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'1; ': .‘w l 2 2 I I 2 ‘ . -7 ~, 2 " :I' IW‘WI'M 8121!" Ms I‘M Iii-5‘ (“ln'i'l' . ' W W , '2'!MW1M'§'1“”3““?ng , '22. #I'III‘WMleumhgm‘ m' #132,“ I11“: w v. . .‘ ‘ . 2&2" fl . 2 I “1.22521 {2% 1.1,; . 212,2 , . .13.: £3‘ I if W I“! W' “l" WI“) ‘52:“. 1‘ ”I; ”sigh x3 I ," g ‘u n ‘ l 222 N21 31212.22 1' {IIHIN I’M] WW $13; “AL :3? H}! UWWWWIWWWWWWI 1% 222222; f] “i 4!..1 "ljllllll Illlllllllllllllllllml 1293 106L361: " ’3 4 "is"? 5' 4-! éaéb‘uzfi a o 3.. r 9 1 5": nary-5;- 3:?! 5;; a £133 1 University J This is to certify that the thesis entitled -Pictoria1 Language: A Cross-National Study of Television News presented by Lori Suzanne Owen has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Master of Arts -degree in Ifilecgmmunication Major professor Date 6 August 198§ 0-7639 MS U is an Warm: Action/Equal Opportunity Institution RETURNING MATERIALS: rV4531_] Place in book drop to LJBRARJES remove this checkout from ”- your record. FINES will - be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. cf _ .L I 1:.J' . 9T I 7 '31"*% PICTORIAL LANGUAGE: A CROSS-NATIONAL STUDY OF TELEVISION NEWS by Lori Suzanne Owen A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Telecommunication 1986 ABSTRACT PICTORIAL LANGUAGE: A CROSS-NATIONAL STUDY OF TELEVISION NEWS By Lori Suzanne Owen This study examines television news cross- nationally for patterns in the visual compositions. News story content was kept constant by finding one story covered by all seven sample countries. Each story was broken down frame by frame and the underlying structure coded for certain characteristics. Exploratory in nature, the search was to find patterns of similarities or differences, and not to attribute these patterns to any particular factors (political, economic or otherwise). However, support for the notion of universality was anticipated--that is, finding a high degree of similarity in the visual composition. Definite compositional patterns were found in nearly 80 percent of the categories. This confirms that television pictorial elements are used similarly cross— nationally to a high degree. Accepted by the faculty of the Department of Telecommunication, College of Communication Arts and Sciences, Michigan State University, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Master of Arts degree. Director of Thesis ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Louise Stanway - YES! Gretchen Barbatsis - YES! Bella Mody - YES! Gayle King - YES! To the many other friends and folk who put up with me during this effort. And to my family who took great pains to keep in touch while my nose was in my books; and supported me in my goal. ii List of List of CHAPTER I II III TABLE OF CONTENTS Tables Figures INTRODUCTION. 0 O O O O O O O O O 9 Overview and Definition. Purpose........... Scenarios......... Summary........... Notes-~Chapter 1.. THEORETIC RATIONALE... Overview........ Brief Historical Review. Previous Research....... Multiple Frame Media. Single Frame Media. Summary................. Notes-—Chapter II..... METHODSOOOOOOOO... Overview........... Sample...... Unit of Analysis.. Instrumentation... Coding Procedure.. iii Page ~10!wa ...8 ..11 ..12 ..13 ..16 ..17 0.19 ..19 ..19 ..21 ..22 TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONTINUED) III (continued) Judges............... Analysis............. Summary.............. Notes-—Chapter III... IV RESULTSOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO Overview........ Introduction.......... Findings.............. Underlying Structure Field Forces.... Image........... Keys/Titles..... Multiple Frame Characteristics 0 0 meaning 0 O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Pictorial Language Refinements..... summary 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O I O O O O O O O V DISCUSSION.... Overview........................... Discussion of Early Assumptions......... Design Limitations...................... Suggested Directions for Further Research. Summary................................... APPENDIX A: APPENDIX B: APPENDIX C: LIST OF REFERENCES.... iv Original Coding Instrument........... Revised Coding Instrument............. O ..32 ..32 ..33 ..34 ..35 ..35 O .35 O .36 ..43 ..44 ..47 ..48 ..49 ..52 ..53 ..59 ..59 ..60 ..61 ..64 ..66 .74 Code Book for Revised Coding Instrument..75 OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0.00.000009076 Table Table Table Table Table Table Table LIST OF TABLES Total Story Lengths, Number of Camera Shots, and Average Shot Length......... Underlying Structure: Field Forces.... Underlying Structure: Image........... Underlying Structure: Titles.......... Underlying Structure: Multiple Frame CharacteristiCSOOOOOO...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOO Surface Pictorial Content Information... Dominant Elements for Each Coding categorYOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO Page .37 .39 .40 .42 ..50 .55 .56 Figure Figure Figure Figure LIST OF FIGURES Characters............... Operations............... Transformations.......... Field Forces............. vi Page .24 .26 .28 .30 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Overview and Definition Filmmakers, graphic designers and photographers work within various pictorial media. Television message creators are included among these pictorial communicators. According to Barbatsis, as pictorial communicators, television message makers use a pictorial language to create their messages. A pan does not occur at random, nor is a zoom merely a way to break up a static shot. Similarly, the choice of a long shot or a close-up is a deliberate one, and the cut from one to the other is not just an attempt to provide visual diversity. Each of these choices reflects an intentional structuring of information based on the properties of a pictorial language. To be sure, some pictorial communicators are more effective in using the language than others, and most could probably not articulate the grammar of their language in any systematic way. Few would deny, however, that the meaning of their messages is primarily in the pictorial organization of information.1 A familiar notion is the idea that pictures are universally understood. For this study the visual compositions of television news images is first broken into their most basic formal elements. From this one can look for and analyze the patterns of similarities or differences between the sample countries. This also allows for comparisons between countries of the pictorial structures and their constructed meanings. In an attempt to understand the way pictures construct meaning, a theoretical framework was developed by Barbatsis,2 which defined the coding instrument (See Appendix A). It is based on the works of Worth,3 Goodman,4 Donis,5 and Zettl.6 Initially developed in the early 80’s, it was tested in the fall of 1984 to determine its applicability for finding patterns in the visual composition of single frame television images (TV program logos).7 At the same time, the opportunity to utilize videotapes of television news broadcasts from around the world (provided by the United States Information Agency) presented the unique chance to search for differences between countries in their use of this pictorial language. A familiar notion is the idea that pictures are universally understood. By analyzing the visual compositions from various countries, the pictorial structures can be compared. In our age of live news coverage from anywhere in the world, of satellite transmissions and massive news gathering agencies, we are moving in the direction of Marshall McLuhan’s "global village." We realize that our spoken and written languages are different around the world, so we translate them in order to communicate. At this point, however, it is not even known if our pictorial languages differ. If they are found to be different enough, then perhaps we will need to learn to translate our pictorial language as well.. At this time we are already exchanging video images, without knowing if we are conveying or receiving the intended meanings. Purpose The primary purpose of the research is to begin to test cross-nationally for patterns within the visual composition of TV news images in an attempt to lay the groundwork for answering some of the previously asked questions. This study is exploratory in nature. Instead of answering all of the previously asked questions, the results should answer some of the questions and perhaps ask many more. This study is not an attempt to create the definitive study of the visual composition of television news images from country to country. Such an effort would be overwhelming at best, and ludicrious at the worst. Admittedly, some images must transcent national borders, how else can the television and film import/export markets be explained? Yet there has been no definitive study of the visual composition of television news images from country to country. A secondary purpose of this study is to take the next logical step to test the theoretical framework to determine its validity for multiple frame images. Initially developed in the early 80’s, the framework was tested in the fall of 1984 to determine its applicability for finding patterns in the visual composition of single frame television images (television program logos). This framework (and resulting coding instrument) showed its validity for the description of pictorial language associated with single frame media. This study provided the opportunity to test its use for multiple frame images. Scenarios One possible result of this study might include finding support for the notion of "universality," that is finding a high degree of similarity in the visual compositions between the sample countries. This could be a result of the technical constraints of the medium, or from the education/training of the message creators. Another possible result could be finding great differences between the compositional structures. These differences could perhaps be attributed to differing economic constraints or cultural differences which may dictate visual structures. Perhaps the training of the message creators would create diversity instead of similarities between countries. The predicted finding of this study is that there won’t be many major differences in the patterns between countries. Since this study is exploratory, where ever there are differences found, there is no intent to attribute them to a cause, merely to present them. Summary This chapter has set the background for looking at television as a form of pictorial communication. Utilizing the theoretical framework developed by Barbatsis, and tested by Barbatsis, Kenney and Owen for single frame television images, this study proposes to test the famework for validity with multiple frame images (television news stories) and search for patterns of visual composition among the countries sampled. NOTES--CHAPTER I 1 Barbatsis, Gretchen, "Pictorial Language Structure: Theoretical Framework and Description." Paper presented at the Speech Communication Association, Washington, D.C., 1983, p. 1. 2 Ibid. 3 Worth, S. Studying Visual Communication. Phila— delphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981. 4 Goodman, N. Languages pf Art: Ap Approach pp the Theory 92 Sypbols. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing Co., 1976. 5Dondis, D. A Primer pf Visual Litergcy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1973. 6Zettl, H. §ight, Sound, Motion: Applied Media Aesthetiggp Blemont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1973. 7 Barbatsis, G., K. Kenney and L. Owen. "Television Program Logos: Pictorially Encoding Storytelling Themes." Paper presented at the Speech Communica- tion Association, Chicago, IL, 1986. CHAPTER II THEORETICAL RATIONALE Overview The following chapter will summarize the findings of the general literature review of pictorial language studies. It will primarily focus on television as the visual medium. B312: Historical Review 9: the Theoretigal Eggpework for this Study As mentioned earlier, this study is based on the theoretical framework developed by Barbatsis, which in turn is based on the theoretic principles of Dondis, Goodman, Worth and Zettl. Researchers have concerned themselves with the structure (Schramm & Roberts, 1972), aesthetics (Zettl. 1968) and linguistics of the visual image (Gombrick, 1960). Initial efforts have been inadequate as they try to create a structure for analyzing visual images based on principles of visual perception (Arnheim, 1965, Dondis, 1973, Zettl, 1973) or on accepted ideas of languages and linguistics (Worth, 1981). Nelson Goodman describes properties of a symbol as encompassing all communication modes and media. The idea of characters, operations and transformations as part of a symbol system comes from Larry Gross, an idea 1 he developed from Piaget. Nelson Goodman created a theoretical framework which provides for the description of a symbol system according to its characters, operations and transformations. Denotative reference with a picture indicates what the image represents; for example, if the picture is of a car, it is a label for the object "car." While the picture denotes the object to be a car, it will also be a certain kind of representation of that car, due to its intentional construction. The meaning of the information in the picture depends not only on what is represented (the object) but also what kind of representation it is. For example, the picture denotes a car. What kind of representation it is depends on the labels applied. If it is interpreted as "red" and "hot," these labels will be applied to it. The label 10 "red" is the literal exemplification. The label "hot" is the metaphorical exemplification. For this study, the metaphorical exemplification is the expressed meaning of what is represented. According to Barbatsis, this theoretical distinction of denotative and non-denotative reference elaborated by Goodman provides the final piece of the framework for describing pictorial language. Because the structure of information in a picture is in the labels it possesses and refers to, pictorial properties may be identified according to exemplifications by identifying the labels which apply to the characters, operations and transformations of pictorial language. In the cast of literal exemplification, these labels will include only pictorial qualities (e.g. diagonalness) (Goodman, 1976). In the case of metaphorical exemplification (expression) the labels will include only properties that are constant relative to pictorial qualities (e.g. with diagonalness, instability) (Goodman, 1976). In both cases, the labels will relate to the potential of a medium to give form to pictorial qualities.2 The meanings utilized for this study are conventions expressed in production textbooks and criticism literaure of film, television, photography and graphic design. It is realized that different media will potentially have different forms. The pictorial language is structured to allow for single frame media (photographs, paintings), or multiple frame media (film, video). Any analysis of multiple frame assumes the 11 properties to be continuous, including all the properties of the single frame media. Previous Research There was not a single specific body of research upon which to build. Instead a multidisciplinary approach was taken, researching areas of television, film, photography and pictorial literacy. Giving credence to the notion that television images are carefully constructed is John Hartley’s article "Watch Your Language." He cautions television viewers that TV is not as realistic as the images may seem, "A televised tree, for example, could come across in all sorts of ways. It could be a spreading oak accompanied by gentle birdsong, or it could have the wind whistling through its leaves on a dark night. The same tree can prompt completely different meanings.3 He goes on the idea that TV has its own techniques and conventions and that the viewer is encouraged to remain ignorant of them. "The television picture is not the real world. It is a form of language, as arbitrarily chosen as any other--and it actively creates meaning."4 Other research was found which was tangentially related to this study; that is they used some similar 12 coding categories, focused in detail on the use of one formal element (in either photography, film or TV) which was used in the coding instrument for this study, or examined the uses of pictures cross—nationally. Multiple Frame Media Previous research drawn from both TV and film support the categories of formal elements used in this study. Janice Wilson, in her thesis, "An Analysis of Film Pace," uses a framework measuring shot duration, lighting, camera angle, distance, movement, action within and across shots, sound, transitional devices and narrative complexity. Some of these categories correspond to the framework established for this study. Also utilizing similar categories is Richard Lewis’ thesis, "Differences in the Formal Structure of Televised Commercials in Great Britain and the United States." He coded each shot for camera movement, scale, use of zoom lenses, use of titles, transitions and juxtaposition. He found some basic patterns between the two sample groups. Rayburn Beale's thesis, "Composition as an Element of Photographic Style," is completely based upon the theoretical categories presented in Denis Dondis’ A Primer 2: Visual Literacy. 13 Some studies focused on areas which, in this study, may comprise as little as a single coding category. For example, Scott Shamp, in his thesis entitled, "Temporal Perceptions of Different Length Transitions in Screen Media," tests how transitions affect viewer perceptions of time. Stephen Aker, in his dissertation, "Viewers Perception of Velocity and Distance in Televised Events,‘ compared how camera lens lengths influence the representation of distance and velocity on the television screen. Results of his study were presented as evidence that "the form of the televised message deserves as much attention as television’s content."5 Paul Burrows’ thesis, "An Instructional Television Program in Visual Communication: ’Vector Field Forces," produced an instructional video focusing on the principles of vectors as they occur in two— dimensional pictorial representations of the three- dimensional world. This supports the theory that field forces are to be considered when examining the visual structure of an image. Single Frame Media Other researchers were concerned with pictures or photographs; their significance, perception and interpretation. 14 Stuart Hall has defined levels of significance for news photographs, based on the assumptions that (1) all photos signify meanings at several different levels, (2) each level has its own rules and (3) the "meaning" of the photo is produced by a complex interweaving of the different levels. Levels defined by Hall include technical constraints, denotative codes, compositional codes, expressive codes, the news-value itself, manipulations within the frame (of display), the integration of the photo into the news story and then the captions given the photo. Many of these categories theoretically support the notions of intentionality, exemplified meanings and expressed meanings. Also there is support for the study of the context of the photo, the juxtaposition of image with image, or image with text. Hall also addresses the role of the photographer in this process. "Depending on their level of expertise, the photographer not only transposes real-life subjects into two-dimensional images, but does it using subtle compositional rules derived from the historically and culturally imprinted codes of the visual culture of his/her profession as a learned practice."6 "Perception of Formal Elements in Photographs: Differences Between Trained and Untrained Viewers," by 15 Meyers, examines the difference in sensitivity to formal elements, dependent upon training in visual media. Of interest was the finding that people with training in art history or photography are more perceptive of the formal elements of the photographs, and the untrained viewers tended to focus on the content of the photographs. A thesis by Kauffman, "Conventions of Picturing: An Exploration of the Social Context of Photographic Interpretation,‘ explored the acquisition of conventions of pictorial structure as a strategy of interpreting news and advertising photographs. The main finding of interest here is that pictorial conventions of advertising seem to facilitate attention to pictorial structure, while the pictorial conventions of news seem to promote picture content as the primary source of meaning. Two studies examine the use of pictures in non- literate cultures. Sikandra Spain asks, "which pictures are understood by which people under which circumstances?" He deals not with television, but with printed materials, specifically, a pictorial flyer designed to teach mothers how to mix a simple rehydration solution of water, sugar and salt. He found that if the population has a low level of pictorial 16 ability, continued exposure and training may be necessary for comprehension of pictorial materials. Spain’s findings are supported by John Kennedy’s article, "Ancient and Modern Picture Perception Abilities in Africa." Kennedy concluded that "some ethnic groups are better than others at pictorial perception" and that at times remedial training is necessary.7 This article also mentions a study conducted by Duncan, Goulay and Hudson, using basic black and white outline pictures. Mentioned is potential problem of egocentric interpretations... what is a good or bad likeness to begin with? Investigators rely on thier own standards which may or may not bias the pictorial materials, and thus the entire study right from the start. This study and the previous one are of interest in the light of questions left at the conclusion of this study. Summary The preceeding chapter has presented a historical background for the theories used in this study, as well as other studies tangentially related. The theories have best been tested by Barbatsis, Kenney and Owen in their study of single frame TV images, which serves as a 7 foundation for this research. 17 NOTES--CHAPTER II 1 Goodman, N, Languages f Art: Ap Approach pp the Theory pf Symbols. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing Co., 1976. 2 Barbatsis, G. "Pictorial Language Strucutre: Theore— tical Framework and Description.’ Paper presented to Speech Communication Association, Washington, D.C., 1983. 3 Hartley, J. "Watch Your Language, New International- ist, January, 1983, p. 21. 4 Ibid. 5 Aker, 8. "Viewers Perceptions of Velocity and Distance in Televised Events," Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Utah, 1981. 6 Hall, S. "The Determinations of Newsphotographs," Working Papers ip Cultural StudiesL 3, Autumn, 1972, p. 62. 7 Kennedy, J. "Ancient and Modern Picture-Perception ' Abilities in Africa,‘ Journal 9: Aesthetics and Art Criticism. Spring, 1976, p. 293. l8 Barbatsis, G., K. Kenney and L. Owen. "Television Pro- gram Logos: Pictorially Enclding Storytelling Themes," Paper presented to the Speech Communica- tion Association, Chicago, 1986. CHAPTER III METHODS Overview This section describes the techniques of data collection used in this study. Attention is given to the research design, and kinds of data colllected. Other information includes definitions of sample units, the methods of selecting the sample, measurements made for each sample unit, instruments used and any special problems found in the data collection. Male The sample for this study consists of television news broadcasts from seven countries: China, France, Germany, India, Italy, West Germany, the USA, and the USSR. Over a two-week period in June of 1984 all regularly televised news broadcasts were videotaped in the sample countries. 19 20 Originally, one news story was to be chosen from each of the sample countries on the same date. However, no one single story was covered by all the countries on any one date. By "allowing" several days on either side of the first intended date ( June 9, 1984) the same news story subject was found for each country, keeping the story content relatively constant across the sample. June 6 through 13 was so determined as the time period for this study. News stories from all seven countries within this period included the Pope’s visit to Geneva, Switzerland, the EEC summit meetings in London, England, the 40th anniversary celebration of D-Day in France and the conflict between Sikhs and Indian military personnel at the Golden Temple complex in India. The Golden Temple story was chosen for several reasons. First, it was an historical event in a geographic place. This allowed TV camera operators more options in visually covering the story, rather than merely photographing a parade of dignitaries or delegates from a vantage point to which all photographers may have been relegated. Secondly, the story seemed more newsworthy worldwide than a story primarily of interest to (and broadcast only by) the participant countries. Finally, this story had 21 recurring coverage. Daily developments kept it a major global headline for over a week. Some countries in the sample covered the original action and other picked up the subsequent developments. Among them, all covered some aspect of the news story the week of June 6—13, 1984. Unit pf Analysis The unit of analysis for this study of visual composition is the single frame. The term frame here denotes the length of time between transitions. According to the definition at the outset of the study, transitions were identified as takes, wipes, dissolves 1 and fades. However, during practice coding sessions it was realized that these are not the only ones, but that camera movement serves as a transition as well (pans, tilts, zooms, etc.). Often in television production the shots are structured in the pre-production stages. They are sketched out on storyboards which show what the camera will see. When a camera movement is planned, it is included in this storyboard. This is an industry standard in which both the opening of a shot (where the camera begins) and the close (where the camera movement ends) are indicated. Such a practice supports the notion of camera movement as a transition. This 22 determination created a greater number of frames to be coded, since a shot which included camera movement needed to be coded at the start and end of each movement. Frames were numbered consecutively. When a shot had one or more camera movements, the frames were labeled with a letter in addition to the number (e.g. 1, 2a, 3, 4a, 4b, etc.). Instrumentation The theoretical framework defining the coding instrument was developed by Barbatsis (See Figures 1, 2, and 3), and is based on the works of Dondis, Goodman, Worth and Zettl.2 This framework identifies three categories of components found in the compositional structure of a pictorial image; characters, operations and transformations. Characters are inscriptions, which, taken together, make up the symbol scheme of a language. Characters serve the same function as letters of the alphabet. An operation is a process of deriving one expression from others according to a rule. For pictorial structures it is the process of ordering pictorial elements within a frame (for single frame media). For example if we order the elements according to the process of scale we will have either the 23 expression of a close-up, medium shot, or a long shot (or something in between). For multiple frame media, operations include the processes which order the frames. For instance, a multiple frame operation could be the transition between frames, either a take, fade, wipe, dissolve, or camera movement. A transformation is an operation of changing one configuration into another according to a rule. For pictorial structures they are operations which change surface characteristics, but not the underlying structure of the picture. Transformations are operational. A transformation of chroma, (the presence of color, for example, alters the surface characteristics but not the underlying structure of the image. There are three basic characters for single frame media (See Figure 1). Each has a field of reference. For example, lip; allows a direction, so direction is the referent of line. Spgpg is a fundamental, planal figure which allows a form. Therefore, form is the referent of shape. Tppg is the juxtaposition of lightness and darkness to reinforce the appearance of reality through the sensation of reflected light and cast shadows. It allows the illusion of dimension and texture. Therefore the referent for tone is dimension. 24 Cnaracter Field of Reference Pictorial Quality Exempliiies Expresses line Cirection horizontal Stability, balance 5 serenity, repose . vertical strength, aspiration. impending activity , diagonal instability. action. =§ t.reat, excitement 5} curve encompassment. warnth :;§ repetition é: _ :Shape torn square dull, honest. g work-like, Straight E triangle action, conflict, u- tension 0 circle endlessness, warmth, 13 protection 'Stone dimension continuous naturalness light purity, translucence dark ominous, heaviness, equence multiple frame medium FIGURE 1. time/space change CHARACTERS strength, poacity movement 25 This is especially important in a two dimensional medium such as television. There is one additional character which is for multiple frame medium. Seguence is the order and arrangement of images (or in this study, frames). This allows a sense of time and space. Therefore the referent for sequence is time/space. There are five operations for single frame media (See Figure 2). The first, scale, is the relative size of the object in relationship to the field or environment (in this case, the screen size). Apglg means the physical angle from which an object is viewed. Lighting is the illumination of objects to provide form and dimension. Perspective concerns the relationship of the camera to the action. Field 9: view means the relative vista, how much and in what way objects appear in focus and magnitude. Multiple frame operations include movement, transition, pace and juxtaposition. Movement makes use of camera movements and focal length changes. Transitions are devices for connecting two shots so that they are perceived to relate to one another. Pace concerns the duration of the segment, the subjective or psychological time. Juxtaposition is the placing of one ‘ I I‘umt- mml I ”III S l l|)'.l1‘ multiple frame medium 26 Operation Principle of Crcerir: scale field-of-view close intimacy, internal medium naturalness far context, external angle level-of-view slight naturalness high diminished importance low increased importance perspective deptn-of-view normal naturalness narrow compression wide exaggeration light contrast natural naturalness below sinister, evil above angelic, spiritual side disfigurement, tension front flat movement pan/truck length, expanse tilt/pad height, depth zoom/dolly-in increased intensity, involvement zoom/dolly-out decreased intensity, involvement arc changing perspective transition fade break in time take simultaneity, no break dissolve transition in time/space wipe extraordinary change in time/space pace rapid activity, authority excitement slow passivity, softness, calm, tranquility juxtaposition narrative progreséing time flash-back change‘ 0 past time flash-forward change to future time cross-cut correlation of multiple FIGURE 2. OPERATIONS times 27 image next to another image. It controls the structure, meaning and effect of the images. There are three transformations for single frames (See Figure 3). Chroma is the use of color. Hp; denotes the color itself, satuation the relative purity of a color from the hue to gray. Pattern utilizes special effects separated into substitution, subtraction, addition and multiplication. Slgg concerns the vertical and horizontal measure of the image. Transformations for multiple frames include speed, which is the number of frames per second projected (slow-motion, normal or fast motion) and rotation, which involves revolving an image around one of three axises. Using this framework identifying characters, operations and transformations the principle coding instrument was adapted from an earlier study.3 Adaptation included the addition of categories identifying the structure of field forces in a pictorial image.4 Field forces influence our perception of the image as a manageable whole or as random fragments. Field forces lead our eyes within the frame, establish balance or imbalance, and concern the amount and complexity of the visual information within the frame. When coding these field forces, one must take into 28 Principle of erin: , Pictoria- Cu 5 iterplifies Expresses l . . . corona nu: ve-;ow lignt, warmth. "'tc-i:; : expansion, well-being l red emotion, activity I warmth. Stimulation ; oiue cool, contraction, gg passive, soft .Zg "ioiet subdued emotion. enigma. 5: subdued activity 2: orange activated emotion, 2? activity 5i green mellow, abated : excitement 3 saturation high uncomplicated, heavy, F overstated .5 medium natural low subtle, restful, light pattern addition super- imposition complexity montage complexity 0 frame speed slow motion dignity, solemnity fast motion mechanicalness grotation y-axis flipping 2 x-axis tumbling § z-axis spinning 2 E but GJ ; 3 FIGURE 3. TRANSFORMATIONS 29 account the entire image, not focus only on singular, autonomous elements 0 Field forces included in the instrument are vectors, balance, field density and field complexity (Figure 4). The most powerful of these forces are vectors. "They lead our eyes from one point to another. Vectors have both direction and magnitude; they may continue in the same direction, changing slowly, or they may converge and change directions quickly."5 The fipgpp of the picture yields another strong force, pulling masses outward. Together with the directions present in the frame already, this magnitism serves to create an image’s state of balance.6 Elglg density concerns the amount of visual information and the number of elements in the frame. Eiglg complexity is the variation of the visual information, the simplicity or diversity of the patterns or figures within the frame. Codipg Procedures The coding form on which the information was initially intended to be recorded is found in Appendix A. It was adapted from a previous study of visual o.--- f) m :3 (n .4 n (A complexity dominant VQC tor vector type vector change FIGURE 4. 30 Principle of Orderin: Pictorial Quality Exemplifies Expresses degree of struc- tural stability scabile authority, low tension, permanence neutral controlled :ensccn labile extreme excitement. instabilit.. tens;on amount of information low episodicity, loose connections high repetition, proximity, continuity variation in information low direct, uniform high discontinuity, ‘ intricacy degree of dir- ectional force motion strong, definite, _ deciSive, _ index guiding,supportive,‘ painting,aiming,gentle graphic weak, ambivilent, static, calm,vague rate of vector change continuing smooth, soothing, renewing, additive converging opposing, abrupt colliding,conflicting change in direc- . tion of energy fast excitement, contusion slow smooth, gentle, FIELD FORCES no change progress stability 31 composition of single frame TV images. However, in the interests of money management an alternative, more efficient single-page coding form was developed to replace this long form. The revised coding instrument (Appendix B) was capable of recording a total of 20 shots, often more than was necessary. This new sheet required a code book (Appendix C). Newscasts were selected for coding in random order. Coding the stories was a two-part process. First, as in 7 previous studies, the characters, operations and transformations were identified. For each frame the underlying structure was coded for the dominant line, shape and time. Operations, the underlying arrangment of characters, were coded for dominant scale, angle, perspective and lighting. Thirdly, transformations present within each frame were coded according to the ones dominating in the composition. The second part of the process involved watching the entire shot and coding it as a single unit, including the field forces of field density and complexity, balance within the frame, and vectors (dominant vector, vector type, and vector change). Coding of the stories took place over a two-week time period. 32 Judges Judges included graduate students and experienced single frame image coders. Prior to coding, judges received approximately ten hours of training and practice in single frame image coding. For this study, practice with multiple frame images was provided, along with discussion and definition of coding categories. For the final practice session, two news stories similar to those selected were coded. As in previous research,8 the two judges viewed the tapes together. After each had coded it seperately, they compared codes and negotiated the differences until an agreement could be reached. The choice of this methodology has been defended thus: Pictorial images do not consist of discrete units of singular meaning; they are both syntactically and semantically dense. An image, therefore, may contain both horizontal and vertical line elements and judges would discuss the dominance of one line form in an image’s abstract understructure.9 Analysis The analysis of data is descriptive, with nominal level data. The primary thrust is to identify patterns of visual composition for the sample news stories. Most 33 instructive are frequency analyses of the patterns found. Tables include information concerning basic patterns found in the visual composition of each news story. These included length of the story, number of frames, average length of each frame, overall percentages across the sample for each coding category, and percentages for the dominant response to each category. Summary This chapter has addressed the questions brought out in Chapter II, including how these patterns of pictorial composition would be determined and categorized. The sample, units of analysis and refinement of the coding instrument were discussed. Coding procedures and data analysis procedures to be performed on the data gathered were outlined. 34 NOTES--CHAPTER III 1 Wurtzel, A. Television Production, second edition. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1983. 2Dondis, D. A Primer pf Visual Literacy. Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice Hall, 1973. Goodman, N. Languages 9: App; Ag Approach pp the Theory 9: Sypbols. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing Co., 1976. Worth, 8. Studying Visual Qppppnicgpion. Phildelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981. Zettl, H. Sight, Sound, Motion: Applied Media Aesthetics. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1973. 3 Barbatsis, G., Kenney, K., and Owen, L. "Television Program Logos: Pictorially Encoding Storytelling Themes," Paper presented to Speech Communication Association, Chicago, 1986. 4 5 Barbatsis, G., Kenney, K., and Owen, L. , p. 5. 6 Ibid., p. 5. 7 Ibid. 8 Ibid. 9 Ibid. , pp. 7-80 CHAPTER IV RESULTS Overview The following chapter discusses results of the present study of visual composition between sample countries. It details frequencies of various responses to the coding categories, provides an overview of the data analysis techniques used, and provides the results of the analysis. Introduction The primary focus of the analysis was to identify the formal pictorial qualities occurring with high or low frequency patterns across the sample. Other interests included exploring any methodological patterns found in the results which would refine future coding procedures. 35 36 Not really a focus of this study, but an interesting aside is a comparison of the surface pictorial content (the actual subject/object action in the picture) patterns occurring across the sample. Within the underlying structure, the pictorial elements of field forces, images, key/titles, and multiple-frame categories were compared between countries. Findings It is important to have a thorough knowledge of the sample. Each country spent a different length of time on this story, each used a sequence of different numbers of frames to visually "tell" the story. The average frame length differences are not a primary focus, but are provided to give the reader additional information found in the course of this study. (Table 1) Two country’s stories were (in relation to the other stories) relatively short, France and West Germany. These were included in the study because (1) the stories were chosen for presenting the "best" coverage -- i.e. some form of pictorial information in addition to the news presenter, and (2) the coverage of this story is in line with the country’s general style of news coverage; i.e., it is not the only story with or without remote footage. or the only one with a map, etc. 37 o.mH emm m.ma m.mo m.eH He mpcoomm m.< museum mo * nuwcmq Hooch auucpou mmhozmg Homm m0< Qz< .mfiomm Ma Hm nn s om mm .. nn 4 Na om wcwpcfiucoo Nam Nae Noe“ _ new emu A Nooet New Nah wcuwtm>coo n n. ._ x x . maze acuom> o m.m~ . nn 0 a nu o w owcamuw m m.na c On mu ma nn . 0 mg xopcw Nfio New .Nom Nam Nmu woo“, Nmm Nun cowmoe x . .. -. ocuoo> ucmcwson mm as A nu mm «m A on NA oq 3o~ Nae New ,.Nooe. NAN Nae Now.» New nos awn; .. x . . zuwxofimeou paowm mm Na .NOOu an an sees an as 3oz Nun Nmm _ nu Now New _. nn Nmo Non cw“: zwfimcoo pdowm nn m“ ow NH ma \ nn 0 «H ofifinmum nn MN New nn m nn nn 5 dawned wood Nam . nu Nam Nwa Noe“ Nso Nan Happen: -x . menus cw acoeoooam n.. )n.. )M )I )I \ld )3 )l Qumfixy N? N. NW NW NW NW NW . g. .n. .YL ..5 .u .nu . 9 IS 28 IA 98 7y... IE IT. . E. (\1 q, ,6 /\a e, .U (a m ( /\ ( 8 k . W ..A... {W .A ;»2/ \ A/NN. ; k 4, a? .._ : 3...; .1 ..A. _.. ./6 a Asw/ mmumom OAMHm “MMDHUDmHm UZHVAMMQZD .N mqm. o an a I: C 'H H o o o u 0H a ‘D a U) U) a O .C. H C U a o o . H U u. ' H H '3 :3 :3 horizontal 4.111 12.51 1902, 13:51 191 501 l15.41l 401 vertical zgllsJ 37.54; -- -QZ;5T>;§QLJ “59;; 30.7 .HA1;D diagonal 32 25 -- 35.5 25 -- <§§:Z) 17 curve )7 10 25 -- 8.5 6 -- 7: a- « Shape f_ii‘ rectangle 37' 691 1001 91.51 941 1001 771 941 triangle .5 -- -- 5 6 -- 23 3 circle E' 6.5 31 -- 3.5 -- -- -- 3c , Tone , Iight ’“ 51 -- -- 3.51 191 -- 7 “ dark ~~1\\ " " " 6 " "z '32 continuous 94_} 1001 1001 96.5 75 1001 93 97 Scale long shot 2 251 -- 171 381 -- 15.51 23 medium shot .62E 44 1001 72.5 56 1001 46 631 close-up 16 31 -- 10.5 6 -- 38.5 14 An 1e ’7.) ,. , ,7 High wilfix 631 -- 491 37.51 F? 7 771 101 slight 40 31 10013“ 41 .50“ 1001/ 15 ISUS. low 9 b -- 10 12.5 -- 8 7R7 Lighting ~ natural 221,7 1001 1001 96.51 811 1001 1001 1001 below j -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- behind 7 3 -- -- 3.5 6 -- -- -- above ~. -- -- -- —- -- -- -- -- side 2 -- -- -- 13 -- -- -- front . -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Perspective , V. reportive 1.22., -- _ 1002 132 12.52 1001 81 67‘ objective 85 87.51 -- 86~ 87.SV' -- 92" 94a, subjective ' 3 12,5 -- ' 1 .- -- -- -- -- 41 C TABLE 3 -Continued 3 ‘£ H m 3 an > 3 u} a ‘3 I: 0H H U o o u -:-o a 'U a U) U) 0 cc . H I: U o o o H L) In H H '3 :3 :3 Field of View , 7 »\ ; J normal 691 37.51 1001 781 751 1001 541 801 narrow 31 62.5 ... 22 25 ... 46 20 wide j> ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... warm hues 651 62 1001 71.51 691 ... 38.51 53.51 cool hues 21 19 ... 23.5 19 501 15.5 43.5 monochrome 14 19 ... 5 12 50 46 g3; Saturation 1g 71 ... ... 8.51 12.5 ... 81 181 medium 36 191 ... 47.5v 44 u 501 ... 55L low 43 62.5/' 1001v 39 31 ... 46/ 1” none (monochrome) 14 19 ... 5 12-5” 50 46 { 42 ... .. NOOH ... .. ... .. mm AoEv mac: .0. O. .0. .0. O. 0.. O. .0. zed on no 000 000 00 on 00 WN 9:5.“va Now .. ... wood .. Now .. New swan :OMumusumm n xmx .0. O. No0.“ 0.. O. .0. O. “N meouzoocos cm 00 000 00. 00 on o. “N mm—JF— #000 New .. ... Naoq .. New .. New mo: Eon: ma: - me so. oo 000 00. 00 000 o. 000 wHoUMU 0.. oo no. 00. oo om oo WN “HwF—QWHH wood .. woo“ Noofi .. Non .. Na“ wwwcmuomu ommnm u xox 0.. on 000 00. on 000 o. 000 0>H:U oo- oo so. 000 0. on o. WN flmcowmwc 000 o. no. co. co .0. 00 000 deMUHw> Noe" .. woo“ wood .. Non .. Na“ Hasso~muo£ mam; u zox nu nu Mu T. T. .d “J .1 o o o 3 nu 1 q o Q. Q. B D. B I. 3 o o 9 T. I. ..u ..u 9 S a .A e O E .l . J a mu m e u ,A mmAHHH "mmbHUDMHm UZHVAMMQZD .¢ m4m<9 43 Underlying Structure: Field Forces Field forces influence our perception of the image as a manageable whole or as random fragments. They lead our eyes within the frame, give a sense of balance or imbalance, and deal with the complexity and amount of visual information within the frame. The dominant state of balance for the sample was primarily neutral. West Germany was the only exception (See Table 2) The two frames there were split between stabile and labile, 50/50. Otherwise it held at least 62 percent in any one country. Field density (See Table 2) was split evenly between high and low across the sample. France and West Germany had 100 percent low density, followed by a distant 62 percent from the U.S.S.R. and 53 percent from the U.S. The remaining countries demonstrated a high level of field density; Italy with 69 percent; India, 64 percent; and China, 63 percent. Field complexity, similarly, was spread relatively evenly (see Table 2), West Germany had 100 percent high complexity, followed by China with 88 percent; Italy, 75 percent; U.S.S.R., 54 percent; and France 50/50 percent. Only India and the U.S. had dominant patterns of low complexity, with 49 and 47 percent respectively. 44 The dominant vector throughout the sample was motion (see Table 2). In the composition represented by France, motion vector accounted for 100 percent, for the U.S., 91 percent; for China, 88 percent; for Italy, 81 percent; India, 73 percent; the U.S.S.R., 69 percent, and finally, West Germany with a split of 50 percent, motion and 50 percent, index. The secondary dominant vector was index, with 15 percent overall. The dominant vector type was converging, with percentages from 50 (Italy) to 100 (France and West Germany). Vector change was primarily fast; France, 100 percent; the U.S.S.R., 69 percent; India, 52 percent, and China, 50 percent. Only Italy, the U.S. and West Germany had a dominance of a slow vector change, with percentages of 44, 25 and 0 respectively. West Germany split 50/50 percent between slow and no vector change (Table 2). Underlying Structure: Image To analyze the underlying structure: image one must first identify all the elements (characters, operations, transformations) found in the compositional structure of a pictorial image (refer to Chapter III). The dominant line across the sample was vertical (Table 3). Horizontal was secondary. The figures for 45 line varied widely among countries. Vertial lines dominated in Italy (50%), the U.S. (43%), India (42%), and China (37.5%). France had a dominant horizontal line (100%), West Germany had a 50/50 split, of horizontal and vertical; and the U.S.S.R. had a dominant diagonal line (46.2%). The dominant shape was rectangle across all the sample countries, with percentages ranging from 69 to 100 percent (Table 3). Dominant tone was continuous throughout, with percentages ranging between 75 and 100 (Table 3). The dominant scale in all the sample countries was medium shot (Table 3). France and West Germany had 100 percent, then India (72.5%), the U.S. (63%), Italy (56%),the U.S.S.R. (46%), and China (44%). Dominant angle varied throughout the sample (Table 3). France and West Germany each had 100 percent slight angle. The U.S. had 80 percent slight; and Italy 50 percent. The U.S.S.R. had 77 percent high angle shots; China, 63 percent; and India, 49 percent. Lighting was almost exclusively natural throughout the sample (Table 3). The only deviations were India with 3.5 percent behind lighting and Italy with 13 percent side lighting and 6 percent behind lighting. 46 Perspective (not broken down in the data reported) was dominated by reportive when the news presenter was speaking (100%). When "on remote" the dominant perspective was objective (Table 3). Overall, objective perspective were found in the newscasts, with occasional subjective perspectives used by China (12.5%), and India (19%). Field of view was primarily normal (Table 3). France and West Germany each had 100 percent normal, followed by the U.S. (80%), India (78%). Italy (75%), and the U.S.S.R. (54%). China had a dominance of narrow field of view with 62.9 percent. Chroma was coded for each individual color, but for the sake of analysis, they were grouped according to warm and cool hues. Overall warm hues dominated (Table 3). France had 100 percent warm hues, followed by India (71.5%), Italy (69%), China (62%), and the U.S. (53.5%). West Germany split 50/50 between cool and monocrome; the U.S.S.R. had a dominance of monocrome (46%). The saturation of these hues was low to medium (Table 3). France had 100 percent low saturation; China had 62.5 percent low, and the U.S.S.R. had a 46/46 percent split between low and none (monochrome). West Germany had 50 pecent monochrome and 50 percent medium saturation. The U.S. had 55 percent medium saturation; 47 India had 47.5 percent medium; and Italy had 44 percent medium saturation. Underlying Structure: Keys/Titles Keys and titles were coded seperately from the rest of the image. When a key or title was present, it was coded for line, shape and chroma (hue and saturation). When no chroma was used in the key or title, it was coded for tone. Less than four percent of the frames contained a title or key (Table 4). When a key did occur, (China, India and the U.S.S.R. did not have any), the dominant line was primarily horizontal. Italy, West Germany and the U.S. had 100 percent horizontal lines in the keys. France’s two keys were split 50/50 between horizontal and diagonal. The shape of the key was dominated by rectangular (Table 4). Italy, West Germany and the U.S. had 100 pecent rectangular shapes. France split 50/50 percent between rectangular and triangle. Key hue was primarily warm; with Italy (100%), the U.S. (SO/50%, warm and cool), France (SO/50%, warm and cool), and West Germany, 100 percent monochrome (Table 4). The key saturation was primarily high (Table 4). Italy had 100 percent high saturation; followed by the 48 U.S. and France with a 50/50 split between high and medium; and West Germany 100 percent monochrome (therefore not applicable). Underlying Structure: Multiple Frame Characteristics Multiple frame characteristics deal with the linkage of the single frames to become multiple frame images. These include camera movements, transitions, pace and juxtaposition. France and West Germany had no camera movements present in their news stories (Table 5). Italy had movements in 25 of the frames; followed by the U.S. with 30 percent; 38 percent for both the U.S.S.R. and China, and lastly India with movement in 45 percent of the frames. Several types of movement, pedestals, arcs, or trucks were not displayed in the sample at all. Zooms (in and out) were the most frequently need camera movements, followed closely by tilts (up and down). Pans were demonstrated with the third highest frequency, and least frequent were trucks. Transitions were relatively consistant across the. sample, with takes dominant (Table 5). Camera movement was secondary as a transition with approximately 30 percent of the frequency. There were two wipes in the entire sample, and one dissolve present. 49 The pace overall was dominantly rapid (Table 5) with 100 percent for France, 87 percent for the U.S., 69 percent for the U.S.S.R., 57 percent for India, 56 percent for China and 50 percent for West Germany. Juxtaposition was all narrative; however it was further broken down into narrative-narrative, or narrative-cross-cut. The narrative-cross-cuts occurred at the end of a given story, when there was a shift from progressing time to a correlation of multiple times. (Figure 4). The dominant one was narrative-narrative with 100 percent, India; 96 percent, the U.S.; 94 percent, China; 92 percent, the U.S.S.R.; and a 50/50 percent split for Italy, West Germany and France. Meaning At this point it is possible to take the dominant elements already found for each category, determine it’s expressed meanings and understand what is encoded within the news stories. As a general pattern, TV news stories encode a sense of controlled tension, contiunuity and intricacy (field forces). These encoded meanings come from the instrument in the conventionalized meanings as defined by the message makers. This gestalt comes from an 50 uo>onoofio> o cum: naouwouoca adfium oco can xcmEuoo .3 .owmsm ozu cw moon on ma: ouosu ouououocu ooo ooo ooo ooo ooo ooo ooo \.,..V.N. ouwdaam Ho: m.m w -AOm .3Om ... .-om c ;.,m .xuo>wumum: N.oa Nmo Now Now Noofi Now New New .umc-m>uumumc \. a: cowuwmoamuxsn m“ an .. ... mm me ... qq Ne zodm NS .23 T... .8... NS NS 33 Now Na 392 ,J .. . , .- comm om mm o o o . “N ¢V¢V o o o m o NM mm. 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Nme NNN \smcoe\m5u< sommnam fl nu M 11 .1 1a no .1 o o o «4 u 1— U; 0 c. c. s D. e I. 1 o o 9 I I. u u Du Q. a .A a o e .l o 1 a mu m . e u ,A ZOHH. for codes used in this table.) 5 . m E ‘5 U N >s OJ U) m c -H —1 c: - C G “U Q U) U) 'H Li a U 0 o o .c a. .4 h: :3 :> = L) f. 16 2 59 16 2 13 //3053 . \\M,*’ line V H V V H/V D V 1 37.5 100 42.5 50 50/50 46.2 43 shape R R R R R R R 1 69 100 92 94 100 77 94 tone C C C C C C C 1 100 100 96.5 75 100 98 97 scale M M M M M M M 1 44 100 73 56 100 46 63 _ angle H S H H S H 5 1 63 , 100 49 38 100 77 80 light N N N N N N N 1 100 100 97 81 100 100 100 perspective 0 R 0 0 R/O 0 0 1 88 100 86 88 50/50 92 94 field of view NA NO NO NO NO NO NO 1 63 100 78 75 100 54 80 hue Y R Y R/O B/MC MC Y 1 50 100 31 25/25 50/50 46 37 saturation L L ,3’M M M/NONE L/NONE M 1 63 100 ‘5‘ 48 44 50/50 ,46/46 55 a 7 v .,31; 3‘ V ¢_flfi 1 ~£313133 *\ fig {173 key 1 0 3 10099:“)0 6 Mt/ 50=fiy~ 0 10.4 \J/ key-line I ... H/D ... H H Q1... H 1 ... 50/50 ... 100 100 ... 100 key-shape ... R/T ... R R ... R 1 ... 50/50 ... 100 100 ... 100 key-hue ... Y/B ... R MC ... B/O/G % ... 50/50 ... 100 100 ... 33/33/33 Key-saturation... H/M ... H MC ... H z ... 50/50 ... 100 100 ... 100 58 TABLE 7 - Continued Dominant Elements for Each Codingggatagory >5 C m 0 E m 0 3.. o N U Q >4 a) U) C C: -H —a U o o -H a 'U o a) a) .1: H C H o o o L) a. .4 h: :3 :> a placement in N N N N L/S N N field 94 100 78 88 50/50 62 100 1 field density H L H H L L L 1 63 100 64 69 100 62 53 field complex. H H/L L H H H L 1 88 50/50 51 75 100 54 53 # of cam moves 6 0 27 4 0 5 30 r movement #1 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA - : 1 63 100 55 75 100 62 7O 2 movement #2 20 . . . TD/ZO zo . . . P/ZO 20 (J 70 19 ooo1305/1305 1205 ooo 7o5/7o5 13 transition T T T T T/W T T 1 63 100 56 75 50/50 68 66.5 if no moves T T T T T/W T T 1 100 100 100 100 50/50 100 95 pace R R R R R/NA R R 1 56 100 57 63 50/50 69 87 juxtaposition NN NN/NC NN NN NN/NC NN NN 1 94 50/50 100 50 50/50 92 96.6 dominant vec. M M M M I/M M M 1 88 100 73 81 50150 69 91 vector type CV CV CV CV/CT CV/CT CV CV 1 88 100 73 50/50 50/50 69 87 vector change F F F F S/N F F 1 50 100 52 44 50/50 69 83 subject A PG/PM A X K/PMG R G 1 4 50/50 24 31 50/50 50 50 CHAPTER V DISCUSSION Overview This thesis has explored visual composition of television news images in a cross-natural study of seven countries. It has been particularly concerned with the patterns found in the visual composition between the sample countries. Discussion of Early Assumptions It has long been assumed that pictures are universally understood. For this study that assumption was translated to mean that the structure of pictorial images would have certain similarities (or patterns) among different countries. By analyzing visual composition of material from various countries, the pictorial language used to compose visual messages could be described. Television news stories were the 59 60 "materal" chosen for this study. Following is a discussion of the results of the analyses from Chapter IV. Definite compositional patterns were found in 23 of 29 categories (nearly 80 percent), between the sample countries (Table 7). The fact that there are major patterns to be found among the sample countries confirms the notion that TV pictures are universal (or at least, that they contain compositional patterns which are relatively consistent across countries). The degree to which the patterns are consistent across the countries in this sample is additional support of this prediction. There are, of course, compositional categories in which no patterns are found. These differences could be attributed to a variety of constraints; political, technical, economic, etc. These differences are not, however, the focus of this study. Design Limitations This study was exploratory, to generate hypotheses for future study, rather than serving as thg definitive test. Early in the study one potential problem was discussed, that of all the countries (or some) using taped material provided by either the Indian government 61 or by a wire service. This fear was unfounded as only two countries had one single dupliate show between them. Suggested Directions for Further Study One major drawback is that there isn’t a "larger picture" or historical context to fit this study into. Was picture composition different across cultures when it was less technologically dependent? Is television a change in terms of pictorial conventions? Other areas for further study include seeing how these patterns may change over time. For instance, now, two years after the initial Sikh/military conflict, there are the same incidents occurring at the Golden Temple in Amritsar, India. Will most countries use file tapes from the previous occurrence? Will there be new images to analyze? At this moment, however, there is no on-going videotaped record of the television news coverage in the countries studied previously. Perhaps there are no changes in the pictorial conventions once developed; perhaps they take a very long time to evolve. But to study to find where the conventions may shift, in which countries, etc. could be facinating. A long-term study of the two-dimensional visual imagery, and of single culture before the advent of television, during its inception, and after its 62 acceptance might show the progressive changes (if any) that the medium imposes upon the imagery would also be of significance to sociologists, anthropologists, and all visual communicators. These pictorial conventions are by no means limited to televised news programs. Different patterns may emerge from each of the television genres. That would be another study to be undertaken. The compositional patterns discovered in this study suggest a powerful influence of technical and perceptual characteristics of the television medium on the composition of television news pictorial messages. Technically, the shape and size of the television screen exerts a pressure toward the rectangular and horizontal lines (Zettl, 1983). However, horizontals in this study were secondary to the presence of vertical lines. The size of the screen also creates the argument for close- ups being dominant, though again this is not shown to dominate in television news pictorial composition. The fact that television is a rather low—definition medium causes further pressure toward continuous tone, natural lighting, normal perspective, medium to low saturation of colors, high field density and low complexity for the perception of visual information. Further research needs to be done in determining 63 other factors which may influence these patterns of visual composition. Preliminary questions concern the news photographers themselves; where do they receive their education; The U.S.? Europe? Who pays for it; individuals? The government? Are the "artists" of the culture equaly likely to work in this capacity; or is it primarily the financially well-off, the educated, the English-speaking who hold these positions? Other preliminary questions center on various countries’ participation/membership in international news gathering agencies such as Eurovision, Nordivision, and Intervision. The mere existance of these cross- national agencies, lead one to believe there are few, if any, major differences in the ways different countries cover news events. Or do different countries participate with seperate groups because there are differences? The separations between Eurovision, Nordvision, etc., are they only geographic, or political, or economic? Or do they find major (or subtle) differences in the visual coverage of news events? Also we are left with the age old question, "which came first, the chicken or the egg?" Does the existance of these agencies, and their use of technologies such as satellites, promote a set of cross-national, cross- 64 cultural pictorial standards (do they shape the message?); or did the fact that the images were not culture-bound allow the existance of these news agencies and their exchanges of video information (does the message shape/allow the technology/organizations)? Summary The notion that pictures are similarly constructed was strongly supported by this study, based on the number of patterns in the visual composition of the the television images discovered between the sample countries. The small sample size may reduce the generalizability of the results, and differing story lengths may have skewed the results slightly. Suggestions for further research include determining other factors influencing the patterns of visual composition found in this study. These could include researching the backgrounds of the message composers (in this case the news photographers); organizations coordinating the processing of messages (for this study, news gathering agencies; and the use of various technologies and their patricular impacts of the message. Other tangents could include the timelessness 65 of these patterns, or the evolutionary processes of the patterns of visual composition. Specifically, now that these patterns of visual composition are recognized as existing cross-nationaly, there are issues to be addressed and questions to be answered. It will take the coordinated efforts of sociologists, anthropologists, and media reseachers. 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