarify what
makes a job challenging, and build in those challenges
and responsibility that are to be assigned to the human
operator, otherwise man will not complement the machine,
but will begin to function like a machine.

There are three critical dimensions of the work
structure that must be considered when viewing the man-
machine system.

1. Role differentiation, which is the degree of task
variety in a given job. Jobs of limited complexity

offer little challenge and thus affect individual motiva-

tion.

2. Task dependence, which is the degree to which two
or more people work together or share a limited common
pool of services, materials or tools. Convergent versus

divergent dependence is far more vulnerable to disruption.

3. Goal dependence, which is the existence of mutual

 

1 Robert Cooper and Michael Foster, "Sociotechnical
Systems," American Psychologist, (1971), 468

 

46

or common goals that increase the likelihood of recipro-
cal,supporting behaviors. This is particularly valuable
in work regions that are susceptible to disruption.1

In their examination of sociotechnical research, Cooper
and Foster found that improved worker attitude and produc-
tivity resulted when there was an element of choice in
redesigning work systems. In the composite method of coal
mining (a cross between the traditional hand-got method
and the mechanized longwall method), greater individual
satisfaction resulted when teams were self-selected and
the group task allowed for a greater variety of skills.

The reorganization of an Indian textile mill that
brought together all workers whose tasks were independent
resulted in increased productivity with less loss due to
damage.

In conclusion, they recommended that the work unit,
whether an individual or a group, be given "responsible
autonomy" so that it becomes capable of self-regulation.
Once the minimal conditions have been identified, the non-
critical variables are left free in order to allow the

system some degree of potential variability.2

 

1 Cooper and Foster, pp. 469-470.
2 Cooper and Foster, pp. 471-473.

 

47

SUMMARY

Research and theoretical models from the fields of
communication, psychology, adult education, organizational
training, and planned change have been discussed in this
chapter as supportive elements in sociotechnical change.
Sociotechnical research is a relatively new field, thus
there are few studies to draw upon. The founding study
in sociotechnical systems by Trist and Bamforth (1951)
was reviewed in detail and supported by studies from other
researchers. This literature formed the basis of this

thesis and guided its direction. The design of this thesis

is presented in the next chapter.

 

CHAPTER III

DESIGN OF THE STUDY
INTRODUCTION

This research is designed to examine the effect of
formal and informal approaches to training on computer-
based office equipment as perceived by staff, managers, and
trainers at six sites. The sites are representative of
offices existing in educational, governmental, and small
business settings. The intent of this study is to serve as
preliminary research in unraveling the effects of socio-
technical change on today's offices.

The literature reviewed for this study delineated the
effects of technical change in the work setting on employee
social structure, job satisfaction, and productivity.
Training and its role as an intervention tool in planned
change was also discussed.

Presented in this chapter are the processes used to
conduct this study. The population, sample, pertinent
' geographical data, and sampling techniques are presented
first. The development and selection of instruments and
overview of the data-gathering procedures follows. Finally,

the statistical treatment is discussed.

48

49

POPULATION AND SAMPLING METHODS

The sample was drawn from a population of offices
that have implementedcomputerized office systems prior to
March 1984. The organizations are geographically located
in the greater Lansing, Michigan area.

Lansing is the state capital. Consequently there
are numerous governmental offices and private businesses
that regulate, coordinate and maintain operations throughout
the state. In addition, there are more than two hundred
regional or state trade and professional organizations
that maintain offices in the Lansing area.

Education holds aprominent position in the Lansing
area. There are seventy-two elementary schools, seventeen
junior high and twelve high schools. There are also five
institutions of higher education located within this region:
Michigan State University, Lansing Community College, Thomas
M. Cooley Law School, Lansing Business Institute and the
Great Lakes Bible College.1

The many governmental offices, private businesses,
and educational institutions in the greater Lansing area
provided a rich source ofcmfices from which sites were
selected for this study.

Six sites were selected, and of them three were selected

as exemplary in their implementation which included a formal

 

Lansing Regional Chamber of Commerce, Michigan's
Capital Area Map and Statistical Review, 1984.

 

50

training program. The other three that were selected in-
cluded no formal training. To reduce the organizational
variables, two sites were selected from each of the three
organizations which participated in this study. Each or-
ganization provided one site where formal training took
place and one site where informal training took place.

The three participating organizations were selected according
to their availability and their diversity. Two of the
sites were departments in a major university, two were
from the state department, and two were departments in

the national headquarters of a major insurance company.
The selected sites are identified by the type of training:
formal training or informal training.

The work of Glasser and Strauss on theoretical sampling
was the basis for the sampling method used in this study.
These authors state that:

Theoretical sampling is done in order to discover cat-
egories and their prOperties, and to suggest the inter-
relationships into a theory.

The adequate theoretical sample is judged on the basis
of how widely and diversely the analyst chose his groups
forsaturatingcategpries according to the type of theory
he wished to develop.

Thus, theoretical sampling is used when the research is

based on a general subject or problem area.1

 

Barney Glasser and Anslem Strauss, The Discovery
of Grounded Theogy, (Chicago, IL: Aldine Publishing Co.,
I967), pp. 105-106.

 

 

51
DESCRIPTION OF SITES

A brief description of each site is presented as back-
ground for the forthcoming data- .A detailed summary of

each site is presented in Chapter IV.

Site I: State Dgpartment With Formal Training

This office was created as an automated resource center
which processes work and designs systems for other depart-
ments. The staff was specifically hired as computer oper-
ators, thus they did not experience the transition from
a manual to an automated system as did the other staffs.
They were provided formal vendor training as well as being
trained by their manager who was a leader in the field of
office automation.

The three staff maflxms and their manager/trainer par-

ticipated in this study.

Site II: State Department Without Formal Training

The function of this department was the scheduling
of hearings and the maintenance of case files. Automation
resulted in the division of the staff into two units, those
who worked on the automated equipment and those who did not.
This division of staff, as well as the trial and error
approach maimplementation with inefficient equipment
and an inexperienced programmer/trainer, resulted in many
difficulties. The instruction that the staff received
was rushed, highly pressured, and subject to change as their

system continued to be de-bugged.

52

Managers and staff from both units of this department
were participants in this study. Although one unit was
not automated, the work was restructured around the auto-
mated system. The participants from this site consisted
of the department manager, the two unit managers, the lead
worker in the automated unit, the programmer/trainer, four
of the five staff in the automated unit, and six of the

eight staff in the nonautomated unit.

Site III: Insurance Company With Formal Training

This department was a word processing center in a major
insurance company. The major function.‘was the production
of documents for various departments throughout the organ-
ization. The vendor provided formal training at an off
site training lab, as well as follow-up sessions and ongoing
support.

The participants from this site were the manager, the

lead worker, four of the six staff, and the vendor's trainer.

Site IV: Insurance Company Without Formal Training

This department provided analytical and procedural
support by means of improving the methods that were applied
in the field. Personal computers were provided to aid the
staff in this task. The staff was self-taught using the
tutorial program that was purchased from the vendor.

There was full participation by the three staff

members and one manager.

53

Site V: University Department With Formal Training

 

This department provides clerical services for one of

the colleges in a major university. It is responsible
for preparing and publishing a variety of documents. A
computerized word processing system was installed to increase
staff productivity. The vendor provided formal training
at an off site lab. There were follow-up sessions as well
as ongoing support.

The participants from this site included the following:
the department manager, four of the five staff, and the

vendor's trainer.

Site VI: University Department Without Formal Training

This small, specialized department within a major un-
versity is responsible for the production of various pub-
lications which are written by the faculty. Personal com-
puters were purchased to increase the staff's productivity.
A self-paced tutorial manual was also purchased from the
vendor for staff training.

The manager and all three of the staff participated

in this study.

INSTRUMENTATION

The instruments used to gather data for this study
are the Short Form Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire,
the Automation Satisfaction Questionnaire, an Open-ended

Questionnaire, a Patterned Interview, and a Trainer Survey.

54

Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire

The Short Form Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
is an outgrowth of the Minnesota Studies in Vocational Rehab-
ilitation, better known as the Work Adjustment Project,
which began in 1957. These were developed as diagnostic
tools for assessing the work adjustment potential of appli-
cants for vocational rehabilitation and the evaluation
of work adjustment outcomes. The Short Form Minnesota Satis-
faction Questionnaire consists of the twenty items listed
below. Each item refers to a reinforcer in the work environ-
ment. The respondents indicate how satisfied they are with
the reinforcer on their present job. Five response alterna-
tives are presented for each item: Very Dissatisfied, Dis-
satisfied, Neither (dissatisfied nor satisfied), Satisfied,
Very Satisfied. The categories are listed below.

1. Ability utilization. The chance to do something
that makes use of my abilities.

 

2. Achievement. The feeling of accomplishment I get
from the job.

 

3. Activity. Being able to keep busy all the time.

4. Advancement. The chance for advancement on this
job.

5. Authority. The chance to tell other people what
to do.

 

6. Company policies and practices. The way company
policies are put into practice.

7. Compensation. My pay and the amount of work I do.

 

8. Co-workers. The way my co-workers get along with
each other.

 

9. Creativity. The chance to try my own methods of
doing the job.

 

55

10. Independence. The chance to work alone on the
job.

 

11. Moral values. Being able to do things that don't
go against my conscience.

 

12. Recognition. The praise I get for doing a good
job.

 

13. Responsibility. The freedom to use my own judgment.

 

14. Security. The way my job provides for steady employ-
ment.

15. Social service. The chance to do things for other
people.

 

16. Social status. The chance to be "somebody" in
the community.

 

17. Supervision -- human relations. The way my boss
handles workers.

 

18. Supervision -- technical. The competence of my
supervisor in making decisions.

 

19. Variet . The chance to do different things from
time to time.

20. Working conditions. The working conditions.1

 

Automation Satisfaction Questionnaire, Open-ended Question-
naire, Patterned Interview, and Trainer Survey

The Automation Satisfaction Questionnaire, Open-ended
Questionnaire, Patterned Interview, and Trainer Survey were
developed after consultation with professionals in the field
and users of automated equipment, as well as extensive

.reading of the latest reports regarding implementation and

 

1 David Weiss, Rene Dawis, George England, and Lloyd
Lofquist, Manual for the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire,
(Minnesota Studies ifi Vocational RehabiIitation: XXII,
Industrial Relations Center, University of Minnesota, 1967),
pp. X, 1-4.

56
worker adjustment. The Art of Asking Questions by Stanley
Payne provided technical guidance in the construction of
the questions and the format of the questionnaires.

Automation Satisfaction Questionnaire: The Automation

 

Satisfaction Questionnaire ,(ASQ) was developed as a tool

to measure the degree of staff and management's satisfaction
with their automated system. ffluaAutomation Satisfaction
Questionnaire consisted of seventeen items. Each item referred
to some aspect of office automation. The respondents indi-
cated their degree of satisfaction with each item. Five
response alternatives were presented for each item: Very
dissatisfied, Dissatisfied, Neither (dissatisfied nor
satisfied), Satisfied, Very Satisfied.

Open-ended Questionnaire: The Open-ended Questionnaire

 

was designed for staff and management. Its purpose was to
provide indepth investigation of the various aspects and
ramifications of automated office systems, as well as to
support the responses on the Minnesota Satisfaction Question-
naire and the Automation Satisfaction Questionnaire.
Alternative forms of the Open-ended Questionnare
were developed for staff and management. Many of the
questions were the same with slight modifications in wording
_to fit the role of the respondent. In addition, each form
included some unique questions pertaining to the specific
position for which it was designed. The following issues
were addressed in the questionnaire: job satisfaction, imple—

mentation, training, concerns prior to automation, stress

57
related to automation, productivity, and changes resulting
from automation.

Patterned Interview: The interview technique was used

 

in conjunction with the Open-ended Questionnaire to verify
the data obtained on the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
and the Automation Satisfaction Questionniare, as well as
adding depth to the study. This combination of two methods
was based on the rationale that people react differently
to the spoken word than the written word. The written
word is easier to follow due to the fact that the meaning
can be inferred from the context. People also express them-
selves differently in written as compared to oral communi-
cations, yet the interviewer will influence both the quality
and quantity of the responses.1 Thus, the interview techni-
que was used to allow participants to openly express their
thoughts without the constraints of paper and pencil, as
well as providing them and the interviewer the opportunity
to ask clarifying questions, giving added meaning to the
written responses.

The Patterned Interview addressed the issues of equip-
ment selection, training, and degree of participant involve-
ment in decision making. The effects on staff and office

.Operations were also explored.

Trainer Survey: This survey focused on trainer

 

1 Stanley Payne, The Art of Asking Questions, (Princeton,
NJ: Princeton University Press, 1951), pp. 51-52, 137.

58

qualifications, job satisfaction, training satisfaction, and
training specifics (sites, hours, materials used, methods,
evaluation).

These questionnaires and interviews were piloted at
a seventh site for the purpose of validating and refining
the questions. This site was separate from those used
in the study. A copy of each instrument appears in Appendix
A (Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire) and Appendix B
(Automation Satisfaction Questionnaire, Open-ended Question-
naire, Patterned Interview, and Trainer Survey).

Demographic Data

 

Data regarding the covariates of sex, age, and tenure
was requested of all participants. This was used in the

detailed analysis of the descriptive data.

DATA GATHERING PROCEDURES

The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire, Automation
Satisfaction Questionnaire, Open-ended Questionnaire, and
the Patterned Interview were administered at the work site
by the researcher. Staff participation was voluntary,
resulting in an overall loss of six cases (82% participation).
There was full participation by all department managers,
'one from each of the six sites. Site II had two unit
managers (one from the automated unit and one from the
nonautomated unit) in addition to the lead worker
from the automated unit. Site III also had a lead worker

who participated in a managerial capacity. The lead workers

59
functioned in a quasi-supervisory role. They participated
as managers in the study as they were more knowledgeable
in some of the aspects of automation than the department
manager. It was their responsibility to provide peer
tutoring and trouble shooting for the automated system.
Additionally, the lead worker from Site III trained all

incoming staff.

Table 3.1--Summary of Participants.

 

State Department Insurance Company University
Group Site I Site II Site III Site IV’ Site V Site VI

 

 

Managers 1 4* 2* 1 1 1
Ekaff 3 10 4 3 4 3

*Ikmludmslemdwmrhmn

There was also full participation of the trainers.
Questionnaires were mailed to the off site trainers after
telephone communication described the study and requested
their participation.

An introductory cover letter was attached to all question-
naires. This briefly discussed the purpose of the study,
guaranteed confidentiality and defined the term "auto-

mated." A copy of this letter appears in Appendix B.

STATISTICAL TREATMENT

This research was designed as a descriptive analysis

of the effects of computer-based office equipment in six

60
offices. The data obtained from the six sites through the
questionnaires and interviews wenaanalyzed in four sec-
tions: Questionnaire Analysis, Open-ended Questionnaire
and Patterned Interview Analysis, Trainer Survey Analysis,
and Individual Case Summaries. The interview and question-
naire analysis compared the response patterns in the sites
that had formal training with those that did not have formal

training.

Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire and Automation Satis-
faction Questionnaire Data Analysis Procedures

The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire and the Auto-
mation Satisfaction Questionnaire-used identical formats.
The respondents indicated their degree of satisfaction with
each item on a Likert-type scale. The response choices
for both questionnaires were weighted in the following
manner.

Scoring
Response Choice Weight

Very Dissatisfied (VDS) .............1
Dissatisfied (DS) ...................2
Neither (N) .......}.................3
satiSfied (S) 0.00.00.00.0000000000004
very satiSfied (VS) ......OOOOOOOOOOOS
Responses were scored from 1 through 5 proceeding from
left to right in the answer spaces. Scale scores were deter-
mined by summing the weights for the responses chosen for the

items in each scale. The Minnesota Satisfaction Question-

naire (MSQ) umai 20 items (one from each of the 20 scales)

61

1 The Automation

yielding a score ranging from 20 to 100.
Satisfaction Questionnaire (ASQ)Lmed 17 items, giving a
range of 17 to 100. The resulting scores were subsequently
converted to percentiles. A percentile score of 75 or
higher is ordinarily taken to represent a high degree of
satisfaction; a percentile score of 25 or lower would
represent a low level of satisfaction; and, scores in the
middle range of percentiles (26-74) would indicate average
satisfaction.2

A t-test was used to establish whether or not a sig-
nificant difference exists between the group means on the
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire and the Automation
Satisfaction questionnaire for the managers and the staff
who had formal training and those who had informal training.

The level of rejection of the null hypothesis for this study

was set at .05.

Open-ended Questionnaire and Patterned Interview Data

Analysis Procedures

 

The first task in analyzing the Open-ended Question-
naire and the Patterned Interview data consisted of develop-
ing response categories for each of the questions. For
this task, the distinction between responses from partici-

pants at the sites that had formal training and those who

 

1 Weiss, Dawiss, England and Lofquist, p. 3.

2 Weiss, Dawiss, Englang and Lofquist, p. 5.

62
did not have formal training was ignored. Care was taken
to develop response categories which were as general and
inclusive as possible without misrepresenting or distorting
the individual responses. The responses were computer pro-
cessed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences

(SPSS). The responses are reported as relative frequencies

(frequency of response
number of cases

 

) unless otherwise indicated.

Trainer Survey Data Analysis Procedures

 

The analysis of the Trainer Survey followed the
same procedures as those listed for the Open-ended

Questionnaire and Patterned Interview.

Case Summary Procedures

 

The individual case summaries respresent an attempt
to synthesize and integrate all the available information
gathered from a single site. These case summaries were
based on anecdotal information gathered by researcher
observations, the questionnaires and interview responses.
Each site presentation followed a similar format:

needs assessment--impetus for change

staff involvement in the decision making process
data of implementation

training and support systems

productivity .
degree of job and automation satisfaction

O‘U'IJ-‘boNH

SUMMARY

The samples for the present study were drawn from

automated offices located in the greater Lansing area.

63

Six sites were selected, two from each of the three partici-
pating organizations, based on their use of formal training.

The instruments used in this study were the Short
Form Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire, the Automation
Satisfaction Questionnaire, an Open-ended Questionnaire,
a Patterned Interview, and a Trainer Survey. The data
were collected on-site by the researcher and subjected
to calculations of descriptive statistics as well as
t-tests. The scores for the Minnesota Satisfaction Ques-
tionnaire were reported as percentiles. The responses for
the Open-ended Questionnaire, Patterned Interview, and
Trained Survey were reported as relative frequencies

unless otherwise noted.

CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS OF THE DATA

INTRODUCTION

The data are analyzed in two sections. The first
section includes the data from each of the instruments used
in this study: Demographic Data, Minnesota Satisfaction
Questionnaire, Automation Satisfaction Questionnaire,
Open-ended Questionnaire, Patterned Interveiw, and the
Trainer Survey. The second section is a case summary

of each site.

INSTRUMENT ANALYSIS

Demographic Data

 

The demographic data were reported as relative frequen-
cies in Table 4.1. The majority of the participants were
females (managers 80%, staff 89%) between the ages of 25-45
(managers 90%, staff 82%).

The data also indicated stable work patterns, partic-
ularly for managers. Seventy percent of the managers and 30%
of the staff had been with their organization seven or more
years. This may reflect the tight job market that was fre-

quently discussed by both management and staff. Conversely,

64

65

the majority of the trainers (67%) were tenured fewertfluu1
4 years. This fact may be due to the relative newness of
office automation.

Table 4.1.--Frequency Distribution of Demographic Data for
Management, Staff, and Trainers.

 

 

 

Management Staff Trainers

Sex

Male 20 11 33
Female 80 89 67
Age

< 25 -- 11 --
25-35 50 52 67
36-45 40 30 33
46-55 10 7 --
> 55 -- -- --

Number of Years in Occupation

 

 

 

< 1 10 12 --
1-3 10 19 67
4-7 30 27 33
> 7 50 42 --
Number of Years with Organization
< 1 -- 7 --
1-3 10 23 67
4-7 20 31 33
> 7 70 39 --
Number of Years in Present Job
< 1 10 23 --
1-3 -- 35 67
4-7 70 27 33
> 7 20 15 --

 

66
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire

The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) indicated
degree of job satisfaction. The short form, which consists
of twenty items, was used in this study. The frequency
of responses, group means, and percentiles are presented
in Tables 4.2 through 4.5. Scores were tabulated for each
of these four groups: (1) managers from sites where there
was formathraining, (2) managers from sites where there
was informal training,.(3)staff from sites where there was
formal training, (4) staff from sites where there was informal
training.

Manager and Staff Response - Formal and Informal
Training: The percentiles for the managers from the
two groups were nearly identical: formal training 70th
percentile, informal training 7lst percentile. These
were in the range identified as average satisfaction,
although they were only a few points away from the high
satisfaction indicator (75-100).

The percentiles for the staff from the two groups
showed a very distinct difference; formal training 73rd
percentile, informal training 58th percentile. Both of
these scores were within the range of average satisfaction;
however, the staffs from the group that had formal training

were only two points below the high satisfaction range.

67

Table 4.2.--Frequency of Response on the Short Form
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire of
Managers at Sites Where Formal Training
Took Place.

 

 

On my present job, this is how I feel about . . . m m, N s... 2:,"
1. Being able to keep busy all the time . . "" '"' 25 50 25
2. The chance to work alone on the iob " " 25 25 50
3. The chance to do different things from time to time "' 25 “ 25 50
4. The chance to be "somebody" in the community " " 25 75 u
5. The way my boss handles his/her workers ., . " '“ 50 25 25
6. The competence of my supervisor in making decisions "" "' 25 50 25
7. Being able to do things that don’t go against my conscience " " 25 75 '-
8. The way my iob provides for steady employment "’ " -- 75 25
9. The chance to do things for other people " u -- 50 50
10. The chance to tell people what to do " n -- 100 --
ii. The chance to do something that makes use of my abilities " "' 25 5O 25
12. The way company policies are put into practice . "' "' 100 u --
13. My pay and the amount of work I do " “ 25 75 --
14. The chances for advancement on this iob "' 50 50 -- --
15. The freedom to use my own iudgment '- -- 50 25 25
16. The chance to try my own methods of doing the iob . " “ n 75 25
17. The working conditions "' 25 25 25 25
18. The way my co-workers get along with each other " " 25 75 “-
19. The praise I get for doing a good job "' -- 25 75 --
20. The feeling of accomplishment I get from the iob "v 25 "" 75 '-

0.32.. Drum. N Sat 1:?

Group Mean 76

Percentile 70

68

Table 4.3--Frequency of Response on the Short Form
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire of
Managers at Sites Where Informal Training
Took Place.

 

 

On my present job, this is how i feel about . . . 0?: “a“ N w. 2:,"
1. Being able to keep busy all the time . " "‘ "" 17 83
2. The chance to work alone on the iob " -- 33 17 50
3. The chance to do different things from time to time ” " n 50 50
4. The chance to be ”somebody" in the community “ " 50 33 17
5. The way my boss handles his/ her workers . I s , " 33 -- 50 17
6. The competence of my supervisor in making decisions “ 17 -- 33 50
7. Being able to do things that don't go against my conscience "' ” " 33 67
8. The way my iob provides for steady employment "' "' -- 50 50
9. The chance to do things for other people " 17 16 17 50
10. The chance to tell people what to do " "- 34 33 33
H. The chance to do something that makes use of my abilities " 33 -- 17 50
12. The way company policies are put into practice . "' 67 -- 33 --
13. My pay and the amount of work l do "' 17 -- 66 17
T4. The chances for advancement on this iob 50 u -- 50 --
15. The freedom to use my own iudgment '- -- 17 50 33
16. The chance to try my own methods of doing the iob " -- 33 50 17
17. The working conditions -' 17 -- 66 17
lb. The way my co-workers get along with each other 17 33 -- 50 --
19. The praise I get for doing a good job 17 -- 1 7 49 17
20. The feeling of accomplishment I get from the job " 17 17 49 17

Very Very
Dissat. Ohm. N Sat. Sat.

Group Mean 76.66

Percentile 71

69

Table 4.4.--Frequency of Response on the Short Form
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire of

Staff at Sites Where Formal Training

Took Place.

 

 

On my present job, this is how i feel about . . .

‘l.

‘OONOMbUN

-s ..s d d _e .- .a ..e ..e a
3 o m N ‘ 0 U! ‘ U N -' 0

Being able to keep busy all the time

. The chance to work alone on the iob

. The chance to do different things from time to time

. The chance to be ”somebody” in the community

. The way my boss handles his/ her workers

. The competence of my supervisor in making decisions

. Being able to do things that don't go against my conscience
. The way my iob provides for steady employment

. The chance to do things for other people

. The chance to tell people what to do

. The chance to do something that makes use of my abilities
. The way company policies are put into practice

. My pay and the amount of work I do

. The chances for advancement on this iob

. The freedom to use my own iudgment

. The chance to try my own methods of doing the iob

. The working conditions

. The way my co-workers get along with each other

. The praise I get for doing a good iob

. The feeling of accomplishment I get from the iob

Group Mean 78

Percentile 73

.122. o...
-- 9
-- 18
18 --
9 9
9 ..
-- 9
9 .-
9 9
9 9
-- 18
9 36
9 9
-- 9
-- 9
-- 18
83.2.. as...

55
55
27
46
36
55
73
36
46
55
36
46
73
36
46
55
55
45
46
27

Very
Set.
27
45
64

36

18
64
36

46
18

27
18
36
55
27
46

Very
Set.

70

Table 4.5.--Frequency of Response on the Short Form
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire of
Staff at Sites Where Informal Training

Took Place.

 

 

On my present iob, this is how i feel about . . .

'l.

convent-w.»

ddddd-‘d-fld—O
BQQVOM‘UN-‘O

Being able to keep busy all the time
The chance to work alone on the iob
The chance to do different things from time to time

The chance to be ”somebody" in the community

. The way my boss handles his/her workers

The competence of my supervisor in making decisions

. Being able to do things that don’t go against my conscience
. The way my iob provides for steady employment

. The chance to do things for other people

. The chance to tell people what to do

. The chance to do something that makes use of my abilities
. The way company policies are put into practice

. My pay and the amount of work I do

. The chances for advancement on this iob

. The freedom to use my own iudgment

. The chance to try my own methods of doing the iob

. The working conditions

. The way my co-workers get along with each other

. The praise i get for doing a good iob

. The feeling of accomplishment I get from the iob

Group Mean 67

Percentile 58

Very
Dissat.

13
7

Very
Dissat.

Oissat.

13

7
32
53
27

Dissot.

13
21
32
27
13
27
27
20
20
4O

40

13
40
13
33

33
33

67
53
27
27
27
46
60
27
53
40
47
27
60

20
47
40
27
27
33

Very
Set.

13
27

Very
Sat.

71

Test of Significance: The group means were subjected

 

to t-tests to determine if there were any significant
differences between the groups that had formal training
and the groups that had informal training. These t-tests
and the resulting probability values (p-value) were used
to indicate acceptance or rejection of Research Hypotheses
1 and 2. A p-value of less than .05 resulted in rejecting
the null hypothesis.

Hypothesis 1: There is no statistically significant

difference in job satisfaction between managers at

sites where formal training took place and managers
at sites where informal training took place.

 

The mean score on the Minnesota Satisfaction Question-
naire for the managers with formal training was 76.00 while
managers with informal training scored 76.66. In the test
of significance, the t-value was -.11, which was significant
at the .918 level (Table 4.6). This did not prove to be
significant at the .05 level; therefore, Hypothesis 1 could
not be rejected.

Table 4.6.--T-ratios of Management With and Without Formal
Training on the Minnesota Satisfaction Question-

 

 

 

naire.
. . Standard a 2-tail
Scale Training Mean Deviation t-value Probability
Formal 76.00 7.78 _
”SQ Informal 76.66 12.04 '11 '918

 

a Degrees of freedom for pooled variance 8 8.

72
Hypothesis 2: There is no statistically significant
difference in job satisfaction between staff at sites
where formal training took place and staff at sites
where informal training took place.

The mean score on the Minnesota Satisfaction Question-
naire for the staffs with formal training was 78.00 while
the staffs that had informal training scored 66.06. This
yielded a t-value of 2.49 which was significant at the
.022 level (Table 4.7). This indicated a significant dif-
ference; therefore, Hypothesis 2 was rejected.

Table 4.7.--T-ratios of Staff With and Without Formal

Training on the Minnesota Satisfaction
Questionnaire.

 

 

 

. . Standard a 2-tail
Scale Training Mean Deviation t-value Probability
FOrmal 78.00 12.79 *
“SQ Informal 66.06 11.02 2'49 '022

 

a Degrees of freedom for pooled variance = 22.
* Significant at less than .05.

Automation Satisfaction Questionnaire
The Automation Satisfaction Questionnaire (ASQ) was
designed to measure the degree of satisfaction for staff
and management on issues relating to office automation.
The questionnaire contained seventeen items to which staff
- and management responded. The frequency of responses,
group means, and percentiles are presented in Tables 4.8
through 4.11. Scores were tabulated for each of these
four groups: (1) managers from sites where there was formal

training, (2) managers from sites where there was informal

73
training, (3) staff from sites where there was formal
training, (4) staff from sites where there was informal
training.

Manager and Staff Response - Formal and Informal

 

Training: The managers and staff from the group that had
formal training indicated similar degrees of satisfaction
(managers, 6lst percentile; staff, 65th percentile). The
scores of the managers and staff from the group that did
not have formal training were even more consistent, they
varied by only one percentile point (managers, 48th per-
centile; staff, 47th percentile). All four sets of scores
were within the range of average satisfaction; however,
the group that had formal training had significantly higher
satisfaction ratings than those that did not have formal
training.

Tests of Significance: The group means were subjected

 

to t-tests to determine if there were any significant
differences between the groups that had formal training
and the groups that had informal training. These t-tests
and the resulting probability values (p-values) were used
to indicate acceptance or rejection of Research Hypotheses
3 and 4. A p-value of less than .05 resulted in rejecting

_ the null hypothesis.

74

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77

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78

Hypothesis 3: There is no statistically significant
differencefiin automation satisfaction between managers
at sites where formal training took place and managers
at sites where informal training took place.

 

The mean score on the Automation Satisfaction Question-
naire for managers with formal training was 67.75, while
managers with informal training scored 56.83. In the
test of significance, the t-value was 2.48, which was sig-
nificant at the .042 level (Table 4.12). This was signifi-
cant at the .05 level; therefore, Hypothesis 3 was rejected.
Table 4.12.--T-ratios of Management With and Without Formal

Training on the Automation Satisfaction Ques-
tionnaire.

 

 

 

. . Standard a 2-tail
Scale Training Mean Deviation t-value Probability
Formal 67.75 6.55
ASQ Informal 56.83 . 7.19 2'48 '042

 

a Degrees of freedom for pooled variance = 8.
* Significant at less than .05.

Hypothesis 4: There is no statistically significant
difference in automation satisfaction between staff
at sites where formal training took place and staff
at sites where informal training took place.

 

The mean score on the Automation Satisfaction Question-
naire for the staffs with formal training was 70.99 while
' the staffs that had informal training scored 55.92. This
yielded a t-value of 3.80 which was significant at the
.001 level (Table 4.13). This clearly indicated a signi-

ficant difference; therefore Hypothesis 4 was rejected.

79

Table 4.13.--T-ratios of Staff With and Without Formal
Training on the Automation Satisfaction
Questionnaire.

 

 

 

‘ . . Standard a 2—tail
Scale Training MEan Deviation t-value Probability
Fbrmal 70.99 7.84 *
ASQ Informal 55.92 10.16 3'80 '001

 

a Degrees of freedom for pooled variance = 22.
* Significant at less than .05.

Data From Selected Items: Percentiles of selected

 

items from the Automation Satisfaction Questionnaire are
presented in Table 4.14 and are discussed below. The

added emphasis on these six items stems from their relation-
ship to the research questions addressed in this study.

Item one asked participants to indicate how they felt
about office automation in general. The managers and staff
from the group that had formal training had percentile scores
in the high satisfaction range (management 75, staff 84), as
did managers from sites without formal training (76). The
lowest percentile score was from the staff that did not have
formal training (68); yet this score was in the range of
average satisfaction and was only five points away from the
high satisfaction range. It should be noted, however, that
the highest percentile score was generated by the staff with
- formal training (84) while the lowest percentile score
came from the staff with informal training (68). The range
between these two groups was 16 points.

Item two measures satisfaction with individuals' involve-

ment in the decision making process. Management and staff

80
from both groups indicated average satisfaction. None
of the scores varied more than six points from the 50th
percentile (46 to 56).

Item six measures individuals' satisfaction with the
training they received. Here, too, all percentiles are
within the range of average satisfaction, but the variance
between them is significant. The highest percentile score
was 73 for staff that had formal training. The managers
in the formal training group were slightly less satisfied,
with a percentile score of 69. The lowest percentile score
came from the managers without formal training 36, while
the staff without formal training scored 49. In both groups,
formal training and informal training, managers were less
satisfied with their training than staff.

Item twelve and thirteen measured satisfaction with the
resulting productivity and quality of work produced. All
percentile scores for managers and staff in the group that
had formal training were in the high satisfaction range,
varying from the 8lst percentile to the 9lst percentile.

The scores for the management and staff in the group that

did not have formal training were in the average satisfaction
range, with little variance, 63rd percentile to the 69th
percentile.

Item fifteen indicated overall job satisfaction. The
highest rating came from the staff that had formal training,
78th percentile. This was the only group that scored in

the high satisfaction range, all others scored in the range

81
of average satisfaction. The lowest percentile score,
59, came from the staff that did not have formal training.
It appeared that training did not affect managers' job
satisfaction, as the variance was minimal (formal training

69, informal training 71).

Open-ended Questionnaire and Patterned Interview

The Open-ended Questionnaire and Patterned Interview
consisted of a series of questions which queried both
management and staff. They contained several questions
which were staff or management specific. The data resulting
from the Open-ended Questionnaire and Patterned Interview
were discussed in tandem since the questions and resulting
responses were interrelated and followed a similar format.
The questions were divided into three chronological cate-
gories: Prior to Automation, Automation Implementation,
and Results of Automation. This order was utilized in
the analysis of the data. The data were presented as
relative frequencies for each of the four groups: (1)
managers from sites with formal training, (2) managers
from sites with informal training, (3) staff from sites
with formal training, (4) staff from sites with informal
training.

There were several instances where there were no
responses given. Some of the participants indicated that
they could not answer because the question was not appli-
cable or they didn't know the answer. The majority of

these responses resulted from the hiring of staff after

82

 

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83
implementation. In the case of Site I, the staff was
specifically hired for computer operation services in a

newly created department.

Prior to Automation - Manager Response

 

ITEM 1: When did you decide to automate?

Two of the managers from sites with formal training
indicated that automation had been an ongoing process since
1980. The remaining site with formal training automated
in 1983.

One site with informal training was automated in 1982,
while two informally trained sites were automated in 1983.

Collectively, those sites with formal training had
experienced automation for a longer period than those with

informal training.

ITEM 2: What triggered this decision?
The responses from both groups of managers indicated
that the need to increase productivity was the impetus

to change.

ITEM 3: Was a needs assessment done?
All of the managers indicated that there was some form
.of needs assessment done.
ITEM 4: Was the staff involved in any of the decision
making?
Half of the managers in both groups indicated that the

staff was involved in the decision making process.

84
Managers identified three areas of staff involvement:
the decision to automate, equipment selection, and training
plans.
ITEM 5: How did you decide on the organization from whom
you bought the hardware and software?

The managers from sites with formal training
stated that the vendor was selected following an evaluation
of the available equipment. The managers from sites with
informal training reported that the decision was made by
others or based within another department's project.

ITEM 6: What were your concerns regarding automation
prior to the installation of the equipment in
your office?

Managers from sites with formal training reported
equal concern pertaining to the impact of automation on
the quality of work and user resistance(50%).

Two additional concerns were noted by managers with
informal training. Their major concern was the capability
of the equipment. Fifty percent questioned whether or
not "it could do all it promised." Twelve percent were
concerned with "the level of support and training to insure
proper usage." These managers indicated less concern with

quality of work (25%) and user resistance (13%).

The frequency of responses for both groups are listed

in Table 4.15.

85

Table 4.15.--Manager Concerns Prior to Automation.

 

 

Formal Informal

Response Categories Training Training

 

1. Impact on quality 50 25
2. Equipment reliability -- 50
3. User Resistance 50 13
4. Staff training -- 12

 

Note. Scores are reported as relative frequencies.

Automation Implementation - Manager Response
ITEM 7: Were there organizational constraints to implemen-
tation?

Twenty-five percent of the managers from sites with
formal training indicated that there were organizational
constraints, compared to eighty-three percent of the
managers from sites with informal training who also responded

"yes .00

Budgetary constraints, hiring freezes, and controlling
factors trelated. to upper management were the issues listed

by both groups of managers.

ITEM 8: Do you use automated equipment in your job?

All of the managers from sites with formal training
indicated that they did use automated equipment in their
work. The managers from sites with informal training
also indicated a high percentage of use (83%). However,
'the extent of this use was not indicated.

ITEM 9: Were you trained on the use of automated equip-
ment?

Seventy-five percent of the managers from sites with

formal training reported that they had been trained in

86
the use of automated equipment, while eighty-three percent
of the managers from sites where there was informal training

reported that they were trained.

ITEM 10: How was the training of staff done?

Managers from the three sites where there was formal
training reported that the staff received basic training
from the vendor at an off site location. This was followed
by review sessions or in-house updates.

Two managers from sites where there was informal train-
ing stated that a self-paced tutorial program was purchased

from the vendor and used by the staff to learn the various
functions of the equipment. The third manager from the
group that had informal training indicated that there was
vendor training prior to installation, but the focus of the
training was not applicable to worker tasks. This was
followed with informal instruction by an inexperienced
programmer who became frustrated with the reluctant

learners.

ITEM 11: Was training timely?
Two of the three managers from sites with formal

"yes"; whereas only one manager from

training responded
the three sites where there was informal training indi-
cated that training was timely.

ITEM 12: Did training address worker attitudes and
adjustment needs?

87
The response pattern on this question was identical

to the previous item. Two of the three managers from

sites with formal training responded yes,‘ while only
one manager from the sites with informal training responded

"yes."

ITEM 13: Was training cost effective?

Although there was no attempt to measure the cost
effectiveness of training at any of the sites, the majority
of the managers responded "yes" (formal training 100%,
informal training 67%).

ITEM 14: Are there provisions for ongoing training,
support,and retraining?

All of the managers from both groups indicated that
there were provisions for ongoing training. However,
the approaches varied from providing materials to formal

reviews and updates.

Results of Automation - Manager Response

 

ITEM 15: Has automation been cost effective?

All of the managers from the sites where there was
formal training responded "yes," compared to a much
lower frequency (50%) for those managers who were from
'sites where there was informal training. The remaining
n n

managers from the informally trained group reported no

(17%) or "don't know" (33%).

88
ITEM 16: Do you feel that productivity has increased
since automation? If yes, approximately
what percent?

All of the managers from sites with formal training
observed that productivity had increased since automation,
while only 67% of the managers from sites with informal
training reported an increase.

The highest levels of productivity increase were
reported by the managers from sites where there was formal
training: 25% indicated an increase of 21-30%, 25% reported
an increase of 31-40%. The managers from sites where there
was informal training reported an increase of only 21-30%.
A large number of managers from both groups did not respond
to the question or stated that they did not know the amount
of increase. The percentages for the two groups is listed
in the table below.

Table 4.16.--Manager Reported Increase in Productivity
Following Automation.

 

 

Formal Informal

Response Categories Training Training

 

1. 21-30% 25 33
2. 31-40% 25 --
3. Don't know 25 17
4. No response 25 5o

 

Note. Scores are reported as relative frequencies.
ITEM 17: How long did it take to reach satisfactory
productivity levels following automation?
Twenty-five percent of the managers from sites with

formal training reported that satisfactory levels were

89
reached within 30 days compared to 17% of the managers
from sites without formal training. However, 2-6 months
was the most common response for both groups of managers.
At the extreme, one third of the managers from the sites
without formal training indicated that satisfactory levels
had not yet been reached approximately nine months after
implementation. The percentages for both groups are pre-
sented in Table 4.17.
Table 4.17.--Manager Reported Length of Time before Satis-

factory Productivity Levels Were Reached
Following Automation.

 

 

Formal Informal

Response Categories Training Training

 

1. Immediately -- --
2. Within 30 days 25 17
3. 30-60 days -- --
4. 60-90 days -- 33
5. 6 months 50 17
6. 8 months - 1 year 25 --
7. Not there yet -- 33

 

£232. Scores are reported as relative frequencies.

ITEM 18: How much downtime (loss of productivity)
did you experience after implementation?
Seventy-five percent of the managers from sites

where there was formal training reported that there was
_no loss in productivity (50%) or less than one week (25%).
Half of the managers from sites where there was informal
training reported a loss of 1-2 weeks, with one-third
reporting a loss of 30 days. The percentages for each

group are presented.iJ|Table 4.18.

90

Table 4.18.--Manager Reported Loss of Productivity
Following Implementation.

 

 

Formal Informal

Response Categories Training Training

 

1. None 50 --
2. Less than 1 week 25 --
3. 1-2 weeks -— 50
4. 30 days 25 33
5. 60 days -- --
6. Don't know -- 17

 

£253. Scores are reported as relative frequencies.
ITEM 19: How often can you update or change hardware/
software without overstressing the operators?
The responses from both groups of managers was similar.
Seventy-five percent of those from sites with formal train-
ing reported six months to one year. One hundred percent
of the managers from sites with informal training reported
this as well. The only other response indicated that
major system changes could take place every two to three
years.
ITEM 20: Were there personnel problems as a result of
automation?
Fifty percent of the managers from sites with formal
training reported that there were personnel problems.
The managers from the sites that had informal training
-had a higher frequency of "yes" responses, eighty-three
percent. Work avoidance behaviors and grievances were

problems listed by the managers.

ITEM 21: Has automation displaced any workers?

91

One manager indicated that workers were reassigned due
to automation, yet none of the managers reported layoffs
or reduction in staff.

ITEM 22: Has automation reduced your need to hire addi-
tional people?

One manager from the group that had formal training
and two managers from the group that had informal training
reported that they were able to meet increasing production
demands without adding staff or did not need to refill

vacancies.

ITEM 23: Have Operators' jobs expanded due to automation?

The two groups of managers responded in a similar
manner. Seventy-five percent of the managers from the
group that had formal training and eighty-three percent
of the managers from the group that had informal training
answered "yes." Managers reported that their staffs were
more skilled and had increased time to do individual projects.
Additionally, a few of the managers stated that staff now
functioned in a semi-professional role and were involved

in more decision making.

ITEM 24: Has automation changed your job?

. All managers reported that their jobs had changed
due to automation. They commented on the release from
manual tasks which allowed more time for problem solving.

Managers also stated that they were making different kinds

92
of decisions and their job included an increased teaching

function.

ITEM 25: What are the rewarding aspects of your job?

The managers from sites where there was formal training
reported that "service" (40%), "responsibility" (40%),
and "various aspects of automation" (20%) were rewarding
elements in their jobs.

Managers from sites that had informal training also
reported "service" (33%) and "aspects of automation" (25%)
most frequently. They also mentioned "variety" (17%),

"job tasks" (17%) and "co-worker" (8%).

ITEM 26: What would you recommend to others who are
preparing to implement automated office equip—
ment?

The most frequent response from both groups of
managers was "involve, inform, and support staff" (50% formal
training, 27% informal training). The other areas of joint
consensus were "train staff" (17% formal training, 9% informal
training) and "do a thorough feasibility study" (17% formal
training, 18% informal training). The managers from the
sites with informal training also stressed the importance
of "maujfing equipment to the office needs" and "obtaining

.a qualified person to install the system" (18%).

Prior to Automation-—Staff Response

 

ITEM 1: To what degree were you involved in the decision
making process?

93

The majority of the staff from both groups indicated
that they had no involvement or minimal involvement in the
decision making process regarding automation (85% formal
training, 68% informal training). However, staff that
did not have formal training indicated a higher level
and more varied involvement. In the categories of "somewhat
involved" and "total involvement" the response frequency
for the staff that had formal training was 15% compared
to 32% for those who did not have formal training. These

frequencies are presented in Table 4.19.

Table 4.19.--Staff Involvement in Decision Making.

 

 

Formal Informal

Response Categories Training Training

 

1. No involvement 54 62
2. Minimal involvement 31 6
3. Somewhat involved 15 21
4. Total involvement -- 11

 

Note. Scores are reported as relative frequencies.
ITEM 2: In what way(s) were you involved in the decision
making process?

Staff from both groups reported involvement in
equipment selection, location of equipment, and training
plans. In addition, the staff from sites where there
'was informal training indicated that they were involved
in the decision to automate and the installation plans.
ITEM 3: What were your concerns about automation prior

to the installation of the equipment in your
office?

94

The staff from sites with formal training reported
most frequently that they had no concerns (43%). 0f the
concerns that they listed, "ability to learn" (21%) and
"equipment reliability" (21%) were the two most frequently
reported. Only 6% of the staff from sites with informal
training reported no concerns. Their' most. frequent concern
was the "impact on quality" (28%), followed by "ability

to learn" (18%), and "equipment reliability" (18%). Table

4.20 depicts the responses.

Table 4.20.--Staff Concerns Prior to Automation.

 

 

Formal Informal

Response Categories Training Training

 

1. Ability to learn 21 18
2. Impact on quality 7 28
3. Loss of job -- 12
4. Allotted time to learn 8 --
5. Equipment reliability 14 18
6. Boredom -- 6
7. Availability of equipment -- 12
8. None 43 6

 

Note. Scores are reported as relative frequencies.

Automation Implementation - Staff Response

ITEM 4: Describe your training.
The staff that received formal training participated
. in off site vendor classes where self-paced manuals were
used, as well as lecture, training disks, and cassettes.
The staff that were informally trained were provided

with self-paced tutorials and had to schedule their own

95
learning time as their work load allowed. At one site

the programmer provided informal instruction.

ITEM 5: Were you given enough training?
Eighty percent of the staff that had formal training

responded "yes" compared to the 25% who responded yes"

from the group that had informal training.
ITEM 6: Identif those elements of our training that
were (1) outstanding and (2) needed improvement.

The modal response (34%) of staff that had formal
training indicated that the overall training methods and
procedures were outstanding. This was followed by training
materials with a frequency of 22%. The remaining responses
were reported equally (11%): user-friendly equipment,
experiencing new learnings, nothing, and not applicable.
The staff that had informal training reported the positive
aspects of peer and management support most frequently
(50%). Training materials and "nothing" were both reported
with a 13% frequency while 24% indicated that the question
was not applicable.

The emphasis on those elements of training that staff
identified as needing improvement varied considerably
between the two groups. Those who had formal training
.desired further instruction in advanced functions (34%),
while 11% indicated that the overall training methods
and procedures needed improvement. In comparison, 50%

of those who had informal training felt that the overall

96
training methods and procedures needed improvement. The

total responses for both groups are listed in the Table 4.21.

Table 4.21.--Staff Response to Training and Improvements.

 

 

Outstanding, Needs Improvement

 

 

Response: Categories Formal Informal Formal Informal
Training Training Training Training

 

1. Peer and management support -- 50 -- 10
2. Training methods and procedures 34 -- 11 50
3. Trainer -- -- 11 --
4. Training Materials 22 13 11 10
5. Allotted time to learn -- -- 11 10
6. User-friendly equipment 11 -- -- 10
7. Having input -- -- 11 ~-
8. Nothing 11 13 -- --
9. New learnings 11 -- -- --
10. Advanced instruction -- -- 34 --
11. Not applicable 11 24 11 10

 

Note. Scores are reported as relative frequencies.

ITEM 7: In the process of automating the office,
I found the following to be helpful:

The most frequent response of the staffs who were
given formal training reported the support they received
from their manager, trainer, and other co-workers (25%).
Training and time to learn had a frequency of 17%, as did
gradual conversion. Being informed and involved was also
mentioned (8%). Thirty-three percent indicated that the
_question was not applicable.

Being informed and involved had the highest response
frequency (25%) from the staffs that had informal training
This was followed by training manuals at 20%. The remaining

comments had a frequency of 6%: support, gradual conversion,

97

nothing, and not applicable. Thirty-one percent did not

respond. These frequencies are presented in Table 4.22.

Table 4.22.--Staff Reported Helps for Implementation.

 

 

 

. 0
Response Categories Tigigiig %::i:?::
1. Being informed and involved 8 25
2. Support 25 6
3. Gradual conversion 17 6
4. Training and time to learn 17 '-
5. Training materials -- 20
6. Nothing -- 6
7. Not applicable 33 6
8. No response -- 31

 

Note. Scores are reported as relative frequencies.

Results of Automation - Staff Response

ITEM 8: To what degree has automation changed the follow-

ing: your job, who you work with, work flow,

where you work, career opportunities, your inter-
action with fellow employees, pay.

The staff from sites that had formal training reported
some change or total change in three areas:

career opportunities, and interaction with fellow employees.

work flow,

The two areas that did not change for any of the staff

in this group was where you work and pay.

Overall,the responses of the staff from the sites

"that had informal training indicated a higher degree of

change compared to the staff from sites with formal training.

The only area that did not change for any of the staff

from this group was pay.

98
Itvms interesting to note that all of the staff that
received formal training reported some or total change
in their career opportunities, while sixty-seven percent
of the staff that had informal training reported no change.
The response frequency for each group is presented in

Table 4.23.

Table 4.23.--Staff Response to Degree of Change Resulting
from Automation.

 

 

No Minimal Some 'Iotal
Response Categories .gbéflgén .SEEESE. .Sbange Change

FI‘IT FTIT FI‘IT FI‘IT

 

1. Ybur job 50 11 50 11 -- 56 -- 22
2. Who you work with 83 44 17 11 -- 33 -- 11
3. Wbrk flow 50 -- 17 22 33 33 -- 44
4. Where you work 100 44 -- -- -- 33 -- 22
5. Career opportunities -- 67 -- -- 33 22 67 11
6. YOur interaction with

fellow employees 33 33 17 -- 33 56 17 11
7. Pay 100 100 -- -- -- -- -- --

 

Note. Scores are reported as relative frequencies.
FT = Formal Training, IT = Informal Training

ITEM 9: How stressful was your transition to automated
equipment?

Those with formal training indicated considerably
lower stress levels: 45% reported no stress or minimal
stress, 28% reported somewhat stressful or very stress-
ful trainsition. This response pattern was reversed for
those with informal training: 25% reported no stress or
minimal stress, 56% reported somewhat stressful or very
stressful transition. These responses are charted in

Table 4.24.

99

Table 4.24.--Staff Reported Stress Levels During Transition.

 

 

Formal Informal

Response Categories Training Training

 

1. No stress 18 6
2. Minimal stress 27 19
3. Somewhat stressful 18 25
4. Very stressful 10 31
5. Not applicable 27 6
6. No response ‘ -- 13

 

Note. Scores are reported as relative frequencies.

ITEM 10: Did you experience fatigue with the new equip-
ment? If yes, describe.

The most frequent response for both groups was "yes,"
(46% formal training, 62% informal training). Eighteen
and nineteen percent of these two respective groups did
not respond or stated that it was not applicable.

The fatiguing factors for each group are listed in the
table below. The two most frequent responses for the two
groups were eye strain (18% and. 22% respectively) and
general fatigue related to stress (18% and 17%. respectively).
It is interesting to note that worry was a fatigue factor

in the group with informal training.

Table 4.25.--Staff Reported Fatigue Factors.

 

 

Formal Informal

Response Categories Training Training

 

1. Eye strain 18 22
2. Backache 9 6
3. Boring 9 17
4. Headaches -- 6
5. Neckaches -- 5
6. Worry -- 5
7. Multiple factors 9 5
8. Not applicable 37 17

 

Note. Scores are reported as relative frequencies.

100
ITEM 11: Since installation of automated equipment, I
like my job: better, somewhat better, no
change, somewhat less, a lot less.

Seventy-three percent of the staff at sites where there
was formal training reported that they liked their jobs
better or somewhat better. The other 27% indicated that
the question was not applicable. The staff at sites where
there was informal training reported that they liked their
jobs better or somewhat better at a frequency of 55%. Thir-
teen percent of those who had informal training stated that
there was no change, and 19% said they liked their job

somewhat less or a lot less. These data are listed in

Table 4.26.

Table 4.26.--Staff Reported Change in Job Satisfaction.

 

 

Formal Informal

Response Categories Training Training

 

Since installation of automated equipment, I like my job:

1. Better 64 6
2. Somewhat better 9 49
3. No change -- 13
4. Somewhat less -- 6
5. A lot less -- 13
6. Not applicable 27 --
7. No Response -- 13

 

N222. Scores are reported as relative frequencies.
ITEM 12: Factors related to my job. (1) What I like best.
(2) What I like least.
Both groups indicated the same three factors as major
elements affecting their job satisfaction. "Variety and
challenge" were reported most frequently by the two groups,

staff with formal training 34%, informal training 50%. This

101

was followed by "people I work with" (12% formal training,
29% informal training), and "various aspects of automation"
(33% formal training, 14% informal training). The responses
for this question are listed in Table 4.27. Also listed
in this table are the staff responses regarding what would
make the job better.

The responses to "What I like least about my job"
indicated that "allotted work time" was a major factor
for both groups (30% formal training, 21% informal training).
The other two major responses listed by the staff that
had formal training were "career path" (30%) and "pay"
(20%). The most frequent response for those who had informal
training was "management and the established policies"
(36%), with "variety and challenge" (22%) and "aspects
of automation " (14%) stated as additional factors.

Table 4.27.--Staff Response to "What I Like Best About
My Job," and "What Would Make My Job Better."

 

 

like Best Make Job Better

Fbrmal Informal Formal Informal
Training Training Training Training

 

Response Categories

 

1. variety and Challenge 34 50 10 22
2. People I work with 12 29 -- 7
3. Automation 33 14 -- 14
4. JOb task -- 7 10 --
5. Service to others 7 -- -- --
6. Responsibility 7 -- -- --
7. Management and policies 7 -- -- 36
8. Allotted work time -- -- 30 21
9. Pay -- -- 20 --
10. Career Path -- -- 30 --

 

Note. Scores are reported as relative frequencies.

102
ITEM 13: Do you feel that productivity has increased
since automation? If yes, approximately what
percent?

Seventy-three percent of the staff who received formal
training responded "yes" compared to 56% of the staff who
received informal training. The majority of the staff
from both groups reported that they didn't know what the
increase was, or they did not respond to the question (73%
formal training, 75% informal training).

ITEM 14: How long after your training before you felt
at ease and productive on the new equipment?

Sixty-four percent of the staff that had formal
training reported that they felt productive immediately
or within thirty days. Those who were given informal
training had a much lower frequency, 25% within 30 days.
At the extreme, 25% of the staff from sites where there
was informal training reported that approximately nine
months after implementation they had not yet reached a
level of ease and productivity. The modal response for
the informally trained staff was 31% at 5 months. The

responses are presented in Table 4.28.'

ITEM 15: How often do you feel that hardware/software
can be updated or changed without causing you
a high degree of stress?
There was a wide range of responses for both groups
on this question. The most consistant response came from
the group that had formal training. Their most frequent

response was 6 months to 1 year (36%), followed by "when

necessary" (19%). Thirty-seven percent of the staff from

103
sites that had informal training did not respond or
stated that they didn't know. Table 4.29 depicts the

response frequencies for the two groups.

0

Table 4.28.--Staff Reported Length of Time before Satis-
factory Productivity Levels Were Reached
Following Automation.

 

 

Formal Informal

Response Categories Training Training

 

1. Immediately 18 --
2. Within 30 days 46 25
3. 30-60 days 18 ~-
4. 60-90 days -- 13
5. 5 months 9 31
6. 6 months -- 6
7. Not there yet -- 25
8. Not applicable 9 --

 

Note. Scores are reported as relative frequencies.

Table 4.29.--Staff Response to "How Often Can Equipment
Be Upgraded Without Causing a High Degree
of Stress?"

 

 

Formal Informal

Response Categories Training Training

 

1. Less than six months -- 13
2. Six months to one year 36 6
3. Every year -- 19
4. Every two years 9 13
5. Four years 9 --
6. When necessary 19 --
7. Not at all 9 6
8. Not applicable 9 6
9. Don't know -- 13
10. No response 19 24

 

Note: Scores are reported as relative frequencies.

104
ITEM 16: What would you recommend to others who are pre-
paring to bring automated equipment into the
office?

The responses from both groups were very similar. The
most frequent response was "inform, involve and support
people" (51% formal training, 56% informal training).

This was followed by "train and provide support staff"

(32% formal training, 22% informal training), and "select
appropriate equipment and professional analyst" (16% formal
training, 11% informal training). The only other response

came from the staff that had informal training, "don't

do it" (11%).

Trainer Survey

 

The purpose of this survey was to acquire specific
information regarding staff training. Additional data
were gathered regarding trainer qualifications, job satis-
faction, and training satisfaction.

This survey was administered to two vendor trainers
and one in-house trainer from the sites that had formal
training. The responses are presented in the same format
that was used for the Open-ended Questionnaire and Patterned

Interview.

ITEM 1: Describe your background and training.

The trainers came from a variety of backgrounds:
data system analyst, computer trainers, and clerical/
educational. All three reported experience in consulting

and in-house training.

105
ITEM 2: What are the rewarding aspects of your job?
The trainers reported that the interaction and

contact with people was the rewarding element in their

jobs.

ITEM 3: My overall satisfaction with the training staff
received.

Two of the trainers reported that they were satisfied,

while one indicated he was very satisfied.

ITEM 4: What were the strong points of the operator's
training?

Two of the three trainers discussed the benefits
of one-on-one assistance, while the third trainer reported

that the hands-on approach was very beneficial.

ITEM 5: Where did training take place?
The two vendor trainers reported that off site training
labs were used, while the in-house trainer answered that

training was done on-site.

ITEM 6: What was the duration of the training sessions?
The three trainers reported that eight to twelve

hours were provided for the basic instruction. Advanced

seminars were also available through the vendors.

ITEM 7: Did operators have equipment to train on and
practice on?

All three trainers responded yes."

106
ITEM 8: Describe the training methods used.
Lecture and hands-on were the most frequent responses.
In addition, the trainers discussed the use of role play

and visual aids.

ITEM 9: What materials were used for training?

A variety of materials were used; however, the
self-paced manual appeared to be the foundation for the
instruction. Handouts, reference materials, tapes, and

disks were also mentioned.

ITEM 10: Was there a preassessment of needs?
The two vendor trainers replied "yes." They met

with the operators and discussed their needs.

ITEM 11: Were operator attitude and adjustment needs
met?

All three trainers responded "yes." However, no

specifics were given as to how this was done.

ITEM 12: Was there follow-up to the basic training?

' There was

Again all three trainers answered "yes.'
on-site visitation by all of the trainers, and two of

them provided review sessions.

ITEM 13: Is there ongoing support?

Here,too,the three managers marked "yes." Updating
classes, advanced classes and user meetings were reported
by all three. In addition, two of the trainers reported

vendor phone support and user newsletters.

107

ITEM 14: Was operator progress evaluated during or after
training?

All three trainers reported that operators were eval-
uated by informal performance tests. Two trainers also

indicated that self-evaluation was used.

CASE SUMMARY OF SITES

Each case summary follows a similar format. First,
descriptive factors of the site provides background infor-
mation regarding the function of the office. This is
followed by a discussion which focuses on needs assessment
and the resulting impetus for change, date of implementation,
and staff involvement in the decision making process. The
pertinent data from the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
and the Automation Satisfaction Questionnaire are also
reviewed. A discussion of training, support provided for
staff, and productivity concludes the presentation.

The sites are presented sequentially as organizational
pairs. The first two sites are offices in the state govern-
ment, sites three and four are departments in the national
headquarters of a major insurance company, and sites five
and six are offices in a major university.

To aid in the comparison of the sites a summary table
which lists the percentiles from the Minnesota Satisfaction
Questionnaire and the Automation Satisfaction Questionnaire
for staff and management from each site is included at

the end of this section.

108

SITE I: State Department With Formal Training

After a nine month feasibility study this department
was created as an automated resource center which processes
work and designs systems for other departments. Due to
its origin it did not go through the transition from a
manual operation to an automated one. 'The staff members
were specifically hired as computer operators. Consequently,
many of the survey and interview questions regarding tran-
sition were not applicable.

This office was automated in 1980 and continued
to upgrade and expand by incorporating new software and
placing units in field sites. The job satisfaction scores
on the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire were in the
high satisfaction range for the manager, 83rd percentile,
while the staff was only two percentage points below
the high range, 73rd percentile. The scores from the
Automation Satisfaction Questionnaire were in the high
range for both management and staff, 76th percentile and
83ed percentile respectively.

Training was viewed as an integral part of this depart-
ment's continued efficiency and improved productivity.
The original training consisted of a self-paced manual
and two days of vendor training. ’This basic training
'taught staff how to perform the various functions of the
equipment. However, the department manager, who also
served as an in-house consultant/trainer, believed that

truly efficient operators must know more than the basic

109

functions. They must know how to analyze and combine
various options if they are to utilize the equipment fully.
It is this logic-based instruction that was the focus
of the ongoing training and support received by this staff.

Due to this philosophy and the variety of tasks that
came into the department, this small office was a major
test site for new software created by their vendor. The
staff and manager took great pride in this and revelled
in the challenge of finding the limits of the machine.
One operator commented, "It's the machine--human aspect,
the kinship of getting to know the limitations of the

machine's interactions."

SITE II: State Department Without Formal Training

This office was service oriented and dealt directly
with the public. Its major function was scheduling hearings
and maintaining case files. The projected increase in
case load triggered the move to automate these procedures
which began in the fall of 1983. Automation brought major
operational and structural changes to this department.
It was subsequently divided into two units: those who
worked on the automated equipment and those who continued
to serve the public and prepared information for the auto-

mated center. Work flow and job tasks were changed con-
siderably.

Prior to automation two significant changes took place,
the government workers had voted to be part of a union

and a new manager was assigned to the division. This

110

combination of change and the resulting stress was a vola-
tile mixture which was ignited by an inexperienced programmer/
trainer and unreliable equipment. This was further fueled
by government cut-backs, fear of job loss, a tight job
market, and the numerous procedural changes brought about
by automation. No longer could cases be "walked through"
by the individual staff member, and files were not easily
accessible to all workers. A complex system of codes,
additional forms, and longer time lapse in scheduling
hearings added frustration for the staff and the public
they served.

Both units of this department were participants in
this study. Although only one unit actually worked on
the equipment, the function of the other unit was drama-
tically affected by the change.

All of the staff in the department received introduc-
tory instruction on the use of the automated equipment
and were given the opportunity to apply for transfer to
the automated unit. Not everyone was accepted, however.
The result was disappointment and frustration over the
selection of automated operators. Some who were accepted
became frustrated and requested placement back in the non-
.automated section of the division. At one point there
were multiple requests for transfer to other divisions.

The job satisfaction scores on the Minnesota Satis-
faction Questionnaire were in the average range for both

management and staff (69th and 50th percentile, respectively).

111
The Automation Satisfaction Questionnaire scores were
also in the fiftieth percentile range (managers 58th per-
centile and staff 54th percentile). Although all of these
scores are in the average range, collectively they are
the lowest scores in this study.

The staff received vendor training which focused on
the basic editing functions of the machine, but not on
the programming and coding necessary to adapt the equip-
ment to the needs of this office. The usefulness of this
training was further diminished because it was so far re-
moved in time from the actual implementation, rendering it
virtually ineffective.

Due to the governmental freeze on hiring, the program
analyst/trainer that had been selected to set up the system
could not be employed. Consequently, a lawyer from a neigh-
boring department who had some programming skills took over
this complex task.

There were many difficulties throughout this process,
not the least of which was the lack of vendor support.

The equipment was a new line and relatively untested;
its capabilities were not well suited to the needs of
the department. Much of the implementation process was
.trial and error with frequent procedural changes even
during the training period. As each part of the system
was completed the programmer trained the staff in its
use and actual input began. Both staff and trainer were

under pressure from production demands which necessitated

112
the maintenance of both the old and the new systems by
one staff. There was virtually no time for testing the
system and very little time for training or practice.
Frustration ran high, lowering everyone's tolerance level.

Although the staff was involved in the decision making
process, it was not a rewarding experience. They were
being asked to help design a system they didn't understand
on equipment that did not lend itself to the task. The
satisfaction with their involvement in decision making
was in the fortieth percentile range.

The division manager expressed serious reservations
about the automation of the department. She stated that
automation was very costly in equipment expenditures as
well as in staff morale. Although the equipment had made
the staff more accurate, they had not yet seen any gain
in productivity. In fact, cases were taking longer to
schedule. The decision to automate had been made by the
previous manager and was based on a needs assessment that
predicted an increasing case load. The increase never
materialized. Instead the case-load dropped substantially.

The high stress levels throughout the department
were demonstrated by many grievances, a period of work
_avoidance behaviors, transfer requests, and antagonism
toward the new system, the programmer/trainer, and manage-
ment. One of the unit managers pointed out that there
were attitude and performance problems with some of the

staff before automation. These were further aggravated

113
by the new process. To aid in establishing a more positive
stafftmnale a field manager who had a degree in guidance
and counseling was brought in to manage and support the
staff in the automated unit. Also, there were plans to
provide additional in-house training as a means of
supporting both the automated and nonautomated unit.
As the system smoothed out, personnel problems dissipated,
yet traces of these negative feelings were still detectable

a year later when this study took place.

SITE III: Insurance Company With Formal Training

This site was a word processing center which provided
services for other departments throughout the organization.
Its structure was reminiscent of the onetime typing pool.
They were production oriented. Line count and error rate
were carefully monitored.

Automation was introduced into this office in 1980.
In 1983, after a nine month needs assessment, a more SOphis-
ticated system was implemented. Although the operators
worked on a wide variety of documents for many departments,
their overall task of entering data did not vary. Operators
were confined to their terminals all day; therefore, ergo-
nomics played a key role in their comfort level and con-
sequent productivity. Nonglare screens, acoustical covers
for printers, and ergonomic chairs that were designed
for frequent readjustment were some of the environmental

amenities provided for the operators.

114

The managers' rating of job satisfaction on the
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire was in the average
range, 64th percentile, while the staff's rating was eleven
percentile points higher (75th percentile) and within
the range of high satisfaction. A similar pattern was
present on the Automation Satisfaction Questionnaire.

The managers scored in the average range, 70th percentile
while the staff was again within the range of high satis-
faction, 76th percentile.

The vendor provided two days of basic training,
followed by two days of advanced training. The original
trahfing sessions were held off site at the vendor's training
lab. Cassettes and self-paced manuals were the basic
teaching tools. The operators stated that they would
have liked more personal attention from the trainer who
was frequently out of the room. The staff's satisfaction
with their training was in the average range, 56th percen-
tile.

The frustration that the operators experienced in
the transition was the pressure of maintaining productivity
levels at the busiest time of their year and the slow

performance of the new equipment which was still in the
_testing stage. The result of this slowdown was several
nmurths of mandatory overtime which many operators resented.
Sonue of the operators also expressed a desire for more

invr>lvement in the equipment selection, which was reflected

115
in the satisfaction rating of their involvement in the
decision making process at the 38th percentile.

Training was an ongoing part of office operations.
Additional support was provided by the vendor in the form
of seminars and bulletins, as well as in-house updates
on new software and application procedures. This depart-
ment was led by a very enthusiastic manager who kept abreast
of the latest technological advances and was sensitive
to employee satisfaction and comfort levels.

Due to the organizational structure of this department
and its history of documenting productivity, it was the
only site that had statistical pre and post data on produc-
tivity levels. The present equipment had increased produc-
tivity 25-35% with an error rate of less than 1%. (Note:
This department had been partially automated prior to
the purchase of the present equipment.) The manager also
pointed out that the total conversion, training, and the
development of expertise on the equipment took nearly

one year.

SITE IV: Insurance Company Without Formal Training

 

This small department provided analytical and pro-
cedural support to other units and individuals within the
.organization. It was through these improved methods that
company growth and individual effectiveness was increased.
The staff in this department took great pride in their
work and were very conscious of the professional quality

of their product.

116

The need to increase productivity, a hiring freeze,
and the staff's desire for a tool that would aid in the
analysis and production of documents, led to the acqui-
sition of personal computers in 1982. An analysis of inter-
nal applications and the logging of time were used as a
basis for selection. The actual purchase of the hardware
was based on a larger pilot contract within another project
in the company.

The manager had a high level of job satisfaction,
84th percentile, while the staff was slightly below the
high range at the 70th percentile. Management and staff
reported identical levels of automation satisfaction at
the 68th percentile which is in the average range.

The staff stated that they had been involved in the
decision to automate from the beginning. They had the
highest satisfaction rating on this issue in the study:
the 9lst percentile .

This staff also had the lowest rating in this study
regarding training satisfaction. Their satisfaction rating
was at the 16th percentile which is in the low satisfaction
range. Formal training was not provided for this department.
The computer came with a tutorial manual and a telephone
sevice number if one became stuck. The staff found this
method of self-instruction very frustrating and time con-
suming as indicated by the low satisfaction rating of train-
ing. The manuals were not always clear and often some

of the steps were left out. Help from the telephone service

117

number was slow in<umfing, and staff soon gave up using

it. Staff had to find time during a busy day to sit at

the machine and go through the tutorial program, a hard

thing to do when one is under pressure to get work completed.
As a result, the staff learned to use the equipment and
improve their efficiency and the quality of their work,

but on a limited basis.

The personal computers that were provided for the
staff was viewed as a tool to aid them in their tasks.
Although staff were encouraged in the use of this new equip—
ment, there was little support provided for training or
time to learn due to project demands. The staff reported
this process as being somewhat stressful.

The department manager was pleased with the increased
productivity. He estimated that the staff was approximately
30% more productive with the automated equipment. He
also projected that this can be further improved with the
addition of other computerized operations such as
electronic mail, electronic files, calendaring, and computer

scheduling.

SITE V: University Department With Formal Training

This department provided clerical service for one
~of the colleges in a major university. It was responsible
for preparing and publishing a variety of documents. An
informal needs assessment and the desire to increase

productivity while reducing repetitive tasks led to the

118
decision to purchase a dedicated word processing system.
The university had done a comparative study of word pro-
cessing equipment which aided this department in its choice
of vendor.

Job satisfaction was in the average range for manage-
ment and staff as indicated by their scores on the Minne-
sota Satisfaction Questionnaire (70th and 69th percentile
respectively). However, satisfaction with the automated
system was in the high range, (management, 86th percentile;
staff, 82nd percentile).

The two days of introductory training took place
in the vendor's training lab. Self-paced training manuals,
personal support from the trainer, and periodic evaluation
(both formal and informal) were the instruction techniques
used. The vendor also provided two review sessions, as
well as ongoing site visitations and telephone support
for the life of the equipment. There were advanced classes
in systems administration and communications in addition
to user newsletters.

This was one of the university approved vendors,
and several departments had installed their equipment
previously. A university users' support group had developed
to exchange ideas and techniques for equipment applications.

Although staff was included in the decision making,
they would have liked even more involvement. The staff
indicated this by their satisfaction rating at the 56th

percentile that decision making received on the Automation

119
Satisfaction Questionnaire and by their comments on the
questionnaire/interview. Overall, the staff responses
were positive and they appreciated the advantages of auto-
mation. As one person commented regarding the equipment
provided for them, "It made an impression about how manage-
ment feels about us."

The manager felt that productivity had increased
approximately 40% and that error rate had decreased sub-
stantially. Contracted printing costs had been virtually
eliminated as this was now done in-house due to the capa-
bilities of the new equipment. The manager also felt
that job satisfaction increased due to automation. This was
indicated by the decline in absenteeism and increased co-
operation levels. Automation had eliminated many of the
repetitive tasks and had aided in the laborious process

of correcting and editing documents.

SITE VI: University Department Without Formal Training
This was a small, specialized department within a
major university. The production of publications was a
major function of the clerical staff. The increased work
load and reduced funds for hiring additional staff led

to the 1983 purchase of personal computers to aid production.

Prior to the purchase of the computers, the staff partici-
pated in a needs assessment and were involved in the pre-
liminary decision regarding the purchase of equipment. How-

ever, there were budgetary constraints so the necessary

120
funding for the preferred equipment and training were not
available.

The manager indicated average satisfaction with her
job on the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire, 66th per-
centile, while the staff rated their satisfaction within
the high range, 75th percentile. On the Automation Sat-
isfaction Questionnaire the manager again rated her satis-
faction in the average range, 62nd percentile, with staff
reporting a high satisfaction at the 83rd percentile.

A tutorial program was provided for learning the opera-
tions of the equipment. Staff scheduled their own training
time enul were aided by the manager who was also self-taught
via the tutorial program. There had been avoidance on
the part of one staff member in scheduling training time,
which may reflect the resistance observed by the manager.
The manager kept the use of the automated equipment limited
to those who had gone through the tutorial program step-by-
step for fear of a system crash and resulting loss of
data.

The staff that was using the equipment was frustrated
by the lack of training and support. Although they reported
that their supervisor was helpful, they felt that they
needed an uninterrupted time to sit with the manual, and
they desired formal training with someone on hand to
answer their questions.

The manager estimated that productivity increased

25-30% with the installation of word processing equipment.

 

121

In addition to the need for training, the manager expressed
the need for professional assistance in adapting the system
to meet specific departmental needs. For several weeks the
equipment was not usable. The inexperienced staff struggled
to get the system "up and running" without success. The
vendor telephone support was incapable of dignosing the
problem. Finally, assistance from another computerized
department on campus was offered and it was determined that
the problem was "bad disks."

A summary of the characteristics which were present
at each site is depicted in Table 4.30. In Table 4.31
the percentiles are presented for staff and management from
the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire, Automation Satis-
faction Questionnaire, and selected items on the Automation

Satisfaction Questionnaire.

Table 4.30.-—Summary of Characteristics Present at Each Site.

 

 

STATE DEPT. INSURANCE CO. UNIVERSITY

 

 

 

 

, SITE SITE SITE
categmnes I II 111 IV V VI
Formal Training x - -- x -- X -_
' Major changes in office -- X -- -- -- --
operations and structure
Ongoing staff support X X X -- X --
7': :‘c
Degree of staff stress N/A 81 77 66 50 63
High production demands N/A X X X -- -—

during conversion

 

Note. Staff scores are presented as percentiles.

* = high range (75-100)
N/A = Not applicable

122

Table 4.31.--Summary Table of Management and Staff Per-
centile Rating on Key Issues by Site.

 

 

 

 

 

STATE DEPT. INSURANCE CO . UNIVERSITY
. SITE SITE SITE

categ°nes I II III IV V VI
Formal Training X --' X -- X ~-
Minnesota Satisfaction
Questionnaire

Management 83* 69 64 84* 70 66

Staff 73 50 75* 70 69 75*
Automation Satisfaction
Questionnaire

Management 76* 58 70 68 86* 62

Staff 83* 54 76" 68 82* 83*

Automation Satisfaction
Questionnaire - Itemization

1. Decision making

3'. J... J- ....

 

Management 75 ‘ 25"" 50 100" 50 75 ‘
Staff N/A 42 38 91* 56 N/A
2. Training
Management 50 50 75" 25*“ 75* 0*"
Staff 75* 56 56 16*“ 88* 50
3. Productivity
Management 75* 69 75‘" 50 100* 75"
Staff 91* 61 81" 75* 88* 88*
4. Quality
Management 75* 19"" 75‘" 75* 100* 75*
Staff 91* 61 75* 91* 100* 88"
* = high satisfaction range (75-100)
** = low satisfaction range (0-25)
N/A = Not applicable

123

SUMMARY

The statistical and descriptive analyses of the
data were presented in this chapter. Part one was a presen-
tation of the data that were generated by each instrument:
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire, Automation Satis-
faction Questionnaire, Open-ended Questionnaire, Patterned
Interview, and Trainer Survey. The test of significance
and their resulting probability values were discussed
for each research hypothesis. A summary of these null
hypotheses and a brief discussion of those that were
rejected were presented in Table 4.31. Selected items
from the Automation Satisfaction Questionnaire were also
discussed. This was followed by a presentation of the
data for each item on the Open-ended Questionnaire, Pat-
terned Interview, and Trainer Survey.

Part two was a descriptive analysis of the individual
sites. These case summaries were based on anecdotal in—
formation that was gathered by the researcher and supported
by the statistical data that were derived from the various
instruments. Table 4.32 is a summary of the significant

findings of the individual sites.

124

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126

Table 4.32.--Summary of Key Issues as Rated by Staff and
Management for Each Site.

 

 

STATE DEPT. . INSURANCE. CO. UNIVERSITY
SITE SITE SITE

 

 

 

 

 

Categories I II III IV v VI
Formal Training X -- X -- X --
MSQ - Management X -- -- x -- --
MSQ - Staff -- -- X -- -- X
ASQ - Management X -- -- -- x --
ASQ - Staff X -- X -- X X
ASQ - Decision making

Management X 0 X X -- X

Staff N/A -- -- x -- N/A
ASQ - Training

Management -- -- X 0 X 0

Staff X -- -- o x _-
ASQ - Productivity

Management X -- X -- X X

Staff X -- X X X X
ASQ - Quality

Management X 0 X X X X

Staff X -- X X X X
Major office changes -- _ X -- -- -- --
Ongoing staff support X X X -- X --
Staff stress N/A X X -- -- --
Production demands N/A X X X -- --
during conversion
X 8 high range (75-100) MSQ - Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
O = low range (0-25) ASQ = Automation Satisfaction Questionnaire

N/A - NOt.applicable

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

This chapter includes a summary of the study, a
discussion of the findings as they apply to the research
hypotheses and the research questions, conclusions, and

recommendations for future research.

SUMMARY

The purpose of this study was to describe the implemen-
tation of computer-based, automated office equipment as
viewed by the staff, department managers, and trainers,
with special emphasis on the training which accompanied
the implementation.

In preparation for the study, an extensive literature
search was undertaken. Computerized office equipment is
relatively new. Research on this topic was virtually non-
existent; therefore, a global perspective was pursued.

The field of sociotechnical research, which attends to

the social ramifications of technological change, provided
the theoretical basis for this study. It was supplemented
by pertinent literature from related fields: communication
and organizational culture, the psychology of motivation

127

128
and reward, adult learning, organizational training, and
the dynamics of planned social change.

Four instruments were developed for this study: Auto-
mation Satisfaction Questionnaire, Open-ended Questionnaire,
Patterned Interview, and Trainer Survey. In addition,
the Short Form Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire was
used. This indicates degree of job satisfaction.

The participants came from six offices located in
the greater Lansing area. Three of the offices were selected
as exemplary. Their implementation included a formal training
program. The other three that were selected had no formal
training.

The data were gathered on-site by the researcher
and submitted to statistical analysis. The computer pro—
gram used to tabulate the scores was the Statistical Package

for the Social Sciences (SPSS).

FINDINGS

The findings from the data which were presented in
Chapter IV are presented in two parts. Part one is a
discussion of the results of the t-tests that were applied
to the research hypotheses. In part two the research ques-
' tions are restated and the findings from the data that are

pertinent to the questions are discussed.

129‘

Hypothesis 1

There is no statistically significant difference in

job satisfaction between managers at sites where formal

training took place and managers at sites where informal

training took place.

A comparison of means from the composite scores on

the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire between managers
from sites wiflifonmfl. training and managers from sites

with informal training were not significant at the .05

level. The p-value was .918.

Hypothesis 2
There is no statistically significant difference in
job satisfaction between staff at sites where formal
training took place and staff at sites where informal
training took place.
A comparison of means from the composite scores on
the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire between staff
from sites with formal training and staff from sites with

informal training revealed a statistically significant

difference of less than .05. The p-value was .022.

Hypothesis 3

There is no statistically significant difference in

automation satisfaction between managers at sites

where formal training took place and managers at

sites where informal training took place.

A comparison of means from the composite scores on

'the Automation Satisfaction Questionnaire between managers
from sites with formal training and managers from sites

with informal training revealed a statistically significant

difference of less than .05. The p-value was .042.

.130
Hypothesis 4
There is no statistically significant difference in
automation satisfaction between staff at sites where
formal training took place and staff at sites where
informal training took place.
A comparison of means from the composite scores on
the Automation Satisfaction Questionnaire between staff
from sites with formal training and staff from sites with

informal training revealed a statistically significant

difference of less than .05. The p-value was .001.

Research Question 1

How has implementation of computer-based equipment
affected office operations? _

Automation brought little change to the actual opera-
tions of the offices at five of the six sites. Overall,
productivity of the staff increased and three of the man-
agers stated that they wefiasending fewer documents out
for reproduction since they had the capability-of doing
it themselves.

Due to reduced staffing at a majority of the sites,
the thrust of automation was on increasing the present
staff's production rate rather than establishing new
procedures or work flow.

Site II was the only department in this study that
'experienced major operational change. The original depart-
ment was divided into two units, and many procedual changes
took place. The staff that operated the automated equipment

was placed in one unit while the remainder of the staff

131
continued in their original assignments. Although the
nonautomated staff remained in their original assign-
ments, several aspects of their tasks were taken over by
the automated unit, procedures changed considerably. This
department also experienced the most resistance to change
as well as difficulties with the complexities of implemen-

tation.

Research Question 2

In what way(s) is automation compatible with the
rewarding aspects of staff and management jobs.

The most frequent responses given by staff regarding
what they liked best about their jobs, in order of mention,

were "variety and challenge," "

people I work with," and
"various aspects of automation."

Staff both praised and condemned automation's effect
on their jobs. To some,it has provided an ongoing challenge,
new learnings, relief from tedious and repetitive tasks,
ease of editing, and pride in a quality product. It also
provided rewarding interactions with other staff members:
"We have more in common and something to talk about."
People also spoke of working more cooperatively and sharing
new ideas.

Automation had a negative impact as well. Those
whose jobs involved sitting at a machine all day re-
cording information, reported that it was tiring, boring,

and physically stressful. Also, their actual work time

and production rate were more easily monitored and errors

132
were more conspicuous. The staff felt added pressure from
this increased accountablity. Some staff reported that
they felt isolatedikom the others because they were confined
to their terminals and no longer had the casual interactions
with co-workers.

The managers spoke favorably of the changes automation
had brought to their work. Record keeping was more easily
facilitated leaving them more time to address other areas
and attend to problem solving. When asked what they found
rewarding about their jobs, they reported the service aspects
most frequently, followed by their involvement with automation.
They spoke of the creative, challenging aspect of automation
and the exposure to a new arena of responsibility and lead-

ership.

Research Question 3

To what extent was staff involved in the decision making
process regarding the automation of the office?

Fifty-six percent of the managers reported that their
staff was involved in the decision making process. They
indicated that staff provided task related information
regarding the application of computerized equipment and
were given the Opportunity to voice their opinions regarding
equipment selection. The other area where management re-
ported staff involvement was training plans which generally
involved the scheduling of training.

When the staff was asked about their participation in

the decision making process, they indicated that they were

133
less involved than management had reported. Sixty to
seventy percent said that they had no involvement in the
decision to automate, equipment selection, or installation
plans. However, 50% reported that they participated in
the training plans.

This variance in reporting may be accounted for in
the following ways: (1) some of the staff who participated
in the study were hired after the automated equipment had
been installed; consequently, they were not involved in
any of the decision making. (2) The staff may have viewed
involvement as an active participation throughout the whole
process rather than the more passive role of providing
information, stating their opinion regarding equipment
selection, or choosing a training schedule. (3) A few
of the staff said that they were not interested in the
added responsibility of being involved in the decision
making process or that they felt incapable of participating
because of their lack of knowledge about the computerized
equipment.

At only one site did the staff indicate high satis-
faction (9lst percentile) with their involvement in the
decision making process. The others reported average
satisfaction from the 38th to the 56th percentile, or
that the question was not applicable due to the recent
hiring of several employees.

Overall, staff members stated that they would like

to have been more actively involved in the decision making

134
and implementation processes. Several felt that some of
the problems that were encountered might have been eliminated

through staff involvement.

Research Question 4

What methods and materials were used in the training
of staff and management?

In all cases a hands-on approach and self-paced
manuals were used in the introductory training. The self-
paced manuals were supported by trainers or a telephone
service number. Other materials were also mentioned by
the trainers: cassettes, instructional disks, role playing,
simulations, lectures, flow charts, visual aids, and trainer
developed materials.

At those sites where vendor training was provided,
off site training labs were used, which provided staff with
a learning environment free of interruptions. Two of
the vendors provided follow-up sessions, on-site visitations,
and some type of continuing support such as newsletters
or telephone support.

The two sites where training consisted of a self-
paced manual and a telephone service number, staff and
management reported dissatisfaction with the support they
_ received. The telephone service was inadequate and limited
in its scope of problem solving ability.

The trainers indicated that evaluation consisted of

informal observations, reviews, and various self-evaluation

135
quizzes located throughout the manuals. Formal performance

tests were used by only one trainer.

Research Question 5

Did the staff, management, and trainers preceive training
as efficient/effective?

To provide a more detailed account of the findings,
the responses were divided into two groups: those who
had formal training and those who had no formal training.
The reported degree of training satisfaction, cost effective-
ness, timeliness, and attention to worker attitudes and
adjustment needswmre used as indicators of training
efficiency/effectiveness. The effects of training on
productivity, quality, and downtime is discussed in

Research Question 6.

Sites With Formal Training

 

The participants from sites where formal training
took place indicated average to high satisfaction with
staff's training (staff, 73rd percentile; management, 69th
percentile; trainers, 85th percentile). The lowest satis-
faction rating for this group was the rating that management
gave the training they received (66th percentile).

The basic training that the staff received at each of
these three sites was provided by the vendor. All of
the managers indicated that it was cost effective. Also,
two of the three managers felt that it was timely and

addressed worker attitudes and adjustment needs.

136

Sites Without Formal Training

 

The satisfaction levels were consistantly lower for
participants from these three sites. The degree of satis-
faction regarding staff training are as follows: staff,
58th percentile; management, 60th percentile. The staff
and management responses align very closely, as they
did at the sites with formal training. Here, too, the
managers indicated far less satisfaction with the training
they received (38th percentile).

The training at these sites consisted of self-paced
tutorial manuals that were purchased from the vendor or, at
one site, poorly administered vendor training followed
by the trial and error methods of an inexperienced program-
mer/trainer. Only one third of the managers felt that the
training was timely, and one indicated that it addressed
worker attitudes and adjustment needs. Yet, half of the
managers reported that training was cost effective, as their

investment in training manuals was a minimal expense.

Research Question 6

What impact, if any, did training have on the implemen-
tation of computer-based office equipment?

The type of training appears to have influenced the
length of time needed for operators to become productive
on the automated equipment and satisfaction ‘with the
quality of work produced. However, the data did not in-

dicate that training had any effect on the percentage of

137
productivity increase. This was relatively consistant at
four of the Six sites, ranging from 25-40%. Of the remain-
ing two sites, one had little measurable increase, in fact,
documents were taking longer to process. The other site
was established as an automated center; therefore,this
indicator was not applicable.

Sixty-four percent of the staff from sites that
provided formal training stated that they felt at ease
and productive within thirty days. This is comparable
with the amount of downtime reported by the managers.

Fifty percent reported no loss in staff productivity, and
25% indicated a loss of less than one week. The Staff

and managers' rating of work quality on the automated system
was in the high satisfaction range (staff, 9lst percentile;
management, 8lst percentile).

Only 25% of the staff from sites that provided informal
training reported that they were productive within thirty
days; whereas, approximately nine months after implementation,
25% responded that they were not yet at ease or productive
on the automated equipment. The managers from these sites
also reported longer downtime; 50% experienced one to two
weeks 'while 33% reported thirty days. The staff and manager
. rating of work quality was in the average range, but consid-
erably lower than those with formal training (staff, 69th

percentile; management,.63rd percentile).

138
CONCLUSIONS

A final summary of the findings is presented in this
section. The first part of this section is a discussion
of the findings resulting from the research hypotheses
and the research questions. The second section is dedicated
to the practical application of this research. The key
issues that appeared in this study are presented as an aid
to those who are considering implementation of computer-

based, automated office equipment.

 

ConcluSions from Hypotheses

A The findings from hypothesis 1 and 2 indicated that
training had no effect on manager job satisfaction.
However, there was a significant difference in staff job
satisfaction. Although all but one manager reported that
they used the automated equipment, the levels of use were
not indicated. Decision making and problem solving were
the dominant roles discussed by the managers; whereas, the
production of documents via the automated equipment was a
dominant task of the staff. Therefore, it can be concluded:
that the formal training of staff in the use of automated
office equipment had a positive effect on the degree of
job satisfaction. (N222. This is further supported by
staff responses regarding change in job satisfaction,

see Table 4.26.)

139
The findings from Hypotheses 3 and 4 indicated that
managers and staff who were provided with formal training
had a higher degree of satisfaction with their automated
system. This was supported throughout the responses on the

questionnaires and interviews.

Conclusions from Research Questions

 

Although there were many variables in this study,such
as office function, equipment application, staffpmsitions,
jobs, and vendors, the overall responses were remarkably
consistent. What cannot be determined with this small
sample is whether or not the deviant responses were reflec-
tive of a subpopulation. Therefore, these findings are
based on the responses which reflect consensus. Consider-
ation, but little emphasis, was given to the deviant
responses.

The limiting effects of the depressed economic condi-
tions in the State of Michigan were reported by both staff
and management. The managers were limited by budgetary
constraints and various hiring freezes which were reported
at each of the sites. This limiting of staff made it neces-
sary to focus on improving the productivity of the present
staff. Thus, the stage was set for the purchase of
'automated office equipment. Another constraint resulting
from the depressed economy wasthe tight job market which
drastically reduced worker mobility both laterally
and vertically. The managers reported that this had pro-

duced a more stable staff. However, employees expressed

140
concern about the effect of the limited job market on one's
career path.

The primary methods in staff training included self-
paced manuals and hands-on experience. The key factor
distinguishing formal training from informal training was
the presence of a professional trainer to support and guide
the operators. The basic vendor training took place in
off site training labs where the operators were free of
interruptions. The vendors also provided follow-up and
ongoing support. At one site a user support group had
been developed throughout the organization.

The overall results of automation included increased
productivity and improved quality of production with fewer
errors. The implementation of automated equipment had
virtually no effect on staff job satisfaction. The staff
voiced concern about their inability to learn how to operate
the equipment and the possibility of losing their jobs.
Although one site reported relocation of staff, no one
lost a job as a result of automation.

The measure of stress levels for each site correlated
closely with the production pressures during implementation.
The two sites that reported the highest stress levels were
_ also the ones who reported high production demands during
conversion.

The automated system appeared to have had a positive
as well as a negative effect. The staff praised the new

system's ability to perform repetitive tasks easily.

141
They also reveled in the challenge and stimulation it pro-
vided and delighted in the camaraderie that developed among
the users.

On the negative side, there were complaints of boredom
and confinement. Recording information all day was repetitive
and being confined to the machine resulted in the reduction
of interaction with others.

In evaluating the effects of automation
on worker autonomy, this positive--negative effect appears
again. Some of the staff reported that they could no longer
control various aspects of their jobs. In some cases they
had to share equipment or wait for others to access the
information for them; or' worst of all, wait out equipment
failure and hope that there was no loss of data.

One of the most lamented losses was from those in
the nonautomated unit of Site II. They no longer saw
cases through from start to finish, nor could they provide
special processing for rush cases. The major blow, however,
came from the removal of their typewriters. They now had
to fill out prompts for the automated center by hand,
resulting in a loss of dignity and power.

On the positive side, automation provided staff with
.increased autonomy. At some of the sites they no longer
had to send their documents out as they now had the capa-
bility to complete projects themselves. Many of the staff

spoke with pride about the improved quality of their work.

142
Automation also relieved them of many tedious and repeti-
tive tasks, allowing more creative endeavors.
It can be inferred from these findings that formal
training had the following effects:

1. The staffs which were given formal training were more
satisfied with their jobs.

2. The staff and management that were given formal
training were more satisfied with automation.

3. Operators who were given formal training felt more
efficient and became productive on the computerized
equipment sooner than those without formal training.

4. Staff and management from sites with formal training
were more satisfied with the quality of work that was
produced.

Overall, it can be concluded that:

Implementation was most successful when the staff was

provided with formal training, and that self-training

was superior to training that was ill planned and/or

executed.

Automation was viewed positively by the staff when it
was presented as a tool to relieve them of the repeti-

tive, tedioUs tasks and provided an ongoing challenge.

Implementation(Considerations

 

This final presentation is the accumulated recommen-

dations that were gleaned from the responses. These are

143

meant to serve as a practical guide for those who are con-

sidering the implementation of an automated office system.

The planning stage identifies many of the elements

which are crucial to a successful implementation. Since

through needs assessment is the foundation for good decision

making, the following should be considered before final

decisions are made.

1.

What are the present and projected productivity
needs and how does the equipment match these needs?
Vendor reliability and service are key issues. Has
the equipment been thoroughly tested?

How will automation affect the social structure?

Note. One must take into consideration the estab-

lished norms and the rewarding aspects of employees'
jobs as well as growth needs and present staff morale.
Resistance can be costly in terms of absenteeism, loss
of time-on-task, and grievances.

How will staff be involved in the process? A concern
that was repeatedly reported was the need to be kept
informed and the desire for active involvement in the
decision making process.

How will the equipment be adapted to the specific
needs of the office?

Ergonomics also plays a key role. Sound hoods, glare
screens, and computer compatible furnishings are
additional expenditures that need consideration.

In some offices it may also mean structural changes in

144
lighting, electrical wiring, or the physical arrange-
ment of work areas.

7. Will both staff and management be given formal training
and provided with ongoing support? Key issues in
training are:'

--the presence of a supportive, professional trainer
--clearly written manuals

--adequate learning time

--learning environment that is free of disruptions
--reduced production pressures

To fully utilize the equipment and the operator's
creative ability requires a logic-based, systematic approach
to the various functions of the equipment and its adaptations.

Effective management of a computerized system requires
training of managers as well. Managers must understand
the various functions and their application if they are
to provide guidance to their staffs.

Advances in both hardware and software provide a
continual choice of upgrading possibilities. Yet, how
frequently can operators experience changes without undue
stress? Generally, the participants reported that updating
could occur every six months to one year without undue stress.

In the process of planning for office automation it is
crucial that the emphasis liq; in the direction of purchasing
equipment that will meet the needs of the staff by providing
them a tool that they can creatively apply to their work

task, rather than adapting the people to the equipment.

145

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

This study is a descriptive analysis of the implemen-
tation of computer-based office equipment with emphasis
on the role of training. It is intended to serve as pre-
liminary research in unraveling the effects of socio-
technical change in today's offices. The following sugges-
tions are offered as areas in which further research could
be conducted.

1. Since Michigan is currently a depressed state,
replication of this study in an area with a healthier
economic climate may provide different conclusions.

2. A longitudinal study could provide a more detailed
account of the changes that occur when office operations
are automated.

3. A study might be conducted in which the effective-
ness of training content and methodology are evaluated
for both the staff and the managers.

4. A replication of this study in an organization
that has installed multifaceted, integrated systems which
provide computerized communications between staff and
management, and between departments may provide different

conclusions.

5. Automation appeared to have dramatic effects on
operations and staff morale of the one nonautomated unit in
this study. A study which emmfines the effects of automation
on the supportive departments which are not automated would

provide insights into the broad effects of automation.

APPENDICIES

146

APPENDIX A

MINNESOTA SATISFACTION QUESTIONNAIRE

147

148

m UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA Department of Psychology

TWIN CITIES Elliott Hall
75 East River Road
Minneapolis. Minnesota 55455

January 7, 1985

Suzette S. Lee
8096 Dixon Road
Rives Junction, HI 49277

Dear Ms. Lee:

Thank you for expressing interest in the materials published by Vocational
Psychology Reseach. we are pleased to grant you permission to use the Minnesota
Satisfaction Questionnaire Short Porn and to include a copy of the instrument in
your thesis. we ask that you send a copy of your completed research to Voca-
tional Psychology Research for inclusion in our archives.

If there is any service we can provide for you in the future, please do not
hesitate to contact us.

Sincerely,

£28. lea/pg.
Ellen Stewart

Assistant Director,
Vocational Psychology Research

149

minnesota satisfaction questionnaire

(short-form)

 

Vocational Psychology Research

UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA

Copyright 1977

150

minnesota satisfaction questionnaire

The purpose of this questionnaire is to give you a chance to tell how you feel about your present iob,
what things you are satisfied with and what things you are not satisfied with.

On the basis of your answers and those of people like you, we hope to get a better understanding of the
things people like and dislike about their Iobs.

On the next page you will find statements about your present iob.

° Read each statement carefully.

- Decide how satisfied you feel about the aspect of your lob described by the statement.
Keeping the statement in mind:

—if you feel that your iob gives you more than you expected, check the box under ”Very Sat."
(Very Satisfied);

-if you feel that your iob gives you what you expected, check the box under "Sat." (Satisfied);

-if you cannot make up your mind whether or not the iob gives you what you expected, check
the box under ”N" (Neither Satisfied nor Dissatisfied);

—if you feel that your iob gives you less than you expected, check the box under "Dissat."
(Dissatisfied);

-if you feel that your iob gives you much less than you expected, check the box under ”Very
Dissat." (Very Dissatisfied).

° Remember: Keep the statement in mind when deciding how satisfied you feel about that aspect of
your lob.

' Do this for all statements. Please answer every item.

Io frank and honest. Give a true picture of your feelings about your present lob.

151

Ask yourself: How satisfied am I with this aspect of my job?

Very Sat. means I am very satisfied with this aspect of my iob.
Sat. means I am satisfied with this aspect of my iob.

N means I can’t decide whether I am satisfied or not with this aspect of my iob.

Dissaf. means I am dissatisfied with this aspect of my job.

Very Dissat. means I am very dissatisfied with this aspect of my iob.

 

On my present lob, this is how I feel about . . .

I.

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. The chance to work alone on the iob ......................................... . .......... , .....................
. The chance to do different things from time to time ....... . ............ .. ................
. The chance to be ”somebody" in the community .. ,

. The way my boss handles his/ her workers... ................ . .......................................

. Being able to do things that don’t go against my conscience ........... . .......
. The way my iob provides for steady employment ............ . ........ .. ......................
. The chance to do things for other people .. , t. .. t
. The chance to tell people what to do ..
. The chance to do something that makes use of my abilities .
. The way company policies are put into practice .. I

. My pay and the amount of work I do . _. ._ _.

. The chance to try my own methods of doing the iob .
. The working conditions . ..... I . .. .
. The way my co-workers get along with each other ..
. The praise I get for doing a good iob _ ., _. ..

. The feeling of accomplishment I get from the iob .. n _ A .. . ..

Being able to keep busy all the time ............ .. _ ...................... . ..... ...............

The competence of my supervisor in making decisions . .................................

The chances for advancement on this iob ..

The freedom to use my own iudgment . . _. _ , .

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Dissat. Dissat.

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APPENDIX B

AUTOMATION SATISFACTION QUESTIONNAIRE
OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONNAIRE
PATTERNED INTERVIEW
TRAINER SURVEY

152

1533

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

 

COLI£GE Of EDUCATION EAST LANSING 0 MICHIGAN 0 “$1054
DEPARTMENT Of ADMINISTRATION AND CURRICULUM
HICKSON HAIL

Dear Participant:

I an a doctoral candidate at Michigan State University, and I am presently
collecting data for my dissertation. The topic is:
THE CDN'I‘DCIUAL CHARACTERISTICS THAT FACILITATE THE EFFECTIVE .
EFFICIENT IMPIDIENI‘ATION OF AUIO‘IATED OFFICE EQUIPMENT
The purpose of this survey is to determine the level of job satisfaction
experienced by workers who use automated office equipment, and the identi-
fication of those elements that aided or hindered the introduction of new
automation.

Individual responses will be kept confidential. The compiled results of
all participants will serve as the basis for my thesis. Consolidated
organizational findings will be available to the organization's management.

Throughout this questionaire the term automated refers to corrputer-based
equipment such as: word processors, personal computers, integrated work
stations, computer Operated printers, any hardware that serves as an input
or output device for a computer. It does not include: caculators, memory
typewriters or telephones.

Your cooperation and time is sincerely appreciated. If you wish to contact
me I can be reached at: 517 7845576.

Si ely , / 2
Lee

2e eS.

MSU is en til/inactive Action/Equal Opportunity Institution

154

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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155

OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONNAIRE

 

MANAGEMENT
DEMOGRAPHIC DATA
Pble I%male
Age: under 25 25-35 36-45 46-55 over 56
Total number of years work experience in your present occupation:
less then 1 yr ‘1-3 yrs. 4-7 yrs. over 7 yrs.

Number of years employed in this organization:
less then 1 yr 1-3 yrs. 4-7 yrs. over 7 yrs.

Number of years employed in your present job:
less then 1 yr 1-3 yrs. 4-7 yrs. over 7 yrs.

Prior to Automation

 

1. When did you decide to automate?

 

2. What triggered this decision?

3. How did you decide on the organization from whom you
bought the hardware and software?

4. What were your concerns regarding automation prior to
the installation of the equipment in your office?

Automation Implementation

 

5. Do you use automated equipment in you job?
yes no

6. Were you trained on the use of automated equipment?

yes no

156

Management Questionnaire Continued.
Results of Automation
7. Has automation been cost effective? yes no

Explain.

8. Do you feel that productivity has increased since
automation? If yes, approximately what percent?

 

yes no
9. How long did it take to reach satisfacotry productivity
levels following automation?

immediately

within 30 days

30-60 days

60-90 days

satisfactory levels have not yet been reached
other days

 

10. How much downtime (loss of productivity) did you
experience after implementation?

none
less than 1 wk.
1-2 wks.
30 days
60 days
___other

 

11. How often can you update or change hardware/software
without overstressing the operators?

not at all

less than 6 mo.
6 mo. - 1 yr.
every year
every two years
other

 

157

PATTERNED INTERVIEW
MANAGEMENT

Prior to Automation

 

1.

2.

Was a needs assessment done? yes no
If yes, describe.

Was the staff involved in any of the decision making?
yes no If yes, describe.

Automation Implementation

 

3.

Were there organizational constraints to implementation?
yes no If yes, describe.

How was the training of staff done?

Was training timely? yes no Explain.

Did training address worker attitudes and adjustment
needs?

yes no If yes, describe.

Was training cost effective? yes no Explain.

. Are there provisions for ongoing training, support, and

retraining?
yes no If yes, describe.

158

Management Interview Continued.

Results of Automation

 

9. Were there personnel problems as a result of automation?

10.

11.

12'.

13.

14.

yes no If yes, describe.

Has automation reduced your need to hire additional
people?

yes no If yes, explain.

Have operators' jobs expanded due to automation?
yes no If yes, explain.

Has automation changed your job?

yes No If yes, explain.

What are the rewarding aspects of your job?

What would you recommend to others who are preparing
to implement automated office equipment?

159

OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONNAIRE

 

STAFF
DEMOGRAPHIC DATA
Phle Ifimale
Age: under 25 25-35 36-45 46-55 over 56

Total number of years work experience in your present occupation:
less then 1 yr '1-3 yrs. 4-7 yrs. over 7 yrs.

Number of years employed in this organization:

less then 1 yr 1-3 yrs. 4-7 yrs. over 7 yrs.

 

Number of years employed in your present job:

less then 1 yr 1-3 yrs. 4-7 yrs. over 7 yrs.

Prior to Automation

 

1. What were your concerns about automation prior to the
installation of the equipment in your office?

Automation Implementation

2. Identify those elements of your training that were:
(1) outstanding

(2) needed improvement

3. In the process of automating the office, I found the
following to be helpful:

160

Staff Questionnaire Continued.

Results of Automation

 

4.

5.

How stressful was your transition to automated equipment?

no stress
minimal stress
somewhat stressful

very stressful

Did you experience fatigue with the new equipment?
yes no If yes, describe.
Since installation of automated equipment, I like my

job:

better

somewhat better
no change
somewhat less
___a lot less

. Factors related to my job.

(1) What I like best.

(2) What I like least.

Do you feel that productivity has increased since
automation? If yes, approximately what percent?

 

yes no
How long after your training before you felt at ease
and productive on the new equipment?

immediately

within 30 days

30-60 days

60-90 days

satisfactory levels have not yet been reached
other days

161

Staff Questionnaire Continued.

10. How often do you feel that hardware/software can be
updated or changed without causing you a high degree

of stress?

not at all

less than 6 mo.
6 mo. - 1 yr.
every year
every two years
other

 

162

PATTERNED INTERVIEW
STAFF

Prior to Automation

 

1.

To what degree were you involved in the decision
making process?

‘___no involvement
___minimal involvement
___somewhat involved
___total involvement
In what way(s) were you involved in the decision making
process?

Automation Implementation

 

3.

4.

Describe your training.

Were you given enough training? yes no Explain.

Results of Automation

 

5.

Using a scale of 0-1-2-3

O = no change, 1= minimal change, 2 = some change,
3 = total change

Describe to what degree has automation changed the
following?

your job
who you work with
___work flow
___where you work
___career opportunities
your interaction with fellow employees

___PaY

What would you recommend to others who are preparing
to bring automated equipment into the office?

163

TRAINER SURVEY

DEMOGRAPHIC DATA

 

bh1e____ Famfle_____

Age: under 25____ 25-35____ 36-45_____ 46-55_____ over 56_____
Total number of years work experience in your present occupation:
less then 1 yr____ 1-3 yrs.____ 4-7 yrs._____ over 7 yrs._____

Number of years employed in this organization:
less then 1 yr 1-3 yrs. 4-7 yrs. over 7 yrs.

Number of years employed in your present job:
less then 1 yr 1-3 yrs. 4-7 yrs. over 7 yrs.

1. Describe your background and training.
2. What are the rewarding aspects of your job?

3. My overall satisfaction with the training staff received.
very dissatisfied dissatisfied neither
satisfied very satisfied

4. What were the strong points of the operator's training?

5. Where did training take place?
on-site/in the office on-site training lab
off site/in a training lab other

 

 

6. What was the duration of the training sessions?

Number of training sessions
Length of sessions

 

164

Trainer Survey Continued

7. Did operators have equipment to:

practice on? yes no

train on? yes no

8. Describe the training methods used.

9. What materials were used for training?

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

Was there a preassessment of needs? yes no
If yes, explain.

Were operator attitude and adjustment needs met?
yes no If yes, explain.

Was dune follow-up to the basic training?
yes no If yes, describe.

review sessions
on-site visitation
other

Is there ongoing support? yes no
If yes, describe.

vendor phone support
___updating classes
___advanced classes
___user newsletters
___user meetings
___other

Was operator progress evaluated during or after training?
yes no If yes, describe.

self evaluation

formal performance test
informal performance test
other

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165

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