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B2 ”W 22 ' 121.12.21.21 2.2.12.1 2 212122.212. ”L LILLLLLLLL"L' L 2'2L 12L LILLLL I'Lulz 51 222); 1I °. 5.12222122.m. ‘ 'nvn12m‘” 22 22 2 .:.:‘ .." 22 llll'c'i'lmilwflmm mlllj‘jljflll ngl‘érfixiu '.‘. Michigan State University THVJ‘FS This is to certify that the dissertation entitled AN EXAMINATION 0F CHANGING DEVELOPMENT PARADIGMS AS A MODE FOR INQUIRY INTO THE PERCEIVED ROLES AND TASKS OF DEVELOPMENT WORKERS IN A VOLUNTfiX’ AGENCY present y Bryan C . Truman has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degreein Department of Educational Administration rsflz Majorprofessor XMQ Date 7 / J’ . I" - "(II-‘1..- Alt—.‘L A ‘ I- ll 1 , . . 0.12771 TVISSI_J RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to LxgfiARJEs remove this checkout from your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. v 7395‘! -, P “ ' 19937 «wan '4‘ AN EXAMINATION OF CHANGING DEVELOPMENT PARADIGNS AS A MODE FOR INQUIRY INTO THE PERCEIVED ROLES AND TASKS OF DEVELOPMENT WORKERS IN A VOLUNTARY AGENCY By Bryan C. Truman A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State Uiversity in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Educational Administration 1986 Copyright By Bryan C. Truman 1986 ABSTRACT AN EXAMINATION OF CHANGING DEVELOPMENT PARADIGMS AS A MODE FOR INQUIRY INTO THE PERCEIVED ROLES AND TASKS OF DEVELOPMENT WORKERS IN A VOLUNTARY AGENCY BY Bryan C. Truman Since the initiation of modern community development practice, approximately four decades ago. attempts have been made to understand the various trends and transitions in ideology and approach. Literature in the field of community development abounds with descriptions of a paradigm shift. One prominent scholar, Everett Rogers, has documented his own transition. and suggests that the old paradigm has passed. Paralleling this shift in paradigms. has been a concern for training of development workers. Frequently, individuals, involved in development work. and the agencies they represent, face difficulty in adequately preparing training programs and strategies for effective development practice. The study is concerned with how development workers within an international. voluntary, Christian development agency perceive their roles and tasks. A purposive sample was taken from the agency’s staff in three Asian countries: Philippines. Bangladesh. and Taiwan. Data were gathered from sixty-seven respondents through the use of a flexible interview guide. Bryan C. Truman The perceptions were then examined to determine the varieties and central tendencies. A comparison is made with some of the dominant literature from the fields of planned change, community development. communication and education. Finally, a list of generalizations and operational recommendations is suggested. The data tend to suggest that the respondents have experienced a conceptual change with regard to development ideology and approach. Their roles and tasks are varied. tending to focus on helping and consulting roles and administrative or managerial functions. The responses indicate that although a conceptual shift has occurred, there has not been a total break with the old paradigm of development. Instead. a systhesis of both the old and the new seems to occur. The study does not investigate the effectiveness of any of these approaches. It has been suggested that a movement back and forth between the characteristics of the two paradigms can be interpreted as characteristic of a third approach or a blending of the first two paradigms. Acknowledgements Completing a paper such as this is only possible with the care. support and patience of a group of individuals. I am priviledged to recognize some of those persons here. For without their help. this paper could not have been written. Special appreciation should first be given to all of the willing program officers and project workers who patiently sat through hours of interviews. And also to all of my collegues in the Agency who spent hours of time listening. reading. planning and praying for this project. These include Bryant Myers. Loc Le-Chau, and Reda Hanna. Paul Jones, Timothy Chuang, Gene Daniels. without whose support. the research could not have been done. In addition, I acknowledge all members of the research team for their patience. perseverance and general support: from Taiwan. Jennifer Liu. Hoang Ya Fen. Shang Li Wei; from Bangladesh. Sam Allen, Paul Nishitt Das; from Philippines, Linlin Masi. Nora Abarientos. Valerie Agbayani; from AFDO Philippines. Joy Alvares and Marie Demaffilias. I thank all of the members of my committee: Dr. Joseph Levine. for his patience and helpful guidance; Dr. Charles Blackman. for encouragement and support; Dr. Frank Fear. for friendship. challenge and encouragement; Frank ii went far beyond the normal requirements of a doctoral committee member. The type of friendship and professional assistance Frank provided have become a model for me that will be remembered for years to come. To Dr. Ward, my committee chairman. I express my deep appreciation for his guidance. professional advice and concern. As a guide in helping me to discover what development and education mean. I consider it a priviledge to have studied under his guidance. I also want to acknowledge Mrs. Geneva Speas. for her encouragement; Mrs. Naomi Evans. for her friendship and help in typing the manuscript; Alemu Beeftu, Lela Vandenberg, and Christina Lee, for help in reading portions of the manuscript and for hours of creative dialogue. To my wife. Margaret. I am especially appreciative for her patience. and sacrifice to make this dissertation a reality. especially for proof-reading the endless drafts. She was a continual support. by my side especially during the difficult times. F inally. I acknowledge my God and personal saviour. Jesus Christ. For without the knowledge of a solid faith and belief in a supernatural. loving God 9 the work represented in this paper becomes meaningless. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS List Of TabIES I I I I I I I I I I I I. II. The Problem . . . . . . . . . . . The Purpose of the Study . . . . . . Research Questions . . . . . . . Background to the Problem . . . . Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . Importance . . . . . . . . . . Generalizability . . . . . . . . Definition of Terms . . . . . . . Summary of Research Procedures . Overview of the Study . . . . . . Overview of the Chapters . . . . Research Setting . . . . . . . Nature of Private Development Agencies . . . The Agency . . . . . . . . . . . Organizational Philosophy . . . . Objectives of the Agency . . . . Internationalization . . . . . Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . Bangladesh Context . . . . . . . Philippines Context . . . . . . . Taiwan Context . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . lll. Precedent Literature . . . . . Planned Social Change . . . . . Community Development . . . . . Dependency Theorists . . . Dominant Us Emerging Paradigms of Roles of Development workers . . Development Organizations . . . . Development workers Training . . Rogers’ Literature in Perspective Development PAGE vi O)\l0~0~UlUl.h 10 10 ll 13 13 17 17 18 19 20 22 25 28 30 31 31 35 37 39 44 51 55 60 1U. U. VI. Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rationale for Research Design . . . . . . . . . Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data Gathering Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Recording Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Analysis of Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . Research questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Changing Development Paradigms. . . . . . . . . Other Major Findings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Perceptions of Development workers’ Roles and Tasks Values, Beliefs About Development . . . . . . . Values, Beliefs About Development workers . . . Personal Changes in the Development Approach. . Organizational Changes in Development Approach Opinions About Training . . . . . . . . . . . . Ranking of the Agency Focus Areas . . . . . . . General Comments About the Research . . . . . . Relating the Findings to the Research Questions Significant Findings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Recommendations and Conclusion . . . . . . . . Generalizations from the Literature . . . . . . Generalizations Related to Changing Development Paradigms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Generalizations From th Study. . . . . . . . . Operational Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . Recommendations for Further Study . . . . . . . Practical Suggestions for Future Researchers . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix A. Interview Trials Form . . . . . . Appendix B. Pre-Interview Information Sheet . Appendix C. Interview Basic Information . . . Appendix D. Interview Guide . . . . . . . . . Appendix E. Agency’s Development Position Paper Appendix F. Research Process Learning Event. . 8] BL I OGMPHY I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 66 67 68 68 ?O 71 77 80 81 82 83 83 93 108 113 118 119 120 122 123 125 131 133 136 137 140 148 157 159 160 163 163 165 167 169 180 185 187 Table 2.2 2.4 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3I6 4.1 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 (11 UI 5.6 5.7 5.8 LIST OF TABLES Financial Summaries of Selected PUO’s Types of Projects Funded by the Agency Types of Agency-Assisted Projects in Bangladesh Number of Projects and Staff Per Branch Office in the Philippines Emerging Alternatives to the Dominant Paradigm Change Agents as Linkers Four Roles of a Change Agent Change Agent Roles in Development Characteristics of Centralized and De-Centralized Diffusion Systems Ideal Type Modes of Formal and Non-Formal Training Respondents by Position and Country Mean Age of Respondents Length of Time in Project or in Branch Office Area Length of Time in Position Length of Time working in Development Role Terms and Classifications Observed Frequencies and Percentages and Percentages of Change Agent Roles by Position Frequency of Role Terms by Position (Top 20 Terms) Frequency of What Respondents would Do, if they had more time vi. Page 16 21 41 45 47 49 53 57 7O 90 91 92 95 97 97 105 Perceptions of Poverty: (Selected Comments) Ten Most Frequently mentioned Qualities, Values, Skills, of development workers. Consolidating a List of qualities, values, attitudes and Skills Ranking Scores of Agency Focus Area. vii. 112 CHAPTER I The Problem Throughout the world today there exists a variety of approaches. philosophies and methods for conducting community development activities. Much of the current literature on the topic refers to "emerging" and “shifting" themes (For example. Rogers. 1976a; Korten. 1984; Bennis. Benne. Chin. 1985; Eisenstadt. i973; Kindervatter. i979). Difficulties have arisen in attempting to describe these emerging themes because the phenomena resembles more closely a tapestry of varying trends with controversial implications. Thus. a popular term. paradigm. has come to be used more widely today than previously (Kuhn. 1962). The term "paradigm" or "shifting paradigms" refers to a way of looking at the world and a way of doing things in the world (Pfeffer. 1982). Clearly. community development practice is experiencing a "paradigm shift" in terms of how development workers look at the world and think about it. and how they adjust corresponding actions to these new thoughts (Rogers. i976a). One development administrator has suggested that a new alternative to the old paradigm of development is needed which he refers to as "people-centered development." To realize these new potentials (people-centered development) the development activities that shape the post-industrialized era must be guided by a new paradigm based on alternative ideas. values. social technique and technology. There is reason to believe that such a paradigm is currently emerging from a global process of collective social intervention (Korten. 1984. pp. 299-300). The effectiveness of any planned social change effort often depends upon the leadership of one or more change agents or development workers performing various tasks at the request of a particular agency. Frequently. development workers are identified as professional helpers and assume the responsibility of acting out full-time roles as agents of change. More often. however. they become actively involved in the process of change without realizing that they are change agents. Because of the potential influence that most development workers have in affecting the change process. many development-oriented change agencies have begun to inquire about the roles of development workers. Much of this inquiry has focused on the examination of criteria that produce effective professional development workers usually involved at a community level (for example: Havelock and Havelock. I973; USAID. 1973; Fessler. 1976; Cary. 1972; Rogers. 1983). An assumption of an early model of planned social change was that often development workers introduced information or innovations in order that change might occur in the desired direction (Rogers. 1960; Barrett. 1953). The term "classical diffusion model" has become widely associated with this type of planned change. Later. in the 1960’s and early 1970’s. the classical diffusion model was challenged by numerous opponents (for example: Schumacher. i973; Seers and Joy. 1971; Frank. 1971; Fortes. 1973). Alternatives that stressed active participation of potential adopters in both the conception and diffusion of the innovations began to emerge and change agent roles became more varied. In contrasting these approaches to planned change. one of the most distinguishing characteristics which emerges is the nature or degree of centralization - decentralization within the change system. The classical diffusion model necessitates a highly centralized system in which information. ideas. technologies flow in a linear fashion from originator to user. usually top to bottom. The decentralized approach. on the other hand. emphasizes a more horizontal flow of information. ideas and technologies from users. who are also developers. to other users. An assumption made in this study is that both of these approaches to planned change and community development currently exist. and contribute to dilemmas faced by development workers and development agencies. For example. one dilemma which may occur for development workers is knowing which approach to planned change is appropriate and which is feasible within the constraints of the funding agency and the conditions of the community. As a result. development workers are faced with varying roles and tasks. Additional evidence also indicates that a paradigm shift has been in process for a number of years (Korten. i984; Eisenstadt. i976; Lerner. i976; Bordenave. 1976; Rogers. i976a; Gran. 1983). One of these authors. Everett Rogers. personally experienced the changing approach and publically recognized the deficiencies of the dominant paradigm: Around the year 1970. I think that an intellectual shift occurred in our basic conception of development. It was in this context of the passing of the dominant paradigm of development that diffusion research came to be evaluated by its critics in the 1970’s. and found wanting (Rogers. 1983. p. 120). In this study. Everett Rogers is viewed not only as a representative authority in the field of social change. but also as a person who has experienced and identified major shifts in his thinking and approach to community development. These changes have occurred during the past three decades and have been influential in determining the present understanding of roles and tasks of development workers. Purpose of the Study The study is concerned with how community development workers within a Christian development agency perceive their roles and tasks. In order to focus on this primary concern. major changes which have occurred during the past two decades in planned change literature are examined. The changes in conceptual approach and methodology to community development as represented in influential literature are then compared with the descriptive data from active development workers. The purpose of the study is as follows: - To ascertain the varieties and central tendencies among active development workers in respect to their perceptions of their roles and tasks. - To describe the changes that have occurred during recent years in the conceptual approaches to communication. development. and planned change. - To identify the major educational implications that will serve as a basis for developing pre and inservice training programs for development workers. Research Questions Answers to a number of questions concerning the roles and tasks of development workers are sought. The following primary questions guide the study: 1. What are the essential roles and tasks of development workers as perceived by active development workers in a voluntary agency? 2. What are the varieties and central tendencies of these perceptions? 3. How does the way in which one perceives poverty influence the way he/she might act as a development worker? 4. How. if at all. does the nature and amount of experience contribute to one’s perception about their role as development worker? 5. What are the similarities and differences between early and later paradigms of development? 6. How. if at all. have active community development workers in a voluntary agency shifted their perceptions of development in comparison with early and later paradigms of development. 7. Based on the above questions. what are the implications for staff development and development worker training programs? Background to the Problem Private development agencies have long been concerned about the quality of development activity being performed by development workers (Bryant and White. 1984; Coombs. 1981). The Agency selected for this study is one of numerous voluntary organizations operating in developing countries. Having been involved in community development since 1973. the Agency has recognized a desire to broaden and expand training activities for development workers (Agency document. 1983). In addition to the reasons mentioned above. the Agency was selected for the study based on the following considerations: 1. 2. 3. Representativeness of a Christian development agency operating in multi-national settings. This increases the opportunity to generalize study findings. Availability of development workers for interviews at minimal expense. Size of the Agency with sufficient number of development workers. research assistants and development projects. Current employment of the. researcher by the Agency. Assumptions A major assumption of this research is that development workers differ in their approach. attitudes. roles and tasks. This is based on the following assumptions: 1. Perceptions about the roles and tasks of development workers can be identified using appropriate and valid instruments. 2. Major shifts in the approach to communication. development. education and planned change can be identified from the literature. especially from the example of Everett Rogers. 3. Identifying the perceptions of the roles and tasks of development workers will help in the future curriculum design of staff development and development worker training programs. Importance The community development worker is regarded in both the professional literature of planned change. as well as by development agencies. as one of the most influential factors leading to effective social change (Zaltman and Duncan. 1977). Much research has been conducted to determine the most effective roles and tasks of development workers in particular settings (for example. Havelock and Havelock. 1973; Havelock. 1979; Whiting et al. 1968; Rogers et al. 1970). Most of these studies have been concerned with testing research hypotheses or supporting generalizations related to change agent success. Rogers (1983) cites 155 studies related to change agent success with 133 of those studies in support of twelve generalizations. examined later in this paper. Furthermore. most of 'these studies have been concerned with a very narrow view of the change agent. with little or no consideration given to those persons who may affect change. but who may not consider themselves as change agents. The importance of the study lies in its attempt to develop a new paradigm of inquiry for describing the roles and tasks of development workers. As this is done. a deeper understanding will be gained so that development worker effectiveness in development contexts may be enhanced. The study is not concerned with determining the effectiveness of development worker actions but. rather. with describing their roles and tasks as those development workers perceive them. Generalizability The study is limited to the perceptions of individual development workers operating within the structure of a Christian voluntary development agency. The study uses the changing eras of a prominent authority in the social change literature as a paradigm for inquiry into the perceptions about the roles and tasks of development workers. There is an assumption that the perceptions are based more on the practice and experience of the individual respondents than on the general theoretical knowledge about the process of change. However. the study does not extend into the measure of practice or actual behavior. Definition of Terms The following are some of the major terms used in the study with specific meaning: WW refers to an individual actively involved in the process of social change and employed by some change agency. The person may or may not recognize his/her primary role as that of a development worker. In this study. the sample. composed of "program officers" and "project workers". may also be described as change agents or development workers. W1 is a widely participatory process of social change in a society. intending to bring about both social change and material advancement (in all aspects of life including spiritual. intellectual. and physical realms such as greater equality. freedom. and other valued qualities) for the majority of the people through their gaining greater control over their environment (adapted from Rogers. 1976a. p. 133). Qiffggign is a process of social change in which innovations are communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system (Rogers. 1983). Egrly Roger; refers to the ideas. concepts. and approaches advocated in the early (pre-1976) literature of Everett Rogers. In this literature. Rogers identifies himself with the "classical diffusion model" of change which is essentially linear and top-down oriented. W refers to ideas. concepts and approaches in the later (post 1976) literature of Everett Rogers. In this literature. Rogers recognizes the criticisms of the classical diffusion model. and offers alternative approaches. Bgrcggtion; refers to the integration of impressions or psychological understandings about meaningful ideas. observations. or concepts. Wm refers to an alteration in the way an individual or group of individuals behave as a result of an alteration in their definition of the situation. A person changes his or her behavior when they define the situation as being different and requiring different behavior (Zaltman and Duncan. 1977). fig]; refers to a socially prescribed pattern of behavior corresponding to an individual’s status/position in a particular society. M refers to a set of actions performed to accomplish a specific purpose or fulfill a specific role whose accomplishment is one of the duties though usually not the only duty of an employee holding a particular position. W is a voluntary. Christian development. organization operating in more than 80 countries. (The Agency is described in detail in Chapter 2.) All respondents in the study are affiliated with the Agency in one of three Asian countries: Bangladesh. Philippines or Taiwan. In this study. the Agency refers to either the operations in one of these countries or to the larger International organization coordinating the work in more than 80 countries. W1 refers to the specific operations of the Agency in the country of Bangladesh. W refers to the specific operations of the Agency in the country of the Philippines. W refers to the specific operations of the Agency in the Republic of China. or Taiwan. W is an employee of the Agency who oversees or coordinates approximately 7-10 development projects which are funded by the Agency. The program officer is one of the two targeted positions which comprise the study sample. 10 Era; ct filter $23!.) is either an employee of the Agency. or of a smaller development organization. responsible for implementing a development project. The project worker is one of the two targeted positions which comprise the study sample. (Note: in the Philippines Agency this position is referred to as ”Program Staff.") Summary of Research Procedures The study focuses on the role and task perceptions of individual development workers within a Christian development agency. The data were gathered from a purposive sampling plan of respondents (n86?) in three Asian countries: Bangladesh. Philippines and Taiwan during the period of February 24. to July 10. 1985. An in-depth. yet informal. interview lasting 1.5 - 2 hours was conducted with each respondent. All respondents were affiliated with the Agency as either a Program Officer or a Project Worker. A research team of two or three persons in each of the three countries assisted the senior researcher in the data gathering and initial analysis. During the interview. English language was used when possible. In other cases. especially Taiwan. use of the local language was encouraged through the use of a qualified translator. Because most of the data gathered were qualitative in nature. the analysis plan followed accepted guidelines (Miles and Huberman. 1984) for analysis and reporting. Overview of the Study This study explores the varieties and central tendencies of roles and tasks of community development workers within a private. voluntary development 11 agenty. It focuses on their perceptions towards their work roles and tasks with special attention to changes which are or have been occurring in these perceptions. The study emerges from a strong professional interest in the role of development workers in planned change efforts. as well as a desire to seek improvements in the quality of training programs for development workers. The study is the second research attempt to understand and improve the effectiveness of development workers operating within Christian non-profit change agencies. The first study entitled [mg Staff Training for ngelogment in East Afrigg: A Qgse Stgdy in Qng PVQ. was recently completed by Beeftu (1985). Beeftu’s study. although conducted in a different geographic location. was also concerned with development workers within the same Agency as the present study. Overview of the Chapters In Chapter I. the problem of the research has been presented: the identification of roles. tasks of active development workers comparing those with the dominant themes in literature. especially the literature of Rogers. on planned change and community development. In addition. research questions and historical background of the study have been provided. In Chapter II. the context of the research is described. This includes a description of Christian voluntary agencies. with particular focus on the Agency used in the study. 12 In Chapter III. precedent literature is examined including the following sections: social planned change. community development. roles of development workers. development organization. development training. and major aspects of the literature of Rogers. divided into two sections: early and later Rogers. In Chapter IV. the research methodology is described. The chapter includes the research design. data sources. and the data gathering procedures. In Chapter V. a description of the data analysis is provided. The description includes a detailed examination of the data and a summary of the findings. In Chapter VI. generalizations are made. conclusions are drawn. and recommendations suggested. CHAPTER I I The Research Setting The general nature of development agencies with specific focus on the Agency being studied is described in the first part of this chapter. Immediately following is a brief description of the context in which the research was conducted in three countries. Nature of Private Development Agencies Although private development agencies have existed for more than a century. rapid growth in these agencies occurred immediately following World War II (Bolling and Smith 1982). Various terms have been used to describe the agencies including "private voluntary organizations“ (PVOs). "non-governmental organizations" (NGOs). "relief and development agencies." and "private aid agencies" (Sommer. 1977). Bolling and Smith (1982) suggest. however. that there is a difference between PVOs and NGOs: . The NGOs have a recognized status as consultative to the U.N. and are primarily engaged in study and advice in international issues. The PVOs are oriented more toward action and service (p. 153). In this study. the term "private development agencies" is used to refer to both PVOs and NGOs as well as any private. voluntary development-oriented agency operating in developing countries. Although development agencies may often be similar in approach. operations and funding. there is a variety of 13 14 differences between them. Sommer (1977) provides an example of the variety that exists in the objectives of selected agencies: 1. To help the less fortunate peoples of the world in their struggle against hunger. ill health. ignorance. and low productivity by converting as effectively as possible the voluntary. people-to-people contributions of Americans and Canadians and the support of host governments into various forms of relief and development (CARE). 2. To undertake activities in the field of development. sponsor nutrition. education program. distribute relief supplies (food. medicine. clothing. and so forth) and meet emergency needs due to natural. man-made disasters (earthquakes. floods. civil strife. and so forth) (Catholic Relief Services). 3. To serve the common interest of U.S. protestant and orthodox churches in works of Christian mercy. relief. technical assistance. rehabilitation and interchurch aid (Church World Service). ‘ 4. To give assistance to desperately needy families. with the emphasis on aid to the children in these families. to equip (their) children with the intellectual and physical tools necessary for the development of full and productive lives in their own countries; to help parents make the most of their individual talents and abilities. so they can support their families without the aid of any welfare organzation (Foster Parents’ Plan). 5. To bring financial assistance and expertise to bear on the problems of population and hunger. the quality of the environment and the development of universities in Asia. Africa. and Latin America (Rockefeller Foundation). 6. To assist low-income people in developing countries to initiate and to expand locally-owned. viable. self-help enterprises and cooperatives which directly benefit the communities in which they are located. selecting projects on the basis of maximum social and economic impact (Technoserve). 7. To adapt and transmit technical information and to provide solutions to technical problems for individuals and organizations who do not have access to appropriate technical assistance appropriate to their needs. resources. and local conditions (Volunteers in Technical Assistance). 8. To share resources in the name of Christ and proclaim Jesus as Lord; to establish and preserve an identity as 15 free as possible from those nationalistic. cultural. and ideological interests. which are contrary to our understanding of faithfullness to Christ. and to seek to meet human need in any nation regardless of political identity or affiliation; to participate in a developmental process based on local capacity and self-reliance. by which persons and societies come to realize the full potential of their human. natural. and spiritual resources; to follow the example of Christ in striving for justice. in identifying with the weak and oppressed and in reconciling the oppressor and oppressed; to provide relief for victims of disasters in ways which encourage their maximum initiative. dignity. and participation (Mennonite Central Committee) (Sommer. 1977. pp. 15.16). Development agencies. like the field of development in general. have undergone an evolutionary process. Korten (1986) “suggests that PVO’s have entered a third phase of development assistance. He acknowledges that PVOs have moved from a relief mode in phase one. to a self-help development mode in phase two. Now. according to Korten. PVOs are entering a third generation. Currently. segments of the PVC community are again engaged in a re-examination of basic strategic issues relating to sustainability. breadth of impact. and recurrent cost recovery. At the heart of this re-examination is the realization that sustaining the outcomes of self-reliant village development initiative depends on systems of effectively linked local public and private organizations. . .(Korten. 1986.). Many of the private voluntary agencies began as extensions of churches or religious groups (Haveman. 1982). However. following the end of World War II. individual governments began direct involvement in relief and development assistance. The emphasis during the post-war era was on technical assistance provided by the richer countries in the West. By the 1960’s and 1970’s. government and non-governmental agencies began a gradual shift away from relief-oriented activities to "self-help" activities. Haveman (1981) notes the change that occurred: 16 Many PVOs reoriented themselves toward development work during the 19705. in contrast to relief. This has qualified them to be seen by donors as alternative conduits for development assistance -- particularly for projects directed to the poor. Throughout the 19705. AID (the United States Agency for International Development) has had the explicit goal of encouraging PVOs to move out of relief and into development (Haveman. 1981. p. 50). The number of development agencies. especially from North America has been increasing in recent years. One source. the Yearbgok of Intgrnational Organizatigns of 1981. mentions that there are approximately 14.784 international organizations. As the number of agencies increases. likewise does the amount of funds channeled through them. According to Sommer (1975). approximately $1.4 billion was channeled through private voluntary organizations in 1974. In Table 2.1. the financial status for a few selected organizations is shown for the year ending in 1983. Table 2.1 Financial Smaries of Selected Ms Agencies Total Income Program Fundraising Total Costs Costs Expenses Bread for the Uorld 2,000,538 1,395,974 39,358 2,134,382 CARE 102,967,000 88,199,000 9,312,000 102,044,000 Church World Service 31,928,051 26,298,236 2,549,824 31,643,971 Maryknoll Fathers 41,516,213 26,477,313 5,178,733 36,470,747 Mennonite Central 15,872,527 12,527,759 -inc.ngt.- 14,496,980 Oxfam Merica 5,621,695 4,239,028 1,036,281 5,607,826 UorldVision 102,552,663 68,256,526 22,511,691 99,835,198 Source: Olson, 1985 (Note: nost figures are from 1983) 17 The Agency The research study has been conducted within one Christian private development agency. known in this study as the "Agency." The setting occurred within one geographic region of the Agency’s operations. vis.. Asia. The Agency’s staff in three countries. Taiwan. Philippines and Bangladesh. were selected as target populations for the study. Shortly following the korean War. the founder of the Agency. a Christian leader and journalist. was moved by the suffering of the Korean orphans. and as a result formed the new Christian organization in 1950. "The plight of refugees. especially widows and children fleeing North Korea. touched him deeply and an appeal for sponsors for Korean orphans was immediately successful. His compassion became legendary among the Korean people" (Agency Document. 1984. p. 2). Organizational Philosophy The Agency has been motivated by a philosophy based on a “Christian view" of the world following the example of Jesus Christ and his love. The Board of Directors expressed this view in 1978 when they made the following statements in the Declaration of Internationalization: We are stirred and driven by unmet needs of countless millions of human beings caught in the toils of poverty. hunger. disease. lonliness. and despair. These are God's creatures. formed in his image. yet unable to reach their God given potential. Our approach to this staggering need is holistic: we decline the unbiblical concept of spiritual over against the 18 physical. the personal over against the social. It is the whole person. in the wholeness of his or her relationship that we want to see redeemed through the one Savior. Jesus Christ our Lord (Agency Document. 1978. p. 1). Although the Agency’s roots are in the Protestant tradition. its view of the Church is broad and inclusive (Agency Brochure. n.d.). This view can be seen in a statement made by the International Board: ”We find no scriptural mandate for excluding ourselves from any who name Christ as Lord." At present. the Agency works with groups including Protestant. Roman Catholic. and Orthodox traditions (Agency Brochure. n.d.. p. 3). Objectives of the Agency Throughout the history of the Agency. the major focus has continued to be on assistance to children. However. during the 1960’s and 1970’s. the objectives became wider in scope with attention also being given to families and communities. As a result. the following major objectives for the Agency exist today: 1) ministering to children and families. 2) providing emergency aid. 3) developing self-reliance. 4) reaching the unreached. 5) strengthening leadership. and 6) challenging to mission. The following is a brief explanation of each of these: Ministering tg ghildrgn and families refers to the assistance of needy children through orphanages. schools. and family-aid programs. This is accomplished by feeding. clothing. nurturing. healing and spiritual ministries. Ergviding gmegggncy aid refers to providing food. medical aid and immediate housing programs for people suffering as a result of war or natural disasters. 19 ngelgging gelf-reliancg refers to helping people produce adequate food. earn income. and create a community life resulting in long-term survival and growth. Regching thg unreggheg refers to assisting indigenous evangelistic efforts to reach the lost for Jesus Christ. Strengthgning lgadgrshig refers to helping Christian leaders throughout the world to attain a more effective Christian ministry. Challenging tg mission refers to calling Christians around the world to carry out the work of Christ wherever opportunity presents itself (Agency Objectives. 1983). Internationalization The Agency presently operates in more than 80 countries throughout the world. including 11 countries in Asia. Such a large operation has prompted the use of the term "Partnership" to refer to the mutual support and linkages between the various Agency offices (Agency Document. 1983). As the result of massive expansion in the early 1970’s. a committee was formed within the Agency to study the possibilities of operating with an "International Partnership." This was eventually realized in 1978 when the Agency adopted a new policy statement referred to as "A Declaration of Internationalization." and a separate corporation was formed to "manage the worldwide ministries and to provide coordination. planning. and certain common communications functions to all the entities" (Agency Document. 1983). This move into "Internationalization" also allowed for the formation of an International Board and a Council made up of members from the International partnership. The following is a listing of the major entities. 20 International Office refers to the location which houses the International Headquarters for the entire organization. This office is currently in California. Support Offices refer to the several locations around the globe where funding is accumulated for use in the partnership. At present. the Agency operates Support Offices in Australia. Canada. England. West Germany. Hong Kong. New Zealand. South Africa. and the United States. Branch Offices refer to small sub-units of the organization operating in. and responsible to. Field Offices. Field Development Offices refer to three locations in the world (Manila. Philippines; Nairobi. Kenya; San Jose. Costa Rica) where a small group of consultants provide service and advice to the Field and Program Offices in their respective region. Formerly these offices were known as "Regional Offices" and held full management control of all other offices in each respective region (Agency Document. 1983; Agency Annual Report. 1984). Field Offices and Program Offices refer to the 35 locations where the Agency has established a physical presence with local or expatriate staff. Offices now exist in the following locations: Bangladesh Ethiopia Malawi South Korea Bolivia Ghana Mali South Pacifice Brazil Guatemala Mexico Sri Lanka Chile Haiti Middle East* Taiwan Columbia Honduras Peru Tanzania Eastern Europe India Philippines Thailand Ecuador Indonesia Senagal Uganda El Salvador Kampuchea Singapore Zambia Kenya South Africa Zimbabwe * The Middle East and South Pacific Field Offices refer to offices coordinating the activities of many countries whose operations are too small to Justify being a separate Field or Program office. Projects The Agency operates primarily as a funding source for a variety of small indigenous organizations. The funding is provided through the office in the 21 particular country where the activity is to be implemented. The funding is approved based upon a project plan of action. Agency-assisted projects are operated by groups encompassing Protestant. Roman Catholic and Orthodox traditions. Whenever possible. projects are established with groups that are in agreement that Christian humanitarian assistance should include the opportunity for people to know Christ and serve him as members of His Church (Agency Brochure. n.d.). At present. the Agency operates the following types of projects: Table 2.2 Types of Projects Funded by the Agency Type of Project: Total Number: Assistance to children and families 2416 Community Development 762 Evangelism and Leadership 182 Emergency Relief and Rehabilitation 112 Total International Projects "'§Z7§" The Agency began its operations more than thirty years ago with a child sponsorship system. This program has continued to be the major source of expenditures in the organization. The future of tomorrow’s world is in today’s children. Thus. (the Agency) is committed to helping children develop to their fullest potential. Through a sponsorship program. individuals and families in support countries (now established in 10 developed nations) are linked with an individual child in a developing 22 nation. This sponsor-funded program uses a variety of means to build the lives of needy children. These include schools. children’s homes. churches. family-to-family projects and community development assistance. A basic pledge is made that each child in a sponsorship program will receive needed assistance with education. health and spiritual nurture (Agency Brochure. n.d.. p. 3). As of the end of 1984. the Agency claims to support a total of 346.925 children through the sponsorship system (Agency Annual Report. 1984). From the United States Support Office alone. the funding for 1984 totaled more than 127 million U.S. dollars (Agency Annual Report. 1984) most of this from the sponsorship system. Bangladesh Context According to the World Development Report. 1985. Bangladesh is the second poorest nation in the world; only Ethiopia is poorer (World Bank. 1985). With almost 96 million people crowded into 56.000 square miles. the country is one of the most densely populated areas of the world. In addition to its large population and small land area. the nation has a per capita income of only tU.S. 130 (World Development Report. 1985). One commentator wrote the following about his country: Bangladesh has a difficult terrain which is frequently ravaged by floods and cyclones. Through her deltaic plains run two of the mightiest rivers of the world: the Ganges and the Brahmaputra. Only about a third of the cultivated area is entirely free of floods. Of the rest about 40% is moderately flooded to less than 3 feet and the remainder to a depth of 6 feet or more (Islam. 1978’ p. 1)e 23 Bangladesh. formerly East Pakistan. emerged from a civil war with the help of India in 1971. and has struggled to maintain government order since then (Khan. 1976). Natural disasters continuously strike the nation. It has been estimated that even with moderately successful results in the family planning program. Bangladesh will still have more than 162 million people by the year 2003 (Islam. 1978). Even with this sobering forecast. the more serious problem for the present is the enormous inequality that exists: Bangladesh is not only one of the poorest countries of the world in terms of average per capita income. but also she suffers from substantial inequality in income distribution... The highest 20 ll of the population received about 46% of national income in 1963-4 whereas the lowest 20% received 77.. The inequality was greater in the urban areas with the top 207. receiving 57% of total urban income. The average income of the urban population was about two-thirds higher than the average rural income. Therefore. the urban rich were more affluent than the rural rich. . . . In this context. the need to relieve poverty assumes great urgency because for the poor it is a constant struggle between sheer physical survival. on the one hand. and starvation and death. on the other (Islam. 1978. p. 5. 7). The Agency initiated its operations in 1970 in Bangladesh following a disasterous tidal wave and cyclone which killed 500.000 persons. The following year. during the war of liberation. the Agency also assisted Bangladesh refugees in India by providing food. medicine. clothing. vehicles. field hospitals and medical staff to meet the many areas of need (Bangladesh Agency Document. 1984). Later in 1972. an office was established in the capital city of Dhaka with the major focus of activities on relief and rehabilitation. At present. the Agency’s activities include programs of child sponsorship. emergency relief. community development. leadership enhancement and 24 evangelism. The following are some examples of the programs in which the Agency has been involved: Assistance of over $2 million in emergency relief supplies was provided to the cyclone and flood affected people of the coastal districts. Relief assistance in the Northern areas of country for relocation of villagers: road building. land clearance. repair of 63 schools. colleges and dispensaries. Large resettlement project near Dhaka: 5.000 families have been assisted with more than $1 million spent. Relief assistance amounting to 381.000 for Burmese refugees in Bangladesh. Sponsorship program with more than 12.000 children assisted. Training and implementation of 20 couples acting as village "change agents" in four districts of the country. The Bangladesh Agency currently operates 120 projects throughout the country. They have been grouped into five categories in Table 2.3. Table 2.3 Types of Agency Assisted Projects in Bangladesh Types of Projects: Number: Traditional Child assistance/ sponsorship projects 99 Community Development Projects 15 Agency Training Projects 2 Seed (Small Community development) Projects 3 Evangelism Project 1 TOTAL 120 25 Philippines Context Situated in the northeastern portion of Southeast Asia. the Philippines is one of the largest island nations in the world. The nation is comprised of more than 7000 islands. only 800 of which are inhabited. With approximately 52.1 million inhabitants in 1983. the population is expected to grow to 73 million by the year 2000 (World Development Report. 1985). Twenty-four ethnic groups comprise the Philippine population with the major groups being the Visayans. the Tagalogs. and the Ilocanos. The official language is Tagalog. although English is spoken widely throughout the nation and continues to be the medium of instruction (Ramirez. 1984). In addition to Tagalog and English. there are approximately 100 dialects and languages spoken (Agoncillo and Alfonso. 1961). Philippine culture is unique in the sense that it is made up of varying elements from the East and West (Ramirez. 1984). The nation has been influenced by the Hindu and Muslim empires of Southeast Asia. The Religion. art. music. literature. the legal system. and social institutions continue to show the Spanish influence; the education and political system reflect the Anglo-Sax on or American influence (Carroll. 1963). In the midst of this unique and diverse cultural background. lies a nation of extreme poverty. The World Bank (1985) ranks the Philippines as the 52nd poorest nation in the world with a per capita gross national product (GNP) of $760. Ramirez (1984) provides the following description of the Philippines today: 26 Practically all sectors of society outside of the government and military network clamor for change and social transformation. What is now keenly felt is an unprecedented economic crisis. the root of which revolves around the unresolved political state of a one-man rule. . . . Never has the Philippines experienced such social and economic insecurity. In a land of contrast. we view fabulous buildings and hotels a few meters away from slum and squatter areas; we enjoy sumptuous meals served in chic restaurants. in contrast to the simple meals of turo-turo cantinas and banana cue vendors; while neat and well-kept college buildings offer a striking opposite to dilapidated ones. . . . In general. a marked contrast is immediately observable in the life of people in both urban and rural areas. and between the affluent few and great majority of the poor (p. 27). The Agency began its involvement in the Philippines in 1955 with a Pastor’s Conference; since then. eleven others have been held (Agency Document. 1984). In 1957. a child sponsorship program began in the country and later. in 1972. a Field Office was opened. At present. the Philippine Agency has more than 30.000 sponsored children and an annual budget of nearly 5 million dollars. The most recent organization chart. the operations division is the largest entity with seventy-nine staff members. Included in operations are four branch offices and two special project areas: a) Metro Manila Urban Ministry and b) Development Assisting Centers. A total of one hundred eighty-two projects are currently being assisted in the country. The total number of projects and staff per branch office are shown in Table 2.4. 27 Table 2.4 Nueber of Projects and Staff per Branch Office: Philippines Branch/Area: No. Program No. Projects No. Project Staff Officers Direct Indirect Direct Indirect Southern Luzon Branch Office 5 2 23 7 86 Northern Luzon Branch Office 7 19 28 51 97 Cebu Branch Office 8 27 22 77 80 Palawan Branch Office 3 18 -- 47 -- Metro Manila Urban Ministry 7 9 34 21 104 Development Assisting Centers (DAC) 2 --- -- l4 -- TOTALS 32 75 107 217 367 Source: Philippine Agency Document, 1985. The projects and staff presented in the Philippines Agency are divided into direct and indirect. This refers to the two major kinds of project agreements that the Philippine Agency has. Either the project is managed and staffed "directly" by the Philippine Agency. or "indirectly" through some partner agency. In addition to the Philippine Agency staff listed as 32 Program Officers (P.O.’s) and 217 "direct" project staff. there are another 181 support staff distributed throughout the country. The support staff are located in one of the branch offices or headquarters office in Manila. 28 Taiwan Contex t The small nation of the Republic of China. Taiwan. stands in marked contrast to the other countries being examined in the study. The nation emerged following the Communist takeover in mainland China. Since then. relations between the Taiwan and the People’s Republic have been extremely tense. Under the control of the Kuomintang (kMT). led originally by Chiang Kai-shek and since 1975 by his son Chaing Ching-kuo. Taiwan has enjoyed a period of phenomenal growth and prosperity. At present. the nation enjoys an estimated Gross National Product per capita of 82432 (Taiwan Statistical Data Book. 1982). During the period 1978 - 1979. Taiwan had a population of 17.2 million people and enjoyed a gross domestic product growth rate of almost 30% (Sinclair. 1982). At present the population is 19.2 million. with 71 percent of the people living in the urban areas (Population Reference Bureau. 1985). The Agency became involved in Taiwan in the early 1950’s by providing assistance to Presbyterian missionaries. This work quickly expanded to include sponsorship and development programs and finally. in 1968. a Field Office was opened in Taipei. the capital city. At present. the Field Office handles more than 90 projects with an annual budget of more than 2.8 million dollars (Taiwan Agency Document. 1984). The Taiwan Field Office has traditionally focused on the mountainous tribal areas (Taiwan Agency Document. 1981); hence. many of the projects are 29 difficult to reach. The activities in these mountain areas include the , following: . . . assisting with reforestation. increasing rice production. training for women. health care and improved drinking water. They also focus on strengthening the local church and providing leadership training (Agency Document. n.d.). The Taiwan Field Office has gained a new reputation recently for being one of the first Field Offices to generate income within the country for projects outside of Taiwan. The results have been far greater than anticipated. according to one of the Taiwan Agency staff. The money generated will be used for Agency projects in Africa. At present. the Taiwan Agency has set its strategy to include the following areas: childcare. development. and Christian Leadership. According to a recent Taiwan Agency document. the following are the key priorities or areas of emphasis: 1. Focus with People Groups with whom we work: tribal people. urban tribal immigrants. coastal villagers. offshore islanders. substance-abusers. laborers. miners. Hakka people. and the Church in Taiwan. 2. Focus on children as the center of the projects. Family and community needs will also be satisfied. 3. Through organizing project committees. we will encourage the local people to participate in project ministry and to live confidently with their own culture. 4. The local people will be (enhanced) to implement and take over project ministry themselves gradually and move towards self-reliance. 5. Donor relationships will also be emphasized. 6. Through fundraising programs. opportunities will be provided for people to share their love with the needy. 30 7. Stimulate the Church to be concerned about people's needs. to participate in social action. and to provide either manpower or financial support (Taiwan Agency Document. 1986). At present. the Agency’s operation in Taiwan is expanding into newer areas. Marginalized groups of people including urban poor. prostitutes. run-aways. and others are being identified. The growth of a consciousness about the needs of the poor among the Taiwanese people is an indication that the future work will be challenging and innovative. Summary This chapter has provided an overview of the research setting. Because the study occurs in a private. Christian development agency. an emphasis has been given to describe the nature of private development agencies. The specific agency utilized in the study was also examined. first in a broad manner that includes the International partnership of Field Offices. Support Offices and the International Headquarters and. then later. in a specific description of the context of the three target countries. Bangladesh. Philippines. and Taiwan. Each of the countries provides a unique perspective relative to the purposes of the study. Although many of the generalizations and findings will be made based upon a larger picture of all three countries. the individual context of each nation also needs to be examined. Because of this reason. the present chapter has been included. CHAPTER III PRECEDENT LITERATURE The following fields of literature have been included in this study in order to better understand the research problem: Planned Social Change. Community Development. Roles of Development Workers. Development Organization theory. and Development Training. Although the primary field of study for Everett Rogers is Communication. special attention is given to any of his literature applicable to the study. Planned Social Change The literature in the field of planned change is abundant and controversial. Most studies of social change have attempted to understand why people change and how change can be promoted within certain social settings. The days of debating the inevitability of change have long passed (Bennis. Benne and Chin. 1985). Concern today lies more in the method of the change effort and the direction of the change. Dewey wrote that ". . . history in being a process of change generates change not only in details but also in the method of directing change" (1935. p. 83). For the purposes of this study. the researcher prefers to include the practice of community development within the larger field of planned change. The following trends are among the major sources found in the literature . 31 32 Perhaps one of the most difficult barriers to overcome in understanding social change is obtaining an adequate definition. Lippitt (1973. p. 37) defines social change as "any planned or unplanned alteration in the status quo in an organism. situation or process." Zaltman and Duncan (1977) also distinguish between planned and unplanned change: All change falls into the planned -- unplanned dichotomy. Planned change . . . is a deliberate effort with a stated goal on the part of a change agent . . . such that it requires members of that system to relearn how to perform their roles (p. 10). Rogers and Shoemaker (1971) describe social change as "the process by which alteration occurs in the structure and function of a social system. National revolution. invention of a new manufacturing technique. founding of a village improvement council. adoption of birth control methods by a family -- all are examples of social change" (p. 7). In attempting to understand the reasons for social change. Zaltman and Duncan (1977) have suggested a number of characteristics of change: 1) Relative gdvgntgge refers to the unique advantage that the change has over other ideas. and practices. 2) lmgagt 93 social rglgiigns refers to the effect that change has on social relationships. e.g.. the emergence of new leaders and new roles. 3) Divisibilitx refers to the extent that change can be implemented on a limited scale. 4) Bgvergibilitz refers to the ease with which the status quo can be reestablished after a change has been introduced but rejected. 5) ngglgxitz refers to the degree a change is understood. 6) Qomggtagility refers to the appropriateness a change has with the existing local situation. 33 7) Qommunicability refers to the ease with which information about the change can be disseminated. 8) '_l'_i_m_e_ The speed with which a change is introduced. Various authors have suggested typologies and models for understanding planned change and development practice. For example. Christenson and Robinson (1980) suggested that a typology of 1) technical assistance. 2) self help. and 3) conflict approaches would significantly help our understanding. Rothman (1974) suggested three models for community development practice: locality development. social planning and social action. A popular way of viewing planned change in America has been to examine the particular strategy used to achieve the change. Bennis. Benne and Chin (1985) suggest three types of strategies: 1) Empirical-rational strategies -- This approach is based on the assumption that people are rational beings and moved by self-interest. Once change is proposed to the people by someone deeming that the change is desireable. it is assumed that those persons will adopt the change moved by rational and self-interest motives. 2) Normative-re-educative strategies -- This approach does not deny the rationality of people. but relies heavily upon different assumptions about human motivation. In this strategy. change will only occur "as the persons involved are brought to change their normative orientations to old patterns and develop commitments to new ones" (p. 23). 3) Power-coercive strategies -- This approach is based on the application of power in some form. political or otherwise. It may involve the use of legitimate power or authority or it may be more appealing to use massive coercive power against the authorities. 34 Zaltman and Duncan (1977) suggest a similar list of approaches to change: Facilitative. Reeducative. Persuasive. and Power strategies. They go on further to suggest that effective change usually only occurs when there is the use of "multiple strategies" simultaneously. in sequence or both (p. 166). Bennis. Benne and Chin (1985) in their well known text on planned change provide a historical overview of planned change mentioning some individuals who have affected each of the three strategies described above. The following is a summary of only a small portion of the major influences taken primarily from Bennis. Benne and Chin (1985) as well as other sources. This list is provided to illustrate the wide variety of backgrounds which could be included as important to understanding planned change. 'n thnh: if T. Jefferson -- Strong advocate of research and education * J. Morrill -- Land grant university and applied research * A. Comte and L. Ward -- Basic social research 1: F. Taylor -- Scientific management systems a. B.F . Skinner -- Utopian thinking as a change strategy it E.L. Thorndike -- Applied research in eduction .* F. Boas -- Anthropological diffusion of culture traits * E. Rogers -- Diffusion of innovations in contemporary culture e R. Havelock and k. Benne -- Diffusion of innovations in education .V’ _ a: J. Dewey -- Active interaction between man and environment i K. Lewin -- Interrelations between research. training and action * Freud -- Collaborative relationship between change agent and client in therapeutic change a: E. Mayo -- Industrial sociology it F.J. Roethlisberger and W.J. Dickson -- Personal counseling in industry a k. Lewin. R. Lippitt. L. Bradford and k. Benne -- National training laboratories 35 if R. Blake and J Mouton - System problem-solving efforts if 8. Corey -- Human systems approach through action-research * R. and M. Havelock -- Training of change agents for educational innovations e C. Argyis -- Training of change agents within a system i D. McGregor -- Shifting styles of management in organizations 4: C. Rogers -- New look at therapist-client relationship * A. Maslow -- Hierarchy of needs within individuals if M. and C. Sherif -- Work with intergroup conflicts it P. Coombs -- Popularization of non-formal education it E. Rogers -- Shifting paradigms of development communication - r 'v e M. Gandhi -- Use of non-violent strategies in India 1: Martin Luther king -- Use of non-violent strategies in the USA a: S. Alinski -- Experiments in organizing neighborhoods 1: B. Hall -- Work with participatory research a: P. Freire -- Education towards a critical awareness of reality a F. O’Gorman -- Work in Latin America with base communities a: M. Horten -- Community organizing in the highlands of Tennessee Community Development Similar to "social change". the term "community development" is probably one of the most frequently used. yet misunderstood. words throughout the world today. Accompanying its use is a variety of meanings. Anyone seriously attempting to explain development usually recognizes the normative nature of the subject (for example. Christenson and Robinson. 1980; Chin and Benne. 1976. Rogers. 1976a). The definition of the concept depends upon the particular orientation of the person offering the definition. The modern understanding of development has progressed through a myriad of definitions. approaches and philosophies. Gessaman (1978) in a review of some of the dominant trends in community development. suggests that development could 36 be viewed from four perspectives: as a method. a program. a movement. or a process. Although early views on development tended to emphasize a particular method. program or movement. much of the recent literature focuses on development from the perspective of a process. Clinard (1970) notes that the term "community development" became popular following World War II. Certainly. the post-war reconstruction efforts influenced the large-scale development programs which followed in the 1950’s and 60’s. Although the community development movement can be traced back to the 1920’s. the modern prominence emerged after World War II in Uttar Pradesh. India as a Ford Foundation funded project (Holdcroft. 1978). Out of this model project emerged a growing desire during the 1950’s by nations throughout the world to join the community development movement. Holdcroft (1978) labels this era of community development as the "Decade of Prominence." However. as early as 1960. the movement had slowed and by 1965. there were numerous failures being reported (Holdcroft. 1978). Among the reasons for the decline in the community development movement are: 1) the mode of planning. i.e.. centralized. bureaucratic as opposed to more de-centralized. local level participation; 2) the assumption that technologies could easily be "transferred" to developing nations; 3) the existing power structures were accepted as given without attempting to change them; 4) rapid recruitment and training of community development workers; 5) the biased nature of community development workers in favor of the rural elite (taken from korten. 1980; Holdcroft. 1982). 37 One of the most prominent sociological approaches to development during the 1950’s emphasized the difference between "traditional" and ”modern" cultures with the former being seen as insufficient for modern needs and thus replaced by the latter (Hoselitz. 1957). Rostow (1960) suggested that these traditional societies could become modern after progressing through a series of stages of economic growth: traditional -- transitional -- take off -- drive to maturity -- and high mass consumption. Rostow believed that societies would "take off" after certain economic criteria were met. Rostow’s "take off" concept helped the development theorists of the 1960’s and 1970’s to suggest that developing societies essentially needed a "transfer of technology" and innovations from the Western nations (Rogers. 1962. 1971). The traditional views of underdevelopment tended to promote a belief that the problem was merely a matter of inherent deficiencies: economic. social. and cultural within third world countries (kindervatter. 1979). This situation is described by Goulet and Hudson (1971) as a "lack or a lag." Szentes (1976) suggests that the "lack and lag" theories can be divided into five types based on: 1) quantitative statistical indices; 2) the aggregate of certain criteria and limiting factors. such as unfavorable natural endowments. cultural factors. high population growth rates. and so forth; 3) "specific forms of motion." i.e.. cycle of limiting factors; 4) the sociological view of a stagnant traditional society; and 5) Rostow’s five stages of economic growth. Dependency Theorists As an alternative to the growing questions about the effectiveness of early development efforts. a group of economists known as "dependency theorists" 38 began to emerge during the late 1960’s and early 1970’s. This movement originally suggested that the distinguishing feature between the developing nations and those more technologically advanced was dependency. According to one theorist. dependency occurs when the economies of certain countries are conditioned by the development and expansion of other economies to which the former are subjugated (Dos Santos. 1973. p. 110). Essentially. they believe that inequality exists in international trade and investment that is beneficial to the industrialized countries and detrimental to the developing nations (Kindervatter. 1979). Frank (1971). one of the leading proponents of dependency theory. characterized underdevelopment as ”an on-going process. the development of underdevelopment" (p. 94). Goulet (1975). likewise. believes that the essence of dependency theory is vulnerability: The technologically advanced nations enjoy disproportionate bargaining strength and will not permit underdeveloped nations to develop in a manner which challenges their dominant position (p. 47). Goulet suggests that out of this unequal bargaining position. a “complete trauma" results. His words describe vividly the results of underdevelopment: Underdevelopment is shocking; the squalor. disease. unnecessary deaths. and hopelessness of it all! . . . The most empathetic observer can speak obvicariously. the shock of underdevelopment. This unique culture shock comes to one as he is initiated to the emotions which prevail in the "culture of poverty." . . . (The) prevalent emotion of underdevelopment is a sense of personal and societal impotence in the face of disease and death. of confusion and ignorance as one gropes to understand change. of servility toward men whose decisions govern the course of events. of hopelessness before hunger and natural catastrophe. Chronic poverty is a cruel kind of hell and one cannot understand how cruel that hell is merely by gazing upon poverty as an object 39 Dependency theory grew up out of the dissatisfaction in Latin America during the past twenty years. However. since the emergence of the theory. attempts have been made. some perhaps unsuccessfully. to apply the dependency theory outside of Latin America (Bryant and White. 1982). Some of the dependency theorists rely heavily upon Marxist doctrine; others do not. However. one issue that remains unresolved among the various groups of dependency theorists is the role of scarcity in their analysis (Bryant and White. 1982). Some Marxists insist that there is no ”real" scarcity. but rather an artificial perception in scarcity engineered by the capitalists in order to increase profits. Others. such as Brookfield (1975). disagree with this view. insisting instead that a true scarcity of resources does indeed exist and needs to be recognized. Dominant versus Emerging Paradigms of Development Rogers (1983. p. 43) defines a “paradigm" as ”a scientific approach to some phenomena that provides model problems and solutions to a community of scholars". Masterman (1970) suggests that Kuhn. the leading philosopher of science who first popularized the idea of "paradigm." mentions at least twenty-one kinds of paradigms. one of them described as a new way of looking at something: Scientists . . . often speak of the "scales falling from the eyes" or of the "lightening flash" that "innundates" a previously obscure puzzle. enabling its components to be seen in a new way e e e n (Khun’ 19629 p. 121)- The dominant paradigm used in this context refers to an approach to development which has been extremely popular and accepted until the late 40 1960’s and early 1970’s. The approach grew out of various historical events including the industrial revolution in Europe and the United States. the world wide colonial experiences in the 18th and 19th centuries. and reconstruction attempts immediately following World War II. Rogers (1976a. 1978) suggests that this "dominant paradigm" has fallen or passed away. In its place is what he refers to as a new "emerging paradigm." The old paradigm focused on the criterion of quantitative economic growth. while the new emphasizes more qualitative factors such as greater participation. and justice. Development specialists prior to the early 1970’s relied upon indicators such as growth in the gross national product and percapita income. However. as the new paradigm began to emerge. alternatives became available (Table 3.1). Rogers (1976a) describes a number of historical influences on the old conception of development. These are summarized below: 1. W The rapid rate of growth throughout the world in the late 1800’s led to a conviction that growth was development. Industrialization was seen as the vehicle leading to development. 2. Qggjtal-Igtggsivg Igghnolggy. Because most of the Western countries had developed a strong technological base. an assumption was made that those technologies could merely be passed on to the less developed nations. 3. [9993mm Assumptions were made that people would be motivated by economic measures. by profit incentives. More and bigger was Table 3.1 41 Blerging Alternatives to the Duinant Paradige Main Elements in the Dominant Paradigm of Emer in Alternatives Possible Factors Leading to the Development to t e ominant Paradigm Emerging Alternatives 1. Economic 1. Equality of distribution 1. 'Development Ueariness'_from growth the slow rate of economic development during the 1950’s and 1960’s 2. Publication of the Pearson Report 3. Browin loss of faith in the 'trick e-down' theory of dis- tributing development benefits 2. Ca ital- 1. Concern with quality 1. Environmental pollution in ensive of life roblems in Euro-America and technology apan 2. Integration of 'tradi- 2. Limits to growth tional' and 'modern' systems in a country 3. The energy crisis following 3. Greater em hasis on the 1973 Yom Kippur War intermedia e-level and labor-intensive technology 3. Centralized 1. Self-reliance in 1. The People’s Republic of China planning development experience with decentralized . . _ participatory self-developnen 2. Popular participation in (widely known elsewhere after decentra ized self- 971) development planning and execution (e.a., to the 2. 'Development weariness' village level 4. Mainly in- 1. Internal and external 1. The rise of 'oil ower' in the ternal causes causes of underdevelopment years following t e energy of under- (amounting to a redefi- crisis of 1973-1974 development nition of the problem by developing nations) 3. Shifts in world power illus- trated by voting behavior in the UN General ssembly and in the UN world Conferences at Stockholm, Bucharest, and one Criticism of the dominant . aaradign by radical economists ike Frank and other dependency theorists Source:”Rogers, 1983, p. 121. 42 considered to be better. Bankers and economists were clearly in charge during this period. 4. ngntjfigatim. One of the reasons economic growth was so popular was because of its ease in being quantified. If some dimensions of development could not be measured in quantitative terms. they probably did not exist or were not important. The need for quantification grew largely out of the North American social science empiricism. Material well-being could be measured. but other values like dignity. justice. and freedom could not. so they were considered as not important. Bordenave. a well known Latin American Communication scholar. credits Paulo Freire with helping to provide a new philosophy of communication and change. Bordenave states "what Paulo F reire proposed was the abolition of the ’transmission mentality’ in education and communication. and its replacement with a more liberating type of communication education that would be both receiver-centered and more conscious of social structure" (1976. p. 46). Freire (1973). in similar manner. proposed a process called "conscientization" where learners are given opportunity to look at problems from their own perspectives with heightened awareness to the real situation. They are then encouraged to begin a continuous cycle of acting and reflecting and acting. This process increases the awareness of the learners to their situation and promotes what F reire terms "liberative education.” During the past three decades conceptualization of the development process has continued to change. During the early post World War II years through the 43 1960’s. development tended to be characterized by massive Inter-Governmental attempts at modernization (see for example. Rostow. 1960). The self-help and participatory approaches of the late 1960’s and 1970’s is eventually being replaced by a newer phenomenon characterized by "transformation" (Kindervatter. 1979). The shift in Rogers' thinking paralleled to some extent. the shift of many scholars who have attempted to define development. To illustrate this. below are two definitions written by Rogers. The first. written at the end of early era of development conceptualization in 1969. while the second was written during the height of a second era in 1975. Development is a type of social change in which new ideas are introduced into a social system in order to produce higher per capita incomes and levels of living through more modern production methods and improved social organization" (Rogers and Svenning. 1969). Development is a widely participatory process of social change in a society intended to bring about both social and material advancement (including greater equality. freedom. and other valued qualities) for the majority of people through their gaining greater control over their environment" (Rogers. 1983. p. 121 e). . it (Note: A similar definition to this first appeared in Rogers. 1975 and 1976) Numerous attempts have been made in recent years to more clearly describe the paradigm shift as it is occurring (Bennis. Benne and Chin. 1985; Eisenstadt. 1973; Kindervatter. 1979. Bryant and White. 1982). One of the best examples is Korten (1984). who refers to "people-centered development” as characteristic of the new emerging paradigm. Korten suggests that the theme of people-centered development is "creating the potential to enhance growth: human growth. well being. equity. and sustainability" (1984. p. 299). He 44 believes that development should place an emphasis on local initiative and diversity with "self-organizing systems developed around human scale organizational units and self reliant communities" (1984. p. 300). He suggests that this will create a sense of self-worth and self-realization. korten then goes on to contrast "production-centered versus people-centered development" One critical distinction between production-centered and people-centered development is that the former routinely subordinates the needs of people to those of the production system. while the latter seeks consistently to subordinate the needs of the production system to those of the people (Korten. 1984. p. 300). Korten does not propose that people-centered development will just occur with little effort. Instead he argues for strong changes in basic beliefs and actions: Achieving the purposes of people-centered development implies a substantial decentralization of decision-making processes. but a good deal more is involved than the single delegation of formal authority. Basic styles and methodologies of decision-making must also change. For example. if expert-dominated. nonconsultative modes of central decision-making are simply replicated at lower levels. local decisions may be no more responsive to human needs than those made centrally. Decision-making must truly be returned to the people. who have both the capacity and the right to inject into the process the richness -- including the subjectivity -- of their values and needs (Korten. 1984. p. 301). v in n r Rogers (1983) defines a change agent as "an individual who influences client’s innovation decisions in a direction deemed desireable by a change agency" (p. 312). Rogers admits that change agents used to be considered essential but now no longer may be: 45 "Until the 1970’s it was assumed that professional change agents were a necessary ingredient in an effective diffusion program. Now we see that they are not always essential" (1983. p. 313). Rogers’ suggests that a wide variety of occupations fit the definition of a change agent: "teachers. consultants. public health workers. agricultural extension agents. development workers. sales people and many others" (1983. p. 313). However. Rogers’ considers a change agent essentially as a "linker" as can be seen in Table 3.2. Table 3.2 Change Agents as Linkers. Change Agents provide linkage between a change agency and a client system Change Agency Client’s needs and feedback Change Innovations about change Agent Flow to Clients program flow to Linkage change agency. h / Client System 46 Various authors have suggested other terms to describe the roles of development workers. The list that could be provided is long and redundant. An example of the more frequently used terms include: educator. facilitator. consultant. enabler. broker. arbitrator. advocate. organizer. administrator (Beal. 1981); helper. mover. doer (Schaller. 1972); stimulator (Rogers and Shoemaker. 1976); Motivator. transformer (Perkins. 1980; Brill. 1978); activist (D’Abreo. 1983); mobilizer (Nessman. 1981); problem-identifier or diagnostician (Zaltman and Duncan. 1977). Havelock and Havelock (1973) proposed four primary ways in which a person can act as a change agent. He can be 1) a catalyst. 2) a solution-giver. 3) a process-helper. and 4) a resourte -linker. In Table 3.3. we see these four roles illustrated. As a solution-giver. the change agent comes with definite ideas about the problems and what innovations should be adopted. It is difficult to be an effective solution-giver unless enough prior knowledge is gained about the innovation and sensitive or appropriate methods are used to introduce it to the potential users of the solution. As a process-helper. the change agent concentrates more on problem-solving techniques that people can use during various stages of the change process. This includes how to recognize and define needs. how to identify problems and set goals. how to select appropriate solutions from various alternatives. how to evaluate solutions and how to plan for any other solutions. 47 Table 3.3 Four Roles of a Change Agent Change Agent as Process-Helper Change Agent as Catalyst Disturbance \ Satis-Dissat. Decision CLIENT to act T SYSTEM 1 Application‘\ /Diagnosis / 5...... /\ Change Agent as Resource- Linker Change Agent ' as Solution-Giver Source: Havelock and Havelock, 1973, p. As Resource-Linker. the change agent helps the people to bring together resources from both inside and outside the community. such as to identify. plan. implement and evaluate the change process. As a catalyst. the change agent helps to get things moving or to prod and pressure the system to work on its serious problems. In this role. the change agent does not necessarily have any answers. but he/she is dissatisfied with the situation and wants to see some change. 48 Havelock and Havelock go on to explain that the four types do not exhaust the possibilities for change agent roles. but they may help in identifying commonly used roles for designing a training program. The catalyst role above is very similar to the role played by community organizers. Hollnsteiner (1979) summarizes the effect that community organizers can have: 1. People generally act on the basis of their self interest. 2. People move from simple. concrete. short-term personal issues to more complex. abstract. long-term and systemic issues over time. 3. The Establishment reacts in ways that give people the opportunity to become angry and militant. 4. Tactics against the powerful should be within the experience of the powerless and outside the experience of the powerful. 5. Through the organizing process. people make their own decisions (pp.408-9). O’Gorman (1978) suggests that development workers can have both "manifest" and "latent" roles. The former refers to the surface actions of the agent while interacting with a community. whereas the latter refers to those roles derived from the underlying currents that give direction to the development worker’s action. She believes that the essence of the action revolves around three concepts during the process of community development: "the ’ought’ or identification of ideals. issues. and problems; the ’can be’ or identification and utilization of resources. leadership. and organization in selecting viable alternatives; and the ’shall be’ or action dimension in which priorities are established and decisions. plans. implementation and evaluation are made in order to bring the selected alternative to a successful completion" (O’Gorman. 1978. p. 3). O’Gorman suggests a variety of role categories which can be either latent or manifest. In Table 3.4. these roles are listed: 49 Table 3.4 Change Agent Roles in Development Change Agent Roles Latent Manifest Dichotomizer ------------ ANALYZER ---------- History-Builder Production-Oriented People-Oriented Manipulator ------------ INFORMER ---------- Sharer Modernizer ------------ LINKER ---------- Syncretizer Promoter of Supporter of Popu- Efficiency ------------ ORGANIZER --------- lar Participation Adjustor to ADMINISTRATOR Liberator from Dominant Systems ----------- OF SANCTIONS ------- Power Structures Ouantifier ----------- EUALUATOR --------- Qualifier Alienator ----------- FACILITATOR -------- De-alienator Mobilizer ----------- LEADERSHIP -------- Consciousness- DEUELOPER Raiser Source: O’Gorman, 1978, p.9. O’Gorman’s analysis offers insight into understanding the difficult tasks of development workers. She differentiates between change agents or development workers who are 1) primarily interested in the diffusion of technology or 2) concerned for transformation in the lives of people. Although she states. "the agent himself. or herself may not asume all dimensions of that transformation" (1978. p.2). She suggests that the development worker will not only explicitly exemplify the manifest roles. inherent in the model of development that is followed. but will also implicitly or explicitly operate in latent roles as well. The difference between the manifest and latent are not 50 always as extreme as suggested in Table 3.4. She notes the following relationship between these roles: There are degrees and variations in the roles. just as there aree differences in the trends of traditional and emerging development concepts. Latent roles can swing from one trend to another. sometimes conflicting with the manifest roles and other times complementing them. When the differences lie in the means to obtain change for development. the roles can complement each other. Nevertheless. this kind of oscillation would indicate that the view of development is. in itself. somewhat contradictory (1978. p.12). Finally. Rogers (1983) offers a list of twelve generalizations related to the success of development workers or change agents. The generalizations he cites are based upon 156 studies during recent years with 86% of the studies showing support of the generalizations. A summary of Rogers’ generalizations is provided below: 1. Development worker success is positively related to the extent that they make effort in contacting and interacting with community members. 2. Development worker success is positively related to a client-orientation rather than to a change agency-orientation. 3. Development worker success is positively related to the degree to which a diffusion program is compatable with the community needs. 4. Development worker success is positively related to empathy with members of the community. 5. Development worker contact is positively related to higher social status among community members. 6. Development worker contact is positively related to a greater social participation among the community members. 7. Development worker contact is positively related to higher education among community members. 51 8. Development worker contact is positively related to cosmopoliteness among the community members. 9. Development worker success is positively related to homophily with community members. 10. Development worker success is positively related to credibility in the community’s eyes. 11. Development worker success is positively related to the extent that he or she works through opinion leaders. 12. Development worker success is positively related to increasing ability with community members to evaluate innovations (1983. p. 344-345). Development Organizations Korten (1980) suggests that development organizations have largely failed in their efforts to promote equitable human development. He advocates a new focus in organizations which he terms a "learning process approach." The model for this approach implies that all programs or organizations should progress through three development stages. In these stages. the concern is progressively focused on 1) learning to be effective. 2) learning to be effecient and 3) learning to expand. Korten postures this technique opposite the "blue print" approach to development programming which is essentially a pre-planned. pre-packaged scheme that he believes has largely failed. Esman and Uphoff (1984) suggest that rural development organizations can be classified into three types: bureaucratic structures. market interactions and voluntary associations. 52 Decentralization An argument that has frequently been debated questions the appropriateness of centralized over decentralized systems. Some feel that development agencies need to bring about change in their organization which leads to greater redistribution of power and resources. Often it is assumed that a centralized authority representing the interest of others has the greatest chance of doing this. However. Bryant and White (1982) note that this argument has generated its own critique: If development is also about sharing power and being responsive to popular interests. it is easy for a strong central authority to overwhelm the process and become heavy handed and unresponsive. . . . Nation-building may require centralization. but development requires some local control (p.155). One study of six development projects funded by the World Bank came to this conclusion: Those systems with top heavy power appear to work less effectively than those with the power concentrated at the local and intermediate levels. Top heavy power systems tend to stifle motivation and commitment and have difficulty obtaining valid information from lower levels. especially of a negative nature. Systems with balanced power or more power at the lower levels tend to be more highly motivated and have better flows of information from the lower levels. and are better able to change Bryant and White (1982) refer to a study conducted by Montgomery (1972) and suggest that decentalization of development organizations generates more benefits to poorer groups in the society. John Montgomery reviewed twenty-five case studies of rural development in 1970 and concluded that decentralization had a major impact on their success in distributing benefits. 523 Central control usually benefited the agency rather than the peasants. Decentralization also benefited the bureaucracy. but at the same time it reduced the concentration of power (p. 162). Table 3.5 Characteristics of Centralized and Decentralized Diffusion Systems Characteristics of Diffusions Systems Centralized Diffusion Systems Decentralized Diffusion Systems 1. The degree of centralization in decision making and power. 2. Direction of diffusion 3. Sources of innovations. 4. who decides which innovations to diffuse? 5. How important are clients’ needs in driving the diffusion 6. Amount of re- invention? Overall control of decisions by national government administrators and technical subject-matter experts. Top-down diffusion from experts to local users of innovations. Innovations come from formal research and development conducted by technical experts. Decisions about which innovations should be diffused are made by top administrators and technical subject- matter experts. An innovation-centered approach; technology-push, emphasizing needs created by the availability of the innovation. A low degree of local adaptation and reinvention of the innovations as they diffuse among adopters. Hide sharing of power and control among the members of the diffusion system; client control by local community officials. Peer diffusion of innovations through horizontal networks. Innovations come from local experimentation by non- experts, who often are users. Local units decide which inno- vations should diffuse on the basis of their informal evaluations of innovations. A problem-centered approach; technology-pull, created by locally perceived needs and problems. A high degree of local adapta- tion and reinvention of the innovations as they diffuse among adopters. Rogers (1983) also refers to the difference centralized change systems. Rogers proposes a between decentralized and helpful way of looking at diffusion systems by examining the degree of centralization within the system. 54 The examination takes into consideration 6 factors (shown in Table 3.5). Rogers describes the two systems in the following terms: In general. centralized diffusion systems are based on a linear. one-way model of communication. Decentralized diffusion systems more closely follow a convergence model of communication. in which participants create and share information with one another in order to reach a mutual understanding (1983. pp. 335-336). Although it appears that there is a legitimate cause for agencies to prefer less bureaucratic structures or a more decentralized mode of operation. frequently agencies are unwilling to change. Bryant and White refer to one study of development programs that concludes the ”probability of ’top down’ administrators recognizing the legitimacy of a ’bottom up’ approach to clients is low" (Brinkerhoff. 1980). an“ tion n 'r m Zaltman and Duncan (1977) suggest that "organizations or sub-units of the organizations do not exist in isolation from the larger environment. Rather they exist in an environmental setting" (p. 249). Organizations cannot exist alone without the outside world or beyond the organizational boundaries. Shifting continuously from one form to another in different phases. an organization responds to intra-organizational stresses and learning. The environment has normally been regarded as the primary source of constraint upon organizational design and behavior (Child. 1972). Yet organizational birth and development are in fact influenced by a combination of external problems. opportunities. and internal events that are shaped by the 55 experiences and aspirations of key individuals. The environment of the organization is a socially constructed perception of external reality (Weick. 1979). This means that an environment depends solely on how organization members interpret stimulae according to their perceptions and experiences. They define their own environment and make decisions on how to react. Weick (1979) uses the terms "enacted environment" to emphasize that "meaningful environments are outputs of organizing. not inputs to it" (p. 131). Child (1972) and Thompson (1967) contend that in studying organizations relations with their environments. it should be realized that the two are not separate. Furthermore. the organization boundary between them is partially an arbitrary invention constructed by organization members. The organization members detect and register information from "information space" (Farace et al. 1977) which is literally constructed by the members of the organization. and hence is subject to change from time to time. and likely to be perceived as different from member to member. Emery and Trist (1973) have classified four main types of environments in which organizations most frequently function: 1) Placid-Random. 2) Placid-Clustered. 3) Disturbed-Reactive. and 4) Turbulent. According to Emery and Trist. these four environments can and often do evolve simultaneously. Development Workers Training The training of development workers continues to be a dominant theme in the literature of community development (for example. Bryant and White. 1982; 56 Lynton and Pareek. 1967; Perkins. 1980; Gran. 1983). Lynton and Pareek (1967. pp. 15-16) suggest that the training process has three distinct phases: 1) pre-training. 2) training and 3) post-training. They contend that training must be viewed in the entire process. rather than the individual training event. C. Rogers (1969b) proposes that the essence of education or training is "to learn how to learn:" We are. in my view. faced with an entirely new situation in education where the goal of education. if we are to survive. is the facilitation of change and learning. The only man who is educated is the man who has learned how to learn; . . . I see the facilitation of learning as the aim of education (pp. 104-105). ugn-fgrmal Devglogmgnt Trgining Discovering the best and most appropriate ways that adults learn has been the focus of many educators for more than fifty years. In more recent years. the concern has been carried over into the development field because of the increasing evidence that education and training is not a matter of choice in developing countries. but rather a mandate (Nyerere. 1976). Since the late 1960’s the term non-formal education. NFE. has been popularized as a viable addition to traditional schooling. During the early 1970’s. formal education systems began to receive increasing criticisms (Illich. 1971; Coombs. 1968; Reimer. 1971; F reire. 1970). The main criticisms focused on the limitations of the formal education system to meet the increasing demands placed upon people. During the same period of time. interest in NF E has grown largely to “confront the unfinished business of the schools" (Coombs et al. 1973. p. 27). 57 Simkins (1977) suggests that NFE could be compared with Formal education in the following way (Table 3.6): Table 3.6 Ideal Type Models of Formal and Non-formal Training Formal Non-Formal Purposes Long-term and general Short-term and specific Credential-based Non-credential-based Timing Long cycle, Preparatory Short cycle, Recurrent full-time part-time Content Input-centered and Output-centered and Delivery System Control standardized Academic Clientile determined by entry requirements Institution-based Isolated from the socio- economic environment and from social action Rigidly structured Teacher-centered Resource-intensive External Hierarchical individualized Practical Entry requirements determined by clientele Environment-based Community-related Flexibly structured Learner-centered Resource-saving Self-governing Democratic The term NF E. however. is essentially a negative descriptor. and thus says much less than the term "formal education." Ward and Dettoni (1973) suggest that defining NFE is like "defining a car by saying it is a non-horse. non-airplane. non-boat. etc." (p. 9). NFE can be distinguished from formal and informal education not because of form. but rather the tendency to be 58 concerned with some relevant. ultimate intention or purpose for the training. Ward and Dettoni (1973) suggest the following: Education is of concern because of what it can do and will do for the learner rather that for any intrinsic value. It is of value only as it can help the student to make changes in himself and his environment in accord with his goal(s) (p.10). Embodied within the concept of NFE. two basically different types can be identified. Ward (n.d.) suggests that these two types be called Mode I. the "facilitation of technology" and Mode II. the "pursuit of humane values." Mode I refers to much of the focus of the early proponents of NFE. (for example. Coombs. 1972). Included in this mode are activities such as health education. family planning. marketing cooperatives. improved agriculture and many similar programs. In contrast with the facilitation of technology. Ward suggests Mode II. NFE in this mode focuses on the broadly defined goals of human fulfillment. The major concern in this mode is the concept of conscientization (Freire. 1970) referring both to heightened awareness as well as a deepened conscience or concern. Nyerere (1976) speaks about training in a manner that appears to desire both mode I and mode II: Education has to increase men’s (and women’s) physical and mental freedom -- to increase the control over themselves. their own lives. and the environment in which they live. The ideas imparted by education. or released in the mind through education. should be liberating ideas. The skills acquired by education should be liberating skills. . . . In particular. it has to help men to decide for themselves. in cooperation. what development is (p. 10). Freire (1970) discusses in length a system he refers to as the "banking system." Characteristic of this system is a teacher -- student mentality. In 59 this system. the teachers. or trainers become the depositors of information. and the students or learners become the depositories. The following is a list of 10 descriptions of such a system: 1. The teacher teaches and the students are taught. 2. The teacher knows everything and the student knows nothing. 3. The teacher thinks and the students are thought about. 4. The teacher talks and the students listen -- meekly. 5. The teacher disciplines and the students are disciplined. 6. The teacher chooses and enforces his/her choice and the students comply. 7. The teacher acts and the student has the illusion of acting through the action of the teacher. 8. The teacher chooses the program content and the students. who were not consulted. adapt to it. 9. The teacher confuses the authority of knowledge with his/her own professional authority. which he/ she sets in opposition to the freedom of the students. 10. The teacher is the subject of the learning process. while the pupils are mere objects. In opposition to this system of "domesticating." Freire suggests an educational process which is problem-posing in nature. In contrast to the vertical patterns of traditional trainer/trainee relationships. problem-posing education establishes a horizontal dialogue or conscientization process (F reire. 1970). Characteristic of this education is that no one can teach anyone else. no one learns alone. and people learn together. acting in and on their world (McGinn. 1973. p. 10). Climate for Learning The creation of the appropriate learning environment has long been the focus of educators (Dewey. 1938). Training development workers also requires preparation of the appropriate environment. C. Rogers (1969b) suggests that the environment should include the following: 60 The environment rests not upon the teaching skills of the leader. not upon his scholarly knowledge of the field. not upon his curricular planning. not upon his use of audiovisual aids. not upon the programmed learning he utilizes. not upon his lectures and presentations. not upon an abundance of books. though each of these might at one time or another be utilized as an important resource. No. the facilitation of significant learning rests upon certain attitudinal qualities which exist in the personal relationship between the facilitator and the learner” (p. 106). Rogers’ Literature in Perspective In 1983. Rogers indicated publically that he felt the old paradigm of development was seriously inadequate for the needs in the future (1983. p. 120). Earlier in 1976. Rogers had already described "an emerging paradigm.” but only a few of the elements of. the new paradigm seemed apparant. In this concluding section of Chapter 3. some of Rogers’ major influential literature is categorized into Early and Later phases. During an interview with the author. Rogers agreed that he has gone through a number of eras or phases of conceptualizing development. Although Rogers admits that a shift has been occurring. he adds that "it may be difficult to discern in some disciplines" (Rogers. 1985. p. 1). The following is a suggested list of the major literature developed during two phases of Rogers’ writing: 1) Early Rogers. or pre-1976 and 2) Later Rogers. post-1976. The summary is presented in this format in order to suggest that many of the components of Rogers early literature have similarities with the old or dominant paradigm. and many of the components of Rogers’ later writings indicate a shift to the new emerging paradigm. In other words. the early Rogers literature could be closely aligned with the dominant 61 paradigm while the later Rogers literature more closely with the emerging paradigm. Early Rogers Although specific dates are difficult to identify. it is possible to suggest that the period following the Korean War in the early 1950’s through the mid 1970’s is characterized by a particular approach to development. During this period of Rogers’ development conceptualization. a dominant emphasis was being placed on modernization. An assumption was made that if technology and modern practices developed in the West. especially those related to agricultural and health improvements. were diffused to persons in "under-developed" nations. a process of adopotion would occur and those nations would eventually become “developed." Rogers’ own definition of development indicates the dominant trends which had emerged at that time: Development is a type of social change in which new ideas are introduced into a social system in order to produce higher per capita incomes and levels of living through more modern production methods and improved social organization" (Rogers and Svenning. 1969). The titles of Rogers’ literature during this time indicate the growing interest in diffusion studies. It was during this time Rogers published the first two editions of Diffusion of Innovations. The two editions. published in 1962 and 1971. were extremely influential in terms of encouraging more research and practice in the diffusion of innovations. Verification for this comes from examining the enormous amount number of Rogers’ citations in social science literature during the same period. The following is a list of his dominant literature of this period: 195:3 "Categorizing the Adopters of Agricultural Practices" 1959 "A Note on Innovators" 1960 Social Change in Rural Society 1961 "The Adoption Period" 1962 Diffusion of Innovations 1965 "Mass Media Exposure and Modernization Among Columbian Peasants" 1971 Communications of Innovations: A Cross-Cultural Approach, 2nd edition. (Rogers and Shoemaker) 1973a Communication Strategies for Family Planning 1973b "Social Structure and Social Change" Later Rogers The shift in Rogers’ thinking began to emerge during the mid 1970’s. Challenges to the dominant paradigm had already begun to be heard prior to this time. and Rogers was. of course. also affected by the criticisms. Much of the early work in diffusion research was being questioned and explanations were needed. Finally. in 1976. Rogers published a short article entitled "The Passing of the Dominant Paradigm." In this and in later writings. Rogers suggested that the dominant paradigm was being rejected. and in its place was a newer emerging paradigm. In Rogers’ 1983 edition of the Diffusion of Innovations. he admits that much of the early diffusion attempts. many of which he was the prime mover. could be challenged by the criteria judging the emerging paradigm of today. Rogers’ newer definition of development is indicative of the change in his own conceptualization: 63 Development is a widely participatory process of social change in a society intended to bring about both social and material advancement (including greater equality. freedom. and other valued qualities) for the majority of people through their gaining greater control over their environment" (Rogers. 1983. p. 121 e). it (Note: A similar definition to this first appeared in Rogers. 1975 and 1976a) The following is a short list of some of Rogers’ work during this period: 19813 1981b 1983 "Communication and Development: The Passing of the Dominant Paradigm“ "Where Are We in Understanding the Diffusion of Innovations?" "The Rise and Fall of the Dominant Paradigm" "Barefoot Doctors" "Diffusion of Health and Birth Planning Innovations in the People’s Republic of China" (Rogers and Pi-Chao Chen) Communication Networks: Towards a New Paradigm for Research (Rogers and Kincaid) "Horizontal Diffusion of Innovations: An Alternative Paradigm to the Classical Diffusion Model" (Rogers and Leonard-Barton) Diffusion of Innovations. 3rd edition. Summary This chapter has focused on precedent literature in the fields of Planned Change. Community Development. Roles of Development Workers. Development Organization Theory. and Development Training. A number of trends can be generalized from the literature cited above. In order to illustrate the transition which has been occurring from a dominant paradigm to a newer emerging one. a few of the major themes have been summarized below: Trends in Egrly Paradigm Decision-making controlled by the top hierarchy or national body. Ideas and communications flow one way from top to bottom. Decision about what should be introduced made by technical experts and top level administrators. Good ideas, innovations come from top, from technical experts. Availability of new technology pushes the innovation. Innovation is seldom reinvented as it diffuses. Low levels of participation in planning, evaluating. Frequent utilization of directive teaching. Development measured by quantitative indicators. Emphasis on product. Centralized planning with emphasis on technology transfer. Trends in Lgter Paradigm wide sharing of decisions and control by the members. Ideas and communications diffuse through networks and and interpersonal channels. Decisions about what should be introduced made by local members after informal eval- uation of innovations. Good ideas, innovations generated by local members through critical reflection. Existence of problem creates desire to find solution as perceived by local needs and problems. Innovation is continually being reinvented to suit local needs and problems. High degree of participation in planning and evaluating. Frequent utilization of non- directive facilitation. Development measured by quali- tative indicators. Emphasis on process. Decentralized planning with emphasis on self-reliance. 65 Focus blame for poverty on Focus blame for poverty on individual (internal causes). system (internal and external causes). Emphasis on economic growth. Emphasis on low level, approp- riate technology. The summary above indicates only a small number of trends that can be used to highlight the transition. As the new emerging paradigm becomes more discernable. the trends will be more easily identified. CHAPTER IV Methodology The purpose of the research is to ascertain the varieties and central tendencies among active development workers with respect to the perceptions of their roles and tasks. An attempt was made to describe these changes that have occurred during recent years in the conceptual approaches to communication. education. development. and planned change. and then to compare these with the findings from active development workers. The research findings will serve as a basis for developing pre and inservice training programs for development workers. Data were gathered from a search of the literature as well as interviews with development workers in three countries: Bangladesh. Taiwan and the Philippines. The study has attempted to answer a number of questions concerning the roles and tasks of development workers. These primary questions have guided the study: 1. What are the essential roles and tasks of development workers as perceived by active development workers in a voluntary agency? 2. What are the varieties and central tendencies of these perceptions? 3. How does the way in which one perceives poverty influence the way he/ she might act as a development worker? 4. How. if at all does the nature and amount of experience contribute to one’s perception about his/her role as development worker? 66 67 5. What are the similarities and differences between early and later paradigms of development? 6. How. if at all. have active community development workers in a voluntary agency shifted their perceptions of development in comparison with early and later paradigms of development? 7. Based on the above questions. what are the implications for staff development and development worker training programs? Rationale for the Research Design The research approach focuses on the gathering of qualitative data through a series of interviews within one voluntary development agency. Qualitative research is essentially an investigative process similar to detective work (Douglas. 1976). Focusing on qualitative data provides the investigator with well grounded. rich descriptions of phenomena and processes. Two researchers recently described qualitative research in the following manner: Qualitative data are attractive. . . . With qualitative data one can preserve chronological flow. assess local causality. and derive fruitful explanations. Then too. qualitative data are more likely to lead to serendipitous findings and to new theoretical integrations; they help researchers to go beyond initial preconceptions and frameworks. Finally. the findings from qualitative studies have a quality of undeniability. Words. especially when they are organized into incidents or stories have a concrete. vivid. meaningful flavor that often proves far more convincing to a reader . . . than pages of numbers (Miles and Huberman. 1984. p. 15). The case study approach allows the opportunity: a) to gather detailed. factual information regarding active development workers; b) to identify the rationale for existing problems and concerns; and c) to make comparisons between what should be the ideal and what is in reality (Isaac and Michael. 1980). 68 Population The population of the study consists of development workers within Christian. voluntary agencies. Development workers in such agencies are frequently motivated to work because of a common commitment as promoters of the Christian message. However. even though Christian development workers have been identified. the results of the data could be generalized beyond Christian agencies to any development workers currently working for a voluntary agency. Sample The subjects for the study were development workers affiliated with a Christian. voluntary development agency located in three culturally contrasting situations: Bangladesh. Taiwan. and the Philippines. Two distinct positions of development workers were examined: Program Officers and Project Workers. The former have responsibility for more than one development project. The latter involve direct contact with community members in one development project. A purposive sampling technique was used to identify seventy-seven respondents. Ten of these were used for pre-testing with the remaining sixty-seven for data analysis. A purposive sample was used because of the researcher’s understanding and experience with development workers in the Agency. Babbie (1979) describes purposive sampling: To the extent that you consciously sample at all. you are more likely to employ what is called a purposive sample. You select a sample of observations that you believe will yield the most comprehensive understanding of your subject of study. based on 69 the intuitive feel for the subject that comes from extended observation and reflection (p. 215). As is often the case in qualitative data gathering. a relatively small sample was taken. This phenomenon is noted by Miles and Huberman (1984): Qualitative samples tend to be more purposive than random. partly because the initial definition of the universe is more limited . . .. and partly because social processes have a logic and coherence that random sampling of events or treatments usually reduces to uninterpretable sawdust (p. 36). Three countries (Bangladesh. Taiwan and the Philippines) were selected for use in the sample. Primarily. they were selected because of their: a) representativeness of the Asia region. b) representativeness of the Agency’s activities in Asia. and c) active interest in understanding and improving the roles and tasks of development workers. Each of the three target countries maintains a number of specific characteristics. The research subjects included persons functioning in two distinct job levels affiliated with the Agency being examined. The first level -- Program Officers -- were full-time employees of the Agency. Each maintained responsibility for approximately 7 to 10 development projects being funded by the Agency. Most of these projects were implemented by other smaller. indigenous development agencies operating in the respective countries. The Agency has stressed for many years that social work should be carried out by local organized groups already existing in needy communities. This emphasis of working with partners is illustrated in the following statements: As (the Agency) grew. and as we became more concerned with the outcomes of the ministries. and as the constituent public have become more searching. and as our own objectives have broadened; so has our relationship with ministry partners 70 changed. Steadily we required more of them. Instead of giving grants. we have sought a genuine partnership in which we share goals and accountability (Agency Document. 1978). In most cases. the second level of research subjects -- Project Workers -- were employees of these smaller indigenous agencies. In a few cases. the development projects were implemented directly by the Agency. When those peculiar instances were encountered. the research subjects were categorized as Project Workers. The number of research subjects and their corresponding positions within each country (not including the pre-testing) is shown in Table 4.1. Although the purposive sample was taken from the same agency. differences between the samples from each country exist. 1 Table 4.1 Respondents by Position and Country Position Program Project Country Officers Workers Total Taiwan 8 15 23 Bangladesh 10 12 22 Philippines 10 12 22 Total Respondents: 28 39 67 Data Gathering Procedure In May. 1984. the researcher contacted the Agency and requested permission to conduct interviews with selected personnel for this study. 71 Because of the researcher’s professional background and experience. the request specified interviews to be conducted in Asian countries. After permission was granted. the researcher proceeded to select the three target countries and contact the respective Field Directors. At least one trip was made to each country prior to the start of data gathering. The purpose of this preliminary travel was to discuss thoroughly the research with the newly identified research team and also to pre-test the interview guide in actual field situations. We Because the study occurred in multiple settings with different language requirements. it was necessary to establish a research team of qualified assistants from each country. Each of these members was an employee of the Agency. In all cases these persons were selected by the field director with the consultation of the senior researcher. In Taiwan. there were three researchers selected; in Bangladesh. two were selected; and in the Philippines there were three selected. These researchers assisted with translating and note taking and took an active role in the interview process. Instrumentation The study used an informal. open interview protocol. During a period of three months in the three target countries. an interview guide was developed. Initially. the guide was quite structured -- resembling an oral questionaire. However. during the field testing of the instrument. it was modified several times. The study attempted to explore a number of facets related to the research questions. These items were investigated in a more flexible and helpful manner through the use of a non-scheduled interview guide. Gorden (1975) discusses the freedom which researchers have while using such guides: The interviewer is not only free to vary the sequences of topics and subtopics to fit the particular situation but he may also return to a topic more than once. He is free to omit questions suggested by the guide if he feels that the information was already obtained indirectly. He is also free to add questions and reward others when this will help convey the meaning (p. 74). The following major areas of questioning were first developed and tested in field situations with a variety of questions asked in different manners. The framework for the guide was as follows: I. Demographic questions. II. Questions concerning roles and tasks of development workers. Ill. Questions concerning values. beliefs. opinions about community development. IV. Questions concerning values. beliefs. opinions about development workers. V. Questions concerning changes in one’s personal approach to development. VI. Questions concerning changes in the Agency’s approach to development. VII. Questions concerning opinions about training. VIII. Opinions about the agency’s objectives. 73 Prg-Iesting A field testing of the interview was made in each of the countries before the actual interviews occurred. During this time. 10 respondents were interviewed. In addition to a general interview guide. an Interview Trials Form (Appendix-A) was used during the field testing to encourage the researchers to try asking a variety of questions. Those questions that seemed to be getting more satisfactory results were emphasized. while less satisfactory questions were either reworded or discarded. Frequently. the respondent was asked if the question sounded appropriate for the particular purpose. This was especially crucial because it was necessary for the questions to be re-phrased in the vernacular language. This process of revising the instrument before actual usage is described by Garden (1975): . . . the original tentative interview guide may go through several revisions in which the content of the questions. their wording. sequence and context. as well as the response categories. become more detailed. more structured. and clearly relevant to the objectives of the interview (p. 75). MW Each of the interviews lasted approximately 1.5 to 2.0 hours. If the respondent was a project worker. the researchers would travel to the project site where the individual was working. Usually. at least one day was spent with the respondent in each of the projects. A deliberate attempt was made to build a strong relationship with the respondents during the visit. As a result. the researchers frequently became involved in community and project meetings or walking visits around the area. During this informal time of walking and sharing. the focus was on establishing a good relationship with the 74 respondent. In addition. during this time the demographic information was compiled (see Appendix B and C). During most of the interviews. only three persons were present: the respondent. the senior researcher. and one assistant. The other one or two research assistants frequently used the time when they were not interviewing to gather more information about the project area. and to engage other project staff or community members in discussion. The following questions were used in the interview. However. it should be noted that the precise wording and sequencing of each question may have differed depending on the situation: (A complete version of one of the Interview Guides is found in Appendix-D). I. Roles and Tasks * What is your job? Could you describe it in a few words? * What kinds of things do you do in your job? * Could we make a list of the things you do in your job? 4: Out of all the things you do. what do you spend the MOST TIME doing? a. What do you spend the LEAST TIME doing? * In your job. what do you feel really good about? What do you really enjoy the MOST? * If you had more time. what do you wish you could be doing? * Are there things you feel unprepared to do or are difficult to do? * Out of these things you do. what are the roles you play? (Note: this question frequently required the use of different words other than "roles.’I Sometimes. it meant describing what they think "they are" 75 while doing a job; sometimes it meant describing what others "think they are.") II. Values. Beliefs About the Development Process Could you describe for us a development project that you feel is successful? (real or hypothetical). Inquiry was then followed up with the following questions: 4: Where did the good ideas tend to come from in this successful project? it Can you describe who tends to control a successful project? a How are decisions made in a successful project? * Can you describe what happens when new ideas are introduced from the outside? Could you describe a development project that is not very successful? What could we do to make more projects more successful? What is your perception of the poor? it Who are the poor? * What do you feel the poor think about work? it Why do you think the poor are poor? III. Changes in Personal Views towards Development Have you seen any changes in your personal approach to community development during your years of working in community development? Can you identify some of the things which might have helped you to change your thinking? IV. Changes in Organizational Views towards Development From what you know about the Agency. have you noticed any changes in their approach. thinking. policies about community development over the past years? Why do you think these changes have occurred or not occurred? 76 Do you think the changes are generally good or heading in the right direction? . V. Opinions about Training Have you ever been involved in any training programs related to your work? Do you think the skills. attitudes that were taught are the ones which are most frequently needed in your work? Have you ever been involved in the design or planning of training curriculum in which you were also one of the students/trainees? * If yes. what did you do? Do you feel it is important for you to be involved in planning these events where you are also the student? * If yes. how would you like to be involved? What specific skills. tasks. attitudes. and so forth. do you think should be focused on in training programs for development workers? Are there any changes you would like to see in training programs with the Agency? VI. Ranking of Agency Obfpctives Here the respondents were asked to rank 5 cards with one of the following words written on each card: REHABILITATION DEVELOPMENT EVANGELISM RELIEF STRE NGTHE NING CHURCH LE ADE RSHIP 77 it After this. they were asked: Are there any additional focus areas you feel are important and not covered in this example? it How would you rank the cards from MOST IMPORTANT to LEAST IMPORTANT to show what the Agency ’5 focus areas are today? * How would you rank the cards from MOST IMPORTANT to LEAST IMPORTANT to show what you think the Agency’s focus areas should be? 35mm Each of the interviews was taped using a portable cassette recorder. The conversations were not transcribed. but rather used to substantiate any missing or confused portions of written notes. Prior to each interview. the use of the tape was explained to each respondent. She/he was asked if there ' were any objections to the use of a recorder. In only one case was the use of a recorder considered to be inappropriate by the respondent. After the respondent agreed to its use. the recorder was placed in an unnoticable position. In addition. whenever the researcher perceived that the respondent was feeling tense or unsure about answering. the opportunity was provided to stop the recorder. In two cases. this opportunity was taken and the interview proceded without the recorder. Throughout the interview. notes were recorded by at least one of the researchers. A special attempt was made to help the respondent feel "at ease." Therefore. if one researcher was writing. the other concentrated his/her attention on the respondent. This technique prevailed throughout the interview process. 78 The researchers also employed the use of index cards in certain portions of the interview. The technique was used to help prompt the respondent for additional answers and also to provide an alternate way of asking questions. thus minimizing potential boredom. The cards were used in the following manners. In the first section of the interview. Roles and Tasks. each respondent was asked to identify what his/her' tasks were in their respective jobs. As each item was identified. it was written on the card. and placed in front of the respondent. After approximately 10-15 minutes. a number of job activities. or tasks. had been verbalized. The next section of the interview asked the respondents to select the index card indicating the activity that they spent the MOST TIME. LEAST TIME. ENOYED THE MOST. and ENJOYED THE LEAST. In like manner. the roles for each of the respondents were identified. Later in the interview. each respondent was asked to describe the attitudes. values. qualities. skills that describe a "successful" development worker. Each of these was written on a card. After a list had been compiled and placed in front of the individual. the respondent was asked to select the ones which were considered to be most important. Finally at the end of the interview. the index cards were used to rank the objectives of the Agency. In all cases. there was strong indication that the respondents enjoyed the use of this technique. Although the research was primarily conducted for the purposes indicated at the beginning of this chapter. an additional agenda was also being fulfilled. The Agency was interested in providing a learning opportunity for some of its 79 key research staff in the three countries where the research was being conducted. Therefore. throughout the research phases. a designed learning process was also occurring. The events included regular daily interaction and reflection on what had occurred. and the writing of a professional journal. In addition. a representative from Bangladesh and another from Taiwan met with three Filipino staff and the researcher in Manila during the dates of July 15 through 21. 1985. The purpose of the learning event was to reflect on the research process. and begin to discuss together how to analyze qualitative data (See Appendix-F for a description of the agenda). Each of the participants was requested by their superiors to discuss and plan for activities based on the implications of the study for their particular country. The following is a list of the key dates during the research process. 9/ 15/ 84 Taiwan discussions about research 10/15/84 Discussions with Philippines research staff and Field Director about research 11/8/84 Discussions with Bangladesh research staff about research. 1/7/85 Discussions with Philippine Agency research team. 1/9 - 10/85 Travel to CEBU. Philippines to meet with research team Philippines. 1/14/85 Meet with Research team Philippines. 1/18-22 Travel to Dacca. Bangladesh - meet with research team and Field Director. 1/23-30 Travel to Taiwan. meet with research team and Field Director. 2/20 Meet with research team Philippines 80 2/24-3/ 10 Travel to Taiwan. pretest 3/14-3/29 Travel to Bangladesh - pretest. 4/ 22-24 Pretest in Philippines 4/29-5/18 Data gathering in Taiwan 5/21-25 Data gathering in Philippines 5/29-6/18 Data gathering in Bangladesh 6/ 25-28 Data gathering in Philippines 7/1-5 Data gathering in Philippines 7/8-10 Data gathering in Philippines 7/15-20 Data analysis in Philippines with research team. Summary The study occurred in three Asian countries: Bangladesh. Taiwan. and the Philippines. A purposive sampling was taken from two distinct levels of the Agency’s operations in those countries: Program Officers and Project Workers. A research team was established including staff members from each of the Agency’s offices in the respective countries. The data were gathered from interviews using a pre-tested. flexible guide. Qualitative analysis procedures were used initiated by a research team learning event in Manila. Philippines in Chapter V ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS The study is concerned with how community development workers within a Christian development agency perceive their roles and tasks. In order to focus on this primary concern. major changes which have occurred during the past three decades in planned change literature are examined. The changes in conceptual approach and methodology to community development as represented in influential literature are then compared with the descriptive data from active development workers. The purpose of the study is as follows: - To ascertain the varieties and central tendencies among active development workers in respect to their perceptions of their roles and tasks. - To describe the changes that have occurred during recent years in the conceptual approaches to communication. development. and planned change. - To identify the major educational implications that will serve as a basis for developing pre and inservice training programs for development workers. 81 0:. h.) Research Questions Answers to a number of questions concerning the roles and tasks of development workers are sought. The following primary questions guide the study: 1. What are the essential roles and tasks of development workers as perceived by active development workers in a voluntary agency? 2. What are the varieties and central tendencies of these perceptions? 3. How does the way in which one perceives poverty influence the way he/she might act as a development worker? 4. How. if at all. does the nature and amount of experience contribute to one’s perception about their role as a development worker? 5. What are the similarities and differences between early and later paradigms of development? a. How. if at all. have active community development workers in a voluntary agency shifted their perceptions of development in comparison with early and later paradigms of development. 7. Based on the above questions. what are the implications for staff development and development worker training programs? The study has suggested that a shift in conceptual thinking and actual practice has been occurring in the field of development. An attempt has been made to describe some of the dominant characteriqtics of this shift which numerous authors have termed the "paradigm shift" in development. This has been accomplished through an examination of the general field of planned change efforts involving many disciplines. The literature cited has tended to support the belief that a major paradigm shift away from the dominant model of the 1950’s. 60’s and early 1970’s and toward a new ”emerging" model of the 83 1980’s is in process. Recognizing that a shift has been occurring. in general. throughout the world in various disciplines. attempts were made to determine if similar shifts had occurred in active development workers in a Christian development agency. In this chapter. the data are examined and analyzed. Most of these data analyses focus on the information gathered during personal interviews with sixty-seven respondents in three countries. Changing Development Paradigms One of the most significant findings from the study is the evidence of development characteristics in both the dominant paradigm as well as the newer emerging paradigm. The data tend to suggest that in both the literature and from the respondents. there is evidence of a movement back and forth between the two paradigms. Instead of rejecting the old and moving in dedicated manner towards the new. there appears to be a clinging to the old depending upon the circumstances or particular situation. Such characteristics or trends in development practice lead to the suggestion that perhaps a third approach is emerging that incorporates the best of both previous paradigms at different points in time under different circumstances. Other Major Findings In order to present the study clearly. the major findings have been summarized below. A more detailed analysis of each of the findings follows in this chapter. 84 Findings related to perceptions gf rgles and tasks 1. PO A majority of the respondents identified themselves with at least one of the role terms classified as "managerial." The second largest category. "trainers." was also identified by a majority of the respondents. A majority of Program Officers and Project Workers tend to perceive themselves as "teachers" or "trainers." while a relatively small number of respondents used the terms "learner." “student." or "trainee." A majority of both Program Officers and Project Workers spend most of their time visiting projects or families. However. the indication is that a large percentage of the time spent "visiting" is used for administrative purposes. A majority of both Program Officers and Project Workers identified "networking." "resourcing" or "coordinating with Government" activities as those on which they spend the least time. A majority of Program Officers and Project Workers indicated they enjoy most visiting projects and families. while they enjoy least the required administrative work. Most Program Officers indicated they feel somewhat unprepared to "do training;" while the majority of Project Workers perceive themselves unprepared in certain practical skill areas. A majority of the respondents indicated they would like to spend more time in "visiting." "talking" with project staff or community 85 members. depending on the respective positions. Almost 40% or 26 of the respondents also indicated they would like to be spending more time "reading and reflecting" and "training or attending educational seminars." i e ' f v m n 8. A majority of the respondents described the poor using terms such as: "not having enough to eat." "no job." "inadequate housing." "illiterate." " no land ." "no education." and "no skills." 9. Respondents provided a variety of responses showing the reasons for poverty with the most frequent being "inadequate education and skills." 10. 29 Respondents (43%) indicated the poor are lazy or do not like to work. An additional 10 persons (15%) strongly voiced their opinion that the poor are not lazy. 11. 14 Respondents (21%) indicated the poor are not .‘pst physically poor. but also "spiritually poor." V lief v m n 12. 141 different qualities. skills. or attitudes were identified by the respondents as important for development workers to have. These were consolidated into 2 families: 1) Skills. and 2) Values. attitudes. qualities. 13. 14. 86 A majority of the respondents believe that being a "committed Christian" and "prayerful" are important for a community development worker. The second most frequently mentioned quality was "openness. flexibility to change." A majority of the respondents believe that having technical skills and knowledge is very important for the development worker. The second most frequently mentioned was "management skills" also indicated by a majority of the respondents. Findin 5 Related to P rson Chan e eve m nt 15. 16. in' All respondents indicated that they see changes occurring in their approach to development. The majority indicated changes which involve a) attitudes towards other people. b) attitudes and skill improvement in the development profession in general. c) changes in lifestyle or behavior (especially in the spiritual areas). d) changes about approaches to decision-making. A majority of the respondents indicated that they changed their approach to development because of experience in working with community members over a period of time. and because of special training events. The most frequently mentioned training event was the Participatory Evaluation Planning Seminars. R ated to ‘ ' n ou v m nt 17. 87 Almost all of the respondents indicated that they had noticed changes in the organization’s approach to development. Each person who noticed a change was pleased with the direction the organization was moving in relation to development. However. a majority of these respondents also indicated that they felt that the change was being implemented too rapidly. and too often. 18. The change indicated by the majority of the respondents was described as "a shift from relief to development." from "child assistance to family and holistic development." and from "dole-out to self-help." Findings Rglgted to Training 19. All but one of the respondents indicated that they should be involved in planning training events for themselves or their peers. Most of these persons also indicated that in the past they have not felt involved in the planning. In all three countries. the Program Officers tended to be more concerned about participating in training in 1) management systems (finances. controlling. planning. organizing) and 2) how to train other people. This can be contrasted with the Project Workers who tended to focus on specific project and people skills. Project Workers also tended to emphasize the importance of spiritual training which was not mentioned by the Program Officers except the Philippines. where it was mentioned three times. indin sRelated Rankin fA enc F cu Ar a 21. In the ranking of the five focus areas. "Development" emerged as the most emphasized. both in terms of "What is now" and "What should be." This was the same in each country except the Philippines. where "Development" received the same ranking numbers as "Evangelism" for "What is now" being emphasized in the Agency. F'n 'n s Relate th r h 'n ner 22. A majority of the respondents mentioned that the interview procedure helped them to "reflect." "evaluate self." or "think back and learn" from what they have been doing. Profile of Respondents A total of 67 respondents were interviewed between the dates of February 25 and July 10. 1985. The data were gathered from a purposive sampling plan in three Asian countries: Taiwan. Bangladesh and the Philippines. This section of the study describes some of the demographic data pertaining to the respondents. x n r' tatu : A comparison of sex and marital status between the respondents in each of the target countries is presented in Table 5.1. In Taiwan and the Philippines. the majority of the respondents were females. whereas in Bangladesh the majority were males. In similar manner. all of the respondents in Bangladesh 39 were married; The difference in sex between Bangladesh and the other two countries is probably indicative of general societal trends. One scholar recently wrote the following about Bangladesh women: The overall literacy rate in the country is only about 20 per cent; that among women is much lower--about 11 per cent . . . A strong inhibition against women’s education is rooted in social traditionalism. Women are secluded within the house (purdah system) and are frowned upon if they go out. . . . In addition. formal education demands heavy investment of time. money and energy. which many families cannot or will not afford for female members. But even when women do get schooling . . . there is usually limited employment opportunity (Hogue. n.d. pp 2-3). In the Philippines and in Taiwan. the fairly large numbers of unmarried women working as Program Officers and Project Workers. as opposed to all of the respondents married in Bangladesh. also suggests that cultural differences apply. The author asked the question why single Program Officer-s and Project Workers were not found in Bangladesh. In general. the other researchers and agency staff replied that single people are too young. too inexperienced. and would not be accepted. In the Philippies and in Taiwan the converse question was asked. The response tended to indicate that men are not as interested in social work employment. This is especially true in the Philippines where most of the respondents are females. Aug The age of the respondents varied little between countries (mean = 31.2). The Philippines have the youngest respondents (Project Workers ranged from age 21 - 57) with a mean of 28.5 ( 5.1). Project workers tended to be slightly younger than their Program Officer counterparts. except in Bangladesh. 90 Table 5.1 Mean Age of Respondents Country Level Program Officer Project Worker Mean Total Bangladesh 33.2 34.5 33.9 Philippines 29.5 27.6 28.5 Taiwan 35.0 29.3 31.3 Means totals: 32.5 30.4 31.2 Education Level: The education levels of the respondents were varied. all project workers and program officers had a minimum of a BA or BS degree. while in Taiwan only 22% had similar education and all of these were program officers. In Bangladesh. the number rose to 507. of the respondents with a BA or BS degree. Regarding the major areas of formal education. the difference is especially noticable between the Philippines and the other two countries. Twenty out of twenty-two respondents in the Philippines had a background of education in social work. However. in Bangladesh. only two out of twenty-two In the Philippines. and. in Taiwan. only one out of twenty-three had similar formal education. 91 Length gf Timg in Prgg‘ gt gr grgnch ijjce Arga: The data indicate (Table 5.2) that a majority of Project Worker respondents have lived in the project area where they have been working for more than 5 years; for Program Officers the percentage is slightly smaller. Table 5.2 Length of time in project or branch office area. Program Officers Project Workers Total Lived in area a) Less than 1 year 0 (0%) 2 (5.1%) __(3.0%) b) 1 - 2 years 5 (17.8%) 9 (23.1%) 14 (20.9%) c) 3 - 4 years 3 (10.7%) 5 (12.8%) 8 (11.9%) d) 5 - 6 years 2 (7.1%) 5 (12.8%) 7 (10.4%) e) More than 7 years 11 (39.3%) 16 (41.0%) 27 (40.3%) f) Missing data 7 (25.0%) 2 (5.1%) 9 (13.4%)- Total 28 (100%) 39 (100%) 69 (100%) Length of Time in Pgsition: A majority of both Program Officers and Project Workers have been working in their jobs for less than 3 years. (see Table 5.3). The only significant difference per country is in the Philippines ‘where 50% of the Project Worker respondents have been in their position more than 6 years. In the other countries. the percentages of persons working longer than 6 years is much smaller;. 92 Table 5.3 Length of time in position. Worked in position: Program Officers Project Workers Total Less than 1 year 3 (10.7%) 5 (12.8%) 8 (11.9%) 1 - 3 years 19 (67.8%) 19 (48.7%) 38 (56.7%) 4 - 5 years 4 (14.3%) 5 (12.8%) 9 (13.4%) More than 6 years 2 (7.1%) 9 (23.1%) 11 (16.4%) Missing data 0 (0%) 1 (2.6%) 1 (1.5%) Total 28 (100%) 39 (100%) 67 (100%) n h Time 'n vel ment: A majority of the respondents indicated that they have worked at least 4 years in the area of development. For Program Officers. most of the respondents have worked for at least 6 years (Table 5.4). When compared with the information in 5.3. this would tend to indicate that many of the Program Officers have not been in their positions long. yet have worked longer in development. This is supported by the researcher’s observation that many of the Program Officers were previously employed as Project Workers. In the Philippines. one of the Project Worker respondents indicated that she was looking forward to a promotion someday into the position of Program Officer. 93 Table 5.4 Length of time working in development Worked in Program Officers Project Workers Total Development Less than 1 year 1 (3.6%) 1 (2.6%) 2 (3.0%) l - 3 years 5 (17.8%) 14 (35.9%) 19 (28.3%) 4 - 5 years 3 (10.7%) 6 (15.4%) 9 (13.4%) More than 6 years 16 (57.1%) 13 (33.3%) 29 (43.3%) Missing data 3 (10.7%) 5 (12.8%) 8 (11.9%) Total 28 (100%) 39 (100%) 67 (100%) Perceptions of Development Workers’ Roles and Tasks Each of the respondents was asked to describe what they do in their daily work. As they would mention a particular task. it was written on an index card and set in front of them. After they had mentioned all they could think of. they were then asked to select: a) the ones on which they spent the most time. b) the least time. c) the ones which they enjoyed the most. d) the ones that they enjoyed the least. In addition. they were asked what they wish they could be doing if they had more time. and what they feel are the tasks which are difficult for them or those tasks that they feel unprepared to do. Finally. they were asked to describe the roles they play or assume as they do each of their tasks in the job. In asking this question. the term "role" was usually not used because of misinterpretation. Questions such as "What do you call yourself 94 when you do these things?" and "What do others call you while doing each of these tasks?" were used to help understand more clearly. A total of 183 different terms were identified by the respondents. These were grouped into 29 categories. The role category identified the most (78% of respondents) was the "managerial" category. There appear to be little differences between countries or positions on this matter. In Table 5.5. each of the role terms can be seen grouped in categories. The terms included in this category are as follows: "coordinator". "supervisor". "leader". "manager". "boss". "superior". "chairman". "task master". "servant leader". "director". "representative of (the Agency)". "organizer". "administrator'. "officer". "policy maker". The role category with the second largest number of respondents was the "trainer" role. Specific terms used here include: "trainer". "teacher". "educator". "speaker". "lecturer". "facilitator". Again. there appears to be little difference between countries. Certain role categories were identified more frequently by either Program Officers or Project Workers. For example. the role terms which are included in the category "Change Agent" were mentioned by 56% of the Project Workers. but only 39% of the Program Officers. (see Table 5.6). Table 5.5 95 Role Terms and Classifications Role Classification: Frequency: Individual Terms Used: MANAGER TRAINER ADUISOR HELPER CHANGE AGENT TECHNICAL EXPERT RELATIVE FRIEND 600’s SERUANN RESOURCE-LINKER CHRISTIAN LEADER 116 87 52 48 43 34 23 23 23 Coordinator/ Supervisor/ Leader/ Team Leader/ Local Leader/ Group Leader/ Manager/ Boss/ Superior/ Chairman/ Task Master/ Representative of the Agency/ Servant Leader/ Chief Controller/ Director/ Policy Maker/ Organizer/ Planner/ Adninistrator/ Officer Trainer/ Teacher/ Educator/ Speaker/ Lecturer/ Facilitator Counsellor/ Marriage Counsellor/ Advisor/ Good Listener/ Legal advisor Helper/ Assistant/ Supporter/ Advocate/ Enabler Motivator/ Catalyst/ Challenger/ Change Agent/ Stimulator/ Awareness Raiser/ Reformer/ Reflecter/ Community Organizer/ Community Development Worker Technician/ Doctor/ Herbal Doctor/ Nurse/ Farmer/ Agriculturalist/ Nutritionist/ Family Planning Uorker/ Paramedic/ Environmental Sanitation Horker/ Sports Development Uorker/ Field Worker Older-Younger Sister or Brother/ Father/ Mother/ Parents/ Relative/ Husband/ Wife/ Son/ Daughter/ Buardian/ Member of Family Friend/ Man of Integrity/ Faithful 0ne/ Honest Man/ Respectable Person God’s Servant/ Servant/ Christian/ Steward/ Hitness/ Model/ Model of Good Behavior/ Heroine/ Example Liason/ Bridge/ Resource-Linker/ Networker/ Linkage Agent/ Referer/ Contact Person/ Relationship-Builder Church Worker/ Spiritual Leader/ Christian Leader/ Preacher/ Pastor/ Priest/ Evangelist/ Prayer Partner/ Bible Leader 96 Table 5.5 Role Terms and Classifications (Continued) Role Classification: Frequency: Individual Terms Used: 6000 SAMARITAN 17 Encourager/ Angel from 006/ Saint/ Positive Person Who Brings Fortune/ Giver/ Channel of Blessing ACCOUTWUTT 17 Accountant/ Bookkeeper/ Auditor/ Treasurer/ Economist/ Financial Analyst CO-WORKER 17 One of the People/ Member/ Participant with the People/ Collaborator/ Partner/ Representative of the Village/ Team Member/ Co-Worker/ Collegue WRITER 13 Reporter/ Writer/ Documentor/ Recorder/ Office Worker/ Clerk/ Secretary MEDIATOR 13 Mediator/ Arbitrator/ Integrater EVALUATOR 13 Evaluator/ Judge/ Selector of Benefits/ Policeman COMLNICATOR l2 Messenger/ Comnunicator/ Peon IMOVATOR 12 Introducer/ Initiator/ Innovator/ Experimentor/ Promoter of Technology LEARNER l2 Learner/ Student/ Trainee RESEARCHER 10 Surveyor/ Researcher/ Interviewer/ Analyzer/ Project Study Analyst GUIDE 9 Guide/ Guest Relations Officer/ Social Person IMPLEMENTOR 7 Implementor/ Laborer/ Subordinate/ Doer VISITOR 6 Visitor/ Someone Different/ Outsider/ Tourist PROBLEM-SULUER 5 Problem-Solver/ Problem-Identifier HOUSEKEEPER 5 Housekeeper/ Waitress/ Maid/ Helper/ Simple Lady 0BSERVER 4 Observer/ Monitor DEMONSTRATOR 4 Demonstrator/ Salesman/ Purchaser CLOWN 1 Clown 97 Table 5.6 Observed Frequencies and Percentages of Change Agent Roles by Position Change Agent Role Identified: Position Yes No Total Program Officer 11 (39.3%) 17 (60.7%) 28 (100%) Project Worker 22 (56.4%) 17 (43.6%) 39 (100%) Each respondent identified a variety of words to describe his or her roles. The twenty roles most frequently mentioned by each position is reported in the Table below: Table 5.7 Frequency of Role Terms by Position (top 20 terns) Role Program Officer Project Workers Total n = 28 n = 39 n=67 Teacher 10 22 33 Counsellor 12 20 32 Helper 11 18 29 Facilitator 13 11 24 Motivator 8 16 24 Coordinator 9 14 23 Friend 7 11 18 Trainer 11 7 18 Supervisor 8 8 16 Social Worker 6 9 15 Manager 7 4 11 Leader 4 7 11 Advisor 9 2 11 Organizer 9 2 11 Mediator 7 4 11 Communicator 8 2 10 Evaluator 9 1 10 Planner 5 5 10 Older/Younger Sister 3 6 9 God’s Servant 2 7 9 98 A majority of the Program Officers from each country said that they spend most of their time visiting projects. However. a closer examination reveals that this visitation often means discussing with project workers sometimes in the Program Officer’s office. sometimes in the Project Worker’s office. Much of the visitation time is spent in either direct administration or checking to see if administrative detail is being done correctly. When asked "What do you do when visiting projects?" the following responses were typical: I supervise the projects. I meet with project workers and give them instructions. I meet with project staff and check for financial problems. I check to make sure project records are in order. I review and analyze reports from projects. I check to see if the project activity meets the need of the community. In addition. there were a few other activities which Program Officers indicated they spend most of their time doing. Again. most of these focus on administrative tasks: I spend most of my time: preparing monthly communication reports with staff. doing administrative work. visiting projects and helping communities to become aware of their problems. thinking (reflecting) about projects. 99 As might be expected. a variety of responses came from the Project workers when asked "With what activities do they spend MOST of their time?". The responses. however. tended to focus on either motivating aspects in the community or on administrative aspects for the Agency. The following are some examples of the responses: I spend most of my time: visiting families and counseling with them. motivating community members to do various aspects in the project. supervising the project activity. doing SRD work. * writing reports and records. encouraging the community in problem solving. In addition to the comments above that were ranked number 1 for spending the most time. a variety of comments were made and ranked 2. 3. 4 and 5. These comments. like those ranked number 1. tended to focus on either family and community motivational tasks. or on administrative activities. It appears as though the Project Workers. following the lead of the Program Officers. spend much of their time in administrative activities. * SRD refers to Sponsor Relation’s Department. The work includes anything required to maintain the child -- sponsor relationship, such as translating and reading letters to the children, cmpleting annual progress reports and so forth. 100 These activities include writing reports. doing sponsor. child administrative work. filling out forms for special requests from the Area offices or headquarters. In response to the question. "What do you spend the LEAST amount of your time doing?". the following comments were made by Program Officer _I_spend the least time: Attending meetings outside of the Agency. Meeting with local Governmentofficials and other organizations. Linking resources to projects. visiting other agencies. Recording daily activities. Reading and Reflection. Attend seminars given by other agencies. The same question about LEAST amount of time when asked to the project workers brought the following sample responses: I §pend the least time in: Preparing the project annual report and project proposal. Coordinating with Government agencies. tapping resources. Attending local Government meetings. Coordinating other resources. Listening to family problems. 101 Arranging for training. Attending training from other organizations. Attending committee meetings. Bookkeeping. It appears that both Program Officers and Project Workers spend the least amount of time coordinating with other agencies and resources. This could indicate a tendency that these persons are either 1) heavily burdened with the amount of work assigned and expected of them by the organization. or 2) are unconvinced that any benefits can come from spending much time with outside agencies. They might feel this way because of some negative experience with an outside group. or they might not perceive any reward system within the Agency for spending more time with those outside groups. It appears that both Program Officers and Project Workers MOST ENJOY those activities that get them closer to contact with people. Most of the Program Officers said that they MOST ENJOY visits to projects and to homes within the project community. The same pertains to the Project Workers. They MOST ENJOY home visits and counseling with families. The “true" motivation for visiting projects and families is not clearly indicated by the data. It could be suggested that they most enjoy visiting projects and families because that takes them away from the administrative work in the office to a different type of administrative work in the field. However. as the respondents discussed more about enjoyment of their work roles. it is highly credible to believe that most Program Officers and Project Workers enjoy these things because they feel it is a "role" and "task" that SHOULD BE performed by development or social 102 workers. In other words. the data suggest that these activities are enjoyed because they are expected (for Program Officers. it is mandated that each person visit their assigned projects at least once per month). Examples of some additional comments about what Program Officers and Project Workers Enjoy Most are included below: Prooram Officers most enpp’ y: visiting projects and monitoring approved projects. meeting. providing advice and consultation to village committees and project staff. interacting with communities and communicating the Agency’s policies. teaching and supervising Project Workers in writing reports and in program implementation. reflecting on the project work. evaluating project effectiveness in helping families. children and communities. Pro;_e_' ct Workers most en,p’ y: conducting training for community members. spending time with families and children. bookkeeping and sponsor/ child correspondence. sharing work experiences with co-workers. leading Sunday School and Bible Studies. youth job referrals (client referrals). discussing with community about their problems. 103 It can be suggested from the data that although Program Officers and Project Workers spend most of their time in administrative work. it reflects the kind of work they least enjoy. The following are some sample comments from both Program Officers and Project Workers. Program Officers least en,,p' y: SRD (sponsor relation’s department work.) accompanying visitors to projects. work assigned by supervisor. authorizing project funds. trip reports. monthly. quarterly and annual reports. networking and coordinating with other agencies. planning with project committees. relief work. administrative work. Projg' ct Workers lggst en,p' y: attending local government meetings. listening to family problems. doing the Plan of Action. monthly management reports. keeping financial accounts. laisoning with local government people. communicating with Program Officers. public relations. letter writing for children. 104 monthly reports. taking pictures for project reports. All of the respondents were asked. "If you had more time. what would you like to be doing?" A majority of the respondents indicated that they wanted to spend more time visiting either projects or families. On one occasion the follow-up question. "Why do you want to spend more time visiting. since it appears that you already spend a large amount of time doing that?" brought the following response: "Because when I visit families. so much of my time is spent on administrative work. I want time to truly talk to the people about their problems." With such an attitude being expressed. it is understandable why a majority of the respondents wish to visit families and projects more often. The second most frequent response to the question "If you had more time. what would you like to be doing?" was "reflecting. reading. writing" and "training (both teaching and attending seminars). each with 39% of the respondents mentioning the terms. A frequency count of both Program Officers and Project Workers per country is summarized in Table 5.8. 105 Table 5.8 Frequency of What Respondents Would Do: If they had more Time Bangladesh Philippines Taiwan Total PO PW PO PW PO PW P0 PW n=10 n=12 n=10 n=12 n=8 n=15 n=28 n=39 a. Visit families/ projects 5 7 6 10 2 4 13 21 b. Reading/Writing 2 3 5 5 5 6 12 14 Reflecting c. Training and 5 7 3 0 5 6 13 13 Education d. Spiritual 0 1 q 0 1 0 6 0 8 enhancement e. Networking with 1 3 3 0 1 2 5 4 outside resources f. Miscellaneous 4 4 4 3 5 1 13 8 activity The following statements are summaries of the comments made by respondents for each position in each country in response to the question. "If you had more time. what would you like to be doing?" Taiwan Program Officers: if Emphasis on self improvement and professional training such as reading and English language study. * Would like to spend more time with people. thinking and developing strategies. 106 * Would like to spend more time with my family. Taiwan Prog’ ct Workers: it Emphasis on self-improvement in skills and knowledge. suchas reading books. materials. receive further training. attend seminars in case work. social work. psychology. 4: Would like to spend more time on spiritual enhancement. * Would like to spend more time with my family. Bangladesh Program Officers: 4: Emphasis on self improvement. training seminars. reading books. 4. Would like more time to provide training and to interact with project workers. ' it Would like to spend more time with communities. Bangladesh Prog’ ct Workers: a Emphasis on spending more time with community members in establishing relationships. motivating. raising consciousness. 4. Would like more time to work with children. * Would like more time for some reading and reflection. Ehilippings Program Officers: 4. Emphasis on self improvement. reading books. training. and meetings with other organizations. if Would like more time to do more administrative work. such as monitoring the projects. checking project activities. reading project reports. writing reports. Philippines Projg' ct Wgrkers: e Emphasis on spending more time with communities. improving communication. counseling. sharing and developing relationships. 107 4. Would like more time to update written records. write case studies. project proposals. All of the respondents were asked if there were any things which they "feel unprepared or difficult to do." The following summary statements have been made about each position in each country. Taiwan Program Officers: 4. Feel inadequate about doing training for Project Workers mainly because they lack adequate materials. it Feel inadequate about auditing the financial books at projects. Taiwan Prog’ ct Workers: * Feel inadequate to implement projects that require professional knowledge. especially in training community members in special areas such as conducting a seminar for fisherman. 1: Feel inadequate about project planning and budgeting. 4. Feel inadequate about coordinating and communicating with other agencies. ganglagesh Program foicers: 4: Feel unprepared to train others. it Have difficulty in managing time adequately. Bangladesh Prop’ gt Wgrkgrs: 1: Feel unprepared in doing project management (preparing reports. project budgets. plan of actions. and so forth.) 108 4: Feel unprepared in understanding community’s needs and in analyzing the community structure. Philippines Program Oficers: * Feel unprepared to train others especially the project staff. * Feel inadequate in handling the financial aspects of the job especially auditing. Philippines Projg' ct Workers: 4. Feel inadequate in human relations skills. dealing and communicating with other people. it Feel unprepared to deal effectively with counselling and case referrals. From this list of comments. we can see that most of the Program Officers feel somewhat unprepared to do training. yet they are being expected to do more and more of it. Project Workers seem to be more concerned with their inadequate preparation in certain skill areas. 'f out v mn In this section of the interview. questions were asked which would help to understand how the individual feels about development work. Of particular interest to the research was the degree to which each person felt centralized versus decentralized change was appropriate. Each person was asked to describe in their own words a "successful" development project. This was followed up with a series of questions asking their opinions about such topics 109 as: a) where good ideas come from. b) about control of projects. c) about decision making in projects. 6) about what keeps a project going and e) about new ideas introduced from outside. Each person was asked to describe what he/ she felt we could be doing in the Agency to make more of our projects more successful. Following this line of questioning. the respondents were asked to describe their opinions of the poor. Many of the comments in each country focused on the importance of having "good relationships" between Program Officer. Project Worker. Project Committees and Community members as being one of the most important factors in successful development. Centralized versus Decentralized Development The terms "centralized" and "decentralized" were not used during the investigation. However. the responses could be classified as either tending to be more centralized or decentralized in approach to development. It appears that most of the Program Officers and Project Workers feel that more successful development will happen when development workers operate in a decentralized and less bureaucratic fashion. This is indicated by the use of words such as "participation." "community decision-making." and "initiatives should come from the people." However. when asking about "Who should control the project?". the responses were overwhelmingly in favor of the funding agency and their staff. because they are the ones providing the resources. This trend could indicate that the understanding of terms like "participation" and "people’s power" is based more in rhetorical comments than 110 actual practice. It could also indicate that development workers within an agency that has emphasized accountability. feel that control and participation are both important. Opinions About Poverty Comments about the "poor" revealed some interesting information. Respondents were given an oppoortunity to describe poor people in their own terms. They were also asked what the average poor person thinks about working. and what has contributed to making the people poor. The question was included because it was felt that a person’s perception of poverty affects the way in which that same person will perceive and act out development practice. Every respondent was able to describe the poor in some way. most of them in physical terms such as "hungry. homeless. jobless. illiterate. no clothing." and so forth. However. the comments about reasons for their poverty indicate a variety of responses with many focusing on what could be termed "negative attitudes." Examples of the comments may help to understand. The poor are those who don’t love and respect themselves. They are poor because they are lazy. The poor are those who have a lack of physical needs and lack of knowledge. They are dumb and stubborn. They have no relatives and friends. The poor are those who feel hopeless and have very low self image. They complain alot. They are poor because they are lazy to change. The poor are those who don’t use their resources wisely. they don’t like to work. They are poor because they spend money unwisely. 111 The poor are those who need our help. They don’t think much about the future. but live one day at a time and they are not concerned about their children. They are poor because they don’t have skills. though they work hard. The poor are willing to work if they don’t have sufficient food; if they have enough food. they don’t like to work. Sometimes they are lazy. They always like to be taught. lectured. rebuked. If you don’t make noise. shout at them. they don't like to work. The poor don’t have big dreams; they live day by day. All they think about is what to eat today. If they were educated they would change their way of living. Some of the comments also described the poor as being victims of either unjust systems, ignorance, or because they were merely born into poverty. Summaries of the comments from the three countries can be seen in Table 5.9. Examples of such conenents include the following: The poor are not helpless. They need to be made aware. They are the most kind people I have ever met. hospitable. The poor like to work but can’t find a job. Most poor people are oppressed. don’t have material support and capacity. deprived of education. They don’t- have the opportunity to get jobs because of low education levels. They are disadvantaged. working hard every day. yet getting less. Yet they see others work less and get more. It’s not fair! Being poor is not a matter of choice. The people are poor because they are exploited by the government and power structures in the community. unequal distribution of wealth. such as land. They are ignorant and exploited not aware of the laws of the country. 112 Table 5.9 Perceptions of Poverty (Selected comments) Categories of Comments Frequency of Comments Philippines Bangladesh Taiwan Total a. Poor because of little or no education. 13 10 9 32 b. Poor are lazy, don’t like to work. 10 7 12 29 c. Poor because they are exploited. 9 7 0 16 d. Poor because they are landless. 3 10 2 15 e. They are spiritually poor. 4 5 5 14 f. Poor because of lack of skills. 6 4 2 12 9. Poor like to work but can’t get a job. 5 5 2 12 h. Poor because they are oppressed. 6 4 2 12 i. Poor because they gamble and drink. 2 4 5 11 j. Poor are not lazy. 4 5 1 10 In Bangladesh. there appeared to be more of a recognition of outside forces which caused the poverty. including exploitation and the economic advantage of the rich. In both Taiwan and the Philippines. there was more of a concern to help the poor by providing aid and teaching people things. with an emphasis on formal education and practical skills. V1 l'ef bout eve men r In this section. questions were asked about development workers. The respondents were asked to indicate the qualities. values. beliefs. and finally skills that they felt were important for development workers to have. As each belief or skill. was identified. it was then written on an index card and placed in front of the individual. When the list could no longer be added to. the respondent was asked to select the cards that identified the most important qualities. skills or attitudes. The following are some of the significant findings: A total of 141 different qualities. skills or attitudes were mentioned by the respondents from all three countries. These were consolidated into two families: m with 24 distinct categories. and vglugg. attitpggg. gpglitigg. with 53 distinct categories. The comments identified are shown in Tables 5.10 and 5.11. It appears that both Program Officers and Project Workers consider technical assistance skills as very important for development workers to have. This is especially true in the Philippines and Taiwan. where the skills were mentioned 23 and 20 times respectively. Closely following this trend is the focus on management skills. All three countries indicated that being a committed Christian or being a person with a prayerful attitude is important. This. of course. is to be expected in a Christian organization such as the Agency. 114 Table 5.10 Ten Most Frequently Mentioned Qualities, Values, Skills of Development Workers Totals per Country Duality, Value, Skill Philippines Taiwan Bangladesh TOTAL Conmitted Christian 13 12 9 34 Communication Skills 12 B B 28 Relationships w/people skill 12 10 6 28 Patience 14 7 5 26 Love, Motivated with Love 5 11 5 21 Honesty ‘ 4 4 11 19 Technical Knowledge 0 11 8 19 Concened, Genuinely interested 5 8 3 16 Respect for every person 10 2 4 16 Management Skill 3 3 9 15 Openness to Change 9 5 1 15 115 Table 5.11 Consolidated list of mum... Values, Attitudes, Skills Characteristic Totals per Country (Most frequently mentioned) Philippines Taiwan Bangladesh TOTAL 3...: i ty, Vglge, Attitude 1. Coemitted Christian/Prayerful 18 14 11 43 2. Openness/Flexibility/Adapta- bility/Openness to Change 29 7 5 41 3. Dedicated to work/Willing to work hard 21 4 13 38 4. Patience 14 7 5 26 5. Love/Motivated with love 5 11 5 21 m 1. Technical Knowledge/Skills 23 20 13 56 2. Management Skills: Coordi- nating, planning, strate- gizing, controlling 18 10 8 36 3. Cumunication Skills 12 8 8 28 4. Relationship w/people Skills 12 10 6 2B 5. Leadership Skills 10 4 4 18 116 " Listening Skills" was mentioned only 12 times in the three countries. while only once in Bangladesh. Yet. skills associated with teaching. controlling. managing. leading were mentioned more frequently. This could indicate that there is a tendency for the development workers to de-emphasize the listening aspects while emphasizing the teaching. telling. controlling aspects of their work. The "resource-linking" skill which is also mentioned as one of the Roles which development workers assume. was only mentioned 11 times in the three countries. no mention in Bangladesh. This corresponds closely with the data from the first section of the interview. Program Officers and Project Workers find it difficult linking and communicating with other organizations. especially governmental bodies. and some mentioned that they enjoy least the contact with outside agencies. From the data it could be suggested that resource-linking is not emphasized among the two staff levels involved in the study. yet in much of the literature about development or planned change. it is recognized as one of the most important roles and skills to be used (for example. Havelock and Havelock. 1973; Zaltman and Duncan. 1977; Beal. 1981). On two occassions. research protocol was modified while asking the question. "What are the characteristics or attributes of a good community development worker?" In Bangladesh. while interviewing a group of Project Workers who work uniquely with their wives in community development. a decision was made to elicit the characteristics in a larger group rather than as individuals. In each of the two locations. five couples were present. A contest was arranged between the men and the women to see who could 117 generate the largest list. The following list of attributes of a good community development worker was generated from one of these meetings in Charbradrassan. Bangladesh. Attributes of a Good Community Development Worker Active listener Humility Value people’s words Teach by doing Faithfulness Punctuality Speak clearly Leadership skill Treat all people equally Respect local culture Decision-making ability God-fearing Sacrificing attitude Communication ability Self-confidence Mental strength Not talkative Sympathetic Self-dependent Depends on others Joyful Long-suffering Organizing ability Patience Sense of responsibility Learn from people Hard-working Considers self as member of area Honesty Soft-spoken Good evaluator Facilitating problem-solving Good health Know local culture Ready wit and humor Servant-like attitude Ability to endure hardships Spiritually fit Decent manners Belief in creativity of all Attitude of secularism Love Identification with community Family planning knowledge Peaceful Ability to control self *********************** *********************** Out of these, the group ranked the most important: Attitgde. Duality Skill 1. Love 1. Communication skill 2. Patience 2. Decision-making ability 3. Faithfulness 3. Organizing ability 4. Honesty 4. Leadership ability 5. God-fearing 5. Evaluation ability Very little difference can be seen between the group and the individual responses. The other time this method was used. more than twice the number 118 of characteristics were mentioned in the same amount of time. This was probably because five minutes of preparation was given to the second group prior to the start of the contest. Per on lChan sin vl mentA r h In this section of the interview. questions were asked which would help to identify some of the major changes in thinking about development which have been occurring in the lives of the respondents. In addition. they were asked to identify some of the reasons or factors which have influenced these changes. The following highlights some of the significant results: All respondents indicated that they see changes occurring in their approach to development. Most of them indicated changes which involve a) attitudes towards other people. b) attitudes and skill improvement in the development profession in general. c) changes in lifestyle or behavior (especially in the spiritual areas). d) changes about decision-making. Following are a few samples illustrating these perceptions of changes: Before I never went to poor villages. I thought giving more money would help; thought that development ideas and decisions must come from the top. Now I frequently go to the village. I’ve learned that spending money does not change the people. I’ve learned that decisions must be made by the villagers. l have developed better communication skills. (Bangladesh respondent) Before I never used to think about development. I was not closely related to the people. But now my attitude towards the poor has changed. Now I’m more closely related to the people. I think more about development. (Bangladesh respondent) I have more care for people now. more spiritual growth. I feel I now know better how to handle interpersonal relationships. (Taiwan respondent) I now listen more and talk less. I now know my potential ability better. (Taiwan respondent) I now am more considerate and more open. more empathetic. I now consider more about what people can learn. (Taiwan respondentL The reason which was most frequently given for these changes was "experience with the people" or "special training efforts organized by the Agency." In both Taiwan and the Philippines. the training which appears to have had the greatest effect in this change was the Participatory Evaluation Planning session or sessions. One of the respondents from the Philippines described the following changes whiCh occurred in her life: My approach to development was essentially aimed at raising the standard of living of community members. The indicators of progress in this regard were the measurement of quantitatively-oriented goals. By 1978. a shift was beginning to occur in my own approach to development. Some of the key elements of the new strategy included: 1) greater participation of the community in all phases of planning and evaluation; 2) slower. more deliberate planning schedules for new development activities; 3) major focus on training development workers; 4) focus on integrated or holistic development as opposed to single-focused activities; and 5) recognition of the importance of applying Biblical concepts throughout the development process. ani ' lCh n sin v o ment ach In similar ways to the question about changes in personal development approach. a question was asked about the changes in the organization’s approach to development. The purpose for the question was to document the 120 perceptions of the changes which have been occurring so that they may help in the preparation of training curricula. Everyone. with the exception of two persons who were relatively new to the organization. indicated that that they had noticed changes in the organization’s understanding and policies about development. Most respondents referred to the shift from child-care assistance which many termed "a relief mode" to a more "developmental mode." In the Philippines. the term used was a shift from the "dole-out approach ." When asked to describe the reasons for the shift. most of the answers tended to take a fatalistic approach; in other words. many felt that the changes occurred because it was what the organization mandated. and therefore. everyone was instructed to change. All respondents indicated that they were pleased with the change in development focus. however. felt that the change occurred too rapidly and was mandated "from the top" rather than "initiated from the bottom." There was strong indication that changes occur too rapidly in the organization. Most people said that they liked the direction the organization was headed in now. but they did not appreciate the amount and speed of change that was being directed at them. 'n' n r in'n Although the entire study was directed at the training needs of a specified group of people in the organization. in this section of the interview. questions were explicitly asked about feelings of training. The first question focused on 121 the training programs that the individual had already attended. The later questions focused on training activities in the future. Most of the Program Officers and Project Workers indicated that they were very pleased with the training that they have received so far and believe that the training has been in areas where they need special assistance. It is interesting to note that if the respondent attended a Participatory Evaluation Planning Seminar. there was a strong indication of how helpful that had been in his/her development work. It should be noted that in Taiwan and the Philippines there was a concern that too much training was being offered. In Bangladesh. however. concern was expressed that not enough training was available. Also in Bangladesh. there was disappointment voiced from both the Program Officers and the Project Workers that the training had not met their needs. With the exception of one person in Bangladesh. everyone felt it was important for them to be involved in the design of training sessions for themselves. A variety of possibilities for this involvement was suggested. In all three countries. the Program Officers tended to be more concerned about getting training in 1) management systems (finances. controlling. planning. organizing) and 2) how to train other people. This can be contrasted with the Project Workers who tended to focus on specific project and people skills. Project Workers also tended to emphasize the importance of spiritual training which was not mentioned by the Program Officers. (except the Philippines. mentioned 3 times). 122 When asked for suggestions about improving the training program in each of the respective countries. the majority of the answers overwhelmingly indicated that the people want to be more involved in planning their own training programs. There was a dominant feeling that they have not been involved in the planning in the past. but need to be in the future. nkin f h e F Ar a Each of the respondents were shown five cards with the major focus areas of the Agency written on each: DEVELOPMENT. EVANGE LISM. STRENGTHENING CHURCH LEADERSHIP. RELIEF. REHABILITATION. Each person was first given an opportunity to add any additional focus areas which they might feel are not included in the terms used above. Following this. each person was asked to rank the cards according to what they felt the organization emphasized each focus area at present (most emphasized to least emphasized). Then. this process was repeated asking them to rank the same cards according to how they felt the organization should be emphasizing the focus areas. The results are indicated as follows: In Table 5.12. the rankings have been translated into weighted and combined scores for easier measurement and comparison. These scores were computed by giving a value of "5" to each focus area ranked number 1. "4" to each ranked number 2. and so forth. Overall. DEVELOPMENT emerged as the most emphasized focus area both in terms of "What is now" and "What should be". This was the same in each 123 country except the Philippines. where DEVELOPMENT received the same ranking numbers as EVANGELISM (90) for "What is now" emphasized. Table 5.12 Ranking Scores of the Agency Focus Areas Focus Area What is What Should Now Be DEVELOPMENT 278 268 EWGELISM 232 237 STRENGTHENING CHURCH LEADERSHIP 182 203 REHABILITATIIN 158 145 RELIEF 113 108 n r mment about the r ar h After the interview was completed and while everyone was relaxing. one final question was asked: WHAT ARE YOUR COMMENTS OR FEELINGS ABOUT 124 THIS INTERVIEW AND THE RESEARCH? This question was asked so that the researchers could have a better feel about making modifications in particular questions or in the approach used. Generally. the comments were extremely helpful and favorable. The following are some examples of the comments: Very good process. no pressures and free talking. (Project Worker Bangladesh) If you’re really trying to find out truth about rural existence. you will definitely get what you want from this sort of interview. (Program Officer Bangladesh) Liked the process. hope that a response will be given. and not only end in the survey. (Program Officer Philippines) You’re trying to fish out my brain. but I feel generally satisfied. (Project Worker Philippines) Very easy. good that researchers aren’t very serious. can joke easily and respect people’s opinion. (Project Worker Taiwan) Very good. Feel that someone has finally begun to notice Project Workers and Program Officers. (Program Officer Taiwan) Even though the interview was long (sometimes more than two hours). it appeared to be appreciated by most persons. Many of the people talked about how the researchers made them "feel good by listening and spending that much time with them." An interesting and unplanned result of the study was the effect which the interview had in raising consciousness. A majority (35 of the persons interviewed) told about how the interview helped them to "reflect." "evaluate self." or "think back and learn" from what they are doing. The impact of so many statements about the usefulness of the research leads to the suggestion that the study may have effects beyond the data gatherered and 125 beyond what is written in reports. Obviously. there was much learning taking place in both the lives of researchers and those being interviewed that will never be documented. Relating the Findings to the Research Questions The research questions and their related findings are presented below in summary form: Research question 1: What are the essential roles and tasks of development workers as perceived by active development workers in a voluntary agency? a. b. C. A majority of the respondents identified at least one of the role terms classified as "managerial." The second largest category. "training." was identified by 70% of the respondents. A majority of Program Officers and Project Workers tend to perceive themselves as "teachers" or "trainers." while a relatively small number of respondents used the terms "learner." "student." or "trainee." (Frequency count for the former category equals 87; for the latter the count equals 12). A majority of both Program Officers and Project Workers spend most of their time visiting projects or families. However. the indication is that a large percentage of the time spent "visiting" is used for administrative purposes. Research Question 2: What are the varieties and central tendencies of these perceptions? b. C. d. 126 A majority of both Program Officers and Project Workers identified "networking." "resourcing" or "coordinating with Government" activities as those on which they spend the least time. A majority of Program Officers and Project Workers indicated they enjoy most visiting projects and families. and enjoy least administrative work. Most Program Officers indicated they feel somewhat unprepared to "do training;" while the majority of Project Workers perceive themselves unprepared in certain practical skill areas. A majority of the respondents indicated they would like to spend more time in "visiting." “talking" with project staff or community members. depending on the respective positions. 40% of the respondents also indicated they would like to be spending more time "reading and reflecting" and "training or attending educational seminars." Research Question 3: How does the way in which one perceives poverty influence the way he/she might act as a development worker? a. b. C. A majority of the respondents described the poor using terms such as: "not having enough to eat." "no job." "inadequate housing." "illiterate." "no land." ”no education." and "no skills." Respondents provided a variety of responses showing the reasons for poverty with the most frequent being "inadequate education and skills." Almost half of the respondents indicated the poor are lazy or do not like to work. An additional 10 persons strongly voiced their opinion that the poor are not lazy. d. 127 14 Respondents indicated the poor are not just physically poor. but also " spiritually poor ." Research Question 4: How. if at all. does the nature and amount of experience contribute to one ’s perception about their role as a development worker? a. C. d. The majority of the respondents have completed a B.A. or B.S. University degree. Differences among countries can be seen with all of the respondents in the Philippines having a minimum of a B.A. or B.S. degree. compared with 60% in Bangladesh. and only 22% in Taiwan. A majority of the Project Workers in Taiwan have a high school education. A large number (34%) of the 67 respondents have a formal education background in social work. The majority of these respondents are in the Philippines where 20 of 22 respondents have such formal training. The remaining 44 respondents have educational background in one of 20 different disciplines. A majority of the respondents have lived in either the project or branch office area for more than 5 years. A majority of the respondents indicated they have worked in the development field for more than 4 years. Yet most of those claim that they have worked in the respective positions for 3 years or less. A majority respondents are female with a large difference between Bangladesh and the other two countries. In Bangladesh. only 13 of 22 (14%) are females. while in Taiwan and the Philippines. the female percentages are 61% and 91% respectively. 128 f. The mean age of the respondents is 31.2 with little variation between countries. Project Workers tend to be slightly younger than their colleague Program Officers. 9. The majority of the respondents are married. The greatest difference among countries is Bangladesh with all respondents married while Taiwan and the Philippines have 61% and 55% respectively of the respondents married. Research Question 5: What are the similarities and differences between early and later paradigms of planned change? The following listing of trends has been gathered from a review of literature in the fields of planned change. community development. communiction. and education. The chart has been modified from the centralized - de-centralized dichotomy presented by Rogers (1983). Tr nd in arl Paradi Irends in Lgtgr Pgragigp Decision-making controlled by the Wide sharing of decisions top hierarchy or national body. and control by the members. Ideas and communications flow one Ideas and communications way from top to bottom. diffuse through_networks and and interpersonal channels. Decision about what should be Decisions about what should be introduced made by technical introduced made by local experts and top level members after informal eval- administrators. uation of innovations. Good ideas, innovations come from Good ideas, innovations top, from technical experts. generated by local members through critical reflection. Availability of new technology Existence of problem creates pushes the innovation. desire to find solution as perceived by local needs and problems. 129 Innovation is seldom reinvented as it diffuses. Low levels of participation in planning, evaluating. Frequent utilization of directive teaching. Development measured by quantitative indicators. Emphasis on product. Centralized planning with emphasis on technology transfer. Focus blame for poverty on individual (internal causes). Emphasis on economic growth. Innovation is continually being reinvented to suit local needs and problems. High degree of participation in planning and evaluating. Frequent utilization of non- directive facilitation. Development measured by quali- tative indicators. Emphasis on process. Decentralized planning with emphasis on self-reliance. Focus blame for poverty on system (internal and external causes). Emphasis on low level, approp- riate technology. -\, Research Question 6: How. if at all. havewactive community development workers in a voluntary agency shifted their perceptions of development in comparison with early and later paradigms of development.? a. A large variety of different qualities. skills. or attitudes were identified by the respondents as important for development workers to have. These were consolidated into 2 families: 1) Skills and 2) Values. attitudes. qualities. b. . A majority of the respondents believe that being a "committed Christian" and "prayerful" is important for a community development worker. The second most frequently mentioned quality was "openness. flexibility to change" with respondents indicating its importance. 130 c. A majority of the respondents believe that having technical skills and knowledge was important for the development worker. The second most frequently mentioned was "management skills" indicated by the respondents. d. All respondents indicated that they see changes occurring in their approach to development. The majority indicated changes which involve a) attitudes towards other people. b) attitudes and skill improvement in the development profession in general. c) changes in lifestyle or behavior (especially in the spiritual areas). :1) changes about approaches to decision-making. e. A majority of the respondents indicated that they changed their approach to development because of experience in working with community members and because of special training events. the most frequently mentioned event being the Participatory Evaluation Planning Seminars. f. Almost all of the respondents indicated that they had noticed changes in the organization’s approach to development. Each of the persons was pleased with the direction the organization was moving in relation to development. However. a majority of these respondents also indicated that they felt the change was implemented too rapidly. and too often. 9. The change indicated by the majority of the respondents was described as "a shift from relief to development." from "child assistance to family and holistic development." and from "dole out to self-help." Research Question 7: Based on the above questions. what are the implications for staff development and change agent training programs? 131 a. All but two of the respondents indicated that they should be involved in planning training events for them. Most of these persons also indicated that in the past they have not felt involved in the planning. b. In all three countries. the Program Officers tended to be more concerned about getting training in 1) management systems (finances. controlling. planning. organizing); and 2) how to train other people. This can be contrasted with the Project Workers who tended to focus on specific project and people skills. Project Workers also tended to emphasize the importance of spiritual training which was not mentioned by the Program Officers except the Philippines. where it was mentioned 3 times. Significant Findings From the data. it appears that a shift has occurred in the conceptualization of development approaches of active development workers in the Agency. The shift closely resembles the shifting paradigms described by various authors in current literature. Therefore. the movement by development workers in the Agency. away from the dominant paradigm (Rogers. 1976a) to a newer approach parallels the shift in current development literature. The following summarizes the development approaches used by respondents in the past: (summarized from their statements) * Emphasis on relief. dole out mentality if More concern for relief to children. than development with families and communities * Pre-occupation with designing a packaged project a Planning for development handled by non-community members 132 Low levels of participation Focus on quantitative measurement of activities Decisions tend to flow from the top to the bottom Heavy focus on diffusion of technologies Poverty is blamed on individual causes. such as laziness Projects are expensive with large capital expenditures ****** Individuals within the organization changed their approach to development at the same time. and to some extent because of the changes in the development policy of the organization. The current development policy was recited. in the respondent’s own words. as their individual perception of "good development." In other words. the policy of the Agency has been effected. and to some extent precipitated. the conceptualization of individual development workers within the same agency. The following are some indication of the current "good" development as viewed by respondents: if Focus on families. communities rather than just children s Emphasis on developing self-reliance through loans. income- generating schemes. it High degree of participation in planning and evaluating * Focus on quality of the work. rather than Just the quantitative evaluation of goals * Emphasis on a process rather than a particular product 4. Focus on value change as opposed to pre-occupation with economic indicators * Information about decisions come from bottom to the top * Low cost projects Given the information above. it might be possible to suggest that. at least in terms of what people perceive. there has been a shift in development conceptualization. More specifically. the shift is similar to the shift experienced by Rogers and numerous others. reflected in current literature. However. there is additional evidence to suggest that although a shift is 133 apparent. the actual practice may not be one of rejection of the first paradigm and acceptance of the new. Instead. there appears to be a movement between the two paradigms. Rogers (1983). Bryant and White (1982) Essman (1984) among others imply similar trends in their literature. Knowles (1984) explaining about his new understanding of adult learning. expresses a similar view. His previous writing tended to place adult learning theory as moving away from pedagogical models of the past towards newer andragogical models. Knowles (1984) has now clarified his position: "I now regard the pedagogical and andragogical models as parallel and not antithetical" (p.12). Different experiences in people require different approaches to teaching and learning. Therefore. a movement back and forth between the two parallel approaches seems not only appropriate. but practical and ncecessary. Such trends might indicate that a transition stage is occurring where the older paradigm is being slowly left behind while the newer paradigm is being slowly accepted. An additional explanation might be that essentially. a third approach to development is emerging. The third approach incorporates characteristics of both previous paradigms depending on the circumstances. Such a view. although ambiguous. in terms of ideological consistency. is nevertheless. more consistent with actual practice in development work. Such a view considers seriously the suggestion that human behavior is difficult to predict and frequently changes. CHAPTER VI Recommendations and Conclusions The study is concerned with how community development workers within a voluntary. Christian development agency perceive their roles and tasks. In order to focus on this primary concern. major changes which have occurred during the past two decades in planned change literature have been examined. The changes in conceptual approach and methodology to community development as represented in influential literature have then been compared with the descriptive data from active development workers. The purpose of the study is as follows: - To ascertain the varieties and central tendencies among active development workers in respect to their perceptions of their roles and tasks. - To describe the changes that have occurred during recent years in the conceptual approaches to communication. development. and planned change. - To identify the major educational implications that will serve as a basis for developing pre and inservice training programs for development workers. The study also proposes a set of research questions. Answers to these questions concerning the roles and tasks of development workers have been sought. The following questions have guided the study: 1. What are the essential roles and tasks of development workers as perceived by active development workers in a voluntary agency? 135 2. What are the varieties and central tendencies of these perceptions? 3. How does the way in which one perceives poverty influence the way he/she might act as a development worker? 4. How. if at all. does the nature and amount of experience contribute to one’s perception about their role as development worker? 5. What are the similarities and differences between early and later paradigms of development? 6. How. if at all. have active community development workers in a voluntary agency shifted their perceptions of development in comparison with early and later paradigms of development. 7. Based on the above questions. what are the implications for staff development and development worker training programs? Research. conducted in manners simmilar to the present study is referred to as "qualitative" (Miles and Huberman. 1984). The focus has been on qualitative description of the perceptions of Program Officers and Project Staff as opposed to a quantitative measurement of some phenomenon. However. because of the nature of the study. the possibility for researcher bias is increased. The researchers during the process of data gathering and analysis were aware of this and attempted to lessen the bias as much as possible. In addition to this concern. there has been a continual recognition that the results should be utilized in some way. The research team regularly focused through reflection sessions on how information could be taken from the study and communicated in the form of recommendations to the respective Field Directors and Regional Vice-President for some possible action in the future. During the entire process. and especially the data gathering and analysis phases of the study. numerous value judgments were made. The judgments 136 were based primarily upon the values. beliefs and orientations of the researcher. Patton (1976) suggests that research is never value-free. The researchers have attempted to limit the biases as much as possible. However. it is difficult to determine whether or not nodding a head in agreement or happily responding with a "Yes. yes I see!" during an interview. has had an effect of bias on the research. This chapter examines the findings in order to present recommendations. Four kinds of recommendations are provided according to specific purposes: 1) Generalizations in order to help construct general theory. 2) Operational Recommendations in order to provide practical. operational guidelines focusing on specific aspects of training for Program Officers and Project Workers. 3) Research Recommendations in order to provide recommendations for further study. 4) Recommendations for Future Researchers in order to provide practical suggestions related to methodology and design of the particular study with emphasis on the problems encountered. Generalizations From the Literature The following generalizations are presented in order to help construct general theory about the subject matter. Rogers (1983) has already contributed a list of 12 generalizations related to change agent success. The generalizations he cites are based upon 156 studies during recent years with 86% of the studies showing support of the generalizations. Prior to elaborating on the present study. a summary of Rogers’ generalizations is provided below: 137 1. Development worker success is positively related to the extent that they make effort in contacting and interacting with community members. 2. Development worker success is positively related to a client -- orientation rather than to a change agency -- orientation. 3. Development worker success is positively related to the degree to which a diffusion program is compatable with the community needs. 4. Development worker success is positively related to empathy with members of the community. 5. Development worker contact is positively related to higher social status among community members. 6. Development worker contact is positively related to a greater social participation among the community members. 7. Development worker contact is positively related to higher education among community members. 8. Development worker contact is positively related to cosmopoliteness among the community members. 9. Development worker success is positively related to homophily with community members. 10. Development worker success is positively related to credibility in the community’s eyes. 11. Development worker success is positively related to the extent that he or she works through opinion leaders. 12. Development worker success is positively related to increasing ability with community members to evaluate innovations (1983. p. 344-345). Generalizations Related To Changing Development Paradigms Perhaps one of the most significant findings of this study can be summarized in terms of the changing development paradigms. Assumptions made at the beginning of the study indicated that two paradigms for 138 development could be identified and described. The first. referred to as the "dominant paradigm" or "early paradigm." and the second is referred to as the "emerging" or "later paradigm." Data from the study tend to indicate that elements of each of the paradigms are currently operating in the work styles of the respondents. and both are present characteristics of development work sponsored by the Agency. It appears that there is a movement towards and acceptance of the newer paradigm. However. characteristics of the dominant paradigm are still present. and are even being re-vitalized. For example. the Agency reports that it is committed to participatory approaches in planning. and most of the respondents indicated they believed strongly in such an approach. However. there are also indications that development projects are being planned without broad participation of the community. According to one respondent. "In most projects. only two or three people are involved in the planning. because more than that number would cause confusion." A similar situation exists with regard to the issue of control in development projects. When respondents were asked who they felt should actually control a project. most responded that the community members and leaders should. This response is indicative of a movement towards the newer development paradigm. However. when asked if they felt the Agency should have financial control over the project. most answered "Yes. of course." Such a response seems contradictory in light of a desire to give control to the community. 139 Responses similar to the two mentioned above occurred frequently during the study. As a result. it becomes difficult to suggest that the agency has accepted either one of the paradigms in rejection of the other. Kuhn (1962) suggests that a paradigm is accepted when the older paradigm is not only challenged. but rejected. Even current literature tends to imply that the old paradigm has not been totally rejected (Howell. 1982; Rogers. 1983;). Current literature is Rogers is especially ambiguous at this point. At times. elements of the old paradigm seems appropriate; at other times. elements of the newer paradigm seem appropriate. Rogers (1983) suggests that one of the characteristics of the older and newer paradigms of development. may be the degree of centralization versus de-centralization. Eventually. Rogers suggests that both may be appropriate depending on particular circumstances or strategies for change. The movement back and forth between the two development paradigms tends to indicate that rather than a total acceptance of a newer paradigm and rejection of the old. a third paradigm is emerging. The third paradigm of development approach incorporates both the older. dominant paradigm of the 1950’s. 1960’s and early 1970’s. along with the newer approaches of the later 1970’s and early 1980’s. The third paradigm is characterized by the integration and the continual movement between the two older paradigms. The third paradigm allows for ambiguity in approaches and conceptualization about development depending on the particular environment and circumstances. It recognizes that development is never value-free. and that a variety of approaches are necessary in order to witness effective development practice. 140 Generalizations From The Study Based upon the data collected during the study. the following generalizations are suggested. Further study will be needed to test each of the generalizations to determine reliability and acceptability. 1. Development workers. and the agencies that employ them tend to perceive that the sex of the development worker is a contributing factor for success or failure of development activities in certain cultural environments. I This tendency is illustrated in some environments by the propensity of recruiting development workers from one particular sex. In Bangladesh. the preference is for men; in the Philippines. the tendency is to recruit women. Rogers (1983) suggests that development worker success is related to the amount of time in contacting the community members and the ability to work through opinion leaders. Thus. it would appear appropriate in a cultural setting such as Bangladesh to have men making the most contact with other men who are also the major opinion leaders. In a culture such as the Philippines. women are considered highly influential opinion leaders. 2. There appears to be a tendency to recruit and train married development workers. yet only utilize (employ) either the husband or the wife. 3. 141 In only a few cases (in Bangladesh) are the husband and wife both considered development workers. The relative success of the program in Bangladesh. as indicated by some of the Bangladesh respondents. might lead one to believe that community development work is enhanced when both a husband and wife are involved in the process. It could be suggested that married couples would have greater opportunities for success in gaining credibility and building relationships in communities that place high importance on close family unity. There appears to be a tendency to recruit and train young (mid 20’s to early 30’s) men and women as development workers. This generalization may have both positive and negative effects. Generally. younger persons tend to be more energetic. enthusiastic and open minded. which should lead to higher degrees of creativity. However. gaining credibility is more difficult for younger persons. especially in Asian countries where older persons are highly respected. Rogers (1983) suggests that success is positively related to the degree of credibility as seen through the eyes of the community members. In addition. younger persons might have more difficulty empathizing with people who are generally older and more experienced than he or she is. From personal observation. the researcher can suggest that credibility problems do exist with many of the development workers. The age of the development workers is probably a contributing factor to the credibility problem. 5. 6. 142 Generally. preference appears to be given to Project Workers and Program Officers who have completed a university degree program. This generalization may not apply to Taiwan where most of the Project Workers have not attended college. The generalization. however. raises a question related to credibility and professionalism. In cultures where higher education equals greater credibility. it might be more appropriate to seek development workers with higher educational backgrounds. However. there also may be cultures or individual communities where higher education is respected but has a tendency to cause social distance gaps between the development worker and the community members. The higher education levels of the development workers in comparison with the community members may tend to produce the expectations of being a "teacher." With this expectation may also come the attitude of treating the community members as students or pupils. As a result. in the study. a high frequency of "trainer" roles. yet only a few number of "learner" roles was identified. Generally. development workers who were identified as "Program Officers" in this study tend to focus on the following: 1) checking on the administrative work of the projects. 2) evaluating the quality of services given to families and communities and 3) communicating the latest organization policies. 143 Program Officers are highly oriented to administrative tasks. These tasks include a) Focus on "checking-up". attempting to see whether the Project Worker is doing what is organizationally required. This includes administrative work. reports. bookkeeping. accomplishment of goals and milestones. following procedures. and so forth. b) Focus on evaluating the quality of the services given to families in the community. c) Focus on communicating the latest policies. guidelines passed on to them from the Branch. headquarters or International Office. Generally. development workers identified as ”Project Workers" in this study tend to focus on training. teaching. counselling with individual families. accomplishing administrative tasks and following up on prior project activities. Project Workers are oriented to roles involving training or teaching. yet they also focus on counselling or talking to individual families with specific problems. In addition. they focus on accomplishing the administrative requirements of the organization (for example. gathering information for children’s case histories. locating new children for sponsorship. writing and reading letters). And they tend to focus on follow-up of prior activities (for example. checking to see if the loans which were given are being used properly). Development agencies that tend to promote a control-orientation with complex administrative rules. tend also to produce development workers with the same orientation. 144 From the data. it appears that both Program Officers and Project Workers consider themselves to be more control-oriented than facilitative-oriented. This trend can be seen in numerous parts of the interview process. For example. a comment was made by a Project Worker that he "spends a lot of time checking on the teachers to see if they are truly teaching the things we want them to teach. If not. we withdraw the subsidies." Or another example is a Project Worker who goes to visit families so that he can check to see if the children are all in school. These kinds of actions are probably due to the tension they face in meeting the requirements of their jobs. The more that individuals are trained and encouraged in participatory approaches and methods. the more readily those individuals tend to put into practice those same approaches. The research tends to indicate that individuals within the organization are moving in the direction of participatory development and decision-making. This movement has probably been influenced by former training events such as the Participatory Evaluation Planning Seminars. However. there are also indications that the move is at this stage more rhetoric than action. This could be because the staff are too rigid in their thinking and have little opportunity to be innovative. Or it could be that they only have time to do the things "which the organization requires." 10. 11. 12. 145 Development workers have a tendency to request training in numerous skill areas. presumably so that they can be prepared for anything in the future. Observations of the researcher also tend to confirm that Program Officers and Project Workers perceive the organization as requiring themselves needing many skills covering a wide variety of areas. This is in contrast with a desire to be equipped in a particular technical skill area. Development agencies that have a high action-orientation with regard to accomplishment of work. as many voluntary agencies do. tend to encourage their development workers to assume a similar work orientation. The data tends to indicate that there is a tendency for Program Officers and Project Workers to desire a time for reflection. reading. and writing in a journal. However. the same persons indicated that their failure to follow their desire is due to time constraints. Development workers in this study tend to perceive poverty and its causes in terms of individual-blame as opposed to a system-blame. An individual-blame orientation is the tendency to hold an individual responsible for his or her problems. rather than the system of which the individual is a part (Caplan and Nelson. 1974). Rogers (1983) describes ‘ the shift which has occurred in diffusion research over the past years. from a former pre-occupation with the individual-blame orientation to 13. 14. 15. 146 one today that is moving more towards a system-blame analysis of problems. The tendency of some development workers to favor the individual blame. suggests that preparation in understanding structural analysis. sociology or experiences with poverty may have been inadequate or missing. The attitudes. qualities. values. skills of "successful" development workers that were identified in the study tend to correlate very closely with those identified in major literature. Etling (1981) identifies a similar lengthy list of terms during a study in Latin America. Development workers operating in Christian development agencies tend to place a high priority on being a committed Christian and being prayerful. This generalization suggests that Christian development workers may have different motivational characteristics from other non-Christian counter-parts. One respondent suggested that "being a Christian development worker allows me to live out my Christianity through specific actions with the poor." Development agencies and their development workers tend to modify their attitudes and particular philosophical approach through a series and accumulation of new experiences. as opposed to single events or specific training sessions. The study indicates that one of the reasons the majority of the respondents changed their approach to development was because of 16. 17. 147 experience in working with people in communities over a long period of time. and through a series of training events sponsored by the agency. In a corporate sense. the agency experienced a variety of forces which helped individuals within the organization to begin changing their approach to development. This suggests that both organizational and individual attitude change occurs over time in the context of a series of influential experiences. Development workers in this study generally have a positive attitude about the conceptual changes related to development approach that they have personally and organizationally experienced. Generally. development workers do not enjoy having training sessions planned for them. but instead prefer to be involved in the curriculum design. The study tended to confirm basic adult education principles pertaining to curriculum development. Development workers prefer to be actively involved in the process of designing training programs. This desire is contrasted with the reality most respondents faced where training programs were planned for them without their input. Generally. development workers learn from a process of reflecting on their experiences. and being challenged to think seriously about them. This research process helped to encourage a time of reflection. During the interviews. respondents were challenged to reflect back on their past thoughts and actions. This process of reflection was mentioned as being helpful by a majority of the respondents. 148 Operational Recommendations The concern of this study has been to describe the perceptions of development workers in a Christian development agency. relative to their roles and tasks. This has been done primarily so that training programs for development workers can be enhanced. This section of the study suggests recommendations in order to provide practical. operational guidelines focusing on specific aspects of training for Program Officers and Project Workers. 1. 2. In each of the countries. there appears to be an emphasis on recruiting a predominance of one sex. In Bangladesh men are preferred; in Taiwan. men are recruited as Program Officers. women as Project workers; in the Philippines. mostly women are recruited for all positions. A recommendation would be to examine other possible recruiting strategies. For example. there are certain areas of Bangladesh where women could be very effective as development workers. especially in urban areas. Certainly. in the Philippines. and Taiwan. men could be very effective as development workers. The recruitment and subsequent training strategy should be re-examined to encourage either more women or men. or perhaps a combination of both. to become development workers. Personal observation. experience and study findings indicate that very few married couples are recruited and used as development workers. With the exception of Bangladesh. where a special program is currently 149 operating to train couples. little attention is paid to this topic. In those areas where the couples approach is being implemented. receptivity and community cooperation. according to the researcher’s observation seem very high and relatively successful. The presence of both husband and wife working together in one village probably tends to increase credibility in the eyes of other community members. Rogers (1983) suggests that development development worker success is positively related to credibility in the community’s eyes. One recommendation. specifically for Taiwan and the Philippines is to recruit and train couples perhaps in one geographic area. while attempting to notice if there are differences between effectiveness of single and married development workers. The data tend to indicate that most of the Program Officers and Project Workers were recruited from outside the target community after receiving their university degrees. In Taiwan. however. it was noted that the Project Workers tend to come originally from the same area where they are currently working. This would indicate a tendency towards using internal sources for the development workers rather than more "professionally educated" persons from outside. Much debate currently exists in the literature regarding the relative advantage of using outside versus inside development workers (Rogers. 1983; Beal. 1981; Bennis. Benne. Chin. 1985; Chambers. 1983). Rogers (1983) suggests that development worker contact is positively related to higher education among community members. This generalization implies 150 that development workers tend to contact more often those members of the community who have attained higher educational status. However. Rogers also suggests that development worker success is positively related to homophily with community members. In other words. the more similar the development worker is to the community. in terms of geographic. social. educational background. and so forth. the greater the likelihood is that the development worker will be successful. An appropriate recommendation in this regard is for agencies to recruit and train more development workers from the same area where that person will be working. The agency should consider meaningful training for local personnel and attempt to maximize their effectiveness. With such an approach. not only is development process enhanced by training individuals who are initially. more homophilous to the community. but also local leadership is strengthened for future development efforts. The current educational backgrounds of development workers has fairly strong implications regarding future recruitment and training. More consideration should be given to recruiting persons from a variety of eduational backgrounds. The situation that exists in the Philippines at present (almost all Program Officers and Project Workers are social work graduates) probably has an effect of creating a unique "culture" of development workers with limited perspectives outside of the field of client-oriented social work. It is recommended that agencies attempt to create "multi-disciplinary" teams of development workers relating 5. 151 regularly with one another in selected geographic areas. This would have the effect of utilizing the more varied educational backgrounds of numerous individuals to focus on specific problems in communities. While it is recognized that often community development graduates from colleges or universities are not available. other disciplines will help to form a team of effective development workers. It is rcommended that individuals acquainted and trained in the area of adult learning principles also be sought. It appears that the activities that are carried out by Program Officer’s and Project Worker’s when they visit projects or families. tend to focus around meeting the administrative requirements of the Agency. It could be suggested that in many of the Agency’s projects there is an over-emphasis of "meeting the system requirements" resulting in insufficient time being given to family and community development issues. More creative ways should be discovered to help balance this dilemma faced by development workers. The dilemma should help decision-makers in the Agency to recognize the need for clarifying the role conflict that most development workers face. One approach might be to consider getting the Program Officer’s and Project Worker’s to sit together and discuss the issue and how it might be improved. In some cases. it might be wise to experiment with new or revised job descriptions of Program Officer’s and Project Workers in one area of the country. Another possibility is to allow Program Officers to focus on facilitating the development process. while another person 152 helps with the administration. Program Officers might also want to shift roles with a team member every two or three months. focusing primarily at one time on administration. while later on the development process. The most important point to be appreciated is that an over-emphasis on administrative functions does currently exist. and is possibly affecting the quality of the community development process. This recommendation should be more widely discussed in a framework of seeking creative alternatives. An attitude of "cautious flexibility" could be adopted which might even require questioning the current roles and tasks of Program Officer’s and Project Worker’s even though they have been accepted in the past. The high (frequency) identification with the "managerial" type of roles may be due to a strong encouragement and reward system within the organization to do so. It is suggested that the organization begin a process of re-defining the roles of both Program Officers and Project Workers. Rogers (1983) indicates that "change agent success is positively related to a client -- orientation rather than to a change -- agency orientation" (p.344). Garcia-Zamor (1985) in similar manner summarized an article written by Thomas (1985) in the following way: Client-centered development strategies require new administrative responses. unlike the normal bureaucratic. control-oriented procedures of most existing central governments. The challenge for the development planner. therefore. is re-eorienting the behavior of both technical and administrative personnel in development agencies toward collaborative planning with development clients. 153 toward responding to. rather than directing or planning for those clients" (p.1). The agency would have a much clearer indication of the training needs for the development workers as their roles and expectations are more clearly understood and agreed-upon. It is recommended that greater emphasis also be placed on encouraging learner or co-learner roles as opposed to the current emphasis of training roles. Bryant and White (1982) suggest the following: "If field agents are heavily controlled within an agency. they are unlikely to develop give and take relations with their clients. If bureaucrats are trying to establish a learning process in the community. it will be a very different look unless they are also part of a learning process within their agency“ (p. 187). Many Program Officers identified themselves with "teacher" or "trainer" roles. But this identification does not necessarily translate into non-directive facilitation of the learning process. More attention should be given to improving the "facilitation" skills and attitudes that can cause change to occur without it being mandated and controlled in a management-oriented fashion. In addition. the personality of the individual development workers needs to be considered during recruitment and subsequent training. since not all persons will feel comfortable operating in a facilitative mode. One prominant development administrator suggests that agencies need to focus more on participatory management systems where managing does not necessarily equal controlling (Korten. 1980). As individuals within the organization move more readily into participative and facilitative modes of operating. the agency will need to be flexible enough to encourage creativity. One recommendation would be 9. 10. 154 to consider allowing more time for certain individuals to be creative and attempt to put into practice some of the rhetoric which is being discussed. It would mean however. removing some of the institutional constraints which might hold back individuals from doing this. A large number of respondents indicated that they spend least time and also enjoy the least. activities which could be referred to as "resourcing or networking." It is recommended that more attention be placed on these important roles in future training programs. Numerous sources can be identified to support the emphsasis on resourcing and networking (for example. Zaltman and Duncan. 1977; Bennis. Benne and Chin. 1985; D’Abreo. 1983; Havelock and Havelock. 1973; Kindervatter. 1979). Certain skills can be identified and taught in training programs which could prove to be very beneficial to both the Project Officer’s and Project Worker’s as well as families and communities with whom they work. In pursuing a more facilitative approach to development. it should be considered that "resource-linking" is a particular strategy designed to enhance facilitating of the development process. In other words. the resource-linking skill has greater value than just an end in itself. Since a majority of the respondents would like to be spending more time in reading and reflecting. it is recommended that the individual offices set aside special time that can be used for such activities. In addition. the respondents may need assistance in getting started in times of 11. 12. 155 reflection. Such an emphasis could be provided during appropriate training sessions. One of the difficulties facing development agencies is the need to maintain job satisfaction in the midst of routine. under-valued. and often under-rewarded job activities. A recommendation to increase motivation and job satisfaction is to actively pursue a process of critical reflection and journalling. It is recommended that serious consideration be given by development agencies to a broader understanding of the "poor." This could be done at both recruitment and in-service training periods. Professional literature (Bryant and White. 1982; Chambers. 1983) as well as th experiences of practitioners support the view that the way a person perceives the poor affects the way a person thinks and acts out their development philosophy. What is being seen or perceived as an individual-blame orientation is only a limited perspective of a much broader phenomenon. One of the many ways to better understand the poor is to include special sessions during training programs and encourage more in-depth discussion about realistic situations of the poor. Such an approach. in turn. will help to bring about changes in attitude and actions with the poor. In addition to a broader perspective about the poor. more attention should be placed on the improvement of social analysis skills. This refers to those skills which help a person to analyze why a society of 13. 14. 15. 156 part of a society is the way it is. Improvement of this skill can help staff not only to understand better why people are poor. but it can also lead to more innovative approaches to development work as the new understanding is "acted" out in projects. It is recommended that the list of qualities. values. skills identified by development workers should be examined closer in order to help plan specific curriculum content areas for future training programs. The qualities. values. and skills would be helpful not only for in-service training. but also for recruitment and re-assignment training processes. As development workers accumulate more experiences. there is a need for them to view and reflect on the experience in an objective and critical manner. Rogers (1983) suggests that the more successful development workers are able to help increase a client’s ability to evaluate an innovation. The same pertains to the evaluation of the new experiences. The positive effect of the Participatory Evaluation Planning Workshops. as described by many of the respondents. indicates that the Agency is concerned about increasing the evaluative ability of community members. However. it is recommended that the participatory evaluation process become more widely used and reflected in training events at field office level. It is recommended that any major changes in approach or philosophy that will affect development practice be condidered very carefully and slowly 16. 157 before recommending the change. The recommendation is based on the large number of comments that indicated people believed the changes were good but there were too many and they occurred too rapidly. Rogers (1983) and Zaltman and Duncan (1977) both emphasize the need to approach changes in philosophy or basic beliefs with patience and minimal expectations. They both indicate the need to gradually and carefully prepare the individual or group for changes. It is recommended that future training of development workers include much greater emphasis on involvement of the workers in the curriculum design and actual implementation. Recommendations for Further Study During the process of the study. the researcher noticed that numerous interest areas could be explored further than the limitations of the present study. Some of the major recommendations are listed below as examples of further study to be examined. The study found that there is a tendency to employ either men or women as development workers depending on the particular culture. Further study would need to examine the effect of using the opposite sex in each of these cultures. The purpose of such a study might be to explore the OJ 158 effectiveness of one group in contrast to another. attempting to identify the factors for success. Further study might need to examine the difficulties associated with single versus married development workers. A possible study might be examine the effects on particular families of active married development workers as compared to single counterparts. Further study needs to examine development workers in the context of actually doing community development. This would help eleviate suspicions between attitudes or perceptions and actual practice. Such a study would be especially important in determining the relationship between the attitudes. which have probably been developing over a number of years with current actual practice. Further study might include examining the determinants of credibility from a community member’s point of view. Examining the factors which determine credibility in various cultures and communities would help trainers plan curricula for development workers. Further study might include describing the reflection process as it occurs in the lives of development workers. It would be helpful to examine the factors that hinder and help such a process. Such a study would be especially helpful in comparing the effectiveness of development workers who are involved in regular times of critical reflection with those who are not. 8. 159 Further study needs to examine deeper the perceptions of development workers towards poverty. perhaps comparing perceptions from development workers with those from poor people. In addition. it would be helpful to see the effect of the perceptions on actual community development practice. Further study needs to examine what kinds of experiences help or hinder a transition from a control. management-oriented role to a more facilitative one. Further study might include describing development workers from change-agency versus a client orientation viewpoint. The focus might be on determining the factors that encourage either one viewpoint or the other. Practical Suggestions for Future Researchers Numerous lessons were learned by the researchers during the study. Of the many lessons. a few have been selected here in order to provide suggestions for future research. Researchers utilizing similar design. methods and approach might want to consider the following suggestions: 1. The necessity of building continual relationships with all interested persons in the research process should not be underestimated. If the research is conducted in another culture. an understanding of the cultural aspects of relationship-building is extremely important. 160 2. The relationship-building activity also includes written and oral communications with all interested parties. It might be more appropriate to provide information to a larger group of persons than later experience difficulties because of one or two persons who felt left out of the - communication channel. 3. The instrument should be allowed to emerge from contact with the target population. A mistake might be to procede with the study the little prior interaction with the target respondents. Even after the interviewing has been initiated. allow the instrument to continue emerging. 4. Relationship-building becomes again very important during the interviews. In the present study. the researcher found that an appropriate time was required before each interview. sometimes lasting from 2 to 8 hours. This time was used to get to know one another. Usually much time was spent in light conversation. and being very informal. The fact that the researchers acted in such a manner caused a majority of the respondents to indicate after the interview how much they appreciated the informal and light-hearted nature of the researchers. 5. During the interview. the temptation continually was felt to bring pre-mature closure of a particular question. Because of the importance of this point. it is recommended that researchers should be prepared to exercise as much patience as possible. 161 6. In communities. it is very difficult to find locations where a discussion can occur without a crowd of people. One suggestion might be to plan on having an extra one or two persons travel with the researcher in order to talk with or "respectfully entertain" the other persons during the interview time. 7. A difficulty experienced in the present study was that it was impossible to return to the same site for additional data gathering. It is recommended that this important aspect be planned into future studies so that additional information can be gathered. 8. The researcher experienced some difficulty during data analysis because of the lack of notes about the context in which certain statements were made. Miles and Huberman (1984) describe the problem: Qualitative research is usually focused on the words and actions of people that occur in a specific context. Though it is possible to collect purely "individual" data . . . . most qualitative researchers believe that a person’s behavior has to be understood in context. and that context cannot be ignored or "held constant" ( p. 91 ). 9. Time for reflection. alone as well as with other researchers is very important to remember. Some of the most valuable learning of the research process occurred during such time of reflection. Conclusion The study has sought to understand better the perceptions of development workers (Program Officers and Project Workers) within the organization giving special attention to their roles. tasks and value sets about community 162 development. This chapter has provided four kinds of recommendations taken from the data and the experiences of the researcher. Ultimately. it is hoped that the recommendations will encourage members of private development agencies to improve training programs for development workers and facilitate a steady movement towards the characteristics of the emerging paradigm. 163 APPENDIX A INTERVIEW TRIALS FORM 164 INTERVIEW TRIALS FORM DATE: PROJECT: TOPIC AREA: Kinds of Questions to Try: Notes: 165 APPENDIX B PRE-INTERVIEW INFORMATION SHEET 10. 11. 166 PRE-INTERVIEW INFORMATION SHEE! Note to Researchers: These questions may be asked during formal walking around the project site. They should definitely be asked in a non-threatening way. This data is only for background information to supplement the primary data. It may also be filled in after the interview if more appropriate. Respondent’s position Age 3. Sex 4. Marital Status Length of time in this position If Program Officer, a) any project experience? b) number of projects responsible? If Project Worker, a) any experience in other organizations? Education completed? a) Primary School b) Middle School (7th - 9th grade) c) High School (10th -12th grade) d) Some college e) BA/BSc f) Graduate School Areas of Study? a) b) c) Description of Area where living: How long have been living in this area? 167 APPENDIX c INTERVIEW BASIC INFORMATION 168 INTERVIEW BASIC INFORMATION Date of interview: Name of Respondent Names of interviewers: Project name: Position of Respondent: Project Worker Area Office: Program Officer Total time spent at project or with P.0. before interview: Actual interview starting time: ending time: Describe conditions where interview took place: List other persons who accompanied to area office or Project: Any other helpful comments about interview: 169 APPENDIX D INTERVIEW GUIDE 170 INTERVIEW GUIDE I. ROLES AND TASKS 1. WHAT IS YOUR JOB? COULD YOU DESCRIBE IT IN A FEW WORDS 01" 4: WHAT KINDS OF THINGS DO YOU DO IN YOUR JOB? OP 1: COULD WE MAKE A LIST OF THE THINGS YOU DO IN YOUR JOB? NOTE: This should be followed with an encouragement to list out as quickly as possible the things which the person does. Sometimes it might be necessary to divide up the project into goals or identifiable parts in order to help them focus on a particular aspect. If the question does not appear to be understood. it might be good to ask the following: * CAN YOU DESCRIBE THE WORK OF THIS PROJECT? OR 4* IN EACH OF THESE PROGRAMS WHAT DO YOU DO? 171 ROLES AND TASKS (cont’d) h.) NOTE: After the list has been compiled. and this may take several questions of encouragement. then the following questions should be asked: Allow the respondent time to rank as many as they can. The cards should be marked with the ranking as they are indicated by the respondent. . OUT OF ALL THE THINGS YOU DO. WHAT DO YOU SPEND THE MOST TIME DOING: WHAT DO YOU SPEND THE LEAST TIME DOING? IN YOUR JOB. WHAT DO YOU FEEL REALLY GOOD ABOUT OR ENJOY THE MOST? WHAT DO YOU EJNOY THE LEAST? IF YOU HAD MORE TIME. WHAT DO YOU WISH YOU COULD BE DOING? . ARE THERE THINGS YOU USED TO DO. BUT NOW NO LONGER DO? WHY? . HOW DO OTHER PEOPLE DESCRIBE YOU AS YOU ARE DOING YOUR WORK? 172 9. ARE THERE THINGS YOU FEEL UNPREPARED TO DO OR ARE DIFFICULT TO DO? II. VALUES. BELIEFS ABOUT DEVELOPMENT 1. COULD YOU DESCRIBE FOR US A DEVELOPMENT PROJECT THAT YOU FEEL IS SUCCESSFUL? (THIS COULD BE REAL OR HYPOTHETICAL). FOCUS SPECIFICALLY ON HOW YOU SEE PROJECT STAFF/PROGRAM OFFICER AND THE AGENCY ACTING ABOUT THE FOLLOWING: A. wane: THE GOOD IDEAS COME: FROM... B. ABOUT CHANGING NEW IDEAS INTRODUCED FROM OUTSIDE... C. ABOUT CONTROL OF THE PROJECT... D. ABOUT DECISION-MAXI NG... 173 II. VALUES. BELIEFS ABOUT DEVELOPMENT (Cont’d) 2. COULD YOU DESCRIBE A DEVELOPMENT PROJECT THAT YOU FEEL IS NOT VERY SUCCESSFUL? (THIS CAN BE REAL OR HYPOTHETICAL). WHAT IS THERE IN THE ORGANIZATION. THE COMMUNITY OR IN PROJECT STAFF PROGRAM OFFICER CHARACTERISTICS THAT MAKE THIS UNSUCCESSFUL? 3. WHAT COULD WE DO TO MAKE MORE PROJECTS MORE SUCCESSFUL? 174 NOTE: This section is included in order to provide some additional information about development approaches. It is an attempt to elicit a description of the kinds of values which are considered by change agents to be important for success in development. The following questions are suggested: 1. SINCE YOU HAVE WORKED IN DEVELOPMENT FOR YEARS. WHAT ATTITUDES. BELIEFS. APPROACHES DO YOU FEEL ARE IMPORTANT IN YOUR WORK? CAN YOU IDENTIFY THE SKILLS THAT YOU FEEL ARE IMPORTANT (NECESSARY) IN YOUR WORK? 2. NOTE: After asking these two questions. the respondent should be asked to select the MOST IMPORTANT attitudes and skills. 3. CAN YOU IDENTIFY ANY ATTITUDES. BELIEFS THAT MAY BE HARMFUL IN YOUR WORK? 175 III. VALUES. BELIEFS ABOUT DEVELOPMENT WORKERS 4. (Cc-rit’d) *ALL OF THESE QUESTIONS FOCUS ON THE DEVELOPMENT WORKER. MAY I NOW ASK YOU... WHAT IS YOUR PERCEPTION OF THE POOR? OF WHAT DO YOU THINK ABOUT THE POOR? HOW WOULD YOU DESCRIBE THEM? WHO ARE THEY? 176 IV. CHANGES IN DEVELOPMENT APPROACH - PERSONAL NOTE: This section is included in order to determine the changes. if any. which have occurred in the respondent’s personal approach to community development. The following questions should be asked: 1. HAVE YOU SEEN ANY CHANGES IN YOUR PERSONAL APPROACH TO COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT DURING YOUR YEARS OF WORKING IN CD? 2. CAN YOU IDENTIFY SOME OF THE THINGS WHICH MIGHT HAVE HELPED YOU TO CHANGE YOUR THINKING? V. P0 177 CHANGES IN DEVELOPMENT APPROACH - ORGANIZATION NOTE: This section like the previous one is aimed at describing any changes which have occurred in the organization. The following questions should be asked: FROM WHAT YOU KNOW WOULD THE AGENCY. HAVE YOU NOTICED ANY CHANGES IN THEIR APPROACH. THINKING. POLOCIES ABOUT COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT OVER THE YEARS? . WHY DO YOU THINK THESE CHANGES HAVE OCCURRED? OR NOT OCCURRE D? DO YOU THINK THE CHANGES ARE GENERALLY GOOD OR HEADING IN THE RIGHT DIRECTION? HOW CAN WE KNOW THAT THE ORGANIZATION IS DOING "GOOD" DEVELOPMENT OR HEADED IN THE RIGHT DIRECTION? 178 VI. OPTIONS ABOUT TRAINING 1' 2. HAVE YOU EVER BEEN INVOLVED IN ANY TRAINING PROGRAMS RELATED TO YOUR WORK? DO YOU THINK THE SKILLS. ATTITUDES THAT WERE TAUGHT ARE THE ONES WHICH ARE MOST FREQUENTLY NEEDED IN YOUR WORK? 4. . HAVE YOU EVEN BEEN INVOLVED IN THE DESIGN OR PLANNING OF TRAINING CURRICULUM IN WHICH YOU WERE ALSO ONE OF THE STUDENTS? DO YOU FEEL THAT IT IS IMPORTANT FOR YOU TO BE INVOLVED IN PLANNING THESE TRAINING EVENTS WHEE YOU ARE ALSO THE STUDENT? ‘ IF YES. HOW WOULD YOU LIKE TO BE INVOLVED? WHAT SPECIFIC TASKS. SKILLS. ATTITUDES. ETC. DO YOU THINK SHOULD BE FOCUSED ON IN TRAINING PROGRAMS FOR DEVELOPMENT WORKERS? ARE THERE ANY CHANGES YOU WOULD LIKE TO SEE IN TRAINING PROGRAMS IN THE AGENCY? AFTER HEARING THESE QUESTIONS. WHAT DO YOU FEEL IS YOUR GREATEST CONCERN IN THE AGENCY? 179 VII. RANKING OF AGENCY OBJECTIVES NOTE: This final section is intended to supplement information about the respondent’s perception of the organization. Each respondent will be shown five cards laid out in front of him or her. On each card will be written one of the main focus areas of THE AGENCY"s activities. In addition to these five cards. there will be other blank cards which can be used to write additional focus areas if desired. The five focus areas are as follows: REHABILITATION DEVELOPMENT EVANGELIZATION RELIEF STRE NGTHE NI NG CHURCH LE ADE RSHIP NOTE: The following questions should be asked after the five cards above have been shown: 1. ARE THERE ANY ADDITIONAL FOCUS AREAS WHICH YOU FEEL ARE BEING EMPHASIZED IN THE ORGANIZATION? 2. HOW WOULD YOU RANK THE CARDS FROM MOST IMPORTANT TO LEAST IMPORTANT TO SHOW WHAT THE AGE NCY’S FOCUS AREAS ARE? 3. HOW WOULD YOU RANK THE CARDS FROM MOST IMPORTANT TO LEAST IMPORTANT TO SHOW WHAT YOU THINK THE AGE NCY’S FOCUS AREAS SHOULD BE? 180 APPE NDIX E AGE NCY’S DEVELOPMENT MINISTRY POSITION PAPER 181 Agency’s Development Ministry Position Paper November 1. 1984 Key Objective: The key objective for the Agency’s Development ministry is to assist the neediest people with the best development ministry at the least cost in a way which will attract the most willing donors. Key Standards: A. The most needy people will be those who are judged to live a quality of life that is farthest from that described as the better future toward which God would have all people move. B. The best development ministry is 1. C. E. A process which is directed at God’s view of a better human future. which the Agency describes as follows: Development by the people: members of the community participate fully and are able to manage their own development. with all members benefiting equitably in its benefits. Christ-like Church: A body of believers. which is growing in its capacity to worship. fellowship. practice stewardship. disciple its members. evangelize the unreached. and serve the poor. is an intimate part of the life of the community. Family-life: Appropriate family structures are enhanced and supported in their role of nurturing the young. contributing to the life of the community. and caring for the handicapped. aged. widows. and orphans. Food: All members of the community are able to obtain sufficient food of a kind which ensures normal human growth and development. Shelter: All members of the community have access to appropriate shelter which provides protection for life and possessions. h. a. b. C. 182 Health: All members of the community are able to take responsibility for as much of their own health-care as possible. have access to safe and sufficient water. and are able to live in a hygenic environment. Learning: All members of the community are able to develop their gifts and skills using accessible formal and informal learning opportunities. Stewardship: All members of the community have an opportunity to use their gifts and skills in service of others; all work is done in a way which preserves human dignity and the quality of the environment; and. all members of the community receive the means necessary to live a life befitting one made in the image of God. A process which moves people closer to Jesus Christ as evidenced by the emergence of values such as the following: Awareness of God’s Presence: an increasing recognition of God’s presence among them and an active seeking after him. Hope for the Future: an increasing sense of hope and faith in the future. Self-worth: Members of the community. individually and corporately. begin to demonstrate a sense of dignity or self-worth which rests on the conviction that they are indeed sons and daughters of God. Leadership by Serving: People in positions of power and authority begin to express that power in servanthood. Participation: People are involved in decisions which affect the use of their gifts. Sharing: Members of the community. individually and corporately. begin sharing what they have with others as opposed to hoarding for themselves. Stewardship: Members of the community. individually and corporately. begin to act as stewards of God’s creation. i. 183 Care for the Weak: There are places and ways for caring for the weak or marginalized. Freedom: People begin to value freedom for themselves and others. 3. A process of change which is characterized by the following: a. C. Awareness of the Presence of God: it is recognized that God is present and active in all parts of His creation and that the initiative is His and His alone; therefore. every effort will be made to discern His movement. to shape our plans to follow after Him. and to continually affirm His presence and interest in our efforts through prayer. Role of the Supernatural: it is affirmed that God’s creation consists of both the seen and unseen and that the secular world-view of the West has an enormous blindspot with regard to the reality of the supernatural and its impact in people’s lives; therefore we will endeavor to learn from those cultures who are more informed than we and we will make every effort to be as open to supernatural causes and supernatural responses as we are to natural ones. Involvement of Christian Facilitators: it is recognized that an understanding of the world which reflects a Christian worldview and a witness to the One who transforms are only found in those who have responded to His call and are obedient to His Word; therefore we will hire only Christian staff and work only with Christian partners in our development efforts. Sense of Realism: it is recognized that we are involved in a spiritual battle of cosmic proportions and that there are powers and principalities fighting against us; therefore we affirm our faith is to be in the transformation which will accompany His return and we are thus called to be obedient and faithful. not victorious. Authentic Partnership: it is recognized that no human being can lay claim to the word. "developed" and that both THE AGENCY and those we seek to serve are on a joint pilgrimage and are jointly under a higher authority. Preservation of Culture: No culture is inherently superior to any other and all cultures are subject to God’s judgment; therefore. 184 every effort will be made to preserve those elements of the community’s culture which glorify God. and to avoid imposing our own. Participation: it is recognized that development is a process which has been underway before we came and which will continue after we leave; therefore. we must enter with humility and make every effort to affirm and encourage the fullest possible participation by the community and its peoples in identification of opportunities. development of plans. the allocation of resources. carrying out of activities. accounting for the use of resources. and the evaluating the results. even if. in our Judgment. their decisions are not the ones we would make. 185 APPE NDIX F RESEARCH PROCESS LEARNING EVENT 186 Research Process Learning Event Manila. Philippines July 15-21. 1985 Megs To begin the process of data analysis and enhjance the quality of learning by examining the data in a corporate group representing the three target countries. Specific Goals 1) To meet in Manila. Philippines July 15-21. 1985 with members from the research team (one from Taiwan. one from Bangladesh. three from Philippines) and begin discussions regarding the implications of the research in each of their countries and the Asia Region. 2) To create a learning environment where each of the participants will be able to : - know and understand the fundamentals of social science qualitative data analysis and reporting. - continue the process of data analysis with other members of the research team after returning to their respective countries. - make suggestions to the field directors of the respective countries regarding the implications for training of program officers and project workers. - prepare an initial report for each field director outlining the basic findings related to their country. - share experiences learned individually during the research process and prepare a report outlining those experiences. 3) To prepare a specific action plan for follow-up programs in each of the countries based upon the findings of the data which will be recommended to each field director. 4) To encourage the application of social science research in each of the three countries by providing practical. relevant and cost effective suggestions to each field director. 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