W11 imax‘:. $5,013 « I ‘W ”(“51 . .‘ I‘. ‘_ 1‘“ v ,r .. _’ 4‘ g... ‘ [\(H: ’ , t, I 1.. - J “M . . .'~- ..~..“ “v ="‘-...\.. d . , - . I. ‘0 ~ v. t l. -. .'.-.;i I I "'i hIA. . ‘ . p' :~‘.. \ hu§§t ‘b..-( .‘a ‘ ‘ \. ' ‘s C..~-_ u ‘.‘ V. d l‘ ' 5. I czfi" ’ ~‘Qv ~~ ‘p I D.‘ . \ '~~‘§‘— A‘ « b \.,.r‘ I v .95“. . \l“: ”R:~. b nu.“‘. . .uk, - ' “' ‘:“‘,‘ “A “. '.: p. ‘ \ ‘~ '1: £"‘L_ y.‘.‘ . ‘.. .“ I\‘ \\"5.~ .V-“‘_ ‘v. “ 5‘!- u ABSTRACT A STUDY OF THE USE OF FORMAL EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND AND OTHER FACTORS IN PREDICTING THE PERFORMANCE OF PROBATIONARY POLICE OFFICERS IN A STATE POLICE ORGANIZATION BY Thomas G. Nicholson The principal purpose of this study was to iden- tify significant relationships between selected elements of the formal educational backgrounds of new state po- licemen in the Michigan State Police, via a gig measures of their achievement of departmental training objectives and on-the-job performance during their year of proba- tionary service. In addition, the study was designed to concurrently identify significant relationships between the pre-employment independent variables of age, civil service examination scores, height, weight, active mil- itary service, and level of family responsibility, gig. §_gi§_dependent variable measures of achievement of de- partmental training objectives and on-the-job performance. 1 ’ p .505 ”In-t FF Icahn. . '.-’-F “I! ‘ O I‘ a-c—p a V .- _P n 5.1-.“ v:- r u -- q...... ‘ I . an..~.‘ . a“. a ’-‘I.- .. 4 ’. .. Q.. a '~ ’ v I. .‘ (‘n~ .“ ‘ o "t. n K. ~_- v .. H J“' I 5“. a ., \_‘ ‘D Q a. i A v‘ -. Q.‘ .' ‘ . ‘l‘ .‘ ‘ a b o ‘.. . I'1‘ ‘. o ' ‘ :.-- 'n ‘u. u . c.. v.‘ . 9“ «A \‘. . \‘~_o “1“ ‘ s ‘\ '1‘; u Thomas G. Nicholson The study also includes a historical sketch of the evolution of police education and training in the United States and reviews the development of linkages between law enforcement education and training and the university. The study provides a review of past attempts to relate pre-employment information to police duty performance. The changing attitudes of police practitioners and others toward the pr0per educational background for law enforce- ment officers are also considered. Methods, Techniques, and Data Used The study is primarily correlational, with an aim of working toward prediction. It provides information which should be useful in making predictions of police training achievement and duty performance. The sample for the study was drawn from a group of 244 men who commenced recruit training with the Mich— igan State Police in 1971 and 1972. The measures used were quantifiable or categorical data which is normally available in existing police per- sonnel and civil service files. 2 _.u. I .....-~~ u pnh ar‘nv-u. . Act do- n. , u v... "‘H... o '9 ‘v ‘V. W an... o y b N: -:" l . .‘ k l!) .A‘ on: c u.. .u v Thomas G. Nicholson Eight separate hypotheses were formulated and tested in the study. An unlimited least squares multiple regression computer program and t test and chi-square techniques were employed to test the hypotheses. The computer program used for the multiple regres- sions also generated additional information beyond that required for hypothesis testing and is presented in tab- ular and descriptive form in the study. Findings and Conclusions Tests of the eight hypotheses yielded the follow- ing results at the .05 level of significance: H-l: There is a significant linear relationship between the following predictor and performance variables: High school percentile standing vs. recruit training achievement, correspondence study achievement, and advanced trooPer achievement. College quarter-hours vs. recruit training achievement, correspondence study achievement, and advanced trooper achievement. Age VS. correSpondence study achievement. Height vs. recruit training achievement (negative correlation). ‘."c '.l-. I ngnl luv . no ‘v..a\- ' . ~ 0". I a 05.04. 4 . .. fl..‘. ‘ vu'ho I In-- -o. a :- II. 0" ...... I M 10".l _, I... my... 1 n ‘- ‘C .. 0- .4 ‘ . a. ' " “gu‘t' d':‘.‘ I... b: u "q M s":.‘ n ~ . "3. hr. ‘5 .I v “ “v. \ ~-. It“. I .‘i H "I t. 'I“ C. \.I-'. m w‘: ‘- ‘ '~ -. ‘0 u ‘o‘s ' s n "n ~:‘, 5 \'\ v_ u \‘55- ~.v- .. ‘s Thomas G. Nicholson Civil service written score vs. recruit training achievement, correspondence study achievement, and final recruit evaluation. Civil service oral review score vs. recruit training achievement (negative correlation). Active military service vs. advanced trooper achieve- ment (negative correlation). Level of family responsibility vs. probationary trOOper performance rating. H-2: There is a significant linear relationship between the following performance and predictor variables: Achievement of civil service status vs. college quarter-hours completed, civil service oral review board scores, and level of family responsibility. H-3: The difference between public/private high school graduates in achieving civil service status was not significant. H-4: The difference between GED certificate holders and regular high school graduates in achieving civil service status was not significant. H-S: The difference in recruit training achieve- ment between men with high/low criminal justice content college programs was not significant. u-.. .. III ".u... () , ' . '3 ‘ RA .,. U ". a I‘- ‘~- x.‘”-.“ . . u i Q \,: ..‘ . -~‘s t ‘\ s Thomas G. Nicholson H-G: The difference in probationary trooper rat- ings between men with high/low criminal justice course content college programs was significant. H-7: The differences in achievement of civil service status between men with high/low criminal justice course content in college programs was not significant. H-8: A significant difference in achievement of civil service status was found when men with above/below 84.5 college quarter-hours were compared. Background characteristics, and more specifically components of educational experience, should be useful in predicting training achievement and duty performance in the Michigan State Police. Of the predictors considered in the study "college quarter-hours" appears to be the best predictor of the measures of training achievement, based on partial correlations within the regression equa- tions. Using the combined nine predictors it is possible to predict with relative accuracy the training achievement Ineasures which were considered in this study. The on-the- job performance measure used in this study is not pre- re value to the department due to this advanced school- :iziga Early in this century there were many men in the E>c>lice service that agreed with Leonhard Fuld who stated: " It is not necessary, and some even maintain that it is not desirable, that police patrolmen be of large intellec- 1:11£31‘ability," and "the most important asset of the ideal policeman is unquestionably his physical constitution and condition. "22 In 1920 Raymond Fosdick, a prominent police admin- istrator, made a different assessment of the intellectual at>ility desired in police officers: . . . only as training of the policeman is deliberate and thorough, with emphasis on the social implications and human aspects of this task, can real success in police work be achieved.23 ‘ 22Leonhard Felix Fuld, Police Administration (New : G. P. Putnam Sons, 1909), pp. 90-91. 3: 23Raymond Fosdick, American Police Systems (New Qrk: The Century Company, 1920), p. 306. :Lu-irjnv ) ‘ . . 0 AV A l a in :c-£:..‘ ‘ Q "' "r‘rp. ‘\ DA. icra. k n ‘ "Pvua can, ‘4.-.‘ . " .A-RA" ‘ Dvnyc. ‘6 a . : #0 5". A ..‘ .V s.._ ‘ u us.,._~‘ ' ~— -s.~.‘\‘ '. .._ “;'V& 14 In 1909 August Vollmer, the famous Chief of Police of Berkeley, California, started a unique police school in his department by using members of the University of Cali- fornia faculty as guest lecturers. This was the first known application of the university extension concept to law enforcement education. The two areas of immediate concern at that time were: 1) instruction in sanitation, due to the bubonic plague threat in Berkeley, and 2) law instruction to assist in gathering and presenting evidence in court. It is interesting to note that the University " . got underway in of California Extension Division Berkeley in 1912," three years after Vollmer had employed this model to meet law enforcement needs.24 In 1917 Chief Vollmer again set an important pre- cedent in law enforcement education by hiring university s"iflldents to work as policemen on a part-time basis. This aE'z‘EDears to be the first application of the concept of 25 ocDDeratnNe higher education in law enforcement. \ 24Alfred E. Parker, Crime Fighter: August Vollmer ( New York: Macmillan Company, 1961), p. 83. ZSIbido ' Pp. 97—100. - Lb...- an; In t} .u. :-:,: 9....6 at...“ caning was :fficers. E. 2396 as a 1 52-. 'n.’ 1‘. DU... fi.‘s “‘ . E:::"""al ' ‘¢uu Q S ' h I ' cit; “e D‘a.‘ ‘ . S-LM‘. A: c: 9“— Ana ‘3'; F. q $5.1. 02:1: 2 ‘3‘ A: . . "RV“ Us 1“ Q I I ‘v- I . ‘. “a II .‘ ‘e“eu.: 't \‘ i}. fi=a , ‘ ‘Eera: 15 In this period Vollmer evidently stood alone among Exalice administrators in his conviction that university training was important, if not mandatory, for police officers. He later established a college or university degree as a basic entry requirement for his policemen and spent his life as the country's leading advocate of higher educational standards for law enforcement officers. In 11916 he played a key role in founding the first American school of criminology at the University of California. The belief that college training is desirable for POIice officers has not been unanimous, however. A publi- cation of the International City Managers' Association in 1954 declared that hiring men of high intelligence was: . . . inviting trouble. A relatively small percentage of policemen will receive promo- tions and the rest must be content to remain policemen. The higher the I.Q., generally speaking, the more ambitious, and therefore26 the more frustrated and disaffected In the 1969 edition of this publication, however, it was agreed that a college level educational background was desirable and "when the labor market will permit, A Municipal Police Administration (Washington: Innernational City Managers Association, 1954), p. 146. Pat" I'D-{6" 9"“‘in' “IV v.80. re: "a. ‘c I): 0 S m {In I o o I'D V 0‘ (3 ’1 I: l . . . P9 "Iou..,‘ c ‘ I a =“‘y'fla~‘ N‘. J. V :n‘ " 1 :I‘VA .- “Vs. in ‘A ‘s I.“ . L 3-. ')o .N EX,- 16 educational requirements should be increased to at least two years of college."27 The belief that college level schooling is desir- able for police has thus developed historically and is now gaining general acceptance both within and outside the law enforcement profession. The use of the title "College Education for the Patrolman--Necessity or Irrelevance?" for an article that appeared in a professional law enforcement publication in 1971 emphasizes the lingering doubt concerning the desira- bility of college experience for police officers. In this article Jagiello makes a strong case for higher educational levels for police through the use of intuitive judgment, oPinion, reason, and logic, but this fervent supporting argument fails to cite a single scientific study to sup- Port his position.28 The recent difficulty encountered in introducing a law enforcement degree program at the University of Mary- land exhibits the continuing resistance by some A 27Ibid. (1969 edition), p. 92. 28Robert J. Jagiello, "College Education for the Patrolman--Necessity or Irrelevance?," Journal of Criminal Bi”! Criminology and Police Science, 33:114-121, 1971. . . . HI“! '1'!‘ i l «auva-a I ‘ ' I' I" 5328 1 ‘ l7 academicians to such programs- The responsibility for ”selling" this program was given to Professor Peter Lejins. He cited several examples of hostility expressed by some faculty members toward police officers and even toward the function of law enforcement. Some of the statements which Lejins said were frequently voiced by faculty members were: I don‘t want to see our undergraduate stu- dents mingle with policemen on campus, or have police sergeants function as profes- sors . . . . I simply don't want to see a law enforcement unit on our campus. Every- one knows what a policeman is like. It is ridiculous to call his work a profession; there are no scientific aspects to law en- forcement at all; hence law enforcement does not have any place in an institution of higher learning.29 This attitude appears to be a complete rejection of the "service" philosophy of land grant universities as well as a closed-minded view of the.nature of the law en- forcement officer's work. It seems ironic that most law enforcement offi- Cials have accepted the need for higher education, and now A 29Peter J. Lejins, Introducingya Law Enforcement figuriculum at a State University, United States Department ‘of Justice (Washington: U.S. Printing Office, 1970), pp. 11-12. paw-I .- :- WVU‘It. ‘ furs» ‘ I or“ 5.45,. E u.‘-.'. c .‘I. .' ‘ E vs..-’ a ‘ I c P: ‘5'“‘f “" “IU\ . . t. .u v.11. ‘V ." "tu 33v .._,, .‘e b. ‘3... e. : l n.. \ ' u ‘:.l "s: S“ ‘« ‘f" I ‘Ae . 0"‘~ F H :- ‘ ‘ ‘ . fi“a>~ ‘O 3. I ‘L. s.‘= 18 encounter resistance from the academic community. Re- search which could demonstrate a relationship between Iiigher education and better law enforcement should cer- tainly assist in resolving this dispute. In spite of resistance, the program for raising the educational level of police officers, fueled by fed- eral funds available under the Safe Streets Act, moves forward at an increasingly hectic pace. In 1960 there were twenty—six colleges and universities with full-time lawrenforcement programs--over half of these were in Cal- ifcunia. By 1968 there were 233 separate institutions Witm.law enforcement programs, and by July, 1969, 519 institutions had applied to the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration for scholarship and loan funds under the Safe Streets Act.3o Police personnel practices in practically every POlice department of the country are significantly influ- enced by formal educational requirements, and millions of dellars are spent annually for upgrading police education at the college/university level. There is an obvious need A -—— 30Tenney, op. cit., p. l. . “Iv nu... In I n"1 . I‘,~‘ I..' D n‘-. \::C ‘\ 19 for research to begin to establish an empirically devel- oped theoretical base to replace hunch and speculation in making critical law enforcement personnel decisions. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study is to identify signif- :h:ant relationships between selected elements of the formal educational background of new state policemen in the:Michigan State Police and: 1) their achievement of Pcflice departmental training objectives, and 2) their on- the-job performance measures during their initial year of Iprobationary service. Stated in another form, the problem Chonsidered is to determine the efficacy of selected ele- lnents of formal educational background characteristics in Predicting training goal achievement and duty performance during the probationary year of service. Since this is an exploratory study it was considered desirable to concur- rently evaluate the efficacy of other factors in predict- ing success, such as: age, state civil service examina- tion scores, height, weight, active military service, and level of family responsibility. 20 The principal focus of the study is upon the first year of service during which the troopers serve in a pro- bationary status. During this year each incoming trooper 113 subjected to a rigorous socialization, evaluation, and accept/reject process. Since previous investigations have ruyt been conducted in this area it seems apprOpriate to examine the first year of service as a basis for later in- vestigation. During this initial year of service with the Mich- igan State Police, six key events take place in the life 0f the incoming trOOper or "cub": l. The trooper participates in a thirteen-week recruit training program. 2. He is dispatched to one of the sixty-one state police posts for duty upon completion of the recruit training program. 3. He completes a series of correspondence lessons and returns them to the state police headquarters for evaluation. He takes a final examination covering the entire course when he returns for advanced trooper training. 4. At the assigned post he performs police duty with senior trOOpers in an instructor/student relation- ship, and his performance is evaluated by these senior partners. 5. The trooper is returned to state police head- quarters where he undergoes three or four weeks of advanced trooper training. n.- v \ . I 21 6. At the end of the year the organization makes a decision to accept or reject the candidate based on his overall achievement of training objectives and performance of duty on-the-job. Up to this point the officer does not have civil service status and this acceptance awards this status to the trooper. Significance of the Study A review of empirically based studies of police asealection procedures which have used various samples of IPc>lice officers, reveals that most of them have focused E>Iiimarily upon the validation of mental, psychological, adid/or aptitude tests. Such studies have frequently yielded negative results and/or tended to vary from one Police agency to the next. The best predictors have not been based on written tests but rather on components of Pr ior personal history such as education, occupational mh<>3bility, and early family responsibility.31 Under the Omnibus Crime Control Act of 1968 the federal government has invested, and continues to invest, lBernard Cohen and Jan M. Chaiken, Police Back- grfiound Characteristics and Performance: Summary (New York: The Rand Institute, 1972), p. l. ' .~ I- b- .- ‘- 22 ancillions of dollars in programs to upgrade the educational JLeavel of prospective and active law enforcement officers. 3:11 addition, police agencies have established minimum edu- c:eational standards ranging from high school completion to c:c>llege graduation. Many departments are providing mone- 1:a:ry, and other incentives, to attract college graduates Eirld.t0 encourage men already in police service to raise t:11eir educational level. This is apparently based on an jrnrtuitive judgment that there is a causal relationship be— tween educational achievement and effective police per- formance. One author has recently pointed out that the be- lief that there is a significant relationship between edu- c3a‘l:.iona1 level and on-the-job performance as a police officer is based "more on faith than on fact."32 This Siilzdy is an attempt to provide additional "facts" for use ill making critical police personnel management decisions. This study should assist in selection of men who are likely to perform effectively as police officers, and tC’ reject men who are likely to perform unsatisfactorily. 32Saunders, Op. cit., pp. 81-82. - “:7’F 'D. a a O ~'--A. U... . u- (I) 1.. .._ y I ‘\ 4"‘1. ‘o “I. . 23 The study should also serve to identify attributes valuich are currently thought to be negative or positive Eaeerformance indicators, which in fact are not related to estibsequent poor or good performance. In an emerging profession such as law enforcement j_t: should not be surprising that the number and quality of reported empirical studies related to personnel practices j_s; not high. The available research fails to answer many questions and leaves one to the mercy of intuitive judg- nneerit in making crucial personnel management decisions. This study should provide additional information which might be used in upgrading law enforcement personnel tlixrough improved selection standards and procedures--a gearleral goal, which is not disputed by those within and Otltzside law enforcement, who are concerned about the ser- jIDEls crime problem in the United States. The Study Setting The purpose for this section is to present addi— tilbnal information about the Michigan State Police in order to better understand the nature of this .uu- on" I-Dc ‘ .a. ‘0. u... oval : ‘v. u ‘- \'- (I! u 24 investigation. This section will include: 1) A brief history of the Michigan State Police, 2) information about the selection process, 3) a description of recruit, corre- spondence, and advanced trooper training, 4) the on-the- job training procedure, and 5) the overall organizational setting for departmental training and a description of the training staff. A Brief History In 1917 the United States Congress passed an act establishing the War Preparedness Board. Funds from this Act made it possible for the governor of Michigan to create the Michigan State Troops to replace the National Guard which had been called to active federal service. The state troops were to be prepared to handle emergencies that arose while the regular military units were away. After completion of initial training the troops provided security for critical areas in the state such as the mines of the Upper Peninsula, looks at Sault Ste. 3Oscar G. Olander, "Michigan State Police," Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, March-April, 1933, pp. 23:718-722. '0'! ‘40 V..- I.“ 3‘ .L' ‘ A‘. «.2 ,W. - I... 'N- “Va, d. . ~ Vou a ‘nq .‘A I -‘ fl nun... . A. 25 Marie, railroad centers, chemical plants, stockyards, etc.34 Following the war, the state legislature passed Act Number 26 which created the Michigan State Police and the new agency took over the personnel and equipment of the Michigan State TrOOps. The principal function of the new organization was to assist local law enforcement agencies in the state.35 The new state police organization was approved only after a bitter legislative fight. After the bill was passed by the legislature and sent to Governor Sleeper for signature, an attempt was made to amend the state consti- tution to prohibit the allocation of funds for a state police agency. The drive to submit the proposed constitu- tional amendment to the voters to "put the force out of business" did not materialize and the bill was signed by the governor on March 27, 1919. The state police was officially established as a permanent police force.36 34Ibid. 35Ibid. 36News item in the State Journal, Lansing, Mich- igan, March 28, 1917, p. l. 26 The principal opponents to the state police were unionists who apparently Opposed the state police because it had been used to maintain order in the Upper Peninsula in July, 1917, during the disorders in the copper region. In addition, state police forces in Pennsylvania and other states had been used during labor disputes and union men strongly objected to this intervention.38 Training methods used by most state police agen- cies today reflect the influence of former military men who were initially appointed to organize them.39 This was also true in Michigan--the department was first headed by Colonel Roy C. Vandercoor, who was a Spanish-American War veteran and the former adjutant general of the National Guard. He held the rank of major and commanded Michigan's field artillery in 1917, when he was assigned to organize and command the Michigan State Troops. 37News item in the State Journal, Lansing, Mich- igan, July 28, 1917, p. 1. 38Bruce Smith, Rural Crime Control (New York: Institute of Public Administration, 1935), pp. 144-145. 39August Vollmer and Alfred E. Parker, Crime and ‘the State Police (Berkeley: University of California EEess, 1935), p. 144. 40Michigan State Police Fiftieth Anniversary Year- book, 1967, p. 23. ‘ 27 During the first two years of existence the Mich- igan State Police did not have a Specialized training staff so it was necessary for several selected, experi- enced men to instruct recruits. In other words, a system of on-the—job or apprenticeship training was em- ployed. By 1919 a more formal training program was imple- mented. This involved: . . . instruction in horsemanship, and care of animals, law and court procedures in criminal cases, drill mounted and unmounted, target practice, care of the health and administering first aid, Michigan geography and history, and other subjects pertaining to the work of the organization.42 In 1925 the state legislature passed a bill which authorized the state police to provide training for other police agencies, but the department was never able to im- plement this plan fully because funds were not approved for the project. The state police did allow and encourage municipalities to send some recruits through the state police training school. The state police also sent some 41Annual Report, Michigan State Police, 1919-1920. 4zIbid. 28 instructors from their academy to support local training programs. The state police training school quickly gained a national reputation for excellence, and a Minnesota Re- search Committee stated in 1930 that the school was "prob- ably one of the most elaborate schools of its kind in the country."44 In July of 1965 Governor Romney approved Act Number 203 which created the Michigan Law Enforcement Training Council. The ultimate purpose of the act was to make provision for training all law enforcement officers in the state and to establish minimum training standards for these officers. The training was to include pre- service, in-service, and special training in all jurisdic- tions of the state.45 43A. F. Brandstatter, "Michigan's Answer to Its Law Enforcement Training Needs and Problems," Police Year- book (Washington: International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1958), p. 33. 44G. H. Brereton, "Police Training: Its Needs and Problems," Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and; .Police Science, 1935, pp. 26:252. 45From official State Police correspondence signed be'Captain George L. Halverson, while serving as Training IDivision Commander, dated August 30, 1971. 29 On August 6, 1970, Governor Milliken approved Act Number 187, which amended some sections of Act Number 203 of 1965. The principal changes caused by the amendments were to prescribe a minimum basic training course of at least 240 instructional hours and to require completion of such a course by all officers employed after January 1, 1971 as members of police agencies with a full-time force of three or more men. This training was to be completed before an individual was empowered to exercise "all the authority of a peace officer."46 The general objectives of the prescribed basic course of instruction was to prepare the new law enforce- ment officer to properly perform his duties and to serve as a foundation for more advanced training. Stated in more precise terms, the objective of the 240 hour course was to "provide the information, skills, techniques, and procedures fundamental to service in law enforcement." Under the original law enforcement training act a 130 hour voluntary course had been prescribed; but the 461bid. 47Ibid. .0. I 30 later legislation served to update and expand this program and required a minimum level of training. In order to meet its training responsibilities the Michigan Law Enforcement Training Council has established several approved regional training centers located in strategic geographical locations around the state to serve police agencies.49 The training programs are coordinated with community colleges in the local areas. At the pres- ent time all law enforcement agencies except Detroit and the state police are sending their new officers to these regional training centers. These two agencies continue to conduct their own basic recruit training schools which have been approved by the Law Enforcement Training Council. The minimum basic police training curriculum es- tablished by the Training Council consists of 256 hours of instruction which covers the following general subject 50 areas: 48Ibid. 491bid. SOIbid. 31 HOURS Administrative Subjects . . . . . . . . 10 Legal Subjects. . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Investigative Subjects. . . . . . . . . 30 General Police Subjects . . . . . . . . 113 Traffic Subjects. . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Special Subjects. . . . . . . . . . . . 16 External Relations. . . . . . . . . . . 5 TOTAL 256 In addition to establishing minimum entry training standards the Training Council is charged with the respon- sibility of preparing and publishing minimum employment standards for police recruitment, selection, and appoint- ment for all police agencies in the state. The Council also issues a Police Certificate to individuals who suc- cessfully complete training in a council-approved school?1 The Michigan Department of State Police has been actively involved in training police officers of other agencies for many years and continues such activities in a consultant role and by providing numerous instructors to 52 assist other departments. The state police concurrently conducts recruit and other training for its own personnel. SlIbid. SZIbid. 32 The Selection Process The first step in the selection process occurs when an announcement is made by the Department of Civil- Service that applications for examination for the position of State Police Trooper 07 are being accepted. Interested individuals may then file an application for examination by submitting an application form with required documenta- tion to the Department of Civil Service or the nearest state police post. Prior to making formal application the interested individual is advised of the following minimum qualifications:53 CITIZENSHIP: Must be a citizen of the United States. RESIDENCE: Must have resided in Michigan for one year immediately prior to submitting the application. AGE: Not less than twenty-one nor more than thirty years at the time of submitting the application. HEIGHT AND WEIGHT: Height not under 5'9" in stocking feet. Weight not under 150 nor over 250 pounds stripped. VISION: Must have 20/40 vision in each eye without glasses to be corrected to 20/20 with glasses prior to appointment to a training school. Must have ade- quate color and depth perception and visual field of , 53State of Michigan, Announcement of Competitive Examination for State Trooper 07, dated August 30, 1971. 33 no less than 140 degrees in the horizontal meridian with both eyes. In addition, the vertical imbalance must be below ten diopters, exophoria (outward devia- tion of eyes) and four prism diopters, esophoria (turning in of eyes). PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS: Physical condition must be adequate for performance of the work as determined by an examining physician. Must have good posture and well-developed and proportioned physique. Height and weight must be in relation to each other and to age as indicated by accepted medical standards. Must have normal hearing in both ears and be free from any chronic diseases, organic or functional conditions, or physical defects which may tend to impair efficient performance of a trooper's duties. ‘ PERSONAL AND OTHER ATTRIBUTES: Intelligence quotient equal to the high school average; willingness to ac- cept command responsibilities in emergency situations; willingness to remain available for duty 24 hours a day and live and work anywhere in the state; favorable work records; freedom from associations which may em- barrass the department; personal fitness for the posi- tions; must not have been dishonorably discharged from the armed forces of the United States or state mili- tary services; must be willing to work 40 hours per week, overtime as directed, and on holidays; must meet the following requirements regarding arrest and/or traffic violation records: Must Not Have: 1. Been convicted of a violation of criminal law. (Criminal law generally includes all offenses except traffic law, conservation law and liquor law. In general, conviction for a vio- lation of criminal law is automatically dis- qualifying.) 2. Been convicted of driving while under the in- fluence of alcohol or drugs. a: 1. Se 34 3. Been convicted of six or more moving viola- tions in the five years previous to applica- tion. 4. Been convicted of three moving violations in the 24 months previous to application. 5. Accumulated eight points on your driving record in the 24 months previous to applica- tion. 6. Been convicted two or more times of reckless driving or once of reckless driving accom- panied by aggravating circumstances. 7. A record of three traffic accidents, each in- dicating a traffic violation or hazardous action. 8. A record of two traffic accidents, in the 24 months previous to application, each indicat- ing a traffic violation or hazardous action. 9. Lost driving privilege through suspension or revocation of any driving license due to an accumulation of twelve or more points in any 24 month period. 10. A record of two convictions of any law in- volving the use or possession of intoxicants. ll. Failed to comply with the Financial ReSponsi- bility Act. 12. Any conviction or convictions for moving traffic violations, accidents, non-moving traffic violations, or violation of other laws which indicate a poor driving attitude or habits, or lack of respect for law and order. A preliminary vision test is given and physical measurements taken to determine if the applicant meetsthe - I DA\~'. uncen- a l:‘9 pa. bbuv “an. in --i“ "' uv—u 5.. ..‘..:7 _,. -.§.. 3 Q‘- “e. _ i ‘. I" 35 height and weight standards at the post where the appli- cant made the first contact. If the applicant appears to meet the preliminary requirements he is given a written civil service examination. If the applicant passes this test a detailed field background investigation is com- pleted by state police investigators and fingerprints are taken and submitted for Federal Bureau of Investigation file check. The applicant is personally interviewed by the investigator to verify or clarify items in the appli- cant's personal history statement. The investigator also talks to the applicant's wife, if he is married, and con- tacts his parents and others who have personal knowledge of his past background, conduct, and character. If the applicant meets all established criteria up to this point he will be notified to appear before an oral appraisal board at a specified place and time. This board is composed of three members: a representative of the Michigan Civil Service Commission, a representative of the state police, and a third member selected by the Civil Service Commission. The written test which was taken earlier and the score achieved before the oral appraisal board are given equal weight and if the applicant is ac- cepted he will be given a position on the civil service 36 roster based on these two combined scores. The oral board has access to the completed background investigation with information about past employment, financial situation, family background, school records, military experience, marital situation, arrest or misconduct problems, etc. As state police vacancies occur and recruit schools are scheduled, the prospective trooper will receive a letter telling him the date and time tx> report for phys- ical examination and training. When the man reports to the headquarters in East Lansing, he is expected to have a short military haircut and be clean shaven, i.e. no mus- tache, beard, or long sideburns. Generally the recruits ~report for their physical examination on Friday and the first day of training beings on Monday of the following week. It is obvious from the brief study of the selec- tion process that the men that pass through this screening process are a rather homogenous group and quite different from a random sample that one might draw from the adult male population. Based on a study of over two hundred men entering three recruit classes, it was found that the average height was almost six feet, the average weight 37 180 pounds, and the average age was twenty-four years of age. The average educational level for this group was one to two years of college (48 quarter hours); with roughly ten percent college graduates, sixty percent with some college work, and roughly thirty percent with only a high school education. For an average recruit class of 90-100 men it is estimated that approximately 1,800 men officially enter into the selection process. This figure does not include a large number of men that check with the local police recruiter and eliminate themselves because they obviously do not meet the minimum education, height, vision, or other standards. Based on recent past experience it is reasonable to expect that approximately 50-60 percent of the ninety to one hundred men that meet all the pre- requisites and begin training will successfully complete the initial thirteen-week basic recruit phase of train- ing 5 4Information provided by Sergeant Richie Davis of the Personnel Division, Michigan State Police. 38 Training Objectives and Curriculum55 Minimum training objectives for all Michigan police officers are established by the Michigan Law En- forcement Training Council under the authority of Mich- igan Act Number 203 of 1965; as amended by Michigan Act Number 220, Public Acts, 1968; and Act Number 187, Public Acts, 1970. All Michigan law enforcement officers are re- quired to successfully complete a basic recruit training program of 256 hours in a Training Council approved school and to meet the specific training objectives de- velOped and published by the Council. It should be noted that these are minimum in- structional hours and training objectives. The basic recruit training of the Michigan State Police exceeds these established minimums. The overall objectives of the state police re- cruit training program are: to provide basic entry training by formal instruction and practical application ‘which covers the theory and practice of police 5 . Halverson, loc. Cit. 39 administration, the duties of a state trOOper, depart- mental rules and regulations, and Michigan criminal and traffic laws. This training is designed to enable the new recruit to perform as a probationary state policeman under the supervision of an experienced trooper during his approximately nine month probationary training period which follows the basic recruit training course, and to perform his duties independently after the one-year pro- bationary period. Recruit Training56 During the initial thirteen—week training period, the trainees are required to live in quarters similar to those found in military basic training units. Most of the men live in a gymnasium that is used for sleeping as 'well as a classroom. They enjoy little privacy and must learn to cope with group living, which is a new experience for many of the recruits. 56Information based on discussions with the Com- xmanding Officer of the Training Division, several other members of the department, and personal observations. 40 The recruit training, except for driver training, takes place in East Lansing, Michigan, within the state police compound on Harrison Road, opposite the Michigan State University campus. The facilities for water safety and weapons firing instruction are both conveniently located within the East Lansing compound. Driver training takes place at Fort Custer, near Battle Creek, Michigan. The principal classroom area is located at one end of the gymnasium that is used as a barracks and must be rearranged for use as a boxing and defensive tactics training area. During the training period the trainees must re- main within the state police compound during the week but may be allowed to leave during the weekend if they return by ten p.m. on Sunday evening. During the week the re- cruits may also receive visitors during a one—hour visi- tation period each evening. Each recruit is assigned a counselor, who is a member of the Training Division staff, to advise and assist the recruit with special problems he might en- counter during the course of instruction. 41 The first day of training begins at eight a.m. and is devoted principally to orientation, welcoming, and issue of equipment. The second day and each subsequent day of the training period will start at six in the morn- ing. The first item on the daily training schedule is physical training or callisthenics, consisting of push- ups, squat-thrusts, shoulder rolls, and running. The physical activity is increased during the thirteen-week period, and at the end of this phase of training the re- cruits will be doing fifty push-ups, twenty squat-thrusts, six minutes of shoulder rolls, and running two and one half miles without a break. After the physical training period the recruit returns to his quarters to prepare for breakfast which is served at six-fifty a.m. in the state police cafeteria. At seven-forty each morning the school staff in- spects each man and his living area, and demerits are awarded for deficiencies discovered during this inspec- tion. Demerits may also be awarded during training for failure to meet prescribed performance standards, or for misconduct. Demerits are removed from the individual's 42 record by running one-quarter of a mile per demerit in the evening after regular class hours. Formal classroom instruction begins at eight each morning and terminates each afternoon at four-fifty. At midday, one hour is allowed for lunch, which is also taken in the police cafeteria. After the evening meal there is a supervised study period if the individual is not re- quired to attend remedial classes such as: typing classes for non-typists, swimming for poor swimmers, etc. The recruit day ends at ten each evening with "lights out." Military bearing, demeanor, and discipline are stressed during recruit training. All movements within the training compound are made in a military manner, i.e., the recruits make "square" corners and look straight ahead while moving about, and conversation with the school staff is military and formal. Recruits must maintain a seventy-five percent average on tests during the training and a failure to do this may result in dismissal from the school. Upon suc- cessful completion of the thirteen-week course the re- cruit may be assigned to any of the sixty-one state police posts in the state to gain practical experience. When he 43 arrives at the assigned post the probationary trooper or "cub" will perform duties with an experienced trOOper that is chosen for the tutorial role by the post commander. An attempt is made to assign the new men with well-motivated and experienced troopers who have a positive attitude and good performance records. The "cub" works with an instructor/partner on a regular basis and is given a monthly performance rating by the senior partner. The new trooper normally works with two or more partners dur- ing this probationary period. Correspondence Study Program57 After the probationary trOOper has worked at his assigned post for approximately one month he begins a correspondence study program. This delay allows the new trooper to become oriented to his work before he begins the task of completing the program. This program is de- signed for completion in seven months. During this time, it is estimated that the probationary trooper will spend a minimum of one hundred hours studying for and taking the 57Ibid. 44 required examinations. During recruit school each recruit is given a one hour briefing on the correspondence study program, At that time he is also given all the assign— ments and materials he will need to complete the program, with the exception of the actual examinations. The cur- riculum of the correspondence study program consists of the following subjects: Criminal Law and Procedure Criminal Investigation Introduction to Law Enforcement Traffic Accident Investigation Departmental Official Orders. UlobWNH 0 Each subject is divided into seven lessons, except the official order segment (which has four), for a total of thirty-two lessons. Subjects were selected after a careful evaluation and study of the departmental training needs. All tests and assigned readings are based on six specified publications and texts which are available in the library of each state police post. Each month the State Police Training Division forwards the necessary tests to the student's post com- mander. When the tests have been completed, they are returned to the Training Division for grading. The post commander is then advised of the test results, which 45 can be used for counseling and to gauge the new trOOper's progress. The examinations were developed within the Train- ing Division and utilize multiple choice and true/false questions. The evaluations, other than the final examina- tion, are administered as "open book" examinations. Grade records are maintained on all students and recorded in each probationary trooper's permanent file. Achievement of a score of at least eighty percent is re— quired before performance is considered satisfactory. Achievement in the correspondence study is considered in the overall evaluation of each probationary troOper. The correspondence study program provides an in- terim educational experience for probationary troopers. The structure of the program stimulates interest in his work, requires the student to develop proper study habits, and motivates him to strive for self—improvement. . . 5 Advanced Trooper Training During the eleventh or twelfth month of proba- tionary service, each trooper is recalled to the training 58Ibid. JLSCISSIOZ the Sinai: 23.513 rec: ""“Y I 3“”..34“ C 53ccessfu] Cf the €21 C? 46 academy to attend a three- or four-week Advanced Tr00per School. The Advanced Trooper School allows more time for discussion and practical application. It also reinforces the fundamental principles which were dealt with in the basic recruit school, and during the correspondence study program. During this school the probationary trooper must successfully complete a "closed book" final examination of the entire correspondence study program curriculum. Only upon satisfactory completion of all require- ments of the entire training program is the probationary trooper confirmed as a member of the Michigan State Police. This occurs one year after the date the recruit commenced basic recruit training. The Organizational Structure and Training Staffby Immediately subordinate to the Departmental Di- rector in the state police organizational structure are two bureaus: the Bureau of Field Services and the Bureau of Staff Services. The Bureau of Field Services has di- rect responsibility for achieving the primary law sglbid. 47 enforcement goals of the department. The three divisions subordinate to this bureau are: the Administrative Divi- sion, the Detective Division, and the Uniform Division. The Bureau of Staff Services is the smaller of the two bureaus in terms of the number of assigned officers and has nine functional divisions. One of these divisions is the Training Division which has primary reSponsibility for training activities within the department. (See Appen- dices A and B, pages 290b29l.) The Commanding Officer of the Training Division is a state police captain who is selected from men who have "come up through the ranks" within the department. This insures that the commander has many years of diverse ex- perience at several levels of responsibility. Within the Training Division there is a permanently assigned lieutenant with primary responsibility for super- vision of reoruit training; seven other permanently as- signed troopers; and two secretaries who support depart- mental training activities. In addition, there are three or four other troopers that are assigned on a temporary basis to augment the training staff during recruit train- ing sessions. years of ' selected f cessfully Curse bef :25: of ‘r. 6‘ u. 5...,“ . and aj 48 The troopers used as instructors have several years of practical experience "on the road," have been selected for their ability as instructors, and have suc- cessfully completed the department's Instructor Training Course before they are allowed to teach. In addition, most of them have several years of instructional experi- ence and all of them are well-qualified and effective. Research Hypotheses The following is a statement of the research hypotheses used in this study expressed in broad research terms . Hzl; There is a significant linear relationship be- tween each of the probationary trooper criterion or performance measures and: 1) percentile standing in high school graduating class, 2) number of college quarter-hours successfully completed, 3) written and oral test scores on pre-employment civil service tests, 4) age at start of recruit training, 5) height, 6) body weight at commencement of recruit training, 49 7) level of family responsibility, and 8) active military service. H22: There is a significant linear relationship be— tween successful achievement of civil service status and: 1) percentile standing in high school graduating class, 2) number of college quarter-hours successfully completed, 3) written and oral test scores on pre- employment civil service tests, 4) age at commencement of recruit training, 7) level of family responsibility, and 8) active military service. H-3: There is a significant difference in achievement of civil service status when men who graduate from publicly operated high schools are compared with men who graduate from privately operated high schools. H24: There is a significant difference in achievement of civil service status when men who complete high school through regular graduation are compared with men who graduate through evening school or obtain edu-_ cational equivalency through GED or similar programs. 50 7_, £22: Men who participate in college programs with a high content of criminal justice, police administra- tion, and other related courses attain significantly different recruit training achievement scores than men with equivalent levels of education who did not have such experiences. H26: Men who participate in college programs with a high content of criminal justice, police administra— tion, and other related courses attain significantly different probationary trOOper ratings than men with equivalent levels of education who did not have such experiences. H21: There is a significant difference in achievement of civil service status when men who participate in college programs with a high content of criminal jus- tice, police administration, and other directly re- lated courses are compared with men with equivalent levels of education who did not have such experiences. H-8: There is a significant difference in achievement of civil service status when men who successfully 51 complete at least 85 college quarter-hours are com- pared with men with a lower level of formal education. Definition of Terms This section is divided into three parts: 1) pre- dictor or independent variable definitions, 2) performance or criterion variable definitions, and 3) general defini— tions. The first two groups are used in the analysis which employs the multiple regression technique. The last group contains terms which are used in other analyses which use other statistical techniques, plus other terms of interest. Predictor or Independent Variable Definitions Active Military Service. This variable was scored as "1" if the individual had served in active military service for at least one year, or as "0" otherwise. Age. The subject's age, to the nearest month, at the commencement of recruit training. um Lila -_ ('9‘ ”I 52 Civil Service Oral Review Board Score. This score is based on personal appearance of each applicant before a three-man evaluation board composed of a representa- tive of State Civil Service, a state police represen- tative, and one other member. The maximum possible score for this measure is fifty points which is equal in weight to the civil service written examination A score in determining acceptance for employment and the relative position of the applicant on the applicant on the civil service roster. Civil Service Written Examination Score. This measure is based on a competitive mental ability test which must be taken for appointment as a Michigan State Police Trooper. The maximum possible score on this test is fifty points. Height. The individual's height, to the nearest half- inch at commencement of recruit training. High School Standing. This score is based on the per- centile standing of each individual within his high school graduating class. 53 Level of Family Responsibility. This variable was scored as "0" if the individual was not married, "1" if married but without children, "2" if married with one child, "3" if married with two children, etc. Number of College Quarter-Hours. This measure is based on the total number of college or university quarter-hours (or equivalent semester-hours) which had been successfully completed with a grade of 1.00 or above in an accredited institution, at the commence- ment of recruit training. Weight. The individual's weight in pounds at the com- mencement of recruit training. Performance or Criterion Variable Definitions Achievement of Civil Service Status. During the pro- bationary year of service with the state police each man is considered a temporary employee and is not afforded the protections provided by civil service. At the end of the first year the individual is evalu- ated based on his overall performance. If he is 54 accepted he is given civil service status which en- titles him to all the benefits provided by law Acceptability as a Patrol Partner. This rating is in- cluded on the Final Recruit Evaluation Form, in a sep- arate section. A training staff panel records their attitude about "working with this man [the recruit] as a partner." Each man is rated using a Likert-type scale with the following four levels of evaluation: 1) prefer him to most, 2) be pleased to have him, 3) be satisfied to have him, and 4) would accept him. The rating on this evaluation was scored as 3, 2, l, and 0, respectively. (See Appendix C, page 292.) Advanced Trooper Achievement Score. A composite final score based on weighted scores on examinations taken during.the three or four-week Advanced Trooper School. Correspondence Training Achievement Score. A com- posite final score for correspondence study based on weighted scores on written evaluations completed dur- ing the correspondence study program. 55 Final Recruit Evaluation. A one-time evaluation com- pleted at the end of the recruit school by a panel of training staff members. Recruits are rated on a Final Recruit Evaluation Form using a Likert-type scale for the following seventeen factors: 1) voice quality and control, 2) bearing and appearance, 3) composure and control, 4) physical endurance, 5) friendliness, 6) alertness and understanding, 7) verbal expression, 8) judgment, 9) cooperation, 10) interest, 11) atti- tude, 12) initiative, l3) dependability, 14) leader- ship, 15) knowledge, 16) performance (quantity), and 17) performance (quality). The ratings of outstand- ing, good, average, fair, and poor which appeared on the scale were scored as 4, 3, 2, l, and 0, respec- tively, on each of the seventeen factors and were summed to provide a cumulative individual score. (See Appendix C, page 292.) Egobationary Trooper Performance Ratings. This score is based on the evaluation of on-the-job performance as a probationary state trooper. Nine evaluations are made on a monthly basis by patrol partner/supervisors 56 using a form with the following ten factors: 1) ap- pearance, 2) public contacts, 3) attitude toward job, 4) personal habits, 5) work quantity, 6) dependability, 7) judgment, 8) working relationship with other offi- cers, 9) knowledge of police work, and 10) work qual- ity. A Iikert-type scale was used with the following levels for each factor: excellent, satisfactory, and unsatisfactory. A cumulative score was obtained for each officer by scoring the levels as 2, l, and 0, re— spectively, and summing across the totals on each of the nine monthly evaluations. (See Appendix D, page 294.) Recruit Training Achievement Score. A composite final score received upon graduation from recruit training. It is based on weighted scores on written evaluations completed during the thirteen-week recruit training period. General Definitions Beta Weight. By standardizing each variable in a re- gression analysis it is possible to obtain adjusted v. UL AV ‘5 .1]. “Ac- .... .«u 3‘ A» ”n. u." u:- «Nu v. a. he 1;. e C c. :1 ,T. IIH his 5 fie *h 57 slopes comparable from one variable to the next. It is then possible to measure changes in the dependent variable in terms of standard deviation units for each of the other variables. This assures the same varia- bility in each of the variables. The resultant stand- ardized slopes are called beta weights--they may also be called beta coefficients. Formal Education. In order to define this term it seems necessary to first differentiate between "educa- tion" and "training." For the purpose of this inves- tigation, ”education" refers to all purposeful, inten- tional teaching and learning with the intention to pre- pare persons to be individuals in a society. Training is that dimension of education that is intended to pre- pare individuals to perform specific task-oriented roles in business and industry, public service, the armed forces, within professions, or elsewhere. In this study, "formal education" refers to educational activities which take place within accredited high schools, colleges, and universities. 60Hubert M. Blalock, Jr., Social Statistics (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1972), p. 453.- 58 GED or Evening Adult Class Graduates. Used to de— scribe men who did not graduate from high school in the traditional way but who received high school equivalency through the General Educational Develop- ment testing program, or through evening classes de- signed primarily for adults who left school before graduation. High Content of Criminal Justice, Police Administra- tion, and Other Directly Related Courses. Used to identify troopers that had completed college programs which contained twenty or more quarter-hours (or equivalent) in these subject areas. This number was selected because twenty—three total hours is the min- imum requirement for receipt of federal assistance loans by full-time students under the Safe Streets Act of 1968. Since the sample was drawn from men with 130 or more total quarter-hours it was reasoned that at least twenty hours should have been completed at this point of a four-year program. Least Squares. In terms of linear regression this in- volves fitting the data measurements with a 59 best—fitting straight line in such a way that the sum of the squares of the deviations from the actual Y or dependent variable values from this line is minimal.61 Multiple Correlation Coefficient or R. The zero-order correlation between the actual values obtained for a dependent variable and those values predicted from the least-squares equation. By squaring the multiple cor- relation coefficient we obtain a quantity (R2) which is equal to the percentage of the variation of the dependent variable explained by all of the independent variables taken together.62 Multiple Regression. A statistical technique which attempts to predict a single dependent variable from any number of independent variables.63 Publiclnyperated Schools. High schools that receive most of their financial support from public sources, e.g. tax revenue from local, state, and federal agencies. 61Ibid., p. 371. 62Ibid., p. 454. 63 Ibid., p. 429. D A .A‘ H In.“ "v 0.. t a» .fi A: nun «xe‘ hr. ‘Ii eru~ Q~ 60 Privately Operated Schools. High schools that receive most of their financial support from private or non- public sources, e.g. tuition paid by individuals or through church support. In almost all cases these were parochial church—related high schools. Regular High School Graduates. Used to describe men who have graduated from high school in the traditional way from accredited high schools and received regular diplomas. Safe Streets Act. A Federal Act passed by Congress in 1968 which was officially called the "Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968," and was designed to provide federal assistance to: 1) reduce crime in the streets; and 2) improve the criminal justice sys- tem. It also created a new office in the Department of Justice entitled the Law Enforcement Assistance Ad- ministration as the implementing agency for the Act.64 Zero Order or Simple Correlation. In order to under- stand this concept one must first understand partial 64Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968, Public Law 90-351, 90th Congress. ' T .__.—..-_....___._,i_ \n. ‘- be 9'. :e 4“ u :a .: - 1 ya 4: r. e 61 correlation. In partial correlation, relationships or the degree of correlation between a dependent variable Y and any of several independent variables is measured while controlling for one or more independent vari- ables. In extension of this terminology, a correla- tion with no controls is called a zero-order correla- tion. Such a relationship may also be called a total correlation.6S StudyAOverview This thesis has been organized into six chapters: Chapter I, The Problem, discusses the purpose and significance of the study, the study setting, research hypotheses, and definition of terms. Chopter II, Development of the Law Enforcement and University Linkage, is a brief historical sketch of the role of the university in the deve10pment of police training and education in the United States. The in- volvement of several major universities is described in 65Blalock, op..cit., pp. 433 and 437. A-‘ 05-... I Q. . -v- '--." .N- n..“ 'I I“ 62 greater detail, legislation which had significant impact upon law enforcement training and education is also dis- cussed. Chapter III, Review of the Literature, encompasses a review of empirically based studies which related pre- employment testing and background characteristics to on- the-job police performance. Literature which reports opinions and judgments of knowledgeable individuals con- cerning the formal educational component of police back- ground characteristics as predictors of police training achievement and on-the-job performance is also reported. Chapter IV, Design and Methodology, provides an explanation of the type study, restatement of hypotheses, sample description, population description and extent of generalization, data collection and coding, and analyses employed in the study. Chapter V, Analysis of the Data, is a statement of the null hypotheses and the results of statistical tests and an analysis of the multiple regression output beyond that needed for hypothesis testing. Chapter VI, Summary and Conclusions. In this por— tion of the Study previous chapters are summarized, I ‘I - V F“ :QOthy. is pre “V:A.- :O‘v up. 63 principal conclusions are listed, discussion of research is presented and implications for future research and practice are stated. .V.\. -‘.A “v ‘v. ‘ c U ‘.. v‘h c“ "u h .11 ' h (I In I 1' m CHAPTER II THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNIVERSITY AND LAW ENFORCEMENT LINKAGE The purpose of this chapter is to describe the role that the university, particularly the extension and evening college services, has played in the development of programs for the training and education of police officers in the United States. The chapter provides a broader his- torical dimension to the earlier consideration of the study setting and should provide some insight into the vicissitudinous nature of the relationship between law enforcement education and training and higher education. In order to accomplish this, it is necessary to present first a brief historical sketch of the development of American law enforcement to provide some understanding of the milieu in which law enforcement education and training developed at the beginning of the twentieth cen- tury. 64 (a 0—9. I U) ‘ ~D- e... y: . 7;... “we. . 8". “'L H! (I! I! II‘ .' «w' w 65 This historical sketch will be followed by a de- scription of the involvement of several universities and law enforcement agencies from an initial limited contact of "short course" involvement to full-blown degree and graduate programs in criminal justice. The federal legislation that has had the greatest impact on law enforcement training and education develop- ment from the Smith-Hughes Act to the Omnibus Crime Con- trol and Safe Streets Act of 1968 will also be briefly reviewed in this chapter. A Brief Histogy Thomas Jefferson, who was to have a great influ- ence upon the development of American state supported colleges and universities, attempted in 1779 to aid in establishing professional American police forces by recom- mending a professorship of law and police at William and Mary College. The proposal was rejected, however, along with his other plans to make higher education more prac- tical and closely related to the needs of the general \ OAavy ' q. tedious: - ' u use an load v.1. a - 4:“.“V'v “Big. 5 s '5'": A 3... I “~ ‘- nff I V n. 'hVA ‘ _ - ‘» In L). 66 populace.l It was not until more than seventy—five years had passed, and the formidable barrier of the famous Yale Report of 1828 breeched, that this philosophy of public service and practical education was seriously applied. During the colonial period and until the first third of the nineteenth century American cities were po- liced by watchmen who patrolled the streets carrying a lantern and watching for fires and robbers. The duty was generally performed by citizens on a rotating basis, but difficulty was encountered under this system when citizens began hiring others to perform their "turn" of duty. Men who were thus hired generally did this as a second job and were frequently inclined to sleep on duty or otherwise provide unsatisfactory service. The result of the presidential election of 1828 had a significant impact upon the development of law en- forcement in this country, but in this case it was gener- ally negative. In that year Andrew Jackson was elected lFredrick Rudolph, The American College and Uni- versity (New York: Random House, 1962), pp. 41, 130. 2Raymond Fosdick, American Police Systems (New York: The Century Company, 1920), pp. 61-62. ”I. 326513: 0 victor ' . A. on U. .u exte‘l ‘ . | ‘b‘i o I.‘I" "‘1” 67 president and brought with him the doctrine of "to the victor belongs the spoils."3 In a speech delivered before the 1932 convention of the International Association of Chiefs of Police, Mr. O. E. Carr, the city manager of Oakland, California, stated that the cost of the spoils system to the nation "cannot be estimated" and that "for forty-two years this unsatisfactory system was fastened upon this country."4 President Jackson held that in a democracy any man is capable of holding office and that the necessary loy- alty and cooperation could be attained by simply eliminat- ing political enemies. Carr described this period follow- ing Jackson's election as the "dark ages" of the cities, and the police of that day certainly reflected all that was bad in the general governmental structure.5 Due to these conditions, police agencies provided an excellent medium for develOpment of political corrup- tion. Chiefs of police and other policemen were appointed 3O. E. Carr, A speech delivered at the 1932 con- vention of the International Association of Chiefs of Police and published in the IACP Police Yearbook, 1932, p. 121. 4Ibid. SIbid. is: ‘ ~ $P-I .- ban-an ‘vn: b.» {I O \Cv U“ ‘V U ,L 1” 1 f 68 for their ability to get votes and provide favors rather than their competence on the job. It was soon discovered that police officers could be taught to be blind, deaf, and indifferent, and that such "disabilities" could be ex- tremely profitable.6 It seems rather obvious that im- proved training and education of police officers could not take place in such an unhealthy environment. Carr also attacked with equal vigor the Civil Service System which was introduced in 1883 to mitigate some of the political ills caused by the spoils system. Rutherford Hayes had run for the presidency upon the plat- form of ". . . no dismissal except for cause--no promotion except for merit." In referring to civil service Carr stated that ". . . for fifty-two years we have been trying to remove this cancer upon the body politic, and today June 15, 1932 we are still trying."7 As a need for better police service developed in the rapidly expanding urban areas it became obvious that the night watch by citizens or hired watchmen was inade- quate. In 1838 Boston devised a plan to establish a 6Ibid. 7Ibid. .. ... min—l "hiv- e a Ver‘. v 3828 t v CI .49 Ci {‘1' “I C) :‘e: «g' 69 separate watch or police force for day duty. New York also adopted this plan under which the day force had no connection with the nightwatch. In other words, there were two completely independent police forces in each of the cities.8 It was soon discovered that the two separate police forces created an impossible situation. Beginning in 1835 a series of mob riots swept the country. A fight in Boston between two fire companies and the Irish broke out which involved 15,000 people, and required drastic action by the militia to bring it under control. In Phil- adelphia the Negro riots of 1838 led to the burning of Philadelphia Hall and the death of numerous citizens. Riots broke out again in 1842 and Negro churches and meet- ing places were burned. In 1844 the native American riots lasted for three months. Many people were killed and a great deal of property was destroyed. In New York, vio- lence due to racial and political differences frequently required the use of improperly trained and poorly disci- plined militia, due to the ineffectiveness of police forces to maintain order. BFOSdiCk' OE. Cit. p p. 630 91bide ' pp. 65-660 h ‘.l‘ u I‘ n 4‘ M e 8 u u .I‘ \l‘ u h he AV avid . . I AM re s .§ ‘l h h .6 .93 um vie I V I \ vl nub IQ. I. as .e-b. :1 a A» we . to!“ ‘ J ‘5 h s I o I an» IR 6 .I e an F Q «I. H‘ at H. e . . O Vb . A An» an. 5 1' 9 A V“ v v L no N I 0 Ru 0 a 3 o a» uh I A V A“ ..’ C 5" . ‘4 Que: 70 A basis for modern American police forces was created in New York City in 1844 when a combined day and night police force was authorized by the state legisla- ture. This and other newly organized police departments were soon dominated by politics due to the spoils system. It was reported that in 1844 policemen and their leaders were appointed for one year based on the nominations of aldermen of the wards in which they were located.10 The New York Police Department reports of 1856 indicated a condition of utter lawlessness on the part of the police themselves as well as the community at large. The undisciplined condition and attitude of the police of the time was reflected in their refusal to wear uniforms. By 1855 some city police forces had hats of regulation shape but no departments had adopted a complete uniform for its force. Opponents to uniformed police labeled them as "unamerican," "undemocratic," "militaristic," "imita- tion of royalty," etc. Badges were not displayed except when making an arrest and/or restoring order, so it was not possible to identify the officers easily.11 This loIbide' Pp. 65-68. llIbid., pp. 69, 7o. 51t.a:: "I' 4 LilZC the fa S‘A'g ~V‘.‘ 71 situation would of course allow the police officer to be "blind" at the prOper time without calling attention to the fact. In New York in 1857 a movement was begun to intro- duce some of Sir Robert Peel's methods of police control, uniich had been ad0pted in the metropolitan district of London in 1829. The New York state legislature passed the Metropolitan Police Bill, using the London metrOpol- itan model, which consolidated the police districts of the ciJ:ies of New York and Brooklyn, and the counties of Kings, Westohester, and Richmond under a board of five commis- sixaners appointed by the governor.12 There was a major difference, however, in the Spirit in which the London and New York acts were con- Ceived. The London Act of 1829 was a non-partisan attempt t<> remedy an inefficient system. The New York Act, on the other hand, ". . . represented the maneuvering of a Repub- liczan legislature to obtain control over the affairs, and Particularly the patronage, of a Democratic city."13 The bill was apparently accepted with reluctance as a \ 12Ibid., p. 82. 13Ibid., p. 84. 1! V J' ‘00 .A a: 1:5. 1 u..s .RV IEIE a» pawn \- 72 desperate attempt to counter the sharply rising crime rate in New York City. There was strong resistance to the introduction of state control of the police forces, and this led to riots and bloodshed, but the metropolitan police force was nevertheless organized. Some improvements were made under this system, but the political implications of the move were a continual source of friction and conflict. In 1859 a special committee selected by the state senate reported that the police force was organized ". . . less with regard to its public duties than to its efficiency as a political machine." In spite of its shortcomings, however, the method of state control by commissioners resulted in some betterment in police operations in New York City. This form of control in New York was abolished in 1870, but it had established a precedent that is still followed in at least two major American cities.14 During the latter part of the nineteenth century police departments in the United States went through a long series of systems of organization and control but apparently gave little or no attention to the character l4Ibido' pp. 87' 88’ 90"910 It was would n Rf‘r u," 5V5 3:, 5. S‘v'Ste-‘I. i Q.“ lute i b 50:“; “5. \‘N‘ A" Y, v- e‘ vi ’ a 4“, . sq Y5. V‘ 73 and integrity of the men that were its crucial component. It was evidently not realized that forms of organization would not protect against corruption and inefficiency if corrupt and/or inefficient men were allowed to operate the system. For this reason, there was a great deal of var- iance in the efficiency and organizational schemes in various cities and under different administrators. The principal motives for changes in organization of police departments was ". . . the struggle for party dominance, the desire of jobs for the faithful, and the determination to control the machinery of elections."15 In the final decade of the nineteenth century the New York City Police Department adopted the civil service system and this was quickly followed by a similar move in Chicago. In spite of the shortcomings of civil service that later became apparent, it served to limit political control of police and provided some stability to police departments.16 Graper indicated in 1921 that the fact that civil service had raised the standard of efficiency . . . . 17 in police serVice was not Open to question. lsIbid., pp. 115, 271. 16Ibid. 17Elmer Graper, American Police Administration (New York: MacMillan Company, 1921), p. 69. 74 Prior to civil service the upset of a political machine in elections was followed by sweeping changes in personnel in the department. Police departments were fre- quently known as "Democratic" or "Republican" police forces, and remaining on the job required that one support the right (winning) party. In some cities the changes in police personnel "for the good of the service" ran as high as eighty-five percent after elections. The basic purpose of including this historical sketch of American law enforcement in this investigation was to develop the matrix upon which a program for police training and education was built in the beginning of the twentieth century. It is rather obvious that as long as the principal qualifications for police service were polit- ical loyalty and flexible ethics and morals, there was little necessity or desire for formal police training either before or after employment. Police service at the turn of the century was certainly not a profession and was generally not considered to be a career. As the civil service system, with its physical and Inental standards, was adOpted by more American cities, the 18Fosdick, op. cit., p. 274. 75 stage was set for establishment of minimum training and educational standards. One of the first steps was a rather revolutionary requirement that policemen should be able to read and write. This was soon followed by an ac- knowledgement that formal schooling of police officers was necessary and desirable to replace or augment the time- honored method of on-the-job training. The state of education and training of police officers at the turn of the century is not terribly shock- ing, however, when one considers the fact that the appren- ticeship or on-the-job system of training was not limited to police. It was also commonly used in medicine, law, and education until fairly recent years. As late as the 1920's, it was possible in this country for a young man to "read the law in the office of a local attorney." After an extended period of study in the law office, he was given an examination which legalized the practice of law}9 In discussing the "school of experience" Wilt- berger pointed out as late as 1937 that it 19Robert L. Craig and Lester Bittel (eds.), Train- ing and Development Handbook (New York: McGraw-Hill Com- pany, 1967), p. 2. t I 76 . . . must not be overlooked or treated lightly, because it must be remembered that the majority of our successful police offi- cials and thief catchers are still today, for the most gart, graduates of this impor- tant school.2 One can quite logically argue that formal training for police, except for the apprenticeship variety, did not exist in this country prior to 1906. In that year a train- ing school was established by the newly organized Pennsyl- vania State Police. Detroit established a training school for its recruits in 1911 and the New York Police Academy was established in 1917 by the New York City Police De- partment.21 These training developments were significant and soon spread across the country in various forms. On the other end of the American continent, there were concurrent developments also taking place which are especially rele- vant to the present study. These developments will be con- sidered in detail in the following section. 20William Wiltberger, "A Program for Police Train- ing in a College" (unpublished Master's thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 1937), p. 19. 1George H. Brerton, "The Importance of Training and Education in the Professionalization of Law Enforce- ment," Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology. and Police Science, 52:112, May—June, 1961. \\) 77 UniversitypInvolvement In 1905 August Vollmer was elected to the office of Chief of Police of Berkeley, California. Shortly after taking office the department investigated a suicide in- volving use of poison. Vollmer was suspicious and re— quested assistance from Doctor Jacques Loeb, a famous pro- fessor at the University of California in Berkeley. This involvement convinced him that knowledge of chemistry, physics, psychology, sociology, and biology, were neces- sary for effective police performance. Although Vollmer's formal education consisted of grammar school and a two- year business school stenography course, he began an in- tensive program of self—education by borrowing books on criminology and related subjects from the University of California library and individual professors. In 1909 August Vollmer started a police school in the Berkeley police department. This school differed from those that were developing elsewhere because he asked for assistance from members of the faculty at the University of California to act as guest lecturers in his off-duty 22Albert Deutsch, "America's Greatest Cop," Collier's, 127:26-27, February 3, 1951. 78 school. This was perhaps the first American application of the university extension concept to police services. It is interesting to note that the University of California Extension Division "got under way in Berkeley in 1912,"24 three years after Vollmer had employed this concept in police education. A direct connection could not be established but it certainly indicates that Vollmer was truly an extension and evening college pioneer. In the beginning the deputy marshals attended off-duty classes and seemed to enjoy the instruction they received. They soon found that a great deal of the "book" knowledge gained through the instruction could be promptly applied in daily work situations. In 1916 Chief Vollmer read an article in a medical journal by Doctor Albert Schneider, a University of Cali- fornia professor, describing procedures for gathering phys- ical evidence at crime scenes for analysis in solving 23Alfred E. Parker, Crime Fighter: August Vollmer (New York: MacMillan Company, 1961), p. 83. 24Glen Burch, Challenge to the University: An In- guiry into the University's Responsibility for Adult Educa- tion (Chicago: Center for the Study of Liberal Education for Adults, 1961), p. 58. 25Parker, op. cit., p. 84. \Q 79 crimes. He asked Doctor Schneider to give lectures to men in the department as part of the training program and was so impressed with the methods he employed that he later hired him to establish a crime laboratory in the depart- ment and provide instruction to men in the department on a permanent basis. This appears to be the first police crime laboratory established in the United States.26 In 1917 Chief Vollmer became unhappy with the qual- ity of men he was getting for the department and struck upon the idea of recruiting police officers from among university students. He placed the following ad in the Daily Californian, a student publication: College men wanted for police force. In- teresting experience. Learn a new profession. Serve on the Berkeley police force while you go to college. Contact August Vollmer, Chief of Police.2 There were many that doubted that college men would be interested in police work and, even if they were, questioned their effectiveness. The first of these doubts disappeared when over one hundred men applied to fill the 26Deutsch, op. cit., p. 84. 27Parker, op. cit., pp. 97-100. 80 less than twenty open positions.28 This was probably the first application of what is now called "cooperative" higher education, whereby individuals attend school part- time and work in a related field to gain practical exper- ience. In 1916 a "summer session" for police officers was implemented at the University of California which operated from June to August.. Six units of credit was allowed for this session. Both pre-service and in-service personnel attended the session. An indication that continuing educa- tion had to "pay its way" even in this early period was the fact that the twenty—five dollar fee was paid by the stu- dents in classes of up to one hundred students.29 At the urging of Chief Vollmer a police training school was established at the University of California in 1917, the first time such a program had been conducted on a college or university campus. This was a natural de- velopment from the earlier "extension" and "cooperative" programs of the police department and the university. Vollmer indicated that the benefits of the earlier rather 29Wiltberger, op. cit., p. 45. \Q 81 fragmentary courses were obvious, but he desired a "more definite course of instruction." Even at that later stage Of development, the police school at the University of California was still considered an "evening college" or "extension" operation since it Operated three nights a week and lasted for two years. The curriculum contained a wide range of subjects in the natural and social sci- ences. The police school was initially Operated through the COOperation of the law school and there was some dis- cussion of combining police instruction with the schools of social work, which were being absorbed by the colleges and universities at the time. This was strongly resisted by police administrators.3 It appears that the evening classes that were ini- tially Offered to the policemen were non-credit courses; but, in 1923, by special committee action, the University Of California granted a Bachelor of Arts degree with a major in economics and a minor in criminology to a Berkeley 30August Vollmer and Albert Schneider, "The School for Police as Planned at Berkeley," Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 7:879, 1917. 31Wiltberger, Op. cit., p. 49. \Q 82 police Officer who had participated in the university po- lice training program. This is thought to be the first time that technical police courses were officially recog- nized by the university.32 In 1931 Vollmer was appointed Professor of Police Administration in the Political Science Department at the University of California at Berkeley, while still holding his job as chief of police in the city of Berkeley. A criminologist/psychiatrist was also added to the medical staff and designated as chairman of an "unofficial" crimi- nology group to work out a degree program.33 Law enforce- ment was started down the long road to gaining academic "respectability." In 1933 a curriculum was developed by Chief Voll- mer in coordination with other law enforcement officials and it was approved by the university. The curriculum was divided into three parts: technical, legal, and social; 3zIbid., p. 50. 33Allen Z. Gammage, Police Training in the United States (Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1963), p. 67. 83 with police administration subjects in the social cate- 34 gory. In 1929 President Hutchins requested that Vollmer assume duties as Professor of Police Administration in the Political Sciences Department at the University of Chicago. The curriculum established by Vollmer at the University of Chicago was broken down into two parts. In the Autumn quarter, a course in police administration was presented; and the instruction for the Winter term dealt with police procedures which included lectures on identification, crim- inal investigation, etc. A seminar was also conducted for two hours each week and students worked on individual re- search projects as a part Of the program. The courses were presented three times each week in one-hour lectures and both full-time students and active police Officers from the local area were allowed to attend.35 This was the first time that technical courses in law enforcement were made a part of the "regular" curriculum of "day" students. This neW'program unfortunately folded when Chief Vollmer's 34Ibid. 35George H. Brereton, "Police Training in College and University," American Journal of Police Science, 3:65-66, January-February, 1932. \Q 84 two-year leave of absence ended, and he returned to Berk- eley in 1931.36 In 1930 Dr. T. W. MacQuarrie, a former army major and president of San Jose Teachers' College, established a pre-service police training school at San Jose--the first of its kind in the United States. The program operated under the San Jose District Junior College, or San Jose Teachers' College. MacQuarrie reasoned that there was a similarity between police training and teacher training since they were both social services, and the techniques used by one might be appropriate for the other. The grad- uates Of the police training program were issued an Asso- ciate of Arts degree in Police Training.3 In 1935 San Jose Teachers' College became a state college and this allowed a four-year college program in police training leading to a Bachelor of Arts degree. 36Ibid. 37T. W. MacQuarrie, "San Jose College Police School," Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science, 26:225, July, 1935. 38Department of Administration of Justice, San Jose Ckfliege, "The Department of Administration of Justice, 1971-1972" (undated mimeographed document containing his- tory of the department), pp. 1-2. 85 Apparently two of the academic "black sheep,“ teachers and policemen, had sneaked into the academic fold through an unattended back gate. At about the same time the Department of Police Administration was created at Michigan State within the School of Science and Arts, which provided for granting a Bachelor Of Science degree in Police Administration. The original course consisted of four years of academic work followed by one year of field service training which was administered by the Michigan State Police.39 Until 1947 law enforcement was the only specialized area of emphasis in the Michigan State program; but in that year Police Science, Prevention and Control of Delin- quency, Highway Traffic Administration, Correctional Admin- istration, and Industrial Security Administration were added as specialized areas. In 1956 a graduate study di- vision was added tO the school.40 39A. F. Brandstatter, "The School of Police Admin- istration and Public Safety, Michigan State University," Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science, p. 565. 4oIbid. \\) 86 Michigan State also became involved in a number of extension programs over the years. Perhaps the largest was the Michigan Police Academy which was established in 1950 at the request of the Michigan Association Of Chiefs of Police. Through coordination with the Michigan Association of Chiefs of Police, the Michigan Sheriffs' Association, the State Department of Public Instruction, and the Mich- igan State Police, several "short courses" for recruit and command personnel were developed and offered. These courses were: Four-week basic police course given three times each year. One-week command Officers course given twice each year. One-week basic traffic course given twice each year. One-week conunand Officers traffic course given tWice each year. One-week juvenile police training course given each year. One—week instructors course. x 41 u . - . A. F. Brandstatter, Michigan 5 Answer to Its 5:" Enforcement Training Needs," Police Yearbook (Washing- :1. International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1951), p0 33. 21bid.. pp. 33-34. 87 The instruction was given at Michigan State Uni- versity and the instructional staff was drawn from the School of Police Administration, municipal police depart- ments, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, and other law enforcement agencies. During the period 1951 to 1958 over 1200 police officers from more than a hundred different departments participated in this program. These training sessions at Michigan State were terminated in 1965 and were eventually replaced by a system of regional training centers which Operate across the state through coordination with community colleges and the Michigan Law Enforcement Training Council.43 Development of meaningful linkages between law en- forcement agencies and the colleges and universities, sim-. ilar to those described at the University of California, University of Chicago, San Jose State,.and Michigan State University, were also taking place in several other insti- tutions of higher education across the country. These four were cited because their development is well known and documented. Almost without exception there was an initial contact by police agencies due to an interest in 43ibid., pp. 34-35. ‘\\12 88 limited extension or evening college courses (with or without credit) for active police officers. These even- tually developed into full-blown degree programs, to in- clude study at the graduate level. The universities in- volved then tended to shift away from the more "vocational" or "how to" aspects of law enforcement toward emphasis on "degree seeking" students with primary interests in pre- employment broad educational preparation. Active police officers were also encouraged to participate in college or university level courses on a part-time basis. Another change that has occurred in most well established schools of police administration or criminal justice is a greater emphasis upon research and writing to develop a criminal justice "body of knowledge." Such SChOOlE; have also been active in arranging for conferences and Sentinars involving higher level police administrators. The r0143 of providing lower level "how to" courses or in- Struction to police officers has generally been assumed by cummntity colleges or provided through "in-house" training by indidlidual police agencies. During the period 1952 to 1965 the School of Police Ad ' - miniratration at Michigan State University Offered 142 89 different courses of the extension variety to 3100 students. This was accomplished in cooperation with the Michigan State University Continuing Education Service in what was called the Law Enforcement Training Program. These were the same variety of "short course" in-service training series mentioned earlier, for administrators and practi- tioners of criminal justice, primarily from Michigan law enforcement agencies. Another development in extension education took Places in 1964 when the School of Police Administration Sponsored a correspondence course in police administration thrtnigh.the cooperation of the International City Managers Association of Chicago. This was developed at Michigan State University because the University of Chicago termi- hated its Home-Study Department which had Offered a police administration course for many years. The School of Criminal Justice, as it is now c . . a1343(1, has also sponosred the annual National Police and ¥ tic 44Frank D. Day, "Administration of Criminal Jus- J0 63- An Educational Design in Higher Education," The ?%55:_:j51~1. of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science, November- -December, 1965. 45Ibid. 90 This is a one—week confer— Community Relations Institute. ence which is held each May at the Kellogg Center for Con- tinuing Education. Legislation Related to Police Education and Training In 1917 the stage was set for a national program 0f Explice training below the college level with the pas- sage; of the Smith-Hughes Act. This Act provided federal funds on a fifty-fifty matching basis to pay the salaries 0f teachers of agriculture, trades and industries, and hCHREB economics, and for training teachers in those fields. The act did not, however, provide assistance for tITiiliing law enforcement personnel. In 1936 this basic V°°ational Education Act was supplemented by the George- been Act which authorized a large increase in funds for Of more importance to law v . . 0‘33 t Jonal education. \ 461bid. pa 47C. F. Klinefelter, "Use of Federal and State Ilciusg for Police Training," Police Yearbook (Washington: (ational Association of Chiefs of Police, 1937-1938), gntieezct11. '21- n 91 enforcement was the inclusion of the statement that the act could be used for training in ". . . trade and indus- trial subjects, including public and other service occu- pations . . . ." Armed with this authorization, the Trade and Industrial Section of the Office of Education, then part of the Interior Department, started working with rep- resentatives of local, state, and national agencies to en- courage states to make provisions for public service training in their trade and industrial education plans.48 The statement of Wiltberger in 1937 that "we are witness- ing the launching of the greatest vocational indservice training program in the history of this country," is in- dicative of the Optimism of law enforcement officers at the time.49 Under this Act federal funds were matched by state or local funds as was the case with the original Act. With Official encouragement from the U.S. Department of Educa- tion, a wide range of police training was offered under the acts for several years.50 48Richard A. Myren, "Police Training as Vocational Education," Law and Order, April, 1963, p. 76. 49Wiltberger, op. cit., p. 38. 50Myren, Op. cit. 92 In 1946 the George-Deen Act was repealed by the George-Barden amendments to the Smith-Hughes Act. Under the new Act police training only came under the trade and industrial education provisions. This required a concen- tration on the technical and mechanical aSpects of police Operations as opposed to the legal, psychological, and sociological aspects. Examples of this training would be automotive maintenance, photography, communications, fire- arms, first aid, etc. Such training under the Act con- tinued to expand and many programs made use of college and university facilities. By 1963 federal vocational educa- tion funds available under the George-Barden amendments to the Smith-Hughes Act were used extensively in one-third of the states.51 During the period 1965-1968 the United States Con- gress passed two acts that provided unprecedented support for improvement of American law enforcement: The Law En- forcement Assistance Act of 1965 and the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act Of 1968. The Act of 1965 was a relatively small research and development grant program which was funded at the rate 51Ibid.. pp. 77—78. 93 of $7.3 million per year for three years-~1966 through 1968. Under the Law Enforcement Assistance Act Of 1965, approximately $4.4 million was spent to provide support for police training and this included grants to establish standards and training commissions in twenty-two states.52 President Johnson also appointed the President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Jus- tice, with an assignment to begin a careful examination of the criminal justice system in the United States and to prepare recommendations for its improvement.53 The establishment of this commission was extremely important because it identified the poor conditions of the criminal justice system and recommended immediate and com- prehensive changes. This report prompted the introduction of the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act.54 The original Safe Streets Act was introduced in early 1967 and eventually enacted as Public Law 90-351 in 2Donald G. Alexander, "New Resources for Crime Control: Experience Under the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968," American Criminal Law Review, 10:205, July, 1971. 53Ibid. 54Ibid. 94 June, 1968. Section 406 of the act contained important provisions for upgrading the formal educational level Of police Officers. One author has speculated that this may be the greatest contribution of the act. During the first three years Of Operation of the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration, the action agency for the act awarded over fifty grants to assist in establishing college degree pro- grams in law enforcement. This program resulted in a dra- matic expansion of these programs during that period, and this trend has continued.55 The Act also provides incentives for raising the educational level of the individual prospective or active police Officer. Loans of up to $1800 a year are available for persons enrolled in approved full-time undergraduate or graduate degree programs. Priority for these loans is to police personnel of state and local agencies. The loans are forgivable at the rate of 25 percent for each year of later service in a law enforcement agency.56 55Charles B. Saunders, Upgrading the American Police: Education and Training for Better Law Enforcement (Washington: The Brookings Institute, 1970), p. 99. SGIbid. 95 In addition to the loan provisions, the act author— izes grants up to $200 per academic quarter or $300 per semester for in—service officers enrolled on a full- or part-time basis in approved undergraduate or graduate pro- grams. Individuals receiving these grants must agree to remain in law enforcement for two years after the comple- tion Of their studies.57 The Safe Streets Act thus gave colleges and univer- sities a monetary incentive to develop law enforcement programs and also gave prOSpective and active police Of- ficers financial support to take part in a higher educa- tional experience. The funds appropriated by Congress actually became available to colleges and universities in early 1969, with 6.5 million dollars going to 485 colleges and 20,602 students in all parts of the United States. In 1970 the Law Enforcement Educational Program, or LEEP, re- ceived 18 million dollars which provided financial assis- tance to approximately 80,000 students in over 725 schools who were active or potential members of the law enforcement . 5 profession. 57Ibid. 58Law Enforcement Assistance Administration, LEEP-- An Opportunity to Move Ahead, Informational brochure 96 An Official of the Law Enforcement Assistance Ad- ministration reported to the International Association of Chiefs of Police at a recent convention that: The total expenditure [for LEEP] to the end of August, 1971, has been about 45.5 million dol- lars. The distribution of this assistance was 85 percent to in-service personnel and 15 per- cent tO pre-service persons.59 In March, 1971, President Nixon and Attorney Gen- eral Mitchell reported an authorization of twenty-one mil- lion dollars for the next school year and that over 900 colleges and universities were taking part in the program. Summary In the nineteenth century there was little concern for securing proper education and training for police Of- ficers. It would have been rather futile, in fact, given __ developed to explain the Law Enforcement Educational Pro- gram (washington: U.S. Printing Office, 1970). 59Carl W. Hamm, ‘tion," Police Yearbook (Washington: tion of Chiefs of Police, 1972), p. 65. "Remarks on Law Enforcement Educa-. International Associa- 60President Nixon and Attorney General Mitchell, JOint Address to Congress on March 2, 1971. (From OOpy of Press release distributed to interested agencies.) 97 the personnel turbulence generated by the political influ- ence over police agencies, which tended to insure inexper- ience and ineptness within police ranks. As the twentieth century began there were a few men such as August Vollmer and Leonhard Fuld who recognized the tremendous responsibilities Of police Officers and looked to colleges and universities for assistance in im- proving the caliber of police personnel. There was only limited response from institutions of,higher education until the problem Of crime in the United States became intolerable and massive federal monies were made available to prod them into action. This new mission was not ac- cepted with enthusiasm, however, and the preparation of law enforcement Officers has still not been accepted fully by many academicians who have failed to perceive the chill- ing truth contained in Chief Justice Burger's thought- provoking rhetorical question cited earlier: If we do not solve what you call the problem of criminal justice, will anything else matter very much?61 1News item in the Wall Street Journal, Sep- tember 29, 1969, p. 18. CHAPTER III REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE The number and quality of reported empirical studies dealing with law enforcement personnel practices is limited. This researcher was‘unable to locate any studies in a state police setting which focused upon the educational component Of police background characteristics as predictors of training achievement and on-the-job per- formance. Available literature seems to divide itself into two principal categories: 1) studies which attempt in a scientific or systematic manner to examine the relation- ships between various predictors and actual duty perform- ance, and 2) opinions or intuitive judgments expressed by individuals with experience and/or knowledge in criminal ghastice or related fields. The literature in the first «category is quite limited, as indicated, while that in the. latter category is, in relative terms, quite extensive. 98 asi ~ all 0 . :finn “a scnool “R Q.‘ 93 a q: 35‘} A“~‘A .7 5:11“. ‘1 9.. H b 99 This review will be divided in a similar fashion. Emphasis will of course be given to the literature dealing directly with the issue of formal education of police of- ficers. In the past fifty years this has generally in- volved the question of whether or not higher education is desirable for policemen, since the necessity for high school minimum educational level was accepted several years ago and is a matter of fact and law in most police agencies. Literature Reporting Scientific and Empirical Studies This section of the review will consider studies which have attempted in a scientific or systematic manner to examine the relationships between various pre- and early-employment predictors and actual police performance. One of the earliest studies which dealt with the selection of police officers in a systematic way was com— pleted in 1950 by DuBois and Watson. In this study two calasses of 129 recruits were given a battery of psycholog- ical tests. Upon completion of the eight-week police academy training program the predictors generated from the :szbma ‘cant 3 “Van: J A i. 5““ h QM“ V‘,‘ axe, , J. O A; ‘L‘ '9 b-Le -' . ‘A 1 ”ea a q h§““ y '\ ‘ ‘ w" Q‘a ""2 : d.“ o. ‘ N :rer‘ s \A ‘1 ‘ 'l n N ‘tfie ‘I . “‘e vise -K “.qu .5ssy‘AnE 9. a .rGrY . I35‘ ’15 \E:§‘- o {P 5,. ”a ‘V‘. 34 100 tests were related to four performance criteria: 1) po- lice academy grades, 2) score on an achievement test, 3) marksmanship, and 4) supervisory ratings. The best predictors of marksmanship were the non-verbal tests; a combination of three tests of this type yielded a signif- icant multiple correlation of .33. None of the individual predictor tests were significantly correlated with the supervisory rating performance criterion. A combination of the three non-verbal tests and the Rosenzweig Test pro- duced a significant multiple correlation coefficient of .29 with supervisory ratings. Cross validation with a third class of recruits resulted in a significant multiple correlation of .62 with final academic grades. In essence DuBois and Watson found that certain tests could be used to predict subsequent academic performance. A 1964 study by Blum was unique for that time due to the length of the follow-up period (seven years), and the use of performance measures normally found in police ;personnel folders; but not including a subjective overall supemvisory rating. The study involved a rather small _ 1Philip H. DuBois and Robert I. Watson, "The Se- lection of Patrolmen," Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 34, 1950, pp. 90-94. *6. 5 Q ~ ,‘hlmw VHHJ\ '\ A l '. F‘ . ~::~r n ‘ u ~E 101 sample (eighty-seven subjects) and the setting was only identified as a "major metropolitan police force." The study reported that personality tests were given to of- ficers soon after their appointment in the 1956-1957 period, and a performance prediction was made at that time. Performance information was collected in 1963. Each performance measure was used to determine the zero- order correlation with each test score. The highest cor- relations, which were above .40, were between certain MMPI tests and subsequent evidence of especially serious mis- conduct which involved only four subjects. Blum observed that if one had a goal of weeding out the four "bad" men using their test scores, while min- imizing the number of "good" men rejected on the same lmasis, "cut points" could have been used at 32 on the MMPI Schizophrenia subscale, and at 28 for Pt (obsessive- conlpulsive) score. This would have served to also exclude tern "good" men from appointment, in addition to the four "bafi" men, and five of that ten were later charged with 19353 serious disciplinary violations. k _ 2Richard M. Blum (ed.), Police Selection (Spring- flelxi: Charles c. Thomas, 1964), pp. 123-124. 31bid. &A~ u-o“ :n a tea 7": I. 102 Blum also found correlations of test scores with performance measures other than misconduct were less than .30 in magnitude. He summarized "those of interest" as follows: Receiving commendations and praise is related to vocational interests, attitudes and orien- tation, and intelligence. It is not related to personality measures. Being subject to accidents, injury or time-off for illness is related to vocational interest, intelligence, personality, and attitudes and orientation.4 No correlations larger than .22 were found between test scores and termination of employment, and none larger than .14 were found for assignment progression, which was a subjective measure of the merit of a subject's assign— ment history provided by a police official who may not have been familiar with the evaluated individual. A study of the St. Louis, Missouri Police Depart- ment was conducted in 1964 which rated men quantitatively on routine tasks such as number of parking tickets issued, vehicles stopped, pedestrians questioned, etc. A qualita- tive evaluation was not made and the study did not measure performance of the preventive functions which consume a 4Ibid. 5Ibid. H.“ g c . . .1 .n Mi .a .I .-~'. .ani‘ b i .-"A ...C 103 great deal of police time. Critical factors such as indi- vidual judgment, and the capacity of the police officer to deal with unexpected situations was not evaluated. On the basis of these more or less mechanical duties it was found that men with thirteen years of education stood highest in the composite ranking reflecting the quantitative perform- ance of these tasks. In 1964 Colarelli and Siegel administered the Cal- ifornia Test of Mental Maturity, the Allport-Vernon- Lindzey Study of Values, the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule, and the Minnesota Multiphastic Personality In- ventory to Kansas State Highway Patrol applicants. From these test results a description of the "average patrol- man" was developed. Eight performance variables were \ used: 1) moving hazardous arrests, 2) moving hazardous warnings, 3) other arrests, 4) services rendered, 5) light correction, 6) miles per contact with and without radar, and 8) hours per arrest. These were summarized for each 6Thomas J. McGreevy, "A Field Study of Relation- ships Between the Formal Educational Levels of 556 Police Officers in Saint Louis, Missouri and Their Patrol Duty Performance Records" (unpublished master's thesis, School of Police Administration and Public Safety, Michigan State University, 1964), p. 61. a .VA J bob] 5 | ;,.. ,. cu ' .. 3'7... "d‘. . .‘ 5? 0.. v. 5‘ l u .‘., ..q-i :.‘ y. . A; 3‘s“ 104 patrohman in terms of an "Opportunity measure" which was intended to control for differences in the populations .of communities where the officers served. Correlations between test scores and criterion measures were used to make predictions of success or failure for sixty new re- cruits who took the same battery of tests. All but one of the predicted failures were rated poor officer mate— rial, while all predicted successes were rated above average to excellent. No specific correlations or tests of significance were reported and relative numbers of successes and failures were not given. Validation of the eight job performance measures against predictors were also not reported.7 In 1967 McConnell found a significant correla- tion of .44 between total score on a biographical infor- mation form and classification of success or failure based on supervisors' performance ratings for Colorado State Patrolmen. Those with higher scores on the weighted 7Nick J. Colarelli and Saul M. Siegel, "A Method of Police Personnel Selection," Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science, Vol. 55, 1964, pp. 287- 289. mm ‘vs- 6 Q . *2, ‘.¥‘ . 5;": .‘61 on '4. ‘1 I: \ I1 ~ \ n‘. ‘.“ 105 personal history form were rated higher than those with lower‘scores. In 1967 Levy found that biographical data from personnel files significantly differentiated between suc- cessful candidates (i.e. those remaining on the job) and those who left police work. Retained officers had the greatest amount of tenure on previous jobs and the least education, were oldest at time of appointment, and were most likely to have been exposed to police courses. Non- failure terminations were most likely to be younger at the time of appointment and had the highest level of edu- cation. Failures had the most vehicle code violations, were most likely to have been fired from previous jobs, and had the greatest number of marriages among married men. Smith, Locke, and Walker conducted a study in 1967 which dealt with differences in authoritarianism between 8William A. McConnell, "The Relationship of Per- sonal History to Success as a Police Patrolman" (unpub- lished master's thesis, Colorado State University, 1967), pp. 39-400 . 9Ruth Levy, "Predicting Police Failures," Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science, Vol. 58, L. I 4. D o. :u a: 106 groups of men who attended college and those that did not. This study found that "highly significant" differences existed between these groups: . . . police who are at- tracted to college are significantly less authoritarian than police who are not impelled to attend college." These authors felt that this implied that there are certain personality character- istics that make it more likely that they will be able to function more effectively with re- spect to problems stemming from civil rights demonstrations, and more in accordance with respect to arrests and search and seizure.10 Saunders reported a study involving a national sample of 4,672 policemen which revealed differences between college and non-college officers in the perception of their role, and in approaches to the concepts of justice and law. For example, the lower the educa- tional level, the greater the tendency to View the law as fixed and flexible. The) author wrote that such findings are not con- clusive, but they suggest that large scale recruitment of-college graduates would sig- nificantly affect police performance.1 . 10Alexander B. Smith, Bernard Locke, and William walker, ”Authoritarianism in College and Non-College Ori- ented Police," Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science, Vol. 59, March, 1968, p. 132. 11Charles Saunders, Upgrading_American Police: Education and Training for Better Law Enforcement (Wash- ington: The Brookings Institution, 1970), pp. 89-91. V -_.;. b‘, d E - ‘5 fiv- U“ 107 A study reported by Richard Hankey in 1968 in- volved 801 police officers in the Los Angeles Police De- partment that were appointed during the 1955-1959 period. The background information and personality test scores for the men in the sample were recorded prior to, or shortly after, their appointment. The data used for performance measures were gathered in 1962. The performance of sub- jects was therefore measured for different periods of time within a three to eight year range.12 The principal focus of the Hankey study was to determine the predictive power of ten trait scores pro- vided by the Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey (GZTS). A multiple regression analysis was employed using these ten scores as predictors against a weighted average of supervisory evaluations which produced a multiple correla- tion which was significant at the .05 level. A discrimi- nate function analysis was also used in which subjects were separated into success/non-success categories based on scores on each of the following variables taken separ- ately: l) recruit training score, 2) average supervisory 2Richard O. Hankey, "Personality Correlates in a Role of Authority: The Police" (unpublished D.P.A. dis- sertation, University of Souther California, 1968). 533365 36351: recrui 108 evaluation, 3) score on sergeant's promotional oral exami— nation, and 4) punitive days off.13 Use of predictor variables other than the GZTS scores produced only one significant relationship between measures of mental ability and performance scores in the recruit academy.l4 Based on his research Hankey concluded that: "no evidence was found to support the hypothesis that succeSs- ful policemen have a different syndrome of personality traits and other variables as compared with non-successful policemen," and "it does not appear that additional refine- ment [in selection procedures] would result in an increase :h1 effective and a decrease in ineffective or problem em— Ployees . " 15 In 1969 Abbatiello reported part of a large study uSing civil service examinations as the predictor and a multiple criterion consisting of failure to qualify on the barzkground investigation, and subsequent achievement in thee police academy based on instructor ratings and grades. ¥ lBIbid. 14Ibid. lSIbid. A s: tne SCSI tive .l e r.“ "V a» ~ . n u .6 at a O :5. .1‘ n‘b ~u- Pk o. § luls 05 a L e 515 \IIJ ‘1..- 109 A significant correlation of -.17 was found between the civil service examination scores and failure to qualify on the background investigation. Significant correlations of» .35 and .25 were found between civil service examination scores and academy grades and instructor ratings respec- tively. A significant correlation of .62 was also re- ported between the civil service examination and the Otis Test of mental ability. Abbatiello concluded that the civil service examination had predicted scholastic perform- ance in the police academy.16 In 1970 McAllister compared performance evaluations of New York City recruits during the first eighteen months of service with the initial judgment of background inves- » tigators. Performance evaluations were based on seven cri- teria: 1) total time lost, 2) time lost for injuries, 3) completion of training standards, 4) formal recognition of outstanding service, 5) absence of formal disciplinary charges, 6) completion of the probationary period, and 16A. A. Abbatiello, "A Study of Police Candidate Selection," A Paper presented at the Seventy-seventh annual convention of the American Psychological Association, Wash- ington, D.C., 1969. Reviewed by Deborah A. Kent and Terry Eisenberg in "The Selection and Promotion of Police Offi- cers: A Selected Review of Recent Literature," Police Chief, February,.l972, pp. 24-25. 7) av. groan: judge: patio: latte the t. 110 7) evaluation of supervisors.- He concluded that the back- ground investigation was not highly valid since those judged to be of better character did not achieve higher performance than those of poor character evaluation. The latter group had been certified eligible as a result of the total selection process.17 A l968 study by Baehr was described by one author as "perhaps one of the finest validation studies which has been conducted." The research was a study of the Chicago Police Department with the goals of: l) develOping effec- tive procedures and establishing general standards for patrolman selection, and 2) the identification of distinc- tive patrolman types defined on the basis of field per- formance, which would not be adequately described by the concept of average policeman. This study involved the validation of a battery of commercially available psychological tests as instruments 17John A. McAllister, "A Study of the Prediction and Measurement of Police Performance," Police, Vol. 14, 1970, pp. 58-64. 18Deborah A. Kent and Terry E. Eisenberg, "The Se- lection and Promotion of Police Officers: A Selected Re- view of Recent Literature," Police Chief, February, 1972, pp. 24-290 r. ‘1. I613 goal a ‘ \- .Ies fl. - t #4 E u .. 54. h}. fish A ‘ >P¢ . v a .‘i ‘ ‘91“ \r\ t A‘s 111 for selecting patrolmen. In order to reach the second goal an attempt was made to demonstrate that there are a variety of successful and unsuccessful patterns of police field performance.19 The researchers attempted to show a significant relationship between selected psychological tests (pre- dictor variables) and measures of job performance (cri- terion variables). They hypothesized that this would iden— tify some of the personal attributes which are essential for successful police performance. The psychological tests used by Baehr included three areas: 1) motivational mea- sures, 2) intellectual measures, and 3) behavioral mea- sures. Both subjective and objective measures were used as performance criteria and included: 1) departmental performance ratings, 2) special performance ratings devel- oped by the researchers, 3) tenure information, 4) depart- mental awards, 5) complaints against patrolmen, 1'9Melany E. Baehr, John E. Furcon, and Ernest C. Froemel, Psyghological Assessment of Patrolman Qualifica- tions in Relation to Field Performance (Washington: Gov- ernment Printing Office, 1968, pp. 224-225. zoIbid. jectix I‘ L N “L‘h I 1' test , 112 6) disciplinary actions, 7) attendance, and 8) the number of arrests made. The first two performance measures (sub- jective) were considered most important by the researchers.21 This study concluded that "there was an acceptably highland statistically significant relationship between the test battery scores and independent measures of performanceJ' Another finding of this study was that the best prediction of performance was obtained when weights based on a speci- fic racial group were applied to members of the same group. This was particularly true of the Negro group in both in- stances.22 In considering the implications for future research and application Baehr pointed out that the most obvious area likely to be productive in construction of special- ized predictor instruments is that of background experi- ence, which was highly predictive in the study. Baehr in- dicated that such an instrument could have general applica- tion and be very valuable in departments which do not con— duct intensive and systematic background screening aimed ZlIbid 221bid., p. 229. 1.26 L, U‘. 113 at elimination of candidates of unstable background or . . . 23 soc1opathic tendenc1es. The Baehr study was evaluated by another author in the following manner: unfortunately, results in terms of validity were not encouraging. First of all, concurrent val- idation was employed rather than predictive, and it has previously been pointed out that evidence supporting the former does not constitute evi- dence of the latter.24 A follow-up of the Baehr study has been conducted but the results have not been published. This more recent longitudinal study will report significant predictive mul- tiple correlations. These correlations were obtained by assessing the relationships between 1966 police officer test battery performance as much as three years later, mea- sured by seven of the eight performance criteria used in . 25 the earlier study. A study by Spencer and Nichols was also conducted in the Chicago Police Department. A projective design was used and test scores and background data were obtained at 23Ibid. 24 . Kent, op..c1t., p. 25. 25 Ibid. hp, UV; 5% bu YES 114 the time of application of subjects in 1964. The sample consisted of 427 applicants who successfully passed through the selection procedure up to the point of background in- vestigation. Of this group 109 of the men were disquali- fied based on the results of this examination. Performance measures were obtained after four years from the 268 men who remained with the department. These researchers found that only one performance criterion was found to be con- sistently related to predictor information. This was the average score on the departmental semi-annual performance rating, which had a multiple correlation of .272 with var- iables of: l) a personality rating based on Personal His— tory and sentence completion forms, 2) civil service exam- ination score, and 3) level of education. The predictive weights of these variables were in the order listed. The directions of the relationships were as one might expect; departmental performance ratings increased with the per- sonality rating, civil service score,.and educational level.26 26Gilmore Spencer and Robert Nichols, "A Study of Chicago Police Recruits: Validation of Selection Proce- dures," Police Chief, Vol. 38, No. 6, June, 1971, pp. 50- 55. fin- ): you hi. '9 AO‘ HY‘R I...‘ usfi is ~fi.‘ 9. Q in 115 Comparisons Between Empirical Studies The 1968 study conducted by Hankey in Los Angeles, which was reviewed earlier, used predictor variables sim- ilar to those used by Spencer and Nichols, and Baehr, in the two previously reviewed Chicago studies, but he drew conflicting conclusions. This might indicate that pre- dictor variables validated for one agency or area of the country may not be valid in other agencies or locations. Other conflicting studies seem to indicate that the validity of predictors may change with the passage of time. This is demonstrated by two studies in the Los Angeles area which employed the Humm-Wadsworth Temperament Scale as a predictor. In a 1940 study by Humm and Humm, performance was judged as "bad" if the officer was dis- missed, and judged as "above average" if he eventually rose to an administrative or executive position. This study revealed a very strong relationship between Humm- Wadsworth scores and the performance criterion. In a 1965 study, Collins compared Humm-Wadsworth scores with the single criterion of personal conduct as reflected by disciplinary records, and found no significant .l 0—. . (W n: n: I) 116 27'28 The use of different performance cri- relationship. teria of course casts some doubt on the validity of di- rectly comparing the two studies but suggests that there might be a temporally induced nuisance variable. The Humm and Humm study has drawn considerable attention due to the high correlations yielded, plus the fact that officers who failed to meet normal civil service criteria were appointed due to war-related manpower short- ages. The research methodology employed in this study is also questionable in several respects. One subgroup in the sample was appointed and tested during.the 1943-1944 period, with a later check in 1945 to determine which sub- jects had been terminated or released. Another subgroup contained men dismissed or terminated between 1946 and 1949 but the study is not explicit in stating whether this subgroup also contained men in the earlier sub-sample. A 7Doncaster G. Humm and Kathryn A. Humm, "Humm- Wadsworth Temperament Scale Appraisals Compared with Cri- teria of Job Success in the Los Angeles-Police Department," Journal of PsychologyL Vol. 30, 1950, pp. 63-75. 28Jack G. Collins, "A Study of the Use of the Humm- Wadsworth Temperament Scale by the Los Angeles Police Department" (unpublished master's thesis, School of Public Administration, University of Southern California, 1965). third tive after ZEtez cent Hell 117 third subsample contained men in executive or administra- tive positions that were apparently tested several years after joining the force.29 The findings of the Humm and Humm study revealed that 84.9 percent of the men who were eventually dismissed had low Humm-Wadsworth appraisals, while only 32.2 percent of the staff (success criterion) had low ratings. A Chi- square statistical analysis technique was used in the study, and produced a level of significance less than .30 Blum later reworked their data in an attempt to .001 determine predictive validity and concluded that 42 per- cent of the men predicted to do badly did well, and of the men expected to do good or fair work, 66 percent did well.31 In commenting upon this study Blum pointed out that: it appears that among a total of 669 men tested, 79 resigned, 223 were fired, and 357 remained with the department. The ratio of men fired to men-resigned is most unusual 2 . 9Humm and Humm, loc. Cit. 3oIbid. 3131111“, 020 Cito' pp. 106-1070 118 and suggests a very special situation in the department during that period.32 In a 1966 New York City study, Eilbert drew con- clusions similar to those of Hankey and Collins. He used a sample of "approximately" 1,000 recruits in his study who were tested in 1962 and 1963 and who were evaluated in 1964. The predictors for this study were drawn from a battery of tests prepared by the researcher and his col- leagues based on their task analysis of police work which provided what they believed to be the essential require- ments for effective police performance. In addition.to tests of verbal and visual abilities, and personality traits, the study included tests for knowledge of sports, first-aid and safety, "handyman" techniques, city social agencies, modus operandi of criminals, points Of interest in New York City, the law and underworld "lingo." The performance criterion was generated from a supervisory evaluation form that required the evaluator to rank the subjects known to him in terms of their estimated perform- ance in twenty critical problem situations and in terms of BZIbid. E! Y? 3 Va. back. a ‘ «:5 .‘hi 4. '59: x: a u. C» .18 CU I E TL 4. any u.\ \u4 Ark 119 overall performance. Subjects were labeled either high or low in performance on the basis of these ratings.33 Predictive validity in this study was measured by biserial correlation coefficients. The specially developed tests were generally unreliable or failed to provide a sig— nificant difference between high- and low-ranked perform- ances. Two exceptions were a vocabulary test (which was very similar to the type of pre-employment test already in use), and knowledge of foreign terms and police "lingo."34 A 1962 study by Marsh used predictors similar to those of Blum, plus other personal and biographical data and civil service examination scores. The sample included 591 deputy sheriffs in Los Angeles County who were ap- pointed in the 1947-1950-period. The tests were adminis- tered while the men were in recruit training. Performance was evaluated in-1957, which provided for a seven- to ten- year time lapse. The performance criteria included a supervisory rating in which subjects were sorted into five 33Leo R. Eilbert, "Research on the Selection of Police Recruits," unpublished report of the American Insti- tute for Research,.1966. Reviewed by Cohen, op. cit., p. 15. ‘ 34Ibid. 120 categories of overall performance by individual super- visors. The joint evaluations were ranked "high" or "low."35 The analysis compared predictors for "high" versus "low" individuals versus discharged persons. The findings are not directly comparable to those of Blum, but it ap- pears that one might logically conclude that common pat- terns were not identified in the two studies. Marsh found that the civil service examination score distinguished between good performers, and those discharged, and suc- cessful performance was predicted by low scores on MMPI Hypomanic and Hypochondriasis Scales and the General Ac- tivity "C" scale of the Guilford-Martin Temperament Inven- tory. Vocational interests, as measured by the Kuder- Preference Record, were not significantly related to the performance categories used, but a prior history of exper- ience as a fireman or policeman was an indicator of a low rating as a deputy sheriff. The study found that men with high civil service scores tended to have shorter tenure 35Stewart H. Marsh, "Validating the Selection of Deputy Sheriffs," Public Personnel Review, Vol. 23, 1962, pp. 41-44. "3;: H! ‘- W ‘5 5212 i ‘ .Q A}. 121 which seems to confirm that termination of employment may frequently reflect the opportunities Open in other occupa- tions, as opposed to unsatisfactory performance. A 1972 study by Cohen and Chaiken dealt directly with the issue of relating background characteristics with subsequent performance as New York City police officers. The study involved a sample of 1,915 officers who were ap- pointed to the force in 1957 and evaluated their perform- ance through 1968. The study used "only quantifiable mea- sures of background and performance, of a type commonly maintained in personnel files by police departments."37 The researchers used a total of thirty-three pre- dictors under the general headings of: 1) race and age,. 2) mental examinations, 3) family descriptions, 4) occupa- tional history, 5) military history, 6) personal history, 7) incidents involving police and courts, 8) early per- formance, and 9) later experience.38 361bid. 37Cohen, pp3 cit., p. v. 8Bernard Cohen and Jan M. Chaiken, Police Back- ground Characteristics and Performance: Summary (New York: The New York City Rand Institute, 1972), pp. 4-6. CL. 1 a: nu +3.: “.5 122 9 They used thirteen performance measures grouped under four general headings: 1) career advancement, 2) disciplinary actions, 3) absenteeism, and 4) other.39 In their statistical analysis the researchers used simple correlations, factor analysis, and multiple regres- . . 40 Sion techniques. The study revealed that the following background characteristics were not related "in important ways" to the performance measures used: civil service exam scores; I.Q.; arrest for a petty crime; military service; military com- mendations; father's occupation; number of residences; aspects of early family responsi- bility, including marital status, number of children, and debts; reported history of psy- chological disorder; place of residence; and“ number of summonses.4 ' The study revealed that the strongest predictors of later performance were derived from quantative measures reflecting the subject's primary behavior and experience over a period of time. These included: 391bid.’ pp. 7-8. 4OIbid.' pp. 9-10. 411bid. ' pp. 27-28. 123 employment, military disciplinary actions, re- peated appearances in civil court, education, and performance in the recruit academy and during the probationary period.* Measures which are derived from single incidents or written examinations, such as arrest for petty crime or low I.Q. score, are not indie cative of major patterns of bad performance.42 With regard to education the report concluded that: As a group, the men with at least one year of college education who remained on the force were found to be very good performers. They advanced through civil service promotion, but not disproportionately through the detective route of advancement, and they had fewer ci- vilian complaints than average. The men who obtained college degrees, either before or after appointment to the force, exhibited even better on-the-job performance. They advanced through preferential assignments and civil service promotions, they had low incidents of all types of misconduct except harassment, on which they were average, they had 1OW sick time, and none of them had their firearms removed for cause. A typical example of the differences in patterns between the college graduate and ' non-graduate was in the number of civilian complaints incurred over an eleven-year ‘period. Our data revealed that 369 men, or 24 percent of the non-college graduates, had a civilian complaint, compared to only four college graduates, or eight percent. Generally speaking, the older, more educated officer received fewer civilian complaints than the younger, less educated officer.43 tc {‘1 i fie six 124 Comments and Opinions Concerning Formal Education for Police The basic purpose of this section of the review is to bring together the opinions of individuals with experi- ence and/or knowledge in criminal justice, or related fields, who have taken a position on the necessity or de- sirability of formal educational backgrounds for law en- forcement officers. In recent years literature dealing with this sub- ject has tended to respond to the question posed by Robert Jagiello: "College Education for the Patrolman--Necessity orIrrelevance?"44 At the outset it is necessary to recognize the forces that may tend to bias the literature reflecting opinions based on such unscientific and subjective, albeit authorative, judgments. The first such force is the Amer- ican reverence for education and the blind reliance upon it by some as the solution to all worldly problems. It is difficult to find an American with a critical word for 44Robert J. Jagiello, "College Education for the Patrolman--Necessity or Irrelevance," The Journal of Crim- inal Law, Criminology, and Police Science, 62:114, March, 1971. 125 higher education. Anyone with such views would likely be looked upon as having strong atavistic tendencies. Another possible root of bias is due to the sources used to gather the Opinions here presented. In spite of an active search for other sources, most opinions about educational requirements for police were found in profes- sional periodicals and books which were quite naturally written by police educators and practitioners who in most cases possess relatively high academic credentials. One would therefore expect this group to look to education as an effective tool for improving police service. Another possible bias, closely related to that of source and contributor, is the fact that there is a common tendency for one in a profession to "oversell" the quali- fications required for that profession. Such "ego-building" could also lead to considerable distortion. Suchbiases, however, are inherent in any subjec- tive study and if one keeps them in mind, the information can prOve valuable, in spite of these limitations. One certainly cannot reasonably reject such intuitive judgments arbitrarily, since it is frequently the only basis for day- to-day decisions. SE 126 The coverage given to this section is more compre- hensive and detailed than one might expect in an investiga- tion of this type. The Opinions and views about educa- tional standards used for police selection which are pre- sented were drawn from speeches and publications over many .years and should be helpful from a descriptive or histor- ical point of view in tracing the trends of changing atti- tudes toward educational requirements for police. Such coverage seems appropriate when one considers the state of development of research in criminal justice. The body of knowledge for most professions has been categorized, indexed, and made readily available through various infor- mation retrieval systems. Law enforcement unfortunately has not reached this level of development. The informa— tion is therefore presented in the hope that it may aid future investigators. In 1909 Leonhard F. Fuld, an expert in personnel administration and public health, published one of the first law enforcement textbooks, Police Administration. This text was the first attempt by an American to logi- cally present the principles of police administration and \ itk enfc that u ‘d “(h a “u. 4. b .3 v. 4 I 127 it had a significant influence on the development of law 4 enforcement. 5 Saunders quotes Fuld as having written that "it is not necessary, and some even maintain it is not desirable that police patrolmen be of large intellectual ability" and "the most important asset of the ideal policeman is unquestionably his physical constitution and condition."46 This is an accurate quote but in looking at the original source one finds that in the same text Fuld also wrote: It is certainly true that the police officer must possess physical powers rather than intel- lectual powers, that he must act rather than think, but a moments reflection will convince anyone that he must think as well as act.47 Fuld also reflected a concern for the selection process and a need for improvement of the quality of police personnel.. This was rather novel for that period. He recognized the connection between the great authority given 45Leonhard F. Fuld; Police Administration (Mont- clair, New Jersey: Peterson Publishing Company, 1971) (Introduction to reprint of 1909 edition). 6Saunders, op. cit., p. 16. 4 7Leonhard F. Fuld, Police Administration (New York: P. P. Putnam's Sons, 1909), p. 152. 128 to police through the exercise of discretionary authority, and was concerned with the intellectual and psychological preparation of police officers to enable them to make just decisions concerning arrest and application of criminal . 48 sanctions. He wrote: It is the element of individual discretion which distinguishes the police officer from the soldier . . . . The policemen . . . does not always nor even generally act under the immediate supervision of his superior officer and, accordingly, he must himself determine by the exercise of a sound discretion whether he shall act or not, and if he decides to act,» what he shall do and how he shall do it.4 Leonhard Fuld and August Vollmer were the first Americans to identify the need for a linkage between law enforcement and higher education. Fuld favored a broadly- based university education and supported the offering of incentives to encourage educated men to enter into law 50 enforcement as a career. He wrote: To fit him for the performance of this impor- tant function the ideal police officer ought to receive a professional training similar in some respects to that now required for appli- cants for position of probationary officer 48Ibid. 49Ibid. SOIbid. 129 . . . a good secondary education followed by a special course of study in sociology and the special problems of police duty. It is prob- ably impractical to demand of policemen such an education at the present time as a condi- tion precedent to appointment, but, bearing this ideal in mind, we can improve the present unsatisfactory intellectual ability of the police officer in two respects . . . by sup- plying to the police officers during their probationary period suitable instruction by competent teachers in place of the old- fashioned catechetical instruction, and by offering inducements to men of good general education, high school graduates and college- bred men, to enter the higher ranks of the uniformed force and make the police business their lifework.51 After careful study of Fuld's entire book it be- comes obvious that it would be unfair to depict him as an opponent to improved education and training for police. He was, in fact, a strong advocate, but recognized the practical "real life" futility of securing large numbers of college trained police officers at that point in his- tory. It is impossible in a review of this nature to give proper treatment to the many writings of August Voll- mer, Chief of Police of Berkeley, California, and pro- fessor of Police Administration at the University of Chi- cago and the University of California. Vollmer authored 511bid., pp. 152-153. ”CV cub- by}, 5.1“ Fr“ Na «HM Q» A t 1h... lhfl a: s e s . 130 or co-authored four books and played a prominent role in 'the development and writing of the volume on police for the famous Wickersham Report. In addition, he wrote nu- merous articles which appeared in nationally prominent professional periodicals. He addressed himself to many topics in these writings but one common thread that ran through each of them was his advocacy of better education and training for police officers. A few of the articles which are most representative of his views on this subject will be considered in this review. In The Police and Modern Society, Vollmer pointed out that if the legal, engineering, or medical profession recruited its members at random, without requirements for prior training or education, as was the case with police, that "disaster would be the inevitable consequences of such stupidity." It had been recognized, according to Vollmer, that the policeman required training equivalent to that of the most skilled professional. Vollmer felt strongly that specialized or vocational training was important but it should follow a "broad preliminary training."52 52August Vollmer, The Police and Modern Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1936), pp. 230- 232. v1». RR 5‘ Au» and v D 5.. '. . .H 5 a: hUQ 131 He suggested the possibility of drawing upon the faculty of the state university or college to offer spe- cial courses such as psychology, and other social, biolog- ical, and natural sciences which were organized to ". . . meet the practical needs of the police service." He stated that training for police should take place before their employment, thus following the lead of other professions. He proposed that a policeman should not be allowed to "practice" his profession until he had attended an accredited police institute and had at least one year "intern" experience in a police department. In the closing portion of this book Vollmer pointed out that ". . . society must also require, and make provision for, professionally trained police personnel, fit not only in body, but also in character, education, and ideals of service. In Crime and the State Police, Vollmer and Parker posited that police officers should be men of superior education, intelli- gence, character, and physique. Their educa- tion, moreover, should be made a continual 53Ibid. 54Ibid. 'I‘ is $ t \ ea... 132 process by the establishment of a state school for police and an institute for police re- search.55 In the chapter entitled "Personnel Selection" of Volume 14 of the Wickersham Report, which was prepared under Vollmer's supervision, he identified low educational level as a major problem in law enforcement and pointed out that more than sixty percent of the policemen in the United States had never entered high school. He felt the ultimate goal of a properly trained and educated policeman was only possible by two means: ". . . state supported and controlled schools for police only; secondly, univer- sity cooperation." In the closing portion of this volume of the Wickersham Commission Report Vollmer stated that necessity demanded the application of science to law en- forcement problems. He though this necessity had been recognized by institutions of higher education and foresaw a "great chain of instruction throughout the country which would allow every policeman to secure a proper education."56 55August Vollmer and Alfred B. Parker, Crime and the State Police (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1935), p. 209. 56National Commission on Law Observance and En- forcement, Report on the Police Wickersham Commission, ‘Volume 14 (washington: U.S. Printing Office, 1931), pp. 58, 79, 85. esta nal‘ VUt. ‘§ 133 In The Criminal, Vollmer's final book, he advocated establishment of schools of criminology in state supported colleges, awarding special grants for research projects, and a curriculum suited for professional preparation of in- dividuals that plan to enter any of the branches of law en- forcement. He also recommended that criminology schools of institutions which offered academic or professional de- grees, set up graduate curricula in the various fields of study, and that a Ph.D. should be awarded to qualified students who made a ". . . significant contribution to the advancement of criminology and criminalistics." He favored research and teaching fellowships for students that had a strong interest and ability ih the field of criminal jus- tice. Other advantages cited by Vollmer for increased pre-employment education were that it would ". . . fortify the students when they later contact life in the raw state, and will also help them to resist the temptations that beset law enforcement officials."58 57August Vollmer, The Criminal (Brooklyn: The Foundation Press, 1959), pp. 435-436. se ti Q Mm 134 Such an educational background, according to Voll- mer, would provide an understanding of the weaker members of society and would discourage the warped characters and morals that had resulted in the past from association with disgruntled or dishonest fellow officers. Such profes- sional training would also teach students to adapt them- selves to changing social, economic, and political condi- tions. Through such training potential police officers would come to appreciate the contributions of professionals in the physical, biological, and social sciences so they might know who to call upon for assistance.59 Vollmer's plan for a school of criminology in- cluded mid-term and final examinations and observations by the faculty to assist in 2. .'. eliminating weaklings and occupational misfits before they reach the senior year."6 As a final argument in The Criminal, Vollmer stated that a professionalized and socialized law enforce- :ment service would have important prestige value which 'would produce stronger citizen support of police. 591bid., p. 444. GOIbid. 611bid., p. 448. 135 In an article describing his proposed school for police at Berkeley, Vollmer wrote that a school for the special training of police was a "requirement of the times." He explained that this school for active police officers was a part of the Berkeley Police Department and that several professors from the University of California served on the police school faculty and presented lectures in their specialities to students in the school.62 In a very short and Optimistic article published in 1931 Vollmer stated that ". . . the air is changing with police education." He reviewed the encouraging devel- opments at several of the universities and wrote that Now we are commencing to accept the educated policeman as a matter fact . . . . There can be little question that within a few years schools for police will be established in practically every college and university in theland.63 In another optimistic periodical article published the fol- lowing year Vollmer posited that 62August Vollmer, "The School for Police as Planned at Berkeley," Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 7:879, 1917. 3August Vollmer, "Police Education," Journal of» Criminal Law and Criminology, 22:7-8, May, 1931. his s.“ 136 Every other line of human endeavor is simple when placed alongside the problem which is presented in police departments . . . uni- versities should vie with each other in turn- ing out from their institutions men ade- quately trained to serve their country as efficient police leaders.64 According to Raymond Fosdick, an early expert on both European and American police systems, the New York Police School was the first in the United States to be established as an independent unit of the police depart- ment. Fosdick wrote the following about the training of police: Only as the training of policemen is delib- erate and thorough, with emphasis on social implications and human aspects of his task, can real success in police work be achieved.65 Fosdick favored establishment of a profession or career of public administration, which would include police administrators, so that "the talent of the univer- sities might be attracted to police service."66 Fosdick 64August Vollmer,."Abstract of the Wickersham Re- port," Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 22:716, January, 1932. 65Raymond Fosdick, American Police System (New York: The Century Company, 1920), pp. 225, 298-306. GGIbid. 137 did not take a formal position on the desirability of higher education for the rank and file policeman and ap- parently felt it futile at that time to require more than basic literacy, which was the common standard of the "better" police departments of that period. In describing the educational standards estab- lished by the Massachusetts Civil Service Commission for police officers in that state, Leonard Harrison stated in 1934 that it was not until 1926 that the minimum edu- cational level for appointment was raised to completion of grammar school. It was later necessary to revoke this re- quirement due to difficulty in recruiting men in the smaller cities.67 Harrison recommended that high school graduation or college entrance be required for appointment to police service in Boston. He posited that: The good effect which a high school education standard would have in raising public estima- tion of the service would more than counter- balance the loss of a few men who might make good policemen.68 7Leonard V. Harrison, Police Administration in Boston (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1934), Pp. 42-43. 68Ibid. 138 In 1937 at the convention of the International Association of Chiefs of Police, 0. W. Wilson stated that: "The training of men who expect to enter the police pro- fession is a responsibility of our colleges and univer- sities." He pointed out, however, that few of the col- leges and universities recognized that responsibility. At the time there were only five universities that provided . . . 6 professional pre-entry law enforcement instruction. 9 In discussing the role of the university in law enforcement education and training William Hall stated that: The future role of the university in public service of this type is difficult to define. Many universities feel that, once they have demonstrated training possibilities by orga- nizing a police school, the planning of future schools should be left to the officers them- selves. Other universities have felt that the organizing and conducting of pre-service and retraining courses for public officials is one of the functions of the university, and that adequate facilities should be made available for this purpose.70 69O. W. Wilson, "Report of Committee on Police Training," Police Yearbook (Washington: International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1937), pp. 76-78. 70William 0. Hall, "A Short Course for Police Officers," Commonwealth Review, 22:231, November, 1939. 139 Doctor Read Bain, of Miami University, wrote in 1939 that "Police work must become a profession of high social status and decent economic security." He also felt that a policeman should be ". . . a college man of super- ior mental and physical endowment." According to Bain the prospective police officer should take ". . . a general course in professional police work and upon graduation be eligible for a position on any state or municipal police force in the United States." As a means of reaching this goal Bain suggested that state and municipal police de- partments might select promising high school graduates and pay a portion of their expenses at a tOp college or uni- versity with the understanding that they would intern in the police department and serve at least three years after completion of their education. Bain wrote that A new day is dawning in the whole area of crime control. In the future we shall pay more for our police services, but we shall get vastly more for our money.72 71Read Bain, "The Policeman on the Beat," Scien- tific Monthly, 48:455, 1939. 721bid. '(J 4. (D i: 140 He anticipated that police systems would be manned by truly professional officers, and especially by socially intelligent, professional police- men on the beat . . The evolution of thought concerning the intelli- gence and educational levels of police recruits over the past thirty years is reflected in the various editions of Municipal Police Administration, a publication of the In- ternational City Managers Association. In the 1943 edition the recommended intelligence and educational requirements for police recruits were: ". . . of a superior intelligence . . . and . . . at least high school graduation . . ." Based on a random survey of police departments in all parts of the United States dur- ing that period it was found that all departments had some educational requirements but they varied from ". . . abil- ity to read and write to high school graduation."74 The position taken in that edition (1943) concern- ing high school graduation was that: Present requirements of police service are such that the social outlook and attitudes toward 73Ibid. 4Municipal Police Administration (Washington: International City Managers Association, 1943), p. 31. 141 the community which are developed in modern high school are an essential qualification for pa— trolmen.75 The 1943 edition also indicated that: It is undoubtedly true that a university course has a real contribution to make to police work, and we look forward to the day when police work has a wider appeal to college men. Until that time, however, the requirement of education must be pitched at a lower level.76 In the 1954 edition of the same publication it was recommended that the police recruit have an IQ of "approx- imately" 110 and posited that: to require much more is inviting trouble . . .- a relatively small percentage of policemen will receive promotions . . . the higher the IQ, generally Speaking, the more ambitious, and therefore the more frustrated and disaffected . . . they will becomeIT7 'In the same edition (1954) it was held that: an educational requirement is not essential. The municipal jurisdiction can administer, as a part of its examination, an academic achieve- ment test which will indicate more accurately than a high school diploma the actual academic achievement of the candidates.78 7SIbid. 76Ibid. 7Municipal Police Administration (Washington: International City Managers Association, 1943), p. 31. 78Ibid. 142 Another part of the book seems to contradict this lack of educational standard by stating that: Police work today is approaching the status of a profession. While it may be years before this objective is reached the educa- tional preparation and on-the-job training of police officers will materially contri- bute to it.79 In the 1961 edition of Municipal Police Adminis- tration the recommended intelligence requirement was "above average intelligence" and the book indicated approval of the developing trend toward higher minimum educational requirements. In the 1969 edition of this book it was pointed out that above average intelligence is necessary to deve10p the insight and ability to adapt "to widely different circumstances." This edition also contained a recommendation that the educational level be increased to at least two years of college "when the labor market would permit." The reasons given for this higher 791bid., p. 187. 80Municipal Police Administration (Washington: .International City Managers Association, 1961), p. 131. 143 educational level was "the growth of sociological problems and the complexity of police work."81 In an article appearing in the Encyclopedia of Criminology V. A. Leonard wrote that: Higher intellectual, moral, physical and training standards are essential prerequi- sites for successful performance of all duties associated with police administra- tion.82 He further posited that all phases of law en- forcement are "as technical as medicine and engineering" and that "the same training disciplines are required in the preparation of men and women for this strategic field." He wrote that: The superb training resources of major uni— versities and colleges of the United States can be applied with telling effect to the professional training requirements of police service.83 An apprOpriate curriculum for such a professional educational program according to Leonard would consist of 1Municipal Police Administration (Washington: International City Managers Association, 1969), pp. 176- 177. 82V. A. Leonard, "University Training for the Police Profession," EncyclOpedia of Criminology (New York: The Philosophical Library, 1949), p. 501. 83Ibid., p. 502. 144 approximately ninety percent of "regular" course offerings such as sociology, psychology, economics, etc., which would be combined with "the necessary technical police subjects in precisely the same manner as we have been do- ing for years in law, engineering, medicine, and other professions.84 Leonard also cited the critical need for research and publication of law enforcement texts which could be performed by universities offering law enforcement pro- grams. He listed several specific subjects that "beg for research efforts."85 Leonard expressed the hope that administrators of institutions of higher education would recognize their responsibilities’to the public service and make available their "magnificent resources" for training and instruction of law enforcement personnel.86 In considering the importance of formal education for police 0. W. Wilson pointed out in 1950 that: 84Ibid. 851pm. 861bid. 145 While university training will not make a com- petent person of one with an inferior intel- lect or who is otherwise deficient, when all other factors are equal the university trained man is better qualified than one who lacks this broadening experience.87 He felt that an educational standard of high school graduation was justified since everyone had the opportunity for high school attendance and there was an adequate number of persons who had completed high school. He also thought that the increasing number who were re- ceiving university training should justify two years of college as a preliminary requirement for candidates with provision for lowering the standard when candidates excell in other qualities. He felt that such a standard would not prevent the procurement of a suitable number of can- didates in most parts of the country.88 In the 1963 edition of this text Wilson stated that university and college training has become common- place in the United States and that curricula for law enforcement and police administration were offered in more than one hundred institutions within the country. The 87O. W. Wilson, Police Administration (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1950), p. 338. 88Ibid. 146 courses offered included all aspects of law enforcement, penology, criminalistics, crime prevention, and traffic control. Some of these institutions offered graduate degrees while others restrict their courses to two-year or four-year programs. Wilson wrote that, in addition to students who received this specialized and relevant train- ing there were many other capable young men in colleges and universities who were potentially good candidates but who were not attracted to a service in which low educa- tional requirements prevail.89 In expanding upon his earlier argument supporting higher education for police Wilson stated that: A university man has had a broader experience with people and new situations; his adapta- bility has been tested; he has had the oppor- tunity to meet students of many different na- tionalities, cultural backgrounds, racial characteristics, and consequently should have lost much of any previous bias or preju- dice he may have held. His studies will have given him a new perSpective on the problems and aspirations common to all men, and he will have learned to some degree to withhold judg- ment and to restrain his actions and impulses in favor of calm consideration and analysis. In short, he will already have begun to pre- pare for the future position of leadership 89 . . . . . O. W. Wilson, Police Administration (New York: McGraw—Hill, 1963), p- 139. 147 which it is hoped each new recruit will strive to attain. Such men will contribute a great deal to the true professionalism of police service.90 MacNamara wrote in 1950 that "perhaps college graduation is too high an educational qualification to set for all police officers, in spite of the fact that for some of the responsibilities he routinely exercises even a college education might seem inadequate." He continued by stating that a major effort should be made to raise the overall educational level of police. He pointed out that in spite of some elevation of the educational level of police in the past fifty years the education of the general population had risen faster.91 MacNamara posited that: In a nation in which it is difficult to avoid getting a high school diploma and in which college education is a prerequisite for thou- sands of relatively unimportant jobs, there is no reason for self-congratulation in the fact that most, not all, police recruits have a high school education or its equiva- lent.92 901bid. 91Donal E. J. MacNamara, "American Police Adminis- tration at Mid-Century," Public Administration Review, 10:187, Summer, 1950. 92Ibid. 148 In a speech delivered at Michigan State University in 1955, Chief William Parker of Los Angeles stated that the broad base of theoretical knowledge of human relations could not be provided by police departments in their training programs. He indicated that the advantages of a college education requirement for police applicants was .A 93 readily apparent. In 1954 Sloan stated that professions all require a minimum of four years of college . . . the minimum require- ments in the police field today vary from "graduation from high school" to as low as "ability to read and write the English language."94 Sloan pointed out that in spite of the complexity of law enforcement the assumption that the task cannot be performed by men with a minimum of high school education is ". . . to say the least fallacious." He posited that with careful selection and training police work can be performed by such men in a cOmmendable manner. On the other hand, he considered the actions by some colleges and 93O. W. Wilson, Parker on Police (Springfield:' Charles C. Thomas, 1957), pp. 154-155. 94Charles Sloan, "Police ProfessiOnalism," Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science,.45:77-78, 149 universities to develop courses in public and police admin- istration as a ". . . shining light in the education of men interested in entering the police field." He expressed hope that this movement would spread to at least one col- lege or university in each state since that type of edu- cation for police was "sorely needed."95 Germann indicated in 1957 that the drive for ele- vation of educational standards for police was gaining support by stating that: Slowly but with increasing emphasis and momen- tum, the movement is growing to elevate educa- tional requirements for the law enforcement vocation.96 In discussing the unique requirement for improved education for police Germann posited that: A four-year technical education is not neces- sary for a young men who wishes a law en- forcement career at the patrOlman level, and who wishes to pursue it according to tradi- tional fashion, but the broad education of the police officer is important as long as police leadership comes "up from the ranks."97 951bid., p. 79. 96A. C. Germann, "Law Enforcement Education and Training in the United States," Police Chief, October, 1957' pp. 22-24. 97Ibid. 150 Germann also noted that: Some twenty professional groups, including law, medicine, engineering, architecture, teaching, veterinary medicine, pharmacy, etc. . . . which have set minimum academic requirements . . . to improve the quality and economic status of their practitioners in order to protect the public, and in order to enhance their profes- sional status . . . the police service well deserves the dignity and status that such ac- credited programs give. It is interesting to note . . . that in the state of Michigan the profession of pharmacy has progressed in thirty years from no educational requirements to a six-year training requirement.98 Thomas Frost wrote in 1959 that he would like to see America's finest yOung men selected to become the world's best educated police officers. In another part of the book, however, Frost stated "that the amount of education necessary for law enforcement work is still a moot question."99 In describing the educational requirements for policemen Frost posited that: A police officer must be able to write an intelligent report, express himself clearly and commandingly . . . and possess sufficient gsIbid. 99Thomas Frost, A Forward Look in Police Education (Springfield: Charles C. Thomas, 1959), pp. 168-170. 151 mental ability to make spontaneous rational decisions . . . except for certain special- ized positions . . . a college education is not essential.100 Gourley stated that education "raises the quality" of police service, and it would appear logical that muni- cipalities should encourage police participation in higher education through incentive programs.101 Gourley's article also included an interesting quote by a chief of police: Our city council recently established a policy discouraging the employment of college stu- dents by the police department. This was a result of several of our past personnel re- ceiving a college degree, with a major other than police science, and resigning upon grad- uation to accept employment at considerably higher pay than our present schedule. The council has in fact tabled any action on the present standards and training program in an attempt to discourage our recruits from ac- cepting employment with cities paying higher salaries and benefits in the police service.102 In describing his conception of preparatory uni- versity training for law enforcement officers, Borkenstein wrote in 1961 that: looIbid. 101Douglas G. Gourley, "Police Educational Incen- tive Programs," Police Chief, December, 1961, pp. 14-18. 102Ibid. 152 Graduates of the police administration pro- grams in various universities should not be considered "finished" police officers . . . but rather people who are inclined toward policing and who have a broad background that will increase their scope of knowledge and vision to take better advantage of the opportunities provided by various police organizations. 03 Borkenstein posited that the university level training was not absolutely necessary for a police officer. There are people who can do just as well without university training. But I do believe that the person who has this train- ing is more likely to succeed.104 In considering the professionalization of law enforcement George Brereton wrote that One of the most important steps we must take . . . is the establishment of edu- cational standards and training which are comparable to those which are found in many other professions.105 103Robert Borkenstein, "Workshop: Progress in Police Training," Police Yearbook (Washington: Inter- national Association of Chiefs of Police, 1961), p. 184. 104Ibid.' 105George H. Brereton, "The Importance of Training and Education in the Professionalization of Law Enforce- ment," Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science, May-June, 1961, p. 111. 153 Bernard Garmire posited that: All police personnel from the newest recruit to the most seasoned administrator is faced with the necessity of being a leader.106 Garmire considered the college graduate as a pos- sible source of such "leaders" and pointed out that: Although academic achievement in itself is not panacea, those who have progressed through a college program have demonstrated a competitive ability far superior to thOSe who come to us with a eneral education de~ veloPment certificate. 07 Mears stated that law enforcement officers must subscribe to the concept of continuing professional educa- tion and avail themselves ". . . of the opportunities that . . . "108 are presented by our univers1t1es and colleges. William Hewitt posited that it was not a proper role for higher education to teach "how-to" procedures but rather to provide a liberal education for the individual who plans a career in law enforcement. He also stated 6Bernard Garmire, "Personal Leadership Develop- ment," Police Yearbook (Washington: International Asso- ciation of Chiefs of Police, 1964), pp. 332-333. 107Ibid. 108Millard Mears, "How the Universities Can Help," Police Yearbook (Washington: International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1964), p. 339. ‘ 154 that the liberal education would contribute more to a po- liceman's success than specialized knowledge of procedures. The liberal education, according to Hewitt, provides un- limited "transferable capacities," that will facilitate . . 109 making more reasonable judgments. Hewitt wrote that: a college degree is not a "union card" to intel- ligence, nor does it guarantee a "royal road" to success; but it is an indication that the stu- dent has learned discrimination, critical inde- pendence, and moral responsibility.110 He preposed that another vital role for the college or university is to "create a standard of knowledge" through a joint effort of active law enforcement personnel assisted by the "academic world." In closing, he stated that The role of the college or university is to con- tribute to the naturallgiowth process of the modern police service. In an editorial message in the Police Chief, Quinn Tamm took the following position on higher education for police: 109William H. Hewitt, "The Objectives of a Formal Police Education," Police, November-December, 1964, p. 26. 11°Ibid. lllIbid., p. 27. 155 Higher education is not a panacea for all our ills. It offers, however, the most appropri- ate and adequate setting and resources for engaging in the search for better ways. Be- yond the capability for conducting meaningful research and for enhancing our ability to ob- jectively understand what is happening around us, the campus must be looked to for the po- lice officers of the future. It is nonsense to state or assume that the enforcement of the law is so simple a task that it can be done best by those unencumbered by an inquir- ing mind nurtured by the study of the liberal arts. The man who goes into our streets in hopes of regulating, directing or controlling human behavior must be armed with more than a gun and the ability to perform mechanical movements in response to a situation. Such men as these engage in the difficult, complex and important business of human behavior. Their intellectual armament--so long restricted to the minimum--must be no less than their physical prowess and protection.112 Frank Day cited the problem of "selling" criminal justice programs to university administrators and their reluctance to give the academic "seal of approval" because it appears to be too vocational and not of "university level."113 112Quinn Tamm, "Editorial Message," Police Chief, May, 1965, p. S. 113 . . . . . . Frank Day, "Administration of Criminal Justice: An Educational Design in Higher Education," The Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology and Police Science, 56:540, 165. 156 Day supported higher education for police on the basis that today's police officer must be a social scien— tist and have broad general education which must include professional courses that meet the test of academic re- spectability.114 In concluding, Day pointed out that If it is true that civilization is a race between education and catastrophe, and education fails to make man understand more about his duties under the law, the race will be lost . . . in short, the proper selection and training of young peOple for careers in fields like law enforcement . . . will determine, very largely, the amount of individual freedom the peeple of the United States will enjoy.115 Commissioner Purdy of the Pennsylvania State Police pointed out that there is no rationale which will support the lack of higher educational requirement for municipal police service, where duties are extremely com- plicated and technical, and of far greater significance to the American way of life, vis a vis, the requirement for a college degree for a federal agency which performs 0 less complicated and crucial tasks.116 114Ibid. 115Ibid. 116 Wilson E. Purdy, "Administrative Action to Implement Selection and Training for Professionalism," Police Chief, 32:16, May, 1965. 157 Purdy posited that a police officer needs to look at the "big picture" and one way to assist in doing this is through education and training, particularly at the supervisory and administrative level . . . it is more important that we teach a man to think than it is to teach him techniques and me- chanics. Develop the professional mind and indoctrinate it with the proper philosophy, and the skills and performance will naturally follow.ll7 In discussing the problems of attracting and re- taining college trained law enforcement officers Norman Pomrenke sees the primary purpose of education as the creation of an atmosphere in order that the individual may develop intellectually, emotionally, and socially . . . to develop within the indi- vidual a logical and/or analytical method of reasoning.118 He pointed out that "there is no doubt that edu- cation is the primary consideration toward police profes- sionalization." He cautioned, however, that one must re- sist the philosophy that 117Ibid. 118Norman E. Pomerenke, "Attracting and Retaining the College Trained Officer in Law Enforcement," Police Yearbook (Washington: International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1966), pp. 99-109. 158 education is the panacea for the future of law enforcement. Education per se is a relative term . . . . The properly selected individual with the proper education, coupled with the application of such education to the police service, affords law enforcement a fine of- ficer. . . . The opposite is also true--a poorly selected officer with the advantages of an education can and usually is a detriment to the police service. Education must be equated with the individual and vice versa.1.19 Pomerenke stated that the relatively recent intru- sion of law enforcement programs onto university and col- lege campuses had caused consternation. He cited the fol- lowing questions which are raised: are they prOper [police programs] in the groves of academe? Where will they be placed among the various disciplines? Will they be purely academic or more nearly functional "nuts-and-bolts" programs? What will they be called? Criminology? Law Enforcement? Police Science? Police Administration?120 Paul Whitesenand wrote in 1966 that the upgrading of educational requirements for police manpower was ". . . a key ingredient to the better police department." He took the position that "the value of college educated officers is in many instances, unquestioned," but he also pointed out that one must consider the possible personnel llglbid. 120Ibid. 159 problems that may arise due to hiring college trained men. One problem which he cited was that as educational stand- ards are raised for police the police departments are forced to move into a new manpower market in which there is a greater degree of competition for educated human re- sources. This creates a problem because the vast majority of police departments are inexperienced in recruiting and holding college trained people. If law enforcement plans to go this route it is necessary to make plans which will deal with these prob- lems. 21 ‘ In a talk delivered at the 1966 convention of the International Association of Chiefs of Police, Franklin Kreml, the Vice President of Northwestern University, stated that there had been some progress in establishing law enforcement programs on college and university cam- puses but ". . . some of the greatest of these institu- o o o o o . 122 tions av0id even discuSSion of police education." 121Paul Whitesenand, "The Upgrading of Educa- tional Requirements for Police Officers: Unplanned for Personnel Problems," Police Chief, August, 1966, pp. 39-42. 122Franklin Kreml, "The Role of Colleges and Uni- versities in Police Management," Police Yearbook (Washing- ton: International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1966), pp. 34-40. 160 He pointed out that some scholars have a conde- scending attitude towards adult or in-service education in general, because it is not "in," it is a thing of du- bious academic respectability, and participation in such an activity will seldom lead to top professional rewards. On the other hand, some police administrators who have always been scornful and/or suspicious of the intellectual process, are now asking for academic assistance with their problems. Such attitudes on the part of both parties have made it difficult to do business.123 Kreml cautions against ". . . negotiating a police program with a third-rate school which will staff the pro- gram with third-rate teaching talent." He pointed out that it is a difficult task to arrange a program with a top institution, because they have standards and value their reputation.' He stated that one will often see a brandishing about of course credits, or certificates of completion, or degrees of various sorts. He considers this as "flashy gun handling" vis a vis, the real "marks- manship" of an academically sound program. He admonishes 123Ibid. 161 police administrators to: "Beware of bogus credentials . . . academia has its mainstream and its backwaters."l24 Kreml stated that even if a college degree were not actually essential [fOr policemen], I would still want to see broadly and liberally educated men in the police profession. It strikes me as a personal tragedy to have a man spend his entire career enforcing laws of a society he does not really understand because of his limited schooling.125 Stanley Schrotel, the Chief of Police of Cincin- nati, Ohio, stated that there was a great need for in- creased capabilities on the-part of persons applying for police service and asked the question: is an adequate capability insured if the minimum academic standard is established at college level? He stated in re3ponse: "We answer this question with a vigorous affirmative.126 Another rather indirect advantage in requiring college training for prospective police officers, which 124Ibid. 125Ibid. 26Stanley Schrotel, "Attracting and Keeping Col— lege Trained Personnel in Law Enforcement," Police Year- book (Washington: International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1966), p. 111. 162 Schrotel identified, is that it keeps a man off the job market until he becomes old enough for police service.127 According to Schrotel, completion of degree re- quirements provides some measure of: drive, ambition, and related characteristics so essential for successful performance in the police field. Educational achievement is also a measure of intelligence, acquired skill in judgment, writing, thinking, and expression, and a proof . . . of persever- ance. These are the essential prerequisites for those choosing to supervise the behavior of others.128 He pointed out that some oppose recruitment of college trained policemen claiming that the unpromoted college graduates will become bored due to the monotonous and routine nature of police work and the non-use of his intellectual skills. Schrotel sees this as a challenge to the administrator to meet this problem rather than . . . . . . 129 av0iding it by not actively recruiting college men. A method recommended by Schrotel for inducing col- lege men to enter police service and encouraging current employees to seek advanced education is to 127Ibid. 128Ibid. lngbid. 163 offer a premium for educational achievement to those seeking promotion. This can be accomplished by mandating minimal educa- tional requirements, substituting formal educational experience for service in rank, or a combination of both.130 A. F. Brandstatter pointed out in a 1966 article that as social institutions are faced with in- creasingly complex social problems . . . assistance would be needed in research, training, and education, and that new knowledge and skills necessary to improve police operations would emerge primarily from colleges and universities through meaningful research.131 Brandstatter expressed concern that if the prac- tice of recruiting from high school graduates was con- tinued by police departments they would be obtaining ". . . the most marginal people coming out of high schools, the lower thirty percent . . . ." This would be true be- cause the better qualified individual would go on to col- lege and would not likely be attracted to police service once he had obtained a degree, due to the low educational standard.132 lBoIbid. 131A. F. Brandstatter, "Education Serves the Po- lice--The Youth--The Community," Police Chief, August, 1966, p. 14. leIbid. 164 Samuel Jameson wrote that policing is not an easy task and the decisions that must be made require the ability to diagnose and to make quick but accurate judgments. They demand knowledge of How human beings "tick." Such knowledge is not inborn, it is 1earned.133 He proposed that the "common sense" approach to preparation of law enforcement officers must be changed and a switch must be made from the "how to do well" skills to a "why do it" philosophy.134 The task of education, according to Jameson, is: to encourage a questioning mind, a critical spirit, to challenge the accepted and out- worn, and to promote orderly change in the community. Without these law enforcement . . . fails to meet the expanded needs of the community in terms of new services thus becoming an impediment to advancement.13S Clark and Chapman quoted a letter from the Police Chief of Hermosa Beach, California, which stated that: Candidates with a minimum of two years of college are easier to train on the com- plexities of changes in the rules of evi- dence, search and seizure, arrest and court 133Samuel Jameson, "Quest for Quality in Police Work," Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science, 57:211, June, 1966. 134Ibid., p. 212. 165 techniques. They are more susceptible to training on specialty items, such as in— ternal and external intelligence, public relations, budgeting and auxiliary services, they are more adept at adjusting to situa- tions that require clear thinking and pre- cise action.1 6 Sam Chapman posited that the greatest problem of police was the identification of leaders, and criticized the "fish-laddering" of promoted policemen to top execu- tive positions. He stated that one of the most important considerations for future leaders is proper educational background. He concluded that a continuing education pro- gram is especially important for experienced policemen because this is the time that a broad outlook is most needed.137 Chapman wrote that a good educational background was essential to overcome the "c0p cultural lag" and felt that individual reading of the right material was also important. He pointed out that police leaders must be able to communicate with individuals with strong 136Donald E. Clark and Sam G. Chapman, Forward Step: Educational Backgrounds for Police (Springfield: Charles C. Thomas, 1966), p. 84. 137Sam G. Chapman, "Developing Personnel Leader- ship," Police Chief, 33:26, March, 1966. 166 professional and academic backgrounds such as sociologists, psychologists, etc. In addition he thought the ability to make good decisions was important to police and that uni- versity or college level courses in evaluation, logic, and reasoning would be helpful.138 In a 1967 article Germann pointed out that police service had in previous years used relatively uneducated men to perform simple tasks under careful supervision but now the service is using well educated men independently performing complex tasks and depending heavily on their own judgment. He emphasized that the policeman of the current period (1967) must have an active interest in crime prevention and the protection of personal liberty rather than only crime repression. He stated that the modern policeman had to work as a member of the criminal justice team rather than working independent of other in- stitutions.139 According to Germann the increased complexity of the tasks which police perform has a direct influence on 1381bid., 27, 29, 35. 139A. C. Germann, "Education and Professional Law Enforcement," Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science, 58:604, December, 1967. 167 the level of education required, i.e. a high level of edu- cational achievement is not required to teach a man the vocational mechanics of law enforcement but a broader edu- cational base is required to understand the "psycholog- ical, sociological, anthropological, legal, ethical, and . . ..140 human relations aspects of his work. Germann asserted that: when we talk about professionalization, we must talk about educational qualification for the work. If we ask the question "what standard of educational attainment should be set for the police service?," we must be prepared to answer the question, what kind of law enforce- ment do we desire?141 Germann favored a well-balanced liberal education in addition to professional courses such as police orga- nization and management. Such a program, according to Germann, would be built "around the future, not around the past."142 In discussing some of the police problems Germann stated that a major cause of many of the problems is the fact that some in the tOp levels of police service are 141Ibid. 168 "not too bright," and that if law enforcement ". . . is to meet today's challenges it needs a great many first-class brains at policy making levels."143 In a recent article, Franklin Ashburn supported higher education and professionalization for police and pointed out that the impetus toward higher education for police has caused an awareness by government and the public of the importance of police in society. He indi- cated, however, that one possible "problem" of college or university trained policemen is that he will likely "speak out" on social issues.144 Ashburn criticized the failure of police depart- ments to offer incentives for policemen to raise their educational level. At the time the article was written there were only fifteen departments in the country that had instituted incentive plans to encourage police offi- cers to return to school. He gives two reasons for this: 1) administrators may be threatened by young, well- educated police officers, and 2) once they have raised 143Ibid. 144Franklin G. Ashburn, "The Danger of Selective Bias in Law Enforcement and Training," Police, 12:83-85. 169 their educational level they will be more likely to move . 4 to another job outSide the department.1 5 In Upgrading American Police, Charles Saunders addressed directly the need for improved education and training for police. He took the position that: to debate the value of higher education for police, then, is largely irrelevant. In other occupations involving lesser demands, a general liberal arts education is expected as a background for specialized training. The real question is not "do police need a college degree?," but, "Where are persons with necessary qualifications to be found?" More and more the search leads directly to the college or university campus. As for inservice officers, the question is not whether those without the higher education are unqualified, but whether advanced study would make them better policemen.146 Saunders pointed out that there is an obvious lack of research to support or refute the theory that a signif- icant relationship exists between educational level and on-the—job duty performance as a police officer. He stated that: The reasons for advanced college education for police are essentially the same as those used to justify higher education as 5James Q. Wilson, "A Reader's Guide to the Crime Commission Reports," Public Interest, Fall, 1967, p. 81. 146Saunders, op. cit., p. 92. 170 preparation for any other career. They rest more on faith than on fact. Research is un- able to determine how much knowledge college graduates retain from their studies or even whether their personalities and values are significantly altered in the process.147 Saunders stated that there is reason to believe that there is a greater turnover rate among better edu- cated and more intelligent men due to frustration and dissatisfaction. He feels that this is not a valid argu- ment against recruitment or college trained men but rather an argument for reform of the system to provide greater incentives and more Opportunities for qualified men.148 Saunders felt the most compelling argument for raising educational standards for police was the con- stantly rising educational level of the overall popula- tion: In 1946, only 22 percent of all persons be- tween 18 and 21 were enrolled in institutions of higher education; in 1967 the figure is 46.6 percent. The trend is continuing: 58.7 percent of all males who graduated from high school in the spring of 1966 enrolled in col- lege that fall. The median years of school completed by employed males in the civilian labor force is 16.3 for professional and technical workers and 12.5 for clerical 147Ibid., pp. 81-82. l481bid.' pp. 89-91. 171 workers, as compared with 12.4 for police . . . unless a serious effort is made to raise educational standards it will not be possible to even maintain the status quo, let alone raise educational standards.l49 The report of the President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice, was based on a comprehensive study of the overall American criminal jus- tice system. It contained the following statement on higher education for police: .4: Due to the nature of the police task and its effect on our society, there is need to elevate educational requirements to the level of college degree from an accredited institution for all future personnel se- lected to perform the functions of police agent.150 The report pointed out that the duties performed by a regular police officer are not as complex as those anticipated for a police agent but the regular officer should be required "to have completed at least two years of college preparation at an accredited institution."151 150 . . . PreSident's CommiSSion on Law Enforcement and. the Administration of Criminal Justice, Task Force Report: The Police (Washington: U.S. Printing Office, 1967), p. 126. 1511bid. 172 Another part of this study, however, identified some problems in establishing these educational standards. The report stated that in Spite of the fact that college- trained men might have a ". . . better appreciation of people with different racial, economic, and cultural back— grounds . . ." the more highly educated officers would also have "limited personal experience with the poor" which would require additional training to emphasize the problems of that group.152 The report also pointed out that raising educa- tional standards may also interfere with the concrete and immediate benefit of being able to add an adequate number of officers from minority back- grounds.153 The force would therefore not be representative of the general populace. To meet this problem the report recom- mends that higher educational standards be accomplished by: financial aid and other methods of provid- ing the educational opportunity which would enable members of minority groups to meet the new standards in adequate numbers.154 152 1531bid., p. 163. 154Ibid., p. 164. 173 In considering the desirable educational qualifi- cations for top police executives the report recommended that "with few exceptions the completion of four years at college or university is a minimum requirement." The re- port also recommended a "baccalaureate degree requirement for all future chief administrators." If it is not pos- sible to secure chief executives with the requisite aca- demic qualifications from within the department the report recommended recruiting prOperly qualified men from outside the department.155 The proposed educational standards seem rather un- realistic, however, when one considers the fact that many police departments are presently under-strength, using much lower standards, coupled with the fact that the med- ian educational level of police officers only rose from 12.2 in 1960 to 12.4 in 1966.156 Bressler discussed the importance of higher educa- tion for law enforcement in a more general way by pointing out that it serves as: lssIbid., p. 127. 156Ibid., p. 10. 174 a constituent element of all scientific, pro- fessional, and management training and as such is presumed directly instrumental in enhancing occupational competencies. In one sense general education is the most efficient form of occupational training. Rapid change is hostile to narrow expertise and a curri- culum that emphasizes breadth and flexibility may better equip students to meet unpredic- table vocational demands.157 In the general report of the President's Commis— sion on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice, the Commission made the following recommendations pertaining to educational standards: 1. The ultimate aim of all police departments should be that personnel with general en- forcement powers have Baccalaureate de— grees. [It is apparently understood that personnel will be allowed to work toward degrees over a period of time--but this is the ultimate goal.) 2. Police departments should take immediate steps to establish a minimum requirement of a baccalaureate degree for all super- visory and executive positions. [But such personnel should continue their studies toward advanced degrees in the field thus resulting in increasing num- bers of persons enrolled in masters and doctoral programs.] 3. Police departments and civil service com- missions should re-examine and, if 157Marvin Bressler, "Sociology and Collegiate Education," The User of Sociology (New York: Wilensky Basic Books, 1967). P. 50. 175 necessary, modify present recruitment standards on age, height, weight, visual acuity and prior residence. The ap- pointing authority should place primary emphasis on the education, background, character and personality of a candidate for police service.158 Professor Vern Folley distinguished between police training and police education by pointing out that "train- ing is essentially the 'how' of doing the job, while edu- cation is basically the 'why' of doing the job." He admits, however, that there is a great deal of overlap and that they cannot be clearly separated. He took the posi- tion that the college cannot effectively provide training while the police academy cannot effectively provide educa- . . 159 tion; and police need both. Folley wrote that it was obvious that: if police are to keep up with the public edu- cational level they must attend college . . . in fact, if they are to do no more than just maintain the level of law enforcement that was enjoyed twenty years ago, they must have officers with college backgrounds.160 158 . . . PreSident's CommiSSion on Law Enforcement and Administration of Criminal Justice, The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society (Washington: U.S. Printing 159Vern Folley, "The Sphere of Police Education," Law and Order, February, 1967, pp. 16-18. 16oIbid. 176 He posited that the failure of higher education to offer law enforcement curricula had forced some young people to turn to other careers.161 Some of the obstacles to police education that Folley identified were: "the passive public, the unen- lightened police chiefs, and unc00perative college admin- istrators." He felt that of this group, the police chief was "the one who has most miserably failed," because he should properly mold the public's attitude, and approach . . 162 the college administrators. He reported several statements which he "heard on numerous occasions" from police administrators: My men don't need no education. I've gotten along for forty years without an education. I see no reason why they can't. The public don't expect cops to be educated, they expect them to arrest criminals. If they know more than me, the mayor may make them chief.163 He reported that the most frequently voiced objec- tion to higher education for policemen was: "If I provide an education for my men, they will leave for a better job." 1611bid.' pp. 21-23. 162Ibid. 163Ibid. 177 Folley admits that such losses are a possibility but dis- counts the loss by pointing out that these former police officers will be an asset to the department in other jobs in the community by understanding police problems and sup- porting the department within the community.164 James Wilson pointed out that there was no quesr tion in his mind that "the quality of manpower entering the police field . . . has been going down over the last twenty years."165 4 He also stated that: The objective is not to make every cop a col- lege graduate. Any group faced with a prob- lem tends to recommend that problem solvers be college graduates--which is nonsense, since the supply can never equal the demand unless quality is allowed to deteriorate and since there are not that many occupations for which college offers any meaningful preparation.166 He concedes that the motive is understandable, however, because the challenges facing the police are now so difficult that a great strain is being placed 164Ibid. 165James Q. Wilson, "A Reader's Guide to the Crime Commission Reports," Public Interest, Fall, 1967, p. 81. 1661bid. 178 on the officer's civility, and one is tempted to reach for any expedient that seems likely to increase the availability of that re- source.167 An article by Newman and Hunter contains a quote from the Congressional Record by the Honorable William R. Anderson of Tennessee concerning higher education for law enforcement officers: Police and correctional agencies are human institutions in a rapidly evolving society which, like other institutions, must con- stantly adapt to changing times. The brisk trend of our society is toward higher levels of education; we must not allow the law en- forcement professions to fall behind . . . . We should not ask that the American law en- forcement profession police a society to which it is educationally inferior . . . .168 Paul Chevigny, a lawyer employed by the New York American Civil Liberties Union, wrote that: There has been much discussion in the last few years about higher standards of academic education, including the possibility of a college degree [for policemen] . . . it is a shotgun approach that fails to deal with 167Ibid. 168Charles Newman and Dorothy Hunter, "Education. for Careers in Law Enforcement: An Analysis of Student Output 1964-1967," Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science, 59:138, March, 1966. 179 the basic problem . . . education is no guar— antee against abuse of power.169 He also posited that: A more complex situation is presented by the fact that, for a great many police jobs, a college degree does not seem necessary or appropriate. He pointed to the fact seniority and results of competi- tive examinations are generally the basis for promotion, without giving credit for educational achievement in order to support his argument that the police do not ser- iously consider educational achievement important for top police positions.”0 J. M. Moynahan stated that the "sociocultural world in which we live is becoming increasingly more complicated . . ." and posited that police must change with the culture, and this ability to change can be effectively taught as a part of the educational process. He recommended an interdisciplinary approach or one with a basic program in psychology, political science, 169Paul Chevigny, Police Power (New York: Pan- theon Books, Random House, 1969), pp. 272-273. l7OIbid. 180 or sociology, if law enforcement programs are not avail- able.171 A survey conducted in 1970 by the International Association of Chiefs of Police revealed that all American state police agencies require at least high school gradua- tion or its equivalent for new state policemen. Two states, Arkansas and the state of Washington, exceed this minimum standard and require two years of college.172 Robert Jagiello, a Yale Law School graduate, pre- pared an article for the stated purpose of challenging Paul Chevigny's previously reviewed article which con- tended that academic training for policemen was largely irrelevant.173 He challenged this assertion by examining the following: 1) the portrait of an ideal policeman, inferred from Chevigny's criticism of police conduct; 2) the nature of police functions; 3) professions engaged l7lJ. M. Moynahan, "A Social Science Approach to the Education of Law Enforcement Personnel," Police, September-October, 1969, pp. 66-68. 172International Association of Chiefs of Police, Police Personnel Selection Survey, 1971. 173Robert Jagiello, "College Education for the Patrolman--Necessity or Irrelevance," The Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science, 62:114, 272-273, March, 1971. 181 in making decisions similar to those made by police; 4) the conclusions of advocates for police education; 5) police education in the academy; 6) the values and attitudes developed in college and their enduring power, and the impact of bureaucratic organizations on such values and the probable direction of organizational change resulting from an increased level of education among em- ployees; and 7) the validity of Chevigny's legally-trained officer paradigm.174 Jagiello reversed Chevigny's criticisms to con- clude that an ideal patrolman should be tolerant of deviance, enjoys broad social vi- sion, is schooled in the complexities of the political processes in a pluralistic society, educated in the law and the competing values it serves, dispenses even-handed justice, stands secure against the impulses of preju— dice and bigotry, and commits himself to the preservation of law as an effective arbiter.175 Jagiello then asks a rhetorical question and re- sponds sarcastically: "Where will this ideal man come . "176 from? Why high school, of course! 174Ibid. 175Ibid. 176 Ibid. 182 Jagiello stated that police are the chief inter- preters of the law to the population with which they deal due to ignorance by the citizenry of the criminal law and its processes. The police, therefore, have "effectively captured the clientele of both the court and the prose- cutors" since those dealing with the latter have earlier interacted with the police. Upon considering this fact, one can easily understand why police are commonly called "the law," especially by those in the lower socio-economic levels of society.177 Police also have power due to their ability to effectively nullify the law in the case of many crimes and may also engage in summary "on-the—street punishment rang- ing from verbal abuse to death." The power to arrest or not to arrest has a serious impact upon the life of a citizen due to the stigma attached to arrest. The police are thus required to make extremely important decisions which are generally not subject to scrutiny--while prose- cutors and judges must operate openly and generally re- guire the corroboration of others.178 177Ibid. 178Ibid. 183 Upon consideration of the comparative functions of the police, as compared to those of prosecutors and judges, the writer concludes that: If form follows function, then the form of a police officer's education should take on the contours of an attorney's and rather than calling for redirection away from college education as a declared value, it seems rea- sonable to assert that we must redouble our efforts to encourage college education for patrol officers.179 The writer asserts that: a Bachelor of Arts degree with a strong em- phasis on liberal studies, the behavioral sciences and law should be encouraged as a prerequisite to police employment as a patrol officer.180 In answering Chevigny's contention that police academies provide adequate technical training, Jagiello argues that there is not enough time available in police training programs to meet the need and that: Police education must be tough-minded, and extensive if policemen are to meet the de- mands placed on them. Academy training is not adequate to the task.131 179Ibid. laoIbid. lslIbid. 184 In meeting Chevigny's assertion that liberal im— pulses acquired in colleges are largely_inhibited by the nature of the structure in which a police officer must operate, Jagiello quoted a study which clearly showed that belief changes take place in students who persist through two years of college. Such persons are better able to recognize complexity and tolerate ambiguity as college SOphomores than as high school graduates. He cites studies. to indicate that a regression to previously held beliefs after submersion in the bureaucratic police structure is unlikely and stated that: there is some evidence and substantial au- thoritative opinion that a college education is critical for the development of the po- lice as a viable democratic institution.182 In closing, Jagiello stated that: One can only conclude that the police role is one of the most critical and difficult to perform, and every available device which will improve the quality of judgment exer- cised by a patrolman, including college, should be encouraged and perhaps demanded.183 In 1971, Charles Tenney completed a study of higher education programs in law enforcement and criminal lazIbid. 1831bid. 185 justice. He traced the development of law enforcement programs from the early efforts at the University of Cal- ifornia to the period of the late nineteen-sixties, to the early nineteen-seventies when explosive expansion of these programs began due to the impetus provided by financial support from the federal government under the Omnibus Crime ContrOl and Safe Streets Act of 1968.184 One problem with these programs,.accordingto Tenney, is that clear goals are lacking. There was some question as to whether the primary emphasis should be to improve upon what was already being done or to do some- thing different.185 Tenney quoted an unnamed "high ranking officer of a metropolitan police department" as stating: "we simply don't see what value there is in all this higher educa- tion." He cited a survey of police executives conducted by the International Association of Chiefs of Police which revealed that less than half of the respondents would recommend raising educational requirements to two years 184 . . . Charles Tenney, Higher Education Programs in Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice (Washington: U.S. Printing Office, 1971), p. 56. lasIbid. 186 of college, and fifteen percent thought a college degree should be a minimum standard. Tenney posited that "the question of value from college educated police officers is one which needs more study."186 In 1969, the Law Enforcement Assistance Adminis- tration convened a task force in Washington, D.C., with a broad representation of police agencies. A survey of this group revealed that if given the choice between ". . . a -graduate of a police science program and one with a broad liberal arts background, they would prefer the latter." The group agreed that "education was one important way to improve police performance," and that ". . . decision- making is a valuable skill that should emerge" from such study.187 | Superintendent Giarusso, of the New Orleans Police Department, felt that "the better educated man sees prob- lems more in perspective. He can provide a strong sense of direction for change from within." He also poSited that: 1861bid.' p. 5. 187 Ibid., p. 34. 187 This is not to say,.however, that higher education is necessarily all that crucial for every performance level in police work. It was pointed out that one possible assistance that academics might provide is to ". . . design ways of im- proving the decision-making capabilities of police at all 188 levels." In 1969 the International Association of Chiefs of Police surveyed 4,000 police officers at all levels. In response to the statement: "The police service needs more college trained career officers," seventy-seven per- 189 cent of the respondents agreed. One of the first sheriffs in the United States to require a bachelor's degree for all sworn personnel was Sheriff James Holtzman of Multnomah County, Oregon. Tenney reported that Sheriff Holtzman told him in a per- sonal conversation that his experience had been "most disappointing." Sheriff Holtzman felt the requirements of the job are: emotional stability, intellectual honesty, intelligence, and physical capacity, but a 188Ibid., p. 83. 1891bid., p. 88. 188 college degree is not a guarantee that a college graduate has any of these traits .190 Tenney suggested that support for higher education may be for reasons other than suggested by the President's Commission. He pointed out that every group has three purposes: 1) to survive and expand,.2) to gain political power, and 3) to achieve efficiency in the performance of assigned responsibilities. Law enforcement is no excep- tion--the more highly educated the stronger the case for retention of high educational standards, and the more vocal become the spokesmen for adding to their own number. In addition, "education also adds luster, status, and ‘ prestige to one's occupation." Tenney stated that the "Superintendent of the London Metropolitan Police is. knighted royalty; our royalty are our college graduatesJ‘ls1 Tenney favored more attention to strengthening the recruiting process. He supported a careful look at stand- ards of age, both minimum and maximum, and stringent phys- ical requirements. Retention of such rigid standards can actually cause a drop in IQ within a department. He cited lgOIbid.' pp. 91-92. 191Ibid. 189 New York as an example; where the IQ dropped from 107.7 in 1957, to 98.2 in 1967, the lowest level in many years, when other standards were raised.192 Summary This review of the literature reveals that attempts to relate pre—employment information to actual on-the-job police performance in an organized way is a fairly recent undertaking. Such efforts have generally involved attempts to validate some sort of written pre-employment test or personality inventory. The results have not been impres- sive. ”‘ Recent court decisions involving civil rights have forced police agencies to look for alternative non- ‘discriminatory selection criteria. Some research has been accomplished and/or is underway in this area. Police agencies have always given considerable weight to background characteristics in a rather intuitive way--this is reflected in the extensive use of background 192Ibid. 190 investigations as an important component of the selection process. The issue of formal educational requirements is another classic example of rather informally accepting background characteristics as a predictor of police duty performance. As this review has revealed, the literature is filled with intuitive judgments and authoritative opin- ions about the relationship between formal education and effective police performance. As the review has indicated there is considerable support for higher education for police by practitioners and other knowledgeable persons but there has been limited research to support this posi- tion. There have been, however, some recent attempts to study the relationship of various background character- istics to duty performance in an organized and rational manner. Although there is disagreement when one compares the research studies here reviewed, there are also sev- eral areas in which some level of consensus may be emerg- ing. As an example, the Baehr, Cohen, and Levy studies support the view that properly selected background char- acteristics which are readily available in most police l9l agencies can yield useful predictors of future police per- formance. This is particularly significant when one con- siders the fact that these studies involved large samples, were conducted over a long period of time, were well sup- ported financially, conducted in a very professional manner, and employed computer technology and sophisticated statistical techniques.193’194'195 These studies involved large metropolitan police departments (Chicago and New York), plus a group of over two thousand officers from fourteen California state,. county, and city agencies. These researchers quite properly cautioned against generalizing their findings beyond the departments involved, but as other studies are conducted in police agencies at all levels, a much firmer information base can be established which should lead to formulation of general theories of police personnel selec- tion and personnel management. When one considers the advances of the past decade some tentative theories may not lie too far in the future. 193Baehr, op. cit., p. 23. 194C0hen' gpo Cite. pp. 20-280 195Levy, loc. cit. 192 The fact that several studies completed within the past five years have made significant contributions to the law enforcement "body of knowledge" is certainly encouraging. If one evaluates objectively the scientific "state of the art" in selecting university professors, given the fact that this professional group has existed for over five hundred years, the progress made by the emerging law enforcement profession in refining the selection process is remarkable. CHAPTER IV DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY This chapter contains a description of the type of study, restatement of hypotheses, sample description, pop- ulation description and extent of generalization, measures employed, data collection and coding, analysis, and sum- mary. Type of Study This study is primarily correlational with an aim of working toward prediction. Predictions which are sub- sequently verified or rejected, based on actual perform- ance,.are not a part of this study. The study should, however, provide information which can be helpful in mak- ing such predictions. Studies of this type have also been called concurrent validation since relationships between 193 194 predictors and performance measures are examined which serves to "validate" the efficacy of the predictors. It seems appropriate to also point out that no attempt will be made to demonstrate a cause and effect relationship between the "independent" and "dependent" variables, but rather to show that a relationship in fact :] exists, which should allow one to make predictions about the latter, given information about the former. In analyzing and interpreting the results of correlational studies there are at leaSt two pitfalls that must be avoided. The first of these pitfalls has just been alluded Us,making the unwarranted jump from a significant relationship to causality. In a study of juvenile delinquency, as an example, one might find a statistically significant and positive relationship between millimeters of shoe heel wear in a sample of young men, and the number of arrests for lar- ceny. In spite of the fact that sampling was proper, mea- sures of wear accomplished with precision, and sophisti- cated statistical techniques employed, one is not likely- to conclude that shoe heel wear causes larceny. 195 The jump from a statistically significant positive relationship between college quarter-hours successfully completed and exceptional duty performance, to the conclu- sion that exceptional duty performance is caused by such college experience appears more logical due to societal conditioning but it may be as untenable as the shoe heel example. Police duty performance of men with college ex- perience may be more a function of the traits, character- istics, and abilities that a young man took with him to college, than what happened to him while in attendance. The recent discovery of the overriding importance of prior characteristics, abilities, and traits, such as intelli- gence, ambition, motivation, tenacity, the ability to es- tablish goals and strategies for achieving them, etc., may be difficult for some to accept, but research seems to support this view. The other pitfall, which is not limited to corre- lational studies, is the temptation to make inferences beyond the range of sample data. As an example, if a rigid minimum height standard is established, it is not possible to make reliable inferences about the perform- ance of men below that level since they are systematically excluded from samples drawn from active police officers. 196 If one keeps these limitations in mind it is pos- sible to effectively use the results of correlational studies in improving the police selection process and may in time lead to a better understanding of causal relation- ships between predictor and performance variables. Restatement of Hypotheses The research hypotheses are restated at this point for the convenience of the reader: H21: There is a significant linear relationship be- tween each of the probationary trooper criterion or performance measures and: 1) percentile standing in high school graduating class, 2) number of college quarter-hours successfully completed, 3) written and oral test scores on pre-employment civil service tests, 4) age at start of recruit training, 5) height, 6) body weight at commencement of recruit training, 7) level of family responsibility, and 8) active military service. KEV .n‘z- ' (2’..- 0~‘.. I l-In'- .v 1 '197 fizz: There is a significant linear relationship be- tween successful achievement of civil service status and: 1) percentile standing in high school graduating class, 2) number of college quarter—hours successfully completed, 3) written and oral test scores on pre- \4 employment civil service evaluations, 4) age at com- mencement of recruit training, 5) height, 6) body weight at commencement of recruit training, 7) level of family responsibility, and 8) active military service. H-3: There is a significant difference in achievement of civil service status when men who graduate from publicly operated high schools are compared with men who graduate from privately Operated schools. §:£: There is a significant difference in achievement of civil service status when men who complete high school through regular graduation are compared with men who graduate through evening school or obtain educational equivalency through GED or similar pro-~ grams. 198 H22: Men who participate in college programs with a high content of criminal justice, police administra- tion, and other related courses attain significantly different recruit achievement scores than men with equivalent levels of education who did not have such experiences. £29: Men who participate in college programs with a high content of criminal justice, police administra- tion, and other related courses attain significantly different probationary trooper ratings than men with equivalent levels of education who did not have such experiences. Ell: There is a significant difference in achievement of civil service status when men who participate in college programs with a high content of criminal jus~ tice, police administration, and other directly re- lated courses are compared with men with equivalent levels of education who did not have such experiences. H-8: There is a significant difference in achievement of civil service status when men who successfully all. ' 199 complete at least eighty-five college quarter-hours are compared with men with a lower level of formal education. The Sample The sample for this study was drawn from a group of 244 men who commenced recruit training with the Mich- igan State Police as members.of recruit trooper classes numbered seventy-nine, eighty, and eighty-one. These recruit classes started training on August 30, 1971; November 8, 1971; and January 10, 1972, respectively. The classes completed their probationary service one year from the dates the training commenced. This sample was selected for the following reasons: 1) The classes started training and completed their probationary service within a time-frame con- gruent with the time schedule of this researcher. 200 2) The group was of sufficient size to allow one to draw conclusions about the population with an acceptable degree of accuracy. 3) The men in these classes were selected using normal and legally mandated civil service selec- \‘Q tion criteria so it was possible to conclude that men were adequately representative of the popula- tion of past and future recruits. In developing the basic sample it was necessary to eliminate nineteen men from the total group of 244 men that were initially in the three recruit classes, due to incoMplete information such as missing civil service scores, incomplete high school records, etc. This left a total of 225 men in what will be called the "basic sample" used for this study. In testing hypothesis Ho-l it was necessary to drop twelve additional men from the basic sample who com— pleted high school by GED or evening school, since they did not possess a high school percentile standing score. It was also necessary to drop an additional ninety-nine men from the basic sample in testing this hypothesis due . ‘ _ V‘I—C' 201 to the nature of the multiple regression analysis which was used for this test. In order to enter the scores of an individual subject into the multiple regression compu- tation it is necessary that all predictors and criterion variable scores be available. As an example, if a man resigned during recruit training, he would not establish a recruit achievement score, or scores on subsequent per- formance measures since the scores are generated in a longitudinal fashion. It was therefore necessary to drop the GED subjects, plus the other ninety-nine subjects that resigned or were released prior to gaining civil service status. This left 114 subjects in the sub-sample for this analysis. To test hypothesis Ho-2 it was possible to use the entire 225 man basic sample, less the twelve GED subjects, due to the use of the success/failure performance cri- terion, thus leaving a sub-sample of 213 subjects for this analysis. In order to test hypothesis Ho-3 it was necessary to drop the twelve GED subjects from the basic sample, plus nine men whose records were unclear concerning the public/private school graduation status. This left a sub- sample of 204 subjects for this analysis. 202 In order to test hypothesis Ho-4 two separate sub- samples were used. The first sub-sample consisted of the eighty-two men in the basic sample who had graduated from a regular high school and did not continue their formal education beyond that level. This group was compared with another sub-sample consisting of twelve men in the basic sample who achieved high school equivalency through GED, evening school, or similar programs, and failed to con- tinue their formal education beyond that level. The sub—sample used to test hypotheses Ho-S, Ho-6, and 30-7, consisted of thirty-eight men drawn from the 225 man basic sample based on successful completion of 130 or more quarter-hours of college credit, i.e., attained college classification of "senior" or higher based on the Classification criterion used at Michigan State Uni- versity. This selection criterion was used to limit P03811310 bias based on educational level due to the di- versity of educational achievement within the basic sample. Th1. sub-sample was further subdivided into sub—samples consisting of subjects who had successfully completed twenty or more college quarter-hours (or equivalent) in orimirial justice type courses (ten troopers) which was 203 compared with the other sub-sample composed of men who had not enjoyed the benefit of such an educational experience (twenty-eight troopers). ' The entire 225 man basic sample was used to test hypothesis Ho-8 . The Population The three recruit classes followed a program of instrtustion and period of probationary service carefully prescrtibed by departmental regulations. This fact, coupleci with consistency in selection criteria, based on civil sservice regulations, allows one to conclude that the reczruit performance of the three classes considered should. be applicable to future recruit classes to the extent; that selection, training, and probationary serv- ice Prwacedures and activities remain constant. Measures Employed The measures used for this study were quantifi- able Or categorical data which are normally available in 204 existing police personnel and civil service files. The exclusive use of such measures was intentional. It was assumed that sufficient background information for suit- able prediction of police performance is now collected as a part of routine existing pre-employment procedures. A special effort to gather additional information is therefore generally not necessary. The measures used in the study were listed and defined in Chapter I. The predictor and performance measures employed in the mul- tiple regressions are presented in a condensed form in Table 4.1 for the convenience of the reader. With the exception of "level of family respon- sibility" and "high school percentile standing" the pre- dictors used in the multiple regressions were selected due to their assumed importance as police selection cri- teria, based on their extensive use by police agencies in the United States. The selection of the predictors ‘was also conditioned by a review of the literature and numerous discussions between this researcher and law enforcement practitioners, plus others concerned with police personnel selection policies. 205 TABLE 4.1. Predictor and performance variables used in multiple regressions.-. Predictor Variables Performance Variables Recruit-Training 1. High School 1. Percentile Standing Achievement Score 2. College Quarter- 2. Final Recruit Hours Completed Evaluation 3. Age 3. Acceptability as Patrol Partner Evalu- ation 4. Height 4. Correspondence Study Achievement Score 5. Weight 5. Advanced Trooper Achievement Score 6. Civil Service 6. Probationary Trooper Written Score Performance Ratings 7. Civil Service *7. Achievement of Civil Oral Board Score Service Status 8. Active Military *Used in second multiple Service regression for Ho-2 test. 9. Level of Family Responsibility 206 The performance measures were selected because they appear to be the best available measures of proba- tionary trooper performance. This conclusion was based on personal observation and study; plus numerous discus- sions with state policemen in the Personnel and Training Divisions, as well as other parts of the Department. The selection of both predictors and performance variables, as well as the measures used in other analyses was conditioned by the requirement for interval or date- gorical data to facilitate statistical analysis. The measures such as age, height, family respon- sibility, college quarter-hours completed, and high school percentile standing are carefully gathered and verified by the state police as a part of the background investiga- tion or other pre-employment processing procedures. The civil service written and oral scores are based on instruments and procedures specified by the Testing and Evaluation Division of the Michigan State Department of Civil Service. The measures of academic performance of proba- tionary troopers, i.e., the recruit achievement, corre- spondence study, and advanced trooper school scores, are 207 g, _. based on weighted scores on evaluations completed during these activities. The final recruit evaluation and acceptability as a patrol partner measures, prepared by a panel of training staff members, as well as the probationary trooper per- formance scores, are more subjective in nature and will I be discussed in more detail in a later part of the study. The performance measure "achievement of civil service status" is simply a success/fail measure. No attempt was made to determine the reasons for success or failure on this measure. In most cases men resigned rather than being relieved for cause. Data Collection and Coding The data used for the study were gathered manually from the files of the Michigan State Police and the Mich- igan Department of Civil Service. There were no restric- tions placed upon the researcher with regard to measures used, In cases where information was missing from the files or records a letter was dispatched to the 208 appropriate high school principal or college/university registrar to obtain the necessary information and/or transcript. Predictor and performance measures plus other necessary information were gathered on each of the 225 subjects in the basic sample. The information was re- corded on Data Coding Forms used by the Michigan State lJniversity computer laboratory. The services provided lqy'the Computer Center Keypunch Division were used to keypunch and verify the information. Analysis Staff members of the Michigan State University, College of Education, Research Consultation Office, were <=<>r1tacted in the early stages of this study and assisted jLIi- (developing the study design and data analysis proce- éi‘lltees. Assistance was also obtained from consultants at the Computer Center to develop a computer program for the I“111-tiple regressions. A "canned" program of the 209 Unrestricted Least Squares, STAT Series #7, for use with the Control Data Corporation 3600, was used to make the two separate analyses of the data.1 In the first multiple regression all of the independent variables were used as predictors of each dependent variable (less achievement of civil service status). In the second regression all pre- dictors were used to predict the single performance var- iable of success/fail are in achievement of civil service status. Due to an artifact of the multiple regression vohich was previously described, the samples consisted of Jnl4 and 213 subjects reSpectively. This computer program and analysis prepared a zero-order correlation between all variables which was used to test the first two hypotheses. Statistical tests of the remaining six hypotheses V76§1=e accomplished using conventional "t" test, and Chi- E39111are formulas and techniques. Mathematical computa- tions for these tests were completed by the researcher on 5‘11 electronic calculator. \ . 1Michigan State University Agricultural Experi- thental Station, STAT Series Description; 7 LS, November, 1966, pp. 1-44 (Mimeographed). ' 210 Summary A correlational study was conducted using a sample of 225 Michigan State Policemen in three separate recruit classes. The principal focus of the study was to identify relationships between formal educational background compo- nents and performance as state policemen. In addition, other pre-employment measures were used as predictors of performance measures. Correlations were computed between nine principal independent variables based on pre-employment measures and background characteristics; and seven dependent or performance measures. In addition, statistical tests were conducted in an attempt to identify performance mea- sure differences of men by comparing sub-samples of sub- jects based on formal educational experiences. In order to complete these analyses and to gen— erate other relevant information, two multiple regression computer programs were employed. Chi-square and~t tests were also used in the hypothesis testing procedure. This chapter provided a description of the type of study, a restatement of hypotheses, sample description, 211 population description and extent of generalizations, measures employed, data collection and coding, and anal- ysis procedures. CHAPTER V ANALYSIS OF THE DATA The principal purpose of this study was to identify significant relationships between selected elements of the formal educational backgrounds of new state policemen in the Michigan State Police yi§_a_yi§ measures of achievement of departmental training ob- jectives and on-the-job performance during their year of probationary service. In addition, the study was designed to concurrently identify significant relation- ships between pre-employment independent variables of age, civil service examination scores, height, weight, active military service, and level of family responsi- bility, yig a yig dependent variable measures of achievement of departmental training objectives and on-the-job duty performance. In order to accomplish this, eight hypotheses ‘ were formulated for testing using conventional 212 r, 213 statistical tests. This chapter contains the results of this analysis, plus other related information. The chapter is organized into three principal sections. In the first section the eight previously stated hypotheses will be presented in null form and statements made concerning rejection or failure to re- ject them. The second section will provide a discus- sion of the additional information generated by the multiple regression computational programs employed. The final section is the chapter summary. Statement of Null Hypotheses and Results of Statistical Tests In this section each of the null hypotheses is presented, followed by a brief discussion of the re- sults of the appropriate statistical tests. Since each of the alternative hypotheses are non-directional they are not stated explicitly. HO There is no linear relationship between any of the predictor and performance variables listed below: Predictor Variables 1. High School Per- centile Standing College Quarter- hours Completed Age Height Weight Civil Service Written Score Civil Service Oral Board Score Active Military Service Level of Family Responsibility Performance Variables l. Recruit Training Achievement Score Final Recruit Evaluation Acceptability as Patrol Partner Evaluation Correspondence Study Achievement Score Advanced Trooper Achievement Score Probationary Trooper Performance Ratings Analysis. Due to the large number of possible predictor/performance pair-comparisons (6 x 9 = 54), it would be unduly cumbersome to present each of the sub— hypotheses contained within this omnibus hypothesis. In the interest of simplicity and clarity the individual sub-hypotheses will not be explicitly stated. The results 215 of all possible product-moment correlations between pre- dictors and performance variables are presented in a correlation-matrix format in Table 5.1. The relationships which are significant at the .05 and .01 level are iden— tified in the table by one or two asterisks respectively. The significant relationships which call for rejection of the null hypothesis and acceptance of the non-directional alternative are also listed below: Predictor vs Performance Variables High School Percentile vs: Recruit Training Achievement Correspondence Study Achievement Advanced Trooper Achievement College Quarter-Hours vs: Recruit Training Achievement Correspondence Study Achievement Advanced Tr00per Achievement Age vs Correspondence Study Achievement Height vs Recruit Training Achievement Civil Service Written Score vs: Recruit Training Achievement Correspondence Study Achievement Final Recruit Evaluation .307 .243 .290 .386 .373 .307 .198 .241 .257 .220 .l83 Sig. Level < .01 216 Predictor vs Performance Variables Civil Service Oral Review Score vs: Recruit Training Achievement Active Military Service vs: Advanced Trooper Achievement Level of Family Responsibility vs: it is probable that two or three of the relationships Probationary Trooper Performance Rating -0209 -.188 .191 Sig. 29121. < .05 Since a total of fifty-four tests were completed found to be significant in this test occurred by chance due to Type I error. In addition, since the magnitude of correlation coefficients vary with the degree of heterogeneity of the sample,1 the restriction caused by use of height, weight, age, and civil service scores as selection criteria may cause the correlations to be relative low compared to the correlations that would be found in a population unre- stricted on this dimension. York: lQuinn McNemar, Psychological Statistics (New John Wiley and Sons, 1969), p. 162. rink—mna "I‘m“! 217 Ho. v Hm>ma mocmoemecmem mucmmmnmmu Hem..M ~44 mo. v Hm>ma cosm0flmecmwm mucmwonmmu mmH..M u: Hoo. ummumoc ou omocsou mc0aumHmuuou mmqmfiHm¢> ZOHmmBHmU . . . . . . sueaenwmcommmm «Hoe Hmo one u mvo moo u was senses mo Hm>mq . . . . moa>umm oeo.u boa . woe : .mma u mmo u mva.n manages: o>euoa HO OH moa.n med. mma. 660.: one. .mom.u moamummmam>aw GHOO 20» HR omo. Hmo.n «mma. med. .omm. «45mm. moe>mmm awed” «mo. eao.u moo.u mmo.- mmo.- oma.u steam: moo. was. Hos. Hue.) emo. .«Hv~.- unmamm meo. ovo. vac. mao.n «was. omo. wee O I O O O O mgom mao «NH mma .«eom «.mem .«mmm nuwuumso ommHHou 0 STUNT mmo. ONH. NmH. «somN. cvmm. «them. HOMMWm 30H“ museums accused Goa ms m> uwmoou aosum cos 0 mucosa» mm .uwu “new wocm> a mococcomm u owownod unnoum .umoooa m H .m e we umuuoo has me vaa n z .moanwflnm> coeumufluo use Houoflooum soozumn meowumHmuHoo “mononouou .H.m mqmmH evacuemacmflm mucmmmummu Hem. A u«« mo. v Hm>ma OOGMOHMHcmflm mucmmmummu mmH. M H4 Hoo. ummummc ou boson mcoflumHmuuoo museumm Homooua oha. mmo. «mmm. «mma. mad. humcowumnoum . . . . ucoEm>mHno< «4mmm mac Hoa «emwm Homooue omocm>o¢ . . . pcmEm>mHno¢ mocum «Ham «mam «xmmm cosmocommounou . . chuumm Houpmm sahom «ham mm hufldflnmumwood . cowumsam>m *«bNm uwflnomm Hmcflm ummoous mosum umcuumm cowumsam>m ucmfim>meno¢ omocm>o¢ .ocommwuuoo mm .umwoo< Dasnomm Assam .mca ufisnowm vHH z .mmanmwnm> GOHHODHHO cwozumn mcowumamnuoo HOGMOIOHON .N.m mqm represents significance level < **r > represents significance level < HO 3: .05 .01 There is no difference in achievement of civil service status when men who graduate from publicly operated high schools are compared with men who grad- uate from privately operated high schools. 222 The distribution of subjects in this sample, based on the public/private high school graduation and success/ failure in achieving civil service status is reflected in Table 5.4. Analysis. At the .05 level of significance the null hypothesis could not be rejected. The statisfiical test used with this hypothesis was a chi-square 2 X 2 contingency test. The calculated chi-square value of 1.97 did not exceed the tabled value (the chi-square tabled value with one degree of freedom at the .05 level of sig- nificance is equal to 3.84). TABLE 5.4. Distribution of subjects by public/private high school graduates and success/failure in achieving civil service status. Public School Private School Successful in achieving . . . 95 17 civ11 serVice status Failed to achieve 84 8 civil service status Total N = 204 223 Ho-4: There is no difference in achievement of civil service status when men who complete high school through regular graduation are compared with men who graduate through evening school or obtain educational equivalency through GED or similar programs. The distribution of subjects in this sample based on GED/regular high school graduation and success/failure in achieving civil service status is reflected in Table 5.5. Analysis. At the .05 level of significance the null hypothesis could not be rejected. The statistical test used with this hypothesis was a chi-square 2 X 2 contingency test. The calculated chi-square value of .003 did not exceed the tabled value (the chi-square tabled value with one degree of freedom at the .05 level of significance is equal to 3.84). Ho 5: There is no difference in recruit training achievement scores attained by men with college programs with a high content of criminal justice, police administration, and other related courses, 224 when compared with men with equivalent levels of education who did not have such educational experi- ences . TABLE 5.5. Distribution of subjects by GED/regular high school graduation and success/failure in achieving civil service status. - L 1 - GED Graduates Regular Graduates Successful in achieving 4' 28 civil service status Failure to achieve civil service status 8 54 Total N = 94 A comparison of the means of recruit achievement scores using a t test was employed with this hypothesis. The means and standard deviations of these groups are presented in Table 5.6. Analysis. At the .05 level of significance the null hypothesis was not rejected. The calculated t value of .434 did not exceed the tabled t value (t value with thirty degrees of freedom at the .05 level of signifi- cance is equal to 2.04). 225 TABLE 5.6. Recruit training achievement means and stand- ard deviations based on criminal justice college program content categories. N 2‘ SD Subjects with 20 or more hours of criminal 9 85.06 3.52 justice type courses Subjects with less than 20 hours of criminal 23 84.46 3.50 justice type courses Total 32 §2_§: There is no difference in probationary trooper ratings attained by men with college programs with a high content of criminal justice, police administra- tion, and other related courses, when compared with men with equivalent levels of education who did not have such educational experiences. A comparison of the means of probationary troOper ratings using a t test was employed with this hypothesis. The means and standard deviations of these groups are‘ presented in Table 5.7. Analysis. At the .05 level of significance the null hypothesis was rejected. The calculated t value 226 of -2.31 exceeded the tabled value (t value with thirty degrees of freedom at the .05 level of significance is equal to 2.04). TABLE 5.7. Probationary trooper rating score means and standard deviations based on criminal justice college program content categories. N X SD Men with 20 or more hours of criminal justice type 9 115.22 19.12 courses Men with less than 20 hours of criminal justice type 22 135.05 26.96 courses Total 31 Ho 7: There is no difference in achievement of civil service status when men with college programs with a high content of criminal justice, police administra- tion, and other directly related courses are compared with men with equivalent levels of education who did not have such educational experience. 227 The distribution of subjects in this sample based on more/less than 19.5 college quarter-hours of criminal justice type courses in their college programs and suc- cess/failure in achievement of civil service status is presented in Table 5.8. Analysis. At the .05 level of significance the null hypothesis could not be rejected. The statistical test used with this hypothesis was a 2 X 2 contingency test. The calculated chi—square value of 3.61 did not exceed the tabled chi-square value (the chi-square tabled value with one degree of freedom at the .05 level of significance is equal to 3.84). TABLE 5.8. Distribution of subjects by high/low criminal justice college program content and success/ failure in achieving civil service status. . W More than Less than 19.5 hours 19.5 hours Successful in achieving 9 22 civil service status Failure in achieving l 6 civil service status Total N = 38 228 Ho 8: There is no difference in achievement of civil service status when men who successfully completed at least eighty—five college quarter- hours are compared with men with a lower level of formal education. The distribution of subjects in this sample based on educational level of above/below 84.5 college quarter-hours and success/failure in achieving civil service status is presented in Table 5.9. Analysis. At the .05 level of significance the null hypothesis was rejected. The statistical test used with this hypothesis was a 2 X 2 contingency test. The calculated chi-square value of 12.007 ex- ceeded the tabled chi-square value (the chi-square tabled value with one degree of freedom at the .05 level of significance is equal to 3.84). 229 TABLE 5.9. Distribution of subjects by completion of more/less than 84.5 college quarter-hours and success/failure in achieving civil service status. More than Less than 84.5 hours 84.5 hours Successful in achieving . . . 40 78 ClVll serv1ce status Failure to achieve 15 92 civil service status Total N = 225 Analysis of the Multiple Regressions The two multiple regression programs provided relevant information beyond that required for hypothesis testing. This information will be presented in this I section. The first multiple regression program used the nine basic independent variables presented earlier to predict each of the six basic dependent variables. In the second multiple regression program the nine predictors were used to predict the success/failure in achieving civil service status. Each of the dependent or 230 performance variables will be considered and explained separately. Recruit Training Achievement Score. The relation- ships between this performance variable and the nine pre- dictor variables are summarized in Table 5.10. The best predictors of this performance measure were college quarter-hours completed, civil service oral review score (negative correlation), height (negative correlation), and level of family responsibility, in that order. Only the first two predictors were at the .05 level of signif- icance but the R was significant at the .0005 level so the total equation would be valuable in making predic- tions. The R2 of .333 indicates that one-third of the variance in this dependent variable is "explained" by the combination of these predictor variables. The R or mul- tiple correlation of .577 is considered high for a study of this type and is the highest predictor/performance correlation in this study. Final Recruit Evaluation. The relationship be- tween this performance variable and the nine predictors are summarized in Table 5.11. None of the predictors are significant at the .05 level, nor is the multiple 231 Recruit Traininngchievement. Summary of relationships with predictors listed in order (from positive to negative by partial corre- lations). TABLE 5.10. R = .577 R2 = .333 N = 114 P = .0005 Beta Sig. Partial R2 % Weight Level R Delete Change C°llege quarter' +.366 .001 .328 .253 8.0% Hours Level °§ Fanly +.l67 .692 .164 .314 1.9% Responsib111ty CS Written Exam +.150 .096 .162 .315 1.8% Age +.069 .467 .071 .330 .3% HS Percentile +.064 .506 .065 .330 .3% ACtlYe Military -.043 .655 -.044 .331 .1: Serv1ce Weight -.131 .156 -.139 .320 1.3% Height -.165 .067 -.l79 .311 2.2% Rounded to nearest .001 when appropriate. TABLE 5.11. 232 Final Recruit Evaluation.w Summary of rela- tionships with predictors listed in order (from positive to negative by partial corre- lations). R = .307 R = .094 N = 114 = .228 Beta Sig. Partial R2 % Weight Level R Delete Change 08 written Exam +.141 .177 .132 .078 1.6% cs Oral Review +.135 .181 .131 .078 1.6% Height +.118 .258 .111 .083 1.1% C°11ege quarter” +.083 .495 .067 .090 .4% Hours HS Percentile +.069 .541 .060 .091 .0% Level °€ Faglly +.049 .669 .042 .093 .0% Responsibility Age +.023 .831 .021 .094 .0% ACtlYe Mllltary -.042 .703 -.037 .093 .0% Serv1ce ‘ Rounded to nearest .001 when apprOpriate. 233 correlation. This leads one to the conclusion that it is not possible to predict this performance variable using this combination of predictors. Acceptability as Patrol Partner. The relationships between this performance variable and the nine predictors are summarized in Table 5.12. None of the predictors are significant at the .05 level, nor was the total R. It is therefore not possible to predict this performance vari- able using this set of predictors. Correspondence Study Achievement. The relation- ships between this performance variable and the nine pre- dictors are summarized in Table 5.13. The predictors of college quarter-hours and age were by far the best pre- dictors of this performance variable and both were signif- icant below the .05 level. Since the R was also signifi- cant at the .002 level, these combined variables should be useful in predicting this criterion variable. Advanced Trooper Achievement. The relationships between this performance variable and the nine predictors are summarized in Table 5.14. Only college quarter-hours are significant below the .05 level of significance. The total R is also significant below the .05 level. 234 TABLE 5.12. Acceptability as Patrol Partner. .Summary of relationships with predictors listed in order (from positive to negative by partial corre- lations). R = .272 R2 = .074 N = 114 P = .51 Beta Sig. Partial R2 % Weight Level R Delete Change Height +.144 .172 .133 .057 1.7% CS Oral Review +.126 .217 .121 .060 1.4% HS Percentile +.095 .401 .082 .068 .6% College Quarter- +.095 .438 .076 .086 .5% Hours Level °§ Fawlly +.070 .545 .059 .071 .3% ReSpons1bility Age +.054 .628 .048 .072 .2% ACtlYe Military -.054 .631 -.047 .072 .2% SerVice Weight -.091 .398 -.083 .067 .6% cs Written Exam -.091 .391 -.084 .067 .6% Rounded to nearest .001 when appropriate. 235 TABLE 5.13. Correspondence Study Achievement. Summary of relationships with predictors listed in order (from positive to negative by partial corre- lations). R = .468 R2 = .219 N = 114 P = .002 :Eg: Beta Sig. Partial R2 % Weight Level R Delete Change C°llege Quarter" +.292 .011 .247 .168 5.1% Hours Age +.236 .022 .222 .179 4.1% HS Percentile +.135 .197 .126 .206 1.3% Height +.084 .386 .085 .213 .6% CS Written Exam +.066 .496 .067 .215 .4% ACtiYe Military +.008 .938 .008 .219 .0% SerVice CS Oral Review -.028 .767 -.029 .218 .0% iilfiiniibiiiiiy -.055 .606 -.051 .217 .2% Weight -.133 .182 -.131 .205 1.4% Rounded to nearest .001 when appropriate. 236 TABLE 5.14. Advanced Trooper Achievement. .Summary of re- lationships with predictors listed in order (from positive to negative by partial corre- lations). R = .391 R = .153 N = 114 P = .037 Beta Sig. Partial R2 % Weight Level R Delete Change C°llege Quarter‘ +.233 .048 .192 .120 3.3% Hours HS Percentile +.150 .169 .135 .137 1.6% CS Written Exam +.065 .521 .063 .150 .3% Level °§ 5&911y +.067 .547 .059 .150 .3% ResponSibility Age —.0003 .997 .000 .153 .0% Height —.054 .588 -.053 .151 .2% AetlYe Mllltary -.074 .493 -.067 .149 .4% SerVice CS Oral RGView -0069 0477 -0070 0149 04% Rounded to nearest .001 when appropriate. 237 Probationary TrOOper Performance Ratings. The re- lationship between this performance variable and the nine predictors are summarized in Table 5.15. It appears that none of the variables predict this performance measure and none approach the .05 level of significance, nor is the total R significant. This performance criterion apparently cannot be predicted using this combination of predictors. Achievement of Civil Service Status. The rela- tionships between this performance variable and the nine predictors are summarized in Table 5.16. The best pre- dictors of this performance measure appear to be college quarter-hours, age (negative correlation), family respon- sibility and civil service oral score, in that order. These predictors are all significant below the .05 level. In addition, the total R is significant at the .001 level which indicates that this combination of variables would be useful in predicting this performance variable. Summary Chapter V was a presentation of the findings of the study in narrative and tabular form. 238 TABLE 5.15. Probationary TrOOper Performance. Summary of relationships with predictors listed in order (from positive to negative by partial corre- lations). R = .250 R = .063 N = 114 P = .642 Beta Sig. Partial R2 % Weight Level R Delete Change Level °§ Failly +.178 .846 .148 .042 2.1% Respon31b111ty Height +.097 .359 .090 .055 .8% Age +.061 .583 .054 .060 .3% CS Written Exam +.049 .646 .045 .061 .2% C°llege Quarter“ +.024 .846 .019 .062 .0% Hours HS Percentile +.010 .928 .009 .063 .3% Weight -.042 .701 -.O38 .061 .l% AetlYe Military -.070 .539 -.060 .060 .4% Serv1ce CS Oral Review -.100 .328 -.096 .054 .9% Rounded to nearest .001 when appropriate. 239 TABLE 5.16. Achievement of.Civil Service Status. Summary of relationships with predictors listed in order (from positive to negative by partial correlations). R = .356 R2 = .127 N = 213 P = .001 =Lfii Beta Sig. Partial R2 % Weight Level R Delete Change Sgtizge Quarter' +.274 .001 .231 .078 4.9% EEZEinifbfiiiiy +.177 .025 .156 .105 2.2% CS Oral Review +.138 .047 .139 .110 1.7% ACtiYe Military +.133 .077 .124 .113 1.4% Serv1ce Weight +.059 .429 .056 .124 .3% Height +.017 .821 .016 .127 .0% CS Written Exam +.009 .898 .009 .127 .3% HS Percentile -.005 .952 .004 .127 .0% Age -.218 .006 -.190 .094 .3% Rounded to nearest .001 when appropriate. 240 Within the first hypothesis (Ho 1) it was found that there were significant linear relationships at the .05 level of significance between fourteen of the possible fifty-four pair-comparisons. This allowed rejection of the fourteen null sub-hypotheses related to these compar- isons. Within the second hypothesis (Ho 2) it was found that there were linear relationships at the .05 level of significance between three of the possible nine pair- comparisons. This allowed rejection of the three null sub-hypotheses related to these comparisons. The third null hypothesis (Ho 3) could not be re- jected at the .05 level of significance. Statistical analysis did not confirm differences in achievement of civil service status between public/private high school graduates. The fourth hypothesis (Ho 4) could not be rejected at the .05 level of significance. Statistical analysis did not confirm differences in achievement of civil serv- ice status between GED/regular high school graduates. The fifth hypothesis (Ho 5) could not be rejected at the .05 level of significance. Statistical analysis 241 did not confirm differences in recruit training achieve- ment scores between men with high/low content of criminal justice quarter-hours in their college programs. The sixth hypothesis (Ho 6) was rejected at the .05 level of significance. Statistical analysis confirmed a significant difference in probationary trooper perform- ance ratings between men with high/low content of criminal justice quarter-hours in their college programs. The seventh hypothesis (Ho 7) could not be re- jected at the .05 level of significance. Statistical analysis did not confirm a difference in achievement of civil service status between men with high/low content of criminal justice quarter/hours in their college pro- grams. The eighth hypothesis (Ho 8) was rejected at the .05 level of significance. Statistical analysis confirmed a significant difference in achievement of civil service status between men who had successfully completed more/less than 84.5 college quarter-hours. This chapter also contains information about mul- tiple and partial correlations between predictor/perform— ance variables plus other information about these relation- ships. 242 The multiple linear regression programs which were employed generated the zero-order correlations used for testing the first two hypotheses. In addition, the tech- nique identified the contribution of each of the nine in- dependent variables in explaining a later pattern of per- formance, while controlling for the contribution of the remaining background variables. In other words, the‘ strength of each independent variable as a predictor of performance was determined. The results of these regressions were presented in tabular form in Tables 5.10 thru 5.16 and an explana- tion was given by identifying each dependent variable and explaining the contribution of selected independent vari- ables in predicting the performance measure. As.a summary of the results of these analyses it seems appropriate to look at the regressions from the other side of the predictor/performance interface, i.e., to take each predictor variable individually and state which performance variables it serves to predict at the .05 level of significance, based on its partial correla- tion within each regression formula. Exact significance levels are also given when appropriate. 243 This is followed by an explanation of the multiple correlation of the combined predictors which represents the ability of these combined independent variables to predict each of the performance variables. Again only the multiple correlations which represent a significance level at or below the .05 level are presented. Individual predictors vs performance measures. High schoolppercentile standing--This variable did not predict any of the performance measures at the .05 level of significance. College quarter-hours completed--This variable pre- dicted recruit training achievement (.001 level), cor- respondence study achievement (.01 level), advanced trOOper achievement (.048 level), and achievement of civil service status (.001 level). Age--This variable served to predict correspondence study achievement (.022 level), and achievement of civil service status (.006 level, with negative par- tial correlation). 244 Height--This variable did not predict any of the per- formance measures at the .05 level of significance. Weight--This variable did not predict any of the per- formance measures at the .05 level of significance. Civil Service written score--This variable did not predict any of the performance measures at the .05 level of significance. Civil Service oral review score--This variable pre- dicted recruit training achievement (.029 level, with negative partial correlation), and achievement of civil service status (0.47 level). Active military service--This variable did not predict any of the performance measures at the .05 level of significance. Level of family responsibility-~This variable pre- dicted achievement of civil service status (.025 level). The combination of the nine independent variables as predictors in a regression formula served to predict 245 recruit training achievement (.0005 level), correspondence study achievement (.037 level) and achievement'of civil service status (.001 level). CHAPTER VI SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS In this chapter previous chapters are summarized, principal conclusions are listed, discussion of the re- search is presented, and implications for future research and practice are stated. Summagy Chapter I contained a discussion of the purpose of the study, the study setting, research hypotheses, and definition of terms. The critical need for improvement of law enforcement and the overall impact of crime on the quality of life in the United States was considered. The relationship of improved police personnel practices and policies to improvement of the law enforcement function was also discussed. 246 247 The expenditure of millions of dollars annually for police education, without supporting research, was given as an important reason for this study which attempts to identify relationships between formal educational back- grounds and police duty performance. A brief history of the Michigan State Police was provided, as well as a discussion of the various activities of state troopers during their year of probationary serv- ice. The following research hypotheses were formulated and presented in Chapter I: H2l5 There is a significant linear relationship be- tween each of the probationary trooper criterion or performance measures and: 1) percentile standing in high school graduating class, 2) number of college quarter-hours successfully completed, 3) written and oral test scores on pre-employment civil service tests, 4) age at start of recruit training, 5) height, 6) body weight at commencement of recruit training, 7) level of family responsibility, and 8) active military service. 248 H22: There is a significant linear relationship be- tween successful achievement of civil service status and: 1) percentile standing in high school graduating class, 2) number of college quarter-hours successfully completed, 3) written and oral test scores on pre- employment civil service evaluations, 4) age at com- mencement of recruit training, 5) height, 6) body weight at commencement of recruit training, 7) level of family reSponsibility, and 8) active military service. H-3: There is a significant difference in achievement of civil service status when men who graduate from publicly operated high schools are compared with men who graduate from privately Operated schools. H-4: There is a significant difference in achievement of civil service status when men who complete high school through regular graduation are compared with men who graduate through evening school or obtain edu- cational equivalency through GED or similar programs. H-5: Men who participate in college programs with a high content of criminal justice, police administration, 249 and other related.courses.attainrsignificantly dif- ferent recruit achievement scores than men with equiv- alent levels of education who did not have such exper- iences. H26; Men who participate in college programs with a high content of criminal justice, police administra- tion, and other related courses attain significantly different probationary trooper ratings than men with equivalent levels of education who did not have such experiences. H21: There is a significant difference in achievement of civil service status when men who participate in college programs with a high content of criminal jus- tice, police administration, and other directly re- lated courses are compared with men with equivalent levels of education who did not have such experiences. H-8: There is a significant difference in achieve— ment of civil service status when men who successfully, complete at least eighty-five college quarter-hours are compared with men with a lower level of formal education. 250 Chapter II provided a brief historical sketch of early American law enforcement in order to furnish some insight into the milieu into which law enforcement educa- tion and training emerged in the latter part of the nine- teenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century. The early linkages between law enforcement educa- tion and training and institutions of higher education were described and the principal legislative acts which supported and encouraged improved education and training for police were presented. Chapter III provided a review of the literature reporting studies which have attempted in a systematic way to establish relationships between pre-employment informa- tion and police duty performance. The Opinions and com- ments of knowledgeable persons about educational standards for police were also included in that chapter. Chapter IV explained the type of study and con- tained a restatement of the original eight hypotheses. The sample employed, and the population and extent of gen- eralization of the findings were also presented. The mea-1 sures employed, data collection and coding, and an 251 explanation of the analyses used were also contained in that chapter. Chapter V was devoted to presentation of the anal- ysis of data and results of statistical testing. This was accomplished by stating each hypothesis in null form fol- lowed by an analysis of the statistical test results. A separate section was devoted to an explanation of the in- formation generated by the multiple regressions beyond the information required for hypothesis testing. Tests of the eight hypotheses yielded the follow- ing results at the .05 level of significance: H-l: There is a significant linear relationship be- tween the following predictors and performance vari- ables: High school percentile standing vs: Recruit training achievementw‘ Correspondence study achievement Advanced trooper achievement College quarter-hours vs: Recruit training achievement Correspondence Study achievement -Advanced trOOper achievement Age vs correspondence study achievement 252 Height vs recruit training achievement (negative correlation) Civil service written score vs: Recruit training achievement Correspondence study achievement Final recruit evaluation Civil service oral review score vs: Recruit training achievement (negative correlation) Active military service vs: Advanced trooper achievement (negative correlation) Level of family reSponsibility vs: Probationary trOOper performance rating H-2: There is a significant linear relationship be- tween the following performance and predictor vari- ables: Achievement of civil service status vs: College quarter-hours completed Civil service oral review board Level of family responsibility H-3: The difference between public/private high school graduates in achieving civil service status was not significant. 253 H-4: The difference between GED certificate holders and regular high school graduates in achieving civil service status was not significant. H-5: The difference in recruit training achievement between men with high/low criminal justice course con- tent college programs.was not significant. H-6: The difference in probationary trOOper ratings between men with high/low criminal justice course con- tent college programs was significant. H-7: The difference in achievement of civil service status between men with high/low criminal justice course content in college programs was not significant. H-8: A significant difference in achievement of civil service status was found when men with above/below 84.5 college quarterehours were compared. Conclusions Background characteristics, and more specifically components of educational experience, should be useful in .254 predicting training achievement and duty performance in the Michigan State Police. Of the predictors employed in the study "college quarter-hours completed" appears to be the best overall predictor of training achievement, based on partial correlations within the regression equations. Using the combined predictors it is possible to predict with relative accuracy the training achievement measures, but only "level of family responsibility" was signifi- cantly correlated (using the zero—order correlation) with probationary trOOper ratings. When level of family re- sponsibility is included in a regression equation with the other independent variables to predict probationary trooper performance the partial correlation is not significant at the .05 level. . The partial correlations of college quarter-hours, level of family responsibility, and civil service oral scores are significant at the .05 level when employed in a regression equation with the other six basic predictors to predict achievement of civil service status. Age was also significant at the .05 level in this regression equa-‘ tion but the correlation was negative. 255 A multiple correlation at the .05 level of signif- icance was found between the nine combined predictor var- iables and scores on the following performance measures: 1) recruit training achievement, 2) correspondence study achievement, 3) advanced trOOper achievement, and 4) achievement of civil service status. This indicates that this combination of independent variables would be useful in predicting these dependent variable measures. Ddscussion In one sense the long-range goal of all sciences is prediction. This is not to say, however, that one is not interested in formulation of theories which explain causal relationships between two or more variables. It is also fitting to say that prediction serves to assist one in understanding why two or more variables are interre- lated in a certain way and prediction becomes more accur- ate to the degree to which understanding is perfected. If, the relationship is understood completely then perfect prediction would no doubt follow; if one assumes access to 256 certain factual information. The processes are therefore mutually supporting. In the social sciences predictive statements are commonly rather crude when compared to the other so-called "pure sciences." This may frequently be attributed to the facts that definitions are imprecise and the disciplines in question have not reached an interval-scale level of gauging predictor and performance measures. Through use of an interval-scale it is possible to describe more ac- curately how one variable varies with one or several other variables. Given the restrictions now faced by the social sciences it is difficult to infer causality. There is still a serious question concerning the locus of law enforcement on the continuum between vocation and profession. Judgment in this matter is frequently a function of self-interest of the respondent. With refer- ence to the question of information-based personnel pol- icies and practices, law enforcement appears to be in the early stage of discovering relationships between variables in a rather crude sort of way. A great deal of study is needed before it will be possible to move to the stage of 257 understanding the meaning of most relationships to the point which will permit perfect prediction. In the area of personnel selection one cannot wait for "final answers" but must make full use of all avail- able information in order to improve the decision-making process. The success or failure of law enforcement, as well as the entire system of criminal justice, is inex- tricably related to individual competence-~an effective selection process is therefore a matter of immediate ne- cessity. If the methods employed to choose police candi- dates fail to accurately differentiate between potential police officers with reference to competence and ability, the organization will be ineffective. The quality of service delivered by a law enforcement agency cannot transcend the quality of its personnel. For approximately seventy years police agencies in the United States have established physical, mental, and personality standards to deny entry to persons that are "unqualified." Numerous forms of personality inventories and mental ability tests have been employed to establish' this screen to protect law enforcement agencies and the public from the "unfit." There has been little effort to 258 validate these measures by careful and Objective consider- ation of the relationships between pre-employment informa- tion and on—the-job police performance. The early use of mental ability or intelligence tests led to the use of personality inventories when it was found that other variables were apparently present and estimates of mental ability alone was of limited value in predicting police performance. Personality inventories became popular as a screening mechanism and these were blindly accepted by many police administrators in Spite of the absence of meaningful evidence of validity. Police administrators have apparently been impressed by the "scientific" appear- ance of such tests and continued to use them without ser- ious question until the inventories were challenged in court due to civil rights proceedings. ’Several legal pre- cedents have not been established which prohibit the use of selection criteria which appear unrelated to successful duty performance and which may tend to be discriminatory. Upon being forced to validate selection criteria many police agencies found that there was little if any positive relationship between pre-employment mental 259 ability or personality inventories and duty performance. In the process of seeking alternate tools for selection of personnel some law enforcement agencies have turned to individual background characteristics. This is obviously not a radically new approach since police departments have generally gathered back- ground infbrmation on a candidate's employment record, arrest record, educational background, participation in school activities, ability to get along with others, etc. This information is normally evaluated by an investigator and an oral appraisal board as a part of the selection process. The new dimension of this selection model is that some police agencies are attempting to quantify bio- graphical information and use it in a more rational way to predict police performance. The use of background char- acteristics, therefore, rests upon a solid base of long- term practical application but also takes advantage of advancing computer technology and the statistical proce- dures which this technoloqy permits. If the use of such a model can be validated in police agencies at all levels it should greatly improve the overall police selection process. 260 Evidence has been mounting in the past three to five years that seems to indicate that the systematic use of background information might prove valuable in refining police selection procedures. This study has been an ef- fort to provide additional data to Support the use of these emerging practices in a state police agency. In general terms the results of this study tend to confirm the findings of recent investigations which used education and other background information as predictors. Quite Obviously the findings of the study cannot be gen- eralized beyond the Michigan State Police but as subse- quent studies are completed it should be possible to form- ulate tentative theories of personnel selection which are applicable across several agencies. Implications for Future Research and Practice This study has focused upon formal educational background characteristics of Michigan State Policemen as predictors of training achievement and duty performance. The regression equations reveal that a great deal Of 261 variance of performance measures is."unexplained" when the combined predictors which were used in this study are em- ployed. Future researchers might profitably choose other background information such as traffic record, evalution by background investigators, internal family relationships, past leadership roles, work record, court appearances, etc. By combining other predictors with the stronger pre- dictors identified in this study it may be possible to significantly improve prediction. In addition, selected personality inventories and/or mental ability tests might also serve to improve predictive validity and "fill the gaps" in a prediction model based primarily on the use of background.characteristics. ‘ Another logical extension Of this research would be a longitudinal study of the men in this sample to de- termine the relationships between the predictors and per- formance measures used in this investigation and subsequent performance measures. Such measures might include commen- dations, promotions, sick leave days taken, citizen com- plaints against Officers, resignation, etc. This would provide additional Objective measures of duty performance after officers were given civil service status. 262 Since the Michigan State Police is in the process of developing a new trOOper performance rating system it might be desirable to employ the sample used in this study as a "pilot" group for validation of this new system. Since this study brings one to the threshold of actually making predictions Of the performance of future probationary trOOpers, an extension Of this research might use the data gathered to develop a prediction formula and test the accuracy of predictions by applying the formula to future probationary officers. This procedure is clearly explained in Police Background Characteristics and Performance. Research is needed to develop a more flexible model for police selection. Many law enforcement per- sonnel tend to look upon personnel selction criteria as being independent or mutually exclusive. A moment's re- flection, however, will reveal that this is not true. In the present study it was found that height was not posi- tively correlated with any of the performance measures. Individual height, like other physical characteristics, 1Cohen, Op..cit., pp. 127-134. 263 is normally distributed. The average height Of American males in the age group eligible for employment as Michigan state trOOpers is approximately 5'9". A rigid height standard at 5'9" therefore excludes from consideration half of all male college graduates, half the men with good work records, half the men with leadership experience, and half the men with many desirable traits or characteris- tics; if one assumes no correlation between height and these.measures. This is not to say that height standards should be abandoned entirely. As pointed out earlier, one can only speculate upon the performance of men below this range. It does seem reasonable, however, to seek more flexibility in selection criteria. At the risk of shocking educators one might even consider a personnel selection model which would allow a trade-off of one inch in height for a college degree, if a candidate met other selection criteria. Since the area between these two heights be- neath the normal curve (5'8" to 5'9") would be at the peak of the curve, such a change would allow recruitment access to a much larger group of college graduates as well as men 264 with most other characteristics are considered to be im- portant. Since education appears to be more predictive of training achievement and duty performance than height, and the concept of the "super-male" policeman is being seriously challenged, an objective look at the relation- ships between the various selection criteria and duty per- formance deserves a great deal more research to explore the options available and their advantages and disadvan- tagesi Since several studies seem to indicate that men with college experience are above-average performers, the Michigan State Police might consider the feasibility of actions which would increase the number Of men with such backgrounds. Based on the results of the present study it appears that men who meet all other selection criteria and have successfully completed two years Of college are much more likely to successfully meet probationary per- formance standards and achieve civil service status. An increased input of men in this category should result in a significant monetary savings by reducing the attrition rate during the probationary year of service. Recruitment 265 incentives might be in the form of higher pay, but might also include special consideration for job assignment and promotion. The Department might also consider ways in which trOOpers can be encouraged to continue their educa- tion after appointment. As an initial step, a survey of the attitudes of men within the Department toward such a policy change seems in order. Analysis of the multiple regression used to test the first hypothesis revealed that there is not a signif- M, icant correlation between the probationary trOOper ratings and the predictor variables employed in this study. Senior members of the Michigan State Police, and others with relevant knowledge and expertise, were con- tracted and two possible explanations for this lack of correlation were posited: 1), Since men are rated on ten separate performance measures ranging from appearance to judgment (see Appendix D, p. 294), the ratings on one measure mdght tend to Offset ratings on the others. The composite rating used in the first regression, which summed across performance measures and the 266 nine monthly rating periods, might have limited meaning. 2) The composite ratings for the nine months are too subjective. When men first arrive at their as- signed posts they are initially rated objectively . but once they are "one Of the team" and become friends with their superViéors the well-known "halo effect" will distort the ratings. Use of the first monthly rating should provide a more valid measure of performance. A computer program was developed to test infor- mally these hypOtheses. Zero-order correlations between the ten performance measures, the composite ratings for the first month, and the composite nine-month rating scores were computed. Another regression program was also used to predict the first monthly probationary trooper score. The results did not appear to support these explanations, so the reasons for the lack of correlation between the probationary trOOper ratings and the predictor variables remains unexplained. Since this rating should be the best available measure of on-the-job performance, additional 267 research is needed to.attempt to explain these relation- ships. The recent increased input Of men with higher levels Of education into police agencies apparently has advantages, but this situation has also caused some unex- pected problems. AS an example, the attrition rates of men with higher educational levels has been higher than for other members of those agencies. This does not appear to be the case with the Michigan State Police. Additional study is needed to determine why this is not also true with the Michigan State Police. Such research should also serve to identify incipient or potential problems in this area so they might be dealt with or prevented through time1y.administrative action. Since this study is in many ways exploratory, it has only touched upon the differences in duty performance of men with college programs with a high content of crim- inal justice type courses. The sample used in the pres- ent study was small and the reliability Of the probationary trOOper rating is questionable, as indicated earlier. Additional study is called for to evaluate the use of 268 college program content in predicting training achievement and duty performance. The findings of this study regarding the utility of pre-employment criminal justice educational experiences appear to suggest that such a background provides little benefit to Michigan state policemen during the probationary year Of_service. Research is needed to critically examine the pres- ent system of law enforcement professional education and consider the feasibility of‘a new model. One possibility is the model which the armed forces have employed for many years. The armed forces do not employ a "front-loaded" educational program for its officers but rater a model involving continuing professional education over an entire career of twenty to thirty years. As an example, the armed forces would not attempt to teach second lieutenants the skills and competencies which are needed when one rises to the rank of general. There are several reasons for this arrangement. A few of the more apparent are: 1) In a society characterized by rapid change and development of new knowledge the majority of the competencies gained would be outmoded after .269 approximately twenty years when the.armed fOrces officer becomes eligible for promotion to general. 2) An indi- vidual will have forgotten or lost the proficiency in the skills gained so early in their career after such a lapse in time. 3) A great deal of money, time, and effort, would be wasted in generating skills which are never needed since only a small number Of officers will become generals. 4) Such training and education creates unreal- istic expectations which are unlikely to be fulfilled for many years (if ever). There is an immediate need to evaluate the present criminal justice educational model which provides a \\ "preparation” that may in fact be a handicap in the early stages of a law enforcement career. Present university-based law enforcement curri- cula frequently appear to assume that its graduates will quickly rise to top administrative jobs in the agencies which they join. This is obviously not feasible when one . considers the number of criminal justice graduates which \_ are being produced at the present time and this rather obvious fact cannot be long ignored. 270' The performance measures used in this study rer flect internal departmental standards rather than an eval- uation by the citizens being served. Research is needed which provides for greater citizen and/or external eval- uative input. Research is needed to understand better the type Of individual that resigns during the year of probationary service to determine if men who are potentially outstnad- ing state trOOpers are resigning. In other words, are the proper men being eliminated, and if not, what changes should be made in response to this problem. Since most men resign during recruit school it seems logical to focus upon this portion Of the first year of service. As additional black and other minority officers are recruited, studies should be initiated to determine if there are differences in their background characteris- tics and their relationships to duty performance, when compared with the majority group of state policement. The most progressive law enforcement agencies are now becoming aware of the importance Of computer-based information systems in providing necessary data to effec- tively perform the basic management functions in the ' 271 emerging period which some have.called the "information revolution." This study should provide information about the relationships between pre-employment background informa- tion and on-the-job performance which Should serve the immediate and practical purpose of refining the police selection process. In addition, the study will hopefully serve a broader purpose by demonstrating that a great deal of useful information is presently aVailable in the files of every law enforcement agency which could be utilized in making important persdnnel management decisions. Study is sorely needed to develop data systems that pull to- gether all the bits of relevant information and integrate them into a more meaningful and useful form. This study has of course been severely limited by the time and resources available. It appears that the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration should provide funding for research which would carefully study the po- lice selection criteria now employed and their relation- ship to duty performance. Comprehensive studies are needed to validate se- lection criteria in law enforcement agencies at the 272 federal, state, county, and municipa1.levels. In spite of the considerable funds which the Law Enforcement Assis— tance Administration controls, the recently issued threat to withdraw funds from agencies which use a minimum height requirement which cannotgbe shown to be "job related" was based on "an informal conference on the minimum height requirement" rather than systematic empirically-based re- search.2 Leadership is needed to make the transition from decision-making based on intuitive hunch to a more ra- tional and systematic model. A personnel seledtion model which systematically and effectively chooses the best employees available will not guarantee improved law enforcement, but it appears to be a prerequisite. 2News release by the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration, Washington, D.C., March 9, 1973, loc. cit. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY A. Books Blalock, Hubert M. Social Statistics. New York: McGraw- Hill Book Company, 1972. Blum, Richard H. (ed.) Police Selection. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1964. Bressler, Marvin. "Sociology and Collegiate General Edu- cation," in The Uses of Sociology. New York: Basic Books, 1967. Chevigny, Paul. Police Power. New York: Pantheon Books, Random House, 1969. Clark, Donald E., and Sam G. Chapman. Forward Step: Edu- cational Backgrounds for Police. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1966. Craig, Robert L., and Lester Bittel (eds.) Training and Development Handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill Company, 1967. Fosdick, Raymond B. American Police Systems. New York: The Century Company, 1920. Frost, Thomas M. A Forward Look in Police Education. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1959. Fuld, Leonhard Felix. Police Administration. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1909. Fuld, Leonhard Felix. Police Administration. Montclair, New Jersey: Peterson Smith Publishing Company, reprinted in 1971 (originally published in 1909). 273 274 Gammage, Allen z. Police Training in the United States. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1963. Germann, A. C. 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APPENDICES 290 ZOHmH>HQ §OhH§ ZOHmHBQ 20H mH>HG EH BONED E EmmHmHZHSn—fl _ mmUH>mmm QHHHm .mO Dfimma MOSEHQ flUHAOm "madam ZEUHEUHZ mm0H>mmm Damn—”m m0 Dfimmbm Esau REACH B§HZ¢OMO 4 XHn—zmmmfl ZOHmH>HQ ZOHmH>HQ ZOHmH>HD ZOHmH>HQ OHSfimBmHZHznc OZHZHflmB szzommmm Aflflmfidz HMHh mmmZHmDm ZOHmH>HQ ZOHmH>HQ ZOHmH>HQ ZOHmH>HQ UHhhMmm ZOHmH>HQ a Nfimmfim d mnmoomm G mZOHBmmmmO OZWOMMEW HDHEmmBMHZHznfi 291 mmUH>Mfiw hhmBm m0 DmmmDm _ MOEUHmHDI_ MUHAOA mfifiem ZmOHmUHZ mmUH>Mmm QAMHh ho dembm Emmmu AfiZOHBfiNHZfiOfiO m XHQZMQAQ VOICE QUALITY AND SPEECH; Comments BEARING AND APPEARANCE: Comments: COMPOSURE AN D CONTROL: Comments: PHYSICAL ENDURANCE: Comments: FRIENDLINESS: Comments: ALERTNESS. UNDERSTANDING: Comments: VERBAL EXPRESSION: JUDGMENT: Comments: COOPERATION: Comments: E j Outstanding [3 Outstanding [J Outstanding [j omstandlng E] Outstanding [:l Outstanding C] Outstanding [:] Outstanding [:1 Outstanding 292 APPENDIX C Dopanmnt of State PoIico TRAINING DIVISION FINAL RECRUIT EVALUATION DATE EVALUATOR E 1 Average ['3 Average [:3 Average 293 INTEREST: U Dutstanding Comments. ATTTUDE: If) Outstanding m Average Comments: INITIATIVE: [1 Outstanding I I Average Comment 5: DEPENDABILITY: m Outstanding [:1 Average Comments: LEADERSHIP: [:1 Outstanding Comments: KNOWLEDGE: f: Outstmding PERFORMANCE—QUANTITY: E] Outstmding Comments: PERFORMANCE—QUALITY: [3 Outstanding STRONG POINTS: WEAK POINTS REQUIRING CORRECTION: INDICATE YOUR ATTITUDE TOWARD WORKING WITH THIS MAN AS A PARTNER. ’7 Prefer him to most. Be pleased to have him. Be satisfied with him. Would accept him. I L I 294 To.i5iREv. tO/ee) REPORT MIOIIIOAR STATE FOLIO! PROBATIORARV TROOPER RATIIIO NUMBER: NAME: POST: RECRUIT SCHOOL NUMBER: PERIOD COVERED BY THIS REPORT: NUMBER OF TIMES WORKING SINGLE RATROL ENLISTMENT DATE: THIS PERIOD. FROM: TO: Appearance Dependability [:1 Excel lent D Satisfactory C] Unsatisfactory (Explain) [:1 Excel lent Cl Satisfactory [j Unsatisfactory (Explain) Public Contact: IT} Excellent Cl Satisfactory fl Unsatisfactory (Explain) Judgement [:1 Excel lent CJ Satisfactory C] Unsatisfactory (Explain) Attitude Toward Job [71 Excellent C] Satisfactory Cl Unsatisfactory (Explain) Wertlu Relationship With Other Officer: C] Excellent D Satisfactory L—‘l Unsatisfactory (Explain) Pereeeel Retire [:1 Excel lent C] Satisfactory [I] Unsatisfactory (Explain) Knowledge ef Pellee Rert [3 Excellent C] Satisfactory C] Unsatisfactory (Explain) Rerl QIOIIII! L—J Excel lent I: Satisfactory CJ Unsatisfactory (Explain) Rert Oeellty C] Excel lent C3 Satisfactory E‘J Unsatisfactory (Explain) COMMENTS: TRAINING OFFICER SIGNATURE“ TRAINING OFFICER: DATE: NAMES OF OFFICERS WORKED WITH THIS PERIOD: COMMEN TS: POST COMMANDER SIGNATURE: POST COMMANDER DATE: HICHI IIIIIIIIIIIIIII