D ATMENT yup-‘4‘...—V-... ‘ m or? COMPOUN ~ A MODE . UBSTANTI AND?"- ‘ I :{IIszrs .RNI AM: VII-IN v x. v . t;.\.. 33?}: ». ANNIE. . $1.. .. .1 . . .. _ ‘ \ I. .1. 9EMP.H£,S!S on “H SPIc-IA. b, ENGLISH STRESS ERN u x n33 II IRNLPA 6 i am .Q '9'. . 3 I v E , L‘ , . l,. 'A‘I . - ; 115‘: \ 1 .d. . KW. x ' AND I .Ia ..r . . . .. .. 1 . 3...)... .31.... ., . ..is.wirizfi.$§§§ .. .13. fl. . . .. . duct... an»: 31.....5 31.4.5... . I . £H¥.i . A ..d. . w ’ :I . .2.ng41 4.1.3)? _ :iiitt... .. 1%. 1.3!? .. .w 4%.. . .. u”; THESIS ¢l\"'°'i'°‘|"WT""'V|7i"'fl”W\'iifl:flltl 3 1293 10664 222 This is to certify that the thesis entitled . l .3 j C'..T{j"‘T.T—D STBSL‘XQ II '13 IN If: T) H:— .1? RICK.” 1771,? L" .I'I’f‘: 311130: N .- ETLLJSS 1le I.‘”.§"_)IH1‘I9N¥ i”!«..’._‘e';'1::.'s presented by Yaxine A. Eyestone has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Th . D . degree in finjl i Sh Jada. 22- 1M Major professor Dam October 2, 1954 0-169 .Nv MSU LIBRARIES RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. I-LS LE ’rli I. _,. TESTS AND TREATMENT OF COMPOUND SUBSTANTIVES IN MODERN AMERICAN ENGLISH WITH SPECIAL EMPHASIS ON STRESS AND INTONATION PATTERNS By Maxine Arlane Eyeetone A THESIS Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Michigan State College of Agriculture and Applied Science in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of English Year 195“ \\\' THESIS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author wishes to express her sincere appreciation to Dr. Villiam Watts Heist and Dr. Anders Orbeck, under whose guidance and supervision this investigation was carried out, She is also greatly indebted to her colleagues and friends who c00perated in the recorded part of this study: Dr. A. L. Thurman, Dr. William Butt, Dr. Osmond Palmer, Dr. T. Benjamin Strandness, Mrs. Lois Banzet Aschemeyer, Judson Perkins, Charles Linkletter, Mrs. Lorraine Powers Tata, and F. Neil Aschemeyer. Grateful acknowledgement is also due to Mrs. Florence Reynolds Eyestone for help with filing and preliminary statistics, and to the Department of Communication Skills, Michigan State College, for use of the recording equipment. 347473 Final Examination: Dissertation: Outline of Studies: Biographical Items: Professional: Member: Maxine Ariane Eyestone Candidate for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy October , 195M. Tests and Treatment of Compound Substantives in Modern American English with Special Emphasis on Stress and Intonation Patterns. Major Subject: Linguistics. Minor Subjects: American and English Literature. Born, July 28, 1923, Lansing, Michigan. Undergraduate Studies, Michigan State College, 19h1~19N5. Graduate Studies, Michigan State College, 19h5~19hb; University of Michigan, 19h9; Michigan State College, 1950~195h. Woman's Editor, Columnist, and Theater Critic, The State Journal. Lansing, Michigan. 19h1—19h6; Lansing Correspondent to The Film Daily, 1943-19ub; Graduate Assistant, Michigan State College, lens—igub; Instructor, Communication Skills, Michigan State College, 19u6—date. Phi Kappa Phi, Alpha Epsilon Rho, Theta Alpha Phi, Kappa Delta.Pi. TESTS AND TREATMENT OF COMPOUND SUDSTANTIVES IN MODERN AMERICAN ENGLISH WITH SPECIAL EMPHASIS ON STRESS AND INTONATION PATTERNS By Maxine Arlane Eyestone AN ABSTRACT Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Michigan State College of Agriculture and Applied Science in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of English Year 195” Approved flfl'fim fl 7%), THE THESIS ABSTRACT Much has been written about characteristics of compounds, but no one seems to have settled conclusively on a method for distinguishing between compounds and phrases, between compounds and simplexes. It is with these problems that the present study is concerned. What exactly is a compound substantive? In order to limit the subject and to make the study more practical, I have directed my investigation to compound substantives in Modern American English (ca. 1920 to the present) and concerned myself primarily with the usage of this period as reflected in literature and general vocabulary. Several factors are cited by various scholars as being necessary considerations in the distinction between compounds and phrases. These include; stress, intonation, pause or internal open juncture, spelling or hyphenation, indivisibility, and a meaning of the whole which differs from the sum of the meanings of the elements. It is the purpose of this study to investigate the validity of these tests in regard to compound substantives. The emphasis is on the auditory phenomena~~stress and intonation, Other factors~~spelling, indivisibility, and meaning-»are considered chiefly as they relate to stress and intonation. Remembering what scholars have said about the general principles of stress and intonation, I undertook an investigation vi to determine how well these principles applied in practice. I designed several reading selections and word lists, each contain« ing as many test compounds and word groups as possible, Next several educated speakers recorded on the tape of a.Revere Recorder at least three of the reading selections and part of the list of words. These test items were checked, using the Trager and Smith method for stress and the Pike system for intonation.1 The results were classified and conclusions drawn about testing compounds. Tests of divisibility and meaning were also checked for reliability, and a brief statistical study of spelling (hyphenation) based on current usage in American literature was made. With the results of these tests in mind, I formulated the following definition: A compound substantive is a word~unit made up of two or more separate words which together function as a single substantive, a single part of speech. It may be composed of two or more parts of speech or of two or more examples of one part of speech. It may appear with the elements written solid, separately, hyphenated, or in any combination of these forms, although the solid forms ordinarily occur only with compounds which have initial stress. A compound differs from a simplex in that in addition to having two or more independent elements, it must also have at least two strong stresses. It differs from a ‘ phrase in that it has lost the faculty for having a primary intonation contour or rhythm unit end in the middle of it and it appears not to have an 1George L. Trager and Henry Lee Smith, Jr., An Dupline of English Structure (Norman, Okla., 1951), and Kenneth L. Pike, The Intonation of American English (Ann Arbor, Mich., 19hb). all vii intonation break. It also differs from a.phrase in that it tends to be indivisible, although this is by no means always true; it also has a meaning which differs in some degree from that of the elements taken separately. TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements Vita Abstract I. Introduction to the Study of Compounds ................ 1 ‘A. Historical Sketch ................................. . 1 II. III. Influence of Alliterative Poetry, Influence of Latin and French, Trend in Modern English, Trend in American English, Influence of War and Industry, Summary B. Preliminary Definition of Compound. ................ 12 Part I. General Principles of Stress and Accent ...... 1n tn. Accent vs. Sense—Stress ............................ In B. Systems for Determining Stress ..................... 17 Kenyon, Trager and Smith, Newman C. Importance of Stress as a Test of Compounds ........ 28 Part 11. Stress Patterns in Compounds and Word Groups Used as Substantives ........................... 30 A, Method of Study .................................... 30 B. Classification of Combinations on Basis of Stress.. 31 C. Expanded Items ..................................... 38 D. Unstable Stress .................................... 39 Part I. General Principles of Pitch and Intonation.... #5 A. Theories of Pike and Others ........................ MS B. Application to Compounds ........................... 50 Part II. Intonation Patterns in Word Groups or Collocations Used as Substantives ..................... 52 A. Three Classes of Compounds ......................... 52 B. Expanded Compounds. ................................ 59 0. Ice Cream: A.Prob1em of Intonation ................ 60 D, Summary. ........................................... 61 A.Trip1e Test of Compounds in Part III. A Note on Internal Open Juncture .......... . 6h IV. The Problem of Spelling (Byphenation) ................. 68 A. Widespread Inconsistency. ......................... 68 B Relationship Between Intonation and Spelling... 71 C. Summary ............................................ 78 V. Part I. The Factor of Divisibility ................... 79 A. Tendency Toward Indivisibility ..................... 79 B. Possible Types of Divisibility. .................... 80 EXpansion of First Element, Expansion of Second Element, Insertion of Modifier, Summary C. Correlation Between Divisibility and Intonation.... 85 D. Conclusions. ....................................... 88 Part II. The Semantic Aspect. ...................... .. 90 A. Meaning of Whole Differs From That of Parts ........ 90 B, Conciseness of Compounds .......................... . 93 Highly Figurative and Less Figurative Compounds C. Conclusions... .................................... . 97 V1. Conclusions.. ......................................... 99 Appendix A. Selections and Word Lists Used in Oral Part of Study ................... . ................ 105 Appendix B. Brief Biographical Sketches of Persons Participating in Recorded Part of Study .............. . 121 Bibliography ................................................. 127 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF COMPOUNDS Historical Sketch Modern English. like many of its ancestors and relatives among languages. is colorful and highly idiomatic. One need only mention American slang to point up this fact. Every day new words come p0pping into the language-ate empress a new idea. to describe a new invention. to give vent to anger or enthusiasm. One of the most prolific methods of word-formation in English is the combination of two or more words to form a new entity. This is called compounding. There are of course compounds to be found in various parts of speech. but probably the largest number are substantives. This, then. provides the starting point of the present study. luch has been written about characteristics of compounds; a great deal of heat has been generated and a small amount of light, but no one seems to have settled conclusively on a method for determining the differences between compounds and.phrases. between compounds and simplexes. It is with these problems that the present study is concerned. What exactly is a compound substantive? How can we be sure a particular collocation is a compound? How can we distinguish between a compound and a simplex which is similar in form? -2- In order to limit the subject and to make the study more practical. I have directed my investigation to compound substan- tives in Modern American English (ca. 1920 to the present) and concerned myself primarily with the usage of this period as reflected in literature and general vocabulary. To make the study more meaningful. however. it will be well to consider briefly the history of compounding in English. Influence of Alliterative Poetry Compounding is a method of word formation inherited from parent Indo-Germanic by way of Old English.1 Anyone who has a nodding acquaintance with the earliest periods of the English language is aware of the ease with which words combine. fusing into a new entity. Carr discusses the reasons for this early facility for compounding. listing alliterative poetry am perhaps the most important influence. He says: 1Carr‘points out that. although the faculty for compounding was also inherited by other off-shoots of Indo-Germanic. it was nowhere as extensively developed as in modern Germanic languages. especially German. In the facility with which independent words can be combined to a higher word-unit the Germanic languages possess a supple and convenient method of word-formation. the potentialities of which have been fully exploited from the time of the early alliterative poetry down to the modern technical terminology. [Charles T. Carr. Homing; Compounds in Germggic (London. 1939). p. xvii . -3... This method of word formation seems to have been peculiarly suited to the slow—moving rhythms of the verse and the mentality of the poets themselves. ...The frequent use of nominal compounds seems therefore to be intimately connected [either] with alliteration or with the themes of Germanic poetry.2 He adds that writers of Germanic alliterative verse show more interest in.powers of description than in the action. There are many more substantives and adjectives than verbs. The Germanic poet liked to play with words. hunt synonyms. work out variations for alliteration.3 The vast number of compounds in Old English poetry referring to the sea and to sea travel is a case in point. A hasty reading of only a few pages brings to light the following list which is scarcely a beginning: mereflod. lgggstregm. brimlgg. hronrad. gggsecg. sabfore. merestraht. géélgg. and.gé§g£§. The large number of tautological and intensifying compounds. Carr points out. "leads us to suspect that the Germanic poets were at times the victims rather than the masters of the alliterative technique.” coining. as they did. 'otiose and cumber- some compounds in a.desperate effort to provide the necessary alliteration.'u It appears. then. that Old English poets took full advantage of the property of the language inherited from the parent 2Carr. Homing; Compounds. p. M39. 3Ibid.. p. xviii. 1‘Ibid.. p. xiv. -h- Indo-Germanic. This was true also of German. The difference between the two languages in this capacity. however. becomes apparent in the development of the two languages. For, whereas German has continued to the present day to form new words by combining already established elements to an extent comparable to that found in the earliest stages of the language. English temporarily lost its facility for compounding when the influence of Latin and.French became marked during the Middle English period. Scholars disagree on the extent to which English has regained this capacity in the modern period. as we shall see. Influence of Latin and.Frenoh The Romance languages do not utilize the compounding technique to an extent comparable to that found in the Germanic languages; thus when English was found in Juxtaposition with Latin and French during the Middle English period. its speakers borrowed many of the foreign elements, making it unnecessary to coin new English words out of native elements. The very fact that Latin and French lack the compound- making ability of Greek and German helps to account for the decline of the compound in English [during that period]. for the first two languages hays been levied upon much more extensively for the English vocabulary than have the latter two.5 5Stuart Robertson. The Development of lodgrn Egglish (New York. 193“). p. 367. -5, During the Middle English period. many of the old Germanic legends were revived and rewritten in the more modern version of the language. It is interesting to note. however. that this revival was not accompanied by any revival of the older poetic compounds. Carr says that these compounds were probably lost with the transition from alliterative to rhyming verse. He adds that. judging from the differences between the Middle English alliterative poetry and the Modern High German popular epics in respect to language. it seems likely that those noun compounds. which are so intimately a.part of the alliterative verse. were in some way closely connected with the alliteration rather than with the themes of Germanic poetry.6 The influence of Latin and French seems. then. to have at least temporarily retarded the compound—making facility of English during the Middle English period. Trend in Modern English Opinion among scholars seems to differ with regard to the importance and frequency of compounds in modern English. Generally it is agreed that English falls somewhere between French and German in its ability to compound. Nearly all agree that English has revived its faculty for compounding since the Middle English period. though Smith and Bergsten say that it bCarr. p. ”65. ~6— has never quite achieved the facility of the Old English period and certainly cannot compete with German. Characteristic of this view is the following comment by Smith: On the whole...the formation of new compounds is not of enormous importance to modern English; and the language has certainly lost some of its original power in this respect. Compounds. moreover. tend to die out more quickly than other words; the Genius of Language seems to prefer a simple term for a simple notion; and a word made up of two others. each of which vividly suggests an idea. is apt to seem awkward to us unless we can conveniently forget the original meanings.7 Even Stuart Robertson. writing as late as 193k. took the view that English had lost much of its compound—making ability.8 But Cassidy. in the revised edition of Robertson. takes a dif- ferent view. He states that ”borrowed words. once naturalised. hare themselves entered freely into new compounds.” adding that the old compounds have been more than compensated for by new 9 ones . Kennedy and Vallins agree with Cassidy. Vallins. for ZLogan.P. Smith. The Epglieh Lgpgppge (New York. 1912). p. 83. And Nile Bergsten. A Study on Coppound Subsppptives in Epglish (Uppsela, 1911). pp. 67-68. adds: In Modern English the faculty of compounding has recovered much of the ground lost in Middle English....[In Present English compounding is gaining ground. though it] still falls far short of the freedom characteristiccf Old English. 8 Robertson. p. 367. 9Frederic G. Cassidy. rev.. The Develo ment of Modern Epglgpp. by Stuart Robertson. 2nd ed. (New York. 195 ). p. 192. -7- example, states that "compounding of words of whatever origin has always been and still is an important element in English. as it 10 adding later that the capacity of the English language for compounding is almost unlimited.11 When one is in German.“ considers the vast lists of recently coined compounds and the ease with which speakers and writers invent new expressions of this sort to fit every occasion. one is inclined to agree with Cassidy. Vallins. and Kennedy on this point. Another influence of the early languages which has encouraged compounding in the modern period was the Germanic development in syntax. In Greek and.Latin freedom of word order was retained. This was not so in Germanic languages. however. where word order became fixed. thus allowing syntactic phrases which occurred frequently to ”more easily coalesce to compounds...than in languages where the order was less rigid."12 Thus. although compounds composed of adjective plus substantive appeared only infrequently in Primitive Germanic. they have increased in number in the modern periods of both German and English.13 10G. H. Vallins, Making and Meanipg of Words (London. 19.49) 0 p0 97o lllbid. 12Carr. p. xviii. 13Ib1d. -8... Trend in American English As Mencken and Mallory point out. the discovery of the New World occasioned the revival of compounding with a vengeance. Early English colonists had to find new terms for new experiences. If no words existed in English to describe adequately certain American animals. for example. it was a simple matter to use two English words together anfl get such new terms as bullfrog. ggo mdhog. catfish. Mencken. too. describes the American bent for compounding: Nothing could exceed the brilliancy of such inventions as joy-ride....road-louse. sob-sister. frame—up. lepprshark.....They are bold; they are vivid; they have humor; they meet genuine needs. Joy-ride has already gone over into English. and no wonder. There is absolutely no synonym for it; to convey its idea in orthodox English would take a whole sentence.... Here an essential character of the American shows itself: his tendency to combat the disagreeable with irony. to heap ridicule upon what he is sus- picious of or doesn't understand. Smith points out that compounds are the product of imagination and emotion rather than intellect. Some of the most vivid compounds. he says. are words of abuse like lickspittle. skinflint. swillpot. gpitfire. Of the same insulting sort we might add: battle-pge. hell-cat. deadbeat. blowhard. road-hog. prepppuff. horse fpce. pppty-wgist. bitch—louse. blackhepd. 1“Richard D. Hallery. Our American Lppgppge (Garden City. N.Y .. 19”?). p 6”- 153. L. Mencken. The erio Lan e. 3rd ed. (New York. 1923). pp. 196—197. See also th ed. (New York. 1936). pp. lhh. 1u5 and pp. 186—187. -9“ Qgggagg, 22522222, 22£§§2_£ggg. and the aboveamentioned sob-sister and loan-shark. The excitement of passion. as Smith tells us. helps to create new words. Influence of War and Industry More recently war and American transportation industries. to mention only two areas. have added a wealth of new compounds. Bryant lists several which entered the language in World War II. beginning with the English adaption of the German Blitzkrieg. and going on to hedge-hopper. ground-strafing. pillbox (protective covering for a big gun). dogghboy. figgbgg (member of the U. S. Navy's Qpnstruction.§attalion). and near-miss (bomb which came close to the target but missed).17 Bryant goes on to say: “Some really fanciful compounds are the creations of the postwar ariation industry in America. It had become a tradition of American transportation that de luxe forms of travel should have de luxe names.'18 So we haye airlines. flggship. mainliners. sgzcruisers. sszreighters. strata—liners. strgto-cruisers. “These coined terms exemplify the American sest for the picturesque. a nest that has been 16 Smith. pp. 83—su. 1 7Margaret M. Bryant. Modern Egglish and Its Heritgge (New York. l9h8). pp. 29h-295. Bryant makes an error here; pillbox and doughboz are World War I terms. 181bid.. p. 295. -1o— characteristic of usage in this country from the earliest times.'19 Summary Thus it can be seen that English inherited a facility for compounding from.parent Indo-Germanic. This facility was fostered by the necessity for alliteration in Old English poetry and by Germanic syntax which is characterised by fixed word order. thus encouraging certain repeated combinations of words to become fused into a unit. Although English may have temporarily lost its adaptability for compounding during the Middle and Late English periods. because of the influence of Latin and French. this adaptability has been revived in Modern American English where slang. new mechanical inventions. new professions. and the natural enthusiasm of the peeple are proving how flexible the English language can be. Preliminggy Definition of Compound Having thus established the frequency and importance of compounds in American English. it might be well to examine the category more extensively to determine what exactly a compound is. Bloch and Trager define a compound as 'a word made up wholly of smaller words.'20 and certainly one can scarcely go 191b1d. 2OBornard Bloch and G. L. Trager. Outligg_of Linggistic Analysis (Baltimore. Md.. 19N2). p. 5N. -11.. wrong with this for a starting point. However. there are other points to be taken into consideration. Actually there are as many definitions of compounding as there are persons formulating the definitions. Some of the more conservative grammarians and stylists insist that orthographical unity is necessary, that the elements of the compound must be written solid or hyphenated. and that unless they may be written in this manner a true compound does not exist. Alice M. Ball21 is one of these. Taking a more liberal view are Bergsten. Noreen. Paul. and Sturtevant. who recognize that the distinction between a compound and a word group cannot always be made with certainty. Bergsten says. "It appears...that exact limits between compounds and word groups cannot possibly be drawn. there being a broad boundary area where only intermediate stages are found. varying according to subjective views.'22 Paul points out that the transition from Juxtaposition to true composition is gradual. that there is no sharp line of demarcation. This is proved. he says. by the great uncertainty in orthography of modern languages in their treatment. “This uncertainty.“ he adds. ”has led to an orthographical compromise-- the use of the hyphen."23 21mm. M. Ball. Coppoundigg and Hyphenation of English lords (New York. 1951). p. 3. QgBergsten. p. 3. 2 3Herman Paul. Principles of the History of Lapggggg. 2nd ed.. trans. H. A. Strong (n.p.. 1891). p. 371. See also Chapter IV of the present study. Several factors are cited by various scholars as being necessary considerations in the distinction between compounds and phrases. These include: stress. intonation. pause or internal open Juncture. spelling or hyphenation. indivisibility. and a meaning of the whole which differs from the sum of the meanings of the elements. It is the purpose of this study to investigate the validity of these tests in regard to compound substantives. The emphasis will be on the auditory phenomena—~ stress and intonation; other factors--indivisibility. meaning. spelling-nwill be considered chiefly as they relate to stress and intonation. Although it is. of course. impossible to define a compound with accuracy before setting out on an investigation to determine valid tests of a compound. it is nevertheless necessary to have some sort of working definition for a starting point in order to know what sort of samples to look for. On the basis of what scholars and rule-book makers have said in the past. I formulated a working definition for a compound substantive; this definition was used in the preliminary selection of citations from literature and in the compilation of a list of combinations and phrases from these citations and other sources to be tested in the oral part of the study. The definition is as follows: A compound substantive is a word-unit made up of two or more separate words which together -13- function as a single substantive. It may be composed of any two or more parts of speech or of two or more examples of one part of speech. It may appear with the elements written solid. separately. hyphenated. or in any combination of these forms. A compound dif- fers from a.phrase in that it tends to be indivisible. as a unit it has a sense differing in some degree from that of the elements taken separately. and it generally functions as a single part of speech. It differs from a simplex in that it has two or more recognizable words which may on other occasions appear as independent elements. When collecting citations from literature the matter of stress should be ignored. When in doubt. the combination should be included for testing. With this definition to go on. I began my study with a consideration of the function of stress. CHAPTER THO PART ONE: GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF STRESS AND ACCENT Accent vs. Sense—Stress T. Chiba in his volume. Study of Accent. lists five elements of connected speech: (1) words; (2) stress. syntactical pattern. and rhythm; (3) content; (h) style: and (5) tone.1 The present study is concerned chiefly with the first. second. and last of these elements: words. stress. and tone or intonation in their particular relation to compounds and collocations used substantively. The first problem to be considered is that of stress or accent. Kenyon defines stress as: The prominence given in speech to a syllable or a word which makes it stand out to the attention above the syllables or words next to it. Stress. like quantity. is relative-~not a fixed degree of prominence. but one greater or less than that of adjacent syllables. Stress may be of two kinds-~accent and sense-stress. The term applies to the prominence given to a word over the preceding or following word in a group that makes sense. Stress. then. is a relative matter and is determined largely in relation to a group of syllables or a group of words. 1(Tokyo. 1935). p. 30. 2John Samuel Kenyon. Americpp Pronunciation. 10th ed. (Ann Arbor. Mich.. 1950). section 103. -15- With some scholars. however. it appears to be less relative than with others. as we shall see. Although the terms stress and gppgpp will be used more or less interchangeably here. the present study is essentially concerned with ppggpp rather than with sense-stress. As Pike points out. however. sense-stress must be taken carefully into account when making tests. lest the position of the word in a sentence or the context in which it occurs distort the normal stress pattern. To obtain best results. it is well to place the word to be tested toward the beginning or middle of the sentence. rather than at the end. For at the end of an utterance. the normal stress pattern might be obscured by sense-stress. since we have a tendency to stress heavily the ends of sentences.3 Failure to take this point into account in the early oral tests of the present study resulted in disqualification of the results on several words. Generally speaking. a word in English normally has only one strong stress with any number or variety of lighter stresses. It is this tendency toward one strong stress per word which has led scholars like Kenyon. Bloomfield. and Kruisinga. among others. to use this principle as the determining factor in distinguishing compounds from word groups. the theory being that a compound. 3For a more detailed discussion of emphatic stress or sense-stress. see pp. 27—28. -16- being a single unit. should therefore have only one strong stress and that. according to the law of recessive accent.)4 that single stress should ordinarily fall on the first element. Whether or not accent or stress (not sense-stress) can be used as an accurate determinant of compounds has been a.point of disagreement among scholars. Some. like Kenyon. insist that a combination is not a compound unless the heavy accent falls on the initial slsmsnt.5 Others. like Trager. Bloch. Smith. and Schubiger6 deny this. Pike refuses to be stampeded by the cri— terion of stress and points out that other considerations. notably intonation. are much more accurate tests of compounds.7 l*Free accents frequently recede to the first syllable. This law of recessive accent accounts (1) for the large number of English words accented on the first syllable. (2) for the large number of monosyllables in English. one or more syllables having been lost from the end of a word by gradual obscuration from the loss of accent after it had been shifted to the first syllable. and (3) for the loss of one or more syllables from words with only primary accent on the first syllable. [as in the British pronunciation of ordinggfii. Kenyon. égeriggp Proppncigiion. section 11 . 5Kenyon. section 127. énaria Schubiger. 2p; Rgle of Intonation in Spoken English (Cambridge. 1935). p. 60. points out that whereas objectively a compound may have single stress on the first element. that same word in an emotional context may take a double stress. She does not in any way imply that this double stress disqualifies that combination from being considered a compound. 7For a full discussion of Pike's theories. see Chapter III of this study. -17- §yp§ems for DeterminigggStress Several systems8 for determining stress have been proposed. the most detailed ones coming from Kenyon. Trager and Smith. and Newman. The grades of stress. as outlined in these three systems. are summarized briefly below. Kenyon Kenyon lists four major degrees of accent. although he points out that there are many more. too minute to be accurately determined and too complicated to be recorded in the average dictionary. His four degrees are: primary. secondary. light accent. and stressless. He divides primary accent into at least two degrees. although he does not distinguish them by name. His primary accent appears most obviously in the first elements of 'milkman. "mortar board. 'fire_mgrshgl. He also insists that the first element of such combinations as ggmgs Brown. Mrs, White. Wilson Avenue. upstairs. gpple pie also has a primary accent. so that these combinations would have what might be called even accent or level accent.9 He admits that the accent on the second element of these combinations is the stronger of the two. but he still 8Sweet and Jespersen both propose four-level systems for determining stress. but they do not elaborate them. 9Kenyon. American Pronunciation. section 107. ~18~ persists in listing both under the heading of primary accent without any further distinction between them. It is this point which is the weakest element in his system; without this distinction between the two accents. it would be difficult if not impossible to describe and eXplain adequately some of the longer. more complex combinations. Kenyon's secondary accent or half-stress is exemplified by the second element of such combinations as milkman. marripge vow. ice pick. monkeyshines. altar rail. This half-stress is comparable to the tertiary accent of Trager and Smith. as will be explained below. The third degree of accent in Kenyon's system is light. which falls at some indeterminate point between secondary and stressless. His example is the second syllable pp of misunderstandipg. The day and ipg syllables of that same word exemplify the fourth category. stressless. which always has the vowel sound [3]. L3]. or LI]. or is a syllabic consonant.10 Other examples of the fourth category appear in the second syllable of’postmpp. cupboard. vineyard. and in most pronuncia— tions of woodland. The main weaknesses of Kenyon's system are its difficulty of application. particularly in longer combinations. and its O For Kenyon's explanation, see Amerigpp Pronunciation. section 122. 4‘""’ -19- failure to take into account a distinction between the two degrees of primary accent. Trager and Smith Writing with Bernard Bloch in the early 19h0°s. George L. Trager outlined four degrees of accent. labeled in one place: loud stress. reduced loud stress. medial stress. and weak stress. and at another point: loud. half-loud. strong. and weak. Although these are parallel in application to his later categories. it was not until 1951. writing with Henry Lee Smith. jr.. that he gave a more detailed explanation of the system.11 At that point Trager and Smith gave a fuller description of the four degrees of stress. which are much easier to apply in practice and much more accurate than those of any of the other systems thus far proposed. The labels given these categories of stress were: primary. secondary. tertiary. and weak. These types of stress will be taken up in the order in which it will be easiest for them to be understood. Primprygpccent. Primary accent is defined by Trager and Smith as ”a stress phoneme whose characteristic is maximum normal 11For details see Bernard Bloch and George L. Trager. Outline of Lingpistic Analysis (Baltimore. Md.. 19142). pp. NT-NS; George L. Trager and Bernard Bloch. "The Syllabic Phonemes of English.“ Language. XVII (191:1). 223—2hb; and George-L. Trager and Henry Lee Smith. jr., An Outline of_Epglish Structure (Norman. Okla.. 1951). pp. 35-39. ~20- loudness."12 The designation for this type of stress is / / /. and the mark is placed over the vowel. This is the type of accent encountered on the first element of combinations like ashcan. goldfish. teapot. yplp;lpg. Generally speaking. there is agreement among Kenyon. Newman. and Trager and Smith that the heavy accent in combinaa tions like those listed above is a primary accent. the strongest degree of accent to be considered in the determination of compounds. Kenyon. as has been stated. however. also considers the first accent in such combinations as upstairs. gpple pie. sguare rod. as a primary accent. With this. Trager and Smith disagree; they would insist that only the heavier accent (as the £227 of ashcan and pig.of apple pie) should be considered primary since primary to them is a designation given only to the main ascent of a word or combination. Light accent. Light (or weak) accent is approximately equivalent to Kenyon's stressless. but. as Kenyon himself points out. a syllable which is audible can scarcely be said to be completely without stress. Trager and Smith give the example, animpl. in which the last two syllables might be labeled / V / and /-2 /. respectively. The latter is slightly stronger than the middle syllable. but both may be considered light and are 12George L. Trager and Henry Lee Smith. jr.. An Outlipe of Epglispr§tructupg_(Norman. Okla.. 1951). p. 3b. -21- usually either labeled./ U / or not labeled at all. Examples of this kind of accent are found in the final / u ./ ., / u I u syllable of such words as woodland. Vineyard. cupboard. policeman. and in the unaccented syllables of longer combinations like / \ u / \ u / u 9 / \ eié’vété’r Spérator, theé’té’r tickets. marogén bamb. insane 33111331. When the light accent occurs on the final element of a two-word combination. that word tends to lose its identity and to become merely a syllable. even though. as with ~man. the original spell- ing is retained.13 Tertiary accent. Tertiary accent is illustrated by Trager and Smith in the verb animate. in which the final syllable might be labeled./:g / or more conveniently / \ /. It is this stress which occurs most frequently in the second element of compounds and word groups having primary accent on the first element. / u \ / \ / \ / \ Examples are: cgpy boy. blackmail. ice pick. handcuffs. / u \ / \ chorus-girl. sun deck. Not all tertiary accents are equal. however. For example. the accent on the second element of dppgstore is stronger. especially with certain speakers. than the accent on the second element of bust-up. Some speakers consistently use lighter stress on the second element when it is a short adverb (pp. off. out. ig) than when it is a longer word. such as a noun. This 13E.g.. policeman. fireman. postman. For other examples and further elaboration of this point. see pp. 35—38. .. 22.. is particularly true of 3p and 3p. Nevertheless the distinction is so slight and varies to such a degree that separate classi— fications would be impractical. The difference is much less than that between primary /" / and secondary /‘A / in combinations Kenyon insists have even primary accent. as apple pie. Secondpgy accent. Secondary accent / A / poses the biggest problem of identification. This type of accent falls somewhere between.primary and tertiary and can best be illustrated in combinations where more than one degree of stress of slightly less than primary strength must be indicated. It is most easily identifiable in longer combinations having several important / AU /\ AU /\/\\) elements. as flggpole sitter. baseball plgyer. railwpy ticket. / \ A A I \ A I \ u r.}’ I ‘\ breakfast nook. car door key. ice crepp:cone. atomic warfare. A ‘§ I A \ I o roadside stand. rearview mirror. It is also frequently a characteristic of combinations involving multi-syllable words. \u’ Au Io>uAqu\ A as cigarette lighter. teleVision set. correspondence-course. war correbpgndent. éiétggat bgy. It is with secondary accent that one of the basic dis- agreements between Kenyon and Trager and Smith occurs. Kenyon”s stress system is completely relative; with only one strong degree of accent less than primary. that accent is always secondary. The system of Trager and Smith. on the other hand. is also relative. but it allows the possibility that a strong accent of less stress than primary may be either secondary or -23- 1“ depending on its true value. With the Trager and tertiary. Smith system it is not necessary to have all three degrees in order to label one of them tertiary. For example. Kenyon would call ppglggy_a primary—secondary accent combination. But what happens when another word is added. forming another combination. as ggilway ticket? The primary accent still normally falls on the first element. but the accent on the first syllable of ticket is stronger than the accent on the second syllable of railwgy. We have three degrees of stress here. and those outlined by Trager and Smith seem best to fit the pattern. thus: géglway tick:t or primary-tertiary— secondary~weak. Since this must be fairly apparent to the careful reader or listener. it would seem illogical to insist that when railwgy appears alone the pattern is primary-secondary and when it appears in combination. the pattern is primary- tertiary-secondary. particularly since the word is pronounced essentially the same in both contexts. It is interesting to note that when the major accents in long combinations shift because of context. as from railwgy ticket to railwgy ticket. it is the primary and secondary which inter- change. not the primary and tertiary. It is this point which 11‘For a discussion of internal Open Juncture. which Trager and Smith state is a necessary adjunct of secondary stress. see Chapter III. Part III. of the present study. «2%— Trager and Smith use as the basis for determining that / A / is a type of accent in its own right. not simply an allophone of / \ /.15 Still another argument for the use of Trager and Smith°s accent divisions is evident when the secondary-primary /A ’ / combination appears. Compare holy water and £31; Orders. The strength of the first syllable pg; of Holy Orders is weaker than that of the first syllable pg; of holy water. Yet the first syllable 9;; of Qgggpp_tops that of 1;; in holy water. and therefore a distinction must be made. Other such pairs are; / \ A /u U/u \ uAU / / \ blind spot—~blind alley; banang peel-~banana split; ice pick~~ A / ice tea. In summary. then. Trager and Smith propose feur levels of accent: primary. secondary. tertiary. and weak. Primary is the strongest natural accent. exclusive of sense-stress; secondary is only slightly less strong and is used most frequently in compounds or combinations requiring more than one stress of slightly less than primary; tertiary is that type of accent most frequently used in the second element of compounds. as in baseball; and light or weak accent is used in those syllables or words in which vowels. diphthongs. and triphthongs all lose their full value and become [a]. [3]. or [I]. and in which they are not stressed or 1 5See Trager and Smith. p. 39. -25.. are only slightly stressed. as in the second element of postman. __z____vine am. We Newman Newman‘s system of stress distinctions1 appears on the surface to be in radical disagreement with both Kenyon and with Trager and Smith. Actually, however. there is less difference then one might expect. Outlined briefly. Newman‘s system looks like this: 1. Heavy stress 1. Nuclear 2. Subordinate heavy II. Middle 1. Full 2. Light III. Weak l. Sonorous 2. Pepet Omitting nuclear heavy stress fer the moment. it can easily be seen that subordinate heavy stress is comparable to Trager and / :4 Smithfs primary. as exemplified in the first element of chorus girl. / u \ \ rocking chair. armpit. baseball. The example given by Newman is / that stress found on the first syllable of annual. Full middle. on the other hand. seems at first glance to most closely resemble Trager and Smith‘s secondary. partly because of its association with internal Open juncture.17 However, Newman states 165. S. Newman. “On the Stress System of English.“ Word. II (19%) . 171-187. ‘— 17See Chapter III. Part III. of the present study. ~26- that it appears as the main stress of words used in subordinate / \ / \\ position. as bookcase. free—foroall. and here it most closely resembles Trager and Smith‘s tertiary. There appears in Newman's system no clearocut distinction between these two degrees of accent. and we have already indicated a need for this distinction in the analysis of compounds. Light middle. which rightfully should parallel tertiary. falls short of the mark when Newman limits its use to a position before the primary accent. Because of this stipulation. light middle would be of little use in the study of compounds. Newman also lists two degrees of light accent. on the basis of phonetics. one for [£3] sounds and another for fuller vowels. This distinction might be valuable in studying dialects or even in studying the patterns of sentences (for which he uses it). but it probably adds little to our knowledge of compounds to know that daipyman contains two different varieties of weak stress on the last two elements. The problem of nuclear heavy stress. which we omitted when discussing the heavy stresses of Newman‘s system. will be taken up in the next section. The Problem of Sense-Stress Nuclear heavy stress. listed by Newman as even stronger than normal heavy stress. is discussed at length by Kenyon under the heading of sense-stress and is also recognised by Trager and Smith. -27- It is not taken into account. however. in the main categories of stress of either of these two systems. Newman lists it as a sub-type of heavy stress. This factor of nuclear heavy stress. or sense—stress as we will call it here. is considered significant by several scholars. though it is held by most of them to be related to intonation rather than to stress exclusively. Sense~stress is comparableto emphasis. Pike calls it extra strong stress and gives it the meaning of emphasis or exclamation. He points out that it is "a further phonemic degree of stress. not of the innate type. but limited to super— imposed usage.“18 He uses the symbol / " / to designate it. He gpes on: This emphatic stress may be used to reinforce either a normal innate stress. or to reinforce and make more emphatic the regular stress in special sentence placement. The two types of placement. respectively. may be seen in the phrases Grab the "lantern. you fooll and.Put it “in the box._pot 'on 1tT19 In addition to this use of stress for emphasis. speakers of English have a tendency to stress more heavily the ends of their sentences or the ends of phrases which come just before a 18Kenneth L. Pike. The Intongtion of American English (Ann Arbor. Mich.. 19h5). p. 85. l91b1d. ~28~ pause. It is this superimposed stress either for emphasis or at sentence ends which has a tendency to distort the results of studies of accent if it is ignored. For best results. as has already been mentioned, it is safest to avoid exclamatory state— ments and to place test items toward the beginning or middle of the sentence to avoid the distortion-potential of emphasis and sense—stress. Importance of Stress as a Test of Compounds Since there is such wide divergence of Opinion regarding the systems of stress and their application in the testing of compounds. this criterion alone is not dependable in identifying compounds. It is useful chiefly in two respects: fer the pre- liminary sorting of combinations into categories which may be tested by other methods. and for making tentative distinctions between simplexes and combinations. Chapter II. Part II. is devoted to sorting potential compounds into groups which may later be tested by other methods. As fer the test of simplexes we might say this: We pointed out in the introduction that to qualify as a compound a word or combination must be composed of two or more independent elements. On this basis. the spelling of some words like vineyard. postmgn. cgpboard would seem to qualify them as compounds. since they have two recognisable elements which can appear alone. The criterion of stress. however. eliminates them -29... from this category if we agree. as most scholars do. that a compound must also have at least two stresses which are stronger than weak. On this basis such words as boatswain. cupboard. vineyard. and words having light accent on the final element :mpp as postman. fireman. would be considered simplexes rather than compounds. They have the same stress pattern as a word like friendship. porter. 52912. It must be remembered. however. that having two strong stresses does not necessarily mean that a combination or word is a compound. since simplexes like civilisation and phrases like black bi/rd (as contrasted with the compound blackbird) have two stresses stronger than light. yet neither is a compound. -30“ PART TWO: STRESS PATTERNS IN COMPOUNDS AND WORD GROUPS USED AS SUBSTANTIVES Methogggf Study Bearing in mind what scholars have said about the general principles of stress and accent. I undertook an investigation to determine how well these principles applied in practice. especially with regard to compounds and word groups used as substantives. First I designed four reading selections (later I added . three more. profiting from the information gleaned from the first set). each containing as many of the test compounds and word groups as possible. To these I added a list of compounds and word groups out of context.20 Then I enlisted the assistance of several educated speakers with somewhat different geographical and linguistic backgrounds.21 Next each of these persons recorded on the tape of a Revere Recorder at least three of the reading selections and a part of the list of words. The speakers were not. of course. told the purpose of the test. The nature of the tape recording made it possible to play and replay the selections without distorting the pronunciation of the test items. Lastly. these 0For complete texts of reading selections and word lists used in the study. see Appendix A. 21For thumbnail biographies of the speakers. see Appendix B. -31- test items were checked for stress pattern. using the system and symbols of the Trager and Smith method. Thus. it was discovered that the word groups. regardless of their qualification as compounds. fall into four major groups. some of which have three or four sub~groups. The major groups were labeled A through D. and the sub—groups were numbered. Classificgtion of Combinations 0n Basis of Stress / \ Group A. Primary—Tertiary: argpit (largest group) Group B. Primary-Secondary l . Primary-Tert iary—Secondary: guaymtjijck:_ 2. TertiarybPrimary-Secondary: ‘pigéigtte ligptgr 3. Primary~Secondary-Tertiary: 23;;t31éph3ne h. Primary-Secondary: étgh bgmb Group C. Secondary-Primary / u A l. Secondary-Primary: case-histogz UAJ/ \o) 2. Secondary-Primary-Tertiary: destroyer~minesweeper A x 1 3. Secondary-Tortiary-Primary: roadside stand A A .1 v u. Secondary-Secondary-Primaryz ice cgggm soda Group D. Miscellaneous 1. Primary-Weak: pgstmzn O J / 2. Tertiary-Primary: electric fan A \ o / ~\ I\ V 3. Complex: coffee and cocktail table The next few pages will explain these classifications in greater detail. -32- Group A: Primary-Tertiary By far the largest number of word groups used as substantives display the stress pattern of primary-tertiary /” \ / and will be classed in Group A. Although the basic stress pattern is primary—tertiary. many of these word groups have light stress on other syllables of either the first or second element. This is also true of combinations in other groups. Examples of Group A combinations: /\ /o\ /u \ limelight photo lab ironing board / \. u / 9‘\ a / v \ deadbeat insane asylum saddle shoes /\ / \ /\ ball park cheesecloth courthouse /\ /U\. u/ \ sun deck altar rail alarm clock /\ u/\~I /V\ teacup ballet-dancer boardinghouse /cJ\ {U \ IVU\ copy boy m nstrel show hydrogen bomb / \ / o \ /¢I u x o darkroom buttonhole theater ticket Group B: Primary—Secondary A second large group of combinations are those which have a primary—secondary / ’ A / stress pattern. There are four sub~types of this group. GrgppiB-I: primaryeteggiggy-secondggz, Group B-l is composed of combinations of several words each and of multiple- syllable combinations having a stress pattern of primary-tertiary- secondary. -33.. Examples of Group B—l combinations are: / \. A. u / \ A. u railway ticket flagpole sitter /\ Ayn! /\ AU goldfish swallower baseball player /\A /\/\uu breakfast nook aircraft carrier /\ AU /\UAU bedroom slippers war correspondent /\A /u\vA popco n bag television set / \ 'I\ V / u \ u A cocktail party elevator boy Group B—2: tertiggy-primagz—secondagz. The combinations of Group B—2 are very similar to those of Group B-l. except that the first two stresses are reversed and we have a stress pattern of tertiaryuprimary~secondary /\""/. Despite this shift. however. the primary accent still falls on the first element of the compound. Examples of Group B-2 combinations are: \u/ "U \U/JJ A V cigarette lighter persecution complex \ U’ / u A \ / A correspondenceucourse For Rent sign ggppp Ba}; Apggggry-secondary-tertlazy. Only one example of the Group B—3 or primary-secondary-tertiary /" '\/ combination appeared in the present study. It was 9;: telephbne. Group B-h: primary—secondary. Although only two rather questionable examples of the Group B—M or primary-secondary / "A / combination showed up in the present study. it was found that in the speech of certain individuals whose manner of speaking was rather choppy or staccato in effect. many of the Group A combines tions were pronounced in this manner. particularly if there was -3h. even the slightest excuse for emphasis. / A The two examples which fell in this category were atom bomb / and odd 33b. although admittedly a different context for either of these combinations might have brought entirely different results. Group C: Secondary—Primary With Group C we get into a group of combinations about which there is a difference of opinion as to whether they can qualify as compounds. Since they have what Kenyon would term level stress. they would not qualify by his definition as compounds. We will discuss the problem from the standpoint of intonation later. Group C~l: secondppy-primary. Group C-l has a stress pattern of secondary-primary /A ’ /. Words included in the group are: A. I L) IN / case-history blind date /\ I A / cease—fire ice tea A .l u A u / hell°s bells atomic bomb A/ uAU/u hit tunes atomic weapons 4A / u A u / burnt cork banana split A/V Ad/u blind alley bloody murder (exclamation) .A / u A u I drip coffee double~play A / c; it» ./ u best~sellers Holy Orders Group 0—2: secondpgy-primary-tertiagy. Group 0-2. like Groups B-l. B-2. and B—3. is composed of multiple-word and ~35- multip1e~syllable combinations. Group C-2 has a stress pattern of secondary-primary—tertiary /A l \/ . Examples are: A/\ AU /u\ car door key radio—phonograph ‘A / \ u A '1 /CJ 0 ice cream cone atomic energy u f\ u \. o a A t3 / \ destroyer—minesweeper atomic warfare A IJ / \ nervous breakdown Group 0—2: secondggz—tertipgy-primggz. Group 0-} is similar to Group 0-2. with a shift in the last two elements. The pattern is secondary-tortiary—primary /"‘ ’/. Examples are: A\ / A\/ roadside stand neon sign A. \ ./v u A.'J \ u / t1 newsreel theater foreign correspondent /\ \. / A) A u \ / V rearview mirror Johnny-come—lately Group C—h: secondary-secondary-primagy. In a few instances even stress appears on the first two elements of a multiple—word combination. Only two examples of these appeared in the present study. They are included in Group C~h and have a stress pattern of secondary-secondary-primary ["A ’/. The A A. / u A v A» / - two examples are ipe cregp sod; and twenty-five—cent piece. Group D: Miscellaneous The final category. Group D. is composed of three sub-types which have very little relationship to each other. though under Group D—3 I discuss two types of construction which are related to Group C. Group ~13 primggy-weak. Group D—l is a category showing -35. the primary-light /" U / stress pattern. Most scholars consider that the items in this group are neither compounds nor combinations. but that they have developed to a point where they may be considered simplexes.22 The reason for this is that in many cases the second element has become scarcely more than a final syllable or suffix which no longer has a recognisable identity as an independent word. A careful study of this group. however. reveals widespread inconsistency in the pronunciation of these words. to the extent that some of them. like counterman. are sometimes pronounced with full tertiary stress and sometimes with light stress on the second element. This widespread variation in pronunciation makes it impossible to classify some of the combinations consistently. a single word group wavering from category to category even in the speech of a single individual. Because of this. and also because these words doubtless represent a stage of deveIOpment which many of the now recognised compounds will one day reach. it will be well to consider them as a separate group. though we cannot consider them true compounds. The maJority of these primary-light words have a simple 0 primary-light /” / stress pattern. Some have more than one IUV uuu o / / u u / i’ u u / as countgzman. infgptgyman; in these words the primary accent comes on the first syllable of light syllable / r 22See comment on pp. 28—29 and p. b}. -37- the first element. In some cases. however. the pattern shifts. u l U u/uoa as in frontiersman and artillegyman. In all cases cited. however. no stress pattern showed more than one unstressed syllable before 23 the primary accent. Probably the largest number of combinations with light stress on the final syllable end in —man. In fact. in my own speech MS out of the 77 literary citations of combinations ending in —man have light stress at least part of the time.2u This would seem to indicate that the element ~man is beginning to lose its identity when used as the last element in a combination. Examples of primary-light words ending in ~man which are probably always pronounced with light stress on the final element are: bookman layman postman chairman midshipman salesman clergyman nightwatchman spokesman footman patrolman sportsman gunman pitchman tradesmen horseman policeman watchman Words which frequently have light stress on the final element include: artilleryman dairyman infantryman cameraman doorman madman counterman expressman messman crewman hangman schoolman 2 3Trager and Smith make this point too. See Outline. p. 37. 2h For a discussion of the sources of these literary citations. see pp. 71-72. ..38.. h contrast. some of those which still retain tertiary stress on as final element. and must therefore be included in Group A. re: batman college man iceman cattleman family-man mailman caveman furnace—man radioman city man garbageman road man Other forms which occasionally occur with light stress on he final element are :lppd. as in highlands. woodland; :ypgd. as n vineyard; and ~board as in cupboard. starboard. Very few of hose forms were used in the oral tests of this study. Group Deg; tertigpy-primary. Because of the prevalence f the secondaryeprimary pattern, very few of the tertiary-primary ords appeared in the present study. The majority of the combinap ions having primary accent on the final element have the secondary ccent on the first element. The few remaining in the Group D—2 ategory were electric fan. and some pronunciations of banana ritters and battle royal. Egpgnded Items Several interesting patterns occur in expanded combinations-- hat is. combinations which have been split for modifiers or ther elements to be injected between the two main elements. Two f those included in the present study follow patterns which have lready been discussed; the third has a more complex stress attern. ~39- As an experiment I expanded the combinations field glasses. chicken fgrm. coffee tgble. and cg; keys to see what effect this 2 might have on the stress pattern. 5 Each of these combinations has the accent on the first element before expansion. as / u / u \ U \ V / \ field glasses. chicken farm. «fiffee tpble. car keys. When the combinations are expanded. however. the primary accent shifts \ u / u A U u / u \ and we get: field hat and glasses. chicken and turkey fag. \ o \ A U A / \ coffee and cocktail table. car door keys. According to the classes we have already set up. the stress pattern of field hat and glasses would place it in Group 0—). and the stress patterns of chicken and turkeLf arm and car door keys would put them in Group 0—2. The fourth combination. coffee and cocktpil _t:§ble. because of its multiplicity of syllables, has a more complex stress pattern and will be classified in Group D—3. wtable Stress Although the majority of the combinations used in the present study showed fairly stable stress patterns when uninflu- enced by sense—stress. there were several combinations which showed divided usage either by different persons in the same context. or by the same persons in different contexts, Probably the most remarkable instance of this unstable stress occurred with the combination ice cream. In the present 25For more details of this experiment in divisibility. see Chapter V. Part I. and pp. 59.430, -h0~ atuw. the combination ice cream was tested orally in the following contexts: 1) "His Adam's apple moved up and down as he sat in the breakfast nook calmly eating ice cream;" 2) "I want some ice cream?“ Lily shouted;" 3) "I want my ice cream now!” ’4) ”In fact 1°11 take it in any flavor or form—«just so long as it"s ice cream" 5) "This sister also sold homemade ice cream and meatballs at the roadside;" b) “.. .and a delivery boy handed her a nosegay of tuberoses and a quart of ice cream.” In the one context where this combination occurred in the / \ middle of the sentence. usage was divided 50—50 between ice cream A and ice cream, with four persons testing the combination. In examples one. four. and six, where the combination fell at the end of the sentence but without undue necessity for emphasis. the split was as follows: / \ A / 1) 2 ice cream; 3 ice cream I \ A / h) 3 ice cream; 2 ice cream ,A I I \ b) 3 ice cream; 1 ice cream In examples two and three, where emphasis was called for. the split was: I \ A / 2) 3 ice cream; 2 ice cream / A A / 3) 3 ice cream; 2 ice cream When contrastive emphasis was called for, as in "'I want wills ice crea_m_.' she specified. 'Later I might also have ghogolate ice cream or a paddle pop.“’. the results were almost unanimously in favor of the pattern /’A\/. Only one person “M1- U\V"\/ dissented. speaking the pattern vanill ice cregm, and this J appeared to have resulted from a misunderstanding of the context. On two occasions when ice cream was expanded to ice creaprcone. as in "A counterman in a white hat was dispensing hot dogs. beef—burgers. and ice cream cones to children of all ages." and in "Nearby were an ice cream cone and a can of drip coffee." the results seemed to favor the pattern /""‘/. All five speakers used this stress pattern in the second sentence; four out of five favored primary stress on the second of the three elements but with varying degrees of stress on the first and last elements when speaking the first of the two sentences. thus: A. / 3 ice cream cdhes \ /' A 1 ice cream cones I N. fix 1 ice cream cones When the combination ice cream was read in a list of compounds out of context. the results were as follows: double-play An / pigpen M ice cream / Ix ice cream 1 ice cream woodland ashcan A / hot water bottle ice cream: 2 ice cream \ houseboat 1 ice cream I \ ice water 1 ice cream W / \ 0 information booth ice water: h ice water insane asylum -h2~ In the latter list. the element of contrast may have unconsciously entered into the results. However. the results still seem to agree substantially with those in the first list. except perhaps for ice cream. which would indicate a stronger degree of contrast because of the light first element. Because of the instability of ice cream, it is especially interesting to note that other combinations with $23 as the first element do not share this instability. The patterns of ice pick and ice cube. for example. were unanimously ice pihk and :5; cube. respectively. in the following context: “And somebody carved her up with an ice pick and a razor blade” and in the list: ”hymn book. ice cream soda. ice cube. jackpot, innkeeper." The results on ice tea may be less conclusive, since it fell at the end of the sentence in “And they had a bull-session about blind dates while they drank a glass of ice tea." Nevertheless. the results were again unanimously in favor of the one stress pattern. 1:; tea. Another interesting instance of unstable stress occurs in counterman. and doubtless is an example of transition from Group A to Group D~l. The word appeared in three contexts. two of which placed it early in the sentence: 1) "She pointed to a roadside stand where a counterman in a white hat was dispensing hot-dogs;" 2) "His father made a checkup on a tipoff from a counterman at the local cafe;” 3) "Later he tried his hand as a -h3_ goldfish swallower. a matchmaker. and a countermpp.“ In the / a! \ second quote. the stress pattern was unanimously countepppp; / v \t in the third. the division was four for counterman and one for / u u counterman; in the first. the split was three-two in favor of f’ U \ counterman. Other examples of divided usage or unstable stress are as follows: poker face "With a perfect poker face he drove through the moonlight.” 0 \ Results: 2 pgker face / u A 1 poker face A I) ./ 1 poker face newspgper sypdicate "Later he worked for a newspaper syndicate and was a c0py writer for her brother. who was an advertising-agent." / ‘\ ~I A y U Results: 3 newspaper syndicate A\u/UU 2 newspaper syndicate “...and was later associated with a well known newspaper syndicate." Results (less conclusive because of position): A. \ u u a 3 newspaper syndicate \UAUU l newspaper syndicate feature story writer ”John T. began his writing career as a feature story writer and copy boy for the Daily Examiner.” / u ‘x u A-i’ Results: 2 feature story writer A u I U ‘\ u 2 feature story writer /u A0 \u 1 feature story writer -uu_ In a list: expense—account feature editor fppture story writer field hat field hat and glasses /\ L: / U \ t! Results: 3 feature story writer \ U A a I " l feature story writer Wis "His Adpp's gpple moved up and down." I u \ 0 Results: 2 Adam's apple \ u ,x u l Adam’s apple A.v / t) 2 Adam's apple In a list: cabbage patch apple tree Adpp's apple sanctuary light apple tree A L) / 0 Results: 3 Adam‘s apple / u x v 2 Adam“s apple Three other combinations-~legal egpert. strip tease. and son of a bitch~~were also highly unstable. but the results were not conclusive because of the position of the combinations in the sentences. CHAPTER THREE PART ONE: GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF PITCH AND INTONATICN Theories of Pikeggnd Others Thus far we have been concerned exclusively with stress as the potential criterion for determining compounds. Pike states, however. that "no analysis of stress can be valid if it fails to account for its relation to intonation...since some of the stress data are conditioned by intonation."1 Armstrong and Ward add that the “two elements. stress and intonation. are very closely connected. So close is the connection. indeed. that it is often difficult to decide whether stress or intonation or a combination of the two is responsible for certain effects.“ What exactly 3p intonation? It is the sum total of variations in the voice as a speech sound is produced. According to Chiba. it includes pitch. stress. and speed of utterance. Intonation is that quality of the speak~ ing style which gives specific meaning to a speech sound. which makes a sentence mean one thing at one time and quite another thing at another. It assists among other things in conveying emotion and attitude. But for purposes of this study we are 1 Kenneth Pike. The Intopgtion of Aperican Epglish (Ann Arbor. Mich.. 19%). p. 82. gLilias E. Armstrong and Ida C. Ward. gppdbook of English Intonation (Leipzig. 1926). p. 3. -hb— primarily concerned with its relation to stress in the production of compounds. Intonation is intimately tied up with pitch. for an intonation pattern in reality shows the variations in pitch in a speech sound. And pitch, as Chiba and others have demonstrated in their acoustic studies. is closely related to stress. usually rising when stress increases and falling when stress decreases. Frequently. however. the two are inversely proportional. as is apparent in the intonation patterns of some of the compounds in the present study. Pike lists four pitch phonemes which he calls the building blocks of intonation contours.3 These four levels are: extra high. high. mid. and low and are numbered from one to four. respectively. beginning with extra.high as one. A degree sign precedes the beginning of an intonation contour. He explains: Pitch two is possibly the most frequent level for normal stressed syllables. while pitch four is frequent for unstressed syllables at the end of falling contours, ang pitch three for unstressed syllables elsewhere. There are exceptions. however. he adds. Primary contours always begin with a heavily stressed syllable, and every heavily stressed syllable begins a new 3Coleman uses a scale of one through nine. nine being the highest. yPike. Intonation of American English. p. 2b. -hy- contour. A light contour may be composed of a unit which normally would have a.primary contour. but which for some reason has lost some of the force of its innate lexical stress. Pike points out that Bloch and Trager°s secondary accent / A‘/ should really be interpreted as an innate lexical stress which has become "somewhat (or even totally) suppressed in these particular intonation contexts.“5 Pike insists that far more reliable than stress as a test of compounds is the intonation pattern. Except in unusual cases. he says. a true compound is ". . .FROZEN in such a way that it has lost the normal potential for having a.primary contour or rhythm unit and in the middle of it; this distinguishes the first part of the compound from free words which do have the potential.“6 Even the second part. he adds. has a suppressed stress which "may be homophonous with the suppressed stress of a free word which happens to occur in the middle or at the end of a primary contour."7 What this means is that a true compound is frozen together in such a way that it becomes one word of multiple syllables which has a single rhythm contour. and that the rhythm contour may or may not fall at the end of the word. depending on the context in which it occurs. This factor is 5Ibid.. p. 11. bIbid.. p. 88. 7Ibid. -h8- most immediately apparent in compounds of two short elements. ch s darkroom cheesecloth. reas aint. enknife. su a 2 - h . g 2 gp p 2 - h 2 - Pike points out that it is necessary to indicate the pitch level of only those syllables or sounds which show the main points of the contour; usually there are two or three. one at the beginning and one at the end. occasionally one in the middle if a direction change is indicated. Thus. in the two—syllable compounds like arppit. jppkass. headlight. there are only two contour—points. one on the first element and one on the second element. As the elements of the compoind acquire more syllables. the problem becomes more complex. as with co bo . confgssional box. rgckin chair. The M on the first 52—h} m 2.5 -3 syllable of confessioppl box indicates a.pre—contour. Pike suggests. though he does not follow it up. that there might be several degrees of freezing. rather than an iron~clad division into compounds and phrases. and this appears to be an admirable suggestion. He states that no true compound has a contour-end potential on the first element. but he indicates that in some rapidly spoken combinations. the pause which normally follows a primary contour is lost. so that two or more primary contours or a primary and one or more light contours may appear without a break between them. This phenomenon is called a rhythm unit. A rhythm unit may be the same as a primary contour. or it -h9_ may contain one or more contours so long as there is no intonation break or pause within it. Palmer calls this "word or series of words in connected speech containing one and only one maximum of prominence"8 a tone-group. and he labels the stressed syllable of the most prominent word in the toneagroup as a nucleus. In a compound or combination. the nucleus would correspond to the primary stress. Says Palmer: At certain points the pitch of the voice suddenly changes its direction: it starts falling or rising. The syllable at which the pitch changes its direction is the one that the speaker considers to mark the maximum of prominence in which he is saying.9 Coleman adds: Prominence is invariably accompanied by a sudden turn (rise or fall) in the intonation. Further... it is this intonation turn that gives the prominence. while the stress merely serves to mark where the turn begins. The emphasized syllable may begin lower or higher than the preceding one. but there must occur. either during this syllable. or from it to the next. a sudden fall or a sudden rise. 8Harold E. Palmer. fipglish Intongtion (Cambridge. 1922). p. 3. ' 9Harold E. Palmer. A.Grammar of Spoken English. 2nd ed. (Cambridge. 1939). pp. 13-1“. 193. 0. Coleman. “Intonation and Emphasis.“ In Miscellppep Phoneticg to commemorate the 25th year of Le M tre Phoneti ue. International Phonetic Association (191“). p. l . -50.. Application to ngpounds How does all this apply to compounds? As we have already pointed out. Pike's criterion of intonation quite clearly works with simple compounds of two one-syllable words. like limelight. £9; base. showboat. baseball. and somewhat less obviously in a high-low-high pattern as in cepy boy, rockinggchgig. But how, if at all. does it work with longer and more complex compounds of several syllables? If we remember what was said about the reduction of innate lexical stress when a word appears in subordinate posi- tion. at the same time that we consider the distinction between primary contour and rhythm contour, the problem begins to clear. What has actually happened with longer combinations like telegraph operator, elevator runner. giggpole sitter. and cocktail table. is that the innate lexical stress of the second element has suffered a reduction because of its subordinate position. leaving the second element with optional stress only. then we consider that most of such combinations are spoken rapidly with no pause or intonation break between the two elements, we will realise that what we have is a rhythm contour composed of one primary contour and a second light contour with optional light stress. Furthermore. in analyzing the tape recordings used in the present study. it also becomes apparent that in many of the -51... multiple~syllable combinations the stress and pitch are inversely proportional on the last part. so that the combination has a simple intonation curve despite the secondary stress on the last element. Examples of such patterns occur in fl ole sitter. ”2-5-3-3 cocktail tfible. Although this pronunciation is not universal. O2 _ __ _3 it nevertheless indicates an important trend. and when it does appear it certainly establishes the combination as a compound. Variations on this pattern occur as the final 3 may appear variously as h or h-plus. The pattern of such a combination rarely appears as 02-h—3—h in the present study, except in exceptionally long combinations, which we will discuss later. -52- PART TWO; INTONATION PATTERNS IN WORD GROUPS OR COLLOCATIONS USED AS SUBSTANTIVES Three Classes of Compounds Specifically. then. how do the intonation patterns appear in collocations and possible compounds. and how do the intonation patterns relate to the stress patterns and stress groups already established? With these questions in mind. I checked the tape record- ings a second time to determine the intonation patterns of the selected collocations. Then I sorted these collocations into groups having similar intonation patterns and attempted to correlate these intonation groups with the stress groups pre— viously compiled.11 This resulted in three classes of collocar tions or word groups which. on the basis of the discussion in Chapter III. Part I. may now be considered compounds. Each of the three classes has several sub—classes. The following pages reveal the results of the analysis. First Class Compounds Intogationgpgttegn_°2-M. Combinations falling in Group A which are composed of two elements of one syllable each and which hare the stress pattern of primary—tertiary / ’ \ / show a simple falling intonation pattern of 02-“. Since these combinations also meet the requirements of both initial stress and a single 115ee Chapter II. Part II. -53.. primary contour. they may without doubt be considered true compounds. Examples are: air mail 2 — h bride room a? _ E ut~out g2 _ E roadside 2 - 2 _ housecoat 52 - checkbook 2 - M pégszte h dll ht ‘33—??— n 2-d g 830-0 Sometimes the simple 02—“ curve will appear with a.pre- ci ar store. and reform school. 5—52 - u 'h_°2 - h Still others in the 02-h group include the following: contour. as in receipt book. *h :02 _‘h hepcat mail man air force air base meatballs pay—off bust~up wash-out campfire make-up earrings doorbell landlord searchlight nosegay tuberoses headline poolroom drugstore notebook roommate salesgirl let-down showdown has-been pay day pigpen penknife deadbeat car seat highway cloudburst ashtray prowl car pushcart raincoat Occasionally variations on this pattern occur with individual speakers. though not with any consistency or regularity. Thus Speaker D used a 03-” curve on courthouse. baseball. and deadbegt. whereas Speaker E used a °2-3 pattern on dggkroom and -5h- Main Street. In all the patterns the initial 2 occasionally appeared as 1 when additional stress or voice inflection was desired. The same °g-h curve also appears in two-syllable combina- tions belonging to Group Dul. as postman. fireman. vineyard. woodland. and in the more obvious simplexes like shortness. gather, porter. Therefore. although compounds may have this pattern. the pattern itself does not necessarily indicate a compound. The initial decision must be made on the basis of 12 This is also true stress and form. as we have already said. of other intonation patterns. Intongtiongpgttern °2~h13. °2_u-n. °2-3~h. Still another group of combinations falling in the Ancategory. as well as a few from the B—category. also qualify as compounds on the basis of both stress and intonation. These are combinations of two elements with three syllables having a stress pattern of primary- weakntertiary /"““/; primary—tertiary-weak /”“L7; or primarym tertiary-secondary // \’\/. and having the intonation pattern of °2-u—3 or °2~h~M with occasional variations appearing as 02-3—M. When the pattern appears as 02—hm3. the second syllable takes the intonation turn. and the last syllable rises regardless of how the stress falls. Examples are: 12 566 PP. 28-29. pp. 35~36. and p. 63. service man fingertips 5 E 2 —h -3 2 - - 3 chicken farm face owder 02 __L|, __ 3 02 __ i; 3 teakettle talking—to °2 _u.3 02 —h —3 ic ocket railroad track 02 -E—3 62~ 5 — 3 0 corn b cocktail lounge 02 - E - 3 02 — h — 3 The pattern also appears with three-syllable combinations from Group D—l. as clergyman. artillerymgn. the latter having a pro-contour. Others which have a.pre—contour with this contour pattern are collection box. deliver bo . potato face. banana.peel. E: 62 -E -3 E352-E - 3 h- 2-h -3 h_°2_h —3 Still other compounds in the °2_u.3 category include: atom bomb candlesticks rolling pin college man fountain pen pawn ticket cattle man postage stamp dinner pail meal—ticket pocketbook chorus-girl powder-base mantelpiece traffic light eye shadow newsPaper real estate dressing gown chocolate drops river bank hair ribbon phone number love-making easy chair bartender rumble seat dining room street-walker traffic c0p silverware time table parking lot lgggngtiongpgttern °2~N-N13-02—M—h«h. The 02—N—h—3 intonation pattern is evident in another type of Group A combiner tion which has the stress pattern of primary—weak-tertiary-weak //’U \‘U/ and in a few short combinations in Group B with a /\AU / pattern of primary-tertiary—secondary—weak / . These -55. combinations also frequently appear without the rising intonation on the final syllable. as oZ-h-M-h. Generally one trend or the other is prevalent in the speech of a.particular individual. though some speakers habitually use the 02-h-h—3 except at the ends of sentences where the pattern becomes 02-h~h~h. Here again the combinations would qualify as compounds on the basis of both stress and intonation. Examples are: fgctory-worker baseball 1 er °2_u-u..3 02—5.. if} dressin ~table goldfish swallower 52~h—E—3 02—h-fi_3 clegpsing tissues fl ole sitter 2 ~ - — 3 52 — E ~E: 3 Pre-contours with this same pattern appear in efficiencya egpert. construction compggy. fraternity pin. society editor. insane asylum. Others falling in this 02-h-hu3 category include: charity-worker cattle rustling cocktail party writing career elevator boy copy writer coffee table nervous system boilermaker wrapping paper telephone booth murder dramas roller coaster bowling-alley It would seem. then. that all combinations in Group A and most of the shorter combinations in Group B would qualify as compounds on the basis of both stress and intonation and may be included in the first class. -57- Second Class Compounds Intangion patterns j—h-Pe. 332—14, jigs-33241;). fl 3i3i°5. More difficult to judge are the combinations which have primary stress on the second element and therefore would meet Opposition on the part of scholars like Kenyon who say no combina- tion can be a compound unless it has primary stress on the first element. 0n the basis of our intonation test. however. we may without doubt consider the combination a compound if it has a single primary contour. regardless of the position of the primary accent. Thus. those combinations in Group C having an intonation pattern of 3-u-02. 3-02-M. 3-02. 3—3—02-(h). and 3+3+°3 could rightfully be included in this category. True. they are not always as closely frozen as those in Group A. but they still represent a valid category. Examples are: double— 1 roadside stand """“"17"‘ 3—E-52 3+-3+-3 car door ke cease~fire 3—52-5 3 —-°2 what—have- on do and cat show 3-52~i+ 3-3-°2-E Third Class Compounds A third class of combinations to be considered concerns those word groups which have two contours in a single rhythm unit. arranged with a primary contour preceded by a light contour. ~58... In some individualsc pronunciation these combinations are inclined to have a slight intonation break, so at best they could be considered very unstable. These groups have intonation patterns of 3—h-o2—N. alternating sometimes with h—3~°2—N-(3). and h~3~N—°2~h. If they bear the intonation pattern of h—3—02uh-(3) or if they do app,have an intonation break. they may be considered compounds of the third class on the basis of intonation. I think it can safely be said. however. that their status as compounds is very dubious. What is said here applies chiefly to the longer combinations in Group C. Examples are: nervous bregkdown pgomic power 3 _ h — “é — h u_3_u- °2~u Hol Orders -3-°2- Others include: musical comedy. Adam’s gpple. battle royal. fighter-escort. academic freedom. gtomic eneggy. banana split. gpprentice seamen. Complgx Forms There remain in the present study a relatively large group of combinations which are quite lengthy and which therefore display greater variety in intonation from speaker to speaker. This makes it extremely difficult to determine their true status as compounds. A few of the combinations like gir conditionigg. television sets. gggermelopgpigkle. and persecution complex might qualify as compounds on the basis of individual pronunciation. ~59... This would necessitate having the primary accent fall on the first element so that the intonation pattern would be °2~3_3s(h)n3 (possibly with a pro—contour). thus putting them in Class I. If. however. the accent shifts to the second element. or the rhythm unit takes on a.pattern of °2—h/3—h with an intonation break. the combination is no longer a compound. As Pike says. it is no longer frozen. Others in this group like radiogphonograph. newspaper sxndicate. musich comedy team. banana fritters. banker—millionaire. could be considered compounds of the third class only if they are in individual instances pronounced with a single rhythm unit and without an intonation break. On the basis of evidence in the present study. this seems highly unlikely. Being excluded from classification here does not. however. disqualify these combinations from being considered compounds on some basis other than that of stress and intonation (e.g.. meaning. indivisibility). These considerations are not. however. within the scope of the present chapter. Egpanded Compounds An interesting sidelight on compounding was discovered in connection with the present study when an attempt was made to expand several established compounds to see what effect this would have on their compound character. I "uh-froze" several compounds of the first class and ~bO~ either expanded one of the elements or inserted a modifier between the elements.1 In every case the compound character was retained. though the solidity of the compound was lessened and the class of the compound was changed. The results follow: First Class Second Class car ke 3 pp; door keys 02- 3-02-u chicken farm chicken_and turkey farm 02- N ~ 3 3 ~ 3 °2-h - 3 air base air and naval base 02_ coffee table 02—31 .. 1.3 do show 02"}; dru store 02 _ H field hat 02 _ 3 — 3 — °2—E- 3 coffee and cocktailptable 3- 3 — 02 «N - h~3 dog and ogt show 3—3—m-u drug and candy store 3 ~ 3 - °24h — 3 field hat and lasses 3 — 3 - 02-h Whether or not this characteristic can be considered general is hard to say. More examples would be needed to establish this with certainty. Ice Cream: égProblem of Intongtion We noted in Part II of Chapter II that the combination ice cream was particularly unstable. not only from Speaker to speaker. but also within the speech of a single individual. 13See Chapter V. Part I. -bls Itis interesting to note. therefore. the multiplicity of inumation patterns which appeared in the use of this particular womigroup. We found it variously pronounced o2—H. °2~3. 3-02. 3-03. u+°2. 03-°3. and °2—°2. Since it most frequently occurs in a pattern that would 7 mudify it as a compound. as 02—h. 02—3, 3—02. 02—2. )—°3. or h+°2. I think it can safely be considered a compound. although its class might vary according to the Specific pronunciation. §BEE§£1 Generally speaking. then. the test of intonation is helpful in separating compounds from phrases. There are three classes of compounds determined on the basis of intonation. They are as follows: First Class. 1. ‘6243 (includes all two-syllable combinations of Group A. as ggmpit. jgyride, road—hog. but not of Group D-l. postman. fireman. sincputhese last have been determined to be simplexes ). 2. °2-h—3. 02-H-N, °2-3—h (includes three—syllable combinations of Group A as capy.bpy. service mpp and Group C as railrQQd track, cocktpgl lounge). 3. OE—U—U-j. 02-h—E-E (includes four—syllable combinations of Group A. as boat officer. roller coaster. coffee table. and of Group B as newspaper man, railroad mpgnate. steamship agent). Second Cl 88. 1. 353% as 93.92.2239. 2. 3—02-h. as best seller 1hSee pp. 28—29. pp. 35-38. and p. 5“. .. 52.. a. 3-°2. as Eagles . 3—3—°2—(N). as bigg°s~eye view 5. 3+3+°3. as fireside chpp;5 Third Class. l. 3-!- 2-h. as nervous brapkdown 2. u—3~°a—h-(3), as Holy Orders 3. h_3_h_°2_h, as atomic power Thus. if a combination fits the stress pattern of Group A. it is without doubt. a compound. If it is one of the shorter zombinations having a Group B stress pattern. it is probably a :ompound. If it is a longer combination in Group B or a combina— tion with a Group C stress pattern, it is subject to question. and compounding can be determined only on the basis of intonation. With the exception of the combinations in the D-1 classification. which we have already said are to be considered simplexes. all combinations in Group D must be decided on individual character— istics. Wherever possible it is advisable to determine compound— ing on the basis of the stress test which is much easier to apply and can indeed often be judged by one's own speech. Where the stress test will not work. the only way to determine a compound is by obtaining the intonation pattern. and this can safely be done only by means of recordings or other mechanical contrivances. For intonation. one cannot safely rely on one°s own Speech. 15All second class and most third class compounds fall in Group C of the stress classifications. ..b)... The Triple Test of Compounds On the basis of the discussion thus far. then. it would :ppeaw’that a triple test is necessary for identifying compounds: First. they must have at least two independent elements; second. Lhey must have at least two stresses stronger than light to separate them from simplexes which may have only one accent stronger than light; and third. they must have a single primary intonation contour or rhythm unit to distinguish them from phrases. The requirement of a meaning which differs in some degree from the meaning of the elements taken separately must also be taken into consideration; for discussion of this point. see Chapter V. Part II. ~bh- PART THREE: A NOTE ON INTERNAL OPEN JUNCTURE A.Point of Dispute The relationship of internal Open juncture to the problem ’ compounding has been a point of dispute among scholars. Some. .ke Trager and Smith. state that while internal Open juncture Lows a definite relationship between the parts of a compound fl; pes not necessarily disqualify a combination from being considered compound. Others, like Pike. however. maintain that the juncture. rich is equivalent to an intonation break. indicates that the lit is not frozen and is therefore not a true compound. In studies by Bloch. Trager. and Smith. the discussion of acondary accent /‘A / is accompanied by a description of internal gen juncture or plusujuncture. the latter term being derived rom the plus—sign used to designate these junctures in print. They distinguish this internal Open juncture from external pen.juncture and close juncture as follows: The transition from the pause preceding an isolated utterance to the first segmental phoneme. and from the last segmental phoneme to the following pause. we call open juncture. By contrast. the transition from one segmental phoneme to the next within the utterance (whether this is a morphologically simple form like black. port. or a morphologically complex one like blacker6 importagion. the man) we call close juncture. 16George L. Trager and Bernard Bloch. "The Syllabic honemes of English." Language. XVII (19141). 225. -55.. Open juncture occurs internally in some utterances. These 'e always derivatives. compounds. phrases~~never simple words. :ompare syntax (with close juncture between the two syllables): Ln—tax 'a tax on tina (with open juncture; drawled (n) similar «17 > (n) before pause);... In Outline of Linguistic Analysis. Bloch and Trager give further eXplanation: In minus the juncture is CLOSE. in slyness (as attested by the greater length of the diphthong) it is OPEN. The three words nitrate. night—rate and dye-trade illustrate three ways of joining sounds in the sequence [aItT3. In the latter examples. nitrate exemplifies close juncture. nd night-rate and dye-trade display internal Open juncture. A erceptible pause is necessary in the latter two combinations in rder for the speaker to be clearly understood. Pike takes issue with Bloch and Trager”s insistence on lear—cut distinctions among the types of junctures. maintaining hat such junctures are not uniform among different speakers. e quotes Moulton as follows: ”This segmental phoneme has the following allophones: at the beginning or end Of an utterance it appears as a.pause of indeterminate duration: +"tail+. — +ta'blet+; within an utterance it appears either as a pause of brief duration or in free variation with 1 7Ibid. 8 Bernard Bloch and George L. Trager. Outline of Linguistic mgxsis (Baltimore. Md... 19u2). p. 36. —66- this as zero....” ”...Only the zero a110phone occurs at morphological boundaries within words (usually only between the constituents of compound words)“. lke criticizes Bloch and Trager"s failure to take into account ptional pronunciations of various kinds. As applied to compounds and combinations. this factor of iternal Open juncture is an interesting but elusive one. In 1e present study it appeared Optionally in simple two—syllable >mpounds like ggmpit. joy ride. rumble seat. hay stack among ary precise speakers. Generally speaking. however. there was > perceptible pause in such simple constructions. In connection with compounds. however. Trager and Smith re chiefly concerned with the more complicated constructions 7 several syllables. especially those employing secondary ;ress on the second element. Such combinations as elevator runner. iilw§y ticket. gpldfish swallowgg are examples of such construc- .Ons. in which Trager and Smith maintain that plus—juncture :curs between the two main elements, here marked by a space. Even on this point. however. Pike disagrees. feeling that 'equently among speakers the plus-juncture is replaced by zero .lophone. Our analysis of the intonation patterns of these ~nstructions as having a single rhythm unit without an intonation 'eak. thus allowing them to be considered true compounds. would I: — 1 9Kenneth Pike. "Grammatical Prerequisites to Phonemic .alysis.“ Word. 111 (19h7), 171. ~b7~ em to bear out Pike°s theory.20 It is entirely possible that dividual speakers might pronounce these combinations with an tonation break or plus—juncture. particularly speakers of ecise or pedantic speech. But the majority of speakers. unciating rapidly and articulating less clearly would run ese words together into one rhythm unit without an intonation ‘eak. thus without true plus-juncture. For fuller discussion of the intonation break. see Parts and II Of Chapter III in this study. CHAPTER FOUR THE PROBLEM OF SPRLLING (HYPHENATION) Widespread Inconsistency Although spelling (hyphenation) is not proposed as a test f compounds. an understanding of this aspect of the subject is eceesary before we can go on to the tests of divisibility and caning. For many years linguistic scholars and rule-book makers ave occupied themselves with the problem of hyphenation in ’riting compounds. Scholars like Carr. Graff. Bergeten.IBryant. eepereen. Krapp. Partridge. and Paul have attempted to classify :ompounds on the basis of grammatical relationships and parts of 1 2 and Kennedy3 have tried to describe :peech. A few like Bergsten ind explain current usage of hyphens on the basis of stress or grammatical relationships between the parts of the compound or :Ombination. Most scholars. however. confine themselves to I___— 1Such classifications are not particularly helpful. however. since it is Often difficult to judge with certainty what part of speech a word is in many combinations. Krapp also points out that analysis is contrary to the idiom of the language. and we have already noted that a compound functions as a single part of speech so that identification of its elements in this manner is unnecessary. eNile Bergsten. A Study on Compound Substantivee in Egglish (Uppsala. 1911). p. 125. 3Arthur Garfield Kennedy. Current English (Boston. 1935). pp. 252-253. -bgc aneral observations. and admit that inconsistencies among authors 1d even within the writing of a single author make detailed aservations and prescriptions of doubtful value. Conventional grammarians and rule—book makers for the U. S. avernment Printing Office and various publishing houses. totally :asperated.with what they term “chaotic practice" on the part of 3th authors and.publishers. have attempted to formulate detailed annals for writers and printers in an effort to achieve some con- istency in.published material. But even they admit their own sfeat. One of them. John Benbow. writes: "Don‘t expect. or hope 0 find or attain. consistency in hyphening.'u At another point e observes: "If you take hyphens seriously you will surely gp ad.‘ Sons of the attempts to prescribe use of the hyphen result n ridiculous distinctions which could never be put into practice ith.any degree of uniformity. On. such is pum forth by E. N. eall when he writes: School-teacher would mean one who teaches a school; schoolteacher. one who schoolteaches. And-agghgg;| teacher would mean a teacher who does his or her work in a school--not in colle e. nor privately. 'It°s a word of identification. l‘John Benbow. Manuscript and Proof (New York. 1938). p. 95. 53. N. Tsall. fleet Mr.ggzphen and Put Him in His Place 86' York. 1937). p- 96' -70.. Hamilton. Teall. and Ball have each prescribed what they 1n acceptable usage. But professional writers. laymen. and m the printers for whom the rule-books were published continue ignore the prescription. It is not at all unusual to find on :ingle page by one author the same word writ ten solid. as two 'ds. and hyphenated. And if a single author is so inconsistent. Lt can we hope for in uniformity among many authors? Two things are apparent: spelling or hyphenation is to me extent an indication of style. and the trend in spelling ar the past 35 years has been away from the use of the hyphen. ier authors like Sinclair Lewis. writing in the 1920’s. have 1eavily hyphenated style: Babbitt U922). for example. is rating with hyphens. Over a period of years. however. Lewis a lost some of his enthusiasm for this connective: with W (191;?) the percentage of hyphens decreases. though hyphenated werds still far outnumber either the solid two-word forms. Other authors writing more recently do not on to care for hyphenated forms; in almost every case but that Tennessee Williams (Streetcg Named Desire. 191‘?) in the essnt study. hyphenation came out a poor third in the forms presented in the writing of any given author. A few writers ks John DosPassos. wishing to give the impression of speed 'compression or informality. prefer solid forms to the extent .at whole phrases are run together to obtain a special effect. -71- samples are sonofgbitch. matteroffact. and dggyanke . Relationship_§stween Intonation and Spelligg Although hyphenation or spelling cannot be said to be a ital consideration for one who is concerned primarily with uditory phenomena. it might be well to consider the problem riefly and try to determine whether or not there is any connec- ion between intonation.patterns and the form (i.e.. spelling. yphenation) which a word group takes when it appears in print. n other words. is there a connection between intonation and pelling? Between intonation and style? Might a.writer sub- onsciously take intonation into account when writing a compound r word group on the page? Guessing what goes on in any writer's mind as he composes is thoughts on paper is. at best. a mighty risky business. But acts do not lie. And when we compare the intonation patterns ained by listening to our tape recordings with the forms of hose same words taken from current American literature. some nteresting trends become apparent. First. it might be well to eXplain how the citations were btained. A.variety of examples of American writing which dated rom 1922 (Babbitt) to 1951 (The Cains Mutigy) and 1952 (23mg, aturdgy Review. and New Yorker). and ranging in style from Mickey pillane to the AAUP Bulletin was used for gathering materials. hese writings were examined and citations taken from a sizable -72- 6 A total of more than 6000 portion of each of some 26 works. citations was obtained. Using the words which were employed in the oral part of the study. I investigated the written citations to see what forms these same words took in print. Some of the words appeared once. some of them several times. some of them not at all. Tabulations were made to compare the forms of the words with the intonation patterns; results were obtained both for the total number of citations in any one class of compounds (including repetitions of the same word) and for the total number of individual words (not including repeats of the same word). A total of 1037 citations representing M79 combinations were included. Results were then compiled as follows: First Class Compounds Intonation pattern .2-N. The majority of first class compounds which have a simple intonation pattern of o2J4 are written solid. Specific results were as follows: Based on total number of citations in this category: 1 word: 321: or 73 .b3% Hyphen: 59 or 13,u % 2 words: or 12. Total ugé' 95% Based on total number of individual werds (exclusive of repeats): l word: 129 or 62.318% Hyphen: 21 or lO.lhh% 2 words: 31 or lh.975$ Divided: 26 or 12.56 $ Total ‘207 6For the complete list see pp. 130—131. -73- Examples of solid compounds in this category are: armchair doorknob necktie archway doorbell nutshell bridegroom eyebrow playmate billboard earrings punchboard blackmail football roommate baseball grownups redhead barnyard headache roadhouse baseboard headlights raincoat bathroom hangout showdown bedroom handout searchlight blackboard lipstick sunlight bookcase lookout washout courthouse mainspring yardstick catcall moonlight Others in the same intonation pattern were written as two words. In some instances little reason can be seen for the difference. although in other cases confusion might result from complete coalescence. as in cathouse for cat house or viceripg for vipe ring. Examples follow: air mail cat house oak tree air force car seat prowl car air base car key plane crash ash can dance hall race track ball park dime store sheep dog ball game fence post school board cold cuts fist fight sheath dress crap game field hat shore leave check room mine field tom cat call box nest egg task force Those compounds which were written with a hyphen are a bit more distinctive in that they include verb-adverb combinations which might be confusing if written in either of the other two forms.7 7Generally speaking. verb-adverb combinations used as nouns are written solid or hyphenated. the reason probably being that separation would give the adverb an independence and importance which would confuse the reader. -714— In some instances they represent inversions of normal syntactical order. Examples are: bust-up hell-cat sail—boat bookhends he-togs make-up cure—all know-how say-so come-on let-down send-off eye-ball man-days she-dog first-born payaoff tip-off has-been run—in take—off Twenty-six of the 20? compounds evidenced divided usage. The ones listed are in the form most frequently encountered. armpit housecoat shortcut ash tray ice pick teacup bathtub ice cube taillight checkbook jackpot trademark drugstore payday whorehouse fireplace shirt-tail Intonppgpnpppgterp_?2-Ng3. As soon as we get away from the simple twousyllable compounds. the results are much less conclusive. There is a definite trend away from the solid form. although it still runs a close second to the two~word form. The hyphened form still is not much in favor. The tabulations for the °2~M~3 pattern follow: Based on total number of citations in this category: 1 word: 12} or 38.h3 % Hyphen: 58 or 18.125% 2 words: 159 or h3.h37% Total: 320 Based on total number of individual word (exclusive of repeats): 1 word: 37 or 25.695% Hyphen: 20 or 13.889% 2 words: 65 or 15.13875 Divided: 2 or 15.277% Total: 1 -75.. Spelled as one word were the following compounds: applesauce bellyache newspaper bartender bodyguard pocketbook buttonhole candlelight passageway bookkeeper chambermaid postmaster bandwagon manslaughter streetwalker battlefield masterpiece sharpshooter The largest percentage of the compounds in this class were written as two words. Examples are the following: altar rail bathing suit pawn ticket apron strings cocktail lounge parking lot army camp cocoa cup shaving cream breakfast nook fountain pen street corner blood pressure ghost story sun glasses bus station license plate slot machine bank account movie star traffic cop bull session orange crate Among the relatively few hyphenated forms were the following: asking-price bridge-table family-man book—agent boxing-gloves half-brother ballet—dancer cabin-boy love—making baby-talk chorus-girl make-believe bone—structure eye—shadow wage-earner Those displaying divided usage included the following: businessman beer bottle basketball motor car boardinghouse man power card table rocking chair dressing gown timetable dining-room. dining room tablecloth fingernail waiting room. waitingaroom fingertips Intenption patterpro2—h-Ma3. As the compounds begin to take on more syllables. they tend to lose their solidity of visual form. By the time we reach the intonation pattern of °2~h-h-3. we find that none of the compounds in the present study which conformed to -75.. this pattern were written solid. Statistics follow: Based on the total number of citations in this category: 1 word: none Hyphen: 25 or 2 words: [0 or Total: 95 26. 1 73.883? Based on the total number of individual words (exclusive of repeats): l word: none Eyphen: 15 or 2 words: 19 or Divided: b or Total: 50 Included among those compounds the following: aircraft carrier baking powder bowling alley coffee table college professor labor union market basket mercy killing Hyphenated forms included: air—conditioning bankppresident charity-worker chewing—tobacco dressmaking—scissors ‘ £22? 15 % written as two words are nervous system newsreel theater ocean liner railway ticket studio couch sugar cocky safety razor vacuum cleaner efficiency—egpert get-together roller-coaster tissue-paper Divided usage was found among the following: bottle~0pener. bottle opener dressing table. dressing-table drinking water. drinking-water filling station. filling-station labor leader. labor-leader water color. water-color 8 See p. 73 . footnote 7. -77... Second Class Compounds Second class compounds were not encountered in sufficient number to make percentages at all reliable. The evidence points to the fact. however, that as the compounds spread.out and as the primary accent shifts to the final element, the compounds increasingly lose their solidity and the two-word form is in most instances preferred. No solid forms were encountered, and very few hyphens were in evidence. Two-word compounds included: armored car case history ice tea barbed wire civil rights nervous breakdown bass drum dollar bill bedside table black market ice cream soda public address burnt cork system Hyphened forms included: best-sellers lookhsee cease—fire Johnny-come-lately eye-witness what-have—you Third Class and NOn-Compounds Generally speaking, the longer the compounds or combinations become, the more likely they are to be written as two words, except for unusual combinations like radio—phonogrgph and banker-millionaire. Once in awhile a long phrase will be run together either because that is a characteristic of the author's style (as with DosPessos) or to give the impression of speed. compression. or sleppy pronunciation. as in sonofabitch, matteroffact. and dggyankee. Usually, however, the long ones are written as separate words. -73.. Examples are: academic freedom original sin atomic bomb roadside stand banana fritters watermelon pickle foreign correspondent Most of these combinations are subject to some question about their qualifications as compounds. For more details on this point. see Chapter III, Part II. Summary From the data presented here. there appears to be a relationship between spelling and intonation; the exact nature of the relationship. however. is very difficult to describe. It can be said. generally. that coalescence and intonation are directly preportional. That is. the simpler the intonation curve. the more likely the combination or compound is to be written solid. The longer and more complex the combination becomes. the more likely it is to be written as separate words. Only these compounds with heavy accent on the first element ('2—h or °2-h—3) are written solid unless a.specia1 effect (e.g.. speed. style) is wanted. As yet these can be considered only trends. however. They can not be used as tests for compounds. The inconsistency among writers precludes any absolute standard. CHAPTER FIVE PART ONE: THE FACTOR.OF DIVISIBILITY Tendency Toward Indivisibilitx ‘One of the important tests of a true compound. according to Bloomfield. is that of indivisibility. The theory is that if a combination has become sufficiently established to be considered a compound.1 it has taken on an identity of its own which cannot be disturbed by injecting a foreign element. As Bloomfield points out. "The plant-name jack-in-the-pulpit cannot be modified by putting the word litglg in front of pulpit. but the corresponding phrase permits of this and other expansions.'2 He adds that this rule is almost universally good. but later back-tracks by saying that ”it is impossible to make a rigid distinction between forms that may and forms that may not be spoken in absolute position."3 In the present study it is apparent that many compounds are indeed indivisible. that is. they cannot ordinarily be modified by injecting another word or modifier between the elements. Examples of these are: blackmail. book-end. cgnebrake. cotton gin. g£§£t_ board. goldfish. man—hours. yule-log. and compounds beginning er ___‘__ 13o truly objective test had at that point been formulated. gLeonard Bloomfield. ggnguggg.(New York. 1933). p. 180. 31bid.. p. 181. ~80— ending with an adverb. as: Hystander. downbeat. downtrodden. cut-off. frame-pp. stand—in. come-on. tgzg_t. In each of the above cases. dividing the compound would change the figurative meaning and destroy the unity of the expression. possibly even confuse the reader or listener. In these and similar cases. therefore. the modifier. if any. precedes the compound. rather than interrupts it. as: innocent bystander. movie stand-in. 2121 tgzputs. glass book-ends. four goldfish. burning yEle-log. Possible Types of Divisibility In other cases. however. where unity of the compound is not so necessary and meaning is less figurative. certain types of divisibility are possible. though this certainly changes the character of the compound. One may compound or expand the first element. compound or expand the second element. or inject a modifier between the elements. Expansion of First Element The first type of divisibility--compounding or expanding the first element—«is probably the most common and the least confusing. as: air base: air and naval base drip coffee: drip or percolator coffee coffee table: coffee and cocktail table agcount book: account and bank book cgcktgil 2§£323 cocktail and coke party railway stgtign: railway and bus station gggg store: drug and candy store dgg show: dog and cat show ghig£££_£agms chicken and turkey farm As we have already pointed out in Chapter III. Part 11. examples of these expansions used in the oral part of the present study established the fact that the expanded form of the simpler compound was still a compound but a compound of a different class. Thus. ir base. a compound of the first class with a °2~h intonation pattern becomes a compound of the second class when expanded to air and naval base (}~}—°2-N—3). A similar change is apparent in the other groups listed above. except that some compounds like cgcktgil pgrty (°2—u—u—3) and rgilwg stgtion (°2~h~h—3) here more complex intonation patterns to begin with. An important point to remember when determining divisibility is that such division can. of course. be made only when the meaning is not obscured and when the connection between the second element of the compound (that is. bags) and the first element of the compound modifier (that is.‘gi£) is perfectly clear. In other words. the reader or listener must be fully aware that we are speaking of a base for both air and naval elements. Expansion of Second Element A second means of dividing a compound is to expand or compound the second element of the original combination. When this is done. the stress may shift because of the necessity of sense-stress. but to be a compound. the combination must meet the requirements of the intonation test. Because of the nature of these examples. it will be evident that the compound character ~82— of the combinations is highly unstable and might even be subject to question with some justification. At best. they vary with the individual mpeaker and the context. Examples: boat officer: boat crew and officer folding_tab1e: folding chair and table finger bowl: finger towel and bowl field glasses: field hat and glass s farmland: farm house and land There are two other problems here--that of unity and that of clarity. Whereas with the first type of expansion we were concerned with a single object. as air and naval base. we are here concerned with more than one object. as field hat and glasses. Thus we have lost the unity of meaning which is a characteristic of true compounds.5 The problem of clarity also enters here. To a greater extent than with an expanded first element. there is a problem of understandability. For example. does folding modify both ‘ghgi; and EgQIg. or does it modify only ghgigj The same question might be asked of fimger towel_gpggbowl and field hat and glasses. Thus. this type of divisibility. though possible. is probably less likely than that involving the expansion of the first element. a Note the alternate intonation curves. as field glasses (02-h—3) becomes field hat and glasses (°2—M—M- h—3 or 3-3-3- Z—h) dfigger2 bowl (62—N-3) becomes figger towel gpd bowl (°2—h—h—h-3 or 3-3 3~2 5 See discussion in Chapter V. Part II. -53- Although it meets the test of intonation in most instances. it lacks the necessary unity and clarity. Insertion of Modifier The third.pattern of divisibility involves the insertion of a modifier between the two elements of the compound. As has already been pointed out. there are many times when this cannot be done. We can. for example. any drug store and drug and grocegy store. but not dppg cgrngr stgrg. Modifiers may. however. be injected into such compounds as: car keys: car door keys Epglish woman: English noble woman factory worker: factory metal worker Epintimg spell: fainting sick spell zggture writer: feature story writer fence pickets: fence gate pickets foreigp policy; foreign trade policy. foreign relations policy These combinations are difficult to analyse. Do we. for example. have an expanded compound? Or do we have a compound plus an extra word which either modifies or is modified by the true compound? Do we not, in feature story writer. have a compound. feature stogz. which in turn modifies writer? The some might hold true for foreigp trade policy and foreigp relations policy. On the other hand with English noble woman. factogy metal worker. and fpinting sick spell. do not the last two elements comprise a compound modified by the first element. as noble woman. modified by Epglish? Bloomfield mentions this. too. giving wild-gnimgl-house -SM— and doorknob—wiper as his examples.6 This is a point which would be impossible to resolve to everyone's satisfaction. and need not trouble us if we return to the intonation test to determine compounds. Allowing fer individual pronunciations which might invalidate the conclusions in certain instances. it is fairly safe to say that all of the above except fpgfiure story writer would doubtless qualify as compounds on the basis of intonation. at least part of the time. Eggture story writer. which was pronounced with multiple intonation curves in the present study. does not qualify as a compound. In a majority of the instances mentioned in this third type of divided compound. the injected modifier adds little if anything to the clarity of the statement. In a few instances. the meaning might actually be changed from that implied in the original compound. Note: black men-‘old black men. black old men. Preliminary Summary It has therefore been determined that with some compounds. established by the test of intonation. one of three types of divisibility may be possible: 1. Compounding or expansion of the first element 2. Compounding or expansion of the second element 3. Insertion of modifier between the two elements 6Bloomfield. Langggge. p. 227. -55.. In any case. if divisibility is possible. a shift of stress and thus also a shift in intonation pattern accompanies it. thus changing the compound from one class to another. Correlption Between Divisibilityfpnd Intgpgtion Having established the fact that some compounds determined by the test of intonation are divisible and some are not. I under- took next to determine what correlation. if any. existed between this factor of divisibility and the already established tests of stress and intonation. First Class Compounds Intopption;p§ttern :g:&. It has already been established that most of the compounds of the first class that have an intone? tion.pattern of 02—“ are written solid.7 Of these the following are among those which also appear to meet the test of indivisibility: bridegroom bedbug deadbeat billboard bedroom eyebrow buckboard blackboard heartbreak blackmail blowout headline boardwalk barroom landlord baseball courthouse oilcloth blockhead creampuff pushcart baseboard catcall poolroom bathroom darkroom throwback beachhead yardstick Although it cannot be said with certainty that solid words in this category are never divisible. I think it would be safe to say that this very seldom happens. 7For details. see Chapter IV. Hyphenated forms in this categor toward divisibility. bust-up book-ends cure-all come-on has—been -Sb~ Examples: hell-cat know-how man-days make-up pay-off y show even less inclination sail-boat say-so she-dog Two-word forms. on the other hand. show a trend toward possible division. as the already mentioned air and naval base from air base. field hat and glasses from field glasses. and car door key from car key. dog show: beer hall: dime store: Others include: dog and cat show beer and dance hall dime and candy store Even here. however. there is still a strong unity as with: ball park ball game cold cuts crap game check room cat house fist fight mine field nest egg prowl car shore leave task force Some of these combinations like drugstore (drug store. drug-store). and check room (checkroom. check-room) may of course be written in two or three different ways. the above observations are subject to modification. When this happens. Intonation pattern °2_u.3. The test of indivisibility is fairly accurate for compounds with intonation pattern °2-H—3 which are written solid. applesauce bartender buttonholes bookkeeper bawdyhouse Examples: bandwagon barrelhead headmaster landlady matchmaker masterpiece passageway streetwalker -37... Other forms which probably are indivisible include: amking~price make-believe mortar board baby-talk box office meal ticket chorus~girl bull session potato face eye-shadow boogy man slot machine Still others in this class. particularly hyphenated and two~word forms,may on occasion be split. Examples are: orgnge crate: orange and berry crate ballet dgncer: ballet and toe dancer bus station: bus and railway station Intonationgggttern °2~M—M:3. Compounds with intonation pattern °2~h~h~3 which probably would not be split include: baking powder mercy killing father-in-law bowling alley studio couch rollerecoaster gossip column air—conditioning get~together insane asylum There are numerous compounds here which may be divided. however; among them are; chewing tobacco: chewing and smoking tobacco coffee table: coffee and cocktail table cocktail party: cocktail and coke party Second Class Compounds Indivisible compounds of the second class probably include the following: burnt cork lookhsee case history barbed wire odd Job damn Yankee cease-fire strip~tease nervous breakdown hell's bells best-sellers poker face ice tea Note. however. that although ice tea is indivisible. the form iced tea (iced blag; tea) is not. -88.... Other divisible compounds of the second class include: black market: black and gray market drip coffee: drip and percolator coffee Third Class and Non~Compounds Indivisible combinations of the third class and similar non—compounds probably include: radio—phonogrgph. son of‘g bitch. and battle royal. Exceptions like watermelon and peach pickles from watermelon pickle and foreign and home correspondents from foreigg:corresoogdent refer to more than one object and thus lack the unity we have said is necessary. Conclusions Thus we can see that divisibility is closely tied up with meaning. The more figurative the meaning of a compound. the less likely it is to be easily divisible. With expanded compounds. the resulting combination should still describe a gigglg.object or idea; when it does not. there is some question about its being a compound. although intonation patterns might lead us to consider it so. Furthermore. we can see that short solid compounds are less likely to be divisible than long. loosely connected compounds or combinations. This is not. however. a positive test for determining compounds. For although we might conceivably establish that some combinations which do not qualify as compounds on the balls of intonation. could qualify as compounds if we include the -89.. factor of divisibility. this factor is by no means a dependable criterion for judging compounds. Even in already well established compounds which meet the oldest test of stress. the factor of divisibility is by no means universally applicable. -90. PART TWO: THE SEMANTIC ASPECT A Difficult Test A.maJority of the scholars who concern themselves with the visual rather than the auditory aspect of compounding have advocated stress. indivisibility. and meaning as the three criteria for determining a compound. Of these three the criterion of meaning is doubtless the most subjective and the most difficult to apply. It does. nevertheless. offer an interesting point for speculation. Meanigg of Whole Differs From Thgt of Egrts Among those scholars who mention meaning as an important method for distinguishing compounds from word groups are Bryant. Bloomfield. Paul. Bergsten. Graff. Pittman. Kennedy. Jespersen. Onions. Bodmer. Ball. and Teall. Teall puts it this way: "A compound is any combination or collocation of words in which their separate force and meaning give way to a new unit of expression in which they c00perate."8 The first step toward isolation. says Paul. is a signification of the whole “which does not precisely tally with that which results from the Juxtaposition of the several elements. .. [The result is that single elements of the 8 E. N. Teall. Meet Mr- Eyphen and Put Him in his Place (New York. 1937). p. 29. -91- combination] come no longer clearly into consciousness.“9 Essentially these scholars seem to agree that a subtle change in meaning. which varies in degree from compound to compound. takes place in all word groups which can clearly be distinguished as compounds. They point out. however. that a change in meaning does not necessarily always mean that a group has become a compound. What they seem to be saying is that a compound is in a sense an idiom. and Kennedy explains this idiom as: A.phrase that has developed a meaning of its own which cannot be readily analyzed into the several distinct ideas which would ordinarily be expressed by the individual words making up the phrase....[They] often start out as ungrammatical eXpressions which do not conform to the regular grammatical rules or practices. The shift of meaning which characterizes compounds is usually exemplified by a contrast such as that between black bird (a bird which is blank in color) and blackbird (a bird of a particular species). Other examples might include brick yard as opposed to brickygrd. light house as Opposed to lighthouse; green house as contrasted with greenhouse. red coat as contrasted with redcogt. yellow jacket as Opposed to yellowjacket. The distinction comes of course in the meaning rather than in the form. We have already seen that many compounds are not written solid. 9Hermann Paul. Prigciples of the History of W. 2nd ed.. trans. H. A. Strong (n.p.. 1891). p. 373. 10 Arthur Garfield Kennedy. English Usgge (New York. 19h2). p. 109. _92.. The distinction. says Paul, should be sought in the nature of the psychological grouping. Some of the combinations have become so common that we never consider what the words would mean if we were to take them literally. This is particularly true of slang expressions like crackpot. egghead. potato face. deadbegt; of terms referring to sports or professions like touchdown. put-out. double—plgy. draft board. headline. breakover. footlights. and greasepaint: and of other everyday expressions like armpit. bird—dog. foodstuff. ice cream. 202corn. slot machine. real estate. nest egg. bananaasplit. flat-iron. fountain pen. "The one essen— tial point is that the whole as such be in some way isolated from the elements of which it is composed.“ says Paul. adding that this degree of isolation which is necessary "to cause the fusion to pass into a compound“ cannot. however. "be expressed in any universally appliCable definition.“11 On this last point about the impossibility of applying an objective test. Bloomfield agrees with Paul.12 The change of meaning is more obvious with some compounds than with others; but with the less figurative expressions there is much room for disagreement because the test (if indeed it can be called a test) is so completely subjective. 11 Paul. Principles. pp. 372~373. 12 Leonard Bloomfield. ngggggg (New York. 1933). p. 227, -93.. Conciseness of Compounds When noting the characteristic of meaning change in some of the compounds found in the present study. some interesting observations can be made. Jespersen points out: The merit of compounds lies in their conciseness. as compared with paraphrases following the usual syntactic rules; thus. a railwgy-compgny is a “company running a railway”....Compounds express a relation between two objects or notions. but say nothing of the way in which the relation is to be understood. That must be inferred from the context or otherwise.13 He adds. however. that ambiguity seldom occurs except occasionally in new or rare compounds. For example. from the form of bird—dog one could scarcely guess that the animal in question is a dog used for hunting birds. or from headline that the item is a title (line) used at the tOp (head) of the page of a newspaper. Yet few Americans would mistake either of these compounds even when seeing them out of context. Highly Figurative Meaning When applying the characteristic of meaning change to some of the compounds in the present study. some interesting observations can be made. It is astonishing. for example. to note how much can be said by the mere juxtaposition of two words. Note: bgpanarsplit (a dessert made of split bananas topped with scoops of ice cream 13Otto Jespersen. A.Modern Egglish Grgmmar. Vol. VI (Heidelberg. 1927). p. 137. -9Mu and flavored syrup): cheapskate (a fellow who wants to get the most for the least money or effort): cover girl (a girl who makes a living by posing for pictures to be placed on the covers of magazines); paddle pop (a square of ice cream covered with a coating of chocolate and fastened on a stick); orppge crate (a crate for packing and shipping oranges or other fruit); rolling pin (a cylindrical piece of wood. metal. glass. or china which is used for rolling paStTY). And consider how much would have to be said to explain: hangpail. oilcloth. come-on. Shakedown. slot maghine. cold crepp. bawdy house. roundup. roller coaster. bobby—soxer. hepcat. cheesecake. street-walker. Adam”s gpple. strip tease. black market. Beyond a doubt the practice of compounding makes for great economy of language! Among other compounds in the present study with highly figurative meaning were the following: backlog barn-burner (popular girl) bellyaching (complaining) brickbats cottonmouth crackpot cutthroat drawback bridgework bull session bull shooting (gossiping. talking) drawback nuthouse pay—off wash-cut time table quarterback say—so scapegoat take—off tryout butterball (a person) butterfly by-line cold cuts cat beer (milk) catch phrase fiddlesticks firecracker firewater floor show flophouse fourflusher showdown has—been real estate rumble seat hell—cat slot machine kickback boilermaker (a drink) turncoat tightwad what-haye-you shakedown Other Figurative Compounds Perhaps not quite so far off the beaten track but still a long way from the meanings of the original components were the following: asking—price cracker family flatcar alarm clock crap game flower-bed battle royal creampuff (a.person) fly-rod bandwagon crosstie foot locker bandy legs crow's-nest fortune-teller bank note cubbyhole foul—up bank teller cure-all fox hole baseboard cutaway frameuup battle wagon cut—off funny paper bellboy cutworm ceaseufire bellhop dragonfly forget—me-nots arc-light driftwood cheesecloth ball diamond driveway limelight blackboard drydock saddle shoes blackmail dry goods drip coffee blockhead dugout poker face blowback bull's~eye Johnny—come-lately blowhard bumble bee matchmaker blue Jeans busboy bird's—eye view boot-lickers bust—up dime store box office butterbean dragnet brain shark byplay end table brain trust byways ice tea breadbasket cold shots meal—ticket (slang) breakwater car pool insane asylum checkup cartwheel studio couch composing room cat house powder—base coon°s age catwalk lipstick copy writer evergreens talking-to country club eye-shadow let—down court-martial face—powder cloudburst cowpuncher finger bowl prowl car cow-town flashback pushcart -96- roadhouse run—in nurssmaid reform school roundup nutshell roughnecks call box pamsport searchlight card table punchboard taillight clearinghouse sharpshooter fireplace coffee table sheath dress sidewalk darkroom shore leave sheep~dog firing squad sweatbox screwdriver knowhow task force billboard lookout cold war brownups mercy killing color guard tip-off mixup blind alley billfold money order Less Figurative Compounds On the other hand. at the Opposite end of the scale is another large group of compounds whose meaning is fairly obvious. and about which there might be disagreement concerning figurative versus literal meaning. Such are: confessional box bedpost doghouse burnt cork bedroom dollar bill college professor bird cage headache buttonhole birthday innkeeper teacup pigpen meatballs oak tree ashcan college man car door key apple tree roadside television set boy friend teakettle applesauce Main Street campfire ballgame bookstore fingertips American Way girl friend doorknob apron strings teashOp dining room army camp bathing suit phone numbers banana peel college days candlelight barbed wire candy cane coffeepot barnyard church mouse market basket bathroom cigarette butt marriage vow bath towel coal shovel oak tree bath tub coffeepot paintbrush battlefield sunlight palm tree baby shoes roommate seashore moonlight teapot sleighbell -97- Even here, however, there appears to be a unity of meaning which is not so apparent with similar two-word phrases. These compounds generally function as a single part of speech; injected modifiers ordinarily are not adjectives. However, as Bloomfield. Bryant. and others point out. a test of meaning is not foolproof. and because of its subjectivity it is extremely difficult to apply. It is quite likely that no two people would agree in every case as to whether the meaning of a particular combination was figurative or should be taken literally. Conclusions It seems to me that the principal value of the criterion of meaning as a test of compounds comes in the preliminary stages of a study of this sort. Subjectively, on the basis of meaning. one can decide which combinations appear to qualify for further investigation. Some combinations of adjective plus noun will obviously be ruled out immediately; examples are: black dog. small child. raigy dgy. sour milk. Such combinations as these are purely descriptive and do not imply a unit of meaning in the same sense as do coffeepot. candy cane, Christmas tree, bath towel; those combinations which are obviously adjective plus noun combinations are definitely subject to question. Combinations which are doubtful should probably be included for testing. Once this list of positives and possibles has been compiled on the basis of meaning. it is then feasible to test all of them according to the more concrete criteria of stress and intonation. It is reasonably safe to assume that the majority of compounds have a meaning which differs at least in some slight degree from that implied in the original elements if the elements are taken separately. As I have said, compounds are used as a single part of speech; they have a unity, a oneness of concept, and this unity implies more than simply an object or an idea modified by an adjective of size or color. CHAPTER SIX CONCLUSI ONS Since summaries have been included at the ends of each of the preceding chapters, there remains but to reiterate the statements of these summaries and to point out the final con- clusions. From a widely divergent and at times chaotic mass of material on the subject of compounds, I have attempted to formulate a series of tests for compound substantives, which although not foolproof. will. at least. I think, afford a more objective determination of compound substantives than any yet devised. True. a great deal remains to be done. More tests need to be made on internal open juncture to ascertain with certainty how much influence this phenomenon has on the nature of compounds. Phrases, and simplexes. Furthermore, tests need to be made on the combinations which waver between compound and phrase in order I'0 determine whether or not a more definite judgment can be made about them, The whole area of meaning needs much more study. Nevertheless I have, I hepe. taken steps in the right dire"=‘lirion. I have determined. for example. that. contrary to the opinion held by many scholars up to this point, the stress test; 18 not reliable by itself in judging whether or not a ~100~ particular word group is a compound. The stress test is useful mainly for making distinctions between simplexes and compounds or combinations and for preliminary sorting of combinations into categories which may then be tested more efficiently and accurately by the criterion of intonation. The stress test for simplexes is useful only after we have determined that the combination is composed of at least two independent elements. If the group meets this test, it may then be checked by the stress test which requires that it contain at least two stresses stronger than light. Thus mail man with its two strong stresses would qualify as a compound, whereas postman with only one strong stress would not. This test puts such words as vineyard, cupboard, boatswgin, and probably woodland in the Category of simplexes like friendship, shortness, father, and rgdi . Thus, these combinations which still appear visually to have two independent elements, can be determined not to qualify 38 compounds on the basis of stress. It is important to remember, however. that for the test to be valid the item to be tested ““16 it contain at least two recognisable independent elements, “1:106 it is also quite possible for an undisputed simplex to have two accents stronger than light (e.g., civilisation). The stress test is not reliable in distinguishing compounds from word groups. For that we need the intonation test. A true coupon-rid must have a single primary intonation contour or rhythm ~101— unit and should not have an intonation break between the elements. A true compound, as Pike points out, is a group which has lost its natural faculty for having a primary contour or rhythm unit end in the middle of it. Thus blackbird is a compound, whereas 02 ._ blgk bird is not. On the basis of intonation, I have distinguished 03 -02 three classes of compounds, displaying varying degrees of freesing. Those with initial stress and a single primary contour beginning on the first element are included in the first class; those with stress on the final element are assigned either to the second or third class depending on the intonation curve and the degree of freezing. (For details, see Chapter III). I have also determined that many old or highly figurative compounds are indivisible, whereas more modern or less figurative ones may be split by one of three methods: expansion of the first element; expansion of the second element: or injection of a modi— fier between the elements. When divided, a compound may remain a compound but become a compound of a different class, or it may become a non—compound. To qualify as a compound, the resulting combination must refer to a single object or idea, that is 4M1 01:91: and turkey farm (one farm for both types of poultry), not Chicken and turkey fggms (more than one farm for the two types or Poultry). By itself, the divisibility test is not reliable; but in combination with other tests it sometimes proves useful. —102—- The criterion of meaning as a test of compounds needs a great deal of further study. Its principal weakness as a test is its subjectivity. The main value of the meaning test (that is . a meaning of the whole which differs from that of the parts taken separately) comes in the preliminary stages of the study of compounds. 0n the basis of meaning, one can decide which combinations appear to qualify for further investigation: one can thus rule out immediately such combinations as black dog, small child, raigy dgy. sour milk, which are purely descriptive and do not imply a unit of meaning in the same sense as do Combinations m, cotton gin, Ghristmgs tree, candy cane. Which are obviously adjective plus noun combinations are def- initely subject to question, though many of them must be tested by stress and intonation to determine with certainty their true nature. It is reasonably safe to assume that the majority of 00mpounds have a meaning which differs at least in some slight degree from that implied in the original elements if the elements are taken separately. As we have said, compounds have a unity, a oneness of concept, and this unity implies more than simply an object or an idea modified by an adjective of size or color. Furthermore, there appears to be a relationship between Spell ing (hyphenation) and intonation. The simpler the intona— ti on curve, the more likely the combination or compound is to be wri tteh solid, Longer, more complex combinations are more likely _~—L&I; .. 103... to be written as separate words. Only compounds with heavy accent on the first syllable are written solid unless a special effect of speed or style is desired. These are only trends, however; they can not be considered tests of compounds. With these points in mind, then, we might go back to our trial definition of a compound substantive as found in Chapter I and modify it as follows; A compound substantive is a word—unit made up of two or more separate words which together function as a single substantive, a single part of speech. It may be composed of two or more parts of speech or of two or more examples of one part of speech. It may appear with the elements written solid, separately, hyphenated. or in any combination of these forms, although the solid forms ordinarily occur only with compounds which have initial stress. A compound differs from a sinplex in that in addition to having two or more independent elements, it must also have at least two strong stresses. It differs from a phrase in that it has lost the faculty for having a primary intonation contour or rhythm unit end in the middle of it and it appears not to have an intona— tion break. It also differs from a.phrase in that it tends to be indivisible, although this is by no means always true; it also has a meaning which differs in some degree from that of the elements taken separately. Thus we have a compound. As I have said, much more needs to be done, but I hepe this will at least throw light on a some~ what clouded subject, make compound substantives easier to recognise and describe, and provide a foundation for further research and study. AyPENDIX -105- APPENDIX A SELECTIONS AND WORD LISTS USED IN ORAL PART OF STUDY Selection I I sent a letter by air mail to a service man and a charity-worker who had recently been married. The bridegroom was an exPert on the atom bomb and had previously been an advertising-agent. His father was a war correspondent during World War Two and was later associated with a well known news- paper syndicate. His mother, I was assured, was the belle of the Washington cocktail party and claimed to have an extra- ordinary recipe for making a watermelon pickle. A less frequently ment ioned aspect of her background included a father who had alternately served as elevator boy and flagpole sitter. Her brother had once been the champion goldfish swallower at M.S.U., and was now a baseball player with the St. Louis Hepcats where he was noted for his double plays and put-outs. The bride came from even more humble surroundings. Her father was a mail man by day and a factory-worker by night. One brother became a clergyman and depended for his livelihood upon the collection box. Another took a correspondence-course and became an efficiency expert. A third worked for a construction c ”Parlor. The fourth joined the air force and is now stationed at an air base in North Africa, after being located at numerous ~10b~ air and naval bases in the Middle East. She also has a sister who started a chicken farm soon after her marriage to a college man and later expanded it to a chicken and turkey farm. This sister also sold homemade ice cream and meatballs at the road- side. The pay-off came with the bust~up of her marriage: she also had a run-in with her former boss when the roadside stand became a wash-out. She is now married to a cattle man and spends her evenings with her teakettle over a campfire. Selection II- Linda eat before her dressing-table getting ready for her date with what she called her meal-ticket. First she put on cold cream, massaging her face with her fingertips, and removing the excess cream with cleansing tissues. Then she applied her make—up-efirst the powder—base, then the lipstick, then the eye shadow, and lastly the face powder. She then put on earrings and a. necklace before removing her dressing gown and bedroom 811PIJers. When she had finished dressing, she put on Bill‘s frateIll‘nity pin and fastened a cluster of forget-me—nots in her hair- She hung her hair ribbon on the doorknob and threw her housecoat in the easy chair before going into the dining room to check the silverware and candlesticks. Remembering the landlord's request for the rent, she took out her checkbook and fountain pen. But before she could sit .L -107. down, the doorbell rang and a delivery boy handed her a nosegay of tuberoses and a quart of ice cream. She also asked him for a postage stamp and signed the receipt book. Then she took a twenty—five—cent piece from her pocketbook and gave it to him. The gifts, she learned, were from a former playmate and pickpocket. She put the flowers on the mantelpiece and took the newspaper off the piano stool. While scanning the headlines, she munched hungrily on some chocolate drops she found on the coffee table. When Tom didn't arrive on time, she called the poolroom and the drugstore, checking her notebook for the phone numbers. She also gave the bartender a talking-to and asked him if Jane. the street-walker, had been in recently. While she was checking time tables, her roommate, a salesgirl from Saks, came in and said she’d seen Tom in the cigar store. "What a let—down," Linda muttered. When he finally arrived, she met him with a rolling pin and demanded a showdown. “You're a has-been?" she told him. As usual, however, he won the argument, and they spent the evening at a newsreel theater. “It's the best I can do until payday," he said. showing her his latest collection of pawn tickets. He surveyed the popcorn bags on the floor at his feet and observed: “This place looks like a pigpen. You couldn“t dig off the dirt with a penknife." Linda looked at him zically and muttered: "Yeah, the man I have a date with (1‘11 ' A‘onight is a dead-beat!" ~108- Selection III George put his dinner pail on the car seat, inserted his car key in the ignition, turned on the headlights, and sped off down the highway. On his way he was caught in a cloudburst and nearly ran over a chorus—girl. He emptied the ashtray as he stopped for a traffic light; as he did so a prowl car whizzed around the corner and across the railroad track. A man with a pushcart stood by the curb in front of a For Rent sign on a piece of real estate. A redhead came up to the man and asked for a cigarette lighter. Farther on, George stopped at a roadhouse on the river bank. Nearby was a reform school where a bunch of roughnecks were kept in custody. As he got out, he noticed a couple of college kids doing their love—making in a rumble seat. While he watched them, a traffic cop turned his searchlight on the pair, and he noticed the girl was wearing a raincoat and sun glasses. He also noted that the tail—light of their car was smashed and that a toy teapot and baby shoes hung from the rearview mirror. The license plate was missing. The cop put the pair in the patrol wagon and drove off. Inside, George played the slot machine, ordered a boilermaker, and Warmed his shirtutail at the fireplace. Later he went into the t'lqphone booth and called his brother, the tightwad, for a Ahakedown. Out on the sidewalk he stopped and watched a sheep-dog -109- and a tom cat eying each other with hatred across a fence; when the dog barked, someone threw a screwdriver at it and yelled, “Son of a bitch!“ In the distance George could hear the screams of school girls on the roller coaster, and across the road, lights flashed on a billboard displaying lots of cheesecake. He dr0pped a letter in the mailbox, drove his motor car out of the parking lot, and lurched onto the parkway. With a.perfect poker face he drove through the moonlight. Selection IV The notorious badman, Clint Esmond, was the son of a wealthy cattle man. He spent his boyhood in companionship with a frontiersman and a hangman. He studied marksmanship and soon became better at shooting than were the grownups. The payoff came, however, when he said he'd had a bellyful of being a namby-pamby. He disappeared into the woodland one night. His father made a checkup on a tipoff from a counterman at the local cafe where Clint had left his billfold when he had gone in for a bowlful of chili and some beefsteak. Nothing came of the tip, however. Later he had a runsin with a tradesmen in a buckboard at the cutoff near Dead Man”s Gulch and killed three men with a broken beer bottle in a tavern brawl downstate. He was involved in several holdups and finally was shot for cattle rustling at aroundup near Tucson. account book aircraft carrier airport armpit ashcan boat officer book—agent baseball park breakfast nook cabin boy call box candlelight car door key card table cat call cat house cease~fire chewing—tobacco clearinghouse cocktail lounge cocoa cup coffee table 4toffee and cocktail table ~110- Word List I coffeepot comic book come-on damn Yankee dark room' destroyer—minesweeper dog and cat show double talk dressmaking—scissors drip coffee drug store drug and Candy store elevator—runner exclamation—point expense—account feature editor feature story writer field hat field hat and glasses firing squad football foreign correspondent get~together gossip column guest house handout hangout he—togs hellucat hell's bells holdover holy water horsepower—hours hot water bottle houseboat ice water ice cream information booth insane asylum irrigation ditch jackass Johnny—consulately kickback kilowatt hours knockout knowhow legal expert lemon—pienface license plate literary agent lookout machine gun magnifying glass mailbox mainspring make—believe man-hunt manpower manslaughter market basket marriage vow masterpiece matchmaker mattress~manufacturer meal ticket mercy killing mess sergeant milk man mine field lmixup ~111- money order movie star music box nailhead namesake necktie nervous system nest egg network newsreel newspaper man nigger—lover nursemaid nutshell oak tree ocean liner odd Job oilcloth orange crate pageboy paint brush pflmtme paper boy parochial school passageway passport pay telephone peace treaty persecution complex pigpen placecard plane crash postmaster potato face price control public address system punchboard quarterback race track railroad magnate railway ticket razor blade reform school safety razor sandbox say—so scapegoat school board IIIIIIIIlII-.___..........-.......................................................L‘ seashore send-off settlement house sharpshooter shaving cream sheath dress she—dog shore leave short—cut skmtgm sleighbell Society editor 3 taff meeting State Department a t eamship agent My first case~history is an interesting one. —112— summer school sunlight Sunday school sweatbox tablecloth take—off task force telegraph operator throwaback tissue—paper tool manufacturer touchdown trade mark try~out turncoat Selectipn V typewriter vacuum cleaner vanishing cream rice ring vice squad wage—earner waiting—room wallpaper war communique washing machine water color what-have-you yardstick yule-log John T. b°é§£iri his writing career as a feature story writer and copy boy for' ‘tlge Dai1y Examiner. Later he worked for a newspaper syndicate and VVzas a copy writer for his brother, who was an advertising-agent. He 93- 80 took up photography and spent much of his time in the darkr0011: and photo lab. During the war he became a foreign cor-re 8pendent, but his nervous system couldn't stand the strain. -113- When his brother was killed on a destroyer-minesweeper, he acquired a persecution complex, and shortly before the cease—fire he had a nervous breakdown and was sent to an insane asylum. While there, he lived in a world of make—believe, cutting paper dolls and forget-me-mots out of cheesecloth and wrapping paper. Most of the time he wore his field hat and glasses, but now and then he put on a mortar board and pretended to be a legal expert. "Hell‘s bells," he thought. "If I”m not careful, people will think I'm a son of a bitch.” Another unusual case was that of Peter K. He received his early training in a parochial school and thought seriously of entering the priesthood. After much time Spent at the altar rail and in the confessional box, however, he decided he was Instead he became a college professor He unsuited for Holy Orders. and lectured widely on civil rights and academic freedom. married a ballet—dancer who held the limelight in musical comedy for several seasons and whose main interests were greasepaint and footlights. She was the sister of a well known musical comedy team, which toured with minstrel shows and held the 8Pc'tlight in a burlesque show, popularizing several hit tunes. They frequently donned burnt cork and clown costumes for their perfc rmances. Their father was the author of numerous murder dramas and ghost stories, and their mother had in her youth been ‘__—_—_——7Lw ~1114— a chorus—girl and mistress of the strip tease, but had later reformed and now spent most of her time standing at an ironing board or making buttonholes while sitting in a rocking chair. The third case is that of Molly J., a dimnwit who ran around most of the time in blue jeans and saddle shoes, She imagined she was the domestic type, but she spent more time with horror stories on the sun deck than with teacups in the dish water. She wound up in a blind alley when she tried blackmail on a business man. and somebody Carved her up with an ice pick and a razor blade, leaving her to die on the boardwalk under an oak tree near the blinker light. When a policeman found her, she had a railway ticket, a cigarette lighter, and a Car door key in her pocket. Nearby were an ice cream cone and a Can of drip coffee, and around her neck was wrapped a piece 01‘ orange crate. From an open window across the street could be heard the blare of a radio—phonograph, and overhead a neon Sign flashed the news about the latest in air-conditioning and The factory—worker who witnessed the crime His Adam's apple tel¢BVision sets, mail‘1tained a poker face and refused to comment. mond 1113 and down as he sat in the breakfast nook calmly eating 1°. Cream; later he continued to ignore questions while he pared his fingernails with a penknife. When they tried to arrest him, he g3E‘s-Liabed up a jar of cold cream from the dressing table and _ -115- threw it at the peace officers. The battle that followed was as lively as a tavern brawl, but they finally put handcuffs on him and led him off to the courthouse. The fourth case concerns Gerald T. , a Johnny—come-l ately if I ever saw one. In his youth his major interests were baseball, basketball, and football, and he spent most of his time at the ball park. Later he tried his hand as a goldfish swallower, a. matchmaker, and a counterman, but sooner or later everyone realized he was a deadbeat. He took a correspondence-course to learn how to handle account-books and become a bookkeeper, but he never would obey an alarm clock and usually got fired for staying home in an armchair. ”Working is a lot of applesauce, "I‘d much rather visit a bawdyhouse or a anyway,“ he'd say. He hung a ballgame. Who wants to be an efficiency-smart?" For Rent sign in the window of his boardinghouse, causing his landlady no end of trouble. She considered him a blockhead and a b1 owhard . The fifth case history concerns a specialist in atomic energr. He made a major contribution to atomic warfare, for he de‘VeILOped some of the key devices used in the manufacture of the atom bomb and other atomic weapons. This country's atomic power has arrived at its present height, largely because of his work _ atomic experiments. ment of the new hydrogen bomb. ~116— as one of the key figures of the atomic age. airways alleyway American Way apartment-house apprentice seamen apron strings archway armored car army camp artilleryman ashtray asking-price atomic war atom bomb baby-talk baking powder banana peel banana fritters Word List II bandwagon bandy legs banker—millionaire bank—president barbershOp barbed wire barnyard barrelhead baseboard bass drum bathroom battlefield battle royal bath towel beachhead bedbug bathtub bedpost in connection with the original atomic bomb and his subsequent He now has an important role in the develop— His name will go down in history bedside table bedroom bellyache big shot bingo game bird cage bird°s—eye view birthday blackboard blackout blind alley black market blockhead blood pressure blackbird blowout boardinghouse bodyguard bombing raid bone—structure black bird bookkeeper bottle opener brass tacks bridegroom bridge~table Bronx cheer buck private bull's—eye -117- air field air power charity-worker watermelon pickle chambermaid double—play pigpen ice cream woodland ashcan coffee and cocktail table W "I want some ice cream!“ Lily shouted. cream now!" She pointed to a roadside stand where a counterman "I want my ice kilowatt hour magnifying glass lily—of—the Valley Easter seals war monger cabbage patch apple tree Adam“s apple sanctuary light apple tree Bible school in a white hat was dispensing hot dogs, beef-burgers and ice cream cones to children of all ages. “I want vanilla ice cream." she specified. "Later I might also have chocolate ice cream or a paddle pop. In fact, I'll take it in any flavor or form~~just so long as it's ice cream.“ Selection VII Sally“s boy friend made his way down Main Street gathering packages as he went. First he entered the bookstore and bought ~118- some best-sellers, as well as a bookshelf, a bookcase, and some book—ends. Then he stepped on the corner for a shoe-shine by the bootlack. He picked up theater tickets at the box office, paused briefly at the bowling-alley, stopped at the drug store for a bananapsplit, and then poked his nose into the beauty shop to see if Sally was ready. She wasn°t. So he checked his packages at the baggage-room in the bus station, deposited some money in his bank account, stOpped at the barroom for a look-see, and bought a.pair of boxing gloves at the hardware. Then he picked up his girl friend, and they had a bull-session about blind dates while they drank a glass of ice tea. As they left the teashop, they saw a Boy Scout helping a blind woman across the street while a traffic c0p smiled approvingly. "I'm not afraid of the boogy man,“ the little boy boasted, “I can swim too. In fact I've got a bathing suit on right now under my Boy Scout uniform. yell bloody murder." college days nail polish legal expert toenail man—days WorggList III whorehouse sailboat traffic light candy cane Christmas tree But if my mom finds out about it, she'll race track checkuup church mouse checkroom cigarette butt cleanup clubhouse coal shovel cocktail coffeepot cold cuts conference table cornbread cold war country club courtroom (arap game creampuff curbstone cure—all dance hall dark alley «daydream deadpan deathbed dime store dining car dcghouse dollar bill dragnet drawback drinking water dude ranch dugout electric fan end table eyeball fighter-escort family—man eye-witness father-in-Jaw eyebrow fence post filling station fireman fireside chat first-born fist fight ice tea half~brother hangnail headache heartbreak headmaster home office housing3program hymn book ice cream soda ice cube jackpot innkeeper labor leader lemonade labor union luxury liner mainspring meal—ticket mountain range nuthouse original sin pigtails potato salad redbird rollcall shaving-cream street corner studio couch u—q sugar cocky ~120- war worker —121— APPENDIX B BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF PERSONS PARTICIPATING Born: Early Life: Education: Military: Family: llanguages: Professional: Born; Education: IN RECORDED PART OF STUDY Speaker A.I Mgle Fairmont, Minnesota, May ll, 1916. Lived in Michigan, including Port Austin, Harbor Beach, L’Anse, Romeo, Fenton, and Alpena. Public School at Harbor Beach, L'Anse, and Romeo, Michigan; B.A.. in speech and English, Michigan State College, 19MO; M.A.. in speech, Michigan State College, 19M7; Ed.D.. University of Missis~ sippi. 1953. 19h1-h5, first as enlistee and later as officer; returned to army briefly in 1950; stationed in California, Oklahoma, Alabama, North Carolina, and in England, France, Belgium, and Germany. Father a Methodist clergyman. graduate of McGill University, Montreal, Canada. Both parents Canadian by birth. Wife from Arkansas. Speaks a smattering of Russian, German. and French because of direct association with peOple of other countries during military service. Also studied high school Spanish and Latin. Instructor while in military service; instructor, Michigan State College, Department of Communication Skills, l9h6—date. Spegker B, Mge St. Paul, Minnesota, March 23, 1915. Public schools of North Dakota; B. A., in social science and history, Janestown College, Jamestown, North Dakota, 1937; M.A.. in English, University of Minnesota, 19M2; Ph.D., in American literature, Michigan State College, 1951. Military: Family: Professional: Other: Born: Education: Military: Family: Professional: Born: Education: ~122— U.S.Navy, 19u2_ue; stationed in Caribbean, Middle East, Far East. Father, B.A., St. Olaf's College, Minnesota: small town merchant; parents spoke some Scandi— navian in the home. Wife Scandinavian background, graduate of Jamestown College. Public school teaching in North Dakota and Minnesota; instructor and assistant professor, Communication Skills, Michigan State College, 19h6_date. Extensive training in speech and drama; active in little theater work and in high school and college debate and oratory. Speaker C. Male Decatur, Alabama, July 20, 1920. High school, DeSoto, Missouri, 1938; AcB., Central College, Fayette, Missouri, l9u2; AWM.. University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, 1950; Ph.D., University of Missouri, 1952. Major interests: rhetoric and public address. U.S. Army, 19h2-Nb; overseas in England, France, and Germany; also stationed in Albuquerque, New Mexico, and Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. Parents both born near Elisabethtown, Kentucky. Scotch-Irish ancestry. Instructor, Michigan State College, Department of Communication Skills, l953-date. Spegker DI Female St. Paul, Minnesota. February 1, 1925. Public schools, East Lansing, Michigan; B.A., in speech and English, Michigan State College, 19h6; M.A., in speech and English, University of Michigan; now working on Ph. D., in theater history, University of Michigan, l952—date. Travel: Language: Family: Professional: Other: Born: Education: Military: Professional: Other: Born: Education: -123- Southern United States, California, New York City, Canada, Mexico, and Europe. High school Latin; college French. Father, attended Kansas State Teachers Normal. Pittsburg, Kansas; B.A.. from Hamlin University, St. Paul, Minnesota; M.A., University of Minnesota; Ph.D., Michigan State College; professor of sociology and social science, Michigan State College. Mother B.A., Kansas State Teachers Normal; attended University of Minnesota; taught home economics. Husband from St. Louis, Missouri: graduate of University of Michigan law school. Instructor, Michigan State College, Department of CommuniCation Skills, l9u8—date. Extensive work in college drama and radio and in community and summer stock theater. Speaker EI Male Winnipeg. Canada. 1920. Public schools of Ontario and Cedar Rapids, Iowa; B.A. and M.A.. University of Iowa. One and one—half years in Pensacola. Jacksonville, Miami, and Corpus Christi. Instructor, Michigan State College, Department of Communication Skills, 1950—date. Has done extensive creative writing. Speaker F, Female New Haven, Connecticut, January 13, 1907. St. Mary's Academy (day school), New Haven; high school, Milford, Connecticut; attended d°Hulst School, Versailles, France, 1922-23; Mus.B., Yale University, 1930; M.A.. Arizona State College. Tempe. .Arisona, 19UO; graduate study at Michigan State College. Travel: Professional: Family: Language: Born: Education: Travel: Family: Professional: Born: Education: Travel: —l2h~ Extensive travel in Europe including England, France, Switzerland, Belgium, Austria, Hungary, Italy. Head of music department, St. Joseph College, Hartford, Connecticut; lecturer in music appre— ciation, St. Joseph’s; manager, Mattatuck Musical Arts Society, Waterbury, Connecticut; instructor, Arizona State Teachers College; temporary instruc- tor, Michigan State College, 19M5—date, Parents English and Early American. Husband, Italian, graduate of Yale University; faculty at Yale, Arizona State Teachers College; associate professor, music, Michigan State College, 19Ml~date. French. Speaker G, Male St. Louis, M0,, June 13, 1929. Public schools, St. Louis; B.Aa. Princeton Uni- versity, 1951; law degree from University of Michigan, 195M. New England, Colorado, Minnesota, Mexico. Father a lawyer and judge, occasionally teaches law at Washington University, St. Louis, M0,; mother raised and educated in and around St. Louis. Assistant in law firm, Lansing. Michigan, 195M. Speaker 8, Male Battle Creek, Michigan, April 28, 1920. High school, Battle Creek; B.A., l9hh, and M.A., 19MB. in speech, Michigan State College; now working on Ph.D., in English, Michigan State College. Pennsylvania, Virginia, Colorado, Wisconsin, Illinois, Florida, Nebraska, Mississippi. Family: Professional: -125- Michigan—born, educated in public schools. Taught high school speech and English, Williamston, Michigan; instructor, Communication Skills, Michigan State College, l9u8—date. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Literature Cited Armstrong, Lilias E., and Ward, Ida C. Hpndbook of_Epglish Intonation. Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, 1926. Ball, Alice M. Coppounding and Hyphenation of Epglish Wordp. New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1951. Benbow, John. Manuscript and Proof. New York: Oxford University Press, 1938. Bergsten, Nils. A Study on Cgppgund Substgntives in Epglish. Uppsala, 1911. Bloch, Bernard. and Trager, George L. Outlipe of Lingpistip Analysis. Baltimore, Md.: Linguistic Society of America, 19 2. Bloomfield, Leonard. Egaggggg. New York: Henry H01t. 1933. Bryant, Margaret M. Modern English and Its Heritggg, New York: Macmillan, 19h8. Carr, Charles T. Nomingl Compounds in Germgnic; St. Andrews University Publications, No. Ml. London: Humphrey Milford, 1939- Cassidy, Frederic G., rev. The Development of Modern English; 2nd ed. by Stuart Robertson. New York: Prentice—Hall. 1951:. Chiba, T. LStudy of Accent. Tokyo: Fuzanbo. 1935. Coleman, H. O. "Intonation and Emphasis;“ In Miscellanea Phonetics to commemorate the 25th year of Le Méltre Phongtigue, International Phonetic Association. 191“. Graff, Willem Lawrens. Lépgugge and Lgpgpgges. New York: Appleton, 1932. Hamilton, Frederick W. Compound werds. Chicago, 1915. Jespersen, Otto. A Modern Epglish Grammar on Historical Prin- ciples. Capenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard. 19k0«19h9. 7 vols. ~128— Kennedy, Arthur Garfield. Current English. Boston: Ginn, 1935. -------- . English Usgge. New York: D. Appleton-Century, l9h2. Kenyon, John Samuel. Americgn Pronuncigtion; 10th ed. Ann Arbor, Mich.: George Wahr, 1950. Krapp, George Philip. Modern English: Its Growth gpd Present Use. New York, 1910. Kruisinga, E. A Handbook of Presentudgy Egglish: English Accidence and Syntgg; 5th ed. Groningen: P. Noordhoff, 1932. 3 vols. Mallory, Richard D. Our Americgp,Langpggg. Garden City, N.Y,: Halcyon House, 19 7. Mencken, H. L. The American Langpgg ; 3rd and utn eds., New York: A. A. KnOpf, 1923 and 193b. Newman, 8. 8. “On the Stress System of English." Word, II (19Ub), 171—187. Palmer, Harold E. English Intonation. Cambridge: W. Heffer, 1922. Palmer, Harold E. A Grammar of Spoken English; 2nd ed. Cambridge; W. Heffer, 1939. Partridge, Eric. The World of Words; 3rd ed. London: H. Hamil— ton, 19h9. Paul, Hermann. Principles of the History of Langpgg ; 2nd ed. trans. H. A. Strong. N.p., 1891. Pike, Kenneth L. ”Grammatical Prerequisites to Phonemic Analysis.” word. III (19u7). 155-172. ------- _. The Intongtion of American Epglish. Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press, 19 b. Robertson, Stuart. The Development of Modern English. New York: Prentice~Hall, 1931+. Schubiger. Maria. ,gge Role of Intongtion in Spoken English. Cambridge; I. Heffer, 1935. 429.. Smith, Logan P. The English Lgpgpgge. New York, 1912. Sturtevant, Edgar H. Lingpistic Change. Chicago, 1917. Teall. E. N. Meet Mr. Hynhen and Put Hip in His Place. New York; Funk and Wagnalls, 1937. Trager, G. L.. and Bloch, Bernard. ”The Syllabic Phonemes of English," Langppge, XVII (igui). 223~2u6. Trager, George L.. and Smith, Henry Lee, Jr. An Outline of English Structure. Norman. Okla.: Battenburg Press, 1951. Sweet. Henry. Sounds of Epglish: An Introduction to Phonetics; 2nd ed. Oxford, 1923. Vallins, G. H. Makin and Meaning of Words. London: Adam and Charles Black, 19 9. £1 tergture Consul te:d_ Ball. Alice M. Coppounding in the Englishgpgpgpggg. New York: H. W. Wilson, 1939. - Bodmer, Frederick. The Loom of Langpgge. New York: W. W, Norton, 19th. Curme, George 0. Pgrts of Speech gpdpépcidence. Boston: D. C. Heath, 1935. ______________ , Syntax. Boston: D. C. Heath. 1931. Heffner, R.-M. S. General Phonetics. Madison, Wis.: University of Wisconsin Press, 19 9. Jespersen, Otto. Essentials of English Grammar. New York; Henry Holt, 1933. -—- ----------- . The PhilosOphy of Grammar. New York: H. Holt, Jones, Daniel. Outline of English Phonetics; 5th ed. New York: E. P. Dutton, 193b, Kennedy, Arthur Garfield. The Modern English Verb-Adverb Combi- nation. Stanford University, 1920. -130- Kenyon, John 3., and Knott, Thomas A. A.Pronouncipg Dictigpggy of American English. Springfield, Mass.: G. and C. Merriam, 19kt. Lindelof, U. "English Verb—Adverb Groups Converted into Nouns," Commentgpiones Humanarum Litterarum, IX, Societas Scientiarum Fennica (1938), l—El. Malone, Kemp. "Pitch Patterns in English," Studies in.Philolqu, XXIII (JU1Y. 1925). 371-379- Muyskens, John H. “An Analysis of Accent in English from Kymograph Records." Vox, XVII (May, 1931), 55—b5. Onions, C. T. An Advanced English Syntgg. London: Kegan Paul, 1929. Perrin, Porter G. Writer’s Guide and Index to English; rev. ed. Chicago: Scott, Foresman, 19U2. Pike, Kenneth L. Phonemics. Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press, 19 7. Schramm, W. L. “The Acoustical Nature of Accent,“ American Speech, XII (February, 1937), h9—5b. Trager, George L. “The Theory of Accentual Systems,“ Langpgge, Culturep79pd Personality, Menasha: n.p., 19hl. Wells, Rulon S. "The Pitch Phonemes of English," Lgpgpggg, XXI (January-March, l9h5), 27—39. Works from Which Usgg§_Citations Were Taken Allen, Frederick L.. ed. Harper’s Magazine, Vol. CC, No. 1201 (June. 1950). Cousins, Norman, ed. Saturdgy Review of:§iterature, Vol. XXXV, No. 18 (May 3. 1952). Day, Clarence. Life With Father. New York: Pocket Books, 19M}, Farrell, James T. Bernard Carr. New York: New American Library, 19th. Ferber, Edna. Saratoga Trunk. New York: Penguin Books, 19N7. -131- Gardner, Erle Stanley. The Case of the Golddigger‘s Purse. New York: Pocket Books, 1951. Hargrove, Marion. See Here.;Private Hargrove. New York: Pocket Books, 19h}. Himstead, Ralph E., ed. American Association of University Professors Bulletin, vol. XXXVII, no. N (Winter, 1951-1952). Lewis, Sinclair. Babbitt. New York: Bantam Books (1922), 19kb, --------------- . Kingsbloodrgpyal. New York: Random House, 19N7. Marquand, John P. So Little Time. Boston: Little, Brown, 19“}. Miller, Arthur. Death of a Salesman (Play). New York: Bantam Books, 1951. The Nation Associates, The Best of the Nation. New York: The Nation Associates, 1952. The New Yorker, vol. XXVIII, no. 2“ (August 2, 1952). The New York Times (SundaY. July 27, 1952). Parker, Dorothy. The Collected Short Stories of Dorothzngrker. New York: Modern Library, 19h2. Skinner, Cornelia Otis, and Kimbrough, Emily. Our Hearts Were 1222s_ees_§sz, New York: Dodd, Mead, 19u3f“"“"“"“' Smith, Lillian. Strange Fruit. New York: Reynal and Hitchcock, iguu, Spillane, Mickey. My Gun Is Quick. New York: New American Library. 1950. Stern, Philip Van Doren, ed. The POCket Book of Modern American Short Stories. New York; Pocket Books, 19M}. Stout, Rex. Too Many Cooks. New York: Dell. 1938. Time, Vol. LIX, no. 1” (April 7, 1952). Williams, Tennessee. ‘A Streetcar Named Desire (Play). New York: New American Library, 1951. Willkie, Wendell L. One World. New York: Pocket Books, 19“}, Wouk, Herman. The Caine Mutiny. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1951. mom “SE “3‘“ pa. 21 '57 Ream usE mm m DEC 11 1955 _; ’fim'éfijq-TT-finhu; HIGH 3 Mi Mi NW 31 limit“