m: f 1 ‘ ‘ r" r ': "9,1 L .- 1 \ ' i m mu nwmmmwlmjmjgm 3 1293 10659 a Mr”- W990 t 11 ,_ swg fixfiim mmxfiazoom IQMIQOmm a. ‘\ I P‘U ABSTRACT A CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE STUDY OF DIFFERENCES IN ABILITY MEASUREMENT SCORES REGISTERED BY STATE POLICE OFFICERS HAVING VARYING AMOUNTS OF COLLEGE EDUCATION By Charles Lee Neirman The primary purpose of this study was to determine if college educated state police officers would score significantly higher on a number of ability measures than would their non-college-educated fellow troopers. Additionally, possible differences were examined between officers holding associate degrees and bachelor degrees; those who had criminal justice majors and those whose courses of study had been in other academic disciplines; those with previous police experience and no college as opposed to having college with no previous police experience; and, also, the variances in rates of tenure for the college- and non-college-educated officer. The study presents a review of the literature discussing the concept of higher educational standards for police officers, and pre- sents the results of other empirical studies in this area. The reported effects of a college education for all students are pre- sented, as well as a description of the historical development of the forced-choice personnel evaluation technique which was the basis of the ability measures used in this study. There is also a description Charles Lee Weirman of the Michigan Department of State Police which outlines its selec- tion standards and training procedures. Methodology The sample consisted of 418 officers graduating with nine different recruit schools between February, l972, and December, 1974. These officers were identified by the amount of college education, type of college education, whether or not they had previous police experience, and whether or not they had remained in the department. Seven dependent variables were identified as ability measures. These were Recruit School grade point average; Continuing Education Program grade point average; the overall score obtained on the departmental personnel evaluation device known as the Achievement and Development Inventory (ADI); and the scores obtained on the four sub- scales of the A01, job involvement, interpersonal relationships- peers, clerical skills, and interpersonal relationships-public. Five hypotheses were developed. Four considered the above identified dependent variables and the fifth considered only tenure. The first four were tested by the Finn MANOVA multivariant analysis technique, a standardized statistical analysis computer program. The fifth was tested with the Chi-square technique. Findings and Conclusions When comparisons were made between officers with less than an associate's degree and those with at least an associate's degree, the officers with at least an associate's scored higher on the Recruit School and Continuing Education Program grade point averages. Charles Lee Weirman When comparisons were made between officers with less than an associ- ate's and those with at least a bachelor's, the latter group scored higher on both of the grade point averages plus the overall ADI score and the sub-scale, interpersonal relationships-peers. When comparisons were made between officers holding associ- ate's and bachelor's degrees, there was an indication that the latter group scored higher on the overall ADI score and the interpersonal relationships-peers scale. However, this was not statistically sup- portable. There were no significant differences found between officers whose education had been in the field of Criminal Justice and those who had majored in other disciplines. Comparisons between those with only previous police experi- ence and those with only college furnished an indication of a differ- ence on the Continuing Education Program variable, with the college-educated scoring higher. However, this finding was also not statistically supportable. It was determined that college-educated officers voluntarily terminated employment three times more frequently than their non- college counterparts. Conversely, the non-college officer was three times more likely to be dismissed for cause. In either case, how- ever, the numbers leaving the department were negligible. A CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE STUDY OF DIFFERENCES IN ABILITY MEASUREMENT SCORES REGISTERED BY STATE POLICE OFFICERS HAVING VARYING AMOUNTS OF COLLEGE EDUCATION By Charles Lee Weirman A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Higher Education 1977 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The completion of this research study was made possible only through the assistance of a great many people. Unfortunately, it is not possible for all of them to be identified in this short form of recognition. Their participation and help are, nevertheless, greatly appreciated. I am particularly appreciative of the efforts of Dr. Van Johnson and Dr. John Ivey who shared the responsibility of acting as chairman of my guidance committee. Both of these gentlemen have con- tributed a great deal of valuable advice, support and assistance. I also gratefully acknowledge the interest and assistance of Dr. James Nelson and Dr. Geoffrey Moore who so kindly agreed to serve upon my guidance committee. A special expression of gratitude is offered to Dr. Robert Trojanowicz. He has been an integral part of all my postgraduate education for the past ten years and his support, advice and friend- ship have been absolutely invaluable. I must also recognize and express my gratitude to others for their special contributions; specifically, to Lt. Ritchie Davis and Mr. Larry King who assisted so unselfishly in the collection and interpretation of the data contained within the new Achievement and Development Inventory; to the members of the Training Division who assisted in the collection of the background data on the officers of ii the sample and who also represent the finest of the Michigan State Police; and, finally, to Col. George L. Halverson for his support as Director of the Department. Most specifically, however, I wish to express my eternal gratitude to Jane, who insisted that I do something to "Keep me off the streets"; who is my counselor, my critic, my typist and, most thankfully, my wife. The material in this project was prepared under a research grant from the Office of Education and Manpower Assistance, Law Enforcement Assistance Administration, U.S. Department of Justice, Grant No. 76-NI-99-003l. Researchers engaging in such projects under government sponsorship are encouraged to express freely their professional judgment. Therefore, points of view or opinions stated in this document do not necessarily represent the official position or policy of the U.S. Department of Justice. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii Chapter I. THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . l The Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Purpose of the Study. . . . . . . . . . . l4 Research Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . l6 Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . l6 Importance of the Study. . . . . . . . . . l7 Limitations of the Study . . . . . . . . . 20 Definition of Terms . . . . . 22 Organization of the Remainder of the Study . . . 27 II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . 29 Introduction . . . . 29 The Expressed Need for Higher Education for America's Police Officers . . 30 The Reported Impact of the College Experience on Students as a Whole . . . 61 The Research Reporting on the Effects of Higher Education for Police Officers . . 73 Forced Choice as a Personnel Evaluative Procedure . 94 Development of Michigan State Police Achievement and Development Inventory . . . . . . . . l02 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 III. THE MICHIGAN DEPARTMENT OF STATE POLICE AND THE SELECTION AND TRAINING OF ITS TROOPERS . . . . . 112 Introduction . . . . . . . ll2 A Brief History of. the Department . . . . . ll3 History of Personnel Selection and Training Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . l20 The Selection Process . . . . . . . . . . 124 The Training Program . . . . . . . . . l3l The Continuing Education Program . . . . . . . l4l Chapter Advanced Trooper School . The Current Michigan Department. of State Police I Summary IV. DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY . Introduction Type of Study The Sample . The Population . Data Collection . The Statistical Procedures . . Levels of Significance and Statistical Errors Restatement of Research Hypotheses Dependent Variable Abbreviations . Summary . . . V. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA Introduction . Statements of Null Hypotheses and Results of Statistical Tests . . . . Analysis: Hypothesis I Discussion: Hypothesis I Analysis: Hypothesis II . Discussion: Hypothesis II Analysis: Hypothesis III Discussion: Hypothesis III . Analysis: Hypothesis IV . Discussion: Hypothesis IV Analysis: Hypothesis V Discussion. Hypothesis V Additional Testing of Sample . . Analysis of First and Last Third Test . Discussion of First and Last Third Test . Summary . . . . . . . . VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Summary of Chapters Discussion of Findings Conclusions and Implications . Implications for Future Research . BIBLIOGRAPHY . vi Page l42 l46 l47 149 149 152 153 154 . 161 162 164 165 166 168 168 169 174 178 179 181 182 184 185 189 191 192 193 195 200 200 208 211 217 220 Appendix A. B. C. ACHIEVEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT INVENTORY . CONTINUING EDUCATION PROGRAM: COURSE OBJECTIVES AND READING ASSIGNMENTS . . . . . . ORGANIZATION OF MICHIGAN STATE POLICE . vii Page 230 23l 247 252 Table (”b-D CON 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 LIST OF TABLES The Recruit Schools Comprising the Sample Numerical Illustration of the Sample Data Coding Format Test of Equality of Mean Vectors for 3 Groups, HO- I and H0- 11 . . . Test of Equality of Mean Vectors for Comparison Between Group (1) and Groups (2) and (3), HO- I Test of Equality of Mean Vectors for Groups (l) and (3) . . Test of Equality of Mean Vectors for Groups (2). and (3), HO- II . Comparison of Mean Scores of ADIIPF and OADI Test of Equality of Mean Vectors for Groups (l) and (2), HO- III . Test of Equality of Mean Vectors for Groups (l) and (2), HO- IV . . Contingency Table (Observed) HO-V Contingency Table (Expected) HO-V Chi-Square Cells . Test of Equality of Mean Vectors for First and Last Third of Sample . . . . . . viii Page l53 l58 160 170 171 173 178 180 182 185 188 188 189 192 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Introduction Historically, the occupation of police officer has not been considered a profession. Certainly, in the past, the great majority of practicing policemen were not expected to have prepared for their vocation by attending college. In fact, American society as a whole would have expressed surprise at the prospect of having its "cops“ 90 to college. This situation has changed drastically within the relatively recent past. The social problems of the l960$--urban riots, campus disorders, massive political protest, the violence of activist, civil rights demonstrations and a constantly rising crime rate--have com- bined to bring about a significant change in the projected role and character of the American law enforcement officer. There has been an unprecedented movement on a national scale to send the policemen to college. Within a period of seven years, four national Commissions have called fin~an immediate upgrading ofAmerican law enforcement per- sonnel as one of several necessary actions to mitigate the constantly escalating problem of crime. Each of these Commissions has called for higher educational standards for police officers.1 As a result of the recommendations of these Commissions, the federal government created the Law Enforcement Assistance Administra- tion with the passage of the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968. This bill, as the title implies, was addressed to many different facets of the national crime problem.2 One of those facets was the perceived, necessary upgrading of educational levels for practitioners within the criminal justice system. A special division of the Administration was established to provide financial assistance to both in-service and pre-employment college students. This divi- sion, the Law Enforcement Education Program, or LEEP, has provided in excess of $200,000,000 to students involved in various educational programs.3 1President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice, The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1967), pp. 109-111; National Advi- sory Commission on Civil Disorders, Report (New York: Bantam Books, 1968), chap. II; National Advisory Commission on the Causes and Pre- vention of Violence, To Establish Justice,iTo Insure Domestic Tran- quility: Final Report (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1969), chap. 3, par. 76, and app. 1, par. 275; National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals, Police (Washing- ton, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1973), p. 369. ZOmnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968, Public Law 90-351, 90th Congress. 3Law Enforcement Assistance Administration, Newsletter 3, No. 7 (September-Octoberl973); International Association of Chiefs of Police, Memorandum, April 21, 1975. A 1973 report indicates that over 135,000 students have used this financial aid‘.4 A more recent publication illustrates the direct influence that LEEP has had upon police officers. The Inter- national Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP) reported in April of 1975 that more than 97,000 students were then being educated with LEEP assistance. Of these, eighty percent, some 76,000, were crimi- nal justice agency employees and more than 60,000 were sworn police officers.5 The availability of this kind of financial assistance has resulted in the proliferation of institutions of higher education developing and offering criminal justice-type degree programs. In 1960, there were only 40 associate and 15 baccalaureate and graduate 6 In 1970, degree programs of this nature available in the country. two years after the passage of the financial aid legislation, a sur- vey revealed 257 associate, 55 baccalaureate, 21 masters and 7 doc- torate degree programs as being available. The 1975-76 survey indicated that there are currently 664 institutions offering 729 associate, 376 baccalaureate, 121 masters, and 19 doctorate degrees in the areas of law enforcement and criminal justice.7 4Law Enforcement Assistance Administration, Newsletter 3, No. 7 (September-October 1973): 35. - 5Glen D. King, Executive Director of IACP, Memorandum, April 21, 1975. 6IACP, 1972-73 Directory of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice Education (Gaithersburg, Md.: IACP, 1973), preface. 7IACP, 1975-76 Directory_of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice Education (Gaithersburg, Md.: IACP, 1976), p. 3. Michigan, comparable with the rest of the nation, witnessed this same growth. In 1962, only Michigan State University offered such a program. In 1966, there were 7, in 1968, there were 15, in 1970, the number had grown to 24; and in the summer of 1974, 31 col- leges offered some type of criminal justice education program.8 The provision of LEEP funds is not restricted to only those students majoring in criminal justice programs. Individuals who intend to use their education in this field may pursue a degree in other, related areas, such as sociology, psychology, education or any of several other academic disciplines. While there are currently 664 institutions offering criminal justice programs, in 1974 there were over 1,064 colleges or universities participating in the LEEP financial aid program.9 Generally, the law enforcement community has supported and encouraged this massive movement toward the college campuses. Many police agencies have developed various programs and selection stan- dards to increase the educational level of their personnel. An early study indicates the positive attitudes of many police administrators. In a 1968 survey, where responses were obtained from 287 police departments, data indicated that 51 percent were offering some kind of college incentive program. Of those offering such an incentive, 75 percent provided whole or partial 8Larry T. Hoover, "Coordinatin Criminal Justice Education,“ Michigan Police Officer 2, No. 3 (1974?: 15-18. 9James M. Erikson and Matthew J. Neary, "Criminal Justice Education, Is It Criminal?" The Police Chief, August 1975, pp. 38-40. tuition cost reimbursement. The remainder were divided equally between points toward promotion, pay incentive, or some other form of reward. Seventy-two percent of the departments responding indi- cated that they attempted to make shift assignments in such a manner as to allow their officers to attend the necessary college classes.10 In 1970, the New York City Police Department established minimum levels of education for consideration for promotion. A report on a study within that department states, "The case for col- lege educations for police executives is inescapable. Given the small percentage of the department in the superior officer ranks, a collegiate educational requirement for them seems reasonable." The requirements were listed as follows: Rank Requirement Effective Date Captain and above 2 years college Jan. 1, 1975 Lieutenant and 2 years college Jan. 1, 1976 Sergeant Captain and above 4 years (bachelor's degree) Jan. 1, 1978 Lieutenant and 4 years (bachelor's degree) Jan. l, 197911 Sergeant Such requirements are common today in many major metropolitan police agencies. The Detroit Police Department instituted a similar program in 1973. The policy required that officers seeking promotion after January 1, 1974, would be required to accumulate 15 quarter hours before being eligible. By the first of the following year, the requirement would be raised to 30 quarter hours. Successive 1oDorothy Fagerstrom, "Education by Degrees," Law and Order (February 1968): 14. 1]National Institute for Law Enforcement, Police Training and Performance Study, PR 70-4, LEAA Report (Washington, D.C.: GovernmentPrinting Office, 1970), p. 168. raises were stipulated with the final projected requirement of a bachelor's degree by 1980 for any officer seeking promotion above the rank of inspector.12 Pay incentive programs have also been utilized. Individual local governments have set schedules of higher salaries for those ' officers obtaining varying amounts of college credits. In some instances entire states have adopted such programs. Recently, the New Jersey State Legislature passed a bill under which policemen would receive $10 per credit hour pay increases. Annual payments would begin at $100 for 10 credits completed and run to $1,280 for a B.A. degree.13 A recent survey of the National Association of State Directors of Law Enforcement Training indicated that the following states have adopted some type of incentive program for all police officers within their jurisdictions: California, Illinois, Kentucky, Oregon, Texas, and Utah.14 Many municipal departments have adopted entry-level standards which require the possession or attainment of an associate's degree within a specified period of time. These departments have established such standards in response to the suggested qualifications outlined by the four Commissions previously identified. While the various 12 13 14Personal conversation with Mr. Leslie Van Beveren, Executive Secretary, Law Enforcement Officers Training Council, Lansing, Michigan. Michigan Police Journal 36, No. 1 (January 1974): 17. IACP, Memoranda, January through March 1975, No. 1. state enforcement agencies have not significantly moved toward the adoption of such educational standards, a 1974 survey indicated that at least 4 of 49 Highway Patrols and State Police agencies did 15 require a minimum of 30 credit hours. Additionally, promotional credit for college level education was granted by 6 of these agencies and incentive pay was provied by 3.16 In summary, there has been a tremendous impetus toward edu- cating America's policemen. Millions of tax dollars at the federal, state and local levels have been expended toward this goal. Nation- wide programs in both the academic and operational fields have evolved and are evolving. A rather revolutionary change has occurred in the law enforcement community. However, questions remain. The Problem There are certainly those who are not convinced of the value of these suggested higher educational standards, at least not for all policemen. Chief Jerry V. Wilson of the Washington, D.C., Metropoli- tan Police Department, in remarks prepared for the 1972 Conference of the International Association of Chiefs of Police, expressed a number of reasons for not requiring a college degree at the entry level. He declared that his department would not have such a requirement while he was chief, and he urged other police administrators to resist adoption of these standards at the recruit level. Wilson feels that 15IACP, Comparative Data Report, 1974, Division of State and Provincial Police (Gaithersburg,Maryland: IACP, 1975), p. 221. 16 Ibid., p. 211. such a standard would preclude the entry of too many otherwise well qualified people. He also observes that such an educational stan- dard would act as a barrier to representatives of urban minority groups who have not had the opportunity to obtain college degrees and whose presence within the police ranks is a very necessary ingredient in today's social picture. His final reason is that in police departments made up of all college graduates, there would be too many jobs which would not provide sufficient challenge to the degree holders. In summing up his presentation he offered the following four suggestions: (1) encourage entrance of college graduates; (2) bring into police service a cross section of the community; (3) encourage college training for officers with an aptitude for academic work consistent with the needs of police service; and (4) increase in-service training for all police personnel.]7 Charles Tenney, in his study of law enforcement programs quoted an unnamed "high ranking officer of a metropolitan police department" as stating, "We simply don't see what value there is in all this higher education." He cited a survey of police executives conducted by the International Association of Chiefs of Police which revealed that less than half of the respondents would recommend raising educational requirements to two years of college, and 15 percent thought a college degree should be the minimum standard." 17Jerry V. Wilson, "Remarks on Law Enforcement Education," Police Yearbook (Washington, D.C.: International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1972), pp. 63-65. He stated that ". . . the question of value from college educated police officers is one which needs more'study."18 Col. Frank McKetta, former Superintendent of the Pennsylvania State Police, also speaking before the International Association of Chiefs of Police, found fault with too much reliance on higher edu- cation. He said: These courses of study (Law Enforcement) at our educational institutions will not resolve our crime problem--nor the problem of law enforcement--they are not a panacea as some visionaries proclaim, but merely represent one facet of a multiple need. Moreover, we are not convinced that the quality of law enforcement, on the first level of line opera- tion, would improve significantly simply by demanding as a prerequisite to police work, a college degree or an I.O. of 120 or over.19 Many other police administrators obviously subscribe to these reservations. In 1973, the Michigan Association of Chiefs of Police had before it the following resolution: Now, Therefore Be It Resolved that the Michigan Association of Chiefs of Police endorses the concept of requiring a minimum of an Associate Degree from an accredited college as a prerequisite to entrance into the police profession. The resolution was rejected.20 G. Douglas Gourley states that he disagrees with the Presi- dent's Crime Commission that all policemen should be college gradu- ates. He supports such educational requirements for some 18Charles Tenney, Higher Education Prggrams in Law Enforce- ment andgriminal Justice (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1971), p. 34. 19Frank McKetta, "Remarks on Law Enforcement Education," Ihg_ Police Yearbook (Washington, D.C.: International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1972), pp. 66-69. 20Michigan Association of Chiefs of Police, The Michigan Police Journal, July 1973. 10 administrative and supervisory positions, but he points out, "The problem is that there can only be one chief at a time and a relatively few superior officers. To attempt to prepare all recruits to become chiefs appears wasteful, hopeless and frustrating to the many who, from a statistical standpoint must remain patrolmen.“ Gourley also sees other drawbacks. He mentions that officers with college degrees sometimes present an air of superiority which is destructive to esprit de corps and teamwork. Another potential problem he defines is that college officers sometimes tend to think "the degree is, or ought to be, a passport to preferred assignments and promotion, regardless of their performance on the job." Gourley still supports education for police officers but he has reservations. He is troubled by the reliance that is seemingly being placed on education to improve law enforcement and the lack of examination of the relevancy of both education and training subject matter in relation to the actual work the policeman performs in the field.21 James O. Wilson, a well-known sociologist who has done exten- sive research in the law enforcement area, has prepared a paper in which he speculates on the future of law enforcement over the next 20 years. His considerations in regard to college educations for police officers are less than optimistic. He illustrates the dys- functional problem which exists between the higher educational 216. Douglas Gourley, "Remarks on Law Enforcement Education," The Police Yearbook (Washington, D.C.: International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1972), pp. 70-72. 11 standards and the equally important need to bring in more minority group representation. He explains: Educational requirements are being increased in some depart- ments, but this may well reduce significantly the supply of potential black officers, either because there are propor- tionately fewer blacks enrolled in colleges or because a black with substantial college experience has better opng- tunities open to him than those afforded by police work. Wilson also attacks the law enforcement community for not effectively defining what is really required of the police officer: "No one has established what personal qualities are required for, or at least positively correlated with, optimal patrol performance. He is also pessimistic about the potential of attracting the college graduate: Even if intelligence, or college schooling, or particular personality traits are shown to be positively associated with effectiveness, it is not clear that there is any feas- ible combination of working conditions and money benefits that will induce large numbers OE persons possessing these traits to apply for police work. 3 He concludes: Men recruited for patrol work, at least in the larger cities, will be drawn from much the same backgrounds as present day recruits . . . . Some, perhaps many, will have higher levels of schooling (perhaps a year or two of post-high school experience) but it is not yet clear that this will affect marked}x the way in which they will perceive or perform their ’ tasks. This lack of definition of the reasons for higher educational standards has become a matter of major concern to many police 22James O. Wilson,"The Future Policeman," paper prepared for the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, November 1971), p. 20. 23 24 Ibid., p. 21. Ibid.. pp. 27-28. 12 agencies. Vanaguras cites a U.S. District Court ruling, Morrow v. Crisler. This was a suit filed on the behalf of black plaintiffs alleging racially discriminatory practices by the Mississippi Highway Patrol. The court restrained and enjoined the Mississippi Highway Patrol from the practice of . . requiring applicants for patrolmen positions, as a con- dition to consideration for employment, to pass a standardized general intelligence test or the Otis Quick Mental Scoring Test or any other test which has not been validated or proved to be significantly related to successful job performance.25 Early in 1975, the Arlington County, Virginia, police force was ruled in violation of the 1964 Civil Rights Act by paying college-educated police officers higher salaries than those without degrees. The U.S. Civil Rights Commission said that the preferential treatment of the college-educated officers discriminated against blacks who were less likely than whites to have attended college.26 A companion matter, still before the same Commission, dealt with the supposedly discriminatory practice of the same department in not hiring new police officers who did not have at least two years of college credit or the prospect of gaining the credit within one year's time.27 The Commission's ruling said in part: 25Stanley Vanaguras, "Police Entry Testing and Minority Employment Implications of a Supreme Court Decision," Police Chief, April 1972, p. 64. 26 27 Editorial, The Washington Post, January 17, 1975. Ibid. 13 The county has made no showing that the 60 hours of college credit requirement is necessary for the successful perform- ance of the job . . . . No contention has been made that those hired prior to 1972 with no college expeggence have been unable to perform the job satisfactorily. Dale T. Beerbower, in a recent analysis of the ruling, pointed out that the logic of the Commission was founded upon the 1971 Supreme Court case, Griggs v. Duke Power Company. In that instance the Court declared: Good intent or absence of discriminatory intent does not redeem employment procedures or testing mechanisms which operate as "built-in headwinds" for minority groups and are unrelated to measuring job capability. Beerbower, a director of a criminal justice education program in Florida, summarizes by observing, "In short, it must be shown that higher education for police officers contributes to better law enforcement."29 Eisenberg and Reinke, research directors for the IACP, suc- cinctly state the problem: Many police administrators, articulate and convincing in their plea for higher quality officer material, recognize on the other hand that certain impressive pre-entrance requirements (for example, a college degree) provide no assurance that subsequent job performance will be equally impressive. The chances are certainly much better, but at the present time at least, we cannot prove convincingly that that this is the result. One reason may be that job 28Ibid. 29Dale T. Beerbower, "Equal Employment Opportunity v. Police Professionalism," The Police Chief, May 1975, pp. 65-66. 14 performance standards and measures have not been adequately developed in all cases. This being the case, there remains $2.13??? 312%"301'i22‘2°2r§?21§;.335”“mm" ‘" 5““"9 This "common sense" approach has been almost exclusively the only rationale offered for the various programs developed and resources committed to raising educational levels for police officers. There has been only limited empirical research carried out which would seem to justify the concept. To date, it does not appear that any major case has been developed which demonstrates a significant correlation between having a college education and a particular level of competence as a police officer. There is obviously a considerable divergence of opinion regarding the value of a college education for police officers. That is the problem which will be examined in this study. Purpose of the Study The overall purpose of this study is to attempt to determine if there are significant differences in ability between college- educated Michigan State Police officers and their fellow officers who have not obtained a college education. In order to accomplish this comparison, the scores registered on various ability measurements by Michigan State Police officers who have been categorized by the amount and type of college education they have obtained will be examined. 30Terry Eisenberg and Roger Reinke, "The Use of Written Examinations in Selecting Police Officers," The Police Chief, March 1973, pp. 25-26. 15 There are also a number of secondary questions which will be explored in this study. One of major significance revolves around the reported lack of tenure for the college-educated police officer. As the reader will discover in the Review of Related Literature portion of this study, one consistent reported finding is that college- educated officers tend to leave their departments more frequently than their high school graduate fellow policemen. Additionally, an attempt will be made to determine if offi- cers who have taken a criminal justice oriented college program score significantly higher on the ability measures than those officers whose education was in a different field or discipline. A fourth area which will be explored is concerned with com- parisons of abilities between officers who have had previous police experience, before entering the State Police, and those officers without such experience but possessing some type of criminal justice degree. Finally, comparisons will be made between the college-educated police officers to determine if differences exist between those hold- ing the equivalent of at least a four-year degree and those who have acquired no more than the equivalent of an associate's degree. For the purposes of this study, it will be presumed that those individuals who score in the higher ranges on the selected ability measures tend to be more competent police officers. This assumption is open, of course, to rebuttal but it is a necessary foundation for the construction of the research. 16 Research Objectives In order to systematize the research, five primary hypotheses have been formulated and will be tested. Four of these hypotheses include multiple variables, while the final one is devoted only to the single variable of tenure. I The reader should refer to the operational definitions which are found near the conclusion of this chapter for the specific mean- ings of the terms which appear within the hypotheses. Additionally, the reader is advised that the order in which the hypotheses are pre- sented is not meant to imply any order of suggested importance. Finally, additional comparisons will be made which are not specifi- cally defined within the hypotheses but seem to be suggested by the data. Hypotheses H;I; There will be a significant difference between the scores obtained on a number of ability measurements when comparisons are made between officers who have at least an associate's degree and those with less than that amount of education. Recruit School Grade Point Average Continuing Education Program Grade Point Average A.D.I.--Job Involvement A.D.I.--Interpersonal Relationships-Peers A.D.I.--Clerical Skills A.D.I.--Interpersonal Relationships-Public Overall A.D.I. Score 2:11.312: HHHHHHH NO‘U‘l-wa-l H-II: There will be a significant difference between the scores obtained on a number of ability measurements when comparisons are made between officers who hold an associ- ate's degree, but less than a bachelor's degree, and those with at least a bachelor's degree. H -I Recruit School Grade Point Average H-I I l. I 2. Continuing Education Program Grade Point Average 17 H-II 3 A.D. I. --Job Involvement H-II 4 A.D. I. --Interpersonal Relationships- -Peers H-II 5 A. D. I. --Clerical Skills H-II 6 A.D. I. --Interpersonal Relationships- -Public H-II 7 Overall A. D. 1. Score H- III: There will be a significant difference between the scores obtained on a number of ability measurements when comparisons are made between officers who have at least an associate' 5 degree in Criminal Justice- -type educational pro- grams and those with similar levels of education in differ- ent academic fields. H-III l. Recruit School Grade Point Average H-III 2. Continuing Education Program Grade Point Average H-III 3. A.D.I.--Job Involvement H-III 4. A.D.I.--Interpersonal Relationships-Peers H-III 5. A. D. L --Clerical Skills H-III 6. A. D. I. --Interpersona1 Relationships- -Public H-III 7. Overall A. D. 1. Score H- IV. There will be a significant difference between the scores obtained on a number of ability measurements when comparisons are made between officers who have at least an associate' 5 degree and have had no prior police experience . and those who have had at least one year of prior police experience and have less than an associate's degree. Recruit School Grade Point Average Continuing Education Program Grade Point Average A.D.I.--Job Involvement A. D. L --Interpersonal Relationships-Peers A. D. 1. --Clerical Skills A. D. I. --Interpersonal Relationships- -Pub1ic Overall A. D. I. Score HHHHHHH <<<<<<< NGm-th-fl H- V: There will be a significant difference between the number of officers who have voluntarily terminated their employment with the Michigan Department of State Police when comparisons are made between officers who have at least an associate's degree and those with less than that amount of education. Importance of the Study It is readily recognized and acknowledged that the results of this study will not definitively answer all of the questions exist- ing, concerning the value of a college education for police officers. 18 However, it is hoped that the research developed herein will fur- nish some additional insight into those questions and add to the knowledge of the field in a constructive manner. There are a number of different considerations which are being addressed by this investigation. The following descriptions of those considerations identify specific questions and offer sug- gestions as to why the answers are important. The major importance of this study is the attempt to deter- mine if there are identifiable differences in abilities between college-educated state police officers and those without such an education. If there are differences, then the administrative offi- cials of law enforcement agencies should take those differences into conSideration when formulating departmental policies affecting the selection, training, work assignment, promotion and compensation of their personnel. It is also important in that it may tend to demonstrate that college-educated police officers are more effective in their jobs. If that be the case, requirements for higher educational standards are justifiable in the face of court decisions which require selec- tion standards to be job-related and not arbitrarily imposed. It would likewise justify pay and promotional incentive programs which encourage police officers to continue their education into the col- lege levels. Conversely, if no significant differences can be found, then great amounts of tax dollars might be diverted into other programs and methods of securing, training and equipping law enforcement 19 officers to do the most effective job possible. If a college educa- tion does not increase proficiency, then new investigations should be made in an attempt to determine what processes would produce the desired results. The importance of this speaks for itself. The findings of this study are also important as they may relate to the tenure of the college-educated police officer. If those officers possessing higher levels of education are dispropor- tionately leaving the police service, some attention should be directed to the reasons for this phenomenon. Possible methods of addressing the situation should be sought and acted upon. The study also holds importance for the academic community. As was illustrated earlier, tremendous amounts of resources are being applied to educating America's police officers. Depending upon the findings of the study, alterations in the application of these resources may be indicated. The curricula of criminal justice pro- grams may be suspect or given added emphasis. There may be an indi- cation that existing college programs should be discontinued or new ones encouraged. The question has already been raised. A recent memorandum from the International Association of Chiefs of Police indicated the United States Congress was contemplating a possible cut of almost half of the 40 million dollars normally allocated to the LEEP program.3] Whether such action was brought about by current economic problems or a degree of disenchantment with the results of the 3‘eien D. King, Memorandum, IACP, Apri1 21, 1975. 20 existing program can only be a matter of supposition. However, the possibility exists. If a college education makes a difference it should be encouraged. If its value is in doubt, then some attention should be directed toward making that education more valuable. All of these questions will be considered within this study. They are all pertinent to the field of law enforcement and also relate to those within academic communities. They are important questions because society desperately needs effective law enforcement officers and both disciplines are seeking methods of providing such individuals. Limitations of the Study There are a number of limitations to this study which must be identified and upon which comments are offered. First, the ex post facto nature of the study is recgonized. There is no method to manipulate the independent variables of education and previous police experience. If significant differences are found to exist between cpllege-educated police officers and their less educated fellow offi- cers, it cannot be stated with any degree of surety that the educa- tion or experience was responsible for the differences; only that they may be associated in some way. This limitation is discussed more fully in Chapter IV. In today's society the sex and race of police officers are subjects of extensive discussion and controversy. The provisions of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 have been extended to the nation's police departments and charges of "sex and race discrimination" versus 21 "lowering of standards" are the subjects of widespread court litiga- tion. Neither of these categories are explored in this study. The few women in the sample, five (5), were excluded from the analysis because of the limited number. The minority male officers are included in the study but are not identified specifically as such and no consideration has been given to any differences that may exist. There is no general consensus as to what a "good" police officer is. It is difficult to describe the "ideal" law enforcement officer. The seven (7) ability measurement indexes chosen for this study may have little relationship to what many would call the qualities of a "good" police officer. However, they are indicative of achievement and where the reader can recognize a relationship between the selected measures and effective police work, conclusions may be drawn. In any event, there is a recognized limitation of the amount of measurement areas that were identified and studied. There has been no consideration given to the officers who may have entered the department with little or no college experience and then, after their one-year probationary period, enrolled in college. This number, however, would be very limited as the majority of individuals in the sample would have less than two years of avail- able time to pursue their education. Another large group of people which was not considered con- sists of those who left the nine (9) recruit schools being examined prior to their graduation. This is an important group because it represents a significant number of individuals who, for one reason or another, could not or chose not to complete the training program. 22 Their reasons for failure or disenchantment are important but those reasons and those people are not a part of this study. Finally, the amount of generalization that may be drawn from this study to the full police community is severely limited. The Michigan Department of State Police has its own unique characteristics and these characteristics restrict the amount of application of the findings of this study to other police departments. This limitation, as well as others previously mentioned, are further discussed in Chapter IV. Definition of Terms The primary predictor or independent variable involved in this study is the amount of College education that each officer has achieved. Consideration is also given to the type of college educa- tion received, and whether or not the officer had previous police experience. The following definitions apply to these independent variables. Less than an associate's degree: The officer may have received some college credits but did not achieve the associate's degree or accumulate a sufficient amount of college credits to equal the amount required for this degree, or the officer may be a high school graduate and have no college experience. Associate's degree but less than a bachelor's degree: As the description appears, the officer has some amount of college credits at or above the number required for the associate's degree but less than the amount required for the bachelor's degree. 23 At least a bachelor's degree: The officer was granted at least a bachelor's degree and may have obtained graduate college credits or graduate degrees. Criminal justice-type educational programs: The course of study in which the officer received either an associate's degree or bachelor's degree was one which dealt primarily with law enforcement, criminology, or the study of the entire criminal justice system. Other disciplines: Any recognized academic area in which associate or bachelor degrees may have been received, other than in the criminal justice area. Previousppolice experience and less than an associate's gggrgg: The officer has served in a recognized law enforcement agency as a fully empowered police officer for at least one year and has not achieved the equivalent of an associate's degree. No previous police experience and at least an associate's gggrgg; The officer has not served as a fully empowered police officer for at least one year and has achieved at least the equiva- lent of an associate's degree. The performance or criterion variables used are primarily ability measurements which were standardized for each individual within the sample. There is also one non-standard criterion vari- able, tenure, which is considered. The following definitions apply to these dependent variables. Recruit school grade_point average: This is the final, cumulative numeric score achieved by each officer during his 14-week 24 recruit school. It is arrived at by averaging all of the scores received on the various tests administered during the recruit school. Continuing Education Program gradeppoint average: The Con- tinuing Education Program is an assigned reading and testing program administered by the department during the officer's 9-month proba- tionary period. It is explained in greater detail in Chapter III. This variable is the final numeric score achieved by each officer through averaging all scores obtained on the "open book" mid-term and final examinations administered in this educational program. The Achievement and Development Inventory, hereinafter referred to as "A.D.I.," is a personnel rating system which is the standard performance evaluation device utilized by the Michigan Department of State Police. The development and implementation of this system is defined in much greater detail in Chapters II and IV of this study. The A.D.I. has four sub-scales and one overall rating score. The following definitions describe these ratings. A.D.I. Job Involvement: This scale measures the amount of interest the officer exhibits toward his occupation. It is measured by such things as willingness to expend extra effort over what is minimally required; an effort to increase one's proficiency in job- related tasks by self-generated study; an expressed concern for mutually meeting the responsibilities of the police jurisdiction to which the officer is assigned. In general, a "professional" approach to one's occupation. 25 A.D.I. Interpersonal Relationships-Peers: This scale measures the degree to which the individual is judged to be a pleasant person to associate with by his fellow officers. It is measured by his ability to communicate effectively with his peers. There are no emo- tional barriers between him and the group. His words are accepted as truthful. He is considered trustworthy. He does not engage in petty quarrels or gossip. He does not seek unwarranted credit but is straightforward and honest in his relationships with those he works with. Other officers accept him openly as a welcome member of the group. A.D.I. Clerical Skills: This scale measures the skill of the individual in preparing the necessary reports and records required by his position. It is measured by the degree of accuracy and com- pleteness of reports, grammatical proficiency in composition, a con- cern for submission of such records on time and in the proper format. It is also measured by the amount of correction that is required before the reports are submitted in final form. A.D.I. Interpersonal Relationships-Public: This scale measures the effectiveness and propriety of the officer's ability to deal with the public. It is measured by demonstrations of proper concern for the personal circumstances of the people with whom he deals. The individual is not considered "officious." There are no justifiable complaints against his conduct and he receives favorable comments from persons with whom he has had job-related contact. He has the ability to be tactful, courteous and still be an effective police officer. 26 Overall A.D.I. Score: This scale measures the overall effec- tiveness of an individual's job performance. This scale was corre- lated with a peer evaluation program in which all of the troopers were asked to identify the top, middle and lower quality officers at their posts. The correlation between the positions assigned by the peers and that indicated by the A.D.I. overall score was .71. This indicates that the overall A.D.I. score measures a police officer's professional competence as judged by his fellow officers. A descrip- tion of this correlation program appears in Chapter II. The final criterion variable examined is not standardized for all individuals in the sample. This variable is Igpgrg, The specific individuals who are examined are those who voluntarily left the department for any number of personal reasons. This excludes, however, those who were failing during the probationary period and left because of this realization. The people who are identified in this group as voluntarily terminating their employment are those who left the State Police when the department would have preferred that they remain. The Office of Research Consultation of the College of Educa- tion at Michigan State University was contacted in the early stages of the formulation of this study. The statistical analysis technique which was suggested was the MANOVA, or multivariate analysis of vari- ance. This is a standardized, computer analysis program which is desirable because it permits the examination of several, not obvi- ously related, dependent variables by an analysis of the differences 27 among the means of those dependent variables. The use of the multi- variate model allows the researcher to retain multiple scores and to treat them simultanebusly, giving appropriate consideration to the correlation among them.32 Organization of the Remainder of the Study This thesis has been organized into six chapters: Chapter I offers an introduction, the identification of the problem being examined, a discussion of the purpose of the study, its research objectives and hypotheses, the rationale for the importance of the work, some of its identified limitations, important definitions of the variables examined, and an overview of the entire study. Chapter II is a review of the related literature. There are four separate areas which are considered in this review. First, that literature which presents the rationale and logic for higher educa- tional standards for police officers is identified. In the next por- tion the reported findings of researchers who have examined the effects which the college experience supposedly has on students is offered. The third section is devoted to the literature dealing spe- cifically with empirical studies investigating the reported effects of higher education for police officers. The fourth and final area is concerned with the development of the forced-choice personnel evaluation system and, more specifically, with the implementation of the Achievement and Development Inventory within the Michigan Depart- ment of State Police. 32Jeremy D. Finn, A General Model for Multivariate Analysis (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1974), p. vii. 28 Chapter III is primarily a history of the Michigan State Police. The chapter traces the development and growth of the depart- ment and specifically spells out the stringent selection standards and training procedures which were followed in the employment and training of the officers who comprise the sample of this study. Chapter IV is devoted to a description of the design and methodology of the study. There is a description of the type of study employed; the sample is identified with possible generalizations to the overall population being offered. The methodology followed in the data collection and processing is outlined and the research hypotheses are again presented. The analysis techniques which were employed are delineated along with a description of the procedures which were followed. Chapter V presents the results of the analysis of the data. Graphic portrayals of the research results are offered here which furnish numbers of individuals examined, variances which occurred between the criterion measures, levels of significance, statements of rejection or acceptance of the hypotheses of the study, and discus- sions of the findings. Chapter VI consists of the summary and conclusions of the study. The previous chapters are summarized, major conclusions and observations are offered, implications of the study to law enforce- ment and academia are suggested and possible future research areas are identified. III . . 1"" 5 CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Introduction This chapter will present reviews of literature in four dif- ferent areas. First, it will demonstrate the rather consistent call which has been made for higher educational stnadards for police officers. This portion of the review will follow a chronological pattern, citing various writers who have expressed their rationale for college-educated policemen but have not attempted to demonstrate the value of such an experience. The second portion will deal with the reported impact of the college experience on students as a whole. This section will present a number of the ways in which the values, orientations, and lives of college-educated people reportedly differ from those who never went to college. The third section will be devoted to the literature dealing specifically with the reported effects of higher education for police officers. This literature is relatively sparse and its limited quantity is cited as one of the problems to which this study hopes to address itself. Finally, the reader will be presented with various citations Prenared by authors who have examined the forced-choice method as a personnel rating device. Since a major portion of the ability 29 30 measurements utilized in this study were arrived at by this particu- lar evaluative method, it seems advisable to describe also the procedure which was followed in the development of the Achievement and Development Inventory utilized by the Michigan State Police. The Expressed Need for Higher Education for America‘s Police Officers This first portion of the review of related literature may appear to be more extensive than that which would ordinarily appear in a study of this nature. It consists, primarily, of the writings of various individuals which have appeared in the professional jour- nals of the law enforcement field. Most of these authors are people who possess rather imposing educational credentials themselves and, therefore, their bias toward the value of higher education for police officers should be recognized. However, the rationale, logic and reasoning which are presented here are the same general justifi- cations which were used to initiate the current governmental financing of college programs for the police on a nationwide scale. For that reason, it is felt, this extensive review is justified. Thomas Jefferson, one of the originators of the concept of providing more practical education at the college level, was also the first American to suggest that the police officer would benefit from having a college education. In 1779, along with many other suggested innovations, Jefferson attempted to establish a professorship of law and police at his William and Mary College.1 Unfortunately, his 1Frederick Rudolph, The American College and University (New York: Random House, 1962), pp. 41, 130. 31 proposal was rejected and American policemen had to wait almost two hundred years before they appeared in any appreciable number on the campuses of the United States. One of the earliest proponents of attempting to induce college-educated men into the nation's police forces was Leonard Fuld. In 1909, he wrote: To fit him for the performance of this important function the ideal police officer ought to receive a professional training similar in some respects to that now required for applicants for position of probation officer,--a good sec- ondary education followed by a special course of study in sociology and the special problems of police duty. It is probably impractical to demand of policemen such an educa- tion at the present time as a condition precedent to appointment, but, bearing this ideal in mind, we can improve the present unsatisfactory intellectual ability of the police officer in two respects,--by supplying to the police officers during their probationary period suitable instruction by competent teachers in place of the old- fashioned catechetical instruction, and by offering induce- ments to men of good general education, high school gradu- ates and college-bred men, to enter the higher ranks of the uniformed force and make the police business their lifework.2 Fuld realized the practical limitations of securing large numbers of college-trained police officers at that particular time, but he supported the concept of offering incentives to encourage edu- cated men to enter into law enforcement as a career. Saunders quotes another early author in the law enforcement field, Raymond B. Fosdick, who did a study of American police systems in 1920. Again, the practicality of requiring college degrees for entry was dismised but the observation was made that "Only as the 2Leonard F. Fuld, Police Administration (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1909), p. 152. 32 training of the policeman is deliberate and thorough, with emphasis on the social implications and human aspects of this task, can real success in police work be achieved."3 Another early and nationally recognized advocate of college education for law enforcement officers was August Vollmer, Chief of Police at Berkeley, California, and professor of police administration at the Universities of Chicago and California. He is recognized as probably the most outstanding early proponent of police professional- ism and his various writings reflect a consistent call for higher educational standards. Vollmer authored or co-authored several books and journal articles which dealt with numerous topics, but a common thread that appeared in almost all of his writing was his advocacy of better education and training for policemen. A. F. Brandstatter, in an address to a Law Enforcement Assistance Administration conference, recounted Vollmer's early efforts to establish police science courses. Vollmer established a police training school in the Berkeley Police Department in 1916 and prevailed upon friends from the University of California faculty to instruct in that school. While Vollmer was employed at the University of Chicago in 1929, that institution began offering police courses in the political science department. He taught courses in police administration and police procedure. He also offered a seminar devoted to research projects each quarter. When he returned to the University of 3Charles B. Saunders, Upgrading the American Police (Wash- ington, D.C.: The Brookings Institute, 1970), p. 16. 33 California, he initiated a program which ultimately developed into the School of Criminology.4 In this same address, Brandstatter presented a description of the 1932-33 brochure of the San Jose State College program which was addressed to police officials: To Police Officials: If you have local applicants for posi- tions on your force in whom you are especially interested, you will find their value to you materially increased by a two year course at San Jose. Just tell the young man that the day is fast approaching when college training will be required of every policeman. The brochure seems somewhat optimistic at this point, when, forty years later, the overwhelming majority of police departments still require nothing more than a high school education for their new recruits. Returning to Vollmer, it is necessary to report on his writ- ings in the famous Wickerhsam Commission Reports, published in 1931. This Commission was a forerunner of several later national commissions appointed to investigate the country's criminal justice system. Its formal title was the National Commission on Law Observation and Enforcement. Vollmer wrote extensively for this commission and in Volume 14, the chapter "Personnel Selection," he identified low edu- cational level as a major problem in law enforcement and pointed out that more than 60 percent of the policemen in the United States had 4A. F. Brandstatter, History of Police Education in the Uni- ted States, report of the Conference on Development of Degree Programs in Police Science, University of Maryland, June 8-9, 1967, Office of Law Enforcement Assistance, Dissemination Document-Project 67-28 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1967), pp. 11-12. 51bid., p. 13. 34 never entered high school.6 He felt the ultimate goal of a pr0perly trained and educated policeman was only possible by two means: "state supported and controlled schools for police only; secondly, university cooperation."7 In the closing portion of this part of the Wickersham Commission Report, Vollmer wrote: Necessity has demanded the application of science to police work. Colleges, universities, police department schools all are recognizing that necessity. The last 15 years have inaugurated the change, the next 15 may see a great chain of instruction throughout the country which will make possible an education for every policeman. In The Criminal, Vollmer's final book, he advocated establish- ment of schools of criminology in state supported colleges and award- ing of special grants for research projects and a curriculum suited for professional preparation of individuals who plan to enter any of the branches of law enforcement. He also recommended that criminology schools of institutions which offered academic or professional degrees set up graduate curricula in the various fields of study and that a doctor's degree should be awarded to qualified students who made a "significant contribution to the advancement of criminology and criminalistics." He favored research and teaching fellowships for students who had a strong interest and ability in the field of criminal justice.9 6National Commission on Law Observation and Enforcement, Report on the Police, by the Wickersham Commission, Vol. 14 (Washing- ton, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1931), p. 58. 7 8 Ibid., p. 79. Ibid.. p. 85. 9August Vollmer, The Criminal (Brooklyn: The Foundation Press, 1959), pp. 435-36. 35 Such an educational background, according to Vollmer, would provide an understanding of the weaker members of society and would discourage the warped characters and morals that had resulted in the past from association with disgruntled or dishonest fellow enforce- ment officers. Such professional training would also teach students to adapt themselves to changing social, economic and political condi- tions. They would come to appreciate the contributions of profes- sionals in the physical, biological and social sciences so they 10 might know who to call upon for assistance. As a final argument in The Criminal, Vollmer stated that a professionalized and socialized law enforcement service would have important prestige value which would produce stronger citizen sup- port of police. In short, Vollmer thought every police officer should be professionally trained for the office he occupied.n Vollmer's various journal articles carried the same theme. In a very short and optimistic article published in 1931, Vollmer stated that "the air is charged with police education." He reviewed the encouraging developments at several of the universities and wrote that "Now we are commencing to accept the educated policeman as a matter of fact," and ". . . there can be little question in the minds of many that within a few years schools for police will be established in practically every college and university in the land."12 1°Ibid., p. 444. 11 12August Vollmer, "Police Education," Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 22 (May 1931): 7-8. ‘ Ibid., p. 448. 36 In another optimistic journal article published the follow- ing year, Vollmer wrote: Every other line of human endeavor is simple when placed alongside the problem which is now presented to police departments . . . . Universities should vie with each other in turning out from their institutions, men adequately tggggggfig serve their country as efficient police Vollmer is considered by many of today's professional law enforcement educators as the founder of college programs for police and other members of the criminal justice system. He held great national stature and was the first man in his field. In 1937, another nationally recognized figure, 0. W. Wilson, stated, "The training of men who expect to enter the police profes- sion is a responsibility of our colleges and universities." He pointed out, however, that few of the colleges and universities recognized that responsibility. At the time there were only five universities that provided such professional pre-entry instruction.14 Dr. Reid Bain of Miami University wrote in 1939 that "police work must become a profession of high social status and decent economic security." He also felt that a pOliceman should be a "college man of superior mental and physical endowment." According to Bain, the prospective police officer should take a "general course in professional police work" and upon graduation be eligible 13August Vollmer, "Abstract of the Wickersham Police Report," Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 22 (January 1932): 716. 14O. W. Wilson, "Report of the Committee on Police Training," Police Yearbook (Washington, D.C.: International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1937), pp. 76-78. 37 for a position on any state or municipal police force in the United States. As a means of reaching this goal, Bain suggested that state and municipal police departments might select promising high school graduates and pay a portion or all of their expenses at a top col- lege, with the understanding that they would intern in the police department and serve at least three years after completion of their education.15 Doctor Bain's concept of the internship and contractual agreement became a portion of a federal law passed thirty years after he expressed the idea in his article. This will be reported on in the proper sequence. In a 1949 article appearing in the Encyclopedia of Crimi- pglggy, Leonard, another police educator, indicated that "Higher intellectual, moral, physical and training standards are essential prerequisites for successful performance of all duties associated with police administration." He also stated that all phases of law enforcement are "as technical as medicine and eingineering," and that ". . . the same training disciplines are required in the preparation of men and women for this strategic field." He thought that "the superb training resources of major universities and colleges of the United States can be applied with telling effect to the professional training require- ments of police service." l5Read Bain, "The Policeman on the Beat," Scientific Monthly 48 (1939): 455. 38 An appropriate curriculum for such a professional educa- tional program, according to Leonard, would consist of approximately 90 percent of "regular" course offerings such as sociology, psy- chology, economics, etc., which would be combined with the ". . . necessary technical police subjects, in precisely the same manner as we have been doing for years in law, engineering, medi- cine, and other professions."16 O. W. Wilson, mentioned previously, an associate of and suc- cessor to Vollmer, gained national renown as a police administrator and educator. His writings, like those of Vollmer, reflect the con- sistent call for higher educational standards within law enforcement. In an early edition of his Police Administration, written in 1950, he pointed out that "while University training will not make a compe- tent person of one with an inferior intellect or who is otherwise deficient, when all other factors are equal the university trained man is better qualified than one who lacks this broadening experi- ence." He felt an educational standard of high school graduation was justified since everyone had the opportunity for high school attendance and there was an adequate number of persons who had com- pleted high school. He also thought that the increasing number who were receiving university training should justify two years of col- lege as a preliminary requirement for candidates, with provision for lowering the standard when candidates excel in other qualities. He 16V. A. Leonard, "University Training for the Police Profes- sion," Encyclppedia of Criminology (New York: The Philosophical Library, 1949), pp. 501-2. 39 felt that such a standard would not prevent the procurement of a suitable number of candidates in most parts of the country.17 In the 1963 edition of this same text, Wilson stated that university and college training had become commonplace in American education and that curricula in law enforcement and police adminis- tration were offered in more than one hundred institutions across the country. These courses included all aspects of law enforcement, penology, criminalistics, crime prevention, and traffic control. Some of these institutions offered graduate degrees while others restricted their courses to two-year or four-year programs. Wilson wrote that, in addition to students who received this specialized and relevant training, there were many other capable young men in colleges and universities who were potentially good candidates but who were not attracted to a service in which low educational require- ments prevail. He repeated his earlier position that it seemed reasonable to set the minimum educational entry requirements for police service at two years of college with provision for lowering the standard when candidates excel in other qualities. Wilson made the same points in the later text, concerning the fact that univer- sity education will not make a competent person of one who is otherwise deficient, but points out that a university man . has had broader experience with people and new situ- ations; his adaptability has been tested, he has had the opportunity to meet students of many different nationali- ties, cultural backgrounds, racial characteristics, and consequently should have lost much of any previous bias or 17O. W. Wilson, Police Administration (New York: McGraw- Hill Book Co., 1950). p. 338. 4O prejudice he may have held. His studies will have given him a new perspective on the problems and aspirations common to all men, and he will have learned to some degree to withhold judgment and to restrain his actions and impulses in favor of calm consideration and analysis. In short, he will already have begun to prepare for the future position of leadership which it is hoped each new recruit will strive to attain. Such men will contribute a great deal to the true profession- alism of police service.18 Donel E. J. MacNamara wrote, in 1950, that "perhaps college graduation is too high an educational qualification to set for all police officers," in spite of the fact that for some othhe responsi- bilities he routinely exercises, ". . . even a college education seems insufficient . . . ." He continues by stating, ". . . a major effort must be made to raise the educational level of police." He pointed out that in spite of the higher police educational level in the past fifty years, ". . . the educational level of the population has risen fasterJ'and that "in a nation in which it is difficult to avoid getting a high school diploma and in which a college education is a preprequisite for thousands of relatively unimportant jobs, there is no reason for self-congratulation in the fact that most, not all, police recruits have a high school education or its equiva- lent."19 In a speech delivered in 1952, Chief William H. Parker of Los Angeles stated that one desirable effect of the Depression was that hundreds of alert and capable young college graduates selected 18o. H. Wilson, Police Administration (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1963), p. 139. 19Donel E. J. MacNamara, "American Police Administration at Mid-Century," Public Administration Review 10 (Summer 1950): 187. 41 a career as policemen due to the insecurity of other fields. Many other men entered police work and attained a college level education while on the job. The result of this development in Los Angeles was that it led to the organization of a planning and research unit which greatly improved the efficiency of the department.20 Charles Sloan, another law enforcement educator, writing in 1954, disagreed with many "experts" in the police field who were stating that law enforcement Was at the point of becoming a true pro- fession. He took the position that . . the only method by which police work, in its entirety, could ever hope to attain the status of a profession is to squarely face the facts . . . professions all require a mini- mum of four years of college . . . the minimum requirements in the police field today (1954) vary from "graduation from high school" to aéllow as "ability to read and write the English language. A. C. Germann, Professor of Criminology at Long Beach, Cali- fornia, has been another of the most vocal supporters of higher edu- cational standards for law enforcement. A 1957 article pointed out that the higher standards were necessary for a rather unique reason. He said: A four-year technical education is not necessary for a young man who wishes a law enforcement career at the patrol- man level, and who wishes to pursue it according to tradi- tional fashion . . . the broad education of the police officer is imporESnt as long as police leadership comes "up from the ranks. 20O. W. Wilson, Parker on Police (Springfield: Charles C. Thomas, 1957), p. 41. 21Charles Sloan, "Police Professionalization," Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology and Police Science 45 (May-June 1954): 77-78. 22A. C. Germann, "Law Enforcement Education and Training in the United States," Police Chief, October 1957, pp. 22-24. 42 Ten years later, Germann appeared to see a need for higher education at the operational level. He wrote: But law enforcement duties, in the past quarter century, have evolved from simple tasks, requiring simple qualifica- tions, to complex professional operations requiring great capacity for specialized knowledge and technique. The police service, which at one time utilized relatively unedu- cated men to perform simple tasks under close supervision, now is utilizing more and more well educated men carrying out complicated tasks as individual experts relying heavily on their own individual judgment. 3 In 1958, Thomas M. Frost wrote a book dealing with police education. He seemed to be somewhat ambivalent in his opinions regarding the necessity of a college education for policemen. He wrote that he would like to see ". . . America's finest young men selected to become the world's best educated police officers." However, in this same area, he expressed the feeling that the amount of formal education necessary for law enforcement work was still considered a moot question.24 He points out: . a police officer must be able to write an intelligent report, express himself clearly and commandingly . . . and possess sufficient mental ability to make spontaneous, rational decisions, but . . . except for certain specialized positions . . . a college education is not essential. It would appear that a proper educational standard would be a high school graduate or his equivalent. He continues, however, to express hope that ". . . a sufficient number of college graduates would filter in to supply the 23A. C. Germann, "Education and Professional Law EnforcementJ' Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science 58 (Decem- Ber 1967): 603. 24Thomas M. Frost, A Forward Look in Police Education (Springfield: Charles C. Thomas, 1959), pp. 168-170. 43 ranks with enough men to advance to positions of leadership and command."25 Frost seemed adverse to taking a definite position, but indicated his feeling that the higher educational levels would pro- duce a better policeman. He observes: To be fully capable, the police student must be educated in terms of the total man. The officer must know much more than the contents of the criminal code, and when a criminal offense has in fact been committed, he must know his posi- tion in the total framework of society; the rights as well as the obligations of the citizenry, and the dignity of man. Douglas G. Gourley investigated the extent of higher educa- tion incentive programs among police agencies on the West Coast in 1961. He proceeded on the premise that "education raises the quality of police service, and it would appear logical that municipalities should encourage police participation in higher education through incentive programs.“ The general theme of the article is a discussion of various incentive programs used by California city police departments to encourage higher educational achievement. A total of 120 cities were surveyed and 71 responded, and the information for the article was gleaned from the questionnaires of these 71 respondents. He reported that 48 cities used a higher educational incen- tive program, while 23 did not have such a program. He speculated that the 49 cities that failed to respond probably did not have the incentive programs. 25 Ibid. 26Ibid., p. 34. 44 This article also spotlights one of the more obvious problems with higher educational standards. Gourley quotes a chief of police who responded negatively: Our city council recently established a policy discouraging the employment of college students by the police depart- ment. This was a result of several of our past personnel receiving a college degree, with a major other than police science, and resigning upon graduation to accept employment at considerably higher pay than our present schedule. The council has in fact tabled any action on the present stan- dards and training program in an attempt to discourage our recruits from accepting employment with cities paying higher salaries and benefits in the police service.2 George Brereton drew comparisons between the American and European police systems. He pointed out that European countries had much earlier required that their senior officers be educated in col- leges and universities for career public service. He traces the development of police education and training in the United States over a sixty-year period with emphasis on college and university law enforcement educational efforts. He cites several authorities to support higher educational standards for police and closes by pro- posing as an education requirement "satisfactory completion of a four year college course in law enforcement training leading to a Bachelor's degree. (Physical, mental, and other types of screening should take place here.)" He felt that "no law enforcement agency can function efficiently and effectively unless it includes high standards of education and training in its plans and operations."28 27Douglas G. Gourley, "Police Educational Incentive Pro- grams," Police Chief, December 1961. Pp. 14-18. ZBGeorge H. Brereton, "The Importance of Training and Educa- tion in the Professionalization of Law Enforcement," Journal of Crimi- nal Law, Criminology, and Police Science (May-June 1961): 111-21. 45 Bernard Garmire, both police chief and educator, writing in the 1964 Police Yearbook, stated that "All police personnel from the newest recruit to the most seasoned administrator is faced with the necessity of being a leader." He considered the college graduate as a possible source of such "leaders" and pointed out that "Although academic achievement in itself is no panacea, those who have pro- gressed through a college program have demonstrated a competitive ability far superior to those who come to us with a general education development certificate."29 James Meahan discussed a law enforcement program developed between the New York City Police Department and the City College of New York. It started with a two-year program in 1954 and was devel- oped into a graduate and four-year degree program in 1957. Many of the instructors in the program were also police officers and the commander of the police academy was also the Assistant Dean of the College. An arrangement was worked out to grant ten college credits for recruit school completion. Active officers were encouraged to continue college level work by including "college level" material in promotional examinations and considering an individual's educational achievement in making promotions.30 29Bernard Garmire, "Personnel Leadership Development," Police Yearbook (Washington, D.C.: International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1964), pp. 332-33. 30James Meahan, "Police Participation in the College Train- ing of Police," Police, March-April 1964, pp. 24-26. 46 William Hewitt, also writing in Pgligg, proposed a police educational program containing ". . . the technical aspects of law enforcement with a broad liberal arts foundation. A law enforcement program should be on a four to one ratio, i.e., for every four hours of liberal arts, a student should have one hour of professional law enforcement training." He felt that it was not the proper role of higher education to teach "how to" procedures, but rather to provide a liberal educa- tion for the individual who plans a career in law enforcement. He also stated that "This liberal education will contribute more to his success than his specialized knowledge of procedures. The liberal education provides unlimited transferable capacities, that will facilitate making more reasonable judgments." He wrote, "A college degree is not a 'union card' to intelli- gence, nor does it guarantee a 'royal road' to success; but it is an indication that the student has learned discrimination, critical independence, and moral responsiblity."31 In a 1965 editorial message in the Police Chief, Quinn Tamm took the following position on higher education for police: Higher education is not a panacea for all our ills. It offers, however, the most appropriate and adequate setting and resources for engaging in the search for better ways. Beyond the capability for conducting meaningful research and for enhancing our ability to objectively understand what is happening around us, the campus must be looked to for the police officers of the future. It is nonsense to state or assume that the enforcement of the law is so simple a task that it can be done best by those unencumbered by an 3‘uiniam H. Hewitt, "The Objectives of a Formal Police Edu- cation," Police, November-December.1964, pp. 25-27. 47 inquiring mind nurtured by the study of the liberal arts. The man who goes into our streets in hopes of regulating, directing or controlling human behavior must be armed with more than a gun and the ability to perform mechanical move- ments in response to a situation. Such men as these engage in the difficult, complex and important business of human behavior. Their intellectual armament--so long restricted to the minimum--must be no less than their physical prowess and protection. Frank Day, Professor in the School of Police Administration at Michigan State University, cited the problem of "selling" criminal justice programs to university administrators, and their reluctance to give the academic "seal of approval" because they appear to be too vocational and not of "university level.‘I Day felt that an appropriate balance was necessary between higher education and voca- tional training and pointed out that the criminal justice courses at Michigan State had been recently "purged of vocational trappings."33 Wilson Purdy, a nationally recognized police administrator, addressed the question directly in a 1965 journal article. He wrote: Do police need a college education? Does it really pay off in terms of better law enforcement? Some of the nation's most respected law enforcement units--the F.B.I. and Secret Service--answered these questions to their satisfaction sev- eral~decades ago and have long required a minimum of a B.A. for their agents. But local police have not accepted this standard, even though local law enforcement may well be a more demanding occupation--far more complicated, technical, and of greater importance to the American way of life than is the federal serv1ce. 32Quinn Tamm, "Editorial Message," Police Chief, May 1965, 33Frank Day, "Administration of Criminal Justice: An Educa- tional Design in Higher Education," Journal of Criminal Law, Crimi- nology, and Police Science 56 (1965): 540. 34Wilson Purdy, "Administrative Action to Implement Selection and Training for Professionalism," Police Chief 9 May 1965. p. 16. 48 Purdy argued that "experience alone is not enough. Relied on solely, it is the most expensive and inefficient teacher." On the other hand, he wrote: When a satisfactory educational program is established, each man will be responsible for his own advancement through his own personal growth. The increased knowledge and development of his skills that will result, will cre- ate a confidence within himself and as a result, the entire department will be upgraded.35 The 1966 Police Yearbook carries an article by Norman Pomerenke, in which he sees the primary purpose of education as the creation of "an atmosphere in order that the individual may develop intellectually, emotionally and socially." Another purpose which he identifies lS'UDOEVEIOp within the individual a logical and/or analytical method of reasoning. He points out that "there is no doubt that education is the primary consideration toward police professionalization . . . ." He cautions, however, that one must resist the philosophy that ". . . education is the panacea for the future of law enforcement. Education, per se, is a relative term." He points out: The properly selected individual with the proper education, coupled with the application of such education to the police service, affords law enforcement a fine officer . . . . The opposite is also true--a poorly selected and retained indi- vidual with the advantages of an education can be, and usually is, a detriment to the police service. Edugation must be equated with the individual and vice versa. 5 35Ibid. 36Norman E. Pomerenke, "Attracting and Retaining the College Trained Officer in Law Enforcement," Police Yearbook (Washington, D.C.: International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1966), pp. 99- 109. 49 Stanley Schrotel, then Chief of Police of Cincinnati, Ohio, speaking on the same subject in the same publication, asked the question, “Is an adequate capability insured if the minimum academic standard is established at college level?" He stated in response: "We answer this question with a vigorous affirmative." An advantage in requiring college training for prospective police officers which he identified is that it keeps a man off the job market until he becomes old enough for police service. The fact that an individual has completed degree requirements provides some measure of his ". . . drive, ambition and related char- acteristics so essential for successful performance in the police field." Educational achievement is also a measure of intelligence, acquired skill in judgment, writing, thinking and expression, and a proof . . . of perseverence. These are the essential prerequisites for those choosing to supervise the behavior of others."37 A. F. Brandstatter in a 1966 article expressed a concern that if the practice of recruiting from high school graduates was con- tinued by police departments, they would be obtaining "the most mar- ginal people coming out of high schools, the lower 30% . . . ." This would be true because the better qualified individual would go on to college and would not likely be attracted to police service, once he had obtained a degree.38 , 37Stanley Schrotel, "Attracting and Keeping College Trained Personnel in Law Enforcement," Police Yearbook (Washington, D.C.: International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1966), pp. 111-12. 38A. F. Brandstatter, "Education Services the Police--The Youth--The Community,“ The Police Chief, August 1966, p. 14. \II‘ F i b‘.‘ 1. 1 50 In the same year, Jameson wrote that policing is not an easy task and the decisions that must be made require "the ability to diagnose and to make quick but accurate judgments. They demand knowledge of how human beings 'tick.‘ Such knowledge is not inborn, it is learned." He proposed that the "common sense" approach to preparation of law enforcement officers must be changed and a switch must be made from the “how to do it" skills to the "why do it" philosophy.39 A 1966 book by two law enforcement educators, Clark and Chap- man, cites a letter from a chief of police in California, as follows: Candidates with a minimum of two years of college are easier to train on the complexities of changes in the rules of evi- dence, search and seizure, arrest and court techniques. They are more susceptible to training on specialty items, such as internal and external intelligence, public relations, budgeting and auxiliary services. They are more adept at adjusting to situations that require clear thinking and pre- cise action. Chapman sees the greatest problem of the police as the identi- fication of leaders, and is critical of the "fish-laddering" of pro- moted policemen to top executive positions. He stated that one of the most important considerations for future leaders is proper edu- cational background. He feels that a continuing education program is especially important for experienced policemen because this is the time that a broad outlook is most needed. 39Samuel Jameson, "Quest for Quality in Police Work," Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science 57 (June 1966): 211. 40Donald E. Clark and Sam G. Chapman, Forward Step: Educa- tional Backgrounds for Police (Springfield: Charles C. Thomas, 1966). P. 84. 51 He pointed out that police leaders must be able to communi- cate with individuals with strong professional and academic back- grounds, such as sociologists, psychologist, etc. In addition, he felt the ability to make good decisions was important to police, and that university or college level courses in evaluation, logic, and reasoning would be helpful.41 In a 1967 article, Germann emphasized that the policeman of the current period must have an active interest in crime prevention and the protection of personal liberty, rather than only crime repression. He stated that the modern policeman had to work as a member of the criminal justice "team" rather than working inde- pendently of other institutions. The increased complexity of the tasks which police perform has a direct influence on thelevel of education required; i.e., a high level of educational achievement is not required to teach a man the vocational mechanics of law enforcement, but a broader educa- tional base is required to understand the "psychological, sociologi- cal, anthropological, legal, ethical, and human relations aspects of his work." Germann asserts: When we talk about professionalization, we must talk about educational qualifications for the work. If we ask the question, "What standard of educational attainment should be set for the police service?" we must be prepared to answer the queinon, "What kind of law enforcement officer do we desire?" 2 415am G. Chapman, "Developing Personnel Leadership," Police Chief, March 1966, p. 26. 42A. C. Germann, "Education and Professional Law Enforce- ment," Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science 58 (December 1967): 604. 52 He draws this descriptive analogy: "We will turn out men who approach their tasks not with the narrow view of the 'police car- penter' but rather with the broad view of the 'police architect,’ knowledgeable of the reasons that lie above, below, between and behind his actions."43 Germann also addresses himself to one of the most frequently cited reasons for negative feelings about college-educated officers. He writes: Let's face it: the professionally trained careerist, upon entering the police service, is generally more critical of traditional attitudes and habits than are non-professionally oriented personnel. This creates problems, for most employ- ees look to police leadership for enunciation of, and com- mitment to, professional norms and standards. If the educated careerist holds higher standards, he judges police supervision and leadership much more severely than police officers who have not had such professional preparation. In other words, the standards that have been regularly trans- mitted by police leadership are often not as high as those standards that have been developed by external sources. Obviously, this creates morale problems, and a continuing conflict between the professionally oriented careerist and those in the servlge who cling tenaciously to outmoded atti- tudes and habits. In July of 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson appointed a Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice. This Commission was similar to the Wickersham Commission mentioned earlier, and did an exhaustive study of America's criminal justice system. It utilized the services of hundreds of nationally known experts in the field and the first of its issued reports was released in 1967. This report came in two forms. One was a 43 44 Ibid., p. 607. Ibid., p. 608. 53 comprehensive volume covering a number of different aspects of the system, titled The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society. The sec- ond took the form of a series of "Task Force Reports," which dealt separately with different units of the criminal justice system. As mentioned in the introductory chapter of this study, the Task Force Report: The Police called specifically for higher educational standards. In the initial report, in a section dealing with police per- sonnel, the Commission reported that the need found to be almost universal was for improved quality of police officers. The Commis- sion's recommendations in regard to improved police-community relations, policymaking, organization and management were all "predi- cated on the necessity for sharp improvement of the quality of police personnel from top to bottom." The report goes on: The word quality is used here in a comprehensive sense. One thing it means is a high standard of education for police- men . . . . A policeman today is poorly equippped for his job if he does not understand the legal issues involved in his everyday work, the nature of the social problems he con- stantly encounters, the psychology of those people whose attitudes toward the law differ from his. Such understand- ing is not easy to acquire without the kind of broad general knowledge that higher education imports . . . . Police can- didates must be sought in the colleges, and espigially among liberal arts and social science students. The Commission reported that at the time of its survey "fewer than two dozen of the nation's 40,000 police agencies required col- lege credits."46 45President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Criminal Justice, The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society (Wash- ington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1967), p. 107. 46 Ibid., p. 34. 54 The Commission made a number of recommendations in regard to educational levels for police officers and offered the Commis- sion's rationale for these recommendations. The report states: The quality of police service will not significantly improve until higher educational requirements are established for its personnel. As was indicated earlier in this chapter, the complexity of the police task is as great as that of any other profession . . . . A superior officer of any police department should certainly be conversant with the structure of our government and its philosophies. He must be well grounded in sociology. criminology, and human relations in order to understand the ramifications of the problems which confront him daily. He must understand what makes people act as they do and what impact his actions in the perform- ance of duty will have on them. Due to the nature of the police task and its effect on our society, there is need to elevate educational require- ments to the level of a college degree from an accredited institution for all future personnel selected to perform the functions of a police agent. The demands on the police should preclude a lower requirement for persons responsible for confronting major crime and social problems. Functions to be performed by the police officer, although not as demanding, are also complex. Hence, all future personnel serving in that capacity should be required to have com- pleted at least 2 years 9f college preparation at an accredited institution.4 Another series of recommendations in the same area were: As an appropriate first step, all departments should imme- diately establish a requirement that no person be employed in a sworn capacity until he has received a high school diploma and has demonstrated by appropriate achievement tests the ability to perform successfully college level studies . . . . The ultimate goal is that all personnel with gensral enforcement powers have baccalaureate degrees. 8 . 47President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administra- tlon of Criminal Justice, Task Force Report: The Police (Washing- ton, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1967), p. 126. 48Ibid. 55 The need for education was considered even more important at the administrative level. ”Police departments, and particularly larger departments, should take immediate steps to establish the minimum educational requirement of a baccalaureate degree in an accredited institution for all major administrative and supervisory positions."49 The Congress of the United States began reacting to the Com- mission reports. In a special hearing before a Senate Judiciary Committee, Vincent L. Broderick testified: In a nation which prides itself on having the world's best and most universally accessible school system, in which nearly 25% of its people finish college, we make the job of protecting society so unattractive that college graduates will not enter into it, and we pay so little for police work that those engaged in it can ill afford to pay their own way for further education. We must provide means for members of our police forces to further their education while members of the force, and incentivga for college graduates to enter law enforcement work. United States Representative William R. Anderson, speaking before the International Association of Chiefs of Police in support of proposed legislation to implement higher educational standards, presented a number of supportive observations: Few, ifany, professions are so crucially charged with indi- vidual responsibility as that of the policeman. Few, if any, professions are more demanding of well-informed, clear, sound judgment in so great a variety of fields and situ- ations, under such conditions of stress as that of the 49 Ibid. 50Vincent L. Broderick, in hearings before the subcommittee 09 criminal laws and procedures, of the Senate Committee on the Judi- Clary, July 12, 1967, "Controlling Crime Through More Effective Law E"forcement," 90th Congress, 1 session (1967), p. 855. 56 policeman. If these generalizations are true--and I have personally encountered no one who has challenged them--then it follows that, for the nation at large, few if any pro- fessions have a greater need of or a higher priority claim upon higher education. The sobering fact is that most of the American law enforcement profession is presently operat- ing at an educational disadvantage to the society it is asked to police, and the trend is not improving. I Anderson goes on to describe the provisions of his bill which was a government funded, educational program for the law enforcement and corrections professions. He draws interesting comparisons: Over the past decade the Federal Government has funded higher education programs for student doctors, diplomats, teachers, economists, sociologists, engineers and veteri- narians. The goal envisioned was partly an upgrading of the 'state of the arts' and partly recruiting through the offer of educational opportunity. This has resulted in the recruitment of talented and dedicated people for these pro- fessions. The nation has benefited from the excellent work done by these people following their graduation. Similarly, in the cause of national defense, the Gov- ernment spends large sums to support ROTC programs for potential military officers in colleges across the country. Now it is time to put the following question: If there is any group of men in our society whose higher education the citizen would reasonably wish to insure, is it not that select group to whom is entrusted the unique authority and responsibility to employ legitimate force in the name of the government. This type of interest and support for the concept of improv- ing the educational level of the police led directly to the passage of the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act in June of 1968. It is, as indicated by its title, a type of legislation which covers Inany different facets of the problem of crime. For the purpose of 51William R. Anderson, "Higher Education for the Law Enforce- ment Community: HR 6628," Police Yearbook (Washington, D.C.: Inter- national Association of Chiefs of Police, 1968), p. 312. 52 Ibid., p. 315. 57 this study, however, its most important provision had to do with the granting of appropriations to various institutions of higher education to financially assist students in pursuing an education, relevant to the improvement of law enforcement. It provided this financial assistance to both in-service law enforcement personnel and to those younger college students who were preparing to enter this field. Grants of up to $200 per academic quarter or $300 per semester were provided for the in-service personnel and loans of up to $1,800 per academic year were made available for those individuals preparing themselves for a law enforcement career. In both cases, these debts were cancelled at a specified rate for a stipulated number of years of employment with a law enforcement agency after graduation.53 The funds initially appropriated by Congress were made avail- able to the various colleges and universities in early 1969, and the sum of 6.5 million dollars went to 485 colleges and to 20,602 stu- 54 The Law Enforcement Educational program. dents across the nation. or LEEP.as it is more familiarly known, has been the principal source of governmental funding of education for all of America's police officers. The figures presented in Chapter I attest to this. The call for these higher educational standards has continued. Another national commission was formed in 1971 to formulate for the 53Public Law 90-351, 90th Congress, H.R. 5037, June 19. 1968: pp. 7-8. _ 54Law Enforcement Assistance Administration, LEEP--An Oppor- tunityyto Move Ahead (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1970), informational brochure to explain Law Enforcement Educational Program. ‘ . 58 first time national criminal justice standards and goals for crime reduction and prevention at the state and local levels. Membership on the Commission was drawn from the three branches of state and local government, from industry and from citi- zen groups. Commissioners were chosen, in part, for their working experience in the criminal justice area. Police chiefs, judges, corrections leaders and prosecutors were represented.55 One of the six volumes the Commission produced was the Report on Police. This report makes a number of recommendations which are intended to assist police agencies in improving their ser- vice and efficiency. Of interest to this study are the recommenda- tions dealing with education as they appear in Standard 15.1. The chapter begins with the observation: More than half of the Nation's young people now go on to college. In terms of an educational norm, the undergraduate degree today is equivalent in prestige to a high school diploma at the turn of the century. Yet most police agen- cies have failed to take notice. For many agencies the minimum educational level is still the same as it was 40 years ago--a high school education. The Commission answered the arguments of those who believe that police work does not require a college education in the follow- ing way: If they (the non-supporters) are referring to the use of police officers to direct traffic, issue parking tickets, conduct permit inspections, perform clerical work, and drive tow trucks, perhaps they are correct. However, in more 55National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals, Police (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1973 , p. v. 56Ibid., p. 367. 59 progressive police agencies such routine tasks are rapidly being turned over to civilian employees, para-professionals, and other governmental agencies. Thus, police officers are left with their more essential task which includes social control in a period of increasing social turmoil, preserva- tion of our constitutional guarantees, and exercise of the broadest range of discretion--sometimes involving life and death decisions--of any government service. The need for police officers who are intelligent, articulate, mature, and knowledgeable about social and political conditions is apparent. After offering further rationale, the Commission recommended the following standards: 1. Every police agency should require immediately, as a con- dition of initial employment, the completion of at least 1 year of education (30 semester units) at an accredited college or university. Otherwise qualified police appli- cants who do not satisfy this condition, but who have earned a high school diploma or its equivalent, should be employed under a contract requiring completion of the educational requirement within 3 years of initial employ- ment. 2. Every police agency should, no later than 1975, require as a condition of initial employment the completion of at least 2 years of education (60 semester units) at an accredited college or university. 3. Every police agency should, no later than 1978, require as a condition of initial employment the completion of at least 3 years of education (90 semester units) at an accredited college or university. 4. Every police agency should, no later than 1982, require as a condition of initial employment the completion of at least 4 years of education (120 semester units or a baccalaugeate degree) at an accredited college or uni- versity. 8 The State of Michigan has followed the lead of the Federal Government and has recently issued its own version of Criminal Jus- tice Goals and Standards. These recommendations closely parallel 57 58 Ibid., p. 370. Ibid., p. 369. 60 those of the National Commission. The members of the Michigan Com- mission have set different time requirements in their standards: 52.1 'Selection procedures for qualified law enforcement applicants should include minimum educational require- ments in the initial screening of applicants. a. When considering new applicants for sworn positions, every law enforcement agency should: 1. Consider the completion of at least 1 year of edu- cation at an accredited college or university by 1976. Otherwise, qualified applicants who do not satisfy this condition, but who have earned a high school diploma or its equivalent, should be employed under a contract requiring completion of the educational requirement within 3 years of ini- tial employment. 2. Not later than 1977, consider the completion of at least 2 years of education at an accredited col- lege or university. 3. Not later than 1978, consider the completion of at least :3 years of education at an accredited col- lege or university. 4. Not later than 1980, consider the completion of at least 4 years of education at an accredited col- lege or university.59 The Michigan report, issued in the spring of 1975, continues to reflect the belief that a college education is beneficial and desirable for a police officer. The call has been consistent for almost half a century and a great deal of logic and rationale has been offered. The limited evidence which has been developed to sup- port this call will be presented in a subsequent portion of this review of the literature. 59Michigan Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice, Criminal tJustice Goals and Standards for the State of Michigan (Lansing: All1ed Printing, 1975), pp. 77-78. 61 The Reported Impact of the College Experience on Students as a Whole In the preceding section of this review a number of different authors and groups were identified and their rationale for having higher educational standards for police officers was presented. Obviously, these writers felt that the college experience would be beneficial; that it would in some way produce a "better" police offi- cer. This indicates a belief that college generally affects the peo- ple who go through that experience; that a college education produces a different type of person in comparison to those who do not go to college. The following is a review of a portion of the literature which attempts to identify what those differences may be. This review will draw heavily from the volume, The Impact of College on Students, by Kenneth A. Feldman and Theodore M. Newcomb, Volume I, 1969. This is a very comprehensive review in and of itself and summarizes research relative to its subject material covering over four decades. The section will also present citations identified by Dr. Gerald Gurin in his book, The Impact of the College Experience. Both of these sources present excellent reviews and commentaries con- cerning how college reportedly affects students. Prior to presenting any of the conclusions which have been made about the effects of the college experience, however, the reader is urged to consider an observation offered by Dr. Gurin: "Since the college experience is not randomly assigned to individuals, .....\\ in u a d .11. 62 one can never be sure of the relative influence of selective factors and college experiences on post-college values and behaviors."60 Gurin has identified a major consideration in any investiga- tion of the college experience--that is, who goes to college and who does not. There is a natural selection process which takes place that necessarily limits the amount of generalization that can be made about the effects of college. How great that limitation is, is unknown but it should be recognized. The impact of college has been examined in many different ways. One of the most common has been to measure changes which occur in students between their freshman and senior years. This may take the form of either cross-sectional measures or longitudinal measures. The cross-sectional method examines characteristics existing in both the freshman and senior classes at the same time. The longitudinal process involves measuring a characteristic at the freshman level and then re-examining the same characteristic when the student becomes a senior. In either case, if differences are observed, some type of change is inferred.61 Attitude change which is experienced by students is one of the most commonly explored areas in the study of the impact of a college education. Most studies show that students going through college increase their interest in aesthetic and cultural values, — 60Gerald Gurin, "The Impact of the College Experience,"ifl Regree and What Else: A Review of the Correlates and Conseguences (TF a College Education , ed. Stephen Withey (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971), p. 43. 6'Ihid., p. 45. 63 decrease their adherence to traditional religion and other tradi- tional values, become more relativistic and less moralistic in their ethical judgments, take on increasingly liberal rather than conserva- tive positions on political and socio-economic issues, and become . more "open minded" as measured by scales on authoritarianism, dog- matism, ethnocentrism and prejudice. The findings in these areas tend to be consistent across many studies and in many different types of colleges.62 Feldman and Newcomb cite observations by Jacob regarding how these attitude changes take place. Jacob reported more homogeneity and greater consistency of values on the part of seniors than of freshmen. He concluded that the impact of college is one of "social- ization, (so that) the individual can fit comfortably into the ranks of American college alumni rather than a liberalization of student values." He reported he had not discerned significant changes in student values which could be attributed directly to the character of the curriculum.63 Gurin also cites Jacob and observes: It is important to be reminded that the studies that have documented freshman-to-senior changes toward increasing openness and tolerance have occurred during a period of time 62Ibid.. pp. 47-48. 63Kenneth A. Feldman and Theodore H. Newcomb, The Impact of .Egllege on Students (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc., 1969), p. 3, c1ting Philip E. Jacob, Changing Values in College (New York: Harper, 1957). 64 when the culture as a whole was changing in these direc- tions. This suggests that a college education 'in itself' is not necessarily liberalizing, but has served that func- tion within the cultural context of the past 30 years.64 Interestingly, the college experience does not seem to gen- erate appreciable amounts of humanistic concerns. Freshman students at Stanford placed high importance on such activities and interests as "relations and activities with future family," "love and affec- tion," and "developing a personal identity." These activities were even more important to seniors. "Career or occupation“ was of high importance for freshmen, but of lower importance for seniors. "Par- ticipation in activities directed toward national or international betterment," "helping other people, "religious beliefs and activi- ties," and "participation as a citizen in the affairs of your community" were of low value to both freshmen and seniors.65 Hall (1951) constructed an inventory to measure the extent to which a subject's expressed goals in life show a concern primarily for the welfare of others. He found (in a cross-sectional study) that only 20 percent of the freshmen and 20 percent of the seniors at Syracuse University (in 1950) could be classified as primarily 66 concerned with the welfare of others. 64 Gurin, p. 53. 65Feldman and Newcomb, p. 13, citing J. Katz, A Portrait of Two Classes: The Undergraduate Students at Berkeley and Stanford from Entrance to Exit, U.S. Department of Health, Education and Wel- fare Project No. 5-0799 (Stanford, Calif.: Institute for the Study of Human Problems), pp. 7-80. 66Ibid., p. 13, citing R. M. Hall, "Religious Beliefs and Social Values of Syracuse University Freshmen and Seniors," Ph.D. dissertation, Syracuse University, 1950. 65 Rosenberg (1957) concentrated on attitudes concerning job or career orientations. He reported that seniors consistently indi- cated a higher desire for a job in which they would be allowed to be creative and original as opposed to the freshmen's preference for a stable and secure future. Additionally, Rosenberg found that his "people oriented" value complex, which indicates the desire to work with people rather than things and the opportunity to be helpful to others, received a higher rating in the freshman year and a lower one in the senior year.67 Feldman and Newcomb, summarizing a number of studies on the intellectual effect of college, observe: Most, though by no means all, of the studies . . . show increases in intellectual dispositions during the college years. Generally speaking, seniors, as compared to fresh- men, have more liking for reflective thought, are more intraceptive (referring to an inner, subjective life), show more independence of thought, are more creative, and are more critical and analytic. Further, seniors are more interested in natural science, social science, and the humanities; they Show more interest in artistic matters and activities. They are somewhat more likely to engage in self-propelled intellectual activities such as attending lectures and cultural events, reading unassigned books, lis- tening to classical music, and the like. Not all increases in intellectual orientation, however, are large enough to be statistically significant. This, together with the fact that some samples do not show any increases on some of the "intellectuality" scales, will not be altogether encouraging to those who feel that the primary goal of a college educa- tion is t8 make young men and women more intellectually disposed. 8 ‘ 67Feldman and Newcomb, pp. 17-18, citing M. Rosenberg, Mations and Values (Glencoe, 111.: Free Press, 1957). 68Feldman and Newcomb, pp. 28-29. 66 Commenting on the interpersonal and intrapersonal adjustments of college students, Feldman and Newcomb offer the following sum- marization: Seniors are usually more dominant, confident, assertive and independent than freshmen. . . . With some, but not over- whelming consistency, studies show that seniors are more ready to express impulses than are freshmen. There is also a suggestion that seniors' attitudes and interests conform less closely to stereotypes of their own sex. Results of changes in the areas of achievement orientation, socia- bility, and psychological well-being are inconsistent. These authors express some concern over determining to what degree college has nurtured these personality characteristics and the extent to which they may have developed due to the natural maturation process. Becker (1964) makes a somewhat cynical but logical assessment of the effect of college on students. He contends that students learn a number of organizational skills, attitudes, and motivations that are necessary for success in the typical middle class and upper class occupational world. This learning process includes more than the acquiring of specific knowledge and techniques relevant to future careers. It also includes gaining the more general abilities and motivations to meet deadlines, start and finish tasks, juggle sev- eral things at once and keep them straight, and budget one's time and energy. He also suggests that the student learns to attach his own desires to the requirements of the organization in which he 70 becomes involved. This is expressed in the following quote: 69 7°1bid., p. 40, citing H. 5. Becker, "What Do They Really Learn in College?" Trans-Action 1 (1964): 14-17. Ibid., p. 36. 67 He must learn to want things simply and only because the institution in which he participates says these are the things to want. College provides practice at this linking of personal and institutional desires. The student learns that he requires, at least, a degree and that he must do whatever it is the college asks of him in order to get that degree. This attachment to the long-range goal furnishes him with the motivation to continue in classes that bore or confound him, to meet requirements that seem to him foolish or childish. The college student learns to surmount the obstacles posed for him by the college, simply because they are there. He learns to regard these external obstacles as marks of his own ability and maturity, and because he interprets the obstacles that way, sees his success in col- lege as a sign of his own personal worth. The ability to link institutional and personal desires is an importagt prerequisite for occupational success in adult life. Demonstrations that changes occur in college students between their freshman and senior years do not necessarily prove that the college experience was a significant factor in those changes. At least some portion of the syntheses must be considered to be the result of becoming more mature. Similarly, one should remember the natural selection process mentioned at the outset of this section of the review. That is, differences very probably exist between those who elect to go to college and those who do not. Ideally, in order to test the effect of college, studies should be made of comparable high school seniors, some of whom go on to college and others who do not. Gurin points out that there are "only a handful of empirical studies" of this nature.72 Trent and Medsker (1968) used a longitudinal type of study on a large group (10,000) of high school seniors in 1959. They were 71 72 Ibid. Gurin, p. 59. 68 able to test a large proportion of this sample four years later in 1963 and compare people who had completed college, spent some time in college or had no college experience at all. Among several scales that were used was one entitled "social maturity." The scale attempts to measure the non-authoritarian syndrome, the "open, flexible, critical, objective, non-judgmental"way of thinking.73 Their findings in this area are quire impressive. When com- parisons were made between those who had spent four years in college and those without that experience, they found that while both groups had increased in the "social maturity" scale, the college group increase was significantly higher. Additionally, even when socio-economic status and academic ability were considered, they found that the differences in the changes of the college attenders and non-attenders were just as great for the students from low socio-economic backgrounds and with low SAT scores as they were for students from the higher income brackets having higher SAT scores. Thus, they theorized, the fact that college students showed greater changes away from authoritarian- ism could not be attributed to the generally higher socio-economic status and academic abilities of people who go to college.74 Plant (1965) reported similar findings by following up on a number of students who had applied to San Jose State College, some of whom actually attended the college and others who did not go to 73 74Ibid., citing James W. Trent and Leland L. Medsker, Beyond HighySchool (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1968). —— Ibid., PP. 60-61. 69 college at all. Four years after their applications had been filed, both groups had decreased on measures of dogmatism and authoritarian- ism, but the changes were greater among those who had attended college.75 In referring back to Feldman and Newcomb, attempting to find additional references to other studies of the college-, non-college types, this writer found only the same two studies mentioned. It appears that only Plant, and Trent and Medsker are the two well- known references in this important study area. One of the hypotheses of this study is concerned with attempting to determine if there are significant differences in ability between college-educated police officers with a criminal justice-type course of study and those graduates with degrees in other disciplines. Feldman and Newcomb make the observation that students entering various major fields tend to differ somewhat in background or demographic characteristics. These background differ- ences tend to account in some degree for the attitudinal and person- ality differences of students who pursue different curricula.76 These authors present data indicating that students with backgrounds of high socio-economic status tend to enter the major fields of medicine, social science, arts and humanities, law and other political and governmental ventures. The fields of education, 75Gurin, citing Walter T. Plant, "Longitudinal Changes in Intolerance and Authoritarianism for Subjects Differing in Amount of College Education Over Four Years," Genetic Psychology Monographs 72(2) (November 1965): 247-87. 76Feldman and Newcomb, p. 153. 7O engineering and related technical fields are overchosen by students of lower socio-economic status.77 The field of criminal justice is not specifically identified, perhaps because it is a very recent arrival as a field in higher education. James O. Wilson, a sociologist who has done extensive research in the law enforcement area, points out in a recent paper that police officers generally come from the middle lower class, the 78 This also has been the general "blue collar" types of families. observation of this writer. However, no empirical data has been discovered which proves the contention. If Wilson's observation is correct, and logically it seems so, it might be assumed that because of their socio-economic back- grounds those individuals who enter a criminal justice-type program may be initially different than those people with a higher socio- economic status in a different educational field. If this is a cor- rect assumption then Feldman and Newcomb's summarization takes on additional meaning for this study. They offer that there is con- vincing evidence of a prevalence of an "accentuation" of initial major field differences. They state that it has been shown that pre-existing differences in characteristics typical of students initially choosing different curricula tend to become even more pro- nounced following experience in those major fields.79 77 78 Ibid. James O. Wilson, p. 21. 79Feldman and Newcomb, p. 193. 71 In another section of their text, Feldman and Newcomb speak again of the "accentuation" effect of college upon an individual's characteristics: Whatever the characteristics of an individual that selec- tively propel him toward particular educational settings-- going to college, selecting a particular one, choosing a certain academic major, acquiring membership in a particu- lar group of peers--those same characteristics are apt to be reinforced and extendgd by the experiences incurred in those selected settings. 0 This "accentuation of the individual's personality is also likely to continue after graduation from college. Again, Feldman and Newcomb observe: For many of its students, in sum, college-induced changes in attitudes and values are likely to persist. Most of them are not likely again to be so susceptible to new influences, and their college-acquired stances will, to some degree, continue to symbolize independence and adulthood. For some, at least, habits of being open to new information, and being influenced thereby, will result in persisting openness to further change; such an outcome, it may be argued, is one of the goals of a college education. 1 In conclusion, there does not appear to be any well-defined, clear-cut college impacts that are easily recognizable. Feldman and Newcomb describe their efforts as: "We have viewed colleges' impacts on their students through the often cloudy lenses of effects that can in some sense be offered as generalizations."82 the following summary: 80 81 Ibid., p. 333. Ibid. 82Ibid.. p. 326. They then offer dents who attend the various institutions. 72 Declining "authoritarianism," dogmatism and prejudice, together with decreasingly conservative attitudes toward public issues and growing sensitivity to aesthetic experi- ences, are particularly prominent forms of change--These add up to something like increasing openness to multiple aspects of the contemporary world, paralleling wider ranges of contact and experience. Somewhat less consistently, but never the less evident, are increasing intellectual inter- ests and capacities, and declining commitment to religion, especially in the more orthodox forms. Certain kinds of personal changes--particularly toward greater independence, self-confidence and readiness to express impulses--are the rule rather than the exception.8 Finally, the observation of Dr. Gurin seems appropriate: There does not seem to be an automatic broadening of hori- zons that comes with a college education, since as we have noted, a college education does not seem to have opened the older generations to the growing liberalization of recent years. It is likely, also, that more is involved than just bringing together large numbers of people undergoing simi- lar change processes, since one would not likely find the same degree of change among young people between the ages of 17 and 21 gathered in other institutional settings, for example the military. Part of the reason for a common effect may reflect the fact that the American college in recent years has been an institution that encouraged and legitimized self confrontation and the questioning and re-evaluation of one's values, and the current values of society, and that this has been true to some extent regard- less of the nature of the college. College does seem to have observable impacts upon the stu- a tendency toward greater "openness," less authoritariansm and preju- dice. There are indications of greater independence and self- confidence. Certainly, these are admirable characteristics and, hopefully, the college-educated police officer will reflect them. Tre degree to which these characteristics are brought out would seem 83Ibid. 84Gurin, p. 80. The literature indicates 73 to depend on the type of individual who initially pursues a college education and then becomes a police officer. The Research Reporting on the Effects of Higher Education for Police Officers In the previous two sections of this review, the rationale for college-educated police officers was offered and the general per- sonality characteristics which one might expect of college-educated people have been examined. This section will explore the literature reporting upon observed differences which exist between police officers who have attended college and their fellow officers who have not. As was mentioned in the introductory portion of this chapter, the literature in this area is relatively sparse. There has been little empirical data presented which concerns itself with the rela- tive merits of requiring higher educational standards for police officers. Most of the research which has been carried out was exe- cuted in the relatively recent past and the results have been pub- lished primarily in the journals, books and reports of the law enforcement field. Additionally, most of the research data that is available does not address itself directly to educational standards alone, but considers education only as corollary information to another area under investigation. One of the earliest studies in this field (1916) was con- cerned with civil service 1.0. tests and their effect on the selection of applicants for the police and fire departments of San Jose, Cali- fornia. Lewis Terman, assisted by others, found significant 74 correlations between the lower ranges of 1.0. scores and failure of the applicants to obtain at least an eighth grade education. As a result of their findings, the researchers recommended excluding from examination for such positions all applicants who had not completed a certain minimum of school work, at least graduation from eighth grade and more preferably high school.85 In 1922, Louis Thurstone conducted a similar study within the Detroit Police Department. He administered the Army Alpha Intelli- gence Examination to 358 officers of varying ranks. Interestingly, he determined that the average number of years of schooling for the patrolmen, 7.56, was higher than that of the command officers. He also found the patrolmen with the higher educational levels obtained higher 1.0. scores. This led him to make the observation: When we find an occupation in which the higher ranks Show lower intelligence test scores than the apprentices in that occupation, we are justified in assuming that the occupation does not appeal to the brightest apprentices. We are forced to assume in most of these cases that the brightest appren- tices leave the occupation for some other line of work in which superior ability can be more profitably used. This is what I suspect to be the case with the Detroit Police Depart- ment on account of the conspicuously low intelligence test scores of its officers.86 These early studies clearly demonstrate the consistently low level of education which was typical of police officers in the double decade of the 1920s and 19305. 85Lewis M. Terman, "A Trial of Mental and Pedagogical Tests in Civil Service Examination for Policemen and Firemen," Journal of Applied Psychology 1, No. 1 (March 1917): 17-29. 86L. L. Thurstone, "The Intelligence of Policemen," Journal of Personnel Research 1 (1922): 64-74. 75 Arthur Niederhoffer, a New York City policeman who obtained a Ph.D. in sociology, did a study of police cynicism in the early 19605. He offers the observation that it was not until the late Depression years that college graduates began to become interested in law enforcement. They chose police work in preference to other Occupations, higher on the social scale, because of the relatively high salary, $3,000 a year, and the security of the job. Of 300 recruits entering the New York Police Department in 1940, more than half had college degrees; some were teachers, engineers, lawyers, and even medical school students. Many of these individuals rose through the ranks rather rapidly and "formed the nucleus of the future elite group which attempted to raise the prestige of the police occu- pation to match their own middle class ideologies, and transform it into a profession."87 A portion of these educated men became a part of his sample consisting of 200 officers in the department who held various ranks and positions within the force. He developed 20 questions which were devised to determine the degree of cynicism the different cate- gories of officers might hold. One of those questions dealt with the advisability of requiring a college degree for appointment to the police department. His results indicated that one-third of the patrolmen in his sample thought that college men would be ill-suited for police work. An equal number felt that friction would result, 87Arthur Niederhoffer, Behind the Shield, the Police in Qrban Society (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday & Co., Inc., 1967), pp. 16-17. 76 and another third was of the opinion that the force would benefit from such a requirement.88 One of Niederhoffer's hypotheses was that the college- educated patrolman would reveal more cynicism than the average patrolman for the reason that since they were Still patrolmen, they would feel they were failures because they had risen no farther than their uneducated colleagues. He did not predict that this would be true for the college men who had been promoted or assigned to spe- cial details. In both instances, his predictions proved to be cor- rect. In regard to the unpromoted patrolmen, he states: The frustration caused by failure to be promoted is a more important determinant of a patrolman's attitude than is his readiness to welcome professionalization. Therefore, in certain cases, education multiplies frustration and cyni- cism instead of the reverse. 0n the other hand, those sub- jects in the superior officer and detective categories, who held degrees, scored consistently lower on the cynicism scale than did the rest of the sample who had fewer than two years of college education.39 Smith, Locke and Walker also conducted a study within the New York Police Department in 1967. Their area of interest was authoritarianism in college and non-college oriented police officers. They hypothesized that the police who had not entered college would demonstrate higher authoritarian characteristics than those officers who were attending college. The researchers used a modification 88Ibid., p. 210. 891bid., pp. 235-36. 77 of Rokeach's Dogmatism Scale (1960) and a similar scale devised by Piven (1961).90 The sample was composed of officers who had up to one and one-half years on the force, and was divided into 122 non-college oriented officers and 104 patrolmen who were selected from the fresh- man group of the College of Police Science. A self-administered questionnaire with a Likert-type scale was used and the respondents remained anonymous. The summarization of this research reads in part: It was found that while there are different facets of per- sonality as measured by Rokeach and Piven scales, overall the college policemen tended to be less authoritarian than the non-college police and that among college police the older group is more authoritarian than the younger group.91 They concluded: This study demonstrates that police who are attracted to college are Significantly less authoritarian than police who are not compelled to attend college. This implies that there are certain personality characteristics of police who attend college that make it more likely that they will be able to function more effectively with respect to problems stemming from civil rights demonstrations and more effec- tively in accordance with the guidelines set down by the Supreme Court with respect to arrests and search and seizure. These same researchers, utilizing the same format, also investigated differences which might exist in authoritarianism between 90A1exander B. Smith, Bernard Locke and William F. Walker, "Authoritarianism in College and Non-college Oriented Police," Jour- nal 3f Criminal Law, Criminology,and Police Science 58 (February 1967 : 127. 9'Ibid.. p. 132. 92 Ibid. 78 non-police freshmen and police officers just beginning their college career. The sample consisted of 211 freshmen in the criminal jus- tice classes at the John Jay College in New York City. Surprisingly, their data indicated that the police officers ' scored significantly lower on the authoritarian scale than did the non-police students. When comparisons were made with the scores registered in the previous study, the freshman police officers again scored lower than the non-college oriented group of police officers. This led the authors to write: The implications of these results in terms of the role of these college educated police officers in dealing with the many social problems of the day cannot be overemphasized, and the provision of an opportunity for a college education for these police officers becomes a public obligation. Pursuing their investigation, the research team examined col- lege graduate police officers in comparison to officers of similar circumstances who had not obtained any higher education. They iden- tified 39 officers in each category with a median age of 40.3 years. The results were consistent with the earlier studies and again the authors urged higher educational standards to be supported by public financing.94 93A1exander B. Smith, Bernard Locke and William F. Walker, "Authoritarianism in Police College Students and Non-Police College Students," Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science 59, 3 (1968): 440-43. 94Alexander B. Smith, Bernard Locke and W. Fenster, "Authoritarianism in Policemen Who Are College Graduates and Non- College Police," Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science 61 (June 1970): 314-15. 79 Irving Guller also examined the students of the John Jay College of Criminal Justice in regard to attitudinal differences existing between freshman and senior police college students. His primary areas of interest were degrees of "self esteem" and the amount of dogmatism which might be identified. He concluded: There seems to be a relationship between amount of exposure to colle e education--regard1ess of major since our (seniors? had widely divergent majors--and a variety of presumably positive cognitive changes. The statisticalgg most significant of these was in the area of dogmatism. In regard to the self-esteem variable he wrote: Although our findings are not statistically potent, we also have evidence . . . that more exposure to college results in less negative self esteem and at the same time diminishes hard line or punitive attitudes toward others.96 Cohen and Chaiken, professional research directors for the Rand Corporation, were also involved in a study of the New York City Police Department. In this instance they studied the background and performance of 1,915 officers who were appointed to the police department in 1957, of whom 1,608 were still within the ranks in 1968.97 There were a number of variables examined in their research; however, for the purposes of this study, the apparent effect of col- lege education is the only area of interest. 95Irving B. Guller, "Higher Education and Policemen: Atti- tudinal Differences Between Freshmen and Senior Police College Stu- dents," Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology. and Police Science 63 (September 1972): 396-401. 96 97Bernard Cohen and Jan M. Chaiken, Police Background Char- acteristics and Performance: Summary, Report prepared for the National Institute of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice (New York: Rand Corp., 1972), p. 1. Ibid., p. 401. 80 There were both positive and negative findings reported by the research team. The most noticeable finding was that the men who terminated their employment with the department were considerably better educated than those who remained, and they attained higher ratings from the department's background investigators: It is particularly noteworthy that one third of the college educated recruits in 1957 (8 out of 24) were found to have left the force by 1968, compared to 19% of the men who had not graduated from college. The data suggest that many men who represent the department's view of a desirable candi- date, especially college-educated men, will have shorter tenure than the average officer, unless the department con- sciously attempts to determine the source of dissatisfac- tion among such ofgicers and modifies its personnel poli- cies accordingly.9 In a final summary on the education variable, the authors stated: A typical example of the difference in patterns between the college graduate and non-college graduate was in the number of civilian complaints incurred over an eleven-year period. Our data revealed that 369 men, or 24% of the non- college graduates, had a civilian complaint, compared to only 4 college graduates, or 8%. Generally speaking, the older, more educated officer received fewer civilian com- plaints than the younger, less educated officer. As a group, the men with at least one year of college education who remained on the force were found to be very good performers. They advanced through civil service pro- motion, but not disproportionately through the detective route of advancement, and they had fewer civilian com- plaints than average. The men who obtained college degrees, either before or after appointment to the force, exhibited even better on-the-job performance. They advanced through preferential assignments and civil service promotions, they had low incidence of all types of misconduct except harass- ment, on which they were average, they had low sick time, and none of them had their firearms removed for cause.99 981bid., pp. 12-13. 991bid.. pp. 20-21. 81 The researchers did not completely support the concept of hiring only college-educated officers, however. They offered the observation: Since men who obtained college degrees prior to or after Joining the force were good performers, the department should attempt to attract and retain such men and should assist them in continuing their education. However, we believe that men of average intelligence and no college education are still needed in substantial numbers for assignments such as traffic duty, where they appear to perform well and become stable, satisfied employees. Ruth Levy conducted a study of the personnel files of 14 dif- ferent California police departments, in an attempt to identify per- sonality or background characteristics which could be used to identify unsuccessful law enforcement officers from those who stayed in police work.101 For the purposes of this study, the officers were divided into categories designated as "failures," "non-failures" and "cur- rents." 'Hwefailures were those officers who had been dismissed for cause or whose resignations had been requested by their department due to failure to meet departmental expectations. The non-failures were those who left of their own volition, and the currents were those still employed. The study covered the decade of 1952-1962, and involved the examination of 2,148 different personnel files of police officers.102 100 101Ruth J. Levy, "Predicting Police Failures," The Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science 58 (June 1967): 265. 102 Ibid., p. 31. Ibid., p. 266. 82 There were, of course, several variables identified, but it again is the level of education which is pertinent to this report. Levy states: Education prior to appointment consistently shows a greater number of years of formal education for separated personnel (whether failure or non-failure) than for the current employees . . . . Non-failures consistently have more edu- cation than other criterion groups, regardless of the period of their birth . . . . We find a consistent and definite trend that with increasing education, there is a reduasion in length of service for all three criterion groups. Watson and Sterling, of the International Association of Chiefs of Police, did a comprehensive study of the variance of police opinion in 1967. In their research, an extensive question- naire was mailed to 295 different police departments, which resulted in a return of 4,837 usable instruments for analysis.104 The officers were divided into seven different categories: patrolmen, detectives, juvenile officers, administrators, training officers, recruits, and a miscellaneous classification. There were 4,672 officers classified as "experienced"; and of this number, some college attendance was indicated by 2,477, or 53 percent, while 8.5 percent, or 396, reported holding some kind of a college degree.105 The researchers found that training officers had the highest level of education of the different categories, with the 103 104Nelson A. Watson and James W. Sterling, Police and Their Opinions (Washington, D.C.: International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1969), p. 15. losIbid., p. 20. Ibid.. pp. 268-69. 83 administrators running second. They found that Negro officers had a slightly higher educational level than did whites and "others."106 Some of the general statements made by the authors regarding education are as follows: 1. In general we find that the variable which seems to make a difference more consistently than anything else is the level of education. 2. There is not much difference, in general, between the answers given by administrators and those given by training officers. 3. It is also interesting to note that on most questions the proportion of officers checking "don't know" or "no opinion" increased as the level of education increased.107 Sterling followed the aforementioned study with an examina- tion of the changing role concepts of police officers. This involved 152 police officers who entered the recruit level of four different metropolitan police agencies in 1968.” He developed a longitudinal research design in which his sample was tested at entry level (t1), upon completion of the police academies (t2), and, finally, after 18 months' service as patrolmen (t3).108 The research instrument was designed to test (1) role con- flict, (2) perception of reference groups, (3) aggregate role, (4) role attributes, (5) perception of danger, and (6) attitudinal orientations to role.109 106 107 Ibid.. p. 34. Ibid., p. 43. 108James W. Sterling, Changes in Role Concepts of Police Officers (Washington, D.C.: International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1972), pp. 22-23. 1091mm, pp. 24-25. 84 0f the original 152 respondents, 49 indicated some college 110 experience with 6 indicating degree status. At the completion of testing, or t3, there were 113 subjects still in the study. Sterling devotes a portion of his Interrelationships chapter to a description of the significant findings in regard to the variable of higher education. He found "The men with some college tended to be 3 more more dominant at t than the men with lesser formal education." He also found "Subjects with more formal education tended to have significantly higher scores on the factor titled, 'Valuation of Education.'" He also reported: At t], the subjects with less formal education tended to have significantly higher scores on the factor titled, "Pragmatic Realism," than did the subjects with more formal education. On this factor, it is significant to note that the scores of the educational groups were statis ically undifferentiated by t2 and almost identical to t . Thus, the effect of college work on the attitudes of the 37 sub- jects was short lived once they were exposed to police training. The author also notes a difference in the perception of dan- ger between the college-trained officers and those without the higher education. He explains: The subjects who had some college education obtained sig- nificantly higher danger scores after working as a patrolman than the men with less formal education. Some of the out- comes of education are the ability to see relationships, to perceive details and nuances, to anticipate consequences, to assess risks, to understand the {Selings of others, and to derive meaning from experience.1 110 111 Ibid., p. 37. Ibid., p. 267. ”21mm, p. 268. 85 Sterling concludes with the observation that he has not answered the question of the value of education. He explains: To a limited extent, the results of this research can enrich the continuing discussion of the effects of a college back- ground for the police. After patrol experience the college subjects emerged as more dominant than the men with less education. Thus, to a greater extent, arguing for one's point of view, desiring to be thought of as a leader and settling the disputes of others characterized the techniques of the college men for handling their life situation. Cyrus Ulberg also investigated the role concepts and con- flicts of police officers. The data were gathered in a medium- sized Midwestern police department with a sample of 296 patrolmen, specialists and sergeants. Existing departmental performance records were used for criterion measures and a representative list of 40 different police activity descriptions was developed. The officers scored these activities according to their conception of importance. I The analysis of this ordering showed the motivational dispo- sition of a patrolmen determines how he is affected by differences in role conception. While the study did not consider education as a primary variable, Ulberg noted: The exploratory analysis of the determinants of good performance showed that high performance work groups tend to have patrolmen who are young, with high education, who emphasize investigations and crime prevention, who are sat- isfied with the job, and who are motivated primarily by the intrinsic rewards associated with the job.1 4 113 114Cyrus G. Ulberg, "Role Conception, Job Satisfaction, and Performance in a Police Department," Dissertation Abstracts 34, Ho. 8 (February 1974): 53l8-A. Ibid. 86 A very involved and sophisticated study was carried out within the Chicago Police Department by Spencer and Nichols. Its purposes were to identify the characteristics of effective patrolmen, to upgrade the quality of recruits, and to validate the department's selection and evaluation procedures.”5 The sample consisted of 427 survivors of the initial screen- ing procedure existing when the officers first entered the depart- ment. Half of the group had a high school education only, and an additional third had education beyond high school. The average age was 24.5 years and the average 1.0. on the Otis scale was 107.8.“6 Altogether, the research program considered 62 variables, and again, educational level was only one of these. However, the researchers reported that low educational levels were consistently associated with those who failed to qualify for employment, and a higher educational level was a persistent predictor of the success- ful and effective patrolmen.”7 Charles Bozza, a Costa Mesa, Calfiornia, police officer, reported that he had found a correlation between higher educational levels and high arrest rates by his fellow officers. He was also examining tolerance, authoritarianism and promotion-seeking. His sample was very small, only 24 officers, but each had a minimum of 60 college credit hours since that amount was required for entry 1156i1more Spencer and Robert Nichols, I'A Study of Chicago Police Recruits," The Police Chief, June 1971, pp. 50-55. 116 117 Ibid., p. 52. Ibid., p. 54. 87 into the department. He reported that the only significant correla- tion he found was that between the number of arrests made and the higher educational levels.”8 Thomas McGreevy, on the other hand, found a negative correla- tion between higher educational levels and patrol activity. He investigated the relationship between patrol duty performance records and the educational levels of 556 police officers in the St. Louis, Missouri, Police Department. This particular study is one of very few which directly investigated educational levels and a performance rating. McGreevy states: In recent years, public service employers have been urged to require police service applicants to have more years of formal education than in the past. Some recognized authori- ties have advised that only college-trained applicants be considered for public service appointments . . . . This study was conducted to determine whether police service employers who raise their educational standards can expect better educated policemen to accomplish basic police tasks more effectively than other policemen with fewer years of formal education.“9 McGreevy selected 11 police tasks which he described as ". . . not among the most notable, most sensational, or most glamor— ous tasks performed by police personnel, but those that do provide a ' cross section of the patrol tasks most frequently performed by patrolmen." The 11 tasks which were evaluated were (1) issuing 118Charles M. Bozza, "Motivations and Guiding Policemen in the Arrest Process," Journal of Police Science and Administration 1 (December 1973): 468- 76. 119Thomas J. McGreevy, "A Field Study of the Relationship Between the Formal Education Levels of 556 Police Officers in St. Louis, Missouri, and Their Patrol Duty Performance Records" (Master's thesis, School of Police Administration and Public Safety, Michigan State University, 1964), Abstract. 88 parking meter tags, (2) issuing other parking tags, (3) issuing hazardous traffic violation citations, (4) issuing non-hazardous traffic violation citations, (5) completing business checks, (6) con- ducting business interviews, (7) issuing ordinance violation notices, (8) issuing curfew notices, (9) stopping vehicles, (10) questioning pedestrians, and (11) making field interrogation cards.120 The author then statistically compared the performance rec- ords of his subjects over a 28-day period by grouping them according to educational levels. His principal finding was, "The study indi- cated that there was no significant linear relationship between formal education levels of the 556 St. Louis patrolmen in the ten sub-groups and their records of police work accomplished."]21 McGreevy notes that while there was no significant linear relationship, "Patrolmen with more than one year of college were less productive, on the average than any other St. Louis patrolmen except those with only seven years of formal education."122 A second, more sophisticated study of the St. Louis area police was carried out by Dennis Smith and Elinor Ostrom. In 1972, these researchers interviewed 712 police officers employed by 29 different law enforcement agencies. They also examined data 120 121 122 Ibid., pp- 25-27. Ibid., p. 61. Ibid., p. 62. 89 obtained from approximately 4,000 citizens regarding their percep- tions of the police.123 This research centered on investigating the validity of pro- posed policies which would require increased training and education for the police. In order to systematize their research, the follow- ing hypotheses were formulated: Police officers with higher levels (as compared with lower levels) of training and education will: have a lower estimation of the efficacy of force in solving crime problems; have a view of the goals of law enforcement which includes the protection of civil liberties, even of persons suspected of criminal acts; be less critical of Supreme Court decisions; be more tolerant of public protest and dissent; have greater willingness to accept innovation in the structure of police departments; be less approving of a military model of organization for police departments; have greater confidence in their competence and pre- paredness for coping with police assignments. When police performance is evaluated by citizens, those citizens served by departments whose officers have higher levels of training or education will: tend to give their police services a higher rating; tend to give a higher rating to police-community relations in their neighborhood; be more likely to believe the police respond quickly when called; be more likely to report that police treat all citi- zens equally; be less likely to report that crime is increasing in their neighborhood. 2 123Dennis C. Smith and Elinor Ostrom, "The Effects of Train- ing and Education on Police Attitudes and Performance: A Preliminary Analysis," initial report submitted to the center for the Studies of Metropolitan Problems of the National Institute of Mental Health, Grant number 5 R01 NH 19911, 1973, p. 12. 124Ibid., p. 11. 90 Finally, in order to attempt to rate effectiveness, the researchers used the police officer's ability to obtain warrants. Their final hypothesis stated: Those officers with higher levels of training and education will be more successful in obtaining warrants from the Prosecuting Attorney's office. 25 As previously stated, the research treated both greater amounts of training and higher levels of education. The researchers ”found little evidence to support claims which have been made for beneficial effects of longer periods of training." In addressing the education issue, the authors were less than glowing in describing the accomplishments of the college- educated officers. They wrote: The relationships between college education levels and the dependent variables included in our analyses were weakly consistent with predictions of those advocating edu- cation as an important reform in the police field with few exceptions. Although college educated officers did tend somewhat to manifest the reform predicted attitudes toward use of force, probable cause requirements, the Supreme Court and lateral entry, they did not differ from less edu- cated officers in the assessment of the appropriateness of a military organization. 0n questions about their feeling prepared for specific police assignments, college educated officers tended to be less confident. Departments whose officers had higher levels of education were not given higher ratings by the citizens they serve, nor were they more successful than the less educated departments in obtaining warrants. While considerably more analysis is obviously required, the results from our study thus far provide slight con- firmation for hypotheses derived from police reform litera- ture calling for higher levels of training and education. 26 '251bid., p. 12. 1251mm. pp. 38-39. 91 Thomas Nicholson conducted a study within the Michigan Department of State Police in 1973. His work is quite pertinent to this investigation. He examined the records of 244 men who entered the recruit training program during 1971 and 1972. He expressly investigated education as one of several variables which might exhibit possible correlation with a number of successful completion measures of the recruit and probationary training period.127 Among the predictor variables examined were college quarter hours completed, high school percentile standing, age, height, civil service oral and written scores, military service, level of family responsibility, G.E.D. versus high school graduation, high versus low content Criminal Justice college programs, and graduation from private versus public high school.128 Nicholson restricted his study to only the first year of the officer's time in the department. This would include his 3-1/2 month recruit school and approximately 9 months of probationary service. The success criteria selected consisted of the following: Recruit School academic achievement, Continuing Education Program academic achievement, Advanced Trooper School academic achievement, Probationary Trooper field performance rating, and achievement of confirmation as a State Police officer.129 127Thomas G. Nicholson, "A Study of the Relationship Between Formal Educational A(hievement and Other Factors in Predicting the Performance of Probationary Police Officers in a State Police Organi- zation" (Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1973). 128 129 Ibid., p. 205. Ibid. 92 He concluded: Background characteristics, and more specifically components of educational experience, should be useful in predicting training achievement and duty performance in the Michigan State Police. Of the predictors employed in the study "Col— lege quarter hours completed" appeaga to be the best overall pred1ctor of tra1n1ng ach1evement. At another point, the author made the observation, "The findings of this study regarding the utility of pre-employment crimi- nal justice educational experiences appear to suggest that such a background provides little benefit to Michigan State policemen dur- ing the probationary year of service." Nicholson found that the college quarter hours were the best predictor of academic achievement in the Recruit School and the Con- tinuing Education Program. He speculated that such high achievement in these areas should be indicative of success as a State Police trooper. I Nicholson and Trojanowicz combined on another study involving the Michigan State Police. In this instance they made comparisons of the behavioral styles of 98 college graduates and 105 non-college graduates who had been matched by rank and date of enlistment. The research data was collected through the use of the "Job Analysis and Interest Measurement" (Walther, 1964) which measures an individual's self-reported beliefs, behavioral styles, work preferences, and values.'31 '301bid., pp. 253-254. 13lRobert C. Trojanowicz and Thomas G. Nicholson, "A Compari- son of the Behavioral Styles of College Graduate Policemen vs. Non- college Going Policemen," draft of an article accepted for publica- tion in The Police Chief in late 1975. 93 The authors did not attempt to deal directly with the ques- tion of whether or not police officers with college experience per- formed better than those without such experience. They were more interested in examining those personality differences which might exist that should be considered in departmental personnel policy decisions.132 The comparative personality profiles of the two groups are of interest to this study. The non-college officer was described as preferring a scheduled, daily routine; one who moves more rapidly against, or toward, an aggressor; one who considers himself practical as opposed to trying novel ideas; a person who likes to work closely with his supervisor under that individual's direction; one who pre- fers to maintain a careful watch over his subordinates and take cor- rective action where indicated; and, finally, a person who values himself according to how successfully he has conformed to the role requirements of his organization. The college graduate police officer, on the other hand, exhibits a willingness to experiment, to try new methods and ideas; one who prefers to assume the leadership role and to use a system- atic step-by-step method for processing information and reaching decision; a person who prefers a great deal of occupational variety as opposed to work providing a stable and secure future; and, finally, an individual who values himself by his achievement of the status symbols established by his culture.133 '321b1d., p. 2. '331b1d., pp. 7-8. 94 The authors draw few value judgments in their article as to the positives or negatives of these differences. Their primary con- cern is that the differences do exist and police administrators should be aware of and reactive to them.134 The preceding citation is the final one which will be pre- sented in this section of the review of the literature. It appears that differences do exist between the college and non-college police- men. Some of the identifiable characteristics of the college- educated police officer indicate a greater openness, a greater ability to do well with the academic portion of the training period, and a greater ability to successfully interact with others. The (data presented also demonstrate a lower rate of tenure with the employing enforcement agency and perhaps a tendency to question the established procedures within those agencies. Forced Choice as a Personnel Evaluative Procedure This is the final portion of the review of the literature. It will present some of the observations and research reports submitted by various writers who have investigated the forced-choice technique as a method of evaluating the occupational effectiveness of different types of individuals. Additionally, the development and implementation of the Michigan State Police Achievement and Development Inventory will be described and discussed. '34Ib1d.. p. 10. 95 The development of the forced-choice personnel rating method came about largely because of dissatisfaction with the then existing evaluative techniques. The initial experimentation was begun in 1947 by Paul Horst with the construction of different personality scales. Later, R. J. Wherry contributed to the technique with the development of rating scales for servicemen.135 Since these beginnings, the forced-choice technique has been used as an evaluative mechanism for individuals in a number of dif- ferent vocations. Zavala identifies some of the occupations and researchers who have employed the technique: highway patrolmen and police officers (Peres, 1959; Stander, 1960); engineers (Lepkowski, 1963); teachers (Leftwich, 1962; Tolle and Murray, 1958); and phy- sicians (Newman and Howell, 1961).136 The primary selling point of the forced-choice method is that it effectively reduces rater bias. In most conventional rating procedures, the rater can identify the "good-poor" dimensions which appear on the rating scale. In so doing, the rater can control the score the ratee will receive. This leads to rather subjective evaluations. In too many instances the rater is indicating how he feels about an employee as opposed to evaluating the actual type or amount of work which is being done. Another common problem with conventional rating scales is that they frequently fail to discriminate. Sherwood Peres, in 135Albert Zavala, "Development of the Forced-Choice Rating Scale Technique," Psychological Bulletin 63(2): 117-24. '351b1d. 96 describing the rating procedure used by the Ohio State Highway Patrol prior to adopting a forced-choice model, pointed out that 95 percent of the patrol officers were being rated in the upper portions of the distribution. Thus, when promotional potentials were to be deter- mined, it was almost impossible to use the existing system as one of the factors in selecting future command officers.137 Basically, the forced-choice method involves presenting a rater with a series of descriptive statements which are to be used to describe the individual being rated. From this series of state- ments, the rater is allowed to pick only a specific number of the statements. J. Berkshire and R. Highland conducted a number of experi- ments in which comparisons were made to attempt to determine the superiority of various possible forced-choice formats. They par- ticularly tested rater preference of the following possible com- binations: a. Pairs of statements, both positive or both nega- tive, with instructions to the rater to choose the most or least descriptive item of the two. b. Triads, all positive or all negative, with instruc- tions to choose the most and least descriptive items. c. Tetrads, all positive, choose the two most descrip- tive items. d. Tetrads, all positive, choose the most and least descriptive. 137Sherwood H. Peres,'VlDiagnostic Forced-Choice Evaluation of Highway Patrolmen" (Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio State University, 1958), pp. 3-4. 97 e. Tetrads, two positive and two negative, choose the most and least descriptive. f. Six statements, two positive, two neutral, and two negative, choose the most and the least descriptive. The authors concluded: The format using all positive tetrads, in which the rater must choose the two most descriptive items was about equal or superior to all the others in terms of experimental and for-keeps validities, split-half, test-retest, and intra- form relggbility; and it was the form preferred by most raters. Sisson, an early proponent of the use of the technique, described a number of benefits which he felt could be derived from using forced-choice evaluations: (a) It minimizes the subjective element; (b) it reduces the rater's ability to produce any desired outcome; (c) it provides a better distribution of ratings, relatively free of the usual pile-up at the top of the scale; (d) it is less subject to influence by the status or rank of the individual being rated; and (e) it is a quick, objective machine-scoreable method.139 There have been criticisms of the technique and Travers was particularly critical of the procedure of basing its validity upon correlations of the forced-choice results with the results of other evaluation methods. He pointed out that since the validity of the other scales were not established, it was impossible to declare the forced-choice scales valid. He also found fault in that if a rater definitely wanted to influence the rating he was giving a particular 138J. R. Berkshire and R. W. Highland, "Forced-Choice Per- formance Rating," Personnel Psychology 6 (1953): 355-58. '390. E. Sissons, "Forced-Choice: The New Army Rating," Personnel Psychology 1 (1948): 365-81. 98 individual, he could do so by describing not that individual, but either the "best" or "worst" similar worker of which he was aware.140 Donald E. Baier specifically replied to Travers' comments in a rebuttal article. He agreed that criteria other than different ratings were desirable, but pointed out that this was not a weakness peculiar to the forced-choice technique. He indicated that such correlations were more likely to indicate reliability than validity but that the value of the procedure, taken as a whole, was the most important consideration. He countered Travers' manipulation possi- bility with the observation that a rater could even more easily manipulate other types of evaluations and offered that it was more difficult to subconsciously manipulate the forced-choice scales.]41 The "fakability" of forced-choice has been investigated by others. Zavala cites Leftwich (1962) who made the obvious observa- tion that "the more transparent the item groups (pairs, triplets, tetrads, etc.), the more lenient the raters." Also, Corah, Feldman, Cohen, Gruen, Meadow, and Pingwell (1958) "found for most pairs of items, subjects were able to readily choose one member of the pair as more desirable. This is the rationale behind equalizing the desirability . . . of items." If the items can be made to appear equally positive, a subject cannot manipulate the rating by choosing 140R. M. Travers, "A Critical Review of the Forced-Choice Technique," Psychologjcal Bulletin 48 (1951): 62-70. 141Donald E. Baier, "Reply to Travers' A. Critical Review of the Validity and Rationale of the Forced-Choice Technique," Psycho- logical Bulletin 48 (1951): 421-434. 99 one statement rather than another; therefore, he will answer hon- estly (Saltz, Reece and Ager, 1962).]42 Izard and Rosenberg (1958) investigated the effectiveness of a forced-choice leadership scale under varied experimental condi- tions. Their results indicated that the scale was not readily susceptible to faking.143 Law enforcement has traditionally been slow to accept new concepts in its personnel policies. However, it appears that the forced-choice evaluation technique is beginning to gain acceptance. In a recent volume, published by the Police Foundation, Landy and Goodin discussed the use of the technique by the police. They pointed out: The Ohio State Highway Patrol, with the assistance of Ohio State University, has developed and used a forced—choice rating format for a period of 14 years. During that time, the method has gradually evolved to a point where the patrol is able to eliminate the traditional pile-up of per- formance scores at the high end of the scale and decrease the effect of personal bias on the part of the rater. In addition, one of the major complaints against forced-choice scales (that is, that the result is usually one overall score) has been addressed. In one variation used, four separate dimensions of behavior can be identified.144 The authors concluded with the observation: While some problems still exist in determining exact behavioral descriptions of various points along the par- ticular factor in question, this general line of research 142Zavala, p. 120. 143 144Frank J. Landy and Carl V. Goodin, "Recent Developments in Performance Appraisal," Police Personnel Administration (New York: Police Foundation, 1974), pp. 181-82. Ibid. lOO seems to be proving fruitful. Other agencies are4gn the process of developing forced-ch01ce 1nventor1es. A recent article in a law enforcement journal reported that the Indianapolis, Indiana Police Department had begun the implemen- tation of a forced-choice evaluation procedure. Hanley reported that this department took the Ohio Highway Patrol system almost in toto and attempted to adapt it to the Indianapolis officers. They found the results were not as satisfactory as they anticipated. The reasons for the less than satisfactory results were identified as (a) the raters had not received the proper amount of instruction, (b) the phrases used must be those of the organization using the system (Indianapolis had attempted to use the Ohio descriptions), (c) the system must have built-in checks and balances to test the rater, and (d) when possible, more than one rater should be used. Hanley concludes, "The objectiveness of the forced-choice system is more productive and forthright than the present subjective systems used by most departments.“146 In reply to a letter requesting information relative to their experience with the forced-choice technique, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police furnished the following: The Royal Canadian Mounted Police is experimenting with the forced-choice performance evaluation system. Our inter- est in the system rose from the realization that the graphic rating system which we have been using for a number of years '451b1d., p. 182. 146David M. Hanley, "Forced-Choice Performance Evaluation in a Municipal Police Department," The Police Chief, January, 1975, pp. 34-35. 101 was suffering from the typical rating error. In the past 18 months we introduced a new graphic rating system which uses the retranslation process in its development. This system involves annual submissions on some 2,500 senior members of our Force. The old (unacceptable) system is still used to evaluate the performance of the remaining 14,000 members. In the event the forced-choice proves reliable, valid and acceptable to ratees, raters and management, it will be used to evaluate the performance of the approximate 7,000 members who form our largest functional group, i.e., the group which participated in its development. The Canadian officer responding to the writer's letter, Sergeant Don Coates, went on to report that his agency had sent departmental members to the Ohio State Highway Patrol to study that system. They then began to develop their own system patterned after the Ohio format. They were successful in obtaining 988 essays describing the "best" constable from which they identified 509 posi- tive behavioral phrases. From these they have developed four "profiles": Job Knowledge Acceptance of Responsibility Adherence to Regulations; Manner and Bearing Interpersonal Relations. boom—a They then randomly selected two groups of approximately 450 officers and are in the process of developing a computer program to assist in the scoring and evaluation of the system. Sergeant Coates also advised that the Ottawa, Canada City Police, a department of some 600 personnel, is beginning to develop its own forced-choice system. He concludes: "We are presently confident the forced-choice system will meet many of our requirements. 102 It remains to be determined, however, if we will, in fact, adopt its use on a formal basis."147 Development of Michigan State Police Achievement and Development Inventory The following information is primarily derived from a report submitted to the Michigan Department of State Police by the devel- opers of its new forced-choice system. The report is very compre- hensive but is presented in layman's language. Its primary author, Mr. Larry King, has been involved in the development process of the Achievement and Development Inventory (ADI) from the initial stages. Like the Ohio State Highway Patrol, the personnel officers of the Michigan State Police (MSP) were aware of certain deficiencies in the then existing personnel appraisal systems. Among these defi- ciencies were subjective bias, rater leniency, halo effect ratings, low discrimination ability and lack of counseling methods to assist the officers in improving their performance. Because of these deficiencies, the MSP instituted a search for a new rating system and contracted with Personnel Research Associates of East Lansing, Michigan, to develop a system unique to the department. The one selected was based upon the format of the Ohio State Highway Patrol's personnel evaluation system. This work was initiated in 1972. The initial requirements of the new system were identified as: 147Letter received by author from Sergeant Donald L. Coates, Royal Canadian Mounted Police, Ottawa, Canada, April 14, 1975. 103 l. The content must include elements of the job which were felt to be significant. This was an especially important consideration in light of recent court decisions and the requirements of the Guidelines of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. 2. 'A method of counseling and development must be included. 3. The method must be reliable and valid. That is, the method must provide consistent results, and be related to job performance. 4. The system should be quantifiable to facilitate adminis- tration and processing. 5. The system should provide a basis for statewide compari- sons among troopers for promotional purposes.1 The four steps in the construction of the new system are basically described as follows: First, every member of the MSP was asked to write an essay describing the best trooper he had ever known. They were to use terms which particularly described the things the trooper actually did on the job and how he did them. Over 1,200 descriptive reports were obtained and from these, 752 different positive phrases were extracted. After minor editing these phrases were sorted into 10 categories of performance by 72 troopers who were required to have a 74 percent agreement rate as to the category to which the phrase should be assigned. If this criterion was not met, the phrase was dropped. At the end of this categorization process, 180 positive statements remained. In order to develop a Discrimination Index, the 180 phrases were collected into a booklet and sent to all supervisory personnel atiflKBPost level. They were asked to bring to mind the most effec- tive trooper they had ever known and then determine the extent to 148Larry M. King, "The Achievement and Development Inventory: A Summary of Results and Recommendations," unpublished report sub- mitted by Personnel Research Associates of East Lansing, Michigan, May 6, 1975. 104 which his behavior was like the statements (on a five-point scale, from a great deal like it to not like it at all). The procedure was repeated in a few weeks but now they were asked to describe the most ineffective trooper. The average response for the worst trooper was subtracted from the average response for the best trooper, resulting in a dis- crimination index for each item. A high discrimination index indi- cated that the behavior was typical of the best trooper, but not so for the worst trooper. A low discrimination index indicated that the behavior was typical for both troopers. This index is the pri- mary discriminator of the new system. In an attempt to make each statement appear equally desir- able, a Job Importance Index was developed. This was accomplished by having each supervisor again rate the 180 phrases. The 335 super- visors now ranked the items as they pertained to job importance on a five-point scale from "least important" to "most important." This identified those statements which had a low discrimination index and a high job importance index. Through this process the evaluative portion of the system was developed. The format which was used in an initial run consisted of twenty sets of phrases. Each set had four phrases--a11 four phrases having nearly identical job importance ratings, but two of the phrases having significantly higher discrimination ratings. The two more discriminant statements carry score weights of l, the other two have weights of 0. Thus, an individual could receive a 105 score of 2, l or 0 on an "item" and his raw score for the total valuation portion of the ADI could range from O to 40. To provide a means of validating the system each trooper assigned to a post was asked to evaluate his peers. Many studies have shown that peers are capable of making better evaluations of co-workers than their supervisors. Peers can especially evaluate leadership potential well. A forced distribution approach was used in the peer evalu- ation. That is, the troopers were asked to evaluate all of the troopers at their post (themselves included) according to the fol- lowing format: Performs in the top 10% of Troopers at the post. Performs in the top 20% of Troopers at the post. Performs in the middle 40% of Troopers at the post. Performs in the lower 20% of Troopers at the post. Performs in the bottom 10% of Troopers at the post. macaw- This information was collected and stored for comparison with the ratings which would be made with the forced-choice system by the post supervisors. When the original 20-unit format was completed, members of the MSP Personnel Division and Mr. King toured the state, attending various District Headquarters' meetings and carefully explaining the procedure to be followed. They requested that each post commander and his sergeants independently rate each of the troopers of their command. Over 1,100 troopers were rated in this manner and the forms were returned to the research group in December of 1974. Of this total, 746 were included in the analysis. Each of these officers had 106 been rated by a post commander and at least four sergeants, and each had at least two peer evaluations on file. The data was coded and statistical routines established. A single score for the form rating was arrived at by averaging the scores of the five raters. Similarly, a single position was arrived at in the peer evaluations by the same averaging of the fellow offi- cers' ratings. The correlation between the forced-choice scores and the peer evaluations was found to be .71. In examining the consistency of the peer ratings, the researchers found a reliability factor of .78. That is, the peer raters were in agreement about a fellow trooper's ability 78 percent of the time. The supervisors were even higher in their agreement ratio with a reliability factor of .88. The scores of the new system demonstrated a very symmetrical frequency distribution. The mean for the distribution was 20.4 (maximum possible was 40) and the standard deviation was 5.5. Thus, 97 percent of the 746 troopers had scores in the range of 9.4 to 31.4. The highest score was 34.8 and the lowest score was 6.149 These raw scores were transformed into standard percentile scores. The list below illustrates the even distribution of the scores which were obtained. '491bid., p. 13. 107 Raw Score Range Percentile Range 32.3 - 34.8 99 + 27.5 - 32.2 90 - 99 25.6 - 27.4 80 - 89 23.5 — 25.5 70 - 79 22.0 - 23.4 60 - 69 20.5 - 21.9 50 - 59 18.9 - 20.4 40 - 49 17.3 - 18.8 30 - 39 15.3 - 17.2 20 - 29 13.1 - 15.2 10 - 19 6.0 - 13.0 1 - 9 For further clarification, a score at the 90th percentile means that 90 percent of the troopers on a statewide basis scored the same score or lower. That is, a raw score of 27.5 or higher was obtained by only 10 percent of the officers being rated.150 The original 20-item scale was developed primarily to iden- tify leadership potential among the troopers. As a result of factor analysis, three sub-scales were identified. These are: 1. Job Involvement 2. Interpersonal Relationships 3. Report Writing Skills The new system, formally identified as the Achievement and Development Inventory (ADI), also has a counseling and guidance section which may be used by the post commander in assisting the 1501bid., p. 15. 108 individual officers to improve their job performances and capabili- ties. This portion will not be further described here. See Appendix A for the final Achievement and Development Inventory form. Summar For almost half a century there has been a consistent call for higher educational standards for American police officers. The visionaries of law enforcement have offered impressive arguments, logic and rationale to justify their insistence that the college experience will, in many ways, produce a more effective police offi- cer. These arguments have become even more insistent since the traumatic social upheavals which have occurred over the past two decades. National commissions have published voluminous reports which make strong recommendations for higher educational standards for the police. As a result, enormous amounts of tax dollars at all levels of government have been expended to support those recom- mendations. The law enforcement community has responded, for the most part, to these urgings by developing extensive programs which will increase the educational levels of their personnel. There has been a general acceptance of the philosophy that a college education is an important attribute for a police officer. The investigators of the effects of the college experience have rather consistently reported a number of identifiable charac- teristics which may be associated with the college-educated indi- vidual. Their reports indicate such people tend to increase their 109 interests in aesthetic and cultural values, become more relativistic and less moralistic in their ethical judgments, take an increasingly liberal, rather than conservative, position regarding political and socio-economic issues, and become more "open minded." This is par- ticularly true in response to various scales which measure authori- tarianism, prejudice and dogmatism. There are studies which report a general increase in such characteristics as independence, assertiveness, confidence, and self-initiated intellectual activities. More praCtically, it has been suggested that college prepares its graduates for a place in the occupational world by furnishing them with organizational skills, attitudes and motivations which are necessary for success within the contemporary society. Finally, it appears that the effect which college has upon an individual depends, to an appreciable degree, upon the personality of that person when he enters the academic field and institution of his choice. There is evidence that whatever characteristics a person has which cause him to select a particular educational course, these same characteristics are likely to be reinforced and extended by his educational experiences. There has been some limited agreement among researchers reporting upon differences observed between college-educated police officers and those who have not gone to college. A primary area of agreement, which also parallels the findings of those investigating the general college experience, is that the college-educated officer tends to be less authoritarian and less dogmatic. An ability to do 110 well in the academic portions of police training programs is also generally reported for the college-educated officer. As might be expected, the college-trained policemen seem to score higher on interpersonal relationship ratings. They are reportedly more objective and less moralistic in their dealings with individuals during the course of their work. They also seem to have an ability to effectively deal with people with less friction or violence being generated. There have been some indications that the more highly educa- ted officer exhibits a self-assuredness, a dominance factor, which might be interpreted as having leadership potential. However, there has been no consistent finding of greater productivity or job effec- tiveness. It appears that such individuals are more open to experi- mentation and change. This characteristic may be interpreted as producing either positive or negative results in the performance of the police function. Finally, almost all researchers who have investigated the tenure rates of college-educated police officers report a dispro- portionately higher rate of resignation from the police service for these individuals than that of their less highly educated fellow officers. The "forced-choice" personnel evaluation procedure is a rela- tively recent develOpment in employee rating technology. It was developed primarily because of the problems which are inherent in the subjective types of rating procedures most commonly used. Basically, the "forced-choice“ method involves presenting the rater 111 with a series of descriptive statements which are to be used to describe the individual being rated. The rater is allowed to choose only a limited number of the statements and they are developed and presented in such a way that the rater is usually not sure of the results of the rating he is making. In other words, the "forced- choice" method is a means of controlling rater bias. A number of police agencies are using this format as their personnel evaluation technique. The Ohio State Highway Patrol pioneered in the development of suchaisystem for police officers. Indianapolis, Indiana; Ottawa, Canada; and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police are currently involved in developing such systems for their officers. The Michigan State Police contracted with a personnel devel- opment firm to produce a "forced-choice" technique which was uniquely tailored for that department. An involved and sophisticated evalu- ative system was produced which appears to effectively rate the troopers of the department. The final form of the Achievement and Development Inventory, as the rating system has been named, has five evaluative scales. The major scale is a measure of the officer's overall working effectiveness. There are four sub-scales which are identified as "Job Involvement," "Interpersonal Relationships-Peers," "Interpersonal Relationships-Public,“ and "Clerical Skills." The new system has been demonstrated to have an excellent discriminatory capability and its results correlated very highly with both peer and supervisor ratings of individual troopers. CHAPTER III THE MICHIGAN DEPARTMENT OF STATE POLICE AND THE SELECTION AND TRAINING OF ITS TROOPERS Introduction This chapter will present a brief history of the Michigan Department of State Police and also a description of its current administrative structure and personnel strength. This information will furnish a more complete understanding of the setting of the study and also illustrate, to some degree, the overall "personality” of the department. If there is to be any valid generalization of the results of this study to other police departments, it is impera- tive that those seeking to apply the results to other agencies be able to recognize similarities in structure, procedure and even philosophy between departments. Additionally, the selection processes and training procedures which were successfully completed by the individuals who comprise the sample group of this study will be described. These selection and training procedures have traditionally produced a very homogenous group of young State Police officers. This is important to the study because it will demonstrate that a considerable number of unidenti- fied personality variables which might otherwise have affected the results of the investigation were in fact avoided because they were 112 113 screened out through the demanding selection and training procedures of the department. Finally, while no further reference will be made to this information within the chapter, it is necessary to point out that the descriptions of the selection standards and training site which appear in this chapter will no longer be applicable in the future. These selection standards and procedures are currently being examined and re-evaluated. The new requirements have not yet been defined. Also, the Training Division of the department has physically moved into a new academy which is much more comfortable for the recruits. The training program, however, has remained fairly consistent with what is described within this chapter. A Brief History of the Department The Michigan Department of State Police had its beginning during World War I. The Congress of the United States declared war on April 6, 1917, and as a result of this action, the Michigan National Guard was activated and sent to various locations through- out the country for training. The Michigan Legislature, recognizing a need for some type of internal security force, created the "Michi- gan State Troops" on April 17, 1917.1 General Order No. l of the organization, dated April 19, 1917, named Colonel Roy C. Vandercook as the Commander of the Troops. This order required in part: 1Michigan State Police, Fiftieth Anniversarngearbook (East Lansing: Michigan State Police, 1967), p. 21. 114 The Permanent Force will consist of mounted organizations, which shall be designed serially, beginning with "First Troop, Permanent Force, Michigan State Trooper" and of dis- mounted organizations which shall also be designated seri- ally beginning with "Thgrd Motor Company, Permanent Force, Michigan State Troops. The main headquarters of the constabulary was established at East Lansing on property loaned exclusively for that purpose by what was then the Michigan Agricultural College. Portable buildings and barracks were erected and the first troop was organized by July 15, 1917. A troop was considered to consist of one captain, one first lieutenant, one second lieutenant, one first sergeant, one supply sergeant, four sergeants, eight corporals and thirty-six privates.3 The primary concerns of the early organization were the "saboteurs," the "I.W.W. agitators," and the "draft dodgers" of the period. Actual incidents of sabotage were found immediately after war had been declared. A large grain elevator in Detroit contain- ing thousands of bushels of wheat suspiciously burst into flame on the Detroit River front. Bombs were found in the Port Huron tunnel and machinery in munition plants was found to have been tampered with.4 The first official assignment of the Troops was in Michigan's upper peninsula where they were sent to quell disorders being insti- gated by members of the I.W.W. in the mining districts. Other 2Michigan State Police, A Twenty-Five Year History (East Lansing: Michigan State Police, 1942), p. 15. 31bid., p. 16. 41bid. 115 detachments were sent to such locations as the “Soo” locks, various railroad centers, chemical plants, warehouses and stockyards. Troopers assisted in maintaining a quarantine against Spanish influ- enza in the city of Mount Pleasant.5 These early troopers were adjudged to be very efficient and successful in their various assigned duties, and in 1919, following the end of World War I, the legislature created the Michigan State Police with the passage of Act No. 26 of that year. The statute authorized the new organization to take over the personnel and equipment of the "State Troops." The duties of the new police force were to police the rural communities of the state and to assist local officers in the enforcement of the laws. Many of the same command officers who led the initial organization made the transition to the new police role.6 During their first year of operation the Troopers made 1,285 arrests, which included 793 for prohibition law violations. It also was reported that officers assisted in six automobile wrecks.7 By 1920 the force consisted of 163 men. They were widely dispersed around the state with a number of headquarters and sub- posts located primarily in rural areas. A statement issued by the Farm Bureau in support of the organization described some of their duties: the Troopers guarded fruit, enforced game laws, did strike 51bid., p. 25. 61bid., p. 32. 71bid. 116 duty and protected forests. The posts at Grand Rapids and Flint were given credit for catching bank robbers, rum runners, auto thieves and raiding gambling houses.8 In 1921, Governor Groesbeck instituted a reorganization of state government and the Troops received a new name plus additional duties. The organization became the "Department of Public Safety." It was granted full enforcement powers over state oil inspection, all prohibition law enforcement, and took over the duties of the boxing commission. This year also saw the inauguration of the bureau of investigation and identification, the extension of police . communication lines, and the acquisition of a considerable number of motorcycles.9 A 1921-22 report indicated that the force had patrolled 255,257 miles of roads by horse, motorcycle and motor car. They had made 2,704 arrests and had policed 514 automobile accidents.10 Records for the 1923-24 era indicate that the department had 21 cars, primarily of the touring type, 3 trucks, 36 motorcycles and 5 patrol boats which were used against the "rum runners" on the Detroit River. The exact number of horses that were used is not known, although stables were maintained at East Lansing, Negaunee, Bessemer, Flint, Grand Rapids, Plymouth, Imlay City, Traverse City and Gaylord. The use of horses was discontinued in 1924.1] 3151a., pp. 42-43. 9Ibid., p. 45. 10 11 Ibid.. p. 47. MSP, Fiftieth Anniversary Yearbook, p. 31. 117 One of the early innovations of the agency was the use of Troopers to visit school children with the intention of providing safety education. In 1925, 4,000 such appearances were made in 3,200 schools where in excess of 122,000 children were contacted.12 One of the major divisions in the department today had a very modest beginning. Trooper Ira H. Marmon began collecting criminal file information in a shoe box at his barracks in East Lansing in 1919. By 1921, the development of these files became an organized program for the department and this information gathering was given official status in 1925 by legislative action. Records indicate there were 67,862 sets of criminal fingerprints in 1921. The total topped one million in 1935 and reached the five million mark in 1965.13 The department also is credited with the first state-owned and operated police radio station. Prompted by the successes of the pioneer Detroit city police radio, Station KOP, the State Police obtained funding from the legislature in 1930, and a 5,000 watt transmitter was set up in East Lansing. The station, WRDS, could send out police messages to 44 State Police cars and a total of 80 other receivers in State Police posts, sheriffs' offices and local police departments. It was not until 1941 that the first two-way radio equipment was obtained.14 12 13 14 MSP, Twenty-Five Year History, p. 52. MSP, Fiftieth Anniversarngearbook, pp. 35-36. Ibid., PP. 46-47. 118 In 1932, the department's scientific crime laboratory began its operations. It was initiated in a small room with a single microscope, table and chair. Shortly thereafter came a comparison microscope, an X-ray, ultraviolet light equipment, moulage materials and an array of photographic apparatus. The services of the crime laboratory were available to all police agencies in Michigan from its very beginning and it has followed this service-oriented con- cept into the present time.15 The original wooden barracks and portable structures erected in 1917 served as headquarters for the organization until 1928 when the first three-story brick building was erected on Harrison Road in East Lansing. Four years later the administration building was added to the building complex.16 The first posts, which were located all Over the state, were primarily regular homes and were either rented or purchased. It was the Works Progress Administration, more commonly known as the W.P.A., which provided the means for construction of the familiar uniform red brick buildings which make up over half of the now existing 64 posts.17 . In 1935, the name of the organization was changed back to the Michigan State Police. This came about through the passage of 15 16 17 Ibid., PP. 38-39. Ibid., p. 52. Ibid. 119 Act 59, which also placed its personnel under the jurisidiction of the state Civil Service system.18 In 1937 the department began to share the use of a state- owned airplane with two other state departments. It was radio- equippped and was used extensively in the successful blockade systems that were developed to capture the armed gangs of the middle 1930s.19 After World War II, the department obtained the first plane of its own. Currently, the department has a fleet which consists of three fixed wing aircraft and two helicopters which are all piloted by sworn State Police officers. Since these early beginnings, the department has continued to grow and to expand its services and responsibilities. One final historical citation is judged by the author to demonstrate the overriding philosophy of the Michigan State Police. In 1937, a training manual, entitled "Police Courtesy," was issued to each recruit. This manual was written by Commissioner Oscar G. Olander and was intended to "give expression to principles of public contact and official behavior dominating the credo of the Michigan State Police."20 The quality and unique nature of this manual is illustrated by information appearing in the annual report of the year following the initial publication of the manual: 18 19Michigan State Police, Annual Report (East Lansing: Michi- gan State Police, 1937), p. 30. 20 MSP, Fiftieth Anniversary Yearbook, p. 30. Ibid., p. 102. 120 Not only have requests for "Police Courtesy" been received from every state in the Union, but also from the Panama Canal Zone; Honolulu, Hawaii; Bangkok, Siam; Colombo, Cey- lon; Manchester, England; Nankin, China; New Scotland Yard, S.W.I.; Havana, Cuba; Victoria, B.C : Halifax, N.S.; Regina, Saskatchewan; and Montreal, Canada.21 Historygof Personnel Selection and Training Procedures The entire history of the department reflects rigidly con- trolled selection standards and demanding training procedures. Dur- ing the first two years of its existence, the organization did not have any specialized training staff and therefore it utilized the format of selecting several experienced, capable officers to be used as on-the-job trainers for the recruits. By 1920, however, a formalized recruit training program was underway. A description of that program included: . . instruction in horsemanship, and care of animals, law and court procedures in criminal cases, drill, mounted and unmounted, target practice, care of health and administering first aid, Michigan geography and history, and othsr sub- jects pertaining to the work of the organization.2 The applicants of this period were required to be a citizen of the United States, pass both mental and physical examinations, be of good moral character (an investigation was made into each individual's background), be between 21 and 35 years of age 21Michigan State Police, Annual Report (East Lansing: Michi- gan State Police, 1938), p. 77. 22Michigan State Police, Annual Report (East Lansing: Micflni- gan State Police, 1919-1920), p. 3. 121 and meet a height requirement of 5'9" and a weight of not less than 150 15s.23 The careful screening of applicants continued on into the 19305. A report of that period illustrates the thinking of the chief administrative officers: The policy of investigating all applicants before taking them into our schools continues to show results. By this method practically'allundesirables are eliminated without wasting any time or money in calling them to East Lansing.24 After twenty-five years, the training had become institu- tionalized. Only unmarried, high school graduates between 21 and 29 years of age, meeting all of the previously named standards, were accepted. In-depth background investigations were conducted on each individual who passed the written and oral examinations. Only the most highly qualified were accepted. The schools began with calisthenics at 6:00 A.M. and continued until late in the evening with sessions in classrooms, the motorcycle sand pits, the drill field and pistol range. Subjects covered in the classroom included fingerprinting, photography, firearms identification, questioned documents, moulage work, radiology. explosions and fires, public relations and courtesy, police organizations, communications, safety 23Michigan Department of Public Safety, Annual Report (East Lansing: The Department, 1926-1927), p. 4. 24Michigan Department of Public Safety, Annual Report (East Lansing: The Department, 1930-1931), p. 33. 122 and traffic, uniform crime reporting, criminal investigation, legal medicine, first aid and Michigan geography.25 The department played a major role in the formation of the Police Administration course at Michigan State College. The 1938 Annual Report indicates that the Michigan State Police, the Michigan State Crime Commission and Michigan State College jointly sponsored and organized the course. At that time students were required to spend the first three years and one term in residence on the campus of Michigan State College. The final eighteen months were spent in a field training program under the direction of the State Police. The students were required to earn 164 credits in the physical and social sciences and then were assigned to a number of the divisions of the department to learn the practical aspects of law enforcement. In that year only three students had graduated from the five-year course and two of them took employment with the department of State Police.26 The department opened the door to married applicants in 1950 and at the same time discontinued its old rule requiring that new 27 officers remain single for at least two years after being sworn in. The 1950 Annual Report furnishes data on attrition rates of the applicants during the post World War II period: 25 26 MSP, Twenty-Five Year History, pp. 95-96. MSP, Annual Report, 1938, pp. 159-61. 27Michigan State Police, Annual Report (East Lansing: Michi- gan State Police, 1949-1950), p. 49. 123 Since the end of World War II eight recruit school classes have completed training. Of 1,217 applicants investigated, 669 were approved. After passing medical examinations and with the approval of the Department's Board of Review, 442 were enrolled. Of this number, 291 were graduated and (sworn in as probationary Troopers. In its thirty-fifth year, the department was conducting recruit schools running about ten weeks long with a probationary period of six months, during which the recruit was under the direct supervision of a senior officer.29 The number of police administration students being super- vised in the field had grown considerably by this time. In 1952, the department furnished 600 hours of instruction to 46 students who graduated from the program that year.30 The highly selective entry standards and demanding recruit school program utilized by the department has continued until the resent time. It is currently estimated that in order to begin an average recruit class of 90-100 men, approximately 1,800 individuals will be officially entered into the selection process. This figure does not include a very large number of men who investigate the possibility of employment with the Michigan State Police and find that they do not meet one or more of its entry requirements. Recent experience with attrition rates in the recruit school has rather consistently demonstrated that only 50-65 percent of the entering 2815111. 29Michigan State Police, Annual Report (East Lansing: Michi- gan State Police, 1951-1952), p. 31. 30 Ibid. 124 class will complete the school and be assigned as a probationary officer.31 The Selection Process While the standards and selection procedures used to screen entering recruits have changed somewhat over the past 58 years, the following description of selection procedures inclusively applies to all of the 418 men who make up the sample group of this study. Vacancies normally occur within the trooper rank of the department either through natural attrition or when the legislature authorizes increases in enlisted personnel strength. When a suffi- cient number of these vacancies exist, the Department of Civil Service prepares an official announcement that applications for examination for the position of State Police Trooper 07 are being accepted. In recent years, particularly during the period covered by this study, the Trooper 07 position has been continuously open Band Michigan State Police recruiters have been working constantly to maintain a large reserve of applicants. There has been a par- ticular emphasis on securing applications from minority group members. The latest Civil Service announcement for the trooper posi- tion was issued on August 30, 1971. The number of individuals now on the resulting eligibility list is in excess of 700. This open type of list has allowed the department to continuously call in 31Information provided by Lieutenant R. D. Davis, Commanding Officer, Recruitment and Safety Section, Personnel Division, Michi- gan Department of State Police. 125 those applicants who score relatively high in the examination process.32 The following represents the minimum allowable qualifi- cations which were successfully met by the sample group of this study: CITIZENSHIP: Must be a citizen of the United States. RESIDENCE: Must have resided in Michigan for one year imme- diately prior to submitting the application. AGE: Not less than twenty-one nor more than thirty years at the time of submitting the application. HEIGHT AND WEIGHT: Height not under 5'9" in stocking feet. Weight not under 150 nor over 250 pounds stripped. VISION: Must have 20/40 vision in each eye without glasses to be corrected to 20/20 with glasses prior to appointment to a training school. Must have adequate color and depth perception and visual field of no less than 140 degrees in the horizontal meridian with both eyes. In addition, the vertical imbalance must be below ten di0pters, exophoria (outward deviation of eyes) and four prism di0pters, eso- phoria (turning in of eyes). PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS: Physical condition must be ade- quate for performance of the work as determined by an exam- ining physician. Must have good posture and well-developed and proportioned physique. Height and weight must be in relation to each other and to age as indicated by accepted medical standards. Must have normal hearing in both ears and be free from any chronic diseases, organic or functional conditions, or physical defects which may tend to impair efficient performance of a trooper's duties. PERSONAL AND OTHER ATTRIBUTES: Intelligence quotient equal to the high school average; willingness to accept command responsibilities in emergency situations; willingness to remain available for duty 24 hours a day and live and work anywhere in the state; favorable work records; freedom from associations which may embarrass the department; personal fitness for the positions; must not have been dishonorably discharged from the armed forces of the United States or 32Information provided by Sergeant Jack L. Hall, Recruitment and Safety Section, Personnel Division, Michigan Department of State Police. 126 state military services; must be willing to work 40 hours per week, overtime as directed, and on holidays; must meet the following requirements regarding arrest and/or traffic violation records: Must Not Have: 1. Been convicted of a violation of criminal law. (Crimi- nal law generally includes all offenses except traffic law, conservation law and liquor law. In general, con- viction for a violation of criminal law is automatically disqualifying.) 2. Been convicted of driving while under the influence of alcohol or drugs. 3. Been convicted of six or more moving violations in the five years previous to application. 4. Been convicted of three moving violations in the 24 months previous to application. 5. Accumulated eight points on driving record in the 24 months previous to the application. 6. Been convicted two or more times of reckless driving or once of reckless driving accompanied by aggravating circumstances. 7. A record of three traffic accidents, each indicating a traffic violation or hazardous action. 8. A record of two traffic accidents, in the 24 months previous to application, each indicating a traffic violation or hazardous action. 9. Lost driving privilege through suspension or revocation of any driving license due to an accumulation of twelve or more points in any 24 month period. 10. A record of two convictions of any law involving the use or possession of intoxicants. ll. Failed to comply with the Financial Responsibility Act. 12. Any conviction or convictions for moving traffic viola- tions, accidents, non-moving traffic violations, or violation of other laws which indicate a poor driving attitugg or habits, or lack of respect for law and order. . The usual procedure is for each applicant to contact a State Police Recruiter at any of the 64 posts within the state. A pre- liminary vision test is given and physical measurements are taken to determine if the applicant meets the height and weight standards as 33State of Michigan, Announcement of Competitive Examination for State Trooper 07, dated August 30, 1971. 127 outlined. All of the aforementioned requirements are explained to be sure the applicant will be eligible for the position. If it appears that he qualifies, the Recruiter will administer the written Civil Service examination for the Trooper 07 position. This test, the P.S.T.-G., was inaugurated with the opening of the present roster, established in August of 1971. The test was "normed" twice using the Senior class of Sexton High School in Lansing. A score of 40-41 would correspond to an 1.0. rating of 100. Mr. Harley Jenson, Supervisor of the Testing and Evaluation Section of the Michigan Department of Civil Service, advised that all of the recruits certified to the Recruit School since the inauguration of the test would have scored at least a few points above 100 on a standard 1.0. scale.34 When the written test has been completed, the applicant is given a Personal History Statement to complete and a set of finger- prints and palm prints are taken for possible record checks in both the Michigan State Police files and the F.B.I. files. The written test is forwarded to the Department of Civil Service for scoring. Each applicant is later notified whether he was successful or unsuccessful on the written examination. Successful applicants also receive the following forms which they must complete: 1. Experience and Education Questionnaire 2. Physical Fitness Affidavit 34Telephone conversation with Mr. Harley Jenson on April 7. 1975. 128 3. Applicant's Family History 4. Applicant's Employment History.35 The department is notified of the status of all applicants by Civil Service and a criminal and driving record is obtained for all those who passed the written examination. Personnel files are developed on these applicants and these files are forwarded through channels to the post in the area in which the applicant resides. An officer is then assigned as the background investigator. This officer sets up an interview with the applicant and meets with him at a location of his choice. At the interview, the aforementioned documents, sent by Civil Service, are picked up plus the following additional documents: 1. High school and college transcripts 2. Divorce or dissolution of marriage papers (if applicable) 3. Copy of birth certificate 4. Marriage certificate (if applicable) 5. Military service documents (if applicable). These documents are reviewed with the applicant and any questions concerning them are clarified.36 During this initial interview the applicant is furnished with a description of the physical and academic requirements of the training school and the responsibilities of the position. 35Official Order No. 70, Michigan State Police, Revised Nov., 1974, p. 8. 36 Ibid., p. 10. 129 Information is solicited from him concerning some of the following areas: applicant's interest and participation in community affairs; membership in social, service, fraternal or other recreational activities; any special abilities or skills; reading interests; recreational interests; the applicant's interest in law enforcement; friends or relatives in law enforcement; and it is determined if the applicant is seeking employment with any other law enforcement agency. After the initial interview, the investigating officer pro- ceeds by making person-to-person contacts with various individuals who have personal knowledge about the applicant. All of this information gathering is considered private and confidential, and is not released or discussed with anyone other than the officials making an evaluation of the applicant's suitability for employment. The applicant is made aware of the extent of this investigation before it is initiated.37 The following is a list of the persons who are interviewed and the areas discussed with those persons: 1. Local law enforcement officials, to determine extent of criminal activity, general reputation and if any immediate family members have serious criminal histories. 2. Bankers and credit bureau personnel, to determine credit record and financial status. 3. School officials, to examine scholastic achieve- ments, athletic abilities, temperament, citizen- ship, attitudes and sociability. 37Ibid., p. 11. 130 4. Previous employers, to verify work history informa- tion and obtain evaluations of work habits and personality. 5. Family physicians, to identify any major medical problems which might interfere with the effective performance of police duties. 6. Immediate family members, including ex-wives, to determine their attitudes toward the applicant becoming a police officer and also their evalu- ations of his suitability for the position. 7. Neighbors, to obtain their evaluations of the applicant and any information which might be of value in judging the individual's suitability to act as a State Police officer. 8. Listed references, for their evaluations and any other information as listed above. All of the information obtained in this investigation is compiled into a written report which is then sent back to the Per- sonnel Division. Here it is collated into a standard format and then forwarded to the Department of Civil Service for its screening and evaluation procedures.38 If the applicant has met all of the established criteria up to this point and the background investigation has not discovered any personal history occurrences which would automatically disqualify the subject, he is notified by Civil Service to appear before an oral board. This board is composed of three members: a representa- tive of the State Police, a representative of the Department of Civil Service, and a third member selected jointly by the two departments. Recently this third member has been a black, profes- sional man who has expressed an interest in serving in this capacity. Lg 381bid., pp. 11-18. 131 The oral board has access to the completed background inves- tigation and may question the applicant about certain segments of the information which appear in the report. There is no standard format for the interview; however, the members attempt to evaluate all aspects of the applicant's potential to become an effective State Police Officer. These board members do not have knowledge of the score that the applicant obtained on the written examination. The interview with the board lasts between 45 minutes and one hour and at its conclusion, the board members individually assign a numerical score to the applicant. These scores are then averaged by Civil Service and a standard score is obtained. The two scores, written and oral, are equal in weight, with a maximum of 50 points for each one. These are combined by Civil Service and a list is prepared which places each applicant in a numerical position on an eligibility roster according to the total score received. It is from this roster that applicants are called to the recruit school. Since it has been an open roster since 1971, the department has been able to take only those who have scored in the higher bracket of the list. The Training Program The sample group of this study is comprised of the male officers who were members of the nine recruit schools which the department ran during the period from February, 1972, through December, 1974. The following described training program was essentially the same for all of these individuals. 132 When the administrative officials of the department decide a new recruit school is desirable, Civil Service is notified and approximately 110 applicants from the top of the eligibility list are requested to appear at State Police Headquarters for a physical examination. This usually results in roughly 90-95 persons appear- ing. Some of those notified have taken other positions or decline for various reasons. A team of physicians and medical specialists will examine all of the applicants in one day. There are blood sam- ples drawn, chest x-rays taken, hearing is tested, teeth are examined, and a rather extensive physical examination performed. Additional information on each applicant is also collected and they are again briefed on the requirements and conditions of the recruit school. Subsequent to these medical examinations, usually within a week, the recruit school begins. Generally, a few medical problems are discovered which disqualify three to six people, and, again, a few more decide against coming to the school. There are usually 70-85 beginning recruits in each class. All of the training for this sample group took place at the State Police Headquarters in East Lansing. The recruits are required to report for training with very short haircuts and two khaki cotton work uniforms, which they must purchase. This group was housed in a second floor gymnasium at that location. They slept in bunk beds with their personal gear stowed under these bunks or ("1 long pipe racks. One-half of the gym was living space and the Other half, classroom space. A locker room and swimming pool 133 comprised the first floor of the building. An outdoor pistol range was located immediately behind the gym and additional small class- rooms were available in garage areas and nearby quonset huts. The training required of State Police recruits is very simi- lar to the military basic training characterized by conditions of two decades ago. All movement outside of the living area is per- formed in a military manner with corners squared and eyes straight ahead. Conversation is not permitted unless the recruit is spoken to and he is required to respond with the word "Sir." The usual day during the l4-week recruit school begins at 5:30 A.M. when the class commander (this position is rotated each day among all of the recruits) makes sure everyone is awake and pre- paring for calisthenics. The men dress in suitable clothing and "fall in" at a pre-designated location. The primary physical train- ing instructor, along with at least one assistant, runs the class through 35-40 minutes of "P.T." This consists of some of the fol- lowing exercises: Trunk twist Leg lifts Toe touch and stretch Side saddle hop Push-ups Shoulder rolls Heel touch Sprints Sit-ups Long distance runs Half knee bends Stretching exercises Each week the number or degree of these exercisesis increased until the final week when the recuits are doing 50 push-ups, 25 sit- UPs, 5 minutes of shoulder rolls and running 2-1/2 miles each morning.39 39Michigan State Police, Goals of the Physical Conditioning fklhaggm (East Lansing: MSP, rev. December 1973), descriptive bro- chure distributed to each recruit. 134 At the conclusion of the daily "P.T." program, the recruits return to their quarters, change clothes and prepare for breakfast which is served in a cafeteria located on the compound and operated by the department. The recruits march to this meal and are permitted quiet and minimal conversation while at the table. The rations are excellent and there are no limitations on the amount of food avail- able. The recruits finish their meal and depart to their quarters individually. Here they prepare the quarters and themselves for daily inspection. This occurs at 7:40 A.M. They stand at attention and members of the recruit school training staff inspect them closely. Demerits are awarded for any deficiencies discovered dur- ing this inspection and may be awarded at any time during the entire day for any failure to meet prescribed performance standards or for what may be considered misconduct. Demerits are expunged at a demerit run each evening after supper or by some type of work detail assignment. Classes begin at 8:00 A.M. and run for 50 minutes with a 10-minute break between each class. The academic portions of the program are presented in primarily a lecture type format. Audio- visual training aids are common as well as note-taking guides and prepared handout material. The classes break for lunch at 11:50 A.M. and the same procedure is followed for lunch as for the breakfast meal. The afternoon is devoted to skills training. The class is divided into four groups and each group rotates through a 50-minute class devoted to such subjects as marksmanship, defensive tactics, 135 water safety, first aid, typing, accident investigation and report preparation. At 4:50 P.M., the recruits return to their quarters and then march to dinner. The trainees are confined to the gymnasium living quarters during the evening. Those who have demerits for the day report for the demerit run or the assigned work detail. For those experiencing difficulty in any academic area, there is a mandatory one-hour supervised study period. The remainder of the evening, until lights out at 10:00 P.M., is spent studying notes, shining shoes or other issued leather items, and cleaning revolvers. No radios or tele- vision are permitted. The recruits are released on Friday evening and are required to be back by 10:00 P.M. on Sunday. The following is the curriculum of the 85th Recruit School. It is very typical of the programs required of all of the individuals in this study. It is mandatory that each recruit maintain at least a 75% average on the weekly tests which are administered for the various classes. Ifa recruit fails to maintain this average, he is subject to dismissal from the school. RECRUIT SCHOOL CURRICULUM May 21 - August 24, 1973 I. Administrative Section Hours Administrative Matters Continuing Education Program Examination Review . . . . . . Final Cleaning & Inspection of Quarters Graduation & Final Assembly . Individual Photographs Inspection Procedure . II. III. 136 Issuance of Uniforms & Equipment . Loyalty Oath & Personnel Forms Opening Remarks . . . Physical Examinations Practice Graduation . Recruit School Examinations (M.L.E.O.T.C.). Recruit School Rules & Regulations Travel Time (Fort Custer Driving Program). Turning in Issue Equipment. . . Typing . Uniform Inspection & Class Photograph Total Legal Section Admissions and Confessions . Constitutional Law Court Functions Appellate Process--l Court Organization--4 Courtroom Demeanor--l Jury Sytem--Petit & Grand--2 Mock Trial & Critique--3 (J'l-bOON-d Detention & Custody Juvenile Law Law of Arrest Rules of Evidence . Search & Seizure . State Liquor Laws, Rules & Regulations . Substantive Criminal Law . . Total Investigative Section Auto Theft Investigation . Collection & Preservation of Evidence Crime Scene Search (includes mock crime scene search) . Criminal Investigation Interview & Interrogation 1. Field Interrogation-~2 2. Polygraph--l Hours l—Im—opmmmm-aos—o A \I dug.) _a —J bwmo-fiwN 01 _.1 (JON-b Nw IV. 137 Narcotics & Dangerous Drugs Personal Identification . l. Fingerprinting--4 2. Latent Prints--2 Police Photography Vice Investigation Total Traffic Section Accident Investigation Driver Licensing Laws . . D. U. I. L. Enforcement & Breathalyzer . Motor Vehicle Law . . Prosecution in Accident Cases . Traffic Direction & Control Techniques & Methods of Traffic Law Enforcement : V.A.S.C.A.R. Orientation Total Special Subjects Section Block Printing. Character Concealed Weapons Laws . Contemporary Social Unrest . Counseling Orientation Crime Prevention Departmental Safety Program Handling Abnormal Persons Human Relations Juvenile Delinquency. . Mich. Corrections, Parole, & Probation System Police Courtesy & Ethics . . . . Public Speaking Records . . State & Regional Social Services . Tour of Headquarters . . Water Safety Total Hours d 37 co co lNNNN-b-DNO \l (D w—aN—a-b-bwmooN—IN—am—a-o—o N 01 N VI. VII. 138 General Police Section Classroom Notetaking & Notebook Preparation Emergency Preparedness . . . . 1. Bomb Information--1 2. Disaster Control--1 3. Radiological Monitoring--2 Field Notetaking Firearms . . Armed Felon Apprehension--2 Camp Perry Course--26 Chemicals--2 Combat Firing--5 Department Policy & Legal Aspects of Firearms-~l Heavy Weapons (classroom)--2 Heavy Weapons--8 Night Firing--2 (extracurricular) Theory of Firearms--3 LOCDNO‘ 01¢de First Aid . . . History & Government of Michigan . History & Organization of Dept. of State Police : Introduction to Criminal Justice . 1. History & Philosophy of Law Enforcement--2 2. Jurisdiction of Federal Agencies--3 Law Enforcement Information Network . Michigan Law Enforcement Blockade System Operations Procedures . . . . Police Communications Police Patrol Procedures Domestic Complaints--3 Mechanics of Arrest & Detention--2 Patrol Techniques--25 Night Patrol Activity Exercises--8 (extracurricular) (”DOOM-d Report Preparation Total Military and Physical Training Section Defensive Tactics . Holds & Releases Stopping Vehicles & Occupancy Control--4 Hours CTN-HO ##Nw-I' 32 161 VIII. IX. 139 Military Courtesy. Military Drill . . Riot Control & Tactical Formations Total Driver Trainingyand Vehicle Maintenance Section Driver Training Patrol Unit Maintenance--l Precision Driving Techniques Classroom Orientation--6 Driver Training Exercises--38 Night Stopping Activity (extracurricular)--4 Driver Safety Demonstration--l (”kw N—l Total Departmental Policy, Procedures, and Orders Departmental Orders . . Departmental Rules & Regulations . Official Order #4. Personal Conduct Post Operations, Policies, & Reporting Procedures Total Extracurricular Hours Calisthenics Employee Counseling Examinations . Night Driving Activity Night Firing Exercises . Night Patrol Activity Exercises Notebook Preparation . . . Personal & Quarters Inspections Spelling & Vocabulary Words Supervised Study . . Total Instructional Schedule Total GRAND TOTAL 46 46 136 290 552 842 140 Each recruit is assigned to one of the training school staff members who acts as his counselor. This staff member must make indi- vidual contact with each of his seven to nine recruits at least once every two weeks. The substance of this contact is recorded on cards kept for this purpose and a permanent record is thus maintained. The recruits are urged to utilize the assistance of these staff members at any time and the training officers seek out "their" recruits and offer support and advice to them regarding their progress in the school. If the recruit can successfully maintain the 75% academic level, develop himself physically to accomplish the previously men- tioned exercise levels, qualify with a pistol according to depart- mental standards, become proficient as a swimmer, and demonstrate sufficient amounts of self-control and determination, he will graduate from the recruit school as a probationary Trooper. Probationary Troopers are assigned to any of the various State Police posts, according to departmental personnel needs. The post commander will assign the new Trooper to one or two "senior officers" with whom the "cub" will work during his nine-month proba- tionary period. These "senior officers" are selected for their abilities and positive attitudes. While no additional pay or rank comes with being a "senior officer," it is generally recognized as being identified as a superior employee. The "senior officer" acts as both tutor and big brother. He not only instructs the neophyte trooper in proper procedure, but 141 also assists him in finding suitable housing, banks, schools, churches, and any other such needs. The new officer is rated by his coach each month on a stan- dardized form, which becomes part of his permanent personnel file. The post commander and the senior officers jointly review the report with the new officer and offer advice as to how he can improve in those areas in which he is experiencing difficulty. This report is also used by the Training Division staff to evaluate its effective- ness in training future recruits. The Continuing Education Program In addition to the on-the-job training which the probationary officer receives, he is also required to participate in a correspondence-type reading course. After his first month at the post, he will begin this program. The course consists of assigned readings in six publications that are part of each post library. The material is devoted to the following subjects: Criminal Law and Procedure Criminal Investigation Introduction to Law Enforcement Traffic Accident Investigation Departmental Official Orders. 01-9de The officer receives a briefing on this course while he is still in recruit school and he also is given all of the assignments and materials he will need. Tests are sent out monthly from the Training Division and they are administered to the probationary officer by his post commander. They are returned to the Training Division for scoring. The post commander receives a report back on 142 the test and he uses these to counsel and direct the officer's study. These grades also become a part of the officer's permanent file, and are compiled as a cumulative grade point average. An officer must obtain an overall average of at least 70% on these monthly tests plus the mid-term and final examinations. See Appendix B for fur- ther details. Advanced Trooper School After approximately eight months in the field, the proba- tionary Trooper returns with his recruit school classmates for the Advanced Trooper School. This school for the sample group was also held at the East Lansing headquarters. The officers were housed in dormitory-type rooms and enjoyed a much more relaxed atmosphere com- pared to the recruit school. Their evenings were free and there was no "P.T.“ or military drill. The Advanced Trooper School is intended to build upon the officer's reoruit school and field train- ing experience. There are both departmental and outside agency instructors involved and the classes are designed for both discus- sion and demonstrations of practical application. The following is the curriculum of the 85th Recruit Class Advanced Trooper School. ADVANCED TROOPER SCHOOL CURRICULUM April 22 - May 10, 1974 Administrative Procedures Hours Achievement & Development Inventory Process Administrative Matters--2.5 Department Demeanor--1 Command Officer's Panel . Director's Comments .—1t\) N—d 143 Examinations Examination Review . Final Exam on Correspondence Course . Opening Remarks and Orientation . School Evaluations and Closing Remarks . Travel Time to and from School Total Criminal Identification and Investigation Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms Bureau Arson Investigation . . . Auto Theft Bomb Information Crime Scene . . Crime Scene Critique--l Crime Scene Investigation--2 Crime Scene Orienation--l Crime Scene Photography and Plaster Casting--2 Crime Scene Search and Sketching--2 Criminal Investigation Procedures Data Processing and Computer System . Fraudulent Check Investigations Informants and Sources of Information Interstate Transportation of Contraband Interview and Interrogation . Interview & Interrogation--8 Polygraph Use & Procedures--2 Latent Print Techniques Review & Use of the Fingerprint Camera . . . . . . . Narcotics Information . Recent Changes and Problems in: Field Screening of Narcots and Drugs--2 Narcotic Investigations--l Organized Crime . Problems in Accident Investigation Questioned Documents . . Recognition of Gambling Paraphernalia Search Warrant Procedures . Sex Crime Investigations Voice Identification . Total Hours 0000 Od—‘N-bN oommw—a 0'1 a. I-amNN—I—am 144 Law Hours Criminal Law and Procedures Review Motor Vehicle Law Review Truck Laws and Enforcement . . Water Laws-Water Accident Reports 00 IN—‘Nw Total Human Behavior Alcoholism Community Relations Juvenile Delinquency. Militant Groups Understanding Minority Cultures lNN-b-bw 0"! Total 1 Specialized Training Civil Disturbances and Riot Control . Defensive Tactics Review . Department of Licensing and Regulations Department of Natural Resources Laws Firearms . . . Camp Perry Carbine Combat Firing Shotgun Two- inch Revolver News Media Representative . . 1 Planning & Research- Current Trends 1 Policewoman' s Role in Law Enforcement . . . . 1 Recruitment & Selection Procedures . . . . . . . 1 1 2 mN—‘Nd Safety & Traffic Division Functions . . V.A.S.C.A.R.-Technology & Courtroom Testimony . (Canceled 4/22/74--Tour of New Academy scheduled in lieu of) Total 21 Administrative Procedures . . 20 Criminal Identification & Investigation . . . . . 56 Law . . . . . . . . . 8 Human Behavior . . . . . . 15 Specialized Training . . . . 21 TOTAL lgg 145 The Advanced Trooper School is scheduled so that the proba- tionary officers will have completed the school approximately one year from the day that they began their recruit school. If they have successfully completed all of the academic requirements of the entire training program and have received the endorsements of their post commanders and district commanders, they will be confirmed as State Police Troopers and gain Civil Service status. It is possible for the probationary officer to be dismissed at any time up until the time he is confirmed, without the procedural requirements of Civil Service. It is also possible to have one's probationary period extended for an additional six months, but this seldom occurs. Seven of the nine recruit schools in this study lost class members during their probationary period. In summary, the selection and training procedures which the members of the sample group of this study successfully completed were in fact a major screening process. The study group is not similar in any way to what a random sample, drawn from the young adult males of this country, would be. They are all above average in intelli- gence, physically strong, mentally aggressive, self-controlled, determined and career oriented. Only those who have a sincere desire to become State Police officers do so. The program they completed (was the result of 50 years of experience in producing what is gen- erally recognized in law enforcement circles as a highly qualified police officer. 146 The Current Michigan Department of State Police In August, 1976, the authorized strength of the Michigan State Police was 2,113 sworn personnel. These officers were dis- tributed in varying numbers throughout three major bureaus. The Bureau of Field Services, the largest bureau, is made up of all of the posts and district headquarters in the state. The Bureau of Staff Services, the next largest, is located at the East Lansing Headquarters and consists of ten different divisions which support the field forces. The third is the Executive Bureau, which is also located at the East Lansing Headquarters and is under the super- vision of the Director of the department. (See Appendix C for details of organization and personnel distribution.) The department is charged with a number of broad responsi- bilities which involve the protection of the lives and property of the citizens of the state. Unlike many other state police organi- zations which are either traffic oriented or investigatory, the Michigan State Police has general police powers. A major portion of the work of the department is devoted to the reduction of criminal activity. Units of the department involved in this effort include uniformed police patrols, field detectives and intelligence special- ists, the five regional crime laboratories, central records and identification personnel, the statewide communications network, the police training academy, and the community services section. Similarly, broad personal safety protection is sought through attempts at reducing the incidence of motor vehicle acci- dents, arson and accidental fires and explosions, water and hunting 147 accidents, and the losses resulting from natural disasters and civil disorder. These areas are addressed by members of the Uniform Divi- sion, the Safety and Traffic Division, the Fire Marshal Division, the Emergency Services Division and the Highway Safety Planning Division. Because of the wide scope of the department's current opera- tions, it is impractical to attempt to describe in any detail the activities of the various organizational units. The names applied to these units are generally descriptive of their work activities. The appendices which have been furnished should sufficiently illus- trate the areas of services which are provided by the department. Summary The Michigan Department of State Police was first organized in 1917, as a military body to replace the National Guard when it was activated in World War I. The department has a long history of maintaining very demanding standards for the selection and training of its new officers. The sample group for this study, the members of the nine recruit schools held from February, 1972, through December, 1974, were all selected and trained under the same stan- dards, conditions and procedures. This has tended to produce a rather homogenous group which has, in turn, resulted in reducing the number of variables which might otherwise affect the results of the study. The 418 officers within this sample group were selected from the upper levels of a Civil Service roster which was jointly 148 developed between the Department of State Police and the Department of Civil Service. The subjects completed 14 weeks of a physically and mentally demanding recruit school. They took part in, and successfully completed, a correspondence reading course in various law enforcement subjects. They were evaluated jointly by specially selected senior officers, and post and district commanders, as to their professional and personal abilities to successfully perform a State Police officer's duties. Finally, they returned to an Advanced Trooper School which completed a one-year period of train- ing in a probationary status. They became members of a large, statewide police organization which has a great many different areas of responsibility for provid- ing protection to the citizens of Michigan. It is a well-known and highly respected police agency with a reputation for employing very well qualified personnel. CHAPTER IV DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Introduction This chapter describes the mechanics of the research. A discussion of the type of study which was employed will initially be presented. The sample examined will be described and possible gen- eralizations to the overall population will be offered. The proce- dures which were followed in the data collection and processing will be described and numerical illustrations of the sample charac- teristics will appear. The finalized version of the Achievement and Development Inventory personnel evaluation device will be described. The statistical analysis techniques which were employed will be iden- tified and, finally, the hypotheses of the study will be re-presented. Type of Study The title of this study includes a description of the type (If research which was employed. The "causal-comparative" method is aimed at the discovery of possible causes for a behavior pattern by ccunparing subjects in whom this pattern is present with similar sub- Jecrts in whom it is absent. This method is sometimes called ex post facto research, since causes are studied after they presumably have exerted their effect upon another variable.l 1Walter R. Borg and Meredith D. Gall, Educational Research, W (New York: David McKay Co., Inc., 1971), p. 297. 149 150 The causal-comparative method is frequently used rather than a true experimental research format because in many instances the variables being examined are such that they cannot be manipulated. The cost of manipulation is usually prohibitive, or there may be ethical considerations which preclude such manipulation. For exam- ple, if one wished to test the hypothesis that aggressiveness is a cause of juvenile delinquency, it would require the selection of closely matched experimental and control groups of youngsters and then the development of an aggressive atmosphere for the experimental group. This would allow a later determination to be made as to the differences which might occur in delinquency rates between the two groups. The problems associated in such a study are obvious, how- ever. In another illustration, if the variables being considered in this study were to be subjected to examination in a true experi- mental format, the primary variable, college education, would have to be programed in for a number of individuals prior to their acceptance as State Police recruits. Obviously, the logistics of such experi- inentation are prohibitive. The primary limitation in the causal-comparative research (design is that one cannot infer that a certain variable causes a Particular behavioral pattern. One can only make the observation thait there is some type of relationship existing between the two var~iab1es. In this study, depending upon the outcomes of the fesseearch, one could not state that achieving high marks on the vari- ous ability measurements was the result of having obtained a college 151 education. The only allowable observation would be that there appears to be a relationship between obtaining high marks on the ability measurements and having obtained a college education. In causal-comparative research it is very difficult to determine whether a variable found to be related to a behavior pat- tern has been a contributing cause or whether it might be the result of the behavior pattern. Again, in this study, depending upon the results, it may be that some trooper candidates score well on ability measurements because they went to college, Or it may be that some trooper candidates who have the ability to score well on ability measurements also are inclined to have attended college. The dis- tinction cannot be made. However, if a relationship can be shown to exist, there is obviously some value derived. It is not necessary to know the exact cause and effect relationship. The value is derived by obtaining the knowledge that when one finds a particular variable present, one is also likely to find a particular behavior pattern present. The strength of any relationship found in a causal-comparative study is highly dependent upon the similarity existing between the two comparison groups. Borg and Gall state: "The selection of a closely comparable control group in causal-comparative research can produce results that approach the precision of a well-designed experiment."2 The sample of this study is closely comparable. 2Ibid., p. 299. 152 The Sample The sample for this study consists of all of the male offi- cers who graduated with one of nine Michigan State Police Recruit Schools between February, 1972, and December, 1974. Because only five female officers graduated during this period, their records were excluded from the analysis because of the limited sample size and possible unidentified variables which would not exist for their male counterparts. There was a total of 418 male officers who graduated in these nine schools. At the time that the Achievement and Development Inventory was completed, 381 of these officers were still members of the department. A numerical illustration of the sample's characteristics is presented later in this chapter. This particular sample was selected for definite reasons. First, the officers are all young and relatively inexperienced. The "socialization" effect of being in the department for an extended period of time should not be significant. Second, the number of officers having an appreciable amount of college education is much higher in this particular group, thereby providing greater reli- ability because of the larger sample size. Third, all of the offi- cers in this group were selected and trained under the same set of circumstances. That is, they took the same written examination, met the same physical standards, and were processed through similar background investigations and oral board evaluations. Finally, these officers completed their recruit schools in the older training facil- ity at the East Lansing Headquarters which was utilized prior to the opening of a new State Police Training Academy in January, 1975. 153 In summary, the 418 officers comprising this sample make up a very homogeneous group. They have been carefully selected and trained in a well prescribed and strictly uniform procedure. It is believed that this procedure has considerably reduced the number of unidentified variables which might otherwise affect the results of the study. Table 4.1 illustrates the number of graduates in each of the nine recruit schools and the attrition rates of each class. TABLE 4.1.--The Recruit Schools Comprising the Sample. Number Number Percent Percent School Begin- Gradu- Gradu- Drop- ning ating ating Outs 80th 11/ 8/71 - 2/ 4/72 62 28 45.16 54.82 81st l/10/72 - 4/ 7/72 89 53 59.6 40.4 82nd 2/28/72 - 5/26/72 47 35 74.6 25.4 83rd 9/25/72 - 12/22/72 84 64 76.2 23.8 84th 1/15/73 - 4/18/73 78 45 57.69 42.31 85th 5/21/73 - 8/24/73 73 53 72.61 22.39 86th 11/ 5/73 - 2/ 8/74 73 49 67.12 32.88 87th 2/25/74 - 5/31/74 82 48 58.54 41.46 88th 9/ 9/74 - 12/13/74 76 47 _§l;§__ _§§;2__ i=73.78 i=46.89 i=63.7 i=36.3 The Population The sample group of this study was drawn from a population of Michigan State Police officers. It should be clearly recognized 154 that the population cannot be generally extended to police officers of other law enforcement agencies. The selection procedures and training techniques which are employed by the Department of State Police necessarily restrict the findings of this study to only those agencies having selection standards and training procedures which very closely parallel those of the Michigan State Police. As the reader will have discerned from the information in Chapter III, the Michigan State Police have consistently applied variations of their current selection and training requirements over the course of most of their history. If the department continues to utilize similar screening and evaluation techniques, the results of this study will continue to apply to the trooper force. If the selection and training procedures are noticeably altered, then the findings will have little application to succeeding groups of officers. There are many law enforcement agencies which stringently control their selection and training standards. The results of this study may, depending on those standards, have some degree of appli- cation to those departments. The similarity between the Michigan State Police and other departments is unknown. Therefore, the gen- eralization of the sample to these other departments must be restricted to that inferred by other police administrators. Data Collection All of the data for this study were collected from the records of the Department of State Police. The information was 155 contained in the files of two administrative divisions of that organization, the Training and Personnel Divisions. The information relative to the officer's name, the Recruit School number, the grade point average, the Continuing Education Program grade point average, the amount and type of college experience and whether or not there was previous police experience was obtained from records retained by the Training Division. These records were inspected by the author and the information contained therein was converted to a numerical coding scheme and placed on uniform coding sheets. In relatively few instances the information from the Training Division records was not complete and therefore the master files of the Personnel Division were inspected and the necessary information was obtained from these records. The information relative to the scores obtained on the Achievement and Development Inventory was furnished to the author by the Personnel Division. A description of the development of this personnel evaluation system was presented in Chapter II. Subsequent to its initial development, the system was further refined and then used to evaluate all of the Michigan State Police Troopers serving as road patrol officers at each of the 64 posts in the state during January, 1976. In the original Achievement and Development Inventory, as described in Chapter II, the evaluator was presented with 20 sets of descriptive phrases consisting of four positive statements which might be applied to the individual being rated. In the final adap- tation, there were 25 sets of such statements. Another change, 156 because of these additional phrases, was an increase in the highest possible overall score from the original 40 to a possible 50. Additionally, in the original form, only three sub-scales were identified: Job Involvement, Interpersonal Relationships and Report Writing Skills. The new form, used in the collection of the data appearing in this study, subdivided the Interpersonal Relation- ships skills area into both "Peer" and "Public" relationships cate- gories. It also somewhat broadened the definitiOn of Report Writing into Clerical Skills. The definitions which appear at the conclusion of Chapter I are those tailored to the second or final adaptation. (Refer to Appendix A.) When the A.D.I. was administered the second time, a total of 1,062 troopers were rated by their supervising sergeants and post commanders. The same format was followed as in the initial instance, where each of these command officers, usually five or six, prepared an evaluation on each trooper at the post. Their evaluations would then be combined and averaged for the final score which each officer obtained. The results of the second A.D.I. closely parallel those described in Chapter II regarding the first A.D.I. experimentation. Again the scores demonstrated a very symmetrical frequency distribu- tion. The mean was 23.48 and the median was 23.47. There was a standard deviation of only 7.27. In order to check reliability, Mr. Larry King, the contractor who developed the A.D.I., ran a correlation study between results obtained on the first A.D.I. and those of the second. He identified 157 707 troopers who had received evaluations in the first run and checked their overall scores from that test with the scores or rat- ings received on the second evaluation. He obtained a correlation 3 This is of .78 which was corrected for attenuation on both sides. an excellent indication that the A.D.I. is measuring personal char- acteristics with a strong reliability. Its validity was established with the correlation between its rankings and the peer evaluations as reported in Chapter II. The great majority of the officers comprising the sample of this study were among the 1,062 troopers who were rated by their command officers in January, 1976. Of the original 418 officers, sixty-one (61) were not included in the final data collection. Thirteen (13) of these men had voluntarily terminated their employ- ment. Twenty-four (24) had been dismissed. Eleven (11) were not included because their A.D.I. evaluations were not completed accord- ing to the requirements of the system. Finally, thirteen (13) were not included because they were in specialist assignments such as Crime Laboratory, Intelligence, Community Services or Recruiting. Many were in these assignments because of their educational back- grounds. Table 4.2 presents a numerical illustration of the sample. The numerical coding system which the author developed was utilized to first collect the data upon uniform data recording sheets, and later was employed to transfer the information to 3Personal conversation with Mr. Larry King, Personnel Research Associations of East Lansing, Mich., Aug. 30, 1976, Lansing Mich. 158 TABLE 4.2.--Numerical Illustration of the Sample. 418 An initial sample 381 At final data collection 24 Dismissed from department 13 Voluntarily terminated 13 On special assignment 11 With incomplete A.D.I. evaluations 357 With complete ability measurement scores (Final Sample) 191 With less than associate's degree in final sample 64 With associate's degree but not bachelor's in final sample 102 With at least a bachelor's degree in final sample . 58 With at least an associate's in Criminal Justice 108 With at least an associate's in another college discipline 41 With previous police experience and less than associate's 165 With at least an associate's and no previous police experience 10 Voluntarily terminated with at least an associate's degree 3 Voluntarily terminated with less than an associate's degree 17 Dismissed from Department had less than associate‘s degree 1 Dismissed from Department had an associate's degree 6 Dismissed from Department had at least a bachelor's degree 159 punch cards for use in running the computer analysis programs. Table 4.3 illustrates the coding format which was employed. The reader's attention is specifically directed to the seven dependent variables involved in the study and appearing in Table 4.3. These are Recruit School Grade Point Average, Continuing Education Program Grade Point Average; and the four sub-scales of the Achieve- ment and Development Inventory--Job Involvement, Interpersonal Relationships-Peers, Clerical Skills, Interpersonal Relationships- Public; and the Overall A.D.I. score. These are dependent variables; however, they are independent of each other with the exception that there is, of course, direct correlation between the A.D.I. sub-scales and the overall A.D.I. scores. The reader is advised that there is considerable variance in the possible ranges of the scores obtained on these ability mea- surements. The grade point averages range from possible scores of 66.0 to 99.9, while the A.D.I. sub-scores are all standardized scores and range only from -2.0 to 2.5. The overall A.D.I. score has a potential range of 9.2 to 39.9. This difference in possible ranges should be considered when the mean scores on these variables are presented later. Additionally, the reader should be aware that in all cases the higher the score obtained on each ability measurement, the more positive that measurement score is. The Office of Research Consultation, College of Education, Michigan State University, was contacted in the early stages of this study and various staff members of that office rendered valuable 160 TABLE 4.3.--Data Coding Format. Column(s) Variable Code 1-2-3 Individual identification 001-418 number 4 Recruit school number 1-80 4-83 7-86 2-81 5-84 8-87 3-82 6-85 9-88 5 Amount of education 1-Less than Assoc. 2-Assoc. but less than BA 3-At least BA 6 Type of education l-Criminal Justice 2-Other discipline 3-Not apply 7 Previous police experience l-Police exp. and less than Assoc. 2-No police exp. and at least Assoc. 3-Not apply 8 Tenure l-Still in department 2-Voluntary termina- tion 3-Dismissed 9 Blank Skip 10-11-12 Recruit School Gr. Pt. Average 66.0-99.9 13-14-15 Cont. Ed. Grade Point Average 66.0-99.9 16-17-18-19 A.D.I.-Job Involvement -2.0 -- 2.5 20-21-22-23 A.D.I.-Interpersona1-Peers -2.0 -- 2.5 24-25-26-27 A.D.I.-Clerical Skills -2.0 -- 2.5 28-29-30-31 A.D.I.-Interpersonal-Public -2.0 -- 2.5 32-33-34-35 Blank Skip 36 Blank Skip 37-38-39 Overall A.D.I. 09.2 -- 39.9 161 assistance and advice concerning the methodology of data collec- tion, processing and analysis. Subsequent to the final collection of the data and its con- version to the uniform coding sheets, the services provided by the Computer Center Keypunch Division of the University were utilized to keypunch and verify the information. The Statistical Procedures Upon the advice of the Office of Research Consultation, the Finn MANOVA statistical analysis computer program, contained in the Computer Center of Michigan State University, was utilized to process the collected data. The specific program is Version 4 of June, 1968, the Univariate and Multivariate Analysis of Variance, Covariance and Regression. The MANOVA program is a form of multivariate analysis which allows the researcher to examine a number of dependent vari- ables at the same time. It was ideally suited for this study because of the existence of the seven different ability measurements which were examined. This analysis technique was employed in the testing of four of the five hypotheses of the study. Additionally, the technique was utilized to examine the possibility that the older, more experienced officers in the sample may have scored significantly higher than their less experienced fellow officers because of that experience. This was not one of the formal hypotheses of the study but it occurred to the author that such might be the situation and therefore the test was made. A detailed description of the analysis process will appear in Chapter V dealing with the analysis of the data. 162 The final hypothesis, dealing with the question of tenure among the college-educated police officers was not tested by the MANOVA. In this instance the Chi-square statistical technique was employed. Levels of Significance and Statistical Errors It is hoped that a number of individuals who may not be com- pletely familiar with statistical techniques and parlance will inspect this research report. For that reason, a short explanation of some of the statistical terms which appear will be presented here. Readers will note that two forms of the research hypotheses appear. In one case they are presented as positive statements, that differences do exist between the groups. In the ggll_form, signified by HO, they are stated in a negative manner; that there are no differences. The null form is a statistical tool for estab- lishing a test of significance; the idea being that if true differ- ences do exist between the mean or average scores obtained by two different sample groups this null form can be rejected and it may be concluded that the difference between the sample means reflect a true picture of differences in the population. The method of either rejecting or accepting the null hypothe- sis is to run a test of statistical significance. There is a multi- tude of mathematical methods to establish this level of significance. No attempt will be made to describe these methods here. However, the significance level or probability level is expressed as a 163 decimal. Most behavioral science research will accept a level of significance at .05 or below. This means that if you establish a .05 level, or a p less than .05, there is only one chance in 20 that a larger difference in mean or average score would occur if there were in fact no difference between population means. This allows the researcher to conclude that if he took several samples from the same population and made several tests of those samples, he could expect to find one group consistently scoring higher than the other. The smaller the significance level appears as a decimal, the greater is the assurance that there is a genuine difference between the mean scores of the groups being compared. When accepting or rejecting a null hypothesis by this method, there is the possibility of committing two types of errors. A Type I error occurs when the researcher rejects a null hypothesis, one that says there is no difference between groups, when in fact it is cor- rect, there is no difference. This will most often occur when the level of significance is too high, such as .10. A Type II error occurs when the researcher sets too stringent a significance level, i.e., .001, or 1 chance in 100, and accepts the null hypothesis (no difference) when in fact there is a differ- ence.4 For the purposes of this research, the conventional .05 level of significance has been adopted. As the reader will find in the following chapter, this value is also referred to as "p less than" (p <). The level of significance will also change according 4Borg and Gall, pp. 287-88. 164 to the statistical analyses which were employed. Hopefully, the preceding information will be of value in interpreting the data pre- sented within the next chapter. Restatement of Research Hypotheses The hypotheses which were formulated to act as a base for this research are presented again for the convenience of the reader. Additonally, the abbreviations which were adopted to signify the dependent variables in the data processing and computer programming will be presented. These appreviations will assist the reader in comprehending the tables which illustrate the research results in the following chapter. H;I: There will be a significant difference between the scores obtained on a number of ability measurements when comparisons are made between officers who have at least an associate's degree and those with less than that amount of education. Recruit School Grade Point Average Continuing Education Program Grade Point Average A.D.I.--Job Involvement A.D.I.--Interpersonal Relationships-Peers A.D.I.--Clerical Skills A.D.I.--Interpersonal Relationships-Public Overall A.D.I. Score I IIIZ'IIII HHo—it—H—ct—u—a \IChU‘I-wa-J - I: There will be a significant difference between the scores obtained on a number of ability measurements when comparisons are made between officers who hold an associ- ate's degree, but less than a bachelor's degree, and those with at least a bachelor's degree. H-II 1. Recruit School Grade Point Average H-II 2. Continuing Education Program Grade Point Average H-II 3. A.D.I.--Job Involvement H-II 4. A.D.I.--Interpersonal Relationships-Peers H-II 5. A.D.I.--Clerical Skills H-II 6. A.D.I.--Interpersonal Relationships-Public 7. Overall A.D.I. Score 165 H-III: There will be a significant difference between the scores obtained on a number of ability measurements when comparisons are made between officers who have at least an associate's degree in Criminal Justice-type educational pro- grams and those with similar levels of education in differ- ent academic fields. H-III l. Recruit School Grade Point Average H-III 2. Continuing Education Program Grade Point Average H-III 3. A.D.I.--Job Involvement H-III 4. A.D.I.--Interpersonal Relationships-Peers H-III 5. A.D.I.--Clerical Skills H-III 6. A.D.I.--Interpersonal Relationships-Public H-III 7. Overall A.D.I. Score H-IV: There will be a significant difference between the scores obtained on a number of ability measurements when comparisons are made between officers who have at least an associate's degree and have had no prior police experience and those who have had at least one year of prior police experience and have less than an associate's degree. H-IV 1 Recruit School Grade Point Average H-IV 2 Continuing Education Program Grade Point Average H-IV 3. A.D.I.--Job Involvement H-IV 4. A.D.I.--Interpersonal Relationships-Peers H-IV 5 A.D.I.--Clerical Skills H-IV 6 A.D.I.--Interpersonal Relationships-Public H-IV 7 Overall A.D.I. Score sz: There will be a significant difference between the -number of officers who have voluntarily terminated their employment with the Michigan Department of State Police when comparisons are made between officers who have at least an associate's degree and those with less than that amount of education. Dependent Variable Abbreviations 1. R.S.G.P.A.--Recruit School Grade Point Average 2. C.E.P.G.P.A.--Continuing Education Program Grade Point Average 3. A.D.I.J.I.--A.D.I. Job Involvement 4. A.D.I.I.P.F.--A.D.I. Interpersonal Relationships- Peers 166 5. A.D.I.C.S.--A.D.I. Clerical Skills 6. A.D.I.I.P.P.—-A.D.I. Interpersonal Relationships- Public 7. 0.A.D.I.--Overall A.D.I. Scores Summary A causal-comparative type of research was selected for this study. This method is intended to discover possible causes for a behavior pattern by comparing subjects in whom the behavior appears with very similar subjects who do not exhibit the same pattern. The researcher is, in effect, attempting to identify causes of behavior after those causes have supposedly exerted their effect upon commonly held variables. A sample of 418 Michigan State Police Troopers was identified and information collected regarding the amount and type of college education they might have acquired. Additionally, information rela- tive to previous police experience and their tenure with the depart- ment was gathered. Seven standard ability measurements or dependent variables were selected and the mean scores obtained on these measurements were compared according to amount and type of education and whether or not the individual had previous police experience. These comparisons were made by utilizing a standardized statistical computer program 1which is a form of multivariate analysis that allows for considera- tion of several dependent variables concurrently. This analysis technique is a standard computer program of the Michigan State Uni- versity Computer Center identified as the Finn MANOVA. 167 Additionally, the number of officers from the sample leaving the department was identified according to either voluntary termina- tion or discharge. 'This information was also correlated with col- lege experience and a significance established by the Chi-square statistical technique. The finalized version of the A.D.I., the personnel evalu- ation device used by the department, was described along with information being furnished relative to its general administration throughout the entire trooper rank, which comprises the population of this study. Finally, the research hypotheses of this study were re-presented to prepare the reader to better understand the sta- tistical analyses presented in the following chapter. CHAPTER V ANALYSIS OF THE DATA Introduction The primary purpose of this study was to attempt to determine if there were significant differences to be found between the scores obtained on various ability measurements by groups of State Police officers having varying amounts of education. In addition, compari- sons were made between officers with at least an associate's degree but less than a bachelor's degree, and those with at least a bachelor's degree. Similarly, comparisons were made between those whose education was in the field of Criminal Justice and those who held a degree in another academic discipline. There was also an attempt made to identify differences which might exist between offi- cers with previous police experience having limited or no college education and those possessing at least an associate's degree but having no previous police experience. Finally, the concept of tenure was considered in regard to educational level achieved with the identification of those who had voluntarily terminated their employment with the Michigan Department of State Police. In order to systematize the research and to identify any existing differences which might exist between specific groups, five major hypotheses were structured to include seven sub-hypotheses, individually dealing with the seven ability measurements which were 168 169 studied. These seven dependent variables were Recruit School Grade Point Average (RSGPA), Continuing Education Program Grade Point Average (CEPGPA), and the five scales contained within the personnel evaluation device called the Achievement and Development Inventory (ADI); these scales being Job Involvement (ADIJI), Interpersonal Relationships-Peers (ADIIPF), Clerical Skills (ADICS), Interpersonal Relationships-Public (ADIIPP), and the Overall Achievement and Development Inventory score (OADI). The fifth hypothesis considered the number of officers who had voluntarily terminated their employ- ment and the degree of educational attainment of those officers. This chapter contains the results of the statistical analyses which were employed to test these hypotheses, plus other related information which will, hopefully, assist the reader in assessing the data presented. A null form of each hypothesis is presented, followed by charts depicting the pertinent numerical data developed in the sta- tistical analyses. The major findings regarding each hypothesis are presented and some discussion of the findings is also offered. Finally, a summary is made of all of the data analysis with specific information relative to each hypothesis being offered. Statements of Null Hypotheses and Results of Statistical Tests HO-I: There will be no significant difference between the scores obtained on a number of ability measurements when comparisons are made between officers who have at least an associate's degree and those with less than that amount of education. 170 (In the interest of brevity, the sub-hypotheses will not be re-stated.) Hypotheses I and II were tested with a single computer pro- gram using the MANOVA or Multivariate Analysis of Variance program identified in the preceding chapter. The design of this program had the single factor of "Amount of Education" with three levels or groups; i.e., Group (1) less than an associate's degree, Group (2) at least an associate's but less than a bachelor's degree, and Group (3) at least a bachelor's degree. In the initial analysis, these three levels were tested for multivariance by examination of the mean vectors of all seven depen- dent variables for each of the levels. The results of these analyses appear in Table 5.1. TABLE 5.1.--Test of Equality of Mean Vectors for 3 Groups, HO-I and HO-II (N = 357). Less than Assoc. But At Least Associate's Less than BA a BA Variables N = 191 N = 64 N = 102 Mean Score Mean Score Mean Score RSGPA 84.861 85.782 86.373 CEPGPA 79.770 82.220 83.426 ADIJI -.0427 -.0540 .1002 ADIIPF -.0904 -.1089 .2386 ADICS -.0991 -.0110 .1715 ADIIPP .0184 -.0125 -.0241 OADI 22.355 22.278 24.686 F-Ratio for multivariate test of equality of mean D.F.-l4 and 696.000 vectors = 3.502 p < .0001 171 Analysis: Hypothesis I Since the p or probability of the multivariate test was less than .0001, well within the conventionally accepted .05, it was con- cluded that at least one of the groups was different from the others. In order to identify which group was different, the "post hoc" statistical procedure was employed. In this case Hypothesis I was again tested within the single computer analysis program. The overall performance of Group (1), those with less than an associate's degree, was tested against the average overall performance of both Groups (2) and (3), the associate's but less than a bachelor's degree, and at least a bachelor's. The results of these analyses appear in Table 5.2. TABLE 5.2.--Test cfl’ Equality of Mean Vectors for Comparison Between Group (1) and Groups (2) and (3), HO-I. Variables Univariate p < RSGPA 13.6248 .0003* CEPGPA 24.9876 .0001* ADIJI .6840 .4088 ADIIPF 4.6146 .0324 ADICS 4.9158 .0273 ADIIPP .1817 .6702 OADI 3.5180 .0615 F-Ratio for multivariate test of equality of mean vectors = 5.1149 D.F.-7 and 348.000 p < .0001 *Significant 172 Again theix or probability, of this multivariate test was less than .0001, indicating that Group (l)'s performance was in fact different from the average of the performance indicated by the scores of Groups (2) and (3). In order to identify where those dif- ferences occurred within the seven dependent variables, a univariate test was completed and the probabilities computed. The original acceptable level of confidence was .05. This was reduced by half because of the two contrasts to become .025. While considering seven dependent variables it became necessary to further reduce the level to .003, i.e., ngé- = .0035. By inspec- tion of the "p <" column in Table 5.2, it is apparent that the dif- ferences existing in the scores are only significant in the Recruit School Grade Point Average and Continuing Education Program Grade Point Averages, both indicated by asterisks. When inspecting the mean scores obtained by each of the three groups it is obvious that there are greater differences between Groups (1) and (3) than there are between Group (1) and the averages of Groups (2) and (3). It appears that Groups (1) and (2) are much closer in averages than is Group (3). While Hypothesis I called only for a comparison between officers with less than an associate's degree and those with at least an associates, it occurred to the author that more significant differences might exist between those with less than an associate's and those with at least a bachelor's degree. In light of this pos- sibility, a separate MANOVA program was prepared making a comparison 173 between these two groups. The results of these analyses appear in Table 5.3. TABLE 5.3.--Test of Equality of Mean Vectors for Groups (1) and (3) (N 293). Less Than At Least a Associate's Bachelor's Variables N = 191 N = 102 p < Mean Score Mean Score RSGPA 84.861 86.373 .0002* CEPGPA 79.770 83.426 .0001* ADIJI -.0427 .1002 .2212 ADIIPF -.O904 .2386 .0019* ADICS -.O99l .1715 .0100 ADIIPP .0184 -.0241 .6805 OADI 22.355 24.686 .0074* F-Ratio for multivariate test of equality of mean vectors = 6.3936 D.F.-7 and 348.000 p < .0001 *Significant As suspected, there are significant differences between the two groups. The p, or probability, of this multivariate test was less than .0001. An inspection of the probability values for the individual dependent variables indicates which are significantly different. Again, because of the seven variables, it is necessary to lower the significance level. In this instance the value is .007, obtained by dividing -%¥i = .0071. There are significant differ- ences on the Recruit School Grade Point Average, the Continuing 174 Education Program Grade Point Average, the A.D.I. Interpersonal Relationships-Peers and the Overall A.D.I. All are identified with asterisks. Discussion: Hypothesis I The null hypothesis I was rejected. There was a significant difference between the scores obtained on ability measurements when comparisons were made between officers who had at least an associ- ate's degree and those with less than that amount of education. The statistical analysis program indicated at least two areas where the officers with at least an associate's degree scored consistently higher than those without that amount of college. These two areas were in the grade point averages obtained in Recruit School and in the Continuing Education Program. As previously stated it is apparent when one examines the mean scores of the three grOUps, that the first two, less than an associate's and associate's but less than a bachelor's, are closely similar in average scores. When the second group was combined with the third group, those with at least a bachelor's, and an average taken, the strengths of Group (3) were diminished. This resulted in the finding of significant differences in only the two grade point areas. The secondary analysis, that comparing the scores of the first group with the third group, is of interest when considering Hypothesis I. In this instance there were significant variables. The grade point averages remained significantly different and the 175 officers with at least a bachelor's degree were rated more success- ful in their interpersonal relationships with their peers and obtained higher overall A.D.I. scores. These results are not greatly unexpected. Those individuals who have attended college for any appreciable amount of time gen- erally learn study skills and test-taking procedures. They usually have greater reading abilities and are generally more attuned to academic endeavors than persons who have not been appreciably involved in a formal academic environment. Therefore, the differ- ences which appeared in the grade point averages can be easily understood. An expected outcome, which did not occur even when compari- sons were made between Groups (1) and (3), was that no significant difference existed in either the clerical skills or the interpersonal relationships with the public. One would reasonably expect officers with appreciable college experience to be more proficient writers with greater technical skills than their less well educated fellows. However, while the mean scores in this category are higher for the college group, they are not on a level which can be identified as significant. Additionally, much of the literature cites the reported effect which education supposedly exerts toward developing a more tactful, less authoritarian, more objective and humanistic officer. The results of this study do not indicate any significant difference in the interpersonal relationships held with the public, between the college-educated officers and those with less than that amount of education. 176 That there were no differences on the Job Involvement scale is not surprising. As indicated earlier, all of the officers in the sample are very dedicated and professionally oriented. The demanding selection and training procedures required of successful applicants for the trooper position almost insure a high degree of job involve- ment regardless of educational level. The higher rating obtained by the college-educated officers on the peer interpersonal relationship scale is interesting but not necessarily surprising. Any number of reasons could be offered as explanation, but none are outstandingly apparent. College-educated people tend to have broader interest ranges. They have learned to interact successfully with diverse groups of people. They are reportedly more open, self-confident individuals. Any of these characteristics tend to attract others and make their possessor an interesting and likable person. Probably the most important variable examined in this study was the Overall A.D.I. score. This ability measurement was directly and highly correlated with peer evaluations by the troopers as reported in Chapter II. The officers and the A.D.I. scores closely agreed in identifying the different troopers as to their professional abilities. Therefore, the fact that there was at least an appreci- able difference, but not a significant difference, between Group (1) and the average of Groups (2) and (3), and a significant difference between Group (1) and Group (3) on this scale is in itself signifi- cant. 177 As reported in Chapter IV, the mean score of the Overall A.D.I. for the entire population of 1,062 troopers rated in January, 1976, was 23.48. The mean score for Group (1), less than associ- ate's, was 22.48 and the mean for Group (3), at least a bachelor's, was 24.68. This is obviously not an impressively wide range; how- ever, there is a significant difference and the college-educated police officers consistently tended to be rated higher on this very important scale. It should also be pointed out that this same compressed range is found in the grade point averages, with less than two full points on the Recruit School G.P.A. and approximately four points on the Continuing Education Program G.P.A. Again, these are not out- standing differences. In summary, there is evidence that college-educated police officers tend to score higher on some of the ability measurements which were selected for this study. They do not score impressively higher than officers with less than an associate's degree and there are few differences between those with less than an associate's degree and those with an associate's degree but less than a bachelor's degree. Some of the implications of these findings will be discussed further in Chapter VI. HO-II: There will be no significant difference between the scores obtained on a number of ability measurements when com- parisons are made between officers who hold an associate's degree but less than a bachelor's degree, and those with at least a bachelor's degree. (In the interest of brevity, the sub-hypotheses will not be re-stated.) 178 Hypothesis II was tested in the same computer program which was used to test Hypothesis I. The MANOVA statistical analysis was applied to determine multivariance by examination of the mean vec- tors of all seven dependent variables for each of the two levels; i.e., Groups (2) and (3). The results of these analyses appear in Table 5.4. TABLE 5.4.--Test of Equality of Mean Vectors for Groups (2) and (3), HO-II (N = 166). BfiisfgsgtThgn Qgch§?§:.g Bachelor's Variables N = 64 N = 102 p < Mean Score Mean Score RSGPA 85.782 86.373 .2593 CEPGPA 82.220 83.426 .2096 ADIJI -.0540 .1002 .3098 ADIIPF -.1089 .2386 .0114 ADICS -.0110 .1715 .1793 ADIIPP -.0125 -.0241 .9311 OADI 22.278 24.686 .0328 F-Ratio for multivariate test of equality of mean vectors = 2.0393 D.F.-7 and 348.000 p < .0497 Analysis: Hypothesis II In this case the p, or probability, of the multivariate test was less than .0497. This presented an interesting situation. This confidence level is only minimally acceptable. That is, it is just 179 below the .05 conventionally approved significance standard. Such a level would indicate some differences were significant between Groups (2) and (3). However, when one attempts to identify where those differences might be within the seven dependent variables and applies the previously described formula, -%§-= .0071, there is an apparent inconsistency. None of the individual p values are less than .007. Therefbre, it is not possible to select and identify any of the differences which exist in mean scores as being significantly different. There are only two dependent variables which have mean scores which even approach the required significance level. These appear as .0114 on the ADIIPF scale where Group (3) had a mean score of .2386, as opposed to Group (2) having a -.1089; and on the OADI where Group (3) scored a mean of 24.686, while Group (2) averaged 22.278. The p value in this instance is reported as .0328. The only explana- tion appears to be that there was a sufficient amount of variance detected when the F-ratio test for equality of mean vectors was run to indicate a minimally acceptable level of significance. However, those levels were not high enough to register individually in the univariate tests. Discussion: (Hypothesis II The reader will recall that when Group (1), those with less than an associate's, was tested against the averages of Groups (2) and (3), the only significant differences were found in the grade point averages of the Recruit School and the Continuing Education 180 Program. When comparisons were made between Group (1) and Group (3)- alone, there were significant differences not only on the grade point average but also on the ADIIPF and the OADI. The reader will note that these are the same two scales where there are indications of appreciable differences between Groups (2) and (3) in the immedi- ately foregoing analysis. This finding becomes quite evident and the indications of strong differences apparent when one examines the mean scores obtained by the three groups on the variables under discussion. Refer to Table 5.5. TABLE 5.5.--Comparison of Mean Scores of ADIIPF and OADI. Group ADIIPF OADI Group (1) -.O904 22.355 Group (2) -.1089 22.278 Group (3) .2386 24.686 As previously stated, the mean scores of Groups (1) and (2) are much more closely comparable than those of Group (3). Again, it cannot be statistically determined that there are significant dif- ferences between the two groups of officers according to the required .007 level of the computer program. Therefore, the null hypothesis is accepted. There are no significant differences between the scores obtained on the various ability measurements when comparisons are made between officers with at least an associate's degree but less thanaibachelor's degree and those with at least a bachelor's degree. 181 The reader's attention, however, is called to the possi- bility of the writer having committed a Type II statistical error in this finding. It may very well be that there is an appreciable dif- ference between these two groups in these two areas and the stringent requirements of the significance level previously set have caused the researcher to erroneously accept the null hypothesis. \ This hypothesis will be considered further in Chapter VI and some of the implications of the findings discussed therein. HO-III: There will be no significant difference between the scores obtained on a number of ability measurements when com- parisons are made between officers who have at least an asso- ciate's degree in Criminal Justice-type educational programs and those with similar levels of education in different aca- demic fields. (In the interest of brevity, the sub-hypotheses will not be re-stated.) Hypothesis III was tested in a separate computer program, again employing the MANOVA statistical format. The design of this program had the single factor of "type of education" with two levels or groups, i.e., Group (1) at least an associate's degree in Criminal Justice and Group (2) at least an associate's degree in another aca- Odemic field. The results of the examination for variance among the mean vectors of the seven dependent variables is illustrated in Table 5.6. Analysis: Hypothesis III In this analysis the multivariate test does not even closely approach any acceptable level of significance. The p,cw'probability 182 TABLE 5.6.--Test of Equality of Mean Vectors for Groups (1) and (2), HO-III (N = 166). At Least an At Least an Associate's in Associate's in Variables Criminal Justice Other Discipline p < N = 58 N = 108 Mean Score Mean Score RSGPA 86.174 86.130 .9295 CEPGPA 83.406 82.722 .4537 ADIJI .0469 .0375 .9498 ADIIPF -.0805 .2040 .0672 ADICS .0024 .1541 .2856 ADIIPP -.0025 -.0288 .8458 OADI 23.184 24.065 .4560 F-Ratio for multivariate test of equality of mean vectors = .8291 D.F.-7 and 158.000 p < .5646 of these mean scores being appreciably different because of the group identification, was less than 50 percent as indicated by the .5646 value. Discussion: Hypothesis III The null hypothesis III was accepted. There were no signifi- cant differences between the scores obtained on the ability measures when comparisons were made between officers who had at least an asso- ciate's degree in a Criminal Justice-type course and those with similar levels of education in other academic disciplines. 183 This finding was not expected. Almost all Criminal Justice college courses have an appreciable amount of Criminal Law- and Criminal Investigation-centered courses. This kind of "pre-awareness" should have assisted the ”C.J." students in both the Recruit School and Continuing Education training programs and testing procedures. Such was obviously not the case since there is less than one point separating the groups in the mean grade point average on both of these variables. One can only speculate on other qualities that "C.J." courses should have contributed. An obvious one would concern the Job Involvement scale of the A.D.I. It would be justifiable to imagine that an individual who had devoted a minimum of two years, and in most instances, four years, to a particular course of study would demonstrate a great amount of involvement with the vocation for which he had academically prepared himself. This may be the case. However, in this sample of officers there is less than a tenth of a point separating the two groups on the mean scores in this ability category. It would appear that those who make the decision to join the Department of State Police and successfully complete the first year's requirements are, for the most part, equally involved in the job regardless of their backgrounds. Of all the comparisons which were made in this study, these two groups demonstrated the least amount of difference. The only ability measurement which indicated any noticeable difference was A.D.I. Interpersonal Relationships-Peers scale. In this case the non-"C.J." officers rated higher than those who had pursued the 184 Criminal Justice-type degree. The difference is not at an accept- able significance level and is only mentioned for whatever interest the reader may attach to the observation. Possible implications of the results of these findings will be discussed in Chapter VI. HO-IV: There will be no significant difference between the scores obtained on a number of ability measurements when comparisons are made between officers who have at least an associate's degree and have had no prior police experience and those who have had at least one year of prior police experience and have less than an associate's degree. (In the interest of brevity, the sub-hypotheses will not be re-stated.) Hypothesis IV was also tested with a separate computer pro- gram employing the MANOVA analysis. This program was designed with the single factor of "previous police experience" and two levels or groups, i.e., Group (1) previous police experience and less than an associate's degree, and Group (2) at least an associate's with no previous police experience. Again, an initial test was made for the degree of variance among the mean vectors for the seven dependent variables. The results of these analyses are presented in Table 5.7. Analysis: Hypothesis IV In this instance, the statistical analysis resulted in almost an exactly opposite set of circumstances from those found in the test of Hypothesis II. In this instance the p or probability of the multi- variate test was less than .0667. This value is only slightly higher than the conventional .05. One could reasonably suspect some minimal differences between the two groups but could not declare significant 185 TABLE 5.7.--Test of Equality of Mean HO-IV (N = 206). Vectors for Groups (1) and (2), Previous Pol. At Least an Exp., Less Associate's, Than Associate's No Previous _ Police Exp. Variables N - 41 N = 165 p < Mean Score Mean Score RSGPA 86.087 86.145 .9140 CEPGPA 80.297 82.961 .0087* ADIJI .1512 .1407 .4985 ADIIPF -.1658 .1046 .1003 ADICS -.O97O -.1011 .1894 ADIIPP -.l680 -.Ol95 .3043 OADI 23.100 23.757 .6011 F-Ratio for multivariate test of equality of mean vectors 1.930 D.F.-7 and 199.000 p < .0667 *Closely approaches significance differences. However, when examining the p values of the mean scores, the .0087 found in the CEPGPA, comparison immediately becomes apparent. This is only one one-hundredth of a point higher than the .007 acceptable level previously identified. Discussion: ,Hypothesis IV In the discussion of Hypothesis II it was suggested that the .01 and .03 levels of significance found on the two variables under discussion there could possibly be significant, even though they did not meet the very stringent .007 level. In this instance that 186 suggestion is even stronger because of the very close, .008, approximation of the required level. In the interest of maintaining the initial set of standards, the null hypothesis must again be accepted. There are no signifi- gagt_differences between the scores obtained on the various ability measurements when comparisons are made between officers with previous police experience and less than an associate's degree and those with at least an associate's degree and no previous police experience. If one were to accept the suggestion that there was a sig- nificant difference between the mean scores obtained on CEPGPA by V the two groups, such a difference could be easily understood. The Continuing Education Program is purely academic in nature. The officers receive specific reading assignments in a number of dif- ferent texts and official documents. They are then tested over their comprehension of those assigned readings. It could reasonably be expected that college-educated officers might find such a procedure less difficult than those individuals with only previous police experience and negligible college backgrounds. With the exception of the CEPGPA, these groups were very closely matched on almost all other variables. One might speculate as to the reasons why there would be such a noticeable difference on the CEPGPA and almost equal averages on the RSGPA. Again, there is only supposition, but the Recruit School tests cover a multitude of law enforcement subjects. Many of these subjects would be familiar in some degree to persons with previous police experience. At the same time, the reading and study skills of the college-educated 187 officer could be expected to assist him in the recruit classes. The two advantages might offset each other. Again, the important OADI variable should receive some spe- cial consideration. It is of interest to note that the Overall A.D.I. mean score for the 1,062 officers tested in January, 1976, was 23.48. The previous police officers scored 23.100 and the college- educated officers, without previous police experience, scored 23.757. Again, the homogeneity of the group is quite obvious. While the number of officers with previous police experience was quite small, only 41, the frequency distribution of their scores must have very closely paralleled that of both their opposite comparison group and the entire population. These findings will also be mentioned in the subsequent chapter. 59:2: There will be no significant difference between the number of officers who have voluntarily terminated their employment with the Michigan Department of State Police when comparisons are made between officers who have at least an associate's degree and those with less than that amount. This hypothesis was not tested by the MANOVA but rather the Chi-square statistical technique was employed to test the level of significance. As the reader may recall, it was determined that 13 officers had voluntarily terminated employment with the department and 24 had been dismissed. These figures, along with the totals of officers having degrees and those not having degrees, were used to set up the 188 Chi-square formulations. The following charts depict those formu- lations. TABLE 5.8.--Contingency Table (Observed) HO-V (N = 357). Resigned Employed Totals Degrees 10 156 166 Non-degrees 3 188 191 Totals 13 344 357 The above chart indicates the actual figures or observed numbers involved. TABLE 5.9.--Contingency Table (Expected) HO-V (N = 357). Resigned Employed Totals Degrees 6.0 160 166 Non-degrees 7.0 184 191 Totals 13 344 357 This chart indicates what the expected figures would be. The resignation values, 6.0 and 7.0, are obtained by cross multiplying the marginal values and dividing by the total, or 166 x 13 5 357 and 191 x 13 % 357. With these figures the Chi-square cell table is then con- structed. 189 TABLE 5.10.--Chi-Square Cells. 2 Cell O-E (o-E)2 0‘: 1o 4 15 2.55 155 -4 15 0.1 3 4 15 2.25 155 4 15 .087 o F -1 2 (0-522 2 = 5 13 - ° x = E E , i = 1 X ° Analysis: Hypothesis V The value, 5.13 on the Chi-square chart, exceeds the critical value of .05 as an acceptable significance level and therefore there is a significant difference between the degree and non-degree offi- cers in regard to the numbers which voluntarily terminated their employment with the department. Discussion: Hypothesis V The null hypothesis was rejected as the significant differ- ence discussed above was established. In this instance, the litera- ture reporting higher voluntary attrition rates for college-educated police officers was supported. However, some further mathematics will illustrate other interesting aspects of this finding. One should consider that of the total sample of 418 officers, there was a voluntary termination rate of only .031%, i.e., 13 e 418. Further, that only .024% of the total sample voluntarily terminated 190 with a college degree. The probability that an officer with at least an associate's degree will voluntarily terminate his employ- ment is at least three times greater than that of the non-college- educated officer, but the probability of either of them leaving is very slight, less than 1%. There is a reverse situation when one considers the officers who were dismissed from the sample group. In this case, there was a total of 24, 17 of whom had less than an associate's degree, and seven having had at least that much education. This amounts to little more than 1/2 of 1% or .057, i.e., 24 e 418. In this area only .016 of the total sample who were dismiSsed had at least an associate's degree. In either instance, voluntary termination or dismissal, the numbers involved seem to indicate that there is small cause for concern. ' The most obvious reasons which can be offered for the higher rate of voluntary termination among the college-educated officers are that they found better paying jobs or returned to other occupa- tions which they found were more desirable than police work. These reasons are cited in the literature and logically could apply within this sample. Since none of the officers in this sample were eligible for consideration for promotion yet, it is difficult to believe that the college-educated men had become the cynics mentioned by Nieder- hoffer. There may have been some disenchantment with the job but 191 it, in all probability, was not engendered by the feeling that their educational backgrounds were not appreciated. The greatest value of the findings of this hypothesis test is not in the discovery that college-educated police officers are three times as likely to voluntarily terminate their employment, but rather that only a very small percentage of all officers who complete the recruit school leave the department of their own volition, at least in the early stages of their career. Additional Testing of Sample Subsequent to the analysis of some portions of the data, it occurred to the author that there might be differences in the sample due to the amount of experience the officers had as road troopers. ' This seemed particularly critical in regard to the scores obtained on the A.D.I. evaluations. It seemed reasonable that the greater the experience, at least to a certain point, the higher the scores. With this in mind, the sample was numerically divided into thirds, with the first third beginning with the earliest recruit school in the sample, the 80th, and the last third taking in the later schools in the sample. The middle third was not considered in the analysis. A separate computer program was prepared and, again, the MANOVA analysis was employed. The design of this program had the single factor of "amount of experience"; with two groups, i.e., Group (1) first third and Group (2) last third. An interesting example of the problems that plague a researcher occurred in this analysis. When the total N of the 192 sample, 357, is divided by 3, the resulting thirds came to 119. This number was misread by the punchcard operators and printed as 114. The entire process was completed before the mistake was discovered. With apologies, the program was not repeated for the sake of 10 sets of scores. They would have had negligible impact on the results. The results of these analyses appear in Table 5.11. TABLE 5.11.--Test of Equality of Mean Vectors for First and Last Third of Sample (N = 228). First Third Last Third N = 114 N = 114 Variables p < Mean Score Mean Score RSGPA 84.686 85.668 .0359 CEPGPA 78.042 83.793 .0001* ADKJI .0928 -.2111 .0163** ADIIPF .0313 -.0059 .7451 ADICS -.0960 .1027 .0723 ADIIPP -.l949 .2584 .0001* OADI 23.364 22.261 .2352 F-Ratio for multivariate test of equality of mean vectors = 18.061 D.F.-7 and 220.000 p < .0001 *Significant **Worthy of note Analysis of First and Last Third Test The test for mean vectors had a p value of less than .0001. When inspecting the univariate p values it is obvious that very significant differences exist in the CEPGPA and the ADIIPP variables. 193 Additionally, the ADIJI scale, while not having the predetermined significance level, is worthy of comment. Discussion of First and Last Third Test Again the similarity of the sample is illustrated in this analysis. The first third consisted of officers having experience ranging from two and one-half to four years. The second group's experience ranged from one to two years. There were significant differences but not to the extent that might be expected. The difference found in the CEPGPA could be explained in a number of ways. When this difference was first discovered, it occurred to the author that the number of college-educated officers might be disproportionately spread within the sample. This was not necessarily the case. The first third contained 11 associate's and 26 bachelor's, while the last third had 36 associate's and 40 bachelor's. The middle third, to aid in perspective, contained 17 associate's and 36 bachelor's. There is some disparity but it is not believed to be significant. A more practical and somewhat more negative hypothesis could be offered to explain why the last third scored so noticeably better than their predecessors. The Continuing Education Program has remained relatively constant in its format for the past five years. The senior officers, to whom probationary troopers are assigned, typically became very familiar with the content of the C.E.P. They may be offering greater amounts of assistance to their "cubs" than they had received. The tests of the C.E.P. become centers of 194 controversy and argument. When a point is proved, it frequently is well publicized throughout a post. It becomes almost common knowl- edge. This may, in part, explain this significant difference. An even more cynical explanation could be offered for the significant difference existing between the groups on the ADIIPP scale. Typically, a recruit, fresh from the academy, is the model of politeness. He has had Police Courtesy and Ethics drilled into him for a minimum of three months. The senior officer closely moni- tors his attitude and relationships with the public to ensure strict compliance with departmental standards. It is a natural condition for the younger officer to be very aware of the importance of good interpersonal relationships with the public. 0n the other hand, a more seasoned trooper, while still aware of this important depart- mental requirement, may have developed a little of the police malaise, cynicism, as a result of his job-related contacts. He begins to feel that sometimes a more callused approach is the more expedient method. As a result, he may not score as well as the younger officer on this particular variable. While the ADIIJI means did not differ at the acceptable sig- nificance level, it is apparent that there could be a difference in this variable. This difference, if it does exist, could be due to the greater experience of the older group. A more seasoned officer is the "boss" of the patrol. He makes the decisions as to what type of action will be taken. He initiates the contacts in complaint investigations and determines when arrests will be made. Conse- quently, it is his involvement which is the most obvious to the 195 supervising officers. Conversely, a younger officer frequently spends two-thirds of his time as second man on patrol, following the lead of the senior officer. This seems a realistic explanation for the possible difference which may exist here. Again, the possibility of a Type II statistical error is brought to the reader's attention. Summar The results of the various analyses which were employed in this study have indicated that there are some significant differences between the college-educated police officer and his less well educa- ted fellow officer. In order to briefly present the findings of the research in this summary format, the comparison groups will again be identified and the dependent variables re-defined. The comparison groups for Hypothesis I were: 1. Officers with less than an associate's degree 2. Officers with at least an associate's but less than a bachelor's degree 3. Officers with at least a bachelor's degree The comparison groups for Hypothesis II were: 1. Officers with at least an associate's but less than a bachelor's degree 2. Officers with at least a bachelor's degree The comparison groups for Hypothesis III were: 1. Officers with at least an associate's degree in the field of Criminal Justice 196 2. Officers with at least an associate's degree in any other academic discipline but Criminal Justice The comparison groups for Hypthesis IV were: 1. Officers with at least one year of previous police experience and less than an associate's degree 2. Officers with at least an associate's degree and no previous police experience All of these comparison groups were compared in an attempt to identify any significant differences which might exist between the mean scores they had obtained on seven selected ability measure- ments or dependent variables. These ability measurements were: 1. RSGPA: Recruit School Grade Point Average 2. CEPGPA: Continuing Education Program Grade Point Average 3. ADIJI: Achievement and Development Inventory "Job Involvement" scale 4. ADIIPF: Achievement and Development Inventory "Interpersonal Relationships-Peers" scale 5. ADICS: Achievement and Development Inventory “Clerical Skills" scale 6. ADIIPP: Achievement and Development Inventory "Interpersonal Relationships-Public" scale 7. OADI: Overall Achievement and Development Inven- tory score The results of these comparisons are presented in the follow- ing capsulized form. Hypothesis I: There were significant differences between officers with less than an associate's degree and those with at least an associate's degree. These differences were significant in the 197 areas of the grade point averages of the Recruit School and Continu- ing Education Program. When comparisons were made between officers with less than an associate's and those with at least a bachelor's degree, there were significant differences on the two variables already mentioned, the grade point averages, and also on the Interpersonal Relationships- Peers scale and the Overall Achievement and Development Inventory score. The differences in the mean scores on these ability measure- ments were not impressively great but there was a definite indication that college-educated officers do score higher in these particular areas. Hypothesis II: There were no statistically significant dif- ferences between officers who have at least an associate's degree but less than a bachelor's and those with at least a bachelor's degree. The significance levels generated by the statistical tests applied in this comparison did not allow any finding of supportable differences. However, it is very possible that differences do exist on the Interpersonal Relationships-Peers scale and also the Overall Achievement and Development Inventory score. The scores are indica- tive of real differences and the statistical tests which were employed are very stringent in their demand. Hypothesis III: There were no significant differences between officers with at least an associate's degree in Criminal 198 Justice and those with a similar amount of education in another discipline. This comparison of groups showed no indications of any iden- tifiable differences. Hypothesis IV: There were no statistically significant dif- ferences between officers who have had previous police experience and have less than an associate's degree and those with at least an associate's but no previous police experience. As in the case of Hypothesis II, the significance levels generated by the statistical tests applied in this comparison did not support any finding of differences. However, it is most likely that there are such differences in the area of the Continuing Educa- tion Program Grade Point Averages. Hypothesis V: There was a significant difference between the number of officers who had voluntarily terminated their employ- ment. College-educated officers tended to leave disproportionately to their number. In the case of the final comparison involving Hypothesis V, the concept of tenure was investigated. All officers who had volun- tarily left the department or who had been dismissed were identified and a determination made as to the amount of college each had prior to entry into the department. A total of 13 officers was determined to have voluntarily left the department. Ten of these men had at least an associate's degree. Twenty-four officers had been dismissed. Seventeen of that number had less than an associate's degree. 199 This analysis determined that the college-educated officers voluntarily left the department three times more frequently than the non-college officers, but were approximately three times less likely to be dismissed. In either case, voluntary or dismissal, the numbers leaving the department were very small, representing less than 1% of the sample in both cases. CHAPTER VI SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS This final chapter will present a review of each of the pre- ceding five chapters. The major findings of the study will be dis- cussed in relation to the reported literature of the field. The author's conclusions and possible implications of the research will be offered along with the identification of other studies which appear to have some significance. A number of other areas or methods of research in the same area are suggested and a final observation is offered. Summary_of Chapters Chapter I presented the identification of the problem which was addressed by the study. It was pointed out that while great amounts of resources were being expended to encourage American police officers to obtain a college education, there had been little in the way of empirical research offered to justify those expenditures. The outline of the intended study was offered, which involved the identification of a group of Michigan State Police Troopers by the amount and type of college education they had obtained prior to entry into the department. Seven ability measurements, which were standardized for the entire group, were selected and it was proposed 200 201 that the scores obtained on those measurements would be analyzed for any significant differences which might exist between officers with varying amounts and types of college experience. Additionally, the possible effect of previous police experience was identified and the factor of tenure in regard to amount of college experience was offered as a consideration. The research hypotheses were presented as well as definitions of the important terms of the study. These hypotheses and terms will be offered later in this final chapter. Chapter II presented a review of the literature in four dif- ferent areas. The first section dealt with the consistent call which has been made for higher educational standards for police officers and presented a cross section of the logic, rationale and emotionalism that has been offered in support of the necessity of a college education for the American police officer. The second area of literature reviewed considered the reported effects that college supposedly exerts upon all students. It was pointed out that most of the research indicated a college education generally resulted in a greater "openness," less authori- tarianism and prejudice. There were indications of greater inde- pendence and self-confidence, plus a more flexible, objective, non-judgmental way of thinking. In the third section of the literature, the research reports submitted in regard to the expected effects of higher education for the police were explored. These studies indicated that police offi- cers with a college background exhibited greater flexibility, an 202 increased ability to do well in the academic portion of the training period and a greater ability to successfully interact with others. There was also a consistent reporting of a lower rate of tenure for college-educated police officers and a tendency to question the established procedures within their agencies. The final portion of the literature review described the development of the "forced-choice" personnel evaluation technique. It was pointed out that the "forced-choice" method was a relatively recent personnel evaluation technique that came about as an attempt to remove the subjectivity inherent in most existing employee per- formance evaluation formats. The "forced-choice" method involves presenting the rater with a limited number of descriptive statements in such a manner that the rater cannot be sure of the type of evalu- ation he is making. In other words, the technique is an attempt to control rater bias. The Ohio State Highway Patrol pioneered in the development of the system for police officers and several other law enforcement agencies are developing similar programs. The Michigan State Police contracted with a private personnel development firm to produce a uniquely tailored "forced-choice" system. The resulting "Achievement and Development Inventory" consists of five scales. The major scale is a measure of the officer's overall working effec- tiveness. There are four sub-scales which are identified as "Job Involvement," "Interpersonal Relationships-Peers," Interpersonal Relationships-Public" and "Clerical Skills." The system has been demonstrated to have strong correlations of both reliability and validity. 203 Chapter III was devoted to a short history and description of the development of the Michigan Department of State Police. A major portion of the chapter describes the stringent selection stan- dards and demanding training procedures which have been employed by the State Police in obtaining and training new officers. The spe- cific tests, investigations and interviews of the selection procedure were identified and the curricula, training regimen and evaluation techniques of the training program were described. By defining the selection and training procedures, it was demonstrated that the officers of the State Police who successfully complete all of these requirements constitute a very homogeneous group. This homogeneity within the sample must be recognized as it restricts the amount of generalization of the results of the study that may be made to other police agencies. Chapter IV describes the design and methodology of the study. It identified the "causal-comparative" method of research as one in which the discovery of possible causes for a behavior pattern is attempted by comparing subjects in whom the pattern is present with very similar subjects in which it is absent. It was pointed out that this kind of research does not allow the researcher to claim that a certain variable causes a behavior pattern. It is only permissible to make the observation that there is a relationship between certain variables and certain behavior patterns. The sample of the study was definitively described in this chapter. It was pointed out the 418 officers who graduated from nine separate recruit schools between February, 1972, and December, 1974, 204 made up the initial sample. The final sample consisted of 357 of those original 418 officers. The data collection methodology was described by illustrating how all of the data came from existing files within the Department of State Police. A numerical code was devised to accommodate the trans- fer of the information to coding sheets and later to punch cards. The assistance of the Office of Research Consultation within the College of Education was acknowledged by identifying that agency as the one which suggested the use of the Finn MANOVA statistical analysis technique. This statistical procedure allows the researcher the latitude of examining several variables at the same time. It was the MANOVA computer analysis program which was employed in testing four of the five research hypotheses. The Chi-square analysis was employed to establish a level of significance for the fifth hypothesis. Finally, the research hypotheses were re-presented along with the seven dependent variables which were the ability measurements selected as the basis for the comparisons. These hypotheses were: 5:1: There will be a significant difference between the scores obtained on a number of ability measurements when comparisons are made between officers who have at least an associate's degree and those with less than that amount of education. Recruit School Grade Point Average Continuing Education Program Grade Point Average A.D.I.--Job Involvement A.D.I.--Interpersonal Relationships-Peers A.D.I.--C1erical Skills A.D.I.--Interpersonal Relationships-Public Overall A.D.I. Score 1112:2321: HHHHHO—Ol—O Noun-Tacoma 205 H-II: There will be a significant difference between the scores obtained on a number of ability measurements when comparisons are made between officers who hold an associ- ate's degree, but less than a bachelor's degree, and those with at least a bachelor's degree. H-II l. Recruit School Grade Point Average H-II 2. Continuing Education Program Grade Point Average H-II 3. A.D.I.--Job Involvement H-II 4. A.D.I.--Interpersona1 Relationships-Peers H-II 5. A.D.I.--Clerical Skills H-II 6. A.D.I.--Interpersonal Relationships-Public H-II 7. Overall A.D.I. Score H-III: There will be a significant difference between the scores obtained on a number of ability measurements when comparisons are made between officers who have at least an associate's degree in Criminal Justice-type educational pro- grams and those with similar levels of education in differ- ent academic fields. H-III l. Recruit School Grade Point Average H-III 2. Continuing Education Program Grade Point Average H-III 3. A.D.I.--Job Involvement H-III 4. A.D.I.--Interpersonal Relationships-Peers H-III 5. A.D.I.--Clerical Skills H-III 6. A.D.I.--Interpersonal Relationships-Public H-III 7. Overall A.D.I. Score H-IV: There will be a significant difference between the scores obtained on a number of ability measurements when comparisons are made between officers who have at least an associate's degree and have had no prior police experience and those who have had at least one year of prior police experience and have less than an associate's degree. H-IV 1. Recruit School Grade Point Average H-IV 2. Continuing Education Program Grade Point Average H-IV 3. A.D.I.--Job Involvement H-IV 4. A.D.I.--Interpersonal Relationships-Peers H-IV 5. A.D.I.--Clerical Skills H-IV 6. A.D.I.--Interpersonal Relationships-Public H-IV 7. Overall A.D.I. Score H-V: There will be a significant difference between the number of officers who have voluntarily terminated their employment with the Michigan Department of State Police when comparisons are made between officers who have at least an associate's degree and those with less than that amount of education. 206 Chapter V presented the analysis of the data. In this chapter each statistical technique which was applied within the hypothesis testing procedures was described. Tables were presented which numerically illustrated the results of these statistical tests. The following summarizes the results of the hypothesis testing: Hypothesis I: There were significant differences between the scores obtained on two of the seven ability measures when com- parisons were made between officers having less than an associate's degree and those having more than an associate's degree. ‘Those having more than an associate's degree scored higher in the areas of Recruit School Grade Point Average and Continuing Education Program Grade Point Average. When comparisons were made between officers with less than an associate's and those with at least a bachelor's degree, there were significant differences in favor of the college officers on the grade point averages and also on peer relationships and the overall A.D.I. scores. Hypothesis II: There were no statistically significant differences between the scores obtained on any of the seven ability measures when comparisons were made between officers who had at least an associate's degree but less than a bachelor's and those with at least a bachelor's degree. There was an indication that the officers holding at least a bachelor's degree tended to score better on the Interpersonal Relationships-Peers scale and also on the Overall A.D.I. 207 The stringent level of significance established by the MANOVA statistical technique would not allow the finding of signifi- cant differences, however. Hypothesis III: There were no significant differences between the scores obtained on any of the seven ability measures when comparisons were made between officers with at least an associ- ate's degree in Criminal Justice and those with a similar amount of education in other college disciplines. Hypothesis IV: There were no statistically significant dif- ferences between the scores obtained on any of the seven ability measures when comparisons were made between officers who had had pre- vious police experience and less than an associate's degree and those with at least an associate's degree and no previous policeexperience. There was an indication that the officers with no previous police experience and at least an associate's degree tend to score better on the Continuing Education Program Grade Point Average. Again, the stringent statistical technique utilized would not substantiate a finding of a significant difference in this category. Hypothesis V: There was a significant difference between the number of officers who had voluntarily terminated their employ- ment with the department when comparisons were made between officers with less than an associate's degree and those with at least that amount of education. 0f the 13 officers who had voluntarily terminated their employment, 10 had at least an associate's degree. 208 Conversely, of 24 officers dismissed, 17 had less than an associate's and 7 had at least an associate's degree. Discussion of Findings The results of this study are not particularly surprising. Much of the literature previously reviewed indicated where differ- ences might be found when comparisons were made. This was certainly the case in the finding regarding the college-educated troopers displaying a consistent ability to score higher on the academic por- tions of the ability measurements. This ability has been reported ~on numerous occasions in other similar studies. Another well-documented characteristic of the college- educated officer which was supported by this study was the ability to enjoy better interpersonal relationships with others. This find- ing was true when comparisons were made between officers with less than an associate's and those with at least a bachelor's degree. It is of interest, however, that this superior interpersonal relation- ship ability was found only among peers and not when the public relationships were considered. This latter finding runs counter to an appreciable portion of the rationale offered for college-educated police officers. Such rationale presupposes that the educational experience will assist the officer in better understanding the people he works with and thereby allow him greater empathy. Such was not the case with the officers in this study. The reported lower tenure rates for college-educated police officers found in the literature was also supported in this study. 209 When considering voluntary terminations, the college-educated trooper was found to be three times more likely to leave that the non-college officer. However, as was pointed out previously, only a minute per- centage of officers voluntarily left the department. Additionally, the literature reported that the college officer was usually not dismissed for cause. This finding was also supported by the figures showing that non-college-educated officers were three times as likely to be dismissed as those with the higher educational levels. The most unexpected finding was that no differences were found to exist between the Criminal Justice-educated officers and those with similar levels of education in different disciplines. As discussed in Chapter V, one would logically expect the specialized training and education received in a "C.J." course to better prepare an officer for the law enforcement vocation. There was no indication of appreciable differences between the two groups on any of the seven ability measures. This finding, however, is reported in other studies and concern is being demonstrated on a national scale as to the value of some Criminal Justice programs. Another somewhat surprising result was the lack of any sig- nificant differences in the area of Clerical Skills in all of the comparisons. The better educated officers should have demonstrated a greater ability in this area and none were found. This same situ- ation was found in all comparisons where Job Involvement was con- sidered. In no instance were significant differences found in this category. 210 In summary, there were some significant differences between college-educated Michigan State Police Officers and their fellow officers who had not achieved at least an associate's degree. These differences were primarily in the area of academic achievement in the Recruit School and the Continuing Education Program. When com- parisons were made between those with less than an associate's and those with at least a bachelor's degree, the degree holders scored higher on the grade point averages and also demonstrated an ability to enjoy better interpersonal relationships with their peers. They also scored higher on the overall Achievement and Development Inven- tory rating but the differences in all categories were not out- standing. That is, where differences were found, there were only a few points separating the groups. There were no appreciable differences between officers who held at least an associate's degree but less than a beachelor's and those with a bachelor's degree. Similarly, there were no differences found to exist between officers who had at least an associate's degree in Criminal Justice and those with a similar level of education in a different discipline. Officers with previous police experience and less than an associate's degree demonstrated equal abilities with officers without the police experience but holding at least an associate's degree on all of the ability measurements except the Continuing Education Pro- gram, where the college officers scored higher. 211 Finally, college-educated officers voluntarily terminated their employment more frequently, but conversely, were much less likely to be dismissed. All of these findings are discussed in much greater detail in Chapter V. Conclusions and Implications The first and foremost observation that must be made is that the results of this study can only be generalized to the Michigan Department of State Police. It is a unique police organization with strong traditions and demanding selection and training procedures. The officers who comprised the sample are similar only to those in the population, the remainder of the sworn officers of the depart- ment. Any extension of the results to other police agencies can only be made by those who are certain of close similarities between the other departments and the Michigan State Police. That no outstanding differences were discovered was not altogether surprising. The author has been privileged to be a member of the State Police for over twenty years and the generally high caliber of personnel, regardless of educational level, has been obvious for that entire peiod. The very high selection standards and demanding training procedures which were described in Chapter III have tended to produce very similar and generally competent officers. The effect of the college experience apparently is not of sufficient magnitude to dramatically overshadow the natural abilities of offi- cers who have not attended college. 212 This is not to imply that the college-educated officers did not demonstrate an appreciable superiority on some of the ability measures. It is only noted that these improved abilities were not so dramatic as to justify a recommendation of raising educational entry requirements to the college level. Two recently completed studies in this same subject area are worthy of acknowledgment. Miller and Fry recently examined possible correlations between the educational levels of police officers and scores obtained on instruments which reportedly measured "Professionalism," "Work Strain" and "Job Satisfaction." Their sample of 136 officers came from three different police departments, all encouraging college education with pay incentive programs. They found only minimal correlations in all three areas. There was no showing of identifi- ' able differences between the non-college and better educated officers.1 Cascio and Real investigated the records of over 900 officers within a single department and considered 44 different performance criteria in relation to educational achievement. They reported 16 of these criteria showed significant results: The magnitude of the correlations was fairly small. In gen- eral, however, there does seem to be a consistent pattern; that is higher levels of education tend to be associated with fewer injuries, fewer injuries by assault and battery, fewer disciplinary actions from accidents, fewer preventable 1Jon Miller and Lincoln Fry, "Re-examining Assumptions About Education and Professionalism in Law Enforcement," Journal of Police Science and Administration 4 (June 1976): 187-96. 213 accidents, fewer sick times per year, fewer physical force allegations . . . . Attempts to relate supervisory ratings of job performance to amount of formal education did not show statistical significance in terms of any single area such as job knowledge, judgment, initiative, dependability, demeanor, attitude, relations with others, or communica- tions. However, overall rated performance was signifi- cantly related to amount of formal education. Another interesting finding was that the major area of college study had no appreciable effect on the individually rated performance . . . . In other words, among college graduates, Criminal Justice, Political Science, Social Sci- ences, physical or medical science, Law, Business, Engi- neering, Economics or Educatign majors did not differ significantly in performance. The very similar findings of these two studies seem to add support for the contention offered by the Supreme Court in the land- mark Civil Rights case, Griggs v. Duke Power Company: The facts of this case demonstrate the inadequacy of broad and general testing devices as well as the infirmity of using diplomas or degrees as fixed measures of capability. History is filled with examples of men and women who have rendered highly effective performance without the conven- tional badges of accomplishment in terms of certificates, diplomas or degrees.3 The foregoing is not offered as a condemnation of pursuing higher educational standards for the police. There is no question about the value of a college education. This study has demonstrated that the officers who had had the benefit of the college experience consistently scored higher on a majority of the ability measurements under investigation. 2Wayne Cascio and Leslie Real, "Educational Standards for Police Officer Personnel," The Police Chief, August, 1975, pp. 54- 55. 3Willie S. Griggs, et al., v. Duke Power Company, 401 U.S. 424 (1971). 214 Additionally, there are obviously a great many more areas of law enforcement performance over and above the seven chosen which are positively influenced by a college education. None of these were taken into consideration by this study. This is particularly true when one considers the many areas of specialization in police agencies which are now demanding academic degrees. Certainly, as police officers advance into management and executive levels of their organizations, the additional knowledges and skills provided by a college education should become much more beneficial. A recent committee report of the International Association of Chiefs of Police suggested a number of minimum requirements for the position of top police executive. Among these standards was the requirement of a bachelor's degree for all Chiefs commanding departments of more than 75 personnel.4 This type of requirement is becoming much more universal in the "position open" announcements which appear in the various pro- fessional journals of law enforcement. While the necessity for these higher educational standards for Chiefs has not yet been empirically demonstrated, the arguments offered in support seem more justifiable. In summary, there was no great disparity demonstrated between the abilities of college-educated state police troopers and their fellow officers who had not attended college. Their similarity is, it is believed, primarily due to the general high quality of all of 4News article in Crime Control Digest 10 (May 3, 1976): 2. 215 the officers, regardless of educational achievement. In police departments where selection standards and training procedures are less stringent, greater differences might be detected. For the Michigan Department of State Police, the implications of this study suggest that they should not require higher educational levels at the entry level, but should continue to carefully screen and extensively train all future trooper candidates. Demonstrated competence is a much more valid predictor of effectiveness than is the arbitrary requirement of an academic degree. The value of a college degree is not depreciated; it makes a good man better. It is not necessarily, however, the hallmark of a better man. The finding of no appreciable differences between the Crimi- nal Justice graduates and those holding degrees in other disciplines is, as illustrated in the Cascio and Real study, not unique. There are serious questions being raised as to the quality of a number of the Criminal Justice programs across the nation. A major portion of the agenda at the most recent annual con- vention of the International Association of Chiefs of Police was devoted to this concern. A number of the speakers, both academi- cians and practitioners, offered their rationale in support of "Quality Control Measures." One of the speakers, Charles Vanderbosch, put the question most succinctly: After nine years of windfall assistance from the federal government, the law enforcement sector and our nation's col- leges and universities have, in numerous instances, failed to develop relevant training and educational programs. There 216 is little doubt that somewhere along the line something went wrong. To some degree, the failure of the educator and the Brgcgitioner to meet on common ground has caused this fail- This speaker and several others discussed the failure of the practitioner and the educator to mutually address the needs of today's operating police officer. The blame was equally applied in that too frequently academicians offer irrelevant theory and prac- titioners, when they can bring themselves to discuss the issues, demand simplistic vocational courses. The answer lies somewhere between the two positions. An important first step is that the two disciplines must work together. This, unfortunately, has not been the case in many instances. Criminal Justice is a very new academic subject area. There has been little standardization in subject material and faculty qualifica- tions. A minimal amount of acceptable theory has evolved and, as in many of the behavioral science areas of which it is a part, there is very little hard, factual knowledge. The development will take time. During that development, both law enforcement and academia must sup- port and assist each other. Recently the Police Foundation reported the formation of a Commission to examine the purpose and future of higher education for police officers. A prestigious group of national figures represent- ing government, higher education, and law enforcement were charged 5Charles G. Vanderbosch, "Remarks--Education and Practice- Operational Relationships in the Development of Quality Control," Police Yearbook (Washington, D.C.: International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1976), p. 221. 217 with considering the quality and content of current college pro- grams for the police; determining what police officers should be learning; identifying the pr0per relationship between higher edu- cation and police organizations; and, finally, determining what can be reasonably expected from higher education in terms of upgrading the police.6 There may be problems within these programs. Certainly, in this study at least, the value of taking Criminal Justice instead of Accounting cannot be empirically demonstrated. The implication has already been offered. There are mutual problems which must be jointly addressed by both law enforcement and academia. Implications for Future Research The most obvious limitation of this study was the concentra- tion of the sample from within one police department. This limita- tion has severly constrained the amount of possible generalization of the results. Obviously, similar research in many other depart- ments must be completed before the value of a college education for police officers can be truly determined. Secondly, there were only seven dependent variables or ability measures considered. There are countless other methods of measuring an officer's effectiveness. The Cascio and Real study identified 44. Interestingly, their results indicated the more educated officers maintained better injury and accident-free 6 1976): 9. News article in Crime Control Digest 10 (September 6, 218 records, but demonstrated no appreciable differences in many of the same areas considered in this study. Other areas of performance effectiveness should be identified and similar tests made regarding the relative abilities of the col- lege and non-college police officers. This study and Nicholson's have demonstrated that college- educated troopers consistently perform better in the academic portion 7 A study which investigates the possibility of the training program. of positive correlations between high recruit school scores and high performance ratings over a period of years would be of value. Those officers who entered the department without a college degree and later went on to obtain both bachelor's and advanced degrees were also not considered in this study. While the particular format of the research is not suggested here, it appears that there may be motivation and ability within these individuals which deserve some type of empirical investigation. Christian determined that college-educated State Police officers demonstrated different behavioral styles than did the non- college officers. He ventures the opinion that college-educated officers may take issue with the questionable directions of superi- ors, that they may become bored with some aspects of the job, or feel that they are not advancing fast enough. He suggests different 7Thomas G. Nicholson, "A Study of the Use of Formal Educa- tional Background and Other Factors in Predicting the Performance of Probationary Police Officers in a State Police Organization" (Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, l973), pp. 253-54. 219 personnel management approaches may be required with these officers 8 Further research in in order to retain them in the police service. this area is certainly warranted. There are obviously many additional questions which are still to be answered in regard to defining the value of a college education for police officers. Certainly, no claim can be made that this study had definitively answered all of the questions that were raised in the introductory chapter. Hopefully, some additional knowledge has been developed which will be of assistance as the area is further explored. In conclusion, it might be observed that the exact benefits derived from any college education, regardless of the field of study, are subject to many varied interpretations. Possibly the greatest value of a college education is the sense of accomplishment it provides to those who have obtained it. 8Kenneth E. Christian, "A Comparison of the Behavioral Styles of College Educated and Non-College Educated Police Officers" (Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1976), pp. l25-26. BIBLIOGRAPHY 220 BIBLIOGRAPHY A. Books Borg, Walter R., and Gall, Meredith D. Educational Research, an Introduction. New York: David McKay Company, l97l. Clark, Donald E., and Chapman, Sam G. Forward Step: Educational Backgrounds for Police. 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APPENDICES 230 APPENDIX A ACHIEVEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT INVENTORY 231 APPENDIX A ACHIEVEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT INVENTORY State of Michigan Department of State Police Personnel Division January 1976 Introduction The Achievement and Development Inventory is a performance evaluation and development system for trooper employees. Its pur- pose is to provide a fair and objective appraisal of the trooper's performance and to indicate areas for improvement. This performance report shall be completed for every non-probationary trooper. The Achievement and Devel0pment Inventory consists of two major parts. Part I is an achievement scale (forced-choice) and has been successfully validated in accordance with professional guidelines. It provides a numerical ranking for each employee and identifies the employees strong and weak areas of performance. The information derived from Part I will be furnished to post commanders by the Personnel Division. The post commander and three post ser- geants selected by him will complete Part I of the Inventory for each non-probationary trooper. The same three sergeants must com- plete Part I for each trooper evaluated at their posts. It is important that this be done honestly and independently. That is, 232 233 Part I of the Inventory must be completed without consultation among those completing it. Part II of the ADI provides post commanders with a tool for guidance and development of his employees. Part II of the A01 must be completed by the post commander after consultation with at least three post sergeants. In this case the sergeants are to be selected by the post commander, based on the sergeants' knowledge and famili- arity with the trooper being evaluated. In other words it is not necessary to always have the same three sergeants participating in this part, as you did in Part I. The post commander shall review the results of the three sections of Part II with each trooper, pro- viding the trooper with information on areas of needed improvement and areas in which performance is satisfactory or superior. Instructions: Part I A. Remember: The post commander and three post sergeants must com- plete Part I for each non-probationary trooper assigned to their post. This must be done on an independent basis and it is important to consider the items in Part I from the standpoint of describipg rather than rating. B. The Response Form calls for identification information and it is very important that you print the information in the blocks to facilitate data processing. Use the following sex designation code: M = males, F = females. Race should be designated using the following code: l = White, 3 = Black, 5 = Spanish American, 7 = American Indian, and 9 = Oriental. 234 Part 1 contains 25 sets of four descriptive phrases labeled l, 2, 3, and 4. For each set of phrases you are to decide which tgp_statements best describe the tr00per. He may be greatly like all of the phrases, or only a little like them, but you are to select twp, and only twp, in each set. When you have decided which twp_phrases best describe the trooper, simply place an X in the appropriate spaces on the Response Form. For example, in the following set of phrases two statements have been chosen: EXAMPLE: PART I, ACHIEVEMENT SCALE l. Thinks before he acts. 2. Is loyal to his unit and supervisor. 3. Patrol techniques are excellent. 4. Finishes everything he/she starts. RESPONSE FORM Lain-é] Here we have selected "Is loyal to his unit and supervisor," and "Finishes everything he/she starts," as most descriptive of the trooper being evaluated. Therefore, the corresponding spaces numbered "2" and "4" have been marked with an X. (If you decide to erase, make certain that you do so clearly.) Proceed to select and mark two responses for each of the 25 sets of phrases on the Response Form. 235 Instructions: Part II Part II is composed of three major sections. After consulting with a minimum of three sergeants, the post commander is to prepare Part II, which will reflect a composite of the post commander's and sergeants' views. To complete Section III requires considerable thought and plan- ning. Also note that Section 111 requires the identify of the sergeants consulted, the trooper's signature and post commander's signature. The post commander has been provided with a "work copy" and a "finished c0py" (no carbon required paper) of Part II. Parts I and II must be completed and, along with the booklets, returned to the Personnel Division in accordance with the enclosed correspondence. Part I of the booklet is not to be marked, or duplicated in any way. 236 ACHIEVEMENT & DEVELOPMENT INVENTORY NOTE: (l) Select two phrases which best describe the trooper. (2) Remember to treat each set of statements independently. PART I Achievement Scale l l. Relays to fellow employees a feeling of genuine interest and understanding. 2. Mature in a way that can only come with time, living with and understanding people. 3. Greets his fellow officers with a smile and pleasant remarks. 4. Questions all things he/she doesn't understand. g_ 1. Does not show his temper at all during working hours. 2. Complaint arrests are far above the norm. 3. Able to look up and cite court decisions pertinent to his pend- ing cases. 4. A good photographer. 9. l. Has the ability to take the initiative and originate projects and see that they are carried out. 2. Even tempered. 3. Leaves his personal problems at home. 4. Always sets an example which others endeavor to follow. boom «book? 237 I43 Has a friendly disposition. Never practices racial discrimination. Thoughtful. Can work with anyone at the post without any ill feelings on the part of either side. 2 An excellent organizer and planner. Realizes that traffic enforcement on the highway is a serious matter. Makes every effort to instill pride in younger officers. No force is ever used except as a last resort. §_ Exhibits superior driving habits. Radiates a happy, friendly, enthusiastic attitude in his work. Never refuses cooperation or assistance from others. Has a pleasing personality and an even disposition that is con- tagious to persons around him. 1 Has respect for his fellow officers and command personnel. Thoughtful and considerate to his family. Respects danger and will not unnecessarily jeopardize his life for the lives of others. Loyal to his fellow workers. 9 Well versed in the departmental rules and regulations. Reports are neat, thorough, accurate, and "on time." 238 Never does he/she belittle other departments. At no time does he/she permit anyone into a patrol car without checking the person for possible weapons. 9 Accepts group decisions without necessarily agreeing. Has the ability to make other members of the department "want" to follow his example. Very outgoing and truly likes people. His aggressiveness prompts supervisors to recommend duties with additional responsibility. IO Strives to maintain a steady and well rounded performance in police work. Resourceful and imaginative in his investigation. Able to evaluate a situation easily. No force is ever used except as a last resort. ll_ Socializes with persons other than police officers. Criminal investigations are a personal challenge. A firm believer in giving verbal warnings and not always a traffic citation. Has an above average knowledge of all areas throughout the department. l2 Makes good informative reports that can be easily followed up by others if the need arises. Writes a report that you can read and know just what had taken place. Always listens to both sides of an issue before making a decision. As concerned with charging the right person as with making the arrest. #00“) 239 _13 Takes constructive criticism well. Not one to gossip. In the deliverance of a death message, he treats the victim's relatives as if they were his own. Does not have any false fronts with officers or fellow troopers. L4. His patrol arrests are always high and of good quality. Spends a great deal of time studying the law and criminal inves- tigation which makes him/her more effective. Treats the junior officers as equals. Does not seem to Spend extra time on those complaints which do not warrant the extra time. '15 Does a good job of counseling his subordinates. Always gives the citizen the benefit of the doubt. Continually striving to be the best. Can smile and listen to a citizen's story. is Always ready and willing to assist other officers who approach him/her for guidance. Instills confidence in each of the younger officers he trains. Has excellent hygiene. Works just as hard to clear as to convict a suspect. 17 Follows orders to an exact point. His traffic work is more than fair to the violator. 240 Makes it a point to stop in at other departments and visit from time to time. A good speller and usually uses the dictionary when in doubt. 18. Alert and aggressive as an investigative and patrol officer. His approach to the public is personable and polite. Always makes good arrests and obtains useful information due to his/her conscientious partol efforts and intelligent inquiries. Cordial and fair with the people he/she deals with. l9 Has the ability to command the respect of both junior and senior officers. Demonstrates initiative and perseverence. Does not display the attitude of being better because he/she is a state police officer. Treats all people with dignity. gp_ Careful and serious in the preparation of reports. Careful with his reports, makes them in detail, so they are of full value when used at a later time. Treats members of other police organizations as fellow police officers. A safe driver. 21_ Productive in all areas of assigned work. Wants to continually improve his knowledge of new police tech- niques and policies. Respects the opinions of others. Has an ability to communicate with everyone. 45MB) 24] 22 Makes good conctacts with both the general public and public officials. Leaves a very good impression of the department with the younger generation. Does not accept or solicit gifts or services from the public. Knows the criminal element in the post area. g§_ Knows when to speak and when not to speak. Makes decisions promptly, but not hastily. Does not act upon impuse. Writes quality traffic summons rather than quantity. g&_ At accident scenes he/she seems to know at once what is needed. An excellent interrogator of both suspects and witnesses. When handling an investigation, he/she carefully organizes a case. Knows how to operate instruments and equipment related to his work. 25 Treats the public, other departments, courts, news media, etc., with respect and gains their respect in return. His approach to the public is personable and polite. Very familiar with the area in which he/she works. Uses restraint, instead of force when possible. 242 “wanna-mom ACHIEVEMENT & DEVELOPMENT INVENTORY Rum Form - Part I gfisgwiwwumw L_.I_I_I_LI1-LI I Ij L'.°..‘3.°""LJIIIlIlllIIIWIIIIIHMIIIIIIJQ Us! Enlistment DateI I I I I I—I St: E RaceCI Post Number CI: Describer's Name Last First M. Civil Service Classification D: PART I ACHIEVEMENT SCALE ,M..fifififi .défié .fififid .DDDD .DDDD .DDDD ,DDDD .DDDB .DDDD magma .DDDD .DDDD .DDDD .DDDD ,DDDD .DDDD .DDDD .DDDD .DDDD ,DDDD .DDDD .DDDD ,DDDD .DDDD .DDDD Describer's Signature Date 243 "05‘ COPY PD (1275) Trooper's Name Michipn Deprtrnent of State Police - Permnel Division . Post ACHIEVEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT INVENTORY Part II - Trooper Development and Counseling Guide cm This is "no carbon required" paper. Please press firmly when writing. SECTION I — Using the following scale, circle the one that best describes the trooper for each statement: I Exactly like this 2 Very much like this 3 Somewhat like this 4 Not very much like this 5 Not at all like this , I. Does a good job of counseling fellow troopers. ........................................................................ I 2 3 4 5 2. Work habits are excellent. .................................................................................. . ............... I 2 3 4 5 3. Is a valuable member of the State Police. ................................................................................ I 2 3 4 5 4. Completes assignments without detailed supervision. .................................................................... I 2 3 4 5 5. Knowledge of the job is excellent. ....................................................................................... l 2 3 4 5 6. Has shown consistent improvement and is interested in further improvement. ............................... l 2 3 4 5 7. Maintains a proper state of physical fitness. ............................................................................ I 2 3 4 5 8. Shows good judgment in exercising his duties and responsibilities. ................................................ I 2 3 4 5 9. Accepts assignments willingly. .............................................................................................. I 2 3 4 5 IO. Gets along well with others and works well as a team member. .................................................... I 2 3 4 5 II. Helps maintain high morale among fellow troopers. ..................................................................... I 2 3 4 5 I2. Contacts with the public are well received. ...................................................... . ...................... I 2 3 4 5 I3. Participates in community/citizen activities. .......................................................................... I 2 3 4 5 I4. Reports are neat, clearly written, and to the point. ............................................................. . ...... I 2 3 4 5 15. Closely adheres to the department's and post's rules and regulations. ............................................ I 2 3 4 5 SECTION ll - Using the scale provided, check the box which best describes the trooper for each statement. JOB KNOWLEDGE Superior Satisfactory Marginal Unsatisfactory I. Knowledge of appropriate state and federal laws. ............................................... Cl Cl C] D 2. Knowledge of departmental rules, regulations, and policies. .................................. [3 C] C] D 3. Knowledge of criminal law and investigative techniques. ....................................... C] Cl C! C] 4. Knowledge of traffic law and traffic allied investigative techniques. ....................... [3 Cl Cl I C] 5. Knowledge of non-criminal traffic matters, i.e. all other service areas. ................ Cl [:1 E] El 6. Knowledge of criminal and juvenile adjudication processes. ................................... Cl Cl Cl C] 7. Knowledge of pertinent court decisions. ............................................................... Cl C] Cl Cl 8. Knowledge and operation of equipment and instruments related to the job. ............... Cl C] C] C] 9. Understands the total departmental mission. ....................................................... E3 [3 Cl Cl 10. Other JUDGMENT Superior Satisfactory Marginal Unsatisfactory I. Makes rational decisions. .............................................................................. C] E] D [I] 2. Interpretation of departmental regulations and procedures. ................................... Cl Cl Cl Cl 3. Reaction and response to potentially hazardous situations. ................................... D D [:1 E3 4. Use of discretion. ............................................................................................ D C] C] C] 5. Ability to arrive at a correct conclusion. ........................................................... D D C] D 6. Attempts to get all of the facts before making a decision. ....................................... Cl CI Cl C] 7. Ability to make immediate, most correct decisions in any emergency situation. ........... C] Cl Cl C] 8. Exhibits maturitv. ........................................................................................... C] C] D C] 9. Other POST OPERATIONS Superior Satisfactory Marginal Unsatisfactory 1. Knowledge and use of the filing and record system. ............................................... [:1 Cl Cl C] 2. Handles the job of post desk officer. ............................................................... E] El Cl C] 3. Operates the various law enforcement communications systems. ............................... CZ] Cl D C] 4. Writes informative reports. ............................................................................... C] C] [3 CI 5. Capable of operating the post in the absence of a supervisor. ............................... Cl Cl C] C] 6. Other 244 SECTION II (Continued) Page 2 lNTERPERSONAL RELATIONS AND ATTITUDES Superior Satisfactory Margins! Unsatisfactory I. Relationship with fellow troopers. ................................................................. D D C] D 2. Involved in the local community. ........................................................................ D D D D 3. Holds the Department in high esteem. .............................................. . ................. D D D D 4. Instructs others in time of stress. ........................................................................ D D D D 5. Counseling of probationary troopers. ............................... . ..... . .............. . ....... D D D D 6. Maintains (one to one) public contacts. ................................................................ D D D D 7. Goes out of his way to help fellow offimrs. ........................................................ D D D D 8. Other CARE AND USE OF EQUIPMENT Superior Satisfactory Marginal Unsatisfactory I. Knows how to use and take care of firearms. ........................................................ D D D D 2. Knows how to use and take care of emergency equipment. .............................. D D D D 3. Knows how to use and take care of fingerprint equipment. .................................... D D D D 4. Knows how to use and take care of photographic equipment. ................................ D D D D 5. Operates departmental vehicles in a legal, safe and efficient manner. ........................ D D D D 6. Other PE RSONAL APPEARANCE Superior Satisfactory Marginal Unsatisfactory I. Grooming. .......................................................... . ...................................... D D D D 2. Uniform neat and clean. .......................................................... . ............. . ....... D D D D 3. Leather shined. ............................................................................................... D D D D 4. Maintains recommended standards of physical fitness. ............................................ D D D D 5. Image to the public. ..................................................................................... D D D D 6. Other WORK QUALITY AND QUANTITY Superior Satisfactory Marginal Unsatisfactory I. Displays organized work habits. ........................................................................ D D D D 2. Displays initiative. ....................................................................................... D D D D 3. Quantity of work oonsistentlv exceeds requirements. ............................................ D D D D 4. Carries out his/her work without detailed instructions. ........................................ D D D D 5. Follows through until job is completed. ................................................................ D D D D 6. Ensures that his/her work is accurate and thorough. ................................................ D D D D 7. Handles various assignments without difficulty. ls adaptable and flexible. ................ D D D D 8. Works consistently and effectively in all areas of the job responsibility. D D D D 9. Other ADDITIONAL COMMENTS 245 ”Warsaw-mm Trooper‘eNerne ACHIEVEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT INVENTORY Part II - Trooper Development and Counseling Guide Post Date SECTION III - Provide a summary of specific steps that you and your staff will take to assist this trooper in improving his/her performance. I. Employee Remarks: I have consulted with the three sergeants listed and I have discussed this evaluation with the employee concerned. Serpent Sergeant Sergeant Post Commander's S lonature Date I have seen and discussed the THREE SECTIONS of Part II of this performance evaluation with my Post Commander. T rooper‘s Signature Date APPENDIX B CONTINUING EDUCATION PROGRAM: COURSE OBJECTIVES AND READING ASSIGNMENTS 246 TITLE: TEXT: APPENDIX B CONTINUING EDUCATION PROGRAM: COURSE OBJECTIVES AND READING ASSIGNMENTS Department of State Police Training Division Continuing Education Program January 1974 Course Descriptions and Objectives Criminal Law and Procedure Michigan Criminal Law and Procedure by Glenn C. Gillespie. Michigan State Police Handbook of Criminal Law and Procedures by Department of State Police. COURSE OBJECTIVE: This course is designed to reinforce your present TITLE: TEXT: knowledge of criminal law and procedure and to provide a solid foundation for a concentrated program of study during Trooper School. Introduction to Law Enforcement Introduction to Law Enforcement by A. C. Germann, Frank D. Day, and Robert R. J. Gallati. COURSE OBJECTIVE: This course is designed to furnish the student an introduction to the field of law enforcement and public safety. It acquaints officers with the historical and philOSOphical foundations of the system under which they live, as well as a survey of those institutions and processes which constitute our present approach to the Administration of Criminal Justice. In addition, the course is designed to establish a broad-base knowledge to aid the law enforcement officer in his future endeavors. 247 248 TITLE: Criminal Investigation TEXT: Fundamentals of Criminal Investigation by Charles E. O'Hara, Sixth Printing. COURSE OBJECTIVE: This course is designed to furnish the student with a general background in the art of criminal investiga- tion which will service as a foundation for concentrated study in this field. TITLE: Traffic Accident Investigation TEXT: Traffic Accident Investigator's Manual for Police by J. Stannard Baker. Supplemental Text: Official Order No. 52 (Department of State Police). COURSE OBJECTIVES: This course is designed to furnish you with additional information in the skill of Accident Investiga- tion. In addition, the course will act as a review of the training you received in Recruit School. Note: Students will be required to read and study the sup- plemental text. Test questions will appear, beginning with the first month tests, on the material contained in these sources. Questions will continue to appear on material contained in these sources until the entire program is com- pleted. For this reason, constant review will be imperative. TITLE: Official Orders TEXT: Department of State Police Official Orders COURSE OBJECTIVE: This course is designed to acquaint the proba- tionary trooper with information contained in the Official Orders which is vital to the proper performance of his duties. It is also designed to acquaint the trooper with the "offi- cial order system" so that he may continue his study beyond that required by this course. TITLE: Motor Vehicle Code TEXT: Michigan Motor Vehicle Code Book COURSE OBJECTIVE: This course of study is designed to reinforce the student's present knowledge of the Michigan Vehicle Code. In addition, the course will serve to broaden the law enforcement officer's knowledge of motor vehicle law which will assist in the study of the subject beyond the formal training period. 249 Monthly Reading Assignments FIRST MONTH TOPIC Criminal Law and Procedure Accident Investigation Criminal Investigation Introduction to Law Enforcement Official Orders SECOND MONTH Criminal Law and Procedure Accident Investigation Criminal Investigation Introduction to Law Enforcement Official Orders THIRD MONTH Criminal Law and Procedure Accident Investigation Criminal Investigation Introduction to Law Enforcement Official Orders READING ASSIGNMENT Department Text: Read Search and Seizure, and Arrests. Gillespie: Pages ll47 through ll65 and 233 through 255. Pages 7 through 98. Chapters l-ll, Appendix 1. Preface and Part I. Official Orders l, 2, 5 and 52. Departmental Text: Evidence. Gillespie: Pages 467 through 483 and 508 through 518. Pages 99 through l92. Chapters l2 through l8. Part II. Official Orders 4, 35, 56, 88, and 98. Departmental Text: Confessions. Gillespie: Pages 629 through 637. Pages l93 through 282. Chapters l9 through 24. Part III. Official Orders 3, 67, 69, BI, 89, and llO. FOURTH MONTH TOPIC Criminal Law and Procedure Accident Investigation Criminal Investigation Introduction to Law Enforcement Motor Vehicle Code FIFTH MONTH Criminal Law and Procedure Accident Investigation Criminal Investigation Introduction to Law Enforcement Motor Vehicle Code SIXTH MONTH Criminal Law and Procedure Accident Investigation Criminal Investigation Introduction to Law Enforcement Motor Vehicle Code 250 READING ASSIGNMENT Department Text: Homicides and False Pretenses. Gillespie: Pages l977 through I984 and I820 through I824. Pages 283 through 340 and 377 through 400. Chapters 25 and 26. Part IV. Chapters I, II and III Department Text: Breaking and Entering and Incest. Gillespie: Pages l5l9 through 1539 and 2081 through 2086. Pages 401 through 440 and 49l through 578. Chapter 28 through 33. Part V. Chapters IV, V AND VI (to page l33). Department Text: Disorderly Statutes Gillespie: Pages 1950 through I959 and I696 through I705. Pages 579 through 655. Chapters 34 through 46. Part VI. Chapters VI (page l33 to end), VII, VIII and IX. APPENDIX C ORGANIZATION OF MICHIGAN STATE POLICE 25] APPENDIX C ORGANIZATION OF MICHIGAN STATE POLICE i DIM i DMD ’I lggm 1? L T I 1 at... new“... 41 +9 D an Tile. I i a I: T... Lag DIP—134...“: 11%.. @ +1.4 W... essay->8 15].... [13.-“Ha i i tfimT. .efihual WHMHW+ ihvt inn! L Emmi nmmnu.i_§fimms lineal... g 1123..."! swim... 1:33.... 5.4%.... Emmi Titan"... .23.“: gm WWW”; nag)“; Emu—2.3%; llllllllllll _ Jabs-“3...... 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