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THE CHANGING DYNAMICS OF THE INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION: AN HISTORICAL ANALYSIS OF DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE By Jean-Luc Renaud A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Mass Media Ph.D. Program 1986 Copyright 1986 Jean-Luc Renaud All rights reserved ABSTRACT TEE CHANGING DYNAMICS OF THE INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION: AN HISTORICAL ANALYSIS OF DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE By Jean-Luc Renaud The growing number of newly-independent nations who joined the various international organizations, starting in the 19503, have changed the priorities on these organizations’ agendas to the point where about 80 percent of all United Nations resources and 90 percent of its personnel are at present devoted to improving human welfare of the Third World through economic and social development. Like all other agencies of the United Nations system, the specialized agency in charge of telecommunication matters--the International Telecommunication Union (ITU)--was naturally called upon to assist the developing countries in the establishment of their telecommunication networks. One might have expected that the ITU--established in 1865--would not have survived the changing geopolitical environ- ment caused by the newly-independent nations asserting their power within international forums. Such was not the case, however. Not only is the ITU today the oldest international organization but it has the largest membership, larger than the United Nations itself. The longevity of the ITU is unique in the annals of interna- tional organizations. It is due to the fact that the Western industrialized nations who created an organization mostly geared toward technical coordination, equipment specification and Renaud operating standards, and therefore uniquely responsive to their needs, have come to accept the idea of their special duty as a group to assist their less-endowed counterparts in the Third World which involves redirecting the ITU toward policy planning. The purpose of the study is to document and explain this changing dynamics. The investigation is two-fold. First, it provides an historical account of the origin and evolution of technical-assistance activities, under the aegis of the ITU, targeted to developing countries. Second, it proposes and tests three hypotheses aimed at explaining the reasons for the longe- vity of the ITU in the midst of a changing political and techno- logical environment. The research reveals 1) that to a large degree the basic instrument of the ITU, namely its flexible Convention, accounts for the integration of conflicting demands within the institutional framework, even though this arrangement may have reached the point of diminishing return in view of the complexity of the Union. 2) that as telecommunication networks become more sophisticated and global in scope, the technologically advanced nations who manage them are increasingly dependent upon a healthy organization and for the sake of stability are ready to accommodate unrelated demands. 3) that it is the unique characteristic of the ITU’s province-- telecommunication-~which accounts for the centrality and longevity of the organization, since all nations are compeled to collaborate if they want to safeguard their domestic telecommunication systems. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The. completion of this dissertation would not have been possible without the active collaboration of a number of persons. I am first of all deeply indebted to the members of my doctoral committee: Dr. Thomas Muth, my dissertation advisor, who provided much-needed encouragements; Dr. Joe Straubhaar, who brought to my work the international telecommunication perspec- tive; Dr. Michael Schechter, who guided me through the complexity of international organizations; Dr. Donald Montgomery, who spent countless hours polishing early drafts. During my research trip to the headquarters of the Interna- tional Telecommunication Union in Geneva, I benefited from the expert assistance of Mr. El Zanati, Chief of the Library, as well as Messrs. Sakran and Pinto. They will find here the expression of my appreciation. I am also in debt to the Renaud and Xomiya families for their financial support during my time at Michigan State. Last, but not least, I am infinitely grateful to my wife, Megumi, for her unqualified support during these four demanding years. She made it possible to fulfill a long-time dream of completing a doctoral degree in telecommunication in this land of opportunity. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES INTRODUCTION ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY PART I: FRAMEWORK OF THE INVESTIGATION CHAPTER 1: PURPOSE, HYPOTHESES, RATIONALE, METHODOLOGY Purpose of the Study Formulation of Hypotheses Rationale for Hypothesis 1 Rationale for Hypothesis 2 Rationale for Hypothesis 3 Methodology CHAPTER 2: RISE OF TELECOMMUNICATION IN DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS Approaches to Development Telecommunication in Development CHAPTER 3: THE INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION Historical Overview Organizational Structure PART II: HISTORY OF THE ITU TECHNICAL-COOPERATION ACTIVITIES CHAPTER 4: THE EMERGENCE OF A SERVICE Definition The 19503: ”Extreme Prudence” Toward Technical Assistance The 1952 Plenipotentiary Conference Mechanics and Problems of Financing Technical Assistance CHAPTER 5: 1959-1964: THE GREAT LEAP FORWARD Electoral Procedures Amendments to the Convention The 1959 World Administrative Radio Conference The 19603: New Countries, Growing Demands Financing Telecommunication Assistance Focus on Africa The ITU Organs Called Upon iii Page vi vii 20 24 37 37 43 50 50 55 64 67 75 78 83 88 91 94 98 CHAPTER 6: 1965-1972: IMPACT OF THE UNDP ON THE ITU , Proposal for ITU’s Own Technical Assistance Program ii Establishment of Regional Offices UNDP is Born Reorganizing the ITU’s Technical-Cooperation Activities Pearson/Jackson Reports: ITU Faces a Changing Environment Continuing Debate on Regional Offices CHAPTER 7: 1973—1978; ONE AGENDA: DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE Geographic Representation Regional Offices (Cont’d) ITU Pressured to Set Up Own Technical Cooperation Program Telecommunication and Government Priorities Reorganizing the Technical Cooperation Department The ITU and the Other Specialized Agencies UNDP Policy Impacts Upon the ITU The Future of Technical Cooperation CHAPTER 8: 1979-1981: TECHNICAL COOPERATION REVISITED World Administrative Radio Conference Relations With UNESCO Difficulties in Financing ITU’s Cooperation Activities Candid Look at ITU Technical Cooperation Activities CHAPTER 9: 1982-1985: MILESTONE FOR THE DEVELOPING COUNTRIES The Historical Move of the Developed Countries The Voluntary Program and the Independent Commission The Center for Telecommunications Development PART III: HYPOTHESIS TESTING AND REFLECTIONS ON ITU DYNAMICS CHAPTER 10: HYPOTHESIS 1: INSTRUMENTALITY OF THE CONVENTION History of the Amendments to the Convention IFRB and Allotment of the Geostationary Orbital Slots Representation in ITU Organs ITU’s Adaptation to its Environment Discussion About a Constitution CHAPTER 11: HYPOTHESIS 2: C01 WORK AND DEVELOPED COUNTRIES The CCIR The CCITT Poor Attendance by the Developing Countries Irrelevance of the CCIs’ Work to Developing Countries Importance of the CCITT to Developed Countries CHAPTER 12: HYPOTHESIS 3: CENTRALITY OF TELECOMMUNICATION Telecommunications Call For Cooperation A Look At NARC-79 Telecommunications and Self-Interest Telecommunications and Unanimity Rule iv 101 101 105 109 112 120 124 129 130 135 138 146 148 152 156 161 166 166 169 173 176 188 198 203 214 _ 220 220 222 230 233 235 237 249 250 254 260 263 268 274 276 278 281 285 CHAPTER 13: THE ITU IN THE INTERNATIONAL ARENA Additional Explanatory Factors The ITU and Functionalism The ITU as a Communication Network CONCLUSION APPENDIX A: Note on International Organizations APPENDIX B: Note About Convention and Charter APPENDIX C: List of the 161 Members of the ITU With Indi- cation of Date of their Admission in the Union APPENDIX D: Statistics of the ITU’s Cooperation Activities APPENDIX E: ITU’s Worldwide Technical Cooperation Programs BIBLIOGRAPHY 294 294 308 317 321 328 330 332 333 334 335 TABLE ' TABLE . TABLE : TABLE : TABLE ‘ LIST OF TABLES Number of ITU Members and Number of Seats in the ITU Administrative Council Dollar Value of all UNDP and ITU Assistance Provided to Developing Countries by Regions in Period 1965-1981 (in Thousands) Membership Attendance of ITU Plenipotentiary Conferences Distribution of the World’s Telephone, Income, Population, and Telephone Density Dollar Amount Spent on ITU’s Technical Cooperation Activities vi Page 80 96 130 195 217 FIGURE : FIGURE : FIGURE : FIGURE : FIGURE : FIGURE : FIGURE : LIST OF FIGURES Sectoral Distribution of World Bank Loans 1975-1980 The ITU in the United Nations System Structure of the International Telecommunication Union Organization of Technical Cooperation in the ITU Main Stages of Country Programming and Project Preparation ’ Participation in the CCITT in 1980 Flow of Funds and Patterns of Influence Related to the ITU’s Technical Cooperation Activities vii Page 31 38 44 116 145 264 309 INTRODUCTION International organizations have traditionally been of marginal interest not only for the so—called ”realist" scholars, but for virtually all citizens and national decision-makers of developed countries, with the exception of those persons directly connected with the study or operation of international institu- tions. During the last two decades, however, this lack of interest has been reversed. An important factor accounting for the increased attention to international organizations was the decolonization which led to a rapid expansion of United Nations membership in the 19603. The raw-materials prices and shortages during the 19708, moreover, helped the developing countries collectively to assert themselves as active members of the international system in which they emphasized the work of the United Nations more than did the established, economically developed states. Through the forum of the U.N. General Assembly, developing countries also articulated the life-and-death importance of accelerating their economic and social development. These countries called for the expansion of financial and technical assistance programs of existing interna- tional agencies, and for the creation of new agencies. These demands were already enunciated in the 1964 Declaration and the Program of Action on the Establishment of a New International Economic Order (NIEO). Information and telecommunications were not items on early 2 agendas for development. Development and assistance concepts and strategies were largely dominated by economists. Mass media messages and telecommunication systems were not thought of as significant correlates of development. In their 1973 meeting in Algiers, however, the heads of states of the Non-Aligned Movement determined that "developed countries should take concerted actions to reorganize existing communication channels which are a legacy from the colonial past.” This determination provided the momentum for looking at information as a natural resource over which developing countries should assert sovereign rights and, with telecommunication supports, should be utilized like any other resource in the process of development. Later on, the implementation of telecom- munication systems started to be seen as a promoter of develop- ment rather than as the consequence of development. The growing number of newly-independent nations, in joining the various international organizations, have changed the priori- ties of these organizations’ agendas to the point where about 80 percent of all United nations resources and 90 percent of its personnel are at present devoted to improving human welfare of the Third World through economic and social development. Like all other agencies of the United Nations system, the specialized agency in charge of telecommunication matters--the International Telecommunication Union (ITU)--has not been left unaffected by the post-World War II geopolitical redistribution of power. It was naturally called upon to assist the developing countries in 3 the establishment of their telecommunication networks. An examination of the origin and evolution of development- assistance activities undertaken by the ITU could well be a promising road to understanding the way in which the objectives and discourse rooted in the NIEO have impacted upon the ITU. The expansion of the mandate of the ITU, compared with that of other international organizations, toward addressing the specific needs of its developing constituency, has been remarka- ble. World War II had deeply shaken the colonial empires and initiated the process of decolonization. The basic instrument of virtually all the other U.N. agencies, established only after World War II, embodied the ideas of emancipation. To those organizations, development-assistance activities were naturally rooted in their basic instruments. Such was not the case of the ITU. The Union was established in 1865 by a small group of twenty European countries interested solely in coordinating the technical operations of their tele- graph, then telephone and radiocommunication systems. Their preoccupations were still reflected in the 1947 ITU convention, namely, (1) to allocate the radio-frequency spectrum and register radio-frequency assignments in such a manner as to avoid harmful interference between radio stations in different countries; (2) to establish tariffs for the use of telecommunication services as low as possible consistent with sound administrative practices; (3) to undertake studies, formulate recommendations, and publish 4 information on telecommunication matters. The idea of assisting members in building their telecommunication infrastructure was not part of the ITU’s mandate as all were at a somewhat similar industrial stage. Unlike the recently created international bodies, enmeshed almost since their inception with development-assistance activi- ties, the ITU has enjoyed eighty years of relative "lethargy” so far as its founding members, the technologically-advanced countries, were concerned. It is only in the late 1950s that the Western industrialized nations started to react to demands of the emerging developing nations by insisting that the activities of the ITU remain within the purely technical domain defined by its convention. One might have expected that the ITU would not have survived the change in geopolitical environment caused by the newly-inde— pendent nations’ asserting their power within international forums. Such was not the case, however. Not only is the ITU today the oldest international organization but it has the largest membership, larger indeed than the United Nations itself. Moreover, owing to technological progress and to the importance of telecommunication networks in the national and worldwide economy, the ITU is increasingly asserting its centrality. The longevity of the ITU is unique in the annals of international organizations. This longevity is a testimony of the acceptance by the industrialized nations of the development-assistance agenda 5 imposed upon the organization by the Third World countries who now compose the Union’s largest constituency. In contrast with the past, the ITU is today overwhelmingly concerned with techni- cal assistance to developing countries. The industrialized countries’ acceptance of this expanded agenda is remarkable and should not be taken for granted. After all, no state is forced to join an organization whose mandate they disagree with, and states can always terminate their organization’s membership as well. Not every international body is universal in scope, and some nations have actually withdrawn from existing organizations.1 Unlike what happened with the mandate of the other interna- tional organizations, the fundamental shift in that of the ITU toward development assistance has taken place in a relatively short period of time considering the Union’s 120 years of existence. The adjustment of the ITU to the new environment shaped by the concerns of developing countries has been initiated only thirty years ago. It is nothing short of a Copernican revolution that the industrialized countries, who created the organization, came to accept in the 1980s what they had vehement- ly opposed in the 1950s, namely, that the ITU is no longer uniquely concerned with technical coordination matters but is solidly engaged in policy planning and technical assistance to 1The United States had temporarily withdrawn from the International Labor Organization (ILO) in the mid—1970s, and this country and Great Britain have pulled out from the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in 1985. The United Stated had threatened to withdraw from the ITU in 1982, but for reasons unrelated to the Union’s changing agenda. 6 the Third World. It is this changing dynamics which is the subject of the present dissertation. ‘1' ~ 2 ‘9‘ "IL! \ 7‘: 4“ i lagja A .335. ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY The dissertation, besides an introduction that provides the background to the study, and a conclusion that assesses the effectiveness of the ITU in the field of technical cooperation and delineates future trends, is composed of four parts. Part 1 presents the purpose of the study, the formulation and rationale for the hypotheses to be tested, and the methodolo- gy used. Part 2 sets the context of the investigation. At which stage in the development thinking do information and its supports emerge as developmental factors? The nature of the response of international organizations to Third World demands in this domain is analyzed. It also provides a brief historical overview of the International Telecommunication Union as well as the structure and function of the ITU’s various organs. Part 3 gives the institutional history of the ITU’s activi- ties in the specific domain of technical assistance to developing countries. It presents the chronology of events which led to the ITU’s concern with development issues and the evolution of its mandate as a result of the power redistribution within its constituency. Part 4, proposes, through the testing of the hypotheses, an explanation of the reasons which account for the longevity of the ITU despite the conflicting demands made upon the organization. It also includes a review of other factors that might account for the internal dynamics of the ITU. 7 PART I FRAMEWORK OF THE INVESTIGATION CHAPTER 1 PURPOSE, HYPOTHESES, RATIONALE, METHODOLOGY Purpose of the Study Though a number of specialized agencies of the United Nations system have been analyzed, the ITU, the oldest U.N. agency and the one having the largest constituency, has rarely been the center of scholarly attention, (see Appendix A). Is the ITU a global actor in its own right, or does it merely provide an arena for the political maneuvering of national interests? How well has the international organization done in creating for itself some degree of autonomy from member-states? These ques- tions are surely important to students of international organiza- tions, and therefore it is worthwhile to examine the way in which the ITU conducts its Operation, resolves conflicts, reaches deci- sions, implements policies, and manages new demands. The study examines the dynamics at work in the ITU by focusing on its development-assistance program. The ITU, surely, administers other types of programs. Assistance activities, however, are the newest service offered by the Union and has become over the years the most prominent one. Moreover, at the United Nations--of which the ITU is a specialized agency-- development-assistance activities presently occupy 80 percent of its personnel and 90 percent of its resources. 9 An historical examination of development programs within the ITU will, therefore, provide an understanding of how an interna- tional organization responds to environmental changes, how the structure, function, goals, and performance of the organization have been affected by the geopolitical redistribution of power, and how the dynamics of decision-making has evolved. The purpose of the dissertation is then two-fold. First, it will provide an historical account of, and analyze the reasons for the evolution of the ITU specifically regarding assistance programs targeted to the development of telecommunication services in the Third World. Second, it will attempt to provide an explanation for the longevity of the ITU in a changing political and technological environment. Formulation of Hypotheses The study will test the following three hypotheses: Hypothesis 1: It is the flexibility of a Convention, unlike the relative stability and rigidity of a Constitution, which has enabled the ITU, by allowing evolutionary changes in the composi- tion of its organs, to modify its agenda so as to integrate the new demands of the Third World constituency for develop- ment assistance. Hypothesis 2: It is the increasing reliance of developed countries on global telecommunication systems and new technologies which has led them to accommodate Third World pressures for development assistance in an effort to maintain the cohesion of an international arrangement whose disruption would have severe consequences for the industrialized countries. 10 Hypothesis 3: It is the unique nature of its domain of jurisdiction--tele- communication--which has guaranteed so far the longevity of the ITU since the protection of a nation’s telecommunication systems is directly tied to the need for collective agree— ments regarding the allocation of radio frequencies, satellite orbit allotment, and standardization. Rationale for Hypothesis 1 In the history of multilateral treaty-making, the Interna- tional Telegraph Conventions of the previous century emerge as unusual instruments. Rights and obligations appearing in them were not limited to States alone, but extended to legal and natural persons. Upon acceptance of certain obligations, private telegraph enterprises, for example, were admitted to the advanta— ges of the Telegraph Convention and Regulations. Today’s involve- ment of private telecommunication agencies in the work of the ITU follows the early practice Of the Telegraph Union 2 (see Appen- dix B). Unlike the United Nations, the ITU has not experienced the unfortunate destiny of the League of Nations. The ITU already had more than 70 years of collective practices at the end of World War II. The 1947 Atlantic City Conference established a new Convention and additional organs to respond to new demands. In its essence, a Convention provides more flexibility than a Constitution and this may well be the reason why the ITU is able to assert its centrality through a continuous process of adjust- 2J. H. Glazer, "The Law-Making Treaties of the Internatio- nal Telecommunication Union Through Time and in Space, Michigan Law Review, 60/3 (January 1962), p. 307. ll ment to the changing political and technological environment.3 The Plenipotentiary Conference is the supreme organ of the ITU. Its authority stems from the fact that it, and it alone, has the power to amend the International Telecommunication Conven- tion. The Convention gives the ITU its legal authority, esta- blishes its structure, and defines its functions. It follows that the dynamics at work at Plenipotentiaries has a direct impact on the ITU as a whole. Each conference has seen an increase in the number of delegates elected to administrative organs. It also represented a larger variety of interests. Development-assistance issues, which under the more rigid institutional framework of a Constitution might have severely shaken the organization’s structure, have been channeled at the ITU into specific actions such as technical assistance and training in connection with other United Nations agencies. The Plenipotentiary is also a political event in which the representatives of member countries attempt to secure changes in the ITU’s structure and functions that will give them some appreciable advantage. The advantage could range from the chairmanship of a committee, or of the Conference itself, to decisions which would give advantage to a national telecommuni- cation industry, or even technical assistance in the upgrading of a domestic telecommunication network. Although ITU conferences, in the tradition of the Union, 38cc for a discussion of Convention and Constitution, C. Barret and H. Newcombe, "Weighted Voting in International Institutions," Peace Research Reviews, 2/1 (1968). 12 generally decide all matters of any importance by consensus, voting sometimes occurs. The rules are simple. All decisions are decided by simple majority vote. Voting by secret ballot may occur when requested by five delegations. However, given the tremendous increase in Recommendations and Amendments of all kinds, the increasing membership, and the diverging interest of the constituencies of both developed and developing countries, it is somewhat remarkable that the rule of consensus is so widely used.‘ Rationale for Hypothesis 2 Beginning with telegraphy, then telephony, radiocommunica- tion, and digital networks born out of the marriage of computer and telecommunication technologies, the transmission of informa- tion is transborder in character. As the information sector has come to occupy more than half of the industrialized nations’ workforce, the relationship between computer/telecommunication technologies and economic progress has become widely recognized.5 Sovereign states are obviously part of a global economy. International enterprises are more than ever dependent upon a secure global web of transmission channels. World markets have superseded domestic markets in the ‘See G. A. Codding and A. M. Rutkowski, The International Telecommunication Union in a Changing World (Dedham, MA: Artech House, 1982. 5See M. U. Porat, The Information Economy, U.S. Department of Commerce, Office of Telecommunications Special Publication 77-12 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1977). l3 strategy of the major telecommunication-equipment manufacturers and service providers. Radiocommunication uses a scarce resource, the electromagnetic spectrum, whose allocation calls for interna— tional coordination.6 It is of the utmost importance that standards, as well as radio-frequency allocations, can be developed in time for the emerging new services, so that inter- working between installations for basic services can be safe- guarded, and efficient communication between facilities for different kinds of public and specialized services can be guaranteed. Standardization is also necessary from an economic point of view, in order to reduce the need for a great variety of different techniques or for complex conversion equipment. Standardization is therefore of great importance to telecommuni- cation Operators and customers in both the developed and the developing world. Interdependence between telecommunication systems worldwide is a prerequisite for the orderly development of global telecommunication systems.7 ITU documents suggest that the increasing acceptance by the industrialized countries of the development agenda imposed upon the ITU by the Third World constituency echoes the increasing reliance of the technologically-advanced countries on the International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee 6See B. Segal, ”ITU Plenipotentiary Conference and Beyond," Telecommunications Policy (December 1983), pp. 326-334. 7R. Naslund, ”ITU Conference in Nairobi: Confrontation or Mutual Understanding?” Telecommunications Policy (June 1983), pp. 100-110. 14 (CCITT). These industrialized countries are doing critical work in CCITT circles regarding the standardization of equipment and operation for the implementation of global digital telecommunica- tion networks supporting their respective industrial infrastruc— ture. The immediate benefits of the CCITT -outcome are not so clear to members with a restricted telephony base. Some develop- ing countries have suggested that there might be a case for cutting back on budget allocations for the International Consul- tative Committees (0013) to make available more for technical assistance, which is of more immediate relevance to the majority of members.8 The receptiveness of developed countries to the demands of their less well-endowed counterparts stems from an imperative to maintain the status quo to the extent that the higher the stake in world-wide telecommunication networks, the higher the cost of breaking up the collective arrangements that make their operation possible. Rationale for Hypothesis 3 Established in 1865, the ITU survived two World Wars and numerous other international conflicts. It has adapted to coordinate the ever-increasing international use of rapidly developing telecommunication technology while taking on many new members with different concerns and priorities. It will be argued that the reasons for the ITU’s longevity and centrality in the 8J. Solomon, ”Rejoinder, The Politics of Relevance and the ITU,” Telecommunications policy (September 1983), p. 244. 15 field of telecommunication may have to do with the unique nature of its domain of jurisdiction--telecommunication. The desire for self-preservation and the recognition that order in the world community is essential if vital resources are to benefit everyone have created pressures for cooperation and mutual problem-solving. Equitable and efficient management of the environment and national resources, and the orderly development of international telecommunication systems, are vital to national interests. The context within which international decision-making occurs is therefore characterized by world tensions at one level, and pressures for self—preservation and collective agreement at another. The effectiveness of the ITU can be assessed by looking at the way in which this organization prevents and resolves con- flicts in radio-frequency assignments and the frequency with which the conflict-resolution procedure has been used. The ITU Convention encourages members to settle their disputes involving interpretation or application of the Convention or Regulations outside the ITU through procedures established by other treaties to which they are parties. History shows that these procedures have been largely ignored. From time to time, it has been suggested that the ITU needs to become more active in the conflict-resolution process, ostensibly because the high stakes involved in contemporary 16 global telecommunication conflicts warrant it.9 This concern, however, may be irrelevant regarding the ITU because of its unique domain of jurisdiction, unknown in other international bodies, namely, telecommunication. As nations become more dependent upon telecommunication, they will be less able to ignore situations that render their services unusable. Similarly, as their level of financial commitment to telecommunication facilities and services increases, nations will be less willing to risk actions that would diminiéh the returns on investment. Clearly, the incentives for international cooperation before conflicts arise can only be expected to become stronger. Such cooperation is most likely to exist when it is in a nation’s self-interest. If, for example, a member nation desires interna- tional recognition and protection of its frequency assignments, it must adhere to international standards. Catering to its members’ self-interests is one of the ITU’s greatest strengths, and one which distinguishes it from other international organiza- tions. As ‘a nation’s stake in advanced telecommunication systems increase, its willingness to prevent conflict will permeate other areas of interest to the ITU community such as accommodating demands of developing countries.10 9D. Leive, The Future of the International Telecommunication Union (Leiden: A. W. Sijthoff, 1970). 1°D. C. Gregg, "Capitalizing on National Self-Interest: The Management of International Telecommunication Conflict by the ITU," Law and Contemporary Problems, International Telecommunica- tions, 45/1 (Winter 1982), pp. 38—52. l7 Methodology Since the study offers an historical perspective on the internal activities of the ITU, it borrows the research tools of historiography, namely, the use of primary and secondary sources as well as interviews. The entire collection of ITU documents is available at the organization’s Central Library and Documents Section at the Geneva headquarters, where the author spent one month. The holdings also include a working collection of the documents and publications issued by the United Nations and the specialized agencies of interest to the ITU. The successive International Telecommunication Conventions are examined and reference is made to documents issued by World Administrative Conferences as far as they relate to development assistance. The investigation focuses, however, mostly on the relevant information contained in the documents issued by the Administra- tive Council and the Plenipotentiary Conferences, complemented with interviews conducted at the Geneva headquarters with long-time ITU personnel involved in technical assistance to provide elaboration and context where needed. The Administrative Council--the ITU’s governing board--gives a clear, living record of the climate for an international organization’s dependency on sovereign nation-states. Since its inception in 1947, membership in the Council has increased from 18 to 41. The Council as such was created in order to provide an (“gen of manageable size that can give top management some policy (firection in the long intervals between the general assemblies of 18 the Plenipotentiary Conference--the supreme organ of the ITU which makes laws and revises the International Telecommunication Convention. By representing about 25 percent of the total membership, the Council reflects the desire of many developing nations for a voice in top management. Of the three duties assigned to the Administrative Council under Article 8 of the Convention, one specifically points to the developing countries: ”It shall promote international cooperation to the developing countries by every means at its disposal...” This provision was added in 1959, at a Plenipotentiary that might be called a watershed in the ITU’s evolution toward truly worldwide partici- pation. The two other duties assigned to the Administrative Council are, a) facilitating the implementation of the Convention, regulations, and decisions of the various ITU conferences by member countries, and b) ensuring the efficient coordination of the work of the Union and exercising financial control over its organs.11 The responsibility is therefore political as well as fiscal. It appears that Administrative Council meetings have become more political with the increasing shift of membership strength to developing nations. Issues in world politics that may be particularly contentious at the time are likely to be taken up in the Administrative Council. The Council provides a safety valve for national ambitions and points to controversy. It 11International Telecommunication Convention, Malaga-Torre- molinos, 1973, Art. 8. 19 permits some international actors to be heard who are unable to make a distinctive contribution to the technical and operational substance of agreement-making. The examination of the documents and proceedings issued by the Administrative Council’s meetings is most important to the understanding of the internal dynamics of the ITU since the Administrative Council is the official surrogate of the ITU between Plenipotentiary Conferences. However, for several reasons, including the fact that the Council meets for only a few weeks a year, that it does not represent the ITU’s entire member- ship, and that developing countries have historically been more effective in exerting influence on larger meetings, the Council’s activity does not totally mirror its parent’s. In Iorder to complete the picture for this study, the proceedings of Plenipo- tentiary Conferences are also analyzed. Aware of the limitation of these official sources, the author also consulted secondary sources, such as the literature written by observers. The art of political persuasion and lobbying is an important aspect of the decision-making process within any organization, and the ITU is no exception. These activities are hardly recorded in official documents. Neverthe- less, what is available is the outcome: propositions, resolu- tions, reservations, law, agreement, votes, etc. The author believes that, over a period of 40 years, it is possible to delineate clear shifts, trends, and orientations, however incomplete the data. ‘am. I w." CHAPTER 2 THE RISE OF TELECOMMUNICATION IN DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS Approaches to Development The thinking about development was induced by the need to solve policy problems. Development economics did not arise as a formal theoretical discipline, but was fashioned as a practical subject in response to the needs of policymakers to advise governments on what could and should be done to allow their nations to emerge from chronic poverty. The term "economic development" was rarely used before the 19403. There came the recognition that ”there will be an insistent demand in many parts of the world for rapid progress in economic development after the war.”12 During the pioneering period most economists came to interpret economic development as denoting growth in per capita real income in underdeveloped countries. Some, however, emphasi- zed that development meant growth plus change, especially change in value and institutions. This concept was embodied in what came to be known as the modernization paradigm.13 Most Western theorists in economics and politics conceived of patterns and forces which catapulted Europe and America into modernity as 12E. Stanley, World Economic Development (Montreal: Interna- tional Labor Office, 1944), p. 26; see also, among the pionners in development thinking, H. Mandelbaum, Industrialization of Backward Areas (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1947). 13Among its leading theorists were W. W. Rostow, The Stage of Economic Growth (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1960) and B. H. Higgins, Economic Development (New York: Norton, 1959). 20 21 being more than part of a culturally specific, one-time histori- cal phenomenon. They concluded from these experiences that modernization is a deterministic, inexorable, and universal process in which all societies participate or which is inherent in the development of every society. Like biological evolution, development was assumed to be irreversible. The problems of development were thrust upon economists by the breakup of colonial empires in Asia and Africa during the Second World War and shortly thereafter. Nationalist demands of the interwar period were fulfilled in the postwar period, and imperialism and colonialism were in full retreat. The Charter of the United Nations pointed to the goal of colonial emancipation. Colonialism was on the way out far more rapidly than had first seemed possible at the end of the World War II, and many colonies soon emerged as nations. Unlike the League of Nations in the earlier years, the United Nations immediately became enmeshed in the colonial problem. The Asian-African bloc symbolized a fundamental change in the balance of world forces. The self-assertion of Asian and African peoples through nationalism and political self-reliance led to a drive for development. The leaders of the new nations insisted that international attention be given to their develop- ment problems. Areas that had been considered in the eighteenth century as ”rude and barbarous," in the nineteenth century as "backward," and in the prewar period as "underdeveloped" now become the ”less-developed countries" or the ”poor countries”-- 22 and also the "emergent countries" and "developing economies." Development programs, national planning boards, and indus- trial development corporations soon proliferated in the 19503 and 19603. The economist’s tool kit, moreover, began to provide some modern techniques that could support the formulation of a development plan-~especially input-output analysis, dynamic programming, and simulation of growth models. Visiting missions and foreign advisers began to cooperate with local planning agencies in producing analyses and policy recommendations underlying development plans. A development plan commonly aimed at a forced take-off and high—speed development, with a large amount of public investment and deliberate industrialization at its core, and it supplanted the market mechanism with physical planning that involved the government in numerous decisions of a direct, specific character.1‘ The efforts of the industrialized world to engineer change in the developing countries had been generally unsuccessful. Conventional modes of analysis and associated strategies began to be challenged by the structuralist approach. Unlike the neoclas- sical economists who assumed a smoothly working market price system, structuralists’ analysis attempted to identify specific rigidities, lags, shortages and surpluses, and other characteris- HThe "Soviet way of industrialization” had some influence in stimulating planning. See the writing by M. Dobb, Some Aspects of Economic Development; P. Baran, ”On the Political Economy of Backwardness," Manchester School of Economic and Social Studies (January 1952); and Baran, The Political Economy of Backwardness (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1957). 23 tics of the structure of developing countries that affect economic adjustments and the choice of development policy.15 Structuralism later evolved into "dependency" theory which attempts to explain the causes of underdevelopment in terms of unequal relations between the ”center," the industrialized countries, and the ”periphery," the developing countries. The newly—independent countries, whose growing number strengthen their voting power within international forums, called for a ”new deal,” a New International Economic Order (NIEO). The 1964 Geneva United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) represented a critical event in the evolution of the NIEO. Its Final Act contains most of the basic principles, proposals, measures and problems that have been considered and discussed in international development forums ever since. It enunciated a new set of goals to strive for and a program that differed from the traditional wisdom and rules of the post-war international economic order including the regulation of commodi- ty markets, preferential access to the markets of the industria- lized countries, and, more importantly, development assistance targets. Moreover, it recommended the creation of new institu- tions devoted to the realization of these goals. As important as 15Structuralism’s leading work is P. Prebish, The Economic Development of Latin America and Its Principal Problems (New York: United Nations, 1950). See also D. Felix, ”Structural Imbalances, Social Conflict, and Inflation," Economic Development and Cultural Change (January 1960); and L. Solis, ”Mexican Economic Policy in the Post-War Period: The Views of Mexican Economists," American Economic Review, Supplement (June 1971), pp. 34-43. I ' ' ii- (A ‘n I.“ . . 0“ 'I :3: H, q, t 11'; 24 these results of UNCTAD was the emergence of the Group of 77 as the negotiating instrument of Third World countries. The 1973 oil crisis gave an added dimension to the NIEO debate. For the first time, the powerful industrialized countries experienced a situation in which decisions vital to their welfare were being taken elsewhere. Their dependence on extraterritorial decisions made them more responsive to the development needs of their less-endowed counterparts. Telecommunication in Development Development communication study in the last three decades has largely followed the rise of the modernization paradigm in its generalizations and research methodology about mass media and the modernization process. The preoccupation with the economic 'determinism of Western models of developments and the role of the mass media is reflected in the work of Lerner and Rogers.16 As the attempts at directed change never materialized, the associa- ted thinking about communication lost much of its vigor. The lost of momentum of modernization and diffusion theories and the emerging conceptual tools of structuralism and dependency in the 19703 have created the impetus for considering, from a different perspective, communication content and its support as 16D. Lerner, The Passing of Traditional Society (New York: Free Press, 1955); E. Rogers, Modernization Among Peasants: The Impact of Communication (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1969). 25 integral elements of development processes.17 The ownership and operation of telecommunication systems, not items on early development agendas, became the focus of increasing attention. An historical analysis of the expansion and operation of the British news agency, Reuters, in the late 18003 and early 1900 ,taken as an example, reveals the extent to which communication apparatuses play a crucial role in defining relationships between states. The systems of transportation and information were essential elements in the process of defining the relationships between the two parties, colonizer and colonized, within the imperial system. The British wire service was able to play a crucial role in the international micro-system of advancing capitalism. Reuters built his Eastern empire originally on the cotton trade. He supplied British merchants operating as far as East Asia with data on harvests and production of cotton in India. His political infor- mation on China and the rest of the region was added to his specialist information on cotton and then he was able to cons- truct within India a local sub-continental network which collected information for his other clients. In the case of Persia, Reuters even contracted to build not only the national telegraph system itself, but also a railway from the Caspian to 1"The central concept of diffusion theory is that innova- tions trickle down, that is, diffuse autonomously from those in direct contact with external sources of information to other members of the community--insuring a multiplier effect for the activities of the change agent. Diffusion approach, like moderni- zation approach, is based on a mechanistic assumption. See E. M. Rogers, Diffusidn of Innovations (New York: Free Press, 1962). o. . '1!- is: l ‘- d.'al 26 the Persian Gulf plus branch lines. Around this enterprise he planned to develop a large series of transport-dependent indus- tries including timber, minerals, agriculture.18 It remains that the debate about communication which later translated into the call for a New World Information Order (NWIO), which echoed the NIEO in substance and terminology, concentrated foremost on the effects of foreign media on indige- nous social and political systems. It is only more recently that consideration of lack of telecommunication infrastructure, reliance on foreign transmission networks, and technological dependency entered the picture. Whether it focused on the communication software or hardware, the debate turned communica- tion into a dynamic component of the development process. UNESCO became the forum, par excellence, where the Third World attempted to design a global strategy. In 1978, the 20th UNESCO General Assembly received the interim report of the MacBride Commission, Many Voices, One World: Towards a New, More Just and More Efficient World Information and Communication Order. For all the shortcomings of such a compromise document, it does identify many of the expectations and aspirations of Third World countries concerning communications. Though focusing on mass media problems and questions of freedom of the press, the report also raised such economic issues 88 ”differential communications pricing policies," ”international _ 18A. Smith, The Geopolitics of Information (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980); 27 actions...to alter telecommunications tariffs that militate against small and peripheral users,” and more equitable sharing of the electromagnetic spectrum and geostationary satellite orbital slots. In one of the recommendations, "New Technologies and Information’s Role in Development," the report seems to prefer the rapid incorporation of the new information technolo- gies (satellites, computers, telecommunications, and broadcast) into the development plans for all countries. Although some cautions are voiced about the problems of giving priority to high technology, the commission seems to feel that countries that do not follow this policy will be left behind in the rapidly developing sector of many economies in the industrialized countries. This last aspect, the growing importance of the information sector in developed economies due to the merging of computer and telecommunication systems which came to be known as ”telema- tics," the establishment of global networks allowing the interna- tional flow of data as well as evidence of a correlation between telephone and economic development has shifted the debate away from consideration of mass media content and toward the improve- ment of point-to-point telecommunication networks and telephone systems, in particular, in developing countries. 19 This new emphasis has brought the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) into to center of development activities. 19See A. P. Hardy, ”The Role of the Telephone in Economic Development.” Telecommunication Policy 4/4 (December 1980). 28 For years, efforts at economic development have placed primary focus on building roads, delivering electrical power, constructing schools, and building dams. Prime attention was focused on these "basic" infrastructures that, more often than not, did not include telecommunications. For a number of years, the amount of money in aid and soft-loans for telecommunications has been at a level of only 4 percent, or less, of total pro- grams. This relatively small emphasis has been largely the result of the following factors: (1) It has, in many instances, been assumed that commercial money could be attracted for telecommun- ications investment; (2) It has been assumed that telecommunica- tion is a low-priority need, in terms of infrastructure develop- ment; (3) the relationships between broadcast communications, educational programming and two-way telecommunication, in terms of their interrelated impact upon education, health, agricultural development and other programs, have not been well understood or appreciated; and (4) perhaps most significant, there has been a lack of appreciation by political and economic leaders, at the national and international levels, that telecommunication is a significant factor in creating economic development. Most leaders do not realize that without reliable means of communications, significant progress toward economic development is difficult, if not impossible. Contrary to these political and economic leadership views, the importance of telecommunication, not just as a "desirable" service, but as a basic human need, has been increasingly 29 recognized. The emphasis on the development of communication support to achieve economic and technological progress is beginning to be understood and appreciated worldwide.30 In the decade of the 19603, the international community had already come to accept the results made possible by outer-space technology in areas such as communications, meteorology, and management of the earth’s environment and its resources. As a response to the expression of this new interest by a growing number of countries, the United Nations convened in Vienna, in 1968, the First United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space to inform member states of the results and the potential of space applications, to discuss how nations might benefit from active participation, and to consider a possible role of the United Nations in this effort. The conference provided a stimulus within the United Nations for new initiatives to enable as many countries as possible to take part in the opportunities available for applying space technology to the needs of economic, social, and cultural development. The United Nations system directed its attention to the area of space applications and each of the organizations within the system undertook programs to promote outer-space applications in the developing countries. The World Bank is the largest multilateral source of funds for telecommunications. Between 1962 and 1983 it made 93 loans 2°J. N. Pelton, ”Intelsat, Communications Development and World Communications Years,” Telematics and Informatics 1/1 (1984), pp. 75-76. 30 and credits for a total of $2.7 billion to 42 countries to help finance telecommunication projects costing $10 billion. Through its lending, the World Bank seeks whenever necessary to (1) ensure adequate autonomy of operating entities from government; (2) promote tariffs that result in the efficient use of existing plant and new investment, full cost recovery, and the transfer to government of surplus profits; (3) extend basic communications services to rural and low-income urban areas as required to meet equity and regional development objectives; (4) reduce the number of operating entities when needed to obtain economies of scale; (5) identify and remedy inadequacies in enterprise organization structure, project implementation capacity, and operation and maintenance; (6) strengthen manpower planning, and long-term technical and financial planning; and (7) establish and improve commercial accounting, information systems, service performance targets, and other management tools.21 Telecommunications projects are relatively fast to prepare and straightforward to supervise, and are in this sense among the most cost-effective World Bank operations. Even though the World Bank is the largest multilateral source of funds for telecommuni- cations, its lending in this sector represents a very small percentage of the total distribution of loans, and a decreasing one, in relative terms (see Figure 1). In the 1969-73 period, telecommunications accounted for 5.4 percent; in 1974-78 for 2.3 21B. Wellenius, "Telecommunications in Developing Coun- tries,” Finance & Development (September 1984), p. 35. FIGURE 1 Sectoral Distribption of World Bank Group Loans, 1975-1980 Notes: Million US: 3.500 .. Agncunuve and vursl development 3.000 4' 2,500 4.. 2.000 1P Elecmc power 1500 “' Trmmruuon 1_ooo .. Water suppw and waste disposst Industry ’ ’3 5609110" 500 ‘r .—I . - _—.+o—.+._,+ ———--. TCWMUHIC‘IIOHS 4 t s 1 z A 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 Source: World_ Bank Reports. Reproduced from Telecommunications and Development (Geneva: ITU/OECD, 1983). The data used here are three-year averages. The seven sectors presented in this figure amount on an average to 80 percent of the total loans of the World Bank Group. 31 32 percent, and in 1979-1981 for 1.7 percent. Over the last three years, it increased to slightly over 2 percent. These figures may, however, be somewhat be misleading, as telecommunications is frequently a component of projects in other development sectors such as health, education, and agriculture. Nevertheless invest— ment in telecommunications remains small.22 The reason for such a relative low level of investment is not that there is a lack of demand for telecommunications services; in developing countries there is typically a large gap between the supply and demand for telephones and telex. The reason for the inadequate investment is also not that telecommun- ications entities are not financially profitable. In general, in developing countries, reasonably well managed telecommunications .entities can generate large local-currency financial surpluses. Some authors have blamed international public and private financial institutions and the World Bank, in particular for this situation. The World Bank limits its involvement in the telecom- munications sector to that of lender of last resort when no appropriate financial sources are available. The comparatively limited involvement in this sector revolves around the fact that the Bank attempts to focus its lending on "basic needs,” projects which have a significant direct and demonstrable impact on those who fall in the lowest 40-percent income group in a country, and the fact that there are few substitutes for Worl Bank funds in 22 World Bank figures cited in R. Naslund, ”ITU Conference in Nairobi: Confrontation or Mutual Understanding?" Telecommuni- cations Policy (June 1983), p. 101. 33 these low-income project areas. In a sector like telecommunica- tions, on the other hand, substitute funds are smetimes available (bilateral aid, supplier credits, commercial bank loans). It is hard to find any evidence to suggest that the histori- cal reluctance of the World Bank to finance telecommunication projects reflects the Worl Bank’s unwillingness to involve itself in politically-sensitive issues. Unlike UNESCO’s involvement in software design of communication programs--a potentially sensi- tive issue--the Worl Bank’s loans go to the building of telecom- munication hardware. In many respects, the World Bank’s small amount of lending for telecommunications projects reflects the small investment in telecommunication facilities in developing countries themselves, which in recent years was in the neighborhood of 0.3 percent of the GDP, although some upward trend has been noticed since the mid-19703, in many of the OPEC countries, in particular. The level of investment in telecommunications in non-OPEC developing countries, however, is still in most instances less than half the average annual investment in the more developed countries.23 Saunders summed up the most serious reasons for the somewhat \ low rate of investment in the sector in developing countries:2‘ 23R. J. Saunders & C. R. Dickenson, "Telecommunications: Priority Needs for Economic Development," Telecommunications Journal 46/9 (September 1979), pp. 556-570. 2“R. J. Saunders, "Telecommunications in Developing Countri- es: Constraints on Development," in M. Jussawalla & D. M. Lamberton (eds.) Communication Economics and Development (New York: Pergamon Press, 1982), p. 195. 34 l. A lack of enumeration and quantification of the benefits of telecommunications investment relative to what is done in other sectors. 2. A perception that telecommunications investments, while profitable in a financial sense, confer direct benefits only upon a relatively narrow - and privileged - portion of the population of a developing country. 3. Tariff policies which in the short run do not promote an efficient allocation of telecommunications resources. 4. Institutional and organizational problems both within and exogenous to the telecommunications operating entities.25 Two major reports published in 1983 provided the much-needed empirical support for the. thesis that the implementation of telecommunications facilities directly impacted upon the economic growth of developing countries. The first report, entitled Telecommunications and Economic Development, was conducted by the World Bank.26 It is a massive microeconomic' and macroeconomic analysis of the benefits of telecommunication in developing countries. The six key questions addressed by the authors can be summarized as follows: 1. Can the economic value of the benefits of telecommunications investment be demonstrated and better estimated quantitati- vely? ‘ 25One additional constraint associated with‘ government priorities, benefit enumeration, and tariff policies relates to the scarcity of foreign exchange. A lack of the foreign exchange necessary to import telecommunications equipment is a major constraint to the development of the telecommunications as well as other import intensive sectors in many developing countries. Hence, telecommunications entities which can generate large local currency surpluses are in many instances unable to absorb them due to the unwillingness of governments to allow them to be converted into foreign exchange. 26R. J. Saunders, J. J. Warford, and B. Wellenius, Telecom- munications and Economic Development (Baltimore, MA: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983) 35 2. To whom do these benefits accrue? 3. What investment, regulatory, tariff, or other policies might best maximize the benefits, and under what circumstances? 4. How do these benefits compare with the costs of expanding the capacity and coverage of a telecommunications system? 5. What scale of investment, and what level of effort to overcome the constraints on efficient telecommunications sector expansion, can be justified by economic analysis? 6. Is sector organization and management a major constraint on sector efficiency? The second study, Telecommunications for Development, was jointly prepared by the ITU and the OECD. It integrates 18 case studies into a general theoretical framework provided by five macro-economic studies: correlational approaches developed by Hardy, benefits of rural telecommunications in the United States, by Parker; the economic costs of inadequate telecommunications, by Berry; telecommunications in rural Africa, by Clarke and Laufenberg, and the Lesser-Osberg’s general theory of socio-- economic benefits of telecommunications.27 In order to raise the level of awareness of both public and private entities, the U.N. General Assembly adopted a resolution declaring 1983 as World Communications Year (WCY) and designated 2”See A. Hardy, The Role of the Telephone in Economic Development (Stanford, CA” Stanford University Press, 1980); E. B. Parker, Economic and Social Benefits of the REA Telephone Loan Program (Stanford, CA" Equatorial Communications, 1981); J. F. Berry, Comments on the Contribution of Telecommunications to Development: The Case of France and Spain (Association Fran\aise des Utilisateurs du Telephone et des Telecommunications: Marnes-- la-Coquette, 1981); D. C. Clarke and W. Laufenberg, The Role of Telecommunications in Economic Development With Special Reference to Rural Sub—Saharan Africa (Geneva: ITU, 1981); B. Lesser and L. Osberg, The Socio-Economic Development Benefits of Telecommun- ications (Halifax: Dalhousie University, 1981). 36 the ITU as the lead agency for carrying out the objectives of WCY.28 In view of the deterioration of the global economic situa- tion, there is evidence, in recent years, that the role of multilateral institutions such as the World Bank in assisting developing countries with telecommunications investment programs is in many cases not replaceable by other agencies or groups. 28Resolution A/RES/36 40, (November 19, 1981). CHAPTER 3 THE INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION Historical Overview The principal instrumentality for maintaining world order in telecommunication has been and continues to be the International Telecommunication Union, a specialized agency of the United Nations headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, (see Figure 2). The §KITU is a direct descendant of the International Telegraph Union, which was established in 1865. The ITU historian G. A. Codding contends that the present organization "can be considered the oldest existing intergovernmental organization and the forerunner of many of the international organizations today."29 By the end of the 18503, the impediments to public telegra- phic correspondence across European frontiers approached intole- rable proportions. Telegraph wires from two countries would come to a common boundary and stop. The situation was ripe for international action. In 1864 the French Imperial Government sent invitations to all the major European countries to attend a conference in Paris to negotiate a convention which would provide a uniform international telegraph“ system. The International Telegraph union was born the following year. At the Berlin Radio Conference of 1906, a separate organiza- \ tion, the International Radiotelegraph Union was formed to deal 29G. A. Codding, The International Telecommunication Union: An Experiment in International Cooperation (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1952) C 37 FIGURE 2 .m .. . and .02 8.3 I 3028.3...— 23232 .3st .20.... 22.39 20.32590 5.2—0..— .ngouzuE. 3.03 023 3023.590 02.3.2300 2......«2 7.58:3»..923. OD:— =o_.:..=..o 3.3.2802 23.: oz... nYJ OI nYl 10...: ..o..3...=E...000_0.—.120.32.02.— DPLOII. 3...: .23.. .8833: 3.5 3023.595 ..0..s.>< _.>.U 1.3.32.0...— 0(0— 530. 322.02 3.3.33.2... .._ 2. 3.33330 02.2... 3.0.33.2... U... 2.2.2.0336 .23 20.33.2303. .0. 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The two organizations merged in 1932 to form the International Telecommunication Union. The ITU is not only the oldest international organization, but its current membership of over 160 exceeds that of the United Nations membership, (see Appendix C). Few changes occurred in the structure and functions of the ITU from 1932 until after World War II. The Atlantic City conferences of 1947 has been hailed for modernizing the ITU; it made three fundamental changes in the structure of the Union. First, it created an Administrative Council of eighteen members to meet annually to take charge of the administration of the Union between plenipotentiary conferences and to provide liaison with the newly created United Nations organization. Second, it was decided to internationalize the predominantly Swiss secreta- riat. Third, it created the International Frequency Registration Boeard (IFRB). Finally, the Atlantic City conferences for the first time in the history of the ITU attempted to describe the aims and purposes of the Union for inclusion in the basic treaty. They were: - To maintain and extend international cooperation for the improvement and rational use of telecommunication of all kind. - To promote the development of technical facilities and their most efficient operation with a view to improving the efficiency of telecommunication services, increasing their usefulness and making them, so far as possible, generally available to the public. - To harmonize the actions of nations in the attainment of 40 those common ends.3° Although a number of conferences and meetings were held in the interval between Atlantic City and the Geneva plenipotentiary conference of 1965, there were few demands for any substantive change in the structure and function of the ITU. Politics did arise but dealt mainly with non-technical issues. One fact about the first hundred years of the ITU should also be noted. With one exception all the major elected officials of the ITU were citizens of Western Europe or the United States. That one excep- tion was Andrada of Argentina, who served as the secretary general from 1954—1958. The developing nations have brought about the most important change in the function of the ITU since 1932 by expanding the Union’s mandate toward technical-assistance activities. For a number of reasons, however, this change was slow in coming. Although the new nations were quick to join the ITU as soon as they became independent members of the international community, it took some time for them to become a majority in the ITU and to realize the fact. It took even more time for the developing nations to recognize the importance of telecommunication services to the development process. Finally, the developing nations had to awaken to the need to perfect effective politics of alliance to achieve their desired ends. Although the postwar process of converting colonies into 3°International Telecommunication Convention, Atlantic City, 1947, Atlantic City, 1974, Art. 3. 41 independent states had made a good start by 1959, the Plenipoten- tiary Conference of that year was a normal one in that the developed Western nations tended to manage the course of business without a great deal of opposition. Two decisions were made, however. The first was to increase the number of members of the Administrative Council. The second one was an addition to Article 4 of the ITU Convention, "Purposes of the Union," to the effect that the ITU would in the future assist developing countries in implementing telecommunication facilities. This second decision decision were more a recognition of what the United Nations was already doing, and an acceptance of the responsibility to help, rather than the result of any massive politicking on the part of the new nations. The major political issue of the 1959 conference was the proposal by the Soviet Union to exclude the delegation of the Republic of China and invite the People’s Republic of China. By 1965, the environment had changed drastically. Membership in the Union had grown to 129. The new majority was vocal and insistent. Two important changes took place. The first proposal, accepted by the assembly, was to enlarge the Administrative Council so as to include representatives from developing coun- 4 tries. The second was a U.S. proposal to abolish the IFRB. This proposal met the opposition of the Third World constituency, which claimed that the IFRB was aiding the new states in the selection of radio frequencies, something they found difficult to do in view of their stage of development. It was agreed to reduce the size of the IFRB. The important political news at Montreux 42 was no longer the East-West conflict, but the attack by the developing countries on South Africa and Portugal, eventually leading to the expulsion of the former.31 If the new politics of the developing countries caused the most excitement at the 1965 conference in Montreux (Switzerland), their demands for development assistance probably caused the most consternation to the American delegation. Although the new nations were able to push through a number of proposals increas- ing ITU activity in development assistance, they failed to achieve their three major goals: the establishment of a special ITU technical assistance fund in addition to that provided by the U.N. Development Program; the establishment of regional ITU offices in the less developed areas of the world to aid the countries in those areas in developing telecommunications system; and the creation of a new and separate organ in the ITU to deal exclusively with development-assistance matters, which organ would be independent of the secretary general. This failure on the part of the new majority can be attributed in about equal parts to the persuasiveness of the developed countries, a fear of an additional financial burden, and the fact that the developing countries were still not well organized. The 1973 Malaga-Torremolinos Plenipotentiary Conference saw the overall membership grow from 129 to 146. The ITU secretariat was led by a Secretary-General from a developing country. The conference was dominated almost entirely by the concerns of the 31Codding and Rutkowski, pp. 44-45. 43 developing nations. Fifteen major proposals concerning develop— ment assistance were discussed, thirteen of which were approved. The two proposals defeated were the establishment of regional offices and the creation of a consultative committee dealing exclusively with development matters. The U.S. delegation started to express doubt on the continuing usefulness of the ITU as an international regulatory agency for telecommunications.32 The debate surrounding the New International Economic Order permeated the ITU’s subsequent conferences and meetings. Since development issues became prominent, more details will be provi- ded in the next chapter. Organizational Structure The ITU is composed of four permanent organs, the Secreta- riat, the International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee (CCITT), the International Radio Consultative Committee ‘(CCIR), and the International Frequency Registration Board (IFRB). In addition, the Union’s functions are carried out by three non-permanent organs, the Plenipotentiary Conferences, Administrative Conferences, and the Administrative Council,33 (see Figure 3). The general A§ecretggigt provides continuity and permanence. It is the chief executive and legal representative of the ITU, 32Ibid., p. 50. 33For a detailed presentation of the ITU’s structure, see Codding and Rutkowski, Chapter II, "Decision-Making Structure," pp. 59-182. FIGURE 3 .mos .m .Amhma sHan >\vN unawumowssiloo so macauoomsnuh NMNH "mossom 32:!» ouluum auundnuuhm C rm aukmnmwd ..Buhaumgu an: B: an: .mzouha< oz¢ zone -uzuu '(vzrdxu Adquzun—h zonhdmuAO 4430228 an want—58¢“: an Pd use .5—25—005 1 02¢ ma§nh~¢s ‘ use so up~¢o=a=< «gunman was mu mush nunsnuouux zen: muozuuumzou uzoq< .uuamnussm‘s zo~a¢¢amsz~xax azonuuu mo assoc uozuxuuzou u¢<~aznaoanzuaa H """"""""""""""" Z— wP’xA—U—Pfih """"""""""""""""""" C F‘ 8 S g m rag“ PM! sews: 50¢MMUwssaaoooHoe Hm:0wun:uousn on» no osauoshum 44 45 responsible for carrying out orders of the Administrative Council and managing the ITU’s permanent staff. It ensures the applica- tion of the financial and administrative regulations, prepares and submits future work plans, and prepares cost-benefit analyses of the work of the headquarters for the Administrative Council. The General Secretariat undertakes administrative arrangements for the specialized secretariats of the permanent organs and appoint staff. It must also report to the Council any decision taken by the United Nations and the specialized agencies. The 99111 and the 9913 are close to being international organizations in their own right. The supreme organ in each is the Plenary Assembly which normally meets every three years and which is made up of delegates from all interested administrations and any recognized private operating agencies. The Plenary Assembly chooses questions that it wishes to study and create Study.Groups to deal with them. There are some differences in the mandates of the two Consultative Committees as well as in their methods of operation. The duties of the CCIR are to study technical and operating questions relating specifically to radiocommunication without limits of frequency range and to issue recommendations on them. The duties of the CCITT are similar regarding telegraph and telephone except that in addition to technical and operating questions it can also study tariff questions. In recognition of the fact that the distinctions between telegraph, telephone, and radio are fading as a result of new technologies, the two 46 Consultative Committees are increasingly forming joint working groups. The IFRB’s essential duties are set forth in Article 10 of the Convention: 8) to effect an orderly recording of frequency assign ments made by the different countries and of the positions assigned by them to their geostationary satellites in accordance with the procedures pres- cribed in the Radio Regulations; and b) to furnish advice to members of the Union with a view to the operation of the maximum practical number of radio channels in those portions of the spectrum where harmful interference may occur and to the equitable, effective, and economical use of the geostationary satellite orbit. The Board is made up of five persons considered the ”custo- dians of a public trust." They should not act as representatives of their respective countries. Decision-making at the ITU is the prerogative of conference of delegates from member countries. The Union holds two types of such conferences, the Plenipotentiary Conference and the Adminis- trative Conference. The Plenipotentiary Conference is the supreme organ of the ITU and has the exclusive power to amend the basic treaty, the International Telecommunication Convention. In addition, it has been given a number of task of a more specific nature which include: a) to consider the report of the Administrative Council on the activities of the Union since the previous Plenipotentiary Conference; b) to determine the fiscal limit for the expenditures of the Union until the next Plenipotentiary Confe— rence; 47 c) to fix the basic salaries, salary scales, and the allowance and pension system for officials of the Union; d) to examine and approve (if necessary) the accounts of the Union.34 Each country which is a member of the ITU has the legal right to be represented at a Plenipotentiary Conference. A number of international organizations send observers. The structure of such conference can be divided in three components: the formal meeting of delegates of all countries, the informal gatherings involving unofficial consultations between groups of delegates, and the Secretary-General and members of his staff involved in the conference work. The Plenipotentiary Conference meets every five to nine years at a place decided upon by the preceeding conference. Administrative Conferences are of two types, world and regional, and are convened to consider specific telecommunica- tions matters. The World Administrative Conference can take up any telecommunications question of a worldwide character includ- ing the partial or complete revision of the Radio, Telegraph, and Telephone Regulations. The specific agenda is determined by the Administrative Council with concurrence of a majority of the Union’s members and must include any question that a Plenipoten- tiary Conference wants placed on its agenda. World Administrative Conferences also review the activities of the International Frequency Registration Board (IFRB). Such conferences can be 34Codding and Rutkowski, p. 60. 48 convened by a decision of the Plenipotentiary Conference. The most prominent one was the 1979 World Administrative radio Conference. The agenda of a Regional Administrative Conference must deal only with specific telecommunication questions of a regional nature. The Administrative Council, meeting every year, is the agent of the ITU Plenipotentiary Conference in the relatively long intervals between meetings of that body. The 1982 Convention articulates three major areas of concern for the Council: ensuring the efficient coordination of the work of the Union, taking steps to facilitate the implementation of the Convention, Regulations and decisions of the various ITU conferences, and determining the ITU’s policy of technical assistance. While the Convention goes into considerable detail about these duties, the work of the Council in the past can be summarized in three categories: a) external relation which include formal contact with the United nations, the specialized agencies, and other international agencies; b) coordination of the work of the permanent organs of the Union which includes the review of the annual reports on their activities, temporarily filling vacancies among elected officials, and arranging for the convening of Plenipotentiary and Administrative Conferences; c) administra- tion, responsible for drawing up regulations for administrative and financial activites of the Union, supervising the functions of the various organs, including the Secretariat, the Consultati- ve Committees and the IFRB, reviewing and approving the annual 49 budget of the Union. Development assistance activities are taking an increasingly important share of the Administrative Council’s time. The Council, created in 1947, was probably the most important addition ever made to the structure of the ITU. PART II HISTORY OF THE ITU’S TECHNICAL-COOPERATION ACTIVITIES CHAPTER 4 THE EMERGENCE OF A SERVICE The newest service that is performed by the ITU, in particu- lar for its members from developing areas, is technical coopera- tigg, known prior to 1965 as technical assistance. An historical account of the origin and evolution of the ITU’s technical- cooperation activities, articulated around Plenipotentiary Conferences, is offered in this Part. The convening of a Plenipo- tentiary Conference, the ITU’s supreme organ, is a milestone in the history of the Union. The present chapter 4 begins with this introductory note and a definition of terms, then covers the period 1950-58, which includes the 1952 Plenipotentiary Conference and the first World Administrative Radio Conference (WARC). Chapter 5 covers the period 1959-64, Chapter 6, the period 1965-72, and Chapter 7. the period 1973-78. Each period begins with an account of a Plenipo- tentiary Conference. Chapter 8 covers the years 1979-81--rich in events--which include the second WARC, UNESCO meetings, and a detailed presentation of the proposals to restructure the ITU Technical Cooperation Department. Finally, Chapter 8 covers the 1982 Plenipotentiary Conference and the three following years. By following the chronology of events, this historical account provides an understanding of the interplay of the various 50 51 actors, of how and why certain ideas gained (or lost) momentum, and of the interdependence between the topics dealt with. Although temporary prominence was gained by some themes such as the relations between the ITU and the other U.N. specialized agencies or the establishment of national telecommunication training institutes, others have been permanently debated. Most of them set in opposition developed and developing countries. These key themes are briefly introduced below. Financing of Technicsl-Cooperstion Activities. The industrialized countries have constantly insisted that all ITU cooperation activities be financed exclusively through the United Nations Development Program, whereas the developing countries are requesting that these activities be financed by the ITU’s ordinary budget. Revision of the ITU Convention. The ITU’s basic instrument is revised at every Plenipoten- tiary Conference, the Union’s Supreme organ. Whereas the indus- trialized countries have attempted to keep it unaltered, the developing countries have generally succeeded in amending it so)“ as to shift the agenda of the Union toward development assist- BDCB. Representstion in ITU Organs In view of the growing number of newly-independent countries joining the ITU membership, pressure has been put on the Adminis- trative Council and other organs to increase the number of seats 52 assigned to developing countries. The industrialized countries have always insisted that expertise, rather than geography, presides over the selection of Councilors. CCIs’ Lsck of Responsiveness The CCITT and CCIR have been under continuous criticism for their lack of involvement in assisting developing countries. These countries, moreover, have historically been under-repre- sented in the 0013, and effective measures have been taken to remedy this situation. Esgional Offices To respond better to their needs, the developing countries have called for the decentralization of the ITU’s administrative and technical functions. This proposal has been opposed by the developed countries, which feared that it might occasion an unbearable financial burden on the ITU. Preferential Treatsent on Technicsl Matters Developing countries have insisted, against their technolo- gically-advanced counterparts, that planning mechanisms be instituted in the allotment of geostationary orbital slots and in allocation of radio-frequency bands. This issue was most promi- nent in the 1959 and 1979 World Administrative radio Conferences. Privste-Sector Involvesent in the ITU’s Work This issue opposed principally East and West. The Soviet Union has always been critical of the use by the ITU of personnel , P- __ r ‘ -. f . ,‘ ‘*-—f x14 53 recruited from the private telecommunication-equipment manufactu- rers. They accused in particular the Western European countries for using the ITU as a marketplace. Telecgsgunication and Economic Developsent Over the last ten years, the growing evidence of a correla- tion between telecommunication infrastructure and economic development has made developed countries and financial institu- tions more responsive to the specific needs of the Third World. Definition The expression "technical cooperation” acquired its present meaning only in the early 19503, and thus, is not defined in the ten volumes of the Grand Larousse nor in Robert’s Dictionnaire Alphsbetiqge et Analogique de la Langue Francagss; One finds the ' which Robert defines as: "To act in conjunc- verb ”to cooperate,’ tion with somebody," which is very general, although it could also be applied to "technical cooperation" as it is understood today. Robert defines "cooperation" in the political sense, as "a policy whereby a country makes a contribution to the economic or cultural development of less developed countries." The 20-volume Encyclopedia Universalis, which is the French equivalent of the Encyclopedisi Britannica, does not have a special chapter on "technical cooperation" as such. To find any information on the subject, one has to refer to the chapter entitled "United Nations." It is worth noting that technical cooperation is closely linked with the activities of the United 54 Nations system. The concept is therefore very recent, and only came into being after the end of the Second World War. Thus, in the long chapter devoted to the United Nations, which mentions the fact that the ITU is an international organi- zation which existed long before the United Nations and which--- since the creation of the U.N.--has become a specialized agency of the U.N. system, one find an explanation of the origin of development-assistance activities. The problems of U.N. member states whose development lagged behind that of other members rapidly assumed global dimensions following the decolonization process, as a result of which the United Nations was joined by a majority of new African and Asian states, all underdeveloped. The pressure exercised by these states since their admission to the U.N. has helped to ”orient the activities of the United Nations system toward development problems." Hence the United Nations and the specialized agencies substantially increased their ”opera- tional" activities, which were added to their normal activities. Further on one reads: [The United Nations Development Program has the funds,] and the projects implemented by means of these funds are generally carried out by the specialized agencies acting as ”executing agencies”... This situation evidently results in a coordination of their activities through the organs of the UNDP, which goes far beyond the coordination than can be achieved by the Economic and Social Council. Thus the whole United Nations system has been gsdically transformed (emphasis in text).1 1For further elaboration on this subject see, Mohamed Mili, ”The Institutional Framework of Technical Cooperation in the ITU," in Telecommunication Journal 46/8 (1979), pp. 466-469. 55 Codding notes that there is an honest difference of opinion over the definition of development assistance. In a way, almost any action that would result in the improvement of the lot of an administration could be classified as development assistance. To a great extent that has been the position of the ITU. The ITU, so the story goes, has been involved in the development assistance activities since 1865 when the delegates to the Paris Telegraph Conference shared their experien- ces, and, in the process, some of the delegates learned how to make improvements in their telegraph services.2 The following historical analysis rests upon the more restricted, and more widely used, definition of technical assistance, namely, assistance to new or developing countries. As a matter of fact, the ITU official documents themselves provide the starting point for the analysis as they discuss the merits, and reticences, of joining the United Nations Program of Techni- cal Assistance, particularly in view of the fact that the ITU became a Specialized Agency of the United Nations in 1947. The Early 1950’s: ”Extreme Prudence” Toward Technical Assistance At its fifth session in 1950, the Administrative Council discussed, in a general way, the question of the United Nations Program of Technical Assistance in relation to the ITU. Gerald Gross, Assistant Secretary-General of the ITU, has attended several meetings of the Technical Assistance Bureau (TAB) set up by Resolution 222 (IX) of the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) in 1949. He had learned that four countries—-Afghanis- tan, Egypt, Iran, and Pakistan--had submitted requests for 2Codding and Rutkowski, p. 284. 56 assistance in the field of telecommunications, within the framework of larger schemes entrusted to UNESCO. Gross asked the TAB and the Technical Assistance Committee (TAC) to consider the possibility of allocating a nominal percentage of their budget to the ITU so that "the ITU would not be at a real disadvantage if any real program of technical assistance in the field of telecom- munications was requested by one of its Members." He added that this was merely "a precautionary measure designed to protect the position of the ITU." Compared with other specialized agencies, the industrialized nations, the tenors of the ITU were not very much interested in involving the Union in technical-assistance matters. The ITU has been asked by TAC and TAB to do more in the field of technical assistance than to draw up a list of telecommunication experts, from among whom the United Nations intend to choose an expert for Afghanistan. In its report to be presented at the sixth Administrative Council in 1951, the Secretary-General of the ITU stated that the notion of technical assistance was no more than embryonic at the time of the Atlantic City Conference, so that there was no clear ruling in the Convention regarding the question whether the ITU should or should not take part in a plan of technical assistance. Article 1 of the Agreement between the UN and the ITU.recognizes the ITU "as the specialized agency responsible for taking such action as may be appropriate under its basic instrument for the accomplishment of the purposes set forth therein." Article 3 of 57 the Convention explains what those purposes are, and although it might be held that technical assistance is one of the means of attaining certain of the purposes set out in paragraph 1, this idea gained no support from paragraph 2 of the same article, which is clearly restrictive in character. The above interpretation seems to be confirmed by what the Atlantic City Conference itself did about a request for technical assistance put forward by a country represented at the Conferen- ce. It merely issued an Opinion to the effect that: The ITU recognizes the necessity of rendering immediate assistance to the countries Members of the Union, that were devastated by WWII, in order to rehabilitate their telecommunication systems and expresses the hope that the United Nations draw the attention of its competent organs to the importance and the urgency of this problem, which is part of the general problem of reconstruction.3 The extreme prudence of the ITU in engaging in assistance activities was reflected in another statement by the Secretary— General which, interestingly, parallels some of the fears expressed by developing countries much later: It should not be forgotten that a good many internatio- nal telecommunication services are provided by private operating agencies of long standing, most of their equipment, also, being supplied by private companies. This being so, any advice offered to a country on the development of its telecommunication would certainly risk being misunderstood, by reason of the commercial or political repercussions it might have.4 In order to be in line with the other UN specialized agencies while protecting its domain of jurisdiction, a Draft 3Doc. 83l/CA6 (1951), p. 7 ‘Ibid. 58 Resolution on Technical Assistance was submitted to the Council’s plenary session by Committee 4. It stressed for the first time ”the importance of telecommunication progress in international cooperation and particularly in speeding up of economic and social development of under-developed countries."5 The Resolu- tion requests the directors of the International Telephone Consultative Committee (CCIF), the International Radio Consulta- tive Committee (CCIR), and the International Telegraph Consulta— tive Committee (CCIT) to collaborate in the operation of techni- cal assistance, and invites the ECOSOC to make nominal allocation of funds for technical assistance in the field of telecommunica- tion with the advice of the ITU.6 At the same session a text was issued entitled "Possibili- ties for the Participation of the ITU in the Expanded Program of Technical Assistance Within Present Budgetary and Constitutional Limits." So far the ITU was represented to the TAB as an obser- ver. The ITU has historically been very proud of its uniqueness and independence, and its attachment to the UN system has not gone without heated debate. Some were reluctant to fully partici- pate to cooperative-assistance efforts fearing for the indepen— dence of the Union. The representative from Yugoslavia argued for a stronger commitment of the ITU to the goals of the United Nations Charter in a style which lays the bases for a shift in 5The study borrows the terminology in use at the time. ”Under-developed countries" will later be replaced by ”developing countries.” 6Doc. 922/CA6 (1951). 59 the agenda of the organization that will find a concrete form much later; it also reflects an understanding of the ITU Conven- tion somewhat different from the Secretary General: We ourselves feel that technical assistance is one of the most positive and concrete of the United Nations tasks, and that the Union should throw itself whole- heartedly into such work. If we consider the problem from this angle, we can be sure of representing the interests of those member-countries for which this technical assistance is indispensable if they are to attain the ends set forth in the international Telecom- munication Convention.7 The idea of joining as a full participant the UN Expanded Program of Technical Assistance gained momentum and the Secretary General reported to the 7th session of the Administrative Council (1952) the current position of the Union. His document included for the first time a definition of what is understood by "techni- cal assistance” offered by the Expanded Program. It is worth quoting him at some length as the entire analysis revolves about it: At first sight, it might be supposed that "assistance" implies unilateral help, and that countries fall into two classes, those that give and those that receive. In point of fact, the work is a cooperative one, designed to raise the standard of living in underdeveloped countries in the interests of the cogggnity of nstions (emphasis in text). In practice, the countries in which Technical Assistance programs are under way are themselves making a considerable effort which, in the last resort, will redound to the advantage of the community of nations. Moreover, it will be well to state that the word "technical" is here used in its widest sense, and covers all branches of economic and social activities. Lastly, it should be emphasized that the Technical Assistance programs are carried out on the national level, that is to say, they aim primarily at the 7PV CA/25, Doc. 970/CA6 (1951), p. 15. 60 internal development of the countries concerned, the international benefits which might result therefrom being only incidental, at least for the immediate future.8 What technical assistance consists of at the time is worth examining as the scope of activities will be enlarged under the joint effort of an increasing number of developing countries to modify the purposes of the ITU: "Assistance" at once suggests financial help; hence the idea has got abroad that Technical Assistance largely consists of the grant of funds to enable underdeveloped countries to procure, for example, the equipment they need. In fact, however, the funds devoted to Technical Assistance are comparatively small, and the assistance consists essentially of the following: a) the dispatch, to underdeveloped countries, of experts to study the problems on the spot and draw up recommendations for the development of the country; b) the grant of ”scholarships" and "fellowships” to nationals of such countries, in order that they may visit more developed countries to complete their studies or to acquire further knowledge in their own special line; c) the organization, in such countries, of study circles or lecture tours. d) the supply of equipment--chief1y demonstration equipment. However, the credits available being comparatively low, such equipment is of necessity supplied in small quantities only.9 The ITU became officially a "participating organization" of the Expanded Program of Technical Assistance, by decision of the 13th session of the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC Resolu- tion 400 (XIII)) and under the arrangement outlined below for 1952: 8Doc. lOO7/CA7 (1952), p. 2. 9Ibid, pp. 2—3. 61 a) funds should be made available for projects in the field of interest of the ITU by the United Nations out of its share of the Special Account;1° b) the United Nations should make separate provisions for technical assistance in the telecommunication field in its estimates for 1952; c) the United Nations should also undertake the administrative services of projects in this field; d) ITU would request the United Nations to represent the Organization on the Board when the agenda of the Board did not include items of direct interest to the Organization.11 The ITU had to decide whether it wanted to go on participa- ting in the way agreed upon or whether it wanted to operate on exactly the same footing as the other specialized agencies, i.e., whether it wanted to administer itself the telecommunication assistance credits and to negotiate itself with the governments requiring assistance. Should it choose the second of these two alternatives, the Secretary General saw serious political problems arising out of relations with individual governments. More generally, he was wary of the task before the Union, and with premonition, noted: What this amounts to is that the Union, arriving late on the scene [of development assistance], has not been confronted with a thoroughly organized and established system in which to find its place. [...] It will, then, have to collaborate in developing the organization of an immense enterprise which is still embryonic--an enterprise which, in endeavoring to attain the goal it has set for itself, may yet evolve considerably.13 In less than a year, from June 1951 to February 1952--the 1°The regular budget of the Expanded Program for 1952 did not allow for an allocation to the ITU. Budgetary provision would be made, starting 1953. 11Doc. 1007/CA7 (1952), p. 5. 12Ibid., p. 14. 62 first year of technical assistance-—the ITU had sent 41 experts dispatch in 12 countries. On request from the Administrative Council, the International Consultative Committees were asked to delineate the scope of their activities in technical assistance. The CCIR responded that, by publishing its recommendations on many technical questions, its ordinary task, it has always been engaged in assistance activities. The CCIR would make an effort to make results available to developing countries as well as give advice on the preparation of lists of experts. Both the CCIT and the CCIF responded along the same line. The three organs had no clear idea of the way in which they could actively participate to assistance activities. The Soviet Union placed the delivery of technical assistance to developing countries in the larger geopolitical context of colonialism and dependency. Unlike the European colonial powers that largely dominated the ITU, the Soviet Union was working hard at placing itself as the "natural ally" of the emerging Third World nations, recognizing that the European countries had already a foothold in territories that might become profitable markets for the private telecommunication industry. This is reflected in the Soviet delegate’s statement at the Plenary session of the 1952 Administrative Council: It must be pointed out that it [Technical Assistance to underdeveloped countries] should not be used by those granting it as a pretext for meddling in the internal affairs of the countries requesting it... Technical Assistance to underdeveloped countries must be granted exclusively through the U.N.(emphasis in text) and must provide measures to promote the economic progress of those countries and the strengthening of their economic 63 independence; it should not be accompanied by requests for privileges of a political, economic, or military nature for the countries granting that assistance.13 Though in favor of technical assistance, he criticized the Secretary General of the ITU for not having acted through the U.N. in responding to a request by Ethiopia, but complied with a request from the World Bank which was carrying out a work program of its own in this country. Likewise, the Soviets were suspicious that the ITU would allow consulting firms and the private sector in general to take part in the technical assistance as experts: It is well known that private firms, including those which prepare projects and give expert advice, repre- sent commercial organizations which are interested, not in the granting of Technical Assistance, but solely in the most advantageous commercial conditions from which to extract the maximum profit. Private firms are solely interested in extending their commercial activities, and are bound by Considerations of patents, etc. Private consulting firms are generally closely connec- ted with industrial companies, and are guided in their actions and decisions by the latter.H Many years later, developing countries expressed similar fears at the practices of private telecommunication companies. As a matter of fact, European countries have always been active in providing the ITU with experts and utilize the Union as a marketplace; the ability to offer favorable financing, technical assistance, and on-site experts provides an advantage to the 13Doc. 1239/CA7 (1952), p. 11 1“Ibid., p. 12 64 nationally-controlled telecommunication corporation.15 The Soviet Union made some proposals to remedy this situation that were overwhelmingly defeated in votes. The 1952 Plenipotentiary Conference of Buenos Aires The Plenipotentiary Conference opened in Buenos Aires in the midst of the Cold War and the international mood was not cordial. The major issues revolved around attempts to plan the radio bands and the functioning of the International Frequency Registration Board (IFRB). The conference ratified the decisions made the year before at the Extraordinary Administrative Radio Conference (EARC) which had adopted the several plans which had been drafted and a notification and recordation scheme for the remaining radio bands. This was a highly contentious issue. The USSR unsuccess- fully urged that the IFRB be abolished and that the Union reverts to the 1939 Berne List of notified stations on the basis that there was no new International Frequency List in the Radio Regulations and that this body involved ”tremendous" financial outlay. This position was supported by all the other Eastern European Communist countries and attacked by all other non-Commu- nist delegations. The small countries vehemently supported the maintaining of the IFRB since it provided them with a much-needed 15L. Milk, in a 1984 report prepared for the U.S. State Department, entitled ”United States Participation in the ITU: A Study of Policy Alternatives," cites the concern expressed frequently by US officials that the foreign administrations are more effective in overseas markets because of their active involvement with the ITU’ expert program. They suggested that the United States adopt a similar strategy. 65 instrument to monitor services and then assist them in the rational implementation of telecommunication systems. The United States underlined the necessity of the IFRB work in recording frequency allocations at a time of tremendous increase in the number of radio operators. It is interesting to note that thirteen years later, it was the United States that pushed for the elimination of the IFRB for reasons presented later. The Administrative Council presented a report of the activities of the ITU from 1948 to 1952 to the Plenipotentiary Conference. The section concerning technical assistance was endorsed but the leading delegations wanted the ITU to be very cautious in committing itself in this new direction. The United States submitted a proposal (which was passed by the Conference as Resolution 25) requesting the Administrative Council to prepare every year a review of the Union’s activities in the field of technical assistance and of its relation to the Expanded Program. Great Britain was of the Opinion that the ITU’s activities in this field should be very limited and that the role of the Secretary General "should merely be to establish relations between countries requiring assistance and those prepared to give it”.16 The British stand echoed a position widely shared by the group of industrialized nations who were extremely reluctant to modify a functional status quo which so far had benefited them. The argument these nations brandished to counter any significant 16Doc. 199/PC 1952, p. 4 66 change in the lTU’s task was one thought to be palatable to the developing countries, namely that assistance activities would occasioned an unbearable financial burden on the donors, the industrialized countries. The "financial burden" argument will be a recurring theme throughout the debate on ITU-administered assistance activities. Owing to the influence of developing countries, the Secreta- ry-General will later take a more active role with respect to development assistance. The current head, Richard Butler, was largely elected by the Third World countries for his position on those issues, a position which has placed him at odds with the United States. In conformity with the decisions passed at the Buenos Aires Plenipotentiary Conference the previous year, the Secretary- General of the ITU forwarded to the ECOSOC a report that clari— fied the respective responsibilities of the ITU and the United Nations in technical assistance. The ITU is responsible for all of the technical aspects of programs for assistance in the field of telecommunication, but the relevant administrative questions are the province of the United Nations. The Union approves the projects, finds the experts, gives advice on the placing of fellows and scholars, comments on the experts’reports, etc., and the United Nations concludes the agreements for assistance with the countries concerned, concludes all the formalities and handles the administrative arrangements for sending the experts and fellows, their allowances, installation, etc. In addition, 67 the administrative expenses incurred by the ITU in respect of its participation in the Expanded Program of Technical Assistance are refunded by the United Nations. Compared with the undertakings of other international organizations regarding development assistance at that time, the attitude of the ITU vis—a-vis technical assistance was timid. It consisted mainly of placing holders of scholarships and finding experts. The Union’s part in recruiting experts was described as "complex and delicate." Every request for assistance was submit- ted to all the member countries, which thus had a chance to express their views in each particular case-~bearing in mind the requesting country—-on the qualifications of their experts with the specialized knowledge required. The candidates’ applications were examined by the higher officials of the Union in the Coordination Committee and comments on the technical aspect were forwarded to the United Nations with all the information concern- ing the candidates. The files were then submitted to the country asking for assistance, and that country had the last word on the choice of experts. This work gave rise to fairly voluminous correspondence.17 The Mechanics and Problems of Financing Technical Assistance The financing of technical assistance program in general has become a problem that, to this day, has not been solved. The demands put upon the Expanded Program by a growing number of 1'7Doc. 1277/CA8 (1953). 68 developing countries kept increasing. The financing of the Expanded Program gave rise to extensive discussion, especially in the ECOSOC. The main difficulty arose from delay in payment of the contributions announced. In 1953, a sum of $22,395,687 was pledged by sixty-nine countries. Of this amount, $18,939,010 was actually paid leaving an unpaid balance of close to 3,5 million dollars. This situation has affected telecommunication technical assistance and forced the ITU to postpone the execution of projects already planned. The cost of the programs implemented with the aid of the ITU during 1953 was $129,181.18 It gives some idea of the lack or priority of telecommunication as a component of the overall assistance programs of the United Nations. Resolution 492 (XVI) of the ECOSOC and Resolution 722 (VIII) of the United Nations General Assembly urged states participating in the Expanded Program of Technical Assistance ”to continue to give it their full support, financial and other, so as to ensure its essential and natural development and help it to meet the growing needs of the underdeveloped countries” It also urged members ”to contribute so as to meet to the maximum extent possible the program needs for the coming year.” It also expres- sed the view that, "for the orderly development of programs, it would be useful to have assured financial support for a period longer than a year, even if the establishment of accurate long-term estimates of the requirements of the Program is not 18This amount covers the despatch of 12 experts in the field in 6 countries (Saudi Arabia, Ethiopia, Iran, Jordan, Malaya, Pakistan), and nine holders of fellowships. 69 feasible."19 Commenting on the report on technical assistance by the newly-elected Secretary-General from Argentina, M. A. Andrada, the delegate from Spain hoped that technical assistance will be delivered on an ever-increasing scale to developing countries in view of the fact that "as a new international activity, technical assistance is without doubt the most important and significant." The Soviet Union reiterated its concern that technical assistance must be channeled by the United Nations and "must assist the economic development of underdeveloped countries and thus strengthen their economic independence."20 This reflected the growing effort of the Soviet Union to gain influence among the new countries. In 1955, the area of cooperation of the ITU was refined and expanded so as to include: a) the organization of national telecommunication services; b) studies of the construction, organization, operation and maintenance of telecommunication facilities, and, in particular, c) economic studies designed to determine telecommunication requirements. It was Great Britain’s turn to ensure that "ITU officials must always display the most rigorous impartiality in the advice they give either to experts or to national administrations, and that they will refrain from recommending any particular type of commercial equipment.”21 The 19See Doc. l480/CA9 (1954), pp. 9, ll. 2°Doc. 1552/CA9 (1954). 21Doc. l762/CA10 (1955), p. 10. 70 establishment of an annual technical assistance program was also proposed whereby the ITU would help requesting governments, in collaboration with the resident representatives of the Expanded Program’s TAB, to establish their annual telecommunication technical assistance program, in accordance with ECOSOC Resolu- tion 542 (XVIII).22 The power of the Secretary General was sightly increased by giving him the authority to sign agreements on an sd referendus basis, in cases of emergency. So far the International Consultative Committees had not been very active in seeking ways to increase the level of their participation to technical assistance program. Two complementary draft resolutions related to the C018 were proposed by the USSR and adopted by the 1956 Administrative Council‘ session. The Soviet Union took the directors of the 001s to task to find ways and means of granting technical assistance to underdeveloped countries and to inform those more fully of the work being carried out under the auspices of the ITU. The Council’s Commit- tee 3 instructed the Secretary General to bring forcefully to the attention of developing countries the advantages gained by participation in the activities of the C013, of the new CCIT, in particular. From now on, the participation of those countries in these activities will be problematic. It is interesting to note that, thirty years later, the Council is still urging developing countries to actively participate to the C013’ work. The Soviet ZZECOSOC, while energically calling for development-assis— tance activities, did not singularized the potential contribution of telecommunication. 71 resolution also included the delivery of modern equipment as a way to increase the level of technical assistance.23 The mood in the United Nations in general was toward assistance to developing countries. There was the recognition that neither the Expanded Program of Technical Assistance nor other existing programs of the specialized agencies could meet the needs of a ever-growing number of Third World nations. These nations themselves, by joining the United Nations organization, were giving a new direction to the goals of the UN. In 1957, The UN adopted Resolution 1219 (XII) ”Financing of Economic Develop- ment," which proposed the creation of a new, separate Special Fund which would provide "systematic and sustained assistance in fields essential to the integrated technical, economic, and social development of the less developed countries." This Special Fund, with financial resources principally derived from voluntary annual contributions of governments, was directed toward enlarg- ing the scope of the UN programs of Technical Assistance in certain basic fields to be defined by a Preparatory Committee and ”shall finance only projects which would make a contribution to the economic development of the requesting countries.”24 In his presentation of the UN Resolution to the 1958 23The terminology used to refer to the developing countries was changing. It was suggested that the phrase "under-developed countries" be replaced by "countries the telecommunications system of which are not quite sufficiently developed." Egypt proposed "Administrations with insufficiently-developed net- works.” The former version was adopted in Resolution 346. See Doc. 1878/CA11 (1956), p. 4. 2“See Doc. 2012/CA13 (1958). 72 Administrative Council, the Secretary-General of the ITU noted that the Union could greatly benefit from these additional resources. The ITU as a specialized agency started two years later than the other specialized agencies as a member of the Technical Assistance Board. All financial resources had already been allocated to the existing TAB members. The Union was under a considerable handicap because of the lack of funds for telecom— munication projects, when the ITU members began to request telecommunication projects in the Expanded Program of Technical Assistance. This was particularly acute, because the ITU which is a regulatory rather than an operating agency, has no regular program of this kind of its own. The fact that the Secretary- General was a national of a developing country, Argentina, may have accounted for his relentless efforts to bring the ITU into the mainstream of technical assistance to the Third World. He emphasized that telecommunication plays a most important part in all aspect of the economy, deserves to be financed by the Special Fund, and that the ITU should lose no time in participating to the establishment of this Fund. It is the message he delivered to the first Preparatory Committee in March of 1958 in New York where he succeeded in adding to ‘the UN Resolution the task of ”surveying the problems related to the development of transporta- tion and communication system;" a mention that committed the ITU to action while at the same time, protecting the exclusive jurisdiction of the Union.25 2500C. 2077/CA13 (1958), pp. 1-2. 73 Financial problems plagued the UN development programs and, consequently, affected the ITU. The countries financing the UN Special Fund for Technical Assistance were considerably lower than those which had been announced for 1957. Hence the figures notified to participating organizations for the preparation of their partial totals for the 1959 program, which had been based on the 1958 contributions, had to be reduced. For example, the amount fixed for the ITU was $267,000 whereas the Union had $299,000 for the 1958 program. The limited scope for telecommuni- cations under the program was apparent if it is considered that $500,000 would have been necessary to meet requests by adminis- trations. 25 In February 1958, the Permanent Office of the Arab Telecom- munication Union informed the ITU that it agreed to the creation of a regional training center for telecommunication staff. The Center would be located in Cairo and its aim would be to give theoretical and practical training to engineers, technicians and other staff of the administrative and operational services of countries belonging to the Arab Telecommunication Union.”1 This proposal had been made by the Union the previous year and represented the first attempt to decentralize ITU’s activi- ties. That same year the Administrative Council had approved a coOperation agreement between the Union and the Economic Commis- sion for Asia and the Far East (ECAFE) for the improvement of 2"Doc. 2020/CA13 (1958), p. 18. 74 telecommunications in that region. The ITU has historically exercised extreme caution in joining or collaborating with other international bodies. This was a reflection of the "founding fathers’" unwillingnessto let the Union itself impinge upon their national sovereignty. They had designed a Convention that did not bind the members to any decision that could be detrimental to their national interests and that allowed for Reservations to the Final Protocol. In that respect, the ITU was rather unique among the other specialized agencies of the United Nations system as the basic instrument of those agencies does not allow for Reservations. This general attitude could be evidenced in the slowliness to sign the agreement between the United Nations and the ITU in 1947, the delay in joining the Expanded Program of Technical Assistance in 1952, and the caution at participating to the establishment of the Special Fund in 1958, despite the wholehearted support for these new activities in the field of assistance expressed in numerous declaratory statements. The question then arose as to which authority would negotia- te and sign. on behalf of the ITU agreements regarding the practical conditions for participation in the activities of the Special Fund, and whether the Plenipotentiary Conference should not adapt the relevant provisions of the Convention so as to make the regulations more flexible as far as agreements concluded with other organizations about technical assistance activities. CHAPTER 5 1959-1965: THE GREAT LEAP FORWARD The Plenipotentiary Conference was convened in Geneva, 1959 concurrent with the meeting of the general World Administrative Radio Conference (WARC). Although most of the industrialized nations felt that few changes were necessary to the Convention regarding the functioning of the Union, the new developing country members began to introduce changes to provide for their special needs. Many Western delegations were unwilling to modify the purpose of the Union (at that time, Article 3) so as to reflect the new direction taken by the ITU. They preferred to stretch the meaning of existing "Purposes" as the new Acting Secretary- General Gerald Gross attempted to do by observing that Article 3, paragraph 1, of the Convention: clearly authorizes the Union to help in the implementa- tion of projects under the aegis of the Special Fund, in view of the fact that one of the Union’s purposes is the promotion of international cooperation in the development of telecommunication technical media.28 The developing countries were not satisfied with this simple declaration of intent and pushed for an explicit statement of the new role of the ITU. They found allies in Eastern European countries. Czechoslovakia then Poland, with a contribution from Mexico, proposed to insert the following new paragraph to Article 3: 28Doc. l3/PC 1959, pp. 3-4. 75 to foster the creation, development and improvement of telecommunication equipment and networks in countries underequipped with telecommunication facilities by providing technical assistance either within the framework of the independent activities of the diffe- rent organs of the ITU or through the United Nations.29 A first draft read "...within the framework of the ITU..." but some industrialized countries, wary at the prospect of the ITU financing directly assistance projects, requested the change embodied in the above proposal, thus, defused some of their fears. The original drawing would have translated into a greater financial burden for the larger contributors, Poland was of the opinion that without this stated purpose and in view of the limited amount of funds available in the Expanded Program of Technical Assistance, many countries would not make sustained efforts to help developing countries. It also felt that the International Consultative Committees should be of greater use than at present to the underdeveloped countries. The proposal was eventually passed thanks to the developing coun- tries’ delegations present at the Plenipotentiary which, from this point onward, began to take an increasingly important part in shaping the role of the ITU. Although technical assistance activities had been approved some years earlier by the Adminis- trative Council, this amendment to the Convention represented a formal assumption of responsibility. In view of the increased involvement of the ITU in technical assistance and the growing number of experts dispatched in the 29See Doc. 183/PC 1959, Proposal 304. 77 field, Egypt proposed a tighter organization of the technical assistance of the Union into three steps: 1) giving expert advice to administrations on certain problems or projects; 2) planning and estimating projects, and arranging a scheme for their execution; 3) execution of the project. This plan is aimed at making better use of the experts’ time.30 Within the context of a shortage of capital for telecommuni- cation projects due to ever—growing demands from new country members, Mexico proposed the establishment of an International Telecommunication Development Bank.31 On the one hand, existing international banking institutions for industrial promotion and development lacked special capital credits for telecommunication; on the other hand it was necessary to obtain credit from finan- cial organizations, to be granted on easy terms, so as to establish special funds for telecommunications. This proposal did not find sympathetic ears among the donor countries. It is only in the early 19805 that the World Bank recognized the importance of telecommunication in the development process and began to allocate credits for telecommunication projects. The Plenipoten- tiary restated emphatically that, while instructing the Secretary General to approach inter—governmental and private agencies to know whether they would be prepared to associate themselves with an international financing scheme, the Union shall by no means be 30See Annex to Doc. 64/PC 1959. 31See Proposal 334, Doc. 260/PC 1959. 78 committed to financial operations.32 At the Nairobi Plenipoten- tiary Conference twenty-three years later, however, due to the overwhelming influence of the developing countries and other factors explained later, the industrialized nations proposed the establishment of a Special Voluntary Program under the auspices of the ITU to finance telecommunication projects in the Third World. Electoral Procedures An important procedural aspect that bears directly on the involvement of the ITU with technical assistance matters was the procedure for electing the members which were to serve on the Administrative Council and the Chairpersons and vice-Chairpersons of the ITU and its organs. The regional distribution for the seats at the Administrative Council was figured on a mathematical basis, with the number of countries in each region determining the number of seats. According to the previous Convention (Buenos Aires, 1952), still in force, the Council consisted of 18 seats. The problem was how to reconcile the provisions of the Buenos Aires Convention limiting the number of seats in the Administrative Council to 18 and those of the new Convention calling for 25 seats since the Union’s membership had increased to 101. The developing countries in concert with the Eastern bloc wanted the present Plenipotentiary Conference to elect a 25-- member Council that would take office immediately without waiting 32Doc. 2310/CA15 (1960). 79 for the new Convention to be ratified, against the will of the Western countries which wanted to re—elect only 18 Councilors. Great Britain, supported by the United States, took the lead in fighting the proposal and lost the battle.33 The U.S. and British opposition to the enlargement of the Administrative Council reflected the efforts of the Western industrialized nations to maintain their commanding influence within the Council at a time when they were increasingly loosing their historical dominance within ITU plenary assemblies. They invoked a legal technicality to fight the developing countries’s proposal. Since the revised Convention had not been ratified by all contracting governments--a procedure that takes generally two years-~the new provision concerning a Council of 25 members would have to come into force at the time of the next Plenipotentiary Conference, in 1965, thus providing the Western countries with a 6-year "respite." In view of the under—representation of the Asia-Australasia group, the delegate from Ceylon, backed by Burma, requested an additional seat in the Council. Rumania, while agreeing with the above proposition but wary of increasing the number of seats, suggested that the number granted to the Americas and Western Europe should instead be decreased by one each. China, sympathe- tic to Ceylon’s request calculated that even if the Rumanian formula was adopted the Eastern European Region would still be favored. It came as no surprise, then, that the Western indus— 33Doc. 190/PC 1959, pp. 50-52. 80 trialized countries led by Canada found any change of the current status unacceptable and Ceylon’s proposal was defeated by 41 votes to 31 and 2 abstentions. The fact that a secret vote was requested--an infrequent occurrence in ITU proceedings--shows how sensitive the subject of representation was and continues to be, (see Table 1). Voting took place along political blocs: the Eastern bloc in support of the proposition, the Western bloc opposing it. TABLE 1 Number of ITU Members, Nusber of Seats in the ITU Administrative Council, and Percentage 1947 1952 1959 1965 1973 1982 Regions M S X M S X M S X M S X M S X M S X Americas 22 5 20 23 5 22 23 6 26 25 6 24 27 7 26 30 8 27 W.Europe 21 5 24 21 5 24 21 6 28 25 6 24 26 7 27 26 7 27 E.Europe 9 3 33 10 3 30 10 3 30 ll 3 27 ll 4 36 12 4 33 Africa 9 2 22 10 2 20 15 4 25 39 7 18 44 9 20 49 1122 Asia+Pac J 17 3 18 23 3 13 27 6 22 28 7 25 37 9 24 40 1127 Total 78 18 87 18 96 25 128 29 145 36 157 41 Sources: ITU Doc. 27/PC (1973), p. 3; Telecommunication Journal (November 1982), p. 740. Another important change in the Convention was an amendment to the effect that from now on the Secretary-General of the ITU and the Assistant Secretary- (Secretaries-) General would be elected by the Plenipotentiary Conference instead of by the 81 Administrative Council. This change had important implications for the developing countries because it was perceived that a Council in which the Western industrialized nations and their friends still had a commanding influence would hardly elect a Secretary- General sympathetic to their concerns and aspirations. A case in point was the election of Gerald Gross, a US citizen. According to historian Codding, it was perhaps the most contested election in the history of the Union. It took three ballots and Gross was elected by 51 votes to 35 to France’s Jean Rouviere. This contrasts sharply with the 1973 one-ballot election of Tunisia’s Mohamed Mili who obtained 104 votes; his rival receiv- ing only 23.34 The Plenary Assembly of the Plenipotentiary Conference is a forum which witnesses the subtle (and not so subtle) exercise of international politics, where alliances are done and undone according to the current strength (or weakness) of the partici- pants. The Western industrialized countries were steady losing their early dominance to the advantage of the developing coun- tries. The Eastern European countries were increasingly aligning themselves with the Third World in order to gain power. The Latin American countries, which had gained their independence more than a century ago, were joining the emerging nations after having initially evolved within the sphere of influence of the United 34Codding and Rutkowski, p. 179. 82 States.35 From the standpoint of the Third World, the forum of predilection was and continues to be the Plenary Assembly where, by their sheer number, they could defeat any proposal from the developed world they found unsatisfactory to their interests. At the opposite side of the spectrum, the industrialized countries preferred that decisions be taken in smaller forums, like the Administrative Council or the CCIs, in which they could exercised greater influence owing to their expertise. A concrete example of international politics was the debate concerning the electoral procedure for the Assistant Secretaries- General of the ITU. Canada, echoing the feeling of many Western delegations critical of the fact that the Secretary-General be elected by the Plenipotentiary Conference, suggested that Assistant Secretaries General be elected by the Administrative Council in a separate vote. The Canadian delegate explained that: It would be unwise to bring the selection of Assistant Secretaries General into the Plenipotentiary Conferen- ce, which is necessarily a political forum. No other organization in the United Nations family, so far as I can ascertain, leaves the selection of Assistant Secretaries-General to its general conference organs. I hope that some of the delegations here who want the Secretary-General to be elected by the Plenipotentiary will see some advantage in leaving to the Administrati- ve Council the election of the Assistant Secretaries General.36 35F. S. Pearson and J. M. Rochester, International Rela- tions: The Global Condition in the Late Twentieth Century (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company); see Part 4 ”National Actors and International Interactions," pp. 103—144. 36Doc. 214/PC 1959, p. 92. 83 The proposition to have separate elections for the Secretary general and his Assistants barely passed by 35 votes to 34. Poland asked that the first vote for the Secretary General be taken by secret ballot "more likely to give a clearer picture of the wishes of the meetings." The Plenary Assembly, voting by secret ballot, decided by 59 votes to 14 with 2 abstentions, that the Convention be amended so that the Secretary General of the Union would henceforth be elected by the Plenipotentiary Conference instead of the Administrative Council. A second vote decided the election of the Assistant Secretaries General along the same line, against the desire of the Western industrialized countries.3'7 What made the ITU unique among the other specialized agencies was that its basic instrument is a Convention and not a Charter. A Convention, easier to modify than a Charter, made the Union more responsive to the new demands of the developing countries joining its membership. It also explains why technical assistance as a purpose of the Union gained momentum. Amendments to the Convention The Plenipotentiary made a series of amendments and addi- tions to the Convention as well as passed Resolutions that reflect the involvement of the ITU with technical assistance to developing countries. Following is a summary of the modifica- tions. 84 Amendsent to Article 3 indicated that the Union has directed its efforts towards assisting new or developing countries; Amendment to Article 5 gave the Administrative Council the possibility of increasing the scope of activity in the sphere of technical assistance; Amendment to Article 7 related to provisions whereby the CCIs will be encouraged to direct their activities towards technical assistance; Addition to Article 8 instructed the Secretary General to collect and issue information which may be of particular use to new or developing countries. A set of Resolutions has been passed regarding development assistance; Resolution Concerning the Adsinistration of Techniqsl Assistance noted that the Plenipotentiary Conference decides to terminate the agreement made with the United Nations regarding the adminis- tration of technical assistance projects in the field of telecom- munications. Henceforth the Union will itself take over the administrative work connected with the projects in its program; gssolution on Participation by the Union in the Expanded Prograg of Technicsl Assistance of the United Nations confirmed Buenos Aires Resolution 25 and states that the union shall participate in the Expanded Program; Resolution4Concerning the Debiting of Administrative spd Opera— tionsl Costs Resultingffros, ITU’s Participation in the Expanded Program of Technical Assistsnce was adopted in response to a United Nations proposal to the effect that the administrative costs of Technical Assistance should be debited to the budgets of the organizations. In this resolution, the Union expressed the view that the expenses in question should continue to be borne by the Expanded Program, but prescribed the steps to be taken if, as a result of a formal decision of the United Nations, it should be obligated to defray those costs partly or entirely; Resolution on the Rules to be Applied for Participation by the Union in theAExpanded Progrsg set out ways of making technical assistance experts’ missions more effective; Resolution on the Financing of Telecossunication Developmsnt called upon the Plenipotentiary to instruct the Administrative Council to study the possibility of taking action aimed at facilitating the financing of telecommunication development plans; Recommendation on the Activities of the International Consulta- tive Cossittees in the Sphere of Technical Assistance was addres- sed to future Plenary Assemblies of the CCIs to avoid any doubt 85 as to the views of the Plenipotentiary conference when the possibility is examined of granting increased assistance to new or developing countries; Addition to the General Regulations stated that the Directors of the CCIs shall participate in the Union’s technical assistance activities, particularly within the framework of the UN Expanded Program and Special Fund; Resolution on the Isprovesent of Telecosmunications in Asia and the Far East called upon the Plenipotentiary Conference to instruct the Administrative Council to continue the work already begun in cooperation with ECAFE to improve telecommunication facilities in these regions.38 In Plenary assemblies, the International Consultative Committees were under increased pressure to involve themselves more directly in technical assistance. It was undoubtedly a reflection of the fact that few members from developing countries were involved in the specialized work taking place in smaller forums. The 1959 Plenipotentiary Conference had addressed several recommendations to that effect. Lacking more concrete directives in the 1952 Convention, and especially in the absence of adequate financial arrangements, the Plenary Assembly of the CCIR merely recorded officially the important aspect of the problem of technical assistance furnished directly by the ITU. The new Constitution instructed the CCIs "to continue joint studies with a view to recommending suitable means, having regard to technical and economic considerations, for linking to the world telephone network regions not yet connected thereto" as well as ”to extend the activities of the Plan Committee on Development of the International Telecommunications Network to 38See Doc. 420/PC 1959, pp. 2—5. 86 latin America setting up an appropriate Working Party for that purpose."39 The 1959 World Administrative Radio Conference The subject of technical assistance to new or developing countries, in an engineering sense as distinct from financial help, was also one of the major preoccupations of the World Administrative Radio Conference (WARC), held parallel to the Plenipotentiary Conference in 1959. A large number of the members of the ITU which were repre— sented at the WARC expressed the view that one of the major drawbacks in the exploitation and development of radiocommunica- tions in many parts of the world was the difficulty experienced, especially by new or developing countries, in securing suitable interference-free radio frequencies for the operation of their circuits in an efficient and economical way. This difficulty was stated to apply not only in respect of existing circuits, but also for the establishment of new circuits. As radio was the means to which these countries usually turn in the first place in order to obtain their essential communications most economically and in the simplest form, their representatives made recurrentu lpleas to the WARC for the adoption of procedures which would give them the use of frequencies, free from interference, in the already congested radio spectrum. They held the view that, within the framework of the permanent organs of the ITU, adequately 39Resolutions 35 and 36 the Plenipotentiary Conference, Geneva, 1959. 87 expanded to cope with the necessary additional work involved, a positive and direct aid could be afforded to them. The WARC established an Ad Hoc Group (known as the Panel of Experts) to study and analyze proposals and provide adequate recommendations. Two years later, this Group produced an Interim Report on "Preliminary Recommendations Relating to Technical and Economic Assistance" that did no more than reiterate the desira- bility of assisting developing countries in allocation of radio frequencies and calling upon the ITU to sponsor a world-wide technical and economic project to achieve it. The WARC’s outcome fell far short of the expectations of developing countries. The WARC considered that the IFRB’s duties, functions and staff resources should be expanded to undertake the necessary work but it was made quite clear that assistance to the extent desired would not be possible with the resources at present at the Board’s disposal. The Plenipotentiary included in its ceiling for expenditure special sums for the ”additional requirement of the IFRB.”4° The Soviet Union, who had in the past advocated the elimina- tion of the IFRB, opposed this budgetary allocation resulting in an increase of the ITU’s overall budget and requested the Plenipotentiary record in the Final Protocol the following reservations: In view of the decision taken by the Plenipotentiary Conference, approving a very substantial increase in the expenses of the Union, the Soviet delegations ‘OSee doc. 2373/CA15 (1960). 88 reserves the right, if needed be, to consider limiting the USSR financial contribution to the International Telecommunication Union."1 It was the first time that a member threatened to retaliate against an action deemed contrary to the interest of ITU members by withholding its contributions to the Union. The financing of telecommunication development was again discussed at the 1960 session of the Administrative Council in light of a debate at the UN General Assembly on the creation of the International Development Association (Resolution 1420 (XIV)) and banks for industrial development and development companies (Resolution 1427 (XIV)). It was decided to follow closely these developments and, in the meantime, the Secretary General took it upon himself to consider how telecommunications administrations might best be ~informed about the facilities offered by the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank). The 19603: New Countries, Growing Demands The ITU began its collaboration with the newly-established UN Special Fund in 1961. Several projects for Special Fund assistance had been prepared the preceding year. A project submitted by the Republic of China concerned the setting up of a Telecommunications and Electronics Training and Research Center at Taipei. Another project for a similar training center was submitted by Libya. Two other projects were still being studied nDoc. 447/PC 1959, p. 273. 89 for the establishment of a telecommunication training center in the Philippines, and a project to assist the Federation of Malaya and Singapore to extend and modernize the training facilities existing in Kuala Lumpur. The establishment of the Telecommunica- tions Training and Research Center, agreed upon by the Arab Telecommunication Union in 1958, to be located in Cairo, was still being studied. Other countries had notified that requests for assistance were under preparation, namely, Ceylon, Iraq, and Colombia. The Special Fund financed projects on a matching basis, the government of the requesting country providing the other half. The Deputy Secretary-General Sarwate noted at the 1961 meeting of the Administrative Council’s Committee 3 (Relations with International Organization and Technical Assistance) that the African countries that had recently attained independence would also submit requests for assistance on a large scale. Thus, it could be expected that there would be a considerable increase in the field of the Union’s activities. This growing activity and strengthening of ties between the ITU and other international bodies such as the UN Special Fund, left some developed countries uneasy about the prospect of increased financial burden and administrative and operational activities put upon the Union. The delegates from Great Britain wondered whether the Union might not risk unduly increasing the flow of requests to the Special Fund if it drew the attention of its Members to the advantages of preliminary enquiries to assess investment potential and to the assistance possibilities in this West Germany and Switzerland were not clear about role of the Union in the that the Council was not adequately informed about ties. They were told experts and hand, it the other supplied by the countries submitting their names to the countries concerned: informed 90 respect.“2 the exact projects and considered Special Fund these activi- that the Union’s role consisted in finding on the Special Fund of the details concerned. Once an inquiry was over, the Union helped the requesting country to negotiate with the World Bank or other sources for the international financial assistance it required to put a given project into effect. Assistance by the Special Fund was confined to three specific fields: up of research institutes, investment possibilities. itself which approved each a) the setting-up of training institutes; b) the setting- and c) preliminary inquiries to assess In the final analysis, it was the Fund project individually.“3 The delegate from the USSR recalled that his country had taken part in the Special Fund since its inception, nevertheless he could not approve the project submitted by the Republic of China. USSR did not recognize the Chiang Kai-shek government and lost no opportunity, in the accreditation procedure starting annual plenary sessions, to call for the admission of the People’s Republic of China and the expulsion of the Taiwan government. ‘2Doc. 2658/CA16 (1961), p. 10. ‘3Ibid. 91 The 1961 session of the Administrative Council had very little time to examine the question of the financing of telecom- munication development. The matter was discussed at length the following year. Many developing countries found it difficult to identify the range of financial institutions, public and private, disposed to provide for investment in telecommunication projects. India requested a list of names of financial institutions, both governmental and private, which were prepared to give financial assistance in this field. The Secretariat had to reply that the only financial institution with which the ITU kept up relations as a specialized agency was the International Bank for Recons- truction and Development, adding that the Secretariat had not so far been instructed to prepare such a list. As a matter of fact, the Secretary-General had previously proposed to take over this task but the Administrative Council had rejected his proposal in an apparent move by the industria- lized countries to prevent too close an integration of the ITU in the web of international organizations perceived to jeopardize the independence of the Union. The Soviet Union and other Eastern European countries opposed the Secretary General’s proposal on the ground that the ITU should in no way, shape, or form deal with private capital. Financing Telecommunication Assistance Since the previous year, the Secretariat has had important contacts with the World Bank. In particular, an official of the Union was called upon to take part in a mission organized by the 92 Bank for the purpose of obtaining information about the condi- tions in which it would be possible to finance telecommunication plans in the six countries of Central America. The experience acquired by the ITU official was summed up as follows: The chief problems raised by telecommunication develo- pment were financial ones. Requirement have in general been thoroughly studies, plans for equipment drawn up and the manufacturers offer all the necessary equip- ment. But the governments very often lacked the necessary funds, especially when they have to buy their telecommunication equipment abroad as is usually the case.44 Many financial institutions, both governmental and private were prepared to finance telecommunication development plans, but the countries in search of capital were not all in exactly the same position in this respect. Irrespective of their nature, the financial institutions were prepared to make loans only subject to the twin conditions: a) that investments were made on the basis of plans that had been recognized as perfectly sound technically and economically, and b) that the telecommunication administrative and operating services were properly organized. Thus, financing problems were transformed into planning and organization problems, two domains in which the ITU could play an efficient role, both as part of its normal activities and under the heading of technical assistance. Many were of the opinion that the most important role that can be played by the ITU as regards the financing of telecommuni— cation development was to cooperate with telecommunication ‘4Doc. 2734/CA17 (1962), p. 2 93 administrations and financial institutions in preparing invest- ment plans and solving organizational problems. It would act only in an advisory capacity and even then only at the request of the interested parties. The discussion within ITU circles about the financing of telecommunication assistance was fueled by the debate taking place at the United Nations and the ECOSOC on the general question of development assistance. Resolutions were adopted on "Establishment of a United Nations Capital Development Fund" (1521 (XV)), "Accelerated Flow of Capital and Technical Assistan- ce to the Developing Countries" (1522 (XV)), ”Financing of Economic Development of Less Developed Countries Through Long— Term Loans and in Other Advantageous Ways and Ensuring an Increasing Share in World Trade for Their Products" (1524 (XV)), and "International Flow of Capital” (780 (XXX)). In addition, the UN General Assembly, at the dawn of the Second Development Decade, adopted Resolution 1715 (XVI) "United Nations Development Decade (II): A Program for International Economic Co-operation." This Resolution requested the Special Fund to do what the ITU had not been willing to do, namely: To consider the desirability of establishing a service to provide developing countries upon request with information and guidance concerning the policies, rules, regulations, and practices of existing and future sources of development capital and assistance necessary to enable the less developed countries to determine for themselves the most appropriate sources to which they may turn for assistance as needed. The ITU, as well as other specialized agencies, were invited to submit any relevant information on that matter. 94 1962 was the time to reflect on the past ten years of ITU collaboration with the UN Expanded Program of Technical Assistan— ce and to examine future trends. In the contacts that the ITU Secretariat has had with the new and developing countries during the past year, it was noticed that they were becoming increasing- ly aware of the importance of telecommunications for their economic development. Having deployed a large part of technical assistance resources to basic necessities like food, health, etc., during the first decade, they were now beginning to recognize that support services, such as communications and transportation, should be developed as well, if the former were to become fully effective. This recognition, however, did not translate immediately into a concrete national development agenda.“5 Focus on Africa The 1961 program was the first to be managed entirely by the ITU. The Expanded Program and the ITU, in particular, were faced with the challenge posed by the coming into the international scene of the newly independent African countries. Although a sum of money was allocated late in 1960, for a special Supplementary Program for the African countries, it had taken more than a year to work out the first detailed program for each of these coun- tries. “SSee G. A. Codding, "The United States and the ITU in a ghanging World," Telecommunication Journal 44/5 (1977), pp. 31-235. 95 In addition to the African countries, which were increasing-/ 1y calling upon the Union’s help in securing technical assistan- ce, those in Central and South America have commenced making requests to assist them in studying and formulating their requirements and obtaining a share in the different programs. The Union’s program for the years 1961 and 1962 provided for assis- tance to 45 countries, twelve of which were under the Supplemen— tary Program for Africa, (see Table 2). An interesting feature was that 83 percent of the total expenditure in the ITU program for 1961 (not taking into account the Supplementary African program) was for experts. The balance was devoted to fellowships and the purchase of equipment. In the Supplementary Program for Africa, experts accounted for 19 percent, equipment 53 percent and fellowship 29 percent.“8 On the one hand, the large budgetary share for equipment reflects the low level of telecommunication infrastructure in Africa compared with other developing countries from the Asian and Latin American continents. On the other hand, the equally large share of expenditure for fellowships, as compared with allocations for experts, reflects the reluctance of the newly independent African countries to rely upon experts from the former European colonial powers. From now on, the African countries will take a more active posture to push for the satisfaction of developing countries’ needs within ITU forums. 45Doc. 2757/CA17 (1962), p. 2. H .._. H .._: .._- H .._. .._. .._. n—o oh Dollsr Vslue Africa 96 TABLE 2 of UNDP and ITU Assistance Provided to Developing Countries by Regions in the Period 1965 to 1981 (in Thousands) Americas Asia & Pacific Europe & Mid. East Note: Statistics up to and including 1974 were based on the following geographical Euro-Asia including the Middle East. s separated from East wa mated with Europe Sources In the ITU objecti a) to accelerate the African region and to secure appropriate priorities for telecommunication projects within the overall development concerned; in b) to work out a plan and build self-contained and modern regional telecommunication 1963, and the V88: the a Memorandum Economic Commission distribution: Asia and of Understanding 238 3,295 4,785 4,976 6,797 7,174 9,156 10,242 : Telecommunication Journal 49/10 (1982), for Africa Africa, Since 1975 the Middle the Pacific, Inter- Regional Total 7 3,358 72 4,467 43 4,945 19 4,883 70 5,226 0 6,051 1 7,697 50 9,048 n.a. 10,743 75 12,689 147 18,383 418 20,242 503 17,096 446 21,615 212 26,064 306 33,353 415 40,293 Americas, but amalga p. 667. was signed between with two basic development of telecommunications programs of up a the countries comprehensive, 97 network to meet the immediate and long-term needs of all countries of the region, including interconnections of the African network with the world-wide telecommunication system.47 This second objective will give birth to the largest project ever conducted under the aegis of the ITU, the Pan-African Telecommunication Network (PANAFTEL). Aid to Africa will represent an ever-increasing part of the telecommunication component available through the Expanded Program. By 1964, the incidence of the program among the areas of the world was in the following proportion: Africa--50 percent; Asia and the Far East--36 percent; Latin America—-12 percent; Europe--2 percent. One of the problems faced by the Union was that, with the expansion of assistance program, the number of experts required had increased. Also, there had been a growing tendency on the part of the recipient countries to call for experts with expe- rience in training. The source of recruitment had so far been almost exclusively the Post, Telegraph and Telephone administra- tions (PTTs) of the industrialized countries. In view of the large demand and emphasis on training, it had become increasingly difficult to find candidates from administrations only. The Soviet Union and other Eastern European countries have always been adamant in their opposition to allow the ITU to tap the expertise of the private sector, i.e., consulting firms and equipment manufacturers. It is worth noting that twenty years ‘7Doc. 3129/CA19 (1964), p. 3. 98 later, the group of socialist countries has manifested the same opposition regarding the private sector’s contribution to the Special Voluntary Program for technical Cooperation established at the 1982 Plenipotentiary Conference at Nairobi. The ITU Organs Called Upon The ITU organs, IFRB and CCIs, were called upon to help developing countries in their efforts to build up appropriate telecommunication infrastructures. Ethiopia submitted a proposal urging the IFRB to organize seminars in order to assist those countries in radio frequency management.“8 This brought into light the problem encountered by a federally-structured body such as the ITU in its efforts to coordinate technical assistance. The Union was composed of fairly autonomous organs, the Secretariat, the CCIR, the CCITT, and the IFRB. By organizing the ITU along the line of a federation, the founding members showed their unwillingness to create an all-powerful supranational body that might impinge upon their national sovereignty. By the same token, they made it difficult for the body to coordinate any type of activities. At a time when all the other UN specialized agencies were intertwined in order to better respond to the needs of developing countries, the ITU was increasingly at a disadvantage. The new membership was pushing for the unification and coordina- tion of the separate ITU organs. At the 1963 Administrative Council, the Working Party on Technical Assistance issued a ‘8Doc. 2842/CA17 (1962). 99 report, found inadequate by many, suggesting a closer collabo- ration between the General Secretariat and the other permanent organs in order to render technical assistance more effective."9 It was the opinion of the delegation of Colombia that "the Technical Cooperation Department was not organized in such a way as to let Administration know the importance and magnitude of its responsibilities.” In a strongly worded statement, it found it inadmissible that, within an administrative hierarchy adapted to the customs of any other international organization, of which all the Members of the Union are Members, there should exist a department of such extraordinary importance managed by one official of grade lower than those whose work he coordinates. This is a disconcerting fact, unique in any organization of the kind. The delegation of Colombia proposes that, not only from the standpoint of a sound hierarchical structure, but also from elementary courtesy towards the newly developing countries, and to show the importance attached by the Union to this Department, the Director of the Technical Cooperation Department should be regraded [emphasis in text],... 5° Mexico’s representative thought that the Working Group had dealt with the problem of technical cooperation rather lightly, which caused him some surprise: "It was possible that their decisions had been based on preconceived ideas." He recalled that when the Group had been set up, pressure had been brought to bear to restrict its membership, so that its work had not met with general acceptance. It was a disguised criticism of the domina- tion of the Group by developed countries, the chairman of which was the United States delegate. With the next Plenipotentiary 4900c. 3022/CA18 (1963). 5°Doc. 3060/CA18 (1963), p. 2. 100 Conference only two years away, quite severe criticism was already being levelled at the Union from outside sources for not fully accomplishing its duties with respect to technical assiS‘ tance, particularly in light of the "pile-up of resolutions from the Plenipotentiary Conference, an abundance of funds received from the United Nations, and a large reserve of energy in its staff to travel unceasingly throughout the world."51 The pressure on the ITU for greater commitment in assistance was further intensified by a proposal by the Secretary General of the United Nations to consolidate the Special Fund and the Expanded Program of Technical Assistance in a new United Nations Development Program (UNDP).52 The consolidation was aimed at streamlining the activities carried on separately and jointly by the two existing bodies, simplifying organizational arrangements and procedures, facilitating overall planning and needed coordi- nation of the several types of technical cooperation programs carried on within the United Nations system of organizations and increasing their effectiveness. A UNDP Inter-Agency Consultative Board would be established in place of the EPTA Technical Assistance Board and the Consultative Board of the Special Fund, and would include the Head of the specialized agencies. The Economic and Social Council endorsed this proposal. 5100c. 3106/CA18 (1963), p. 5. 52UN Resolution 1020 (XXXVII). CHAPTER 6 1965-1972: IMPACT OF THE UNPD ON THE ITU The 1965 Plenipotentiary Conference was held in Montreux, Switzerland. It was the year of the 100th anniversary of the ITU. Between 1959 and 1965, the membership of the Union increased from 96 to 129 mostly by the participation of African states whose number increased from 16 to 38 during this period. In order to reflect the new situation, Tunisia proposed to raise the number of seats on the Administrative Council allocated to Africa from 4 to 7, so as to pay "due regard to the need for equitable repre- sentation of all parts of the world." 53 The Conference, by secret vote, adopted the addition of four more seats on the Council, three of which were to go to Africa and one to Asia, totaling 29. Dissatisfaction was voiced concerning the Secretary-Gene- ral’s past conduct of assistance activities, and Mohamed Mili from Tunisia was elected Secretary-General with a comfortable majority. The major issues discussed were proposals for the establishment of regional ITU offices, a separate ITU technical assistance fund, and a proposal to convert the Convention to a permanent Constitution. Proposal for ITU’s Own Technical Assistance Program Saudi Arabia was first to propose the establishment of ITU’s own program of technical assistance along the lines of the 53Doc. 4/PC 1965. 101 102 programs which have long been a regular feature of many other UN agencies such as World Health Organization (WHO), the Interna— tional Labor Organization (ILO), the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and UNESCO. The number of experts supplied had fallen much below demand. One of the major difficulties in the way of adequate supply was thought to be the lack of a technical assistance program in the ITU itself. The Saudi proposal noted that: It is understood that now it is a part of the general technical assistance program with the result that the United Nations and the developing countries have to pool all the requirements and try to meet competing interests. As is well known the rapid development of the telecommunication services in all the developing countries is of primary importance and its priority has to be high. National administrations of the telecommu- nication services will be in a better position to appreciate the programs if they are directly funded and managed by the ITU itself.54 Malaysia was next in line to propose a similar in-house program accompanied with an elaborate rationale. All technical assistance on telecommunication matters was at present provided through the UN Expanded Program. EPTA program were planned on a biennium basis whereby bids for technical assistance in any given country were prepared by that country’s ministries and depart- ments and coordinated by the relevant national planning authori- ty, which is charged with the task of adjusting bids to meet the budget authorized by the UN Technical Assistance Bureau in New York. The bids always far exceeded the funds available and the task of trimming and deleting is bound to become somewhat _--~—-————-——-—-———— 54Doc. 63/PC 1965, p. 3. 65 Si OI. 103 arbitrary, no matter how carefully national priorities are weighted. This can be especially harmful to the smaller and more specialized branches of government dealing with matters such as telecommunications since their very real needs for assistance are often overshadowed by the clamor for assistance in the much broader fields of health, agriculture, education and so on. Since these latter fields are of much greater magnitude and are of greater political significance to the national coordinating authority, it is not surprising that the smaller, more speciali- zed bids such as those for telecommunication assistance tend to be among the first to be deleted or trimmed. Conversely, if in any given biennium a telecommunication administration has been fortunate in getting adequate EPTA assistance (or even assistance through UN Special Fund), there is some tendency at coordinating level to regard this as a valid reason for diverting to other fields EPTA funds for the next biennium. All this means that the supply of technical assistance for telecommunications is apt to be sporadic and disjointed and this militates against the steady build-up of expertise in the country itself. The Malaysian proposal envisioned that the establishment of an ITU Regular Program of Technical Assistance onaan adequate scale would go far towards smoothing out these irregularities and ensuring steady growth in the technical capabilities of ITU’s developing members.55 --—~-—-—-——-——-—--—— 55Doc. 76/PC 1965, pp. 1-2. 104 Then, Mexico submitted a proposal of its own aiming at an identical goal. Criticism was levelled against the slow-moving procedure of the current organization, and at the shortage of fellowships. In order to minimize the financial burden occasio- ned by the setting up of a regular ITU assistance program, Mexico proposed a three-way contribution scheme: a) from the UN Expanded Program; b) from the requesting administrations; and c) from the Union.56 In a report by the Secretary-General, it was apparent that there was little enthusiasm at the level of the ITU Secretariat for the above proposal. It was explained that the Union’s hands were tied by the rules governing the allocation of funds by the EPTA. 'Furthermore, EPTA assistance to the various fields of activity was done. by governments over which the ITU has no control. In 1960, the Secretary-General had proposed to the Administrative Council a program called "Technical Assistance in Kind." The first element of this program was to invite developed countries to make offers of training facilities to technicians from developing countries. The second element was to invite telecommunication administrations of developed countries to Organize seminars on selected subjects in their less endowed counterparts. The Secretariat was well aware of the piece meal nature of these proposed measures. It also questioned the value Ofla regular program in light of the fact that the unfulfilled mmnnnt of assistance will always exist. Finally, criticism was ---—----—--------—-- 56Doc. 95/PC 1965. 105 levelled against the proposed regular program on financial ground. Should financing be on an assessment basis,i.e. by including it as a part of the regular contribution of the members, or on a voluntary basis which means creating an extra budgetary fund to which members would be invited to contribute? Whereas the Secretary-General expressed reservation to the Saudi, Malaysian and Mexican proposals, delegates from developing countries in Committee 8 (Technical Cooperation) of the Plenipo— tentiary Conference warmly endorsed them. The Working Party set up to further examine the matter issued a document that displayed a lack of unanimity. 57 Some thought that the Working Party’s terms of reference were to prepare a Resolution to organize the regular program, when in fact they were to study the "possibili- ty" of establishing a regular program. The Committee 8 finally decided against the principle of establishing a regular technical assistance program by 19 votes to 20, with 9 abstentions. The industrialized countries had successfully overcome the developing countries’ attempt at setting up a regular program by raising the specter of the increase in the contributory unit payable by member countries that such a program would occasioned. The industrialized coun— tries had rejected alternative methods of financing that were not toeaffect the ITU budget. One of those alternatives was to rely on annual voluntary contributions by administrations who could affizrd it, which meant that of the industrialized countries. This —_—---——----—----——— s I 106 financing scheme was rejected on the basis that the budget of national telecommunication administrations was not to be used for development-assistance activities as those activities were financed, through the EPTA, by separate budgetary allocations.58 On many occasion the USSR and the USA shared common views on ITU matters, and this has continued to the present. The USSR was willing no more than the US to increase its contribution to the ITU budget to support new programs and institutions. This position put the Soviet Union in a somewhat difficult position vis-a—vis those it considered its "natural allies," the develop- ing countries who were pleading for help. To convince them that the USSR was on their side, the Soviet delegates explained at several occasions that: the Soviet Union, better than anyone, understands the needs of developing countries. The USSR, acting alone, has advanced from devastating wars to a high level of development. His delegation was not against an ITU regular program but expected a thorough study and full details, rather than a broad treatment.$9 Establishment of Regional Offices Somewhat related to the above discussion was a series of proposals for the establishment of telecommunication training centers. Saudi Arabia took the lead by proposing the establish- ment of an International Telecommunication Studies Institute to train experts. It was felt that senior officers of the adminis- trations who are responsible for directing the policy of telecom- ---_--—--—-—-—---_-- 58Doc. 521/PC 1965, p. 7. 59Ibid., p. 8. 5.3: H91 COL cat Vfl‘ 1 .C 107 munication services, supervise the planning, and approve projects - were handicapped in the developing countries, with lack of information and data on which they could base their decision. They had to depend largely on the information provided by manufacturers or employ consultants both of which courses were not judged to be satisfactory. They wanted to avoid the feeling of imposition which is unavoidable with the taking of advice from foreign experts, consultants or manufacturers. In its report, the Secretary—General supported the idea of a telecommunication training center for senior officials of the developing countries to keep them abreast of the latest technical developments. He also realized that most of the newly independent countries had enormous plans for expansion of their telecommuni- cation systems. Twenty-year master plans were being drawn and determining specifications had become a highly specialized task. Senior officers needed high—level training. The stumbling block in this and other similar proposals was the question of funding. It is at this level that the industrialized countries, although in minority representation, could exercise influence because they were the only group of countries in a position to increase their contribution to the ITU budget, and they were very reluctant to do so. The tensions between the large group of developing countries pushing for new instruments, under the Union’s aegis, to assist them and the resistance of the group of developed countries to Slow down any new project requesting additional financing, was 108 displayed in Plenary meetings. The delegate of Switzerland feared that the establishment of a higher telecommunications institute might multiply the dispersal of efforts as regards the training and instruction of specialist. The Soviet delegate warned that the resources available for technical assistance should be used entirely for technical assistance and the least for administrati- ve purposes. The US delegate agreed and was of the opinion that trips to seminars and visits to other countries could be financed more readily than would be a permanent center.°° A Working Party was set up to make recommendations and ended up drafting a mild Resolution entitled "Improvement of ITU Facilities for Providing Information and Advice to New or Development Countries." The same fate was reserved to a proposal by thirteen Latin American countries to establish a Regional Center for the Study of Space Communications in Latin America.61 In that case, the Committee adopted an Opinion in which it expressed ”the hope that it would be possible to install such centers in the various regions of the world." There was always the fear that if the contributory shares were increased due to this kind of initiati- ve, there would be a tendency for countries to lower their class of contribution. The decentralization of the ITU administrative and technical activities into regional offices located in the developing Countries was increasingly seen as a way to assist more effecti- ~.---------------—-— 60Doc. 374/PC 1965. 61Doc. 223/PC 1965. vel of Ties tit Ccu Afr not Fun “11 109 vely those countries. As far back as 1948, at the second session of the Administrative Council, two proposals submitted by Haiti and Cuba called for the establishment of a Liaison Office in the Western Hemisphere to facilitate the distribution of document to the countries of that region.62 In 1963, the Administrative Council rejected proposals for regional offices in Bangkok, Africa and Latin America on the ground that the Convention did not authorize the creation of such offices. At the 1965 Plenipotentiary Conference, Malaysia proposed that the ITU should establish regional offices at select centers throughout the world on the lines of Field and Regional Offices already functioning for UN agencies such as WHO, ILO, and UNESCO.63 UNDP is Born The United Nations Development Program (UNDP) became the ITU’s main purveyor of funds when the UNDP absorbed the Special Fund and the Expanded Program of Technical Assistance in 1965/66. Under the UNDP, the ITU and the other executing agencies worked to help local governments to plan the telecommunication sector of their Country Program to be submitted to the UNDP. After a project had been assigned, the ITU was mainly in charge of recruiting experts, placing fellows in training programs, and purchasing any necessary equipment. 62Doc. l4/CA2 (1948) 63”From Assistance to Cooperation," Telecommunication Journal 40/8 (1973), p. 391. 110 Whereas the developing countries wanted to expand the lTU’s cooperation activities by the establishment of new organs, which would translate into a budget increase, the industrialized countries wanted to improve the effectiveness of the existing ones and better utilize the money available, a position strongly advocated by the USSR. Resolution 33, adopted at the Montreux Plenipotentuary Conference, requested the administrations to cooperate with the Secretary—General in furnishing the requisite information to enable a study of the effect of technical assis- tance projects as precisely as possible. Also, the new Article 11 of the Montreux Convention required "examine the progress of the that a Coordination Committee should work of the Union in Technical Cooperation and submit recommenda- tions through the Secretary-General to the Administrative Council." The program of technical assistance in kind of the ITU was scrutinized. There was a need for a better coordination and progressive planning in organizing seminars, an important task of the Union. In addition, there were problems related to participa- tion in the seminars. New and developing countries were often very distant from the places where seminars were held, and in most cases, their administrations could not release their engineers for long periods. Finally, there was a financial Problem. Although the host countries bore the cost of organizing seminars, which represented a considerable help for developing Countries, the latter still had to pay the travel expenses of the 111 persons they sent and these expenses came to appreciable amounts and could not be covered by technical assistance funds. Some delegations suggested that, with special UNDP authorization, it might be possible to allocate funds to cover the cost of partici- pation in seminars.64 This solution, however, did not seem possible. Developing countries were pressing for more experts. The ITU had so far relied entirely on its member administrations to provide experts. While it has been possible so far to recruit them, it has been becoming increasingly difficult to find suitable candidates in adequate numbers. The main reason for this state of affairs had to do with the fact that several developing countries, in Africa, especially, were drawing large master plans comprising both national and international networks. These project required highly sophisticated expertise. To some extent, the shortage of experts was attributable to the fact that industrialized countries with well developed telecommunication systems have themselves plans for large-scale expansions, which tended to keep experts home. The procedure applied at that time for the examination of reports by experts on mission was far too summary. The conclu- sions to be formulated by the Technical Cooperation Department and the Coordination Committee were supposed to be based on a critical analysis of the reports. But it was practically impossi- ble to make such an analysis without qualified ITU experts to 64Doc. 3573/CA21 (1966). 112 examine reports, projects and program from the technical point of view so that the Union might be in a position to make pertinent recommendation to the governments concerned.65 Through its Resolution 29, the Plenipotentiary Conference decided to create a group of four specialist engineers to give expert advice to developing countries in the particular fields of network planning, preparation of specifications and system evaluation. The four engineers would be recruited in two stages: the first two in 1967 and the other two in 1968, for both budgetary and tactical reasons. They would be stationed at the ITU headquarters. The recurring criticism should not overshadow the ITU’s successes. With the assistance of the Union, a national telecom- munication school which was capable of accepting 275 students had been inaugurated in Algeria. Malagasy was pleased to inform the Council that the National Posts and Telecommunications Institute in this country was working perfectly. Each year 250 students were graduating. China’s Institute of Research and Professional Training had made considerable progress. Reorganizing the ITU’s Technical-Cooperation Activities The major event of the late 19605 was undoubtedly the reorganization of technical cooperation in the ITU in light of the newly-established UNDP. There was a need to reassess the Organizational structure of the ITU through which technical 65See Doc. 3672/CA22 (1967). 113 cooperation was provided to developing countries. It is worth presenting at some length the present and proposed ITU framewOrk for technical cooperation. As distinct from traditional technical cooperation activi- ties, such as ITU conferences and meetings, which are carried out on behalf of all countries in the interests of both national and international telecommunications, work under the UNDP is organi- zed for the benefit of specific countries and almost always on the basis of purely national projects. It therefore involves the permanent organs of the Union in questions which have an undoub— tedly political aspect and it is for this reason that it is effected under the responsibility of the Secretary-General but in close cooperation with the heads of the other permanent organs. The role assigned to the permanent organs of the ITU in the UNDP machinery may be classified as follows:66 a) general policy of the Program—-participation in coordinating bodies (General Assembly, ECOSOC, Governing Council of the UNDP, Inter-Agency Consul tative Board, Administrative Council on Coordina- tion); b) study of requests for assistance--preparation of projects--programming--coordination with bilateral assistance program: c) recruitment of experts; d) granting of fellowship and placing of fellowship holders; e) order for equipment; f) instructions for experts and fellowship holders; 66See Doc. 3665/CA22 (1967). 114 g) assistance to experts on mission (interim reports, correspondence with experts and Administrations, visits by officials from headquarters; h) evaluation of projects (final reports and correspon- dence with Administrations); i) organization of seminars. It should also be noted that UNDP projects chiefly concern: a) vocational training; b) the planning of networks and installa— tions leading to orders for equipment; and c) the organization of telecommunication services. Technical cooperation services were organized in a Depart— ment of the General Secretariat compriSing: a) an EPTA division; b) a Special Fund Division, (these two Divisions had the same sort of duties and were each divided into three sections corres- ponding to the geographical distribution of the projects: Africa, Latin America, and the rest of the world); c) an Operations Division which centralized the administrative work; and d) a budget and program control unit. The collaboration of the IFRB and the C015 in technical cooperation activities was ensured: a) through the Standing Committee on technical Cooperation consisting of the heads of the permanent organs; b) through the circulation of documents for any relevant comments; and c) through the consultation of specialized officials in other organs by the Technical Cooperation Department as the occasion arises. If one analyzes the manner in which the functions listed earlier are performed with the method of organization just described, one can notice that the operation is far from satis- 115 factory. On the one hand there does not appear to be sufficient coordination between the various technical cooperation activities (EPTA), Special Fund, bilateral assistance, etc.) while on the other hand, action by the specialized officials of the various organs is insufficient. Three example illustrate this contention: a) Practically no advice is given to the various countries on the usefulness of the telecommunication projects which they propose to include in their technical cooperation programs under the EPTA of the Special Fund, or on the coordination of these projects with other sources of assistance open to them. b) The Standing Committee on Technical Cooperation, composed of the heads of the permanent organs, is perfectly qualified to settle questions of principle but is practically unable to deal with details. c) No systematic appraisal is made of finished pro jects. 57 The Secretary-General of the ITU envisaged an organization in which the various permanent organs would be associated more closely with day-to—day technical cooperation activities under the UNDP and would be better able to coordinate these activities with the traditional cooperation for which they are themselves responsible, (see Figure 4). It was proposed a Technical Coopera- tion Department comprising: a) an Operational Division responsible for the following matters: general program policy; programming; study and preparation of projects in cooperation with the Technical Coordination Division (see below); representation on UNDP bodies; reports on the activities of the Department to the Administrative Council, to members and to UNDP bodies. 67See Doc. 3660/CA22 (1967). FIGURE 4 116 openness one nae-sun _ q u _ . - . . . n m m u u . . n . . n . _ . . . . . m m . . _ . . . . . a . . . a a u m n . . . . . m . . . . . . . . . u D . u . n . a a a . . . m m u m m m e u _ u n . . . . . u n . . . . . . n n n . . H . _ _ it. m .E .r ...... . .5. u _ mg .55 .535! s I an I I t nu g; E .8393 - t - 53:88. .am .9. .8- .sm ”M“! 335.. 8 Ian 1 25:53.5 $8 83.38 as. .8 lac a... 8 .mp8 F _ — .q H P u _ 1 — _ “r--ou--»-uu4.u-mu-----na 8 gets . £80 .5: an. 8 has _ — PllnllllllulllllMlllllillldllliIlVIIllJ sale-E damned $.80 .E e — ................................................. t ......... e .......... t F _ 353988 288 $6....— mnll. .3: 39H may ca :owuasomooo Hmowczoos mo cowaancmmzo one 117 b) an Administrative Division, whose duties would be those performed by the existing Operations Division and the existing program control unit: administrative questions concerning the working of the Department; recruitment of experts and placing of fellowship holders; formalities relating to orders for and deliveries of equipment for projects; financial aspects of the program. c) a Technical Coordination Division, composed of a small core of officials attached to the Technical Cooperation Division and a certain number of specialists attached to the secreta riats of the various permanent organs. The purpose of this Division would be to ensure day-to-day cooperation and coordination between the permanent organs. It would examine: requests by countries; job descriptions for experts; program for fellowship-holders; information and advice for experts at the beginning and during their missions, either from Union headquar ters or on the spot; comments on reports by experts and fellowship-holders; appraisal of completed project. d) the Grosp of Engineers. The Directors of the CCIs and IFRB, who were under constant criticism for their lack of involvement in assistance activities, agreed with this proposal. A Draft Resolution instructed the Secretary-General to establish the new organization with effect from January 1, 1968. At the 24th session of the Administrative Council in 1969, proposals were made to alter the structure of the one-year old Technical Cooperation Department. The precise demarcation of responsibilities between the Operations and Technical Divisions has given rise to some difficulties due to the artificial separation of the planning of projects from their implementation. This situation was further aggravated by the decision of the UNDP to introduce, starting in 1969, new programming procedures called "continuous programming." These new procedures enable countries to request assistance-—in the form of new projects of the 118 extension of existing ones—-as and when the need occurs. Under the old biennial programming, projects were planned and approved every two years and the interim period was available for imple- mentation. These drawbacks could be removed, according to the Secreta- ry-General, by basing the structure of the Technical Cooperation Department on a regional organization. The following measures should be taken: a) placing the planning, programming and implementation of a project entirely under the responsibility of a single Division; and b) replacing the existing Operations and Technical Divisions by three Area Divisions, each responsible for a geographical region: Africa, the Americas and Euro-Asia.68 The amount of work being done by the ITU in the field of professional training had been steadily rising and it has become obvious that an ever-increasing need for training facilities existed in a large number of member countries. It was, therefore, proposed to create a new Training Division. The revised organiza- tional chart would include: a) Grgsp of Engineers, b) Training Division, c) Area Divisions, and d) Agginistrative Division. It is interesting to note that the concept of regionalizati— on of the ITU activities, unpopular a few years ago, was now reintroduced by the Secretariat itself. It is true that the regionalization proposed was to take place within the Geneva headquarters. The USSR as well as the Western industrialized countries, however, were worried that this change might actually ---~------—------—-— 68Doc. 3862/CA24 (1969). 119 lead to the setting up of regional office which would make coordination even more difficult and increase Union expenses. This was not the view of Mexico who, as the proponent of the idea, expected the Administrative Council to go to the ultimate conclusion of the process: the establishment of separate regional offices.69 This is an illustration of the changing dynamics within the various organs of the Union due to the ever-increasing membership of the development countries. 1 As a matter of fact, the 1965 Plenipotentiary Conference had adOpted Resolution 7 to continue efforts to fully achieve geographical distribution of Union staff in all the organs. This will be a recurring theme in the subsequent annual meetings, brought by the African countries in order to increase the number of seats allocated to them. Being the newest members to join the Union, with the poorest telecommunication infrastructure, they were the most vocal in requesting assistance and many times succeeded in obtaining what they had asked for. This was reflected in the 1967/68 budgetary allocation. Out of a total of $3,275,088, Africa’s share was $1,326,250, Asia and the Far East’s, $607,497, Latin America’s, $895,889, the Middle East’s $393,402, and Europe’s, $52,050. Under the program approved, 66 countries received assistance during 1967. Of these 23 were in Africa, 9 in Asia and the Far East, 23 in Latin America, 6 in the Middle East, and 5 in Europe.70 69Doc. 3927/CA24 (1969), p. 4. 70Doc. DT/3/CA23 (1968). 120 Pearson and Jackson Reports: ITU Faces a Changing Environment The debates about the changing structure of the ITU’s cooperation activities does not take place in a vacuum; its cannot be dissociated from the larger debate about the entire restructuring of technical cooperation of the United Nations itself. In fact, the ITU had to respond to proposals made and changes instituted at the higher echelons of the UN organization since the ITU had to abide by the rules of the UNDP which was financing the Union—related projects. At the 1970 session of the Administrative Council, in Committee 3, the Secretary-General presented the general conclu- sion of two reports, one prepared by Lester Pearson, entitled "Partners in Development," the other by Sir Robert Jackson, "A Study of the Capacity of the United Nations Development System". The terms of reference of the Pearson Report, issued by the Commission on International Development, an independent body instituted and financed by the World bank, was more encompassing than the Jackson Report and complemented it. Seen as a whole, its recommendations embodied "a strategy for the strengthening of international cooperation for development." The Commission made the following points, summarized below: a) To be successful, development must be a partnership based on joint effort towards clearly defined goals; performan ce of all participants, donors and recipients, can be more effectively reviewed b) Aid, trade and investment policies are interrelated, and certain measures should be taken to ensure that they are harmonized in support of development. C) d) e) f) g) h) i) .i) k) 121 Trade policies of advanced countries that raise obstacles to the growth of export earnings of developing countries should be changed, and advanced countries should grant general, non-reciprocal tariff preferences to the manufactures of developing countries. The volume of official development aid should rise to 0.7 percent of gross national product by 1975 if possible, and in no case later than 1980, as part of an increase in the overall flow of resources to 1 percent of donors’ GNP by 1975. The proportion of the multilateral component of aid should be raised from 10 percent of total official assistance to a minimum of 20 percent by 1975. The International Development Association (IDA) should have a larger role in the aid system, with its resources expanded from the present $400 million to $1,500 million by 1975. Measures should be taken to alleviate the debt problem of developing countries by liberal use of long-term debt rescheduling and other means, and to reduce future debt problems by fixing an interest rate no higher than 2 percent on official development assistance loans, with maturity and grace periods of 25 to 40 years and 7 to 10 years respectively. A fund should be established within the World Bank to subsidize interest rates on some Bank loans. The United Nations should appoint a Commissioner for Population; and international program should be launched through the World Bank, in consultation with the World Health Organization (WHO) for the mobilization of research in the field of fertility control. Greater resources should be made available for education a1 research and experimentation looking to new education stem conceived by and for developing countries. The President of the World bank should call a conference in 1970 of heads of international and national agencies and representatives of donor and recipient countries, to discuss the creation of machinery to relate aid and development to other areas of foreign economic policy.’71 The Jackson Report, commissioned by the Governing Council of 122 the UNDP, was to assess the capacity of the United Nations system to deliver an effective program of technical cooperation to developing countries, first, at the present level of resources and, second, on the assumption that those resources might be doubled within five years. It was proposed that the programming of UN development cooperation activities should, as far as possible, be synchroni- zed with the development planning cycle of each country and should cover all inputs from the UN system, as well as be closely related to the World bank plans for subsequent investment. The UNDP was retained as the central authority with sole responsibi- lity, within the UN system, for technical cooperation and pre-investment activities. The detailed organizational proposals, therefore, designed, firstly, to centralize all policy decisions affecting technical cooperation on UNDP and, secondly, to decentralize as much operational authority as possible to the country level. It was suggested that the Resident Representatives should more or less play the same central role as UNDP itself at the headquarters level and their position and offices would be strengthened accordingly. The proposed structure for UNDP has had a regional bias and was designed to be gradually decentralized geographically when conditions become favorable. While there were quite varying degrees of criticism expres- sed by the various boards that reviewed the proposal, especially from some of the bigger agencies, there was a general acceptance, in principle, of most of the basic recommendations of the report, 123 for instance, of the so-called "Ten Precepts" summarized as follows: First, the introduction of a programming method which would enable all inputs from the UN development system to be programmed comprehensively at one time in a program corres— ponding to the needs and the duration of each country’s national development plans. Second, effective and prompt execution of approved projects, having recourse, as necessary, to all available methods and resources within and without the system. Third, controlled evaluation, designed to maintain the accountability of the administrator of UNDP for the use of all resources contributed to UNDP, to measure results, to judge the effectiveness of the methods used, and to draw conclusions which may be applied with benefit to future operations. Fourth, effective follow-up conceived as an integral part of each project from the outset. Fifth, the introduction of an efficient information system. Sixth, organizational reforms at the country, regional and headquarters level designed to integrate the components of the UN development system more closely. These should combine greater control at the center with maximum decentralization to the field level, where the authority of the Resident Representative should be greatly strengthened. Seventh, proper staffing of the operation at all levels, involving far-reaching measures to attract and retain the best qualified people available. Eighth, a financial framework designed to ensure the smooth running of the operation, through which the maximum possible amount of funds entrusted to the UN development system for development cooperation should be channelled, the head of the central organization being held personally accountable for their use. Ninth, maximum use of all modern managerial and administra+ tive aids and techniques to ensure an effective, expeditious and economical operation. Tenth, maximum flexibility on the part of governments and the system alike to permit adaptability to changing circums- tances and a speedy and effective response to new challenges 124 and opportunities as they arise.’72 A representative from the UNDP was invited to the Adminis- trative Council, in 1970, to elaborate on the Jackson Report. He hoped to see an increasing amount of assistance being provided by UNDP/ITU in such areas as the development of satellite communica- tions, educational TV (in association with UNESCO) and of the electronic and telecommunication industries (in association with the UN Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO)). One of the benefit of the Report was that the ITU would participate in the consideration of coordinated inputs to national programs at a very early stage. Continuing Debate on Regional Offices The recommendations also gave an impetus to the debate about regionalization of ITU’s activities. The UNDP had now established more than 90 field offices headed by Resident Representatives. The ECOSOC had endorsed the Report in Resolution 1530 (XLIX). The regional bureaus would start operating on June 1971 at the UN headquarters in New York, with transfer at a later date to the regions Mexico who had vehemently advocated that the same initiative be taken by the ITU, noted that: it was a very old-fashioned method for the Union to direct its activities in all parts of the world from Geneva and it rendered those activities tardy, incom- plete and often useless, as well as extremely expensi- ve, when officials or experts had to be sent out, incurring heavy travel costs and subsistence expen— 72$ee Doc. 4031/CA25 (1970). 125 ses."3 The concerns expressed by some delegations from the indus— trialized countries about the setting up of regional ITU offices were directly related to the problem of recruiting the adequate number of experts. The growing demand in experts originated by developing countries could not be met anymore by the Union’s own pool. According to the Australian delegate, it was no time to disperse the small number of engineers with a broad range of expertise to many parts of the world. Age restriction, availabi— lity, and language requirements militated against expanding the pool of experts. For Canada’s delegate, the new programming processes adopted by UNDP did not necessarily justify an in- creased regional presence by the ITU. Western European countries, who more often than not used the ITU as a marketplace, suggested that the Union make greater use of volunteers "lent" by administrations or private firms to the ITU. The USSR, however, had strong reservations about this proposal; it did not consider a volunteer corps appropriate within the framework of the United Nations; the use of volunteers was a matter for national and not international arrangements. Although it was reminded that the ITU’s role in respect to volunteers was purely an intermediary one, namely putting a would-be recipient in touch with a would-be donor, the Soviet Union was suspicious (as it has always been) at the attempt by the private sector to use the ITU as a stepping stone for 73Doc. 4213/CA26 (1971), p. 4. 126 expanding to the developing countries its product markets. According to Algeria, developing countries sometimes lost the services of their own nationals when they were induced by tempting offers from industrial firms to works abroad after a period of training.’M The UNDP had been approached by the Secretary-General for additional funds to support several new experts. While accepting seven new posts, UNDP rejected three, which disturbed a number of delegates since the entire ITU development program depended upon UNDP budgetary allocations. The delegates from Great Britain and Mexico suspected that the UNDP decision was based on "arbitrary or political grounds," an accusation denied by the UNDP represen- tative present at the Administrative Council’s session. The Council unanimously decided to bring the problem to the attention of the forthcoming Plenipotentiary Conference. The idea that the ITU’s ordinary budget be used for techni- cal cooperation purposes and to cover [expenses of additional experts, in particular, resurfaced at the 1973 session of the Administrative Council. This represented a major problem for the industrialized nations. If technical cooperation expenditures were to be charged to the ITU ordinary budget, Switzerland, according to its delegate, would be placed in a difficult position,tsince its contribution to the Union had so far been paid out of the PTT budget, whereas his country had a separate budget for technical cooperation. It would be very complicated to 74Doc. 4492/CA28 (1973), p. 5. 127 share costs between two sections of the national budget, and the Council might therefore recommend the Conference to consider the possibility of separating the two ITU budgets, to facilitate national accounting.75 Pakistan suggested that some of the developed countries which were already providing bilateral assistance might consider supplying the ITU with aid in the form of a separate technical cooperation fund. This suggestion was also supported by Saudi Arabia who would urge the forthcoming Malaga-Torremolinos Plenipotentiary Conference to establish a special fund for financing projects in developing countries. This idea acquired a life of its own. Nearly ten years later, at the Nairobi Plenipo- tentiary Conference, in 1982, a group of Western European countries proposed to establish a Special Voluntary Fund under the aegis of the ITU. Brazil made a statement that turned out to be interpreted by some industrialized countries as a warning, namely ”if technical assistance was one of the Union’s most important tasks, some other activities might have to be curtailed in order to release funds for it." It had the character of a warning because a large part of the ITU budget was affected to the CCIs whose work, while of some use to the developing countries, become increasingly more important to the industrialized countries planning for integrated telecommunication networks. As a matter of fact, during the years following the Montreux Plenipotentiary Conference, the CCIs were 75Doc. 4499/CA28 (1973), p. 4. 128 constantly reminded of their duties to take more active measures to assist developing countries. The early 19705 were also marked by a renewed interest about "the future of the Union," termed after a paper presented by the Deputy Director-General of the Australian Post Office, Mr. Sawkins. The debate concentrated on the drawing of a permanent Charter to replace the present Convention. This matter is of great importance to the discussion of the ITU’ technical coopera— tion activities as it opposed developed and developing countries. The subject will be fully articulated in a later part. CHAPTER 7 1973-1978; ONE AGENDA: DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE The Malaga-Torremolinos Plenipotentiary Conference opened in 1973 in the midst of difficult times. The cartel of OPEC countries had sharply raised the price of oil which placed the oil-dependent industrialized world and the Western European countries, in particular, in a critical situation. For the first time, their economies’ health was at the mercy of decisions made elsewhere, in the developing world. This situation of extreme dependence pressured the developed countries to reassess their relationship with their less well-endowed counterparts in the Third World and made them more responsive to the demands of the developing countries embodied in the call for the New Interna- tional Economic Order. It is therefore no surprise that the 1973 Conference was almost completed dominated by the concerns of the developing countries, with special emphasis on development cooperation. 131 of the 146 members attended, (see Table 3). Some thirteen major proposals dealing with this subject were discussed in committee and Plenary sessions, eleven of which were approved. Many of these were extensions or updates of Recommendations passed in Montreux in 1965, but there were some innovations. Resolution 19, for instance, requested that the Union make a special effort to help meet the need of the "least" developed countries and Opinion 2 asked the developed countries to "take into account the requests for favorable treatment made by developing countries in 129 130 service, commercial, or other relations in communications." The most controversial, however, was the decision to create a special technical cooperation fund "to meet the needs of the developing countries who submit urgent requests for assistance to the Union."75 The whole subject of the creation of ITU regional offices in the lesser developed areas of the world was raised again, as was the issue of a new International Consultative Committee for Technical Cooperation. Finally, the discussion about proposals to changes the Union’s basic instrument into a Charter that was initiated the previous years was carried on. TABLE 3 Membership Attendance of ITU Plenipotentiary Conferences Plenipotentiaries Members Attendees Atlantic City, 1947 78 76 Buenos Aires, 1952 87 82 Geneva, 1959 96 88 Montreux, 1965 129 122 Malaga-Torremolinos, 1973 146 131 Nairobi, 1982 157 147 Sources: Codding and Rutkowski, op. cit., p. 61; Telecom- munication Journal 49/10 (1982), p. 740. Geographic Representation The Conference first tackled the matter of the geographical 75Resolution 31. 131 representation within the Administrative Council. The membership of the ITU had increased from 128 to 145 in the 8-year period since the past 1965 Plenipotentiary Conference. The number of African countries had increased from 39 to 44, and the Asian countries, from 28 to 37. They legitimately requested additional seats. They were helped in their efforts by the Soviet Union who, consistent with its policy of strengthening ties with its 0 "natural allies,’ noted: There is no doubt that if the principle of equitable representation of the various regions of the world in the ITU’s organs were put into effect, the ITU would be able to draw upon the rich experience and knowledge of experts of various countries and would be in a position to act rapidly and skillfully to meet the needs and requirements of the member countries in all regions of the world.77 The USSR wanted the principle to be put also into effect in "all departments and at all levels" in the ITU. Committee 7 (Organs of the Union) was invited to reflect on the question whether, in the event of the adoption of an increase in the membership of the Council to 36, there would be any need for a formal rotation procedure. The Council needed members with experience in administrative, financial, and economic matters and with a broad understanding of many complex issues and a few permanent seats might be considered. This suggestion was opposed by the developing countries, especially. Guinea stated that "no country should be allowed to monopolize a Council seat on the grounds of its alleged experien- 77Annex to Doc. 99/PC 1973, p. 13. 132 ce." It was up to the Plenipotentiary Conference to re-elect Council members if its wishes to do so. A proposal for compulso- ry rotation was also under attack as it would run counter to freedom of election in the Plenipotentiary Conference. Zambia, however, supported the principle of rotation, ensured on a regional basis, because "it would reduce tension at election time and would save much of the time spent in lobbying at Conferen- ces." The United States withdrew its initial objection to increas- ing the Administrative Council’s size provided that the following proposals were accepted as a whole in the interest of unanimity and of meeting the views of developing countries. First, an increase of membership to 36 could be recommended with 7 members each from Regions A and B, 4 from Region C, and 9 each from Regions D and E.'78 Second, there should be no provision in the basic instrument concerning rotation of membership. Third, the following recommendation should be made to the Plenary: It is the unanimous view of Committee 7 that the Plenary recommend to the members present that, when they exercise their sovereign right to vote for members of their choice for the Administrative Council, they bear in mind the need for a proper balance between experience, expertise, and continuity, on the one hand, and the great benefit to be gained by both the ITU and the countries involved from the widest possible participation by developing countries as members of the Administrative Council, on the other hand.79 73Region A consists of the Americas; Region B, Western Europe; Region C, Eastern Europe and Northern Asia; Region D, Africa; Region E, Asia and Australia. 79See Doc. 124/PC 1973, p. 6. 133 The United States proposal satisfied every circle and was adopted by acclamation. The conflict between technical expertise and geographical representation in election procedures to the ITU permanent organs arising from developing countries’ strength in the supreme organ of the ITU was illustrated during the debate about the election of the Board of the IFRB. Under current practices, Board members of CCIR, CCITT and IFRB were elected during Administrative Conferences, IFRB board members being elected at Administrative Radio Conferences. A number of delegations from the developing countries proposed that IFRB board members be elected at Plenary Conferences, instead. The rationale was that the specialized Administrative Conferences are not representative of the ITU membership since few developing countries can afford attendance and their input in IFRB’s agenda and work program was, conse- quently, very limited.3° The dissatisfaction with the current situation stemmed from the fact that developing countries relied increasingly on IFRB recommendations to solve their radio interference problems. [It was compounded with the fear that the developed countries, dominant within IFRB, might not commit all their energy as some were pushing for the its abolition. The Western European countries, the United States, Canada and Australia were adamantly opposed to changing the status quo. 8°This fact was substantiated by the attendance figures provided by the Secretariat. The 1963 Space Conference had been attended by 71 members out of 124, the 1966 Aeronautical Confe- rence, by 56 out of 129, the 1967 Maritime Conference, by 70 out of 131 and the 1971 Space Conference, by 100 out of 140. 134 The delegation from the latter was of the opinion that the election of the IFRB board by the Plenipotentiary Conference ”struck at the very concept of the ITU as a federated organiza- tion and, for no good reason, negated the principle laid down in Article 13 of the Montreux Convention." The delegate of Zambia, echoing the position of its neighbors, pointed out that: Each member of the Board, apart from being a thoroughly trained technician, was required to be familiar with geographic, economic and demographic conditions within a particular area of the world. Accordingly, the IFRB transcended the sphere of radio alone, and should be elected by the Plenipotentiary Conference, the supreme organ of the Union. Moreover, that body was more representative than any Administrative Conference, and it was dangerous to leave such an important election in the hands of relatively few countries.81 The USSR could not understand why the supreme organ of the ITU, an organization primarily concerned with technical ques- tions, should be precluded from electing any senior officials of the Union, all of whom should be competent in technical matters. Nor could he follow the argument that election by the Plenipoten- tiary Conference would undermine the federal structure of the Union, since that structure was determined not by the body which elected officials, but by the Plenipotentiary. In fact, the status of the members of the IFRB could only be enhanced if they were elected by the Union’s supreme organ. The developing countries’ attendance record to Administra- tive Conferences and the numerous meetings of the Study Groups was poor. The main reason was a financial one. In addition, these 81Doc. 145/PC 1973, p. 5. 135 countries could not afford to send abroad for long periods of time, specialized engineers whose expertise was needed at home. Mexico submitted a draft proposal, "Helping New or Developedlpfl , _. “- 3 Countries to Attend CCI Study Group Meetings," suggesting that some meetings be held in developing countries and under less expensive conditions than apply to world conference. Most of the meetings were held at the headquarters in Geneva, in the center of the industrialized world. The rational for the proposal was rather elegant: Different countries have different reasons for attend- ing CCI Study Group meetings. The developed countries, more particularly the highly industrialized ones, have of course a technical interest, but their special motivation is economic, since the final recommendations are reflected in the equipment which such countries make and sell, whereas the main concern of new or developing countries is for technical and operating matters. Consequently, the financial aspect of partici- pation is a minor one for developed countries (indeed, it can be looked on as an investment) whereas for new and developing countries participation is a heavy financial burden.82 Given the unknown financial burden that the Mexican proposal would impose on the ITU budget, it was referred to Committee 4 for further consideration. Regional Offices (Cont’d) The discussion on the setting up of ITU Regional Offices was revived by a Draft Resolution from Venezuela. This Draft came under fire from many quarters. Mexico, an energetic proponent of the idea, deplored the fact that the Secretary-General, after 82Doc. 199/PC 1973, p. 2. 136 initially submitting reports favorable to the establishment of regional offices, had changed his mind. The Secretary-General responded he had hope that UNDP would cover the incurred expenses but the UN agency declined.83 The lack of funding was at the core of the opponents’ arguments since there was a general reluctance to use the ITU’s ordinary budget for this purpose. The Western industrialized countries as well as the Soviet Union and its neighbors were joined by some developing countries to recognize that up to this day no quantitative assessment had yet been made to document the benefits of decentralizing the ITU’s technical cooperation activities. For Malaysia, 3 cost/benefit analysis was of the first priority. No consensus had even emerged from the work of the previous Administrative Council regarding the principle of regional offices. The USSR was of the opinion that the creation of regional branches could have dangerous consequences as there was a real danger of them duplicating the work done by other regional bodies. Moreover, it doubted very much that the large number of experts required under the proposal could be found, in the first place. There was the fear that regional offices would become mere c1earing-houses.84. West Germany noted that regional experts were more effective than regional offices. The proponents, like Nigeria, proposed that the Plenipoten— 83Doc. 213/PC 1973. 84Doc. 261/PC 1973, p. 3. 137 tiary Conference adopt the principle of establishing regional offices in spite of the fact that there were financial obstacles to its achievement. Once the principle accepted, a separate study could be made to find some way of financing them. Many developing countries shared this view. A motion indicating that Committee 6 was in favor of the creation of regional offices was put to vote and was accepted by 47 in favor, 42 against and 1 abstention. The resulting Resolution instructed the Secretary General "to carry out a thorough study of all aspects of the establish- ment of regional offices, including their functions and their relations with the ITU Technical Cooperation Department." It also called for the setting up of "pilots offices" in order to better assess the cost and effectiveness of the projected regular regional offices.85 Japan, preoccupied with the financial ability of the ITU to carry out such project, proposed to limit the number of pilot offices to ”one or two," the French suggested only one. Mexico and Peru opposed them and won in votes. The industrialized countries had lost the battle in Commit- tee 6, but not the war. The following move illustrates one of the unique features of the ITU Convention. It provides for Reserva- I tions and, under the present circumstances, the developed countries used this device in order not to be bound by a majority decision they found contrary to their national interest as it might lead to an increase in their ITU contribution.86 85Resolution 5, Doc. 229/PC 1973. 86See Doc. 372/PC 1973, pp. 9-10. 138 ITU Pressured to Set Up its Own Technical Cooperation Program The question of the establishment of a Special Fund for technical cooperation under the auspices of the ITU resurfaced with a joint proposal from Nepal and Sri Lanka, "Emergency Fund 1 for Technical Cooperation,‘ resolving: to create a fund with voluntary contributions of the countries by means of cash contributions, the awarding of fellowships or making available experts or new or used equipment, but in perfect condition to satisfy the need of the new or developing countries who will request ITU assistance of an urgent nature.37 Oman followed suite with a proposal of its own aiming at the same objective but drawing on the ITU’s regular budget. Many developing countries were concerned with the shortage of UNDP funds for project financing. It was due not only to the increasing number of countries requesting assistance , but also to the expansion of national and regional telephone networks such as the Pan African Telecommunication Network. In addition, there was a need for upgrading the various national telecommunication training schools set up with the help of the ITU. Other specialized agencies engaged in joint work with the ITU complained about the Union’s performance. The UNESCO conside- red that the ITU’s participation in its investigation missions had, in the past, been hampered by a lack of sufficient financial flexibility in the ITU, which could participate more effectively in interdisciplinary teams if funds were made available for the purpose in the Union budget. In fact, the proposed Special Fund 8'7See Doc. 89 and 103/PC 1973. 139 was not a novel idea, and its proponent was asking the Union to align itself on other international organizations like the Universal Postal Union (UPU) who had already established volunta- ry funds to give speedy assistance which might not be available through UNDP. The proposal ,met the opposition of the industrialized nations who thought that all assistance funds should be channel- led through UNDP for the reasons that the PTTs, operating on a non-profit basis did not have resources earmarked for technical cooperation. These funds were provided by contribution to UNDP from national technical cooperation agencies. From this stand— point, these nations were not prepared to increase their contri— bution to the ITU’s regular budget and they were not able to contribute to a voluntary fund either. Japan brought to the attention of Committee 6 that the Jackson Report, while proposing the restructuring of UNDP assistance, criticized the independent policy followed by various specialized agencies. He warned that a special fund would clash with the UNDP system. The United States threatened that if such a fund were to be created, it would not contribute to it.88 The idea of having the ITU’s regular budget used for technical assistance was also not popular with many small financially-stricken developing countries such as Botswana, since it would result in an increase in their contribution to the ITU. It is the reason why they preferred the idea of a voluntary fund 88See Doc. 374/PC 1973. 140 furnished by the developed countries. Mexico and Argentina did not share this view. In addition, they thought a special fund should not be restricted to urgent projects but cover desirable ones as well. In Committee 6, the principle of establishing a special fund was adopted by 45 votes to 9, with 11 abstentions. The proposal to furnish part of the resources of the fund from ITU’s regular budget was rejected by 40 votes to 19, with 9 abstentions. Japan first opposed contribution from private undertakings on the ground that it might violate the principle of neutrality of the international organizations. The objection was overturned since the ITU membership includes recognized private operating agencies. The Committee settled on the following provision: to create a special technical cooperation fund with voluntary contributions from Member States, recognized private operating agencies, and industrial and scienti- fic undertakings, contributions from the latter being zgdggto the Union through the administration concern- This proposal was adopted by 35 votes to 5, with 29 absten- tions. The abstention of the industrialized countries showed how much the idea of supplementary assistance under the aegis of the ITU has gained ground in Committee 6. In the past, such idea would have faced a clear-cut rejection by the same countries. Since 1947, despite a growth and diversification of the work of the Union on a scale which could not possibly have been foreseen at that time, the only change in the structure of the 89Doc. 410/PC 1973, p. 4. 141 Union has been the merging of the CCIT and the CCIF into the CCITT. The admission to the Union of 68 new members, most of whom are either new or developing countries, has given technical cooperation, which was a non-existent activity in 1947, conside— rable importance both in magnitude and in variety, which is comparable to, if not greater than, that of the present CCIs and IFRB. The CCIR and CCITT have engaged themselves in some assis- tance activities. But it became clear that these measures, makeshift solutions dictated by the need to cope with a conti- nuously increasing workload, were inadequate for proper fulfill- ment of Article 4 (No. 23) of the Montreux Convention. From 1965 to 1972, the dollar amount spent on technical assistance provided by the Union was eight times that for the period 1959-1965 and all signs point to the fact that this rate will have to be increased in the future.90 The above was in substance the rationale underlying the proposal by Argentina to set up a permanent organ called "Inter- national Committee for Technical Cooperation in Telecommunica- tions," organized along the same lines as the CCIR and CCITT. The idea was supported by a similar proposal by Kuwait. After a short discussion the proposal was overwhelmingly rejected by 50 votes to 10, with 9 abstentions. The developed countries did not want to spread the Union’s jurisdiction into an additional semi-auto- nomous organ, and the developing countries were worried that a new organ would occasion additional administrative expenses taken 90See Doc. 96/PC 1973. 142 out of a budget already insufficient to cover traditional development-assistance activities. The Plenipotentiary Conference also approved a Resolution introduced by Lesotho, subsequently revised to make clear the ITU’s budget would not be used, requesting that the 25 countries designated by the United Nations as the "least developed coun- tries" be given priority in technical cooperation.91 The question of the establishment of a permanent Constitu- tion gave rise to heated debates. Secretary-General Mili, in an unusual departure from his otherwise serene posture, expressed strong reservation about changing the ITU’s basic instrument. His partisan stand meant to appeal to the Third World constituency. The industrialized countries, which favored the adoption of a Constitution, were able to pass a resolution calling for the establishment of a special Study Group to examine the matter. The Study Group worked from 1967 to 1969 to carry out the Montreux mandate. The report was presented at the present Conference. At Malaga-Torremolinos, however, the developing countries composed the clear majority and had second thoughts on giving a minority substantive veto right concerning any fundamental changes in the structure or functions of the ITU. As a result, while it accepted the breakdown between the various provisions as suggested by the working group, the Conference refused to give the basic provision the title Constitution and decided to,postpone any decision on whether to raise to majority needed to modify them until the next 9100c. 240/PC 1973. 143 plenipotentiary. As instructed by the Plenipotentiary Conference the previous year, the Secretary General submitted to the 1974 session of the Administrative Council a draft of the Regulation for the Adminis- tration of the ITU Special Fund for Technical Assistance. One of the Articles stipulated that "cash contributions shall not carry reservations concerning their allocation" and that "equipment offered as a contribution to the Fund may be accepted on condi— tion that it may be used in connection with a vocational training project administered by the Union as part of assistance to a country in the event of natural disaster."92 The latter clause was certainly included to alleviate the fears of the Soviet Union that equipment provided by private companies might be used as a promotional tool to expand markets in developing countries and subject them to economic dependency. The Regulations were approved and by the end of January 1975 the amount of cash contributions pledged totalled Sw. frs.100,304. and a few countries and private companies promised other types of assistan- ce (equipment, training, visits, seminars, etc). This results were not very encouraging, according to the head of the Technical Cooperation Department. Great Britain and Sweden, critics of the Fund, noted that the assistance "pledged" or "promised" would have been available without a Special Fund. Spain contended that the list of contri— butors might well give the impression that only a few countries 92Doc. 4590/CA29 (1974), p. 3. 144 were contributing to technical cooperation, whereas a number of countries were providing large-scale assistance on a bilateral basis. In addition, Cable and Wireless Ltd (U.K.) and L. M. Ericsson (Sweden) which offered aid, did not get the approval from their donor country, as specified in the Regulations, and had to be deleted from the list.93 Since the setting up of Regional Offices had not been accepted, the work of ITU experts became increasingly important, especially those regional experts who had to assist in and monitor the implementation of national projects in several countries as well as regional projects. In the absence of funding for the recruitment of additional experts, the ones in the field had to do an increasing amount of travelling as more and more telecommunication networks and training schools were set up in their respective region, (see Figure 5). This was a result of the new directives that had been required to bring the activities of regional experts into line with changes in UNDP general policy. Until recently the regional experts’ work had been confined to helping countries to draw up their country programs and to advising the UNDP Resident Repre- sentatives on telecommunication problems. Regional experts were now being asked to keep in closer touch with specific projects. In addition, they would be expected to spend a longer time in each country they visited and so enhance their advisory role to each of the countries in their region. Several delegates from 93Doc. 4816/CA30 (1975), pp. 4—5. FIGURE 5 Main Stages of Cgsntry Programming and Project Preparation [' n r-—"'F__'[-_ 'F—- ‘F-‘ u ‘3. o .5 8 2 .5 .3 ‘5.: a 3? ‘5' 3: «>5 I: H no 0 49 5 -H 0 < I: m h-H o o -u a .4 u a: -H a a: c a: o m +3 a. O - ma I: :3 > s 2: a: 5 s :1 .5 H 1.2.: :3 E 53;. 2:0: '3 s s +: a a c sec; 0 am< o : ecu s. a. a.:. a -n u c C) Q Q 94 C 0 0 H Z F 2 U U H X D .J aim L) z. m [—1 I— I . IL‘ ‘_I 1‘ G Countrv p OKIWLfi 5 <9--®/ Project form ation find apfiroval ‘n’ I-:§E: VCED Expert camponent implerentation '4 {l3) fellowSIip componen implementation Source: ITU Doc. 5816 (CA3?) 1982, p. 145 25. <::> Fixes IPF for each country. ® Helps prepare sectoral study. <::> Prepares request for UNDP assistance. Evaluates requests from different sectors, establishes priorities and prepares country programme. Approves country programme. Assists with formulation and pre- paration of project Is responsible for preparing and submitting project document Assesses and submits project for UNDP approval. Approves project up to hO0,000 dollars. Approves projects of over hO0,000 dollars. ® Signs project document. Takes steps for project implementation Expert procedure Submits candidatures. 0 ® Transmits candidatures. <::) Requests technical opinion. Supplies technical opinion. (::> Communicates choice of candidate. Transmits choice. Recruits expert. Fellowship procedure Chooses candidate and prepares programme proposal. Transmits above documentation. Assesses candidature, proposes and locates appropriate institution. @ Prepares course programme. @ Sends instructions to fellow. @ Organizes fellow's departure. 146 developing countries requested explanations as to why ITU experts had not visited their country, which had caused delay in the implementation of some national system. The reason was that experts were principally concerned with regional project such as the Pan African Telecommunication Network (PANAFTEL) or the Middle East Telecommunication Network (MEDARABTEL). Additional personnel requested by these delegates was out of question due to the refusal of the UNDP to allocate more money.94 The UNDP, however, was currently studying measures designed to help ITU wipe out the deficit of some Sw. frs. 1,500,000 in its Technical Cooperation account resulting from rental costs for premises, not considered administrative costs, therefore not reimbursed by UNDP. Telecommunication and Government Priorities According to the Secretary-General, the main factor which hindered implementation of technical cooperation activities was the difficulty of getting telecommunication projects accepted and accorded reasonably high priority by the central governmental planning of the country concerned. Under the new "program" approach adopted by the UNDP, the projects submitted by the various ministries were no longer dealt with in isolation but integrated in the development plan drawn up by the government for the country as a whole. It was one of the first time that the developing countries’ policy was criticized for being part of 94See Doc. 4658/CA29 (1974). 147 the problem underlying the slow progress of cooperation activi— ties. From now on, governments of those countries will be urged to bring telecommunication matters higher in the national development (agenda. Recommendations to this effect will figure prominently in the Report issued ten years later by the Indepen- dent Commission for Worldwide Telecommunications Development. The message started to be heard. There were encouraging notes that government officials at the most senior level were becoming conscious of the importance of telecommunications to their development programs. In Africa, the ITU now administered more UNDP—financed regional projects than most other agencies. Several projects were making good progress: PANAFTEL, for which some 90 percent of the required finance has already been negotia- ted, the pre-investment survey for MEDARABTEL, in which 25 countries were participating, the Inter-American Telecommuni- cation Network, and the Asian Telecommunications Network. ITU’s technical cooperation activities in 1974 had increased by about 18 percent compared with 1973, and telecommunication projects financed by UNDP had increased by 12 percent. UNDP procedures both for programming and implementation of projects were now becoming stabilized in a more effective and easy to follow form. Authority was being delegated increasingly by UNDP Headquarters to its Resident Representatives in the field and sought advice and help from ITU regional experts. This delegation was welcomed since it facilitated ITU’s work in view of the large number of regional telecommunication projects. 148 Reorganizing the Technical Cooperation Department In 1969, during its 24th session, the Administrative Council had examined the organizational set—up of the Technical Coopera— tion Department and approved the proposal made by the Secretary-- General to reshape the Department on a regional concept, i.e., replacing the existing Operations Divisions and Technical Division by the three Regional Divisions (Africa, the Americas, and Euro-Asia). This geographical distribution was made on the basis of continents. The debate about this restructuring was taking place in the wake of the examination by the ECOSOC of the Jackson Report on the capacity of the United Nations Development System. One of its main features was the creation of four Regional Bureaus: 1) Africa; 2) Latin America; 3) Asia and the Pacific; 4) Europe, Mediterranean and Middle East. The percentage of the total Indicative Planning Figures (IFPs) for the First UN Development Cycle (1972-1976) distributed among the Regional Bureaux was as follows: Region 1, 30.5 percent; Region 2, 26.9 percent; Region 3, 21.4 percent; Region 4, 21.2 percent.95 In synchrony with UNDP programs, the ITU’s technical cooperation structure had to be geared to administer this demand if effective programming and realization of an increasing number of projects was to be included in the telecommunication sector. Thus, in 1974, more than 43 percent of the total Union’s field expenditure was realized through the implementation of projects 95Doc. 4730/CA30 (1975), p. 3. 149 under the jurisdiction of the Euro-Asia Division, against about 34 percent under the Africa Division and 22 percent under the Americas Division. At the time, the Euro-Asia Division was responsible for the Union’s technical cooperation activities in the very vast and diversified area of Europe, the Middle East, Continental Asia and the Pacific, which makes it difficult from the management point of view to take into account the various features of each sub-region. Furthermore, the Middle East evolved more and more as a separate entity with its own development and problems. this state of affairs was recognized by the United Nations which established in Beirut the UN Economic Commission for West Asia. The increased revenue from oil exports in some of the Middle East countries has resulted in large-scale development projects in the area thus creating a greater need for new and modern telecommunication facilities. Consequently, many countries in the area have multiplied their requests to the ITU, not for financial assistance, but to provide experts and advice in the planning, specification and evaluation of highly sophisticated telecommuni- cation projects, as well as for the establishment of telecommuni- cation training institutions. On the basis of the above considerations, it was proposed to create in the ITU Department of Technical Cooperation a fourth Regional Division by splitting into two the existing Euro-Asia Division, i.e., Asia and the Pacific Division on the one hand, and Europe and the Middle East Division on the other. An increase 150 in staffing was also requested.96 In the course of 1975, a member of the United Nations Joint Inspection Unit, prepared a "Report on Some Aspects of the Technical Co-operation Program of the International Telecommuni- cation Union."97 This report’s findings were presented at the 1976 Administrative Council session. The inspector offered for consideration by the Council, a series of recommendations includ- ing the following: - The predominantly "sectoral" or technical approach to telecommunication problems (including mass communi- cation) should be broadened to take into account the growing interlocking aspects of telecommunications with social development, including education and public information. - The ITU should formulate a "program" of technical cooperation. This program should be the result of the combined efforts of all the permanent organs of the Union, the final responsibility being vested in the Secretary-General. - The Special Fund for Technical Cooperation should give priority to such matters as natural disasters and the needs of the least—developed countries. - The Union should study the possibility of resorting to the international credit institutions as main contributors to the Special Fund. - In view of the growing needs of the developing countries and the reiterated insistence on "field activities” rather than on "headquarters activities," the Union should increase the use of funds from the regular budget, for technical cooperation activities, including the payment of part of the overhead costs. - The relationship between telecommunications and development and the relationship between the program of technical cooperation and the national development plan 96Doc. 4730/CA30 (1975), pp. 5-6. 97(JIU/REP/75/9) 151 of each country should be emphasized by the ITU in order to get wider international and national support. - At the country level--as at the regional and global levels--the technical cooperation input of the Union should begin at the pre-programming stage, taking into account the inter-connection between telecommunications and development. - The ways and means of transferring telecommunications technology between developing countries should be fully explored. The use of national experts in UNDP/ITU projects should be encouraged. — Since the bulk of the population of developing countries lives in rural areas, the improvement of rural telecommunications should have priority in the technical cooperation program of the Union. The development of human resources should be closely related to the development of rural telecommunica- tions.98 The inspector noted that he has been unable to find in the Convention adopted at malaga-Torremolinos any specific provision to the effect that the ITU is constitutionally forbidden to use funds from its ordinary budget to share in the cost of technical cooperation. Moreover, no consideration appears to have been given to the possibility of receiving contributions from other/ intergovernmental organizations, including worldwide or regional financing agencies. The stipulation that, according to Resolution 21, contributions of private operating agencies and scientific or industrial organizations are subject to the approval of the administration of the donor country, was considered to be an important restriction imposed on the Fund. At the end of his Report, the inspector invited the Union to a "time-consuming and Painful exercise" to discuss in full the following challenging 98Annex 1 to Doc. 4925/CA31 (1976), pp. 6—8. 152 question: "the federal structure of the Union, which is without parallel in the UN system, is it, or is it not, a great cons- traint to the Union’s ability to discharge its present day functions?" The ITU and the Other Specialized Agencies The originality of the Report is to be found in the invita- tion to explore the relation between telecommunication and economic development. The idea will gain momentum and will be on the agenda of the World Bank who issued an in-depth study on this matter in 1983 and will be the subject of joint study by the ITU and the OECD, published the same year. In addition, there will be a proliferation of articles on the topic.99 The years 1974—1976 were marked by an intense activities within United Nations circles. The UN General Assembly passed a series of resolutions concerning development and economic cooperation in the wake of the Fourth Conference of the Heads of States of Non-Aligned Countries, held at Algiers in September of 1973.100 The New International Economic Order was at the agenda 99Robert J. Saunders, Jeremy J. Warford, Bjorn Wellenius, Telecommunications and Economic Development (Baltimore, MA.: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983) (A World Bank Publication); William Pierce and Nicolas Jequier, Telecommunications for Development (Geneva: ITU, 1983) (ITU/OECD Report). 100See Res. 3172 (XXVIII) "Holding of a Special Session of the General Assembly Devoted to Development and International Economic Cooperation;" Res. 3177 (XXVIII) and Res. 3241 (XXIX) "Economic Cooperation Among Developing Countries;" Res. 3251 (XXIX) "Technical Cooperation Among Developing Countries; Res. 3343 (XXIX) "Special Session of the General Assembly Devoted to Development and International Economic Cooperation;" Res. 3362 (S~VII) "Development and International Economic Cooperation;" 153 of UN meetings and all the UN specialized agencies were called upon the improve the lot of developing countries in view of the growing gap between them and the industrialized nations and the slow rate of progress in the implementation of the goals and objectives of the International Development Strategy. The Algiers Conference had called for the convening of a Special Session of the General Assembly devoted exclusively to development pro- blems.101 The ITU participated at the Special Session, held in September 1975. The Union was invited to recognize more fully that an adequate telecommunication infrastructure is a necessity for the stimulation of international trade and industrialization, two items on the agenda of the Special Session. The Union was going to collaborate to the establishment of an international center for the exchange of information on science and technology and stimulate their transfer to developing countries, also on the Session agenda. Finally, under the rubric "Food and Agriculture," the ITU was to undertake studies on small capacity transmission systems suitable for rural telecommunications.1°2 The Secretary General informed the Administrative Council that both in ECOSOC and in the United Nations General Assembly, the ITU had been criticized and reproached by member governments because of the lack of attention it had so far paid to the Development Decade. Tangible proof would have to be furnished 1“See UNGA Resolution 3172 (XXVIII). 102DOC. 4888/CA31 (1976). 154 that the Union was determined to take part in the effort underta- ken in that connection.103 This international debate on cooperation and development had somewhat energized the ITU involvement in this field. Despite the above criticism, the Union was able to show that progress had been made in cooperation activities during the 1971-1975 period. Whereas many UN specialized agencies were engaged in joint projects or exchanging information of common relevance, the ITU was still generally working in isolation which had led other international bodies to criticize its absence of commitment to collaborative efforts directed to developing countries. This organizational behavior may well be explained by the unique character of the ITU. The Union was established long before any other international organization by a closely-knit community of Western European nations who wanted to protect as much as possible their national interest by conceding a very limited area of jurisdiction to the intergovernmental organization. This was best embodied in a federated structure that prevented the organization to become tentacular and reduce the sovereign decision—making of its members. At the 32nd session of the Administrative Council, the Secretary-General delivered a statement, entitled "Telecommunica- tions, an Important Factor in Economic and Social Development: Role of the ITU in this Domain," which articulated the modalities 103Doc. 4981/CA31 (1976), p. 6. 155 of collaboration with other specialized agencies.”4 By becoming increasingly aware of the role of telecommunications in all facets of national development, the ITU realized the need to share resources with other bodies whose projects comprise a communication component. This move is also explained by the historical tendency of the Union to protect its exclusive mandate on telecommunication matters. In December 1976, the UN General Assembly adopted the resolution "Cooperation and Assistance in the Application and Improvement of National Information and Mass Communication Systems for Social Progress and Development," inviting "the government of the developing countries to give due regard to the establishment and/or strengthening of their national mass communication systems within the framework of their overall development plans" and it requested UNESCO "to continue and intensify its program for the development of mass communication systems, especially for the benefit of developing countries."105 The ITU Secretary-General, who wanted the bring the Union in the mainstream of specialized agencies, saw an opportunity for collaboration and thus informed UNESCO of the mandate and role of the Union. UNESCO’s Director-General responded positively: Unesco’s action, which relates to the content of the message, since it is an educational, scientific, cultural and ethical activity, only becomes significant and effective to the extent that a parallel, or even concerted, activity, is carried out with respect to the 10"Doc. 5073/CA32 (1977). 105See A/RES/3l/139. 156' message transmission infrastructure. This is brought out clearly when we are called upon to advise the Member States on information policy.106 With the adoption by the Administrative Council of Resolu- tion 800 entitled "Telecommunication , An Important Factor in Economic and Social Development: Role of the ITU in this Domain," a close collaboration with UNESCO was initiated and, from this day, the ITU carried out more readily its "obligations" vis—a—vis the other member organizations of the United Nations system. UNDP Policy Impacts Upon the ITU Although previous statements emphasized the excellent relations between the ITU and the United Nations Development Program, a number of countries from all groups were increasingly unhappy with the level of support provided by the UNDP in view of the Union’s growing development activities. UNDP had to make some adjustments in its program since 1975 when it became apparent that for a variety of reasons there had been a marked rise in its total expenditure without a similarly large increase in the resources available to it. UNDP had been repeatedly asked to finance expenditures occasioned by additional ITU regional experts. These requests had been turned down on the ground that the Governing Council had decided that 82 percent of total UNDP resources would be used for country programs. It had always insisted on keeping that percen- tage, and would in fact prefer to increase it and decrease the 18 157 percent now set aside for regional and inter-country programs. This policy put the ITU in a difficult situation because precise- ly these programs that the Union were emphasizing, as reflected in the figures. ITU total expenditures had grown from 3 percent of total UNDP expenditures in 1972 to 4.45 percent in 1976, and ITU inter-country expenditures had grown over the same period from 2.84 percent to 5.85 percent. If UNDP were unwilling to finance, through regional experts, this component of ITU’s cooperation activities, several large projects would be put in jeopardy due to delay in implementation. The contract of some regional experts was not being reconducted. The delegate from Senegal noted that PANAFTEL activities would undoubtedly suffer. The delegate from India expressed concerned regarding the lack of continuity in the regional coordination of the Asian Telecommunications Network.107 Another aspect of the uneasy relations between the ITU and UNDP was the reluctance of the latter to reimburse the Union’s administrative overhead expenses, a deficit mainly due to unfavorable fluctuations in the dollar exchange rate. The 1976 budget had included a freezing of 24 posts financed from the Technical Cooperation Department which had gradually reduced the staff to the level of 1972. Due to efficiency measures, however, the assistance actually provided in 1976 exceeded that furnished in 1972. But these measures had a limit. The industrialized countries, who had vehemently opposed any 1°"Doc. 5100/CA32 (1977), pp. 2-3. 158 ITU funding other than through UNDP, recognized the need for a more flexible approach if ITU’s entire development edifice was not to collapse. A consensus had been reached on the principle of the establishment of a Fund under the aegis of the ITU. The above situation helped make it more palatable to the developed countries. These delegations, however, made it clear that "any urgent measures to meet an immediate need should not be construed by anyone inside or outside the ITU as diminishing the Union’s basic dependence on UNDP for funds.108 There was the feeling that if UNDP was informed that the Union had found its own solution, it might wash its hands of the problems. Given the state of affairs, it comes as no surprise that the discussion on the future of technical cooperation at the ITU occupied much of the 32nd session of the Administrative Council. The main issue was how to finance regional experts in light of UNDP’s budgetary restrictions. The number of regional experts in Asia had in effect been reduced from three to one. In Africa, the Union had lost its remaining two experts. Two of the three experts in Latin America had left their posts The delegate from Morocco suggested that thoughts should be given to the possibility of integrating appropriations for regional experts within the ordinary budget of the Union. He reminded that the Group of Engineers concerned with technical cooperation matters were already charged to the ordinary bud— 1°8Doc. 5110/CA32 (1977), p. 3. 159 get.109 The same was true of the Training Division, starting in 1974. These precedents having been established, it hardly seemed unreasonable to ask the ITU to go somewhat further and to take more responsibility for technical cooperation. The idea was still unpopular with the develOped countries who preferred the solution of increasing their UNDP contributions, which a few actually did. For Sweden, a relatively large contributor to technical coopera- tion through UNDP, a decision by one international organization working in a specialized field to change its rule would inevitably influence the totality of an individual country’s contribution to technical assistance as a whole or else the manner in which that total contribution was distributed among various specialized agencies. The governments of the donor countries had to retain an overview of the use to which their technical assistance contributions were put.110 In order to overcome the objections of the industrialized countries, Zaire proposed three sources of financing:(first, the income from the sales of ITU service stamps, courtesy of the Swiss PTTs; secondly, interest on ITU deposit accounts and interest on payments in arrears; and thirdly} the sum of one million Swiss francs which had been set aside to cover the arrears of an administration which had unexpectedly paid its contribution. If these solutions were precluded by the Conven- tion, proposals could be forwarded to the next Plenipotentiary Conference and, if accepted, lead to appropriate changes in the 109Under Resolution 17 of the Malaga-Torremolinos Plenipo~ tentiary Conference. 11°Doc. 5100/CA32 (1977), p. 8. 160 basic instrument, a processus unique to the ITU. The third solution was rejected on the basis of accounting procedures. The second solution presented some difficulties since those funds were inputs in the Union’s ordinary budget and therefore could not be used for special purpose without approval of the Plenipotentiary. In addition, the figures were more a result of the system of bookkeeping. The first solution did not meet objection; revenues from the sale of stamps provided a steady source of income: 340,00 Sw. frs in 1974, and, as much as one million Swiss francs in 1976. Indeed, UNDP might consider that the ITU was not doing enough to extricate itself from its difficulties, and the solution of using income from stamp sales to establish a special technical cooperation fund would demons— trate initiative on the part of the Union.111 Delegates from industrialized countries were of the opinion that not enough had yet been done to convince UNDP of the need to reverse its decision concerning the financing of regional experts. It was decided that members of Committee 3 (Technical Cooperation) of the Administrative Council whose countries were represented on the UNDP Governing Council should make sure that those representatives would make the Union’s views known at the next Governing Council session. These efforts have been marked by some success. In 1978, UNDP had notified the ITU of its definite agreement to finance eight regional experts. Assurances had been received that the necessary funds would be available until 1981, -~-_--—-—-—--—-’---— 11Inoc. 5116/CA32 (1977). 161 the end of the current UNDP programming cycle, a limit that raised some concerns for continuity. The Future of Technical Cooperation The Plenipotentiary Conference was critically important, especially to the developing countries since they were in a position through their majority to make changes in the Convention that would reflect their concerns. They wanted to make sure that the next Conference to be held in 1982 at Nairobi be brought up-to-date on the implementation of Resolutions, Recommendations, and Opinions adopted at Malaga-Torremolinos and what were the financial difficulties the ITU faced so as to propose adequate measures to improve cooperation activities. Delegates from developing countries called upon the Secretary-General to prepare detailed reports. The representative from India put forth a proposal, subsequently approved, calling for the establishment of a "Working Party to Study the Future of Technical Cooperation Activity by the ITU" to enable the Council to make a complete review of all aspects of technical cooperation with a view to submitting proposals to the next Plenipotentiary Conference, in preparation for the next Plenipotentiary Conference.112 An informal open-ended Working Group will be set up in 1979. The future of technical cooperation was also on the agenda Of the Conference on Technical Cooperation among Developing Countries (TCDC) held at Buenos Aires in September 1978. The —_--—-—-—----————-—— 112See Doc. 5275/CA33 (1978), p. 5 and Doc. 5277/CA33 (1978) (India’s proposal). 162 Conference’s goal was to help advance the establishment of the new international economic order (NIEO). The main objectives may be summarized as follows: a) to encourage national self-reliance by increasing the creative capacity of the developing countries for the purpose of enabling them to solve their development problems in the light of their own values and their specific needs; b) to promote collective self-reliance by sharing and pooling the developing countries’ resources and capacities; c) to define joint positions for the developing coun—~ tries and strengthen their negotiating abilities in their economic relations with the advanced countries; d) to take full advantage of existing institutions and possibilities and of the resources available for international cooperation by ensuring maximum efficiency and economy in the use of these resources.113 The Conference, to which the ITU actively participated, unanimously adopted the "Buenos Aires Plan of Action for Promo- ting and Implementing TCDC." The Plan proposed that developed countries and their institutions should base their voluntary contributions to operational programs of the United Nations development system; provide financial support on a voluntary basis to technical cooperation between two or more developing countries, accelerate the process of untying their aid resources, and in their economic and technical cooperation activities give the priority to TCDC in intercountry projects and programs. UNDP was also called upon to revise its policies in order to adapt —‘-—-———————_——--—_- 113Doc. 5312/CA34 (1979). 163 them to future activities. The Conference was important in that it urged governments of developing countries to be more actively involved in setting priorities in national development agenda. The developed members of the ITU had consistently asked their less endowed counterparts to give more careful consideration to telecommunication matters in their overall development planning as a way to alleviate some of the difficulties encountered while approaching financial institutions. A more forceful commitment to telecommunication development might entice UNDP to earmark more resources to projects in this field. The ITU’s Secretary-General lost no opportunity to carry this message to the TCDC Conference. 1978 had been marked by a slow recovery in the level of cooperation afforded by the ITU. This was the message heard by many delegates at the 1979 session of the Administrative Council. The Union began to regard rural telecommunications as a matter of priority and a world-wide project on rural telecommunications was being planned to consider fundamental guidelines.114 At the same session, the United States submitted a Draft Resolution on the terms of reference of the Working Party on the future of ITU Technical Cooperation which should work during the four Administrative Council sessions leading to the 1982 Plenipo- tentiary Conference. The terms of reference were stated as follows: -——————————-—-—--—-- 114Doc. 5366/CA34 (1979). 164 - to review the technical cooperation activities of the permanent organs of the Union in all their forms, and to assess the extent to which these have served to fulfil the purposes of the Union as embodies in No. 19 of the Convention;115 - to study the costs borne by the ITU for such activi— ties and to identify the difficulties encountered in optimizing their benefits, as well as the problems due to insufficiency of funds, and to recommend measures for effecting improvements; - to review the work of the Union as the executing agency for telecommunication projects financed under the United Nations Development Program and to suggest possible measures for making it even more effective; - to examine whether the existing arrangements for reimbursement of costs to the ITU as the executing agency for telecommunication projects financed by UNDP are adequate and to suggest revived criteria, if necessary, for handling the work more efficiently; - to examine possible alternative methods for making available to the Union additional financial resources, which can be devoted to technical cooperation and assistance activities, under the Union’s own control, and to make suitable recommendations; - to examine the manner in which the Funds~in~Trust are draw upon by the Union for rendering technical assis- tance and to recommend measures for more efficient utilization of these funds; - to examine whether the ITU can play any useful role in respect of bilateral and multilateral programs for technical cooperation and assistance in the field of telecommunications concluded by Member countries.116 It had been said earlier that radio matters were of critical importance to the developing countries since radiocommunication 115A No. 19 of the International Telecommunication Conven~ tion, 1973, states that one of the purposes of the Union is to "foster the creation, development and improvement of telecom- munication equipment and networks in developing countries by every means at its disposal, especially its participation in the appropriate programs of the United Nations." 116Doc. 5377/CA34 (1979). 165 was a substitute for not yet developed terrestrial wired telepho— ne networks. This was illustrated by the insistence of developing countries to safeguard and expand the work of IFRB. CHAPTER 8 1979-1981: TECHNICAL COOPERATION REVISITED World Administrative Radio Conference The World Administrative Radio Conference (WARC) which opened in September 1979 was therefore important in that it represented the culmination of years of prior efforts and reflected the concerns and expectation of the world telecommuni— cation community. The 1ast such general conference had occurred in 1959. Its importance was heightened by the fact that it represented a forum as large as the Plenipotentiary Conferences and developing countries, by their sheer number, would be more effective in shaping up its agenda than in smaller meetings. One of the pre-WARC 79 conferences was the Telecommunication Coordinating Meeting of the Non-Aligned Countries for the Preparation of WARC 79 held in May of that year at Yaounde (Cameroon). It adopted a number of proposals that were considered beneficial to the developing countries. An ad hoc group was created to meet on occasion to "bring out common or coordinated points of view."117 The opening of the Conference was characterized by an unprecedented struggle over the chairmanship that lasted a week. The meeting of the Non-Aligned Countries which was held in Havana a few weeks earlier had decided that the chairman of WARC 79 should come from a developing nation. The Western bloc, under the 117See Codding and Rutkowski for further information on WARC 79 proceedings, pp. 71-80. 166 167 leadership of the United States, countered with pro-Western candidates. Finally, after a series of fruitless confrontations, the head of the Argentinean delegation was accepted by both sides. Twenty years had elapsed since the first WARC in 1959. The 1979 gathering was important in that it was the closest thing to a Plenipotentiary; large conferences had historically advantaged the Third World constituency. It was, moreover, the first technical meeting where the developing countries faced their industrialized counterparts in a common front to advance their objectives. These objectives were different from those of the developed countries. Whereas the agenda of the technologically-advanced countries included the allocation of radio frequency bands for the opera- tion of new satellite and terrestrial communication services, that of the developing countries was primarily to question the historical decision-making process regarding the allocation of radio frequencies. In particular, these countries challenged the "first come, first served" policy which presided so far over the allotment of geostationary orbital slots on the ground that it might jeopardize the future use of satellites for their national development as there may not be anymore slot left when they will be in a position to operate their own satellites.118 Colombia 118The geostationary orbit is the only equatorial orbit on which satellites can provide terrestrial locations with 24-hour communication services. With the ability to accommodate only a limited number of satellites, this orbit is thus a scarce resource. 168 even proposed that the equatorial countries assume sovereignty over that part of the geostationary orbit located in their space.119 In addition, the developing countries wanted to reserve for themselves large numbers of high—frequency bands—~portions of the radio spectrum that the industrialized countries wished to use for specialized telecommunication services--needed to operate their shortwave fixed service networks, a substitute to the underdeveloped telephone systems. Where planning mechanisms were not sought, the developing countries demonstrated their ingenuity by drawing upon various preferential treatment norms adopted in many other international forums during the decade. The outcome of WARC 79 as far as technical cooperation is concerned was the adoption of six specific Resolutions and one Recommendations reviewed at the 35th session of the Administra— tive Council in 1980 who was asked to submit to the next Council session a study of ways and means to implement them. The Recom- mendations relate to the development of national radio frequency management, the introduction and development of computer assis- tance in radio frequency management within administrations, technical cooperation with the developing countries in maritime telecommunications and in the study of propagation in tropical areas, the role of telecommunications in integrated rural development, international cooperation and technical assistance 119Doc. 196/WARC 79. The equatorial countries are Colombia, Congo, Ecuador, Gabon, Kenya, Uganda and Zaire. 169 in the field of space communications. The Recommendation relates to a handbook for computer-aided techniques in radio frequency management.120 Codding notes that, "the import of WARC 79 was its display of the respective skills, needs, and power of developed versus developing nations, and the ability of the ITU to serve as a useful forum for negotiated international agreements."121 Relations With UNESCO In 1977, the ITU had formalized its collaboration with UNESCO and the two sister organizations have prepared a report for the 33rd session of the UN General Assembly. The subsequent years, the relations strengthened. UNESCO had been involved for some times with literacy campaigns as well as with the design of educational programs for the rural population. Telecommunication support services were increasingly being seen as essential for the implementation of these programs. UNESCO’s interest in telecommunications was an underlying element in the establishment of the International Commission for the Study of Communication Problems. The Commission met between 1977 and 1979 under the chairmanship of Mr. Sean MacBride and presented its final report Many Voices, One World in 1980. The Intergovernmental Conference for Cooperation on Activi- ties, Needs and Programs for Communication Development, held in 12°For further description, see Res. 5, 7, 15, 16, 37, 316; Rec. 31 in Doc. 5467/CA35 (1980), 121Codding and Rutkowski, p. 51. 170 Paris in April 1980, was attended by ITU representatives. The discussions centered on the enlargement of the concept of commu- nication (previously in UNESCO more or less confined to mass media) with a new concept of social communications being referred to but, as yet undefined. Obviously, taken with the interest and complexity associated with transfer of information and with communications in all of its ramifications, social communications could have a much wider functional role of interest to many organizations, and not merely confined to any one institution such as UNESCO. In any event, the ITU stressed the Union’s basic responsibility in the UN system in regard to the means of distribution and associated telecommunications infrastructure, as well as coordination with other agencies in the UN system. Significant recommendations of interest to the ITU were adopted by consensus by the Conference. Member states were called upon: - to contribute to the creation and consolidation of appropriate systems of communication at the material and logistic levels, taking into account the require- ments of endogenous development; - to identify the priority areas in national investment plans and communication development programs which justify support and financing by competent national or international bodies; -to give highest priority to the creation or develop- ment of the national and regional infrastructures which are necessary for communication, to the improvement of professional and technical training as well as to the setting up of production structures to ensure a more balanced exchange of information and cultural products; International and regional organizations were asked: - to intensify their reciprocal c00peration with a view to the more effective utilization of their existing or 171 potential human and material resources, in the communi— cation development field, in support of the common aims which those organizations pursue; - to provide additional resources to information and communication development programs and to support efforts made by developing countries to set up infras- tructures and facilitates for social communication, telecommunication or informatics which will enable them to transmit or receive information of all kinds at an acceptable cost.122 Most importantly, the Conference decided to establish an International Program for the Development of Communication (IPDC), which was formalized by a Resolution at the let session of the UNESCO General Conference in Belgrade, 1980, implemented by an Intergovernmental Council. IPDC’s objectives were a concrete articulation of the above principles and a response to the call for a New World Information Order (NWIO), a controver- sial subject that dominated UNESCO forums. One of IPDC’s objecti- ves was "to strengthen cooperation and coordination activities of UNESCO with other specialized agencies concerned, especially with the International Telecommunication Union."123 With the Organization for Economic Cooperation and develop— ment (OECD)--an international body with a membership restricted to the industrialized countries, the ITU has embarked on a project to clarify the "public good" contribution of telecommuni- cation investment in the rural and isolated areas. There was already evidence of some interesting trade-offs. This initial 122See CC-80/CONF.212/DR.8 contained in ITU Doc.5495/CA35 (1980), Annex 6. 123Ibid., p. 5. 172 study was to meet the particular need of UNESCO. It is recalled that the establishment of the IPDC was due to the initiative of the United States who wanted to deflect attempts made by some developing countries to have UNESCO take a series of stringent measures to redress the perceived imbalance in information flow between developed and developing countries. These measures were judged to be inimical to the interests of the Western industrialized nations. It is no surprise that the US delegate in the Administrative Council expected that the ITU would participate on an equal footing with UNESCO in the UNDP’s Intergovernmental Council. For different reasons, the Soviet Union and nations within its sphere of influence were also pushing for a close collaboration with UNESCO in the implementa- tion of IPDC objectives. Unlike the Western nations, they resolutely sided with the developing countries in their attempts to establish a new world information order. There was a question as to why another agency had been able to take action in a matter involving the ITU. According to the delegate from India, there was a feeling in UNESCO circles that the ITU had not responded sufficiently to the needs of the developing world.124 It should be noted that for the first time in ITU’s history, the important Committee 3 (Technical Cooperation) was chaired by a representative from a developing country, Senegal. His election coincided with the African Telecommunications Conference and, more importantly, the launching of the Plan of Action for the 124noc. 5561/CA35 (1980). 173 United Nations Transport and Communications Decade in Africa. This set of circumstances put the African continent on the forefront of ITU’s preoccupations. The main objective of the African Telecommunications Conference was to provide a forum for all interested parties to review the progress of the all-important PANAFTEL project and to define the objectives, targets, and strategies for the develop- ment of telecommunications during the second phase of the Decade (1983-1987). The timing of the Conference was opportune since the decisions and recommendations will help to give a definitive direction to the formulation of projects for the UNDP’s Third Regional Program for Africa (1982-1986).125 Difficulties in Financing ITU’s Cooperation Activities (Cont’d) Each year the Administrative Council is informed of the total value of technical cooperation projects implemented by the Union and of the income received by the Union to defray the cost of the activities undertaken by the Technical Cooperation Department in support of these projects. Although the level of technical cooperation project activities has shown an appreciable increase in recent years with consequent increases in the dollar value of projects implemented, the level of support cost received from the UNDP in terms of Swiss francs has fallen far short of actual expenditure. The level of income had been adversely affected by the strength of the Swiss currency in relation to the 125For further information, see Doc. 5617/CA36 (1981). 174 US dollar which has increased the budget deficit of the Technical Cooperation Department. Each year the ITU had submitted a formal request to the UNDP for reimbursement of the support cost deficit incurred during the previous year. The ITU, however, does not qualify for support cost flexibility arrangement (that would cover unusually signifi- cant exchange rate fluctuations), applied by UNDP to executing agencies with project expenditures not exceeding US $10 million. This was a matter of great concern to the ITU. Following conside- ration of new, more limiting UNDP guidelines that would reduce the reimbursement rate of annual project support costs from 14 percent to 13 percent, the ITU together with all other agencies which have suffered from the appreciation of the currency of their headquarters locations in relation to the US dollar, categorically stated that they could not accept the basic premise by UNDP that no compensation for losses already sustained had been envisaged by the Governing Council. The circumstances which led ITU to take this very firm stand have been described in detail over a number of years. The Technical Cooperation Department of the Union is staffed at a modest level considering the program of activities being execu- ted. There has been no growth in the number of staff since 1973. The value of the projects implemented by the Union has grown by a factor of three over the period 1973-1980 and the number of projects administered have almost doubled during this time. Income from support costs over the same period, in terms of Swiss 175 francs, has remained substantially static. However, costs, and staff costs in particular, have escalated at a substantial rate, well beyond the capacity of the Union to absorb the extra expenses involved. The Administrative Council was invited to express its concern that decision being taken by inter-governmen- tal bodies of the UN system external to the ITU will result in additional financial obligations being placed on the Union if the existing level of technical cooperation activities is to be maintained or increased.126 The industrialized countries were adamant in their opposi— tion to draw upon the ITU’s ordinary budget to solve the problem. They suggested that time had come for the Administrative Council to subject the budget of the Technical Cooperation Department to careful scrutiny and conduct a thorough review of arrangements for the organization of the Department, something which had never been done. The Department should reduce its overheads and make a selection among the various projects. They wished the Secretary-- General had devoted greater consideration to the invitation by ECOSOC and the UN General Assembly for executing agencies to review their working methods, arrangements, staffing, etc., with a view to making significant reductions in overall support costs. The developing countries feared that the Union might reduce its cooperation activities.127 125Doc. 5619/CA36 (1981)- 127Doc. 5677/CA36 (1981). 176 Candid Look at ITU Technical Cooperation Activities The Draft Report of the Working Group on the Future of ITU Technical Cooperation Activities was delivered at the 1982 session of the Administrative Council. This comprehensive document was critically important because ifwas the first time in the history of technical cooperation activities that the Union had been engaged in the exercise of reviewing its past performan— ce and in recommending courses of action. The document was also important by its timing; it was issued seven months prior to the convening in Nairobi of the Plenipotentiary Conference whose agenda will be dominated by technical cooperation items due to the large attendance from developing countries. It is, therefore, worth summarizing at some length the recommendations issued by the Working Group as they clearly reveal the sectoral shortcomings of the present organizational structure of the ITU.128 Funding for technical cooperation activities. The ITU should continue to participate in the UNDP as an executing agency given that its participation had proven to be of great help in assisting developing countries. As from 1982, UNDP will apply a new system of additional support cost reimbursements resulting from currency exchange fluctuations, under which the executing agencies such as the ITU will be required to absorb a 128Doc. 5758/CA37 (1982). In presenting these recommenda- tions, the Drafting Group did not strive for unanimity. They are possible recommendations arising from the group discussions. All the quotes in the following summary are contained in pp. 12-15 of the document. 177 percentage of the loss due to currency fluctuations. It was therefore recommended that the ITU should provide in its regular budget to cover the loss of the income in the Technical Coopera- tion budget. The role of the. Union as an executing agency of UNDP does not completely satisfy the needs of developing countries. For its technical cooperation activities, it relies solely on UNDP, an organization over whose development programs the ITU has no control. The Union should have its own technical cooperation program funded from its regular budget, so as to improve assistance, particularly to developing countries. In addition to voluntary contributions, the Special Fund for Technical Cooperation should be based on a percentage of the ordinary budget of the Union with a view to carrying out priority development projects. A substantial increase in the credit allocated to finance short-term specialist missions is recommen- ded since those have proved extremely useful in that they precisely meet the requirements at present expressed by benefici- ary countries in connection with specific and urgent problems. Persgnnel issues for technical cooperation. In continuation of the efforts already made to provide the Technical Cooperation Department with a number of permanent posts, it is recommended that as many additional posts as may be justified, at all levels, may be made permanent. The ITU should prepare a list of experts in various fields with member adminis- trations, whose services can be made available at short notice, with the view to using them for short expert missions or semi— 178 nars. The ITU should increase the staff of the Group of Engineers to cover not only conventional specialties such as switching, broadcasting, space radiocommunications, planning, management and organization, etc., but also the new telematic services; the members of the Group should continue to be highly specialized and experienced engineers. Publications. The cost of publications should be examined and fixed at a reasonable level so that they be accessible in sufficient numbers to the administrations of developing countries. Handbook on planning, maintenance, and operation of telecommunication systems should be kept up to date in order to assist the developing countries as reference texts. At the conclusion of a World or Regional Administrative Radio Conference, the IFRB should prepare a handbook to explain and illustrate in simple terms the deci- sions and the procedures adopted by the conference concerned. CCIs and IFRB issues. The CCIs should undertake all possible measures to improve the adaptation of current and future activities to the needs of the developing countries by: - publication of simplified versions of appropriate CCI texts; — joint preparation and organization of seminars and symposia. As far as possible, the documentation of the seminars should be sent to participants for prior study and analysis to permit the participating adminis- trations to derive maximum benefit from the seminars; - establishing Special Preparatory Meetings for Administrative Radio Conferences; 179 - setting up a Special Study Group (SSG) by each of the 0015, where all questions of specific and immediate concern to developing countries, though individually coming under the terms of reference of the different Study Groups (GAS), can be considered together. It would be necessary to ensure that experts from advanced countries who normally participate in the relevant regular GASs also participate in the $865. The CCIs should undertake all possible efforts to augment the possibilities which may ensure a more active participation of developing countries in the various activities of the CCIs by: - combination or sequential grouping of meetings of several related GASs and/or Working Parties; - organizing seminars relating to the activities of specific GASs in the various regions; — organization of meetings of specific Working Parties or GASs in one region if problems directly related to this region are dealt with. Training. Staff and material resources of the Training Division should be augmented to meet the urgent needs of the developing countries and to ensure the conduct of Course Development in Telecommunica- tions (CODEVTEL) activities on a worldwide basis, the'continua- tion of efforts, the consolidation of the results obtained by the ITU in developing bases for the establishment of training standards and the transfer of modern educational technology for vocational training in the developing countries. The IFRB should standardize and keep up-to-date its training programs so as to reflect specific desires of administrations and permit uniform application of the procedures of Radio Regulations by all administrations and particularly those of developing countries. 180 Regional activities. In the context of the increasing quantum and complexity of the technical cooperation and technical assistance tasks of the ITU at the regional level, it is necessary to make a beginning with the setting up of Regional Offices of the Union; such offices should be staffed at an adequate level and delegated sufficient authority to enable them to establish an effective regional presence of the Union in regard to the functions of all the organs of the Union. The duties, functions, and strength of the Union’s establishment at headquarters should be reviewed and revised accordingly. The Regional Offices, as proposed, should be provided with a complement of a group of experts in specific telecommunication disciplines so as to be able to respond promptly and meaningfully to the current and emerging needs of the respective regions. Greater emphasis should be given to the organization of regional seminars to reflect, and build up, better awareness of the work of all the technical organs of the Union; the subjects to be treated at these seminars should be of particular relevance to the regions. The Union should institute measures at the headquarters and in the proposed regional offices to facilitate exchange of experience and expertise, as also for transfer of technology among the developing countries within the region as well as between regions. This involves identification of specific areas of capability where TCDC would be fruitful and which can be determined through interaction between the Union and the adminis- 181 trations. Priorities for technical cogperation. Taking into account that the developing countries place on the list of priorities, as most important, the following tasks: - training in all activities connected with the development, operation, maintenance, management, etc., of telecommunication; - telecommunication in rural areas--concepts, ideas, and subsidiary activities; - transfer of technology; - elimination of disparities in the state of telecommu- nication taking into account the differences and peculiarities of each developing country; It is recommended that the ITU shall: - broaden the flow of information concerning the cooperation activities that can be provided; - lay special stress on solving the problems of cooperation in education and training on a full scale and at all levels. - provide adequate information to technicians and management personnel on aspects of telecommunication networks of all levels; - be guided in its activity in the area of technical cooperation by the necessity of achieving steady and equal progress in the development of technical telecom- munication structures for each of the countries within a region. Transfer of technology. The ITU should step up its efforts to assist impartially the developing countries in introducing modern technology by the following means: - improving the dissemination of technological informa- tion, particularly that concerning technology of relevance to the developing countries; 182 - promoting the standardization of telecommunication equipment and material; - assisting the developing countries to identify their overall telecommunication requirement, assess their own potential to absorb the technology proposed and draw up a national development policy in that area; - assisting the developing countries by planning the introduction of any new technology into their networks and industry. Rural telecommunications. Until now insufficient emphasis has been given to the importance of telecommunications as a stimulus to development, particularly in rural areas; rural telecommunications make for greater stability in rural settlements, thus avoiding the major migratory movements experienced at present, and could help gradually to convert them into economically useful sectors: - the ITU should show the way and support studies which demonstrate the vital impact of telecommunications on the development of rural areas; and at the same time encourage recognized Private Operating Agencies and telecommunication equipment manufacturers to take an interest in such development and supply telecommunica- tion equipment which meets the needs of the developing countries (emphasis in text); - the ITU Technical Cooperation Department should take the necessary steps to offer direct advice which contributes to the construction of the rural telecomm- unication networks needed for the development of rural areas; - the ITU with the assistance of member administrations should encourage private companies and manufacturers dealing in telecommunications and electronics to provide assistance in the development of, in particu- lar, rural telecommunications networks in developing countries. Finally, the report calls for an improvement in the amount of coordination at the General Secretariat level and the perma- 183 nent organs in matters of technical cooperation in the interest of the Union and for the efficient delivery of such activities to the developing countries. The document was approved for submis- sion to the forthcoming Plenipotentiary Conference. In accordance with a request made at the Administrative Council session the previous year, the Secretary-General submit- ted at this year’s Council session his report of "Organization and Methods of the Technical Cooperation Department." This report was intended to provide a thorough and comprehensive view of technical cooperation activities at ITU headquarters, the first ever conducted, without duplicating arguments already taken into consideration by the Working Group on the Future of ITU Technical Cooperation Activities. The main conclusions of the report can be summarized as follows: 1) Between 1973 and 1981 the technical cooperation program comprising all the projects which ITU has implemented, rose from roughly 10 to 40 million dollars. The reorientation of filed requirement during the period under report created an increasedburden on the headquarters’ level in connection withthe administration, monitoring of projects andprovision of technical backstopping. 2) The number of posts in the Department has not increased since 1973 in line with restrictions imposed to combat the shortfall in income forsupport costs owing to the unfavorable dollar-Swissfranc exchange rate. 3) The continuous assessment of the Department’s work has confirmed the validity of its present structure and organization and highlighted the staff’s motiva tion. Nevertheless, the growth in activities together with the increased complexity of projectsdo present prob— lems, particularly as regards qualityof work since priority is given to activitiespermitting the budget to be balanced. 184 The guidelines and measures already adopted or to be completed as a result of the continuous assessment of the Department’s work and the proposals formulated by outside consultants relate to improvement in procedures and standards, management statistics and data, recruitment of experts, fellow— ships, and equipment.129 Given the lack of time to discuss the report and the number of controversial proposal it contained, it was decided that it would not be submitted at the Plenipotentiary Conference. Subsequent discussions reveals that the areas of the Union’s cooperation activities most affected by the shortage of funds was that of regional experts. In the past three years, UNDP had provided the ITU with supplementary funding for additional experts, but the Governing Council had abolished the posts of all four regional experts in the third UNDP programming cycle (1982-1986).130 The CODEVTEL (Course Development in Telecommunication) project was well under way and performed at the general satisfac- tion of the beneficiary countries. The training standards put forward in the Training Development Guidelines produced by the project had a considerable impact on course development methods in the countries visited by the missions. Concerns were raised, however, about it continuation. UNDP had financed the pilot projects initiated in 1975 and because of its success had agreed 129See Doc. 5816/CA37 (1983)- 13°Doc. 5851/CA37 (1982). 185 to finance the second phase, but he resources available for global projects in contrast to those available for national or regional projects, were very limited. Despite the Union’s urgent appeals for financial support in the new phase after 1982, the reply from UNDP so far had been that credits would not be available and there was not much likelihood of that position being modified. India expressed regret at the virtual total non-participa- tion of industrialized countries although most of the courses related to equipment imported from them. The Union ought to insist on manufacturers providing training courses within the CODEVTEL framework for the operation and maintenance of equipment at the time when it was being provided. Great Britain and other developed countries recognized the complementarity of interests between them and buyers of their products. To some extent, ITU-administered cooperation programs were being used a showcases for telecommunication equipment. ,, "—". The Soviet Union, which has consistently claimed that the ITU and all other UN specialized agencies should aim at fighting colonialism and ensure the political and economic independence of developing countries, has always feared that this "showcase" policy would helped expand Western manufacturers’ markets in the developing countries and, thus, perpetuate dependent relations. To the developing countries, the "showcase" aspect of cooperation meant, foremost, an added responsibility on the part of the industrialized nations to increase their level of assistance 186 which might be translated in them taking over the financing of CODEVTEL if UNDP funding is discontinued.131 131Doc. 5856/CA37 (1982)- CHAPTER 9 1982-1985: MILESTONE FOR THE DEVELOPING COUNTRIES The sixth ITU Plenipotentiary Conference opened September 1982 at Nairobi. Since the previous Plenipotentiary (Malaga-Tor- remolinos), nine years ago, there have been numerous changes in the world community and in the UN system which have affected the ITU. In 1974 the UN General Assembly adopted a declaration about the establishment of a new international economic order (NIEO) and a program of action for its implementation. This program looks for the transformation of the economies of developing countries by giving those countries a substantial share in world industrial production and trade. It calls for measures to make developing countries technologically self-sufficient. Two commissions have been the focus for attention: the Brandt Commission, which described the great disparities between rich ahdeoor countries and formulated a development strategy for the 19803, and the MacBridew Commission, which assessed the imbalances and differences between developed and developing countries in the field of communications. At the UNESCO General Conference (Belgrade, 1980) the final report of the MacBride Commission was debated and an International Program for the Development of Communication (IPDC) was approved. It called for the need to strengthen the coordination of activities in the field of information and communication of UNESCO with other UN specialized agencies and in particular with the ITU. 188 189 Alongside the growing insight and awareness of the great disparities between the countries of the world, the global economic recession has contributed to increase the differences and to make it more difficult to bring about concrete actions to ease the situation, especially for the least developed countries. The value of UNDP assistance provided to developing countries has fluctuated a great deal since 1973. There has been a downward trend in telecommunication investment supported by multilateral aid authorities. One of the most striking aspects of the Nairobi Plenipoten- tiary was the number of delegates who participated--a1most 900 from 157 member countries. During the period 1973-1982, 17 countries became members of the ITU--all developing countries. They naturally expected to have a part of the ITU activities devoted to their needs. The Conference produced 76 Resolutions, one Recommendation, and three Opinions. Decisions taken streng- thened the rules in the International Telecommunication Conven- tion about technical cooperation activities performed by the permanent organs of the ITU. Some of the developed countries, however, were of the opinion that development cooperation should not become a primary task of the ITU.132 A representative of a developing country, Senegal, was 132For more information about the general atmosphere of the Nairobi Plenipotentiary Conference, see Ruben Naslund, "ITU Conference in Nairobi: Confrontation or mutual understanding?" Telecommunications Policy (June 1983), pp. 100-110, and George A. Codding, Jr. "The Changing Nature of the ITU Plenipotentiary," Telecommunications Policy (December 1983), pp. 317-325. 190 chosen to chair the all-important Committee 6 (Technical Coopera- tion). In an apparent attempt to deflect the anticipated pressu- res by developing countries to require that the various elements of technical cooperation activities be covered by the ITU’s regular budget, the United States submitted to the conference a resolution calling for a review of the overall management and operations of the technical cooperation activities of the Union by an independent study team, convinced that significant improve- ments can be made to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of existing programs, thereby achieving more benefit for the same costs. A report on the Technical Cooperation Department operations had been presented earlier that year at the Administrative Council but it excluded two major aspects of cooperation activi- ties dealing with operation outside of Geneva, particularly: 1) regional presences and the relationship of ITU field personnel and developing countries to the Geneva operation and, 2) the constraints under which the ITU conducts its TC activities as required by UNDP. In addition, the Working Group to Study the Future of ITU Technical Cooperation Activities had issued its report which did not contain any critical analysis of the effectiveness of current programs and no clear indication of priorities. By reviewing cost accounting, regional relations, budget, and operation, the proposed independent report would not overlap with the previous ones.133 133Doc. 163/PC 1982. 191 As anticipated, the search for alternative sources of financing became the subject of numerous discussions. Tanzania noted that Resolution 21 of the Malaga-Torremolinos Plenipoten- tiary establishing the Special Fund for Technical Cooperation had been poorly implemented. The level of contributions was "disap- " Some countries, developed and developing, had pointedly low. indeed made generous efforts, but there were others--again, developing as well as developed—~which, on account of their relatively favorable economic situation, could have contributed. The objectives of Resolution 19 calling for Special Measures for the Least Developed Countries had not been achieved either. Contributions to the Special Fund, which was supposed to finance the development of telecommunication services in those countries, were too meager to make a positive impact. The Soviet Union was of the opinion that Resolution 19 was directed mainly to the capitalist countries since it bore no responsibility for the worsening situation in the developing world. The underlying cause of the present situation in the LDCs was the disastrous effects of the economic crisis in the Western world. A glance at the United Nations list of least developed countries showed that they were those that had suffered most grievously from colonialism, neo-colonialism and the disruption of the capitalist system.134 Many developing countries were somewhat disturbed at the ITU’s response pattern to their problems. Every time they would 13“Doc. 267/PC 1982, p. 5. 192 call for help, the Union responded by setting a group which would prepare a report that generally felt far short of proposing detailed, concrete, and manageable solutions. In the words of the Argentinean delegate, these meetings "had given rise to no more than high-sounding resolutions and special funds without any credit allocations." This criticism was obviously directed to the donors, namely the industrialized countries that initiated these reports, who acted as if 'they were temporizing. For example, regarding the least developed countries, at Nairobi Plenipoten- tiary Conference, the developed countries succeeded in doing little more than reiterating Resolution 19 (adopted at Malaga-— Torremolinos in 1973) in the form of a new Resolution 27 "Special Measures for the Least Developed Countries," and reducing the annual membership contribution for LDCs from one half to one eighth of a unit. Many delegations underlined that the ITU was in urgent need of a coherent policy. From the standpoint of the developed countries, the govern- ments of the developing countries were not sufficiently aware of the importance of telecommunication in their national economy which resulted in a lack of commitment in seeking alternative financing scheme. To which the delegate of India responded that if developing countries had to choose between bread and telecommunication, they would choose the former and it was then the FAO which would benefit from UNDP resour- ces. The fact that governments did not include telecom- munications among their priorities in the UNDP program should not be used as an excuse not to have a ITU telecommunication development program.135 135Doc. 374/PC 1982, p. 7. 193 The ITU was in the process of completing a series of case studies, jointly conducted with the OECD, aimed at providing a detailed assessment of the contribution of telecommunication to development, in particular to rural development. The countries which were most in need of technical assistance were the least aware of the importance of telecommunications economic develop- ment and social progress. That is why the United Nations had proclaimed 1983 "World Communication Year," with the ITU as the leading agency for implementing it. The agenda of Committee 6 was dominated by the discussion of the Working Group report on the future of ITU technical coopera- tion. Developing countries were making headway. The idea accord- ing to which the entire technical cooperation activities, including the Special Fund, ‘should be supported by the ITU’s regular budget gained momentum as it was articulated by an increasing number of countries. The developed countries began to realize that outright opposition to such a proposition had to be balanced with proposi- tions of their own. A more effective use of existing resources on the part of the Union could go some way in relieving the tensions but was obviously not sufficient. It may be that industrialized countries recognized that UNDP was not going to increase its financial commitment to the ITU in view of UNDP’s diminishing resources. 1981 contributions to UNDP had dropped 6 percent compared to 1980 and in 1982, 1 percent compared to 1981. That was a far cry from the objective 194 laid down by the Governing Council which had envisaged an annual increase of 14 percent. The delegate of Great Britain was surprised that just under 2 percent of the UNDP budget went to the telecommunication sector while his country devoted 10 percent of its capital investment to it. There was the realization that the UNDP was meant to be no more than a catalyst in the study of urgent development problems and the promotion of bilateral and multilateral cooperation. On the other hand, recent economic studies highlighted inw' greater depth that the development of telecommunication was a prerequisite for overall development in all countries. These findings made them more aware of the fact that assisting develop- ing countries in the building up of telecommunication infrastruc- tures would produce long-term benefits for the donor countries as well by expanding product markets.136 A group of Western nations submitted a draft Resolution "Research on the Interrelation between Telecommunication Infrastructure and Development," aimed at providing impetus for additional quantitative studies,1§7 (see Table 4). Kenya voiced the concern of many by arguing that, although most of the deliberations had focused on the UNDP, the latter should not be allowed to hold up the work of the ITU. Once projects were operational they were no longer of priority interest to UNDP: 136Doc. 299/PC 1982. 13'7Doc. 325/PC 1982. 195 An activity that had matured to a great extent should become an activity in its own right. The ITU had given birth to a baby called "technical cooperation," it is now time that it should be properly structured and appropriately provided with resources to stand on its own.138 TABLE 4 Distribution of the World’s Telephones, Population; Incomegsand Telephone Density X of World 8 of World Telephone 8 of World Regions Population Income per 100 Telephone U.S.A.+Canada 6,1 26,2 75,4 43,2 Japan 2,8 10,1 52,0 11,8 Europe 12,0 35,8 44,4 32,5 U.S.S.R. 6,8 10,0 9,9 4,9 Africa 10,4 2,9 0,8 0,4 Asia 53,7 9,2 2,2 3,3 Latin America 8,2 5,8 5,5 3,9 Sources: Sauders, et. al., op._cit., p. 6; The Missing link, pp. 103-105. Committee 4 (Finances of the Union) was naturally discussing similar matters. Peru and Algeria formally proposed that techni- cal cooperation be supported by the ITU’s ordinary budget. A tally showed that 12 delegations opposed the idea and 33 suppor- ted it. The Soviet Union, an unlikely ally of the Western nations in its adamant opposition to this move, observed: 138Ibid., p. 8. 196 Under the present Convention, the purpose of the Union was to enhance communication between peoples by improving the effectiveness of telecommunication networks; to include technical cooperation activities in the ordinary budget would be radically to change the thrust of ITU activities.139 To Indonesia, however, "the majority of developing countries were now judging the sincerity of the developed countries on the subject of technical cooperation and assistance." The mood was confrontational over the level of increase in the 1983 budget devoted to technical cooperation. Algeria introduced an idea that worried some industrialized countries and may have accounted for their willingness to respond to the developing countries’ concern by introducing the two Resolutions examined next. It was sugges— ted that reductions could be made in CCI activities, which represented 68 percent of the program of conferences and meet- ings. The delegate noted that the developing countries contribu- ted one-fifth of that sum, which amounted to technical coopera- tion in reverse, since it was the developed countries, as equipment manufacturers, that benefited most directly from CCI activities. Unwillingly, therefore, he could accept some reduc- tion in the CCI program as a trade-off for the expansion of technical cooperation activities, otherwise it would become necessary to review the basis of contribution by members or adopt a voluntary base for the participation of developing countries in CCI activities.14° 13gDoc. 396/PC 1982, p. 5. 140Doc. 485/PC 1982, p. 3. 197 Committee 6 seemed to be moving toward the inclusion in the Union’s budget of a list of specific technical cooperation activities and of appropriate arrangement for their funding. It is at this juncture that a group of Western industrialized and developing countries submitted a resolution calling for the establishment of a "Special Voluntary Program for Technical Cooperation." This proposal can be seen as the most prominent outcome of the Plenipotentiary Conference.”1 It resolves: to set up a special voluntary program for technical cooperation based on contributions in currency, training services, or in any other form to meet the telecommunications needs of developing countries, and urges member countries, their recognized private Operating agencies (RPOAs), scientific and industrial organizations ($105), and other entities and organizations: to make available directly or through the ITU or other appropriate body the technical cooperation in any form required to meet more effectively the telecommunica- tions needs of the developing countries. A group of developing countries proposed some amendments to the above proposal in a view to strengthen its commitment to cooperation. In particular, a sentence was added which called for "narrowing the ever increasing gap between the developing and developed countries to achieve a new world economic order."1“2 141Doc. 219/PC 1982. The countries are West Germany, the United States, Japan, Great Britain, Greece, Singapore, Bangla- desh, Botswana, Cyprus, Ghana, Guyana, Jamaica, Lesotho, Uganda, Philippines, Tanzania, Trinidad and Tobago, Lebanon. 142Doc. 250/PC 1982. 198 The Historical Move of the Developed Countries Ten days later, it was the turn of West Germany, Japan, Great Britain, the United States, and Philippines to propose an amendment of historical importance since it would provide the basis for the establishment of the Independent Commission for World-Wide Telecommunications Development which will be subsequ- ently embodies in a Resolution.143 It called for the setting up before the next meeting of the Administrative Council of a Special Commission of the highest decision makers in industry, operating agencies, and administrations from both the developed and developing worlds and representatives from key financial institutions such as the World Bank, UNDP and private banks with the following remit: a) to examine the totality of the existing and possible future relationships between countries involving technical cooperation and a transfer of resources in order to identify the most successful methods of such transfer; b) to recommend a range of methods including novel and as yet untried ones for stimulating telecommunication development in the developing world in ways which serve the interests of governments, operating companies, the public, and specialized user groups in the developing world and of the public and private sector in the developed world; c) to consider the most cost-effective way in which the ITU could stimulate and support the range of activities envisaged; d) to report by the end of 1983--Wor1d Communication Year--at the latest.144 1“:*Doc. 367/PC 1982. 1““‘Doc. 291/PC 1982. 199 To Great Britain, its main sponsor, the Special Commission should be established with a similar status to that of the Brandt Commission, whose task would be "to overcome the bottlenecks in the transfer of resources, by confronting the Special Voluntary Program’s limits, political will, and bureaucratic inertia." The Special Voluntary Program was a clear improvement over the Special Fund which had been created in 1973. Whereas indus- trialized countries such as Australia saw the concept of special voluntary arrangements as the only practical way of making a significant effort to narrow the gap between countries at various stages of development, developing countries like Indonesia stated that the importance of the Voluntary Program could not be over-emphasized and not seen as a substitute for the duties of the ITU’s permanent organs.1"5 In line with the spirit of the Program, the United States announced the establishment of the U.S. Telecommunications Training Institute (USTTI), entirely financed by private funds. The US administration under President Reagan was calling upon the private sector, at home and abroad, to play a greater role in development initiative so as to diminish governmental involve— ment. The United States warned that it might move away from multilateral arrangement such as the Voluntary Program, and increased bilateral assistance if the ITU concluded it was necessary to have line items in the regular budget for technical cooperation. 145Doc. 489/PC 1982, p. 2. 200 Developing countries favored multilateral financing, particularly in light of the difficulties experienced in the past in respect of suppliers’ credits, conditions of grants and loans which depended on the political climate between the donor and the recipients, tied credit arrangements and, generally speaking, the limited ability of recipients to choose the technology and consultants they wanted. There was some resistance on the part of those countries and the Soviet Union, in particular to have the private sector assume such as important role in the Voluntary Program; The proposals for increased private investment in technical assistance constituted a radical change and demonstrated concern not for the interests of develo- ping countries but for those of private capital. The World Bank, well known for its non-democratic decision- making, was also involved in the trend.145 Australia introduced a document regarding the establishment of ITU regional offices. The idea has been quite unpopular in the past among the industrialized countries who feared that it would result in an increased financial burden on the Union’s budget. The document, however, listed measures tending to show that the cost of decentralization would be low given the savings which could be made at ITU headquarters. The principle of a regional presence was endorsed and a Resolution to that effect instructed the Secretary General, to carry out the necessary cost/benefit and organiza- tional studies, including that of the Technical Cooperation Department at the Union Headquarters, with an objective of achieving a strengthened regional 1"‘5Ibid., p. 6. 201 presence which will be as economical as possible and at the same time improve the effectiveness of the Union’s activities.147 Another item which figured prominently on the agenda of the Plenipotentiary Conference and of Committee 8 (Purposes, Composi- tion, Rights, Etc.) concerned the amendments to the Convention and, more broadly, the proposition to change it into a Charter. An in-depth examination of the issues at stake is provided in another part of the present study. Article 4 of the Convention was judged of sufficient importance to warrant a full-scale discussion in the Committee. Article 4 comprises two parts, the first relating to the purposes of the Union (Nos. 12 to 14) and the second to its activities (Nos. 15 to 21). Previous Plenipotentiary Conferences had amended Article 4 by adding to the second part items related to assistan- ce to developing countries, but the first part had remained unchanged and did not specifically address the Union’s technical assistance to developing countries. Algeria, backed by Cameroon, proposed that one of the purposes of the Union listed in the first part of Article 4 refer explicitly to cooperation activities toward the developing countries. This major change would legitimize the use of the Union’s regular budget for supporting these activities, which had long been Algeria’s stand. While most countries, developed and developing, found it desirable to introduce into Article 4 the principle of fostering "technical assistance" to developing 1“"‘DT/68/PC 1982, p. 3. 202 countries, the industrialized nations wanted to restrict it to an activity (listed in the second part) and not one of the primary purposes of the organization. The industrialized countries judged it unacceptable. The Soviet Union had submitted a counter-- proposal involving the addition of a provision on technical assistance in the second part of Article 4 that found much agreement among the Western nations. But, in the word of the Algerian delegate, "the USSR proposal, supported by the wealthier countries, only reshuffled the text of the existing Convention without changing its substance."148 After lengthy debates, the Algerian proposal was narrowly defeated in committee by 28 votes to 26, with 9 abstentions. In Plenary meeting, however, the proposal was accepted. In a last note about, the Nairobi Plenipotentiary Conferen- ce, it should be noted that Richard Butler was elected Secretary- -General of the ITU because of its appeal to developing coun- tries, particularly his stand on technical cooperation activi- ties. In many respects, the developing countries offered a unified front which led them to take somewhat inflexible postu- res. This "radicalization" is illustrated in the fact that even though the incumbent Mr. Mili was from a developing country and had supported back in the 19605 developing countries’ attempts to make the Union more responsive to their needs, he was not considered to be any longer the developing country candidate due 1“BSee Doc. 431/PC 1982 and Doc. 505/PC 1982. 203 to his perceived lack of concern about LDC issues.”9 The Voluntary Program and the Independent Commission Beginning in 1983, the sessions of the Administrative will be monopolized by discussions‘ about telecommunications and socio-economic development, but most of all by the Special Voluntary Program for Technical Cooperation and the Independent Commission for World-Wide Telecommunications Development. The 1983 session of the Council began discussion on ways to implement the resolutions adopted at Nairobi. The Conference had expressed its willingness to pursue studies on "Telecommunication Infrastructure and Socio—Economic Development." A small "Socio— Economic Studies Unit" was created within the Technical Coopera- tion Department. A special cash contribution from the UNESCO- administered International Program for the Development of Commu- nication (IPDC) enabled the Union to continue and complete the ITU/OECD study subsequently published the same year under the title "Telecommunications for Development." Special attention was given to the preparation of this report as it would be of great use for the soon-to-be formed Independent Commission for World- Wide Telecommunications Development. The report was aimed principally at government and international economic planners, at senior management levels of telecommunication administrations and those whose task it is to decide upon the balance of funds to be 1“‘As reported in L. Milk, "United States Participation in the International Telecommunication Union: A Study of Policy Alternatives." Paper prepared for the US State Department, 1984. 204 devoted to the various sectors of the economy within developing countries.150 The objectives and guiding principles of the Special Voluntary Program for Technical Cooperation would be: a) to enhance a better sharing of resources in order to maximize benefits to all ITU members, particularly those in special need; b) to stimulate the development activities and foster a wider cooperation between the ITU donors and recipients of aid with a primary focus on the efforts of the developing countries to achieve self reliance; c) to ensure that technical cooperation activities are responsive to the needs and their delivery is time- 1y.151 Although sufficient time is required for the Program to gather momentum, activities had already been generated. Switzer- land had become the first country to initiate concrete measures as it decided to finance a telecommunication training project in Zimbabwe and contribute to the realization of Rwanda’s national rural telecommunications program. Finland had agreed to finance a pilot project aiming at promoting the integrated development of the rural network of Sri Lanka. West Germany had provided finance for the preparatory activities related to the Regional African satellite Communication System for African Development. Australia was co-financing a study of the benefits of telecommunications development in Vanuatu. The Independent Commission for World—Wide Telecommunications 15°Docs. 5948/CA38 and 6115/CA39 (1983). 15100c. 6126/CA39 (1983). 205 DevelOpment was given its organizational basis. Although it is voluntary and independent, it would require secretarial assis- tance assumed to be provided by the ITU. Unlike the MacBride Commission which was significantly funded from the regular budget of UNESCO, it was very improbable that the results of the appeal for voluntary funds which the Secretary-General has made would be sufficient to provide for the Commission to organize its work on identical lines as the MacBride Commission (even if it wished to do so), particularly in the engagement of a wide range of consultancy experts, round-tables, etc. It should, therefore, set up its own methods of work. The Council endorsed the list of candidates to serve on the Commission and identified the main issues it has to examine in order to fulfil its mandate. These are: a) the present state of telecommunications world-wide; b) the role of telecommunications in economic and social development; c) technology, including the available choices, the transfer of technology, local manufacture, research and development; d) internal organization and management, including training and maintenance; e) financing the expansion of telecommunications from both existing and possible novel sources of capital’ f) the role of international organizations.152 On another note, there was concern expressed regarding the accumulation of support costs which had not been reimbursed and 206 thus led to the continuing disagreement over the manner in which the problem should be solved. Developing and developed countries clashed on whether this deficit should be recouped by the ITU’s ordinary budget or not in view of UNDP’s refusal to increase allocations to the Union. The tendency reported in 1983 towards a slowing down of activity financed by UNDP became even more pronounced during the course of 1984, because of economic constraints and uncertainty in the UNDP general program arising from the fact that the approved (UNDP) growth in forecasts for the present program cycle was not realized. Towards the end of the year, however, there were some indications that the level of resources available to UNDP was beginning to level out and even to show a slight upturn, even after taking into account an allowance for inflation. The increased value of the dollar with respect to the Swiss franc was not, however, entirely able to compensate for the reduced availability of program funds and this led to continuing cons~ traint exercised in the headquarters of the Technical Cooperation Department, this in turn reflecting adversely on the implementa- tion of many projects. This lack of resources was reflected in the budgetary allocations made in favor of the least developed countries. Only 200,000 Sw. frs could be provided to implement the Nairobi Resolutions 27 and 32 "Special Assistance for the Least Developed Countries." A very meager amount considering that of the above sum, 100,000 Sw. frs. was earmarked the rehabilitation of Chad’s 207 telecommunication network. However, the Administrative Council was able to continue support to the CODEVTEL project. It is remembered that UNESCO had established an Internation— al Program for the Development of Communication (IPDC) in 1981 which led to recognition of the need for much closer liaison between the ITU and UNESCO. At its 1985 session, the Administra- tive Council identified four broad areas for which UNESCO/ITU liaison seems essential and should be strengthened: a) the technical evaluation of (i) telecommunication development projects to be submitted to the Intergo- vernmental Council of the IPDC through the ITU or (ii) IPDC approved projects which contain substantial telecommunication components; b) joint UNESCO/ITU development projects (e.g., the establishment and reinforcement of news agency networks such as the Pan African News Agency (PANA) and the Organization of Asia-Pacific News Agency (OANA) networks; c) UNESCO activities and projects which might touch upon or be concerned with substantive ITU activities (e.g., telecommunication tariff matters, communication infrastructure, teleinformatics, etc.). In particular, the Intergovernmental Informatics Program (IIP) could become as important a field of cooperation between UNESCO and the ITU as the IPDC; d) the presentation to the Intergovernmental Council of the IPDC, through the ITU, of development assistance projects on behalf of ITU members.153 Two features of ITU/IPDC/UNESCO cooperation required special attention. On the one hand, it had to be recognized that many of the projects submitted to the IPDC have a considerable telecommu- nication component, even through it is not explicit in the description that they provide telecommunication services or are 153Doc. 6332/CA40 (1985). 208 related to the provision of such services. On the other hand, the ITU had to be able to respond to greater involvement by UNESCO in data transmission matters. A Nairobi Plenipotentiary Resolution requested that appropriate credits be included in the ITU’s annual budget for maintaining liaison with the Intergovernmental Council, the Secretariat of the IPDC, and the UNESCO operational unit. Progress was noted regarding the Special Voluntary Program for Technical Cooperation. Obviously, the Program was much more successful in attracting contributions of all kind than its predecessor, the Special Fund for Technical Cooperation. In the first year since it became operational, more industrialized nations had committed resources to cooperation projects. In addition, $2,380,000 in cash contribution, $2,700,000 in equip- ment and services, and $10,000 in fellowships.154 By far, the most important item under review in ITU circles, in 1985, was the just-released Report of the Independent Commis- sion for World-Wide Telecommunication Development, entitled "The Missing Link." The Report was officially presented at the First World Telecommunications Development Conference, held in Arusha, Tanzania, in May of that year ubder the auspices of the ITU. The Conference was "special (neither Plenipotentiary nor administra- tive) as far as its terms of reference and objectives were concerned, and the only one of its type to be organized by the Union in the post-war period. It issued a number of recommen- 154Doc. 6292/CA40 (1985), p. 6. 209 dations and appeals to both developed and developing countries embodies in the ”Arusha Declaration on World Telecommunications Development."155 The Report is in many respects a milestone in the history of the ITU. It represents the fruit of more than 30 years of relentless efforts by the developing countries to bring their industrialized counterparts to recognized that technical coopera- tion may well be the primary purpose of the ITU. For the first time, the group of developed countries would be engaged in a massive and coordinated effort to help their less-endowed neighbors in building telecommunication networks. The Report is foremost the product of a political will. Sir Donald Maitland, the chairman of the Independent Commission, reminded its collea- gues that "our task is essentially political in character." The recommendations of the Report will undoubtedly be at the center of preoccupation of ITU meetings in years to come. For that reason, it is worth quoting them at some length.156 Under the headline "International Cooperation,” developing countries should consider pooling their purchases of appropriate equipment including terminals and components. When purchasing equipment, developing countries should ensure that the contract included commitments on the supply of spare parts, training, commissioning, post-installation and maintenance; 155For more information, see Doc. 6302/CA40 (1985) Addendum 156See The Missing Link, Report of the Independent Commis— sion for World-Wide Telecommunications Development, (Geneva: ITU, 1984); Chapter 10. \ \ 210 Under "Training," telecommunications operators in developing countries should review their training needs and resources, and prepare systematic training plans; that developing countries use the resources available through IPDC; that industrialized countries organize seminars to improve the qualifications of experts from developing countries; that the ITU supplement the catalogue of training opportunities with information about training opportunities in the private sector; and that operators and manufacturers consider how they can enhance the training opportunities they offer to developing countries; Under "Research and Development and Local Manufacture," the major regional and sub-regional political and economic organizations should consider as soon as possible how best R & D institutes might be establish- ed; developing countries should review the possibilities for local or regional manufacture. manufacturers in industrialized countries should consider the scope for cooperation with developing countries in local or regional manufacture; Under "Financing the Development of Telecommunications,” developing countries should review their development plans to ensure that sufficient priority is given to investment in telecommunications; developing countries should make appropriate provision for telecommunications in all projects for economic or social advance and include in their submissions a checklist showing that such provision is being made; in order to increase the flow of resources immediately, countries and international organizations with develop- ment assistance programs should give higher priority to telecommunications; those who provide international satellite systems should study urgently the feasibility of establishing funds to finance earth segment and terrestrial facili- ties in developing countries; as a means of reducing trade risks in the telecommuni- cations sector and the cost of insuring against these, industrialized countries should extend export/import 211 financing and insurance cover to suppliers of telecom— munications equipment. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) should consider including telecommunications in its proposal for multilateral guarantees against non-commercial risks. Where projects are financed in part by IBRD loans, finance agencies should consider cross-default arrange- ments as a form of insurance; member states of the ITU should consider setting aside a small portion of revenue from calls between develop- ing countries and industrialized countries to be devoted to telecommunications in developing countries or contributed for example to a fund to finance pre-investment costs; member state of the ITU, in collaboration with interna- tional finance agencies, should study the possibility of a revolving fund and of telecommunications invest- ment trusts as methods of raising funds for investment in telecommunications, with a view to putting these ideas into effect by the next Plenipotentiary Conferen- ce at the latest. The Secretary-General of the ITU, in the light of these recommendations, was asked to study the idea of an organization to coordinate the development of telecommunications world-wide (WORLDTEL) and submit his conclusion to the next Plenipotentiary Conference. The recommendation which, more than any other, was the focus of attention regards the establishment of a Center for Telecommunications Development. The Commission recommended that, as an immediate step to improve the present arrange- ments for assisting developing countries, a Center for Telecommunications development be established by the Administrative Council of the ITU during 1985. The Center would comprise a Development Policy Units, which would collect and analyze data on policies and expe- riences from around the world; a Telecommunications Development Service organized into teams of specialists to offer high caliber advice to developing countries on aspects of creating and operating an effective public network; and an Operations Support Group, which would provide assistance with specific projects. The work of the Center would complement the activities of the Technical Cooperation Department of the ITU. 212 The idea of the Center was also presented in the form of Draft Resolution 929. The Center established within the framework of the Union would operate "on the basis of voluntary funding and with its own separate and identifiable budget." It would have an Advisory Board whose guidelines would be, quote: a) to provide, within the policy guidelines laid down by the Administrative Council, necessary directions to the Center for its functioning; and to ensure that it is responsive to the needs and views of its potential contributors and beneficiaries; b) to mobilize the resources required for the advisory services of the Center to meet in coordination with the Technical Cooperation Department, the needs of develop- ing countries and to ensure that an adequate part of those resources is available on a stable and continuing basis; c) to establish a biennial program and resources budget, keeping in view the imperative need for optimum utilization of all the resources available; d) to oversee generally the working of the Center; e) to recommend to the Secretary—General the appoint- ment of suitable persons of eminence as Executive Director and Deputy Executive Director of the Center; f) to ensure close and effective coordination of its activities with those of the Technical Cooperation Department and other international organizations for cost effective utilization of resources available to the Center; g) to make the utmost use of available governmental and non-governmental know-how at national and regional levels.”"7 Structural and financial aspects of this enterprise nourish- ed most of the discussions taking place in Committee 3 (Technical Cooperation) as well as in Plenary meetings of the Administrative 15'7Doc. 6385/CA40 (1985). 213 Council. There was a general identity of views among both developed and developing countries over most of the provisions of the Draft Resolution. The United States and other Western nations wanted the structure and functions of the Center to evolve gradually so as to allow for flexible adjustments on the part of the donor countries. This meant that the Center should be guaranteed some degree of independence from the ITU and have its own identity. On the contrary, developing countries preferred complete integration of the Center within the ITU framework and be subject to its guidance. In addition, they requested that the Resolution contain a more precise clause on financing so as to ensure that voluntary contributions would be forthcoming on a firm and regular basis.158 The thrust of the Western industrialized countries was to produce a text that appeals to potential donors, namely the private sector. To facilitate rapid action, therefore, those donors should be given an opportunity of expressing their views. As could be expected, the Soviet Union found this approach unacceptable; It was of course desirable to attract funds for the development of telecommunications in the developing countries, but the Union could not be turned into a kind of charitable organization selling tickets for a benefit performance. It would be most unwise to invite third parties to witness what should be a serious, workmanlike discussion of specific action and procedu— res. If the Center was to become a large-scale commer- cial activity, countries which adopted a different approach would no doubt prefer to stand aside from its 158Doc. 6368/CA40 (1985)- 214 activities.159 The Center for Telecommunication Development The third and fourth sessions of the Administrative Council were entirely devoted to discussion of the Report. From the standpoint of the Western industrialized countries, the Center should be financed by private sector contributions or it should not exist. The Report was based on an examination of the situa- tion of telephone networks, but the Algerian delegate pointed out that telecommunications are not confined to the telephone; they concerned also broadcasting, aeronautical, maritime, meteorologi- cal telecommunications, etc. which have no commercial implica- tions, and to which it is difficult to extend the conclusions drawn on the subject of the telephone network. Assistance was greatly needed in these fields, and it was doubtful that the private sector alone would be interested in extending assistance, through voluntary contributions, to these domains of activity which guarantee no return on investment.150 Although divergence of opinion were expressed, the principle and most of the implementation measures of the Center were widely accepted. By June of 1985, the cash donations for the Independent Commission amounted to almost 1 million Swiss frs. The Plenipotentiary Conference in Nairobi added a signifi- cant and specific complement to the purposes of the Union by 159Doc. 6394/CA40 (1985), p. 3. 16once. 6353/CA40 (1985), p. 35. 215 inclusion of relevant references in the Preamble and the Nairobi Convention itself, in particular Article 4, with regard to development activities. Specific provision has been made to strengthen the Union’s role in promoting and providing supportive action as a complement to its role of regulatory, standardization and coordination activities. The Conference made immediate arrangements to strenghten cooperation and advice--training course development, training standrads and information to facilitate some prerequisite preparations in the planning and operation of networks, specifications, etc. Since 1982, the technical cooperation requested by develop- ing countries has gradually widened in scope and this has led to the Union becoming involved through projects/activities financed by extra-budgetary resources in planning, specification, partici- pation in the search for investment finance, implementation and operation of networks, indeed, all aspects of the development of a telecommunication system. Some of the practical effects of these changes on the work of the Technical Cooperation Depart- ment, reported in 1985, were stated as follows: - A much more intimate involvement with all aspects of telecommunication development. Master plans and specifications drawn up by teams of experts engaged for the purpose by the ITU from its members, the former consisting of several hundred pages, have to be carefully reviewed, approved and published. - Many administrations of developing countries find great difficulty, for personnel, financial or geogra- phical distance reasons in taking part in major conferences and meetings of the Union. Thus the Department has become increasingly involved in a vast range of meetings, seminars, workshops and conferences at regional or sub-regional level to\ prepare countries 216 for conferences, to disseminate the results of the work of the Union, and to bring to their notice developments in technology appropriate to their needs. — There is an increased demand to the Department to field short—term missions in the UNDP programs and Trust Fund programs, to address specific problems of a precise technological nature. - The demand is increasing for high technology experti- se in fields such as fiber optics, satellite communica- tions, digital equipment and network planning, etc. This expertise is scarce world-wide and the demand is, thus, more difficult to satisfy in the time scale desired.161 The program delivery for 1984 of UNDP and Trust Fund projects amounted to $23.6 million. 54 missions by the Group of Engineers and short-term specialists were undertaken to support developing countries. The staff of the Training Division under- took 94 missions. 63 fellowships were provided for participation in seminars. The introduction of modern office techniques continued and data bases have been established, (see Table 5) The last three years represent somewhat of a turning point in the history of development-assistance activities conducted by the ITU. By initiating both the Voluntary Program of Technical Cooperation and the Center for Telecommunications Development, the technologically-advanced countries have taken a drastic step toward meeting many of the demands of the developing countries. It remains to be seen if these efforts will be sustained in the future 151Doc. 6279(Add.3)/CA 40 (1985), p. 2. 217 TABLE 5 Dollar Amount Spent on ITU’s Technical Cooperation Activities (in Thousands) Expert Fellow ITU ITU Total Xtotal Year Missn. ships UNDP Total Deficit UNDP UNDP 1960 32 18 269 293 24 30 2 0.9 1961 38 65 354 425 71 38 3 0.9 1962 59 82 915 977 62 64 3 1.4 1963 81 97 1,283 1,345 62 ~74~5 1.7 1964 115 119 1,970 2,172 202 100.0 1.0 1965 '159 138 2,964 3,358 394 102-2 2-9 1966 184 208 4,069 4,467 398 134-4 3-0 1967 209 222 4,424 4,945 521 143-5 3.0 1968 231 283 4,343 4,883 540 130-5 2-4 1969 237 340 4,710 5,225 515 190-0 2-5 1970 241 412 5,524 6,051 527 210-0 2.6 1971 255 460 7,326 7,696 370 261.0 2.8 1972 309 467 8,383 9,047 664 277.0 3.0 1973 345 457 9,803 10,742 939 274.0 3.6 1974 385 683 11,067 12,688 1,621 295.0 3.7 1975 526 666 16,604 18,837 2,233 426.3 3.9 1976 493 497 17,170 20,241 3,071 406.3 4.2 1977 526 423 12,315 17,095 4.780 338.0 3.6 1978 543 463 16,038 21,614 5,576 435.6 3.7 1979 584 618 20,716 26,064 5.348 547.6 3.8 1980 630 649 27,539 33,352 5.313 575.2 4.1 1981 727 726 33,302 40,293 5.991 731-6 4.5 Sources: Telecommunication Journal 49/10 (1982), pp. 647, 677. Doc. 5322 (CA34) 1979; Doc. 6146 (CA39) 1984. 'In view of the way in which the key themes, introduced at the beginning of the present historical account, have evolved over the last thirty years, future trends can be delineated. Financing of Technical-Cooperation Activities. It appears unlikely that the ITU’s ordinary budget will ever be utilized to finance an in-house development program, especial- 218 ly in light of the establishment of an alternative revenue source, namely, the Voluntary Program. Revision of the ITU Convention The call of the developed countries for the transformation of the ITU’s basic instrument into a Constitution is gaining ground among the newly-industrialized countries. The record attendence at the 1982 Plenipotentiary Conference and the result- ing increase in the workload has began to convince developing countries of the necessity to adopt a more stable instrument. It is likely that some administrative regulations will become constitutional items. Representation in ITU Organs As the ITU membership has stabilized, a result of the end of the decolonization process, it is probable that issues related to the representation of the Third World constituency in the ITU organs, and in the Administrative Council, in particular, will fade away. CCIs’ Lack of Responsiveness This will remain a thorny issue between developed and developing countries. The level of sophistication of the work being conducted in the CCITT, in particular, will widen the gap between the technologically-advanced countries, who benefit from it, and their developing counterparts, concerned with the establishment of basic telecommunication infrastructures. 219 Regional Offices Developing countries may be winning the battle for the decentralization of the ITU, a move which can help them in the allocation, planning, dispensing, and management of resources for telecommunication development. Financing schemes may make this regionalization attractive to the industrialized countries. Preferential Treatment on Technical Matters A compromise will be reached on the subject of the allotment of geostationary orbital slots and the assignment of radio- frequency bands. Such move was initiated in the Summer of 1985 at a specialized conference. Private-Sector Involvement in the ITU’s Work The Soviet Union and its Eastern European allies are losing grounds in their opposition to the involvement of private telecommunication-equipment manufacturers in the financing of development activities through the Voluntary Program, in particu- lar. Those entities will probably become even more involved since they provide the much-needed financial resources and expertise. Telecommunication and Economic Development The growing recognition by Third World governments of the contribution of telecommunication in national economies will give international financial institutions the incentives to provide loans for investment in telecommunication in developing countries. PART III HYPOTHESIS TESTING AND REFLECTIONS ON THE ITU’S DYNAMICS CHAPTER 10 HYPOTHESIS l: INSTRUMENTALITY OF THE CONVENTION In order to survive, an international organization, like a living organism, has to adjust to a changing environment. The historical analysis has documented the extend to which the ITU has integrated, over time, in its structure, work program, and basic instrument, the new demands imposed on it by the growing membership of developing countries. In view of the fact that the ITU was established by a small club of Western industrialized countries at a time when concerns about the Third World were a moot question, it is remarkable that this.120-year-old institu- tion is taking for granted today what it refused to consider only thirty years ago, namely, that one of its main purposes is technical cooperation to the developing world. Obviously, the ITU is not the only specialized agency of the United Nations to be concerned with questions of development assistance to the Third World. The fundamental difference between the other specialized agencies and the ITU is that the former were created after World War II1 when the process of decoloniza- tion began, and its call for it directly or indirectly enshrined in their respective Charters or Constitutions, whereas the latter 1With the exception of the International Labor Organization (ILO), a holdover of the 1920 League of Nations, and the Univer- sal Postal Union (UPU). 220 221 established in the mid-nineteenth century. No such concern was reflected in the basic arrangements of the ITU and in particular in the first International Telecommuni- cation Convention established when the International Telegraph Union and the International Radiotelegraph Union merged into the modern International Telecommunication Union in 1932. The fact that the ITU was born in an era immune from preoccupations of development assistance has led us to hypothesi- ze that the "secret" of the ITU’s adaptation to the contemporary environment characterized by an overwhelming concern for develop— ment assistance to the Third World may well be found in the flexibility of the Union’s basic instrument, its Convention. A Convention can be modified and amended much more easily and, consequently, can respond more quickly to new demands than can a Charter or Constitution. As a way of introduction, one should be reminded that the international telecommunication law currently in force, was established under the auspices of the ITU. It forms part of the existing public international Law, the main instrument being the Convention itself with the Administrative Regulations regarded as annexed to this Convention. The provisions of the Convention are contained in the "Basic Provisions" which provide the instituti- onal framework regarding the law and regulation-making process through treaty conferences. It should be noted that the provi- sions of the Convention concern and govern the field of interna- tional telecommunications as distinct from national ones, for 222 which the sovereign right of each country to regulate its telecommunication is fully recognized. Those provisions are supplemented by the "Administrative Regulations," which regulate the use of telecommunication and are binding on all members. These Administrative Regulations consist of the Telegraph, Telephone, and Radio Regulations. As far as the hierarchy of norms is concerned, the provisions of the Convention represent the first and highest category of norms; in case of inconsistency between a provision of the Convention and a provision of the Administrative Regulations, the Convention prevails.2 History of the Amendments to the Convention It can be anticipated that any change in the Convention may have important consequences. It is the reason why the ITU’s basic instrument has been (and undoubtedly, will remain) the focus of attention in the Union’s circles. We propose to test the above hypothesis by examining in some detail the amended Conventions produced by the ‘successive Plenipotentiary Conferences; Concentrating on the basic principl- es which shape the Union, its objectives, governing bodies and essential activities in the field of development assistance, the following considers the succession of changes and the more significant innovations that have emerged. The Plenipotentiary Conference at Nairobi in 1982 coincided with the 50th anniversary of the one held at Madrid in 1932, 2Article 42 (No. 173) International Telecommunication Convention, Nairobi 1982. 223 which ended with the signing on December 9 of that year of the first Convention of the International Telecommunication Union. The preamble of the Madrid Convention (1932) described the Convention as a treaty between States, affirming that "the...P1e- nipotentiaries of the Governments named above, being assembled in conference in Madrid, have, by common consent and subject to ratification, concluded the following Convention." The Convention of Atlantic City (1947) expressly recognized "the sovereign right of each country to regulate its telecommunication" and specified that the purpose of the Convention was to ensure "the effective- ness of telecommunication." The Buenos Aires Convention (1952) added the objective of "facilitating relations between the peoples” by means of telecommunications. In the Nairobi Conven- tion (1982), the preamble was modified to recognize "the growing importance of telecommunication for the preservation of peace and the social and economic development of all countries" and includes "facilitating...economic and social development among peoples” as one of the purpOses of efficient telecommunica- tion services. Article 3 (later to become Article 4) on the Purposes of the Qgigg appeared for the first time in the Atlantic City Conven- tion, where they were defined as follows: 1) to maintain and extend international cooperation for the improvement and rational use of telecommuni cation of all kinds; 2) to promote the development of technical facilities and their most efficient operation with a view to improving the efficiency of telecommunication services, increasing their usefulness and making 224 them, so far as possible, generally available to the public; 3) to harmonize the actions of nations in the attain— ment of those common ends. The second part of the article listed certain means of achieving those ends and required the Union to: 1) allocate the radio-frequency spectrum and register radio frequency assignments in such a manner as to avoid harmful interference between radio stations in different countries; 2) establish rates for the use of telecommunication services as low as possible consistent with sound administrative practices; 3) promote the adoption of measures to insure the safety of life; 4) undertake studies, formulate recommendations, and collect and publish information on telecommunication matters for the benefit of all members and associate members. The activities to be undertaken to meet the objectives were amended and were specified in all subsequent Conventions, with the exception of the Buenos Aires Convention, as follows: the Geneva Convention (1959) required the Union to foster the creation, development and improvement of telecommunication equipment and networks in new or developing countries by every means at its disposal, especially its participation in the appropriate programs of the United Nations. The proposal for this provision was submitted by Poland. Its importance lies in the fact that, for the first time in the history of the ITU, a provision was directed specifically to assistance to developing countries. According to ITU historian Codding, this decision "considered to be of special benefit to the new members, appeared to be more a gift from the Western-- 225 dominated majority rather than a victory won by the Third World.”3 the Malaga-Torremolinos Conference (1973) added a clause to the Convention which instructed the Union to "coordinate efforts with a view to harmonizing the development of telecommu- nications facilities, notably those using space techniques." After heavy criticism from Eastern and Western industrialized nations, the developing constituency succeeded in modifying Article 4 of the Nairobi Convention (1982) so as to promote technical assistance from an activity to a purpose (one of the three) of the Union, namely, ”to promote and to offer technical assistance to developing countries in the field of telecommunica- tions." Furthermore, the Convention stipulates that to achieve that objective the Union should "foster international cooperation in the delivery of technical assistance to the developing countries.” The decision potentially cleared the way for using the regular budget to cover expenses incurred in the implementa- tion of technical cooperation. Anticipating Article 5, Structure of the Union, various articles appeared in the Madrid Convention (1932) on such organs of the Union as the Plenipotentiary Conference, the International Consultative Committees (CCIs), which in those days were the CCIT, the CCIF and the CCIR, and the Bureau of the Union which, although not a permanent organ, was the forerunner of the General 3George A. Codding, "The New Nations and the International Telecommunication Union: Some Policy Implications for the Future," in H. S. Dordick (ed.) Proceedings of the Sixth Annual Telecommunications Policy Research Conference (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1978), p. 362. 226 Secretariat mentioned in the Atlantic City Convention (1947). The Atlantic City Plenipotentiary Conference have been hailed for modernizing the ITU; though it did fairly extensive work in changing the structure of the Union, it did, however, fundamen~ tally little to change its functions. One of the fundamental changes made by the Conference was the creation of an Administra- tive Council composed of eighteen members who, according to the Convention, "would be elected by the Plenipotentiary Conference with due respect to the need for equitable representation of all parts of the world.” The Council is to meet annually to take charge of the administration of the Union between Plenipotentiary Conferences. The Council became the most powerful policy-making body of the ITU as it sets most of work program of the Plenipotentiaries. To gain control of it means to shape to a large extent the destiny of the Union. The fight over an increase of the Adminis- trative Council membership has been on the agenda of all Plenipo- tentiary Conference as recorded in the successive Conventions. The number was increased to 25 at Geneva, to 29 at Montreux, to 35 at Malaga-Torremolinos and to 41 at Nairobi. The increase in the Council’s membership illustrates the flexibility of a Convention to respond rapidly to the changing environment and to adapt to the new demands of developing countries which now represent the majority within the Adminis- trative Council. These new concerns are reflected in the evolving task of the Council as specified in the Convention. The Geneva ‘\_ 227 Convention specified "the promotion of international cooperation, especially through Union participation in the appropriate programs of the United Nations." The Nairobi Convention requires that the Council "shall determine each year the policy of technical assistance." In the Malaga-Torremolinos Convention (1952), a distinction was drawn between the Plenipotentiary Conference, administrative conferences, and the Administrative Council, on the one hand, and the permanent organs, which were the General Secretariat, the IFRB, the CCIR, and the CCITT, on the other. The organizational structure of the Union gave it a federal character that diffe- rentiates it from the other United Nations specialized agencies. The Plenipotentiary is a political event in which the representatives of member countries attempt to secure changes in the ITU’s structure and functions that will give them some appreciable advantage. This advantage could range from chairman— ship of a committee, or the Conference itself, to a decision which would give the advantage to a national telecommunication industry, or even technical assistance in the upgrading of a domestic telecommunication network. This decision is done indivi- dually or by groups based on common geographical, economic, or ideological considerations. No specific articles were devoted to the Plenipotentiary Conference until the Atlantic City Conference. The Plenipoten- tiary Conference was mentioned along with administrative confe- rences in the Madrid Convention, which also stated that ”the 228 provisions of the present Convention are subject to revision by conferences of Plenipotentiaries of the Contracting Governments," making these Conferences the supreme body of the Union, although their status was not explicitly established until the Convention of Montreux (1965). The Geneva Convention (1959) was amended so that the Secretary-General and his Assistant (later Deputy), until now elected by the Administrative Council, were chosen by the Plenipotentiary Conference. This amendment was opposed by the Western industrialized countries which feared that a aspiring candidate to the ITU’s helm, by trying to appeal to the larger constituency of the Plenipotentiary, might develop a power base of its own and ultimately "escape" from the control of the major industrialized nations which dominated the Administrative Council. The delegates at the 1947 Atlantic City Conference had created a Secretariat-General with very limited power, reflecting in that the historical desire of the major telecommunication operators to ensure that the ITU would not interfere with their interests. The electoral power of the Plenipotentiary Conference was subsequently broadened to include, in the Malaga-Torremolinos Convention, the members of the IFRB and, in the Nairobi Conven- tion, the Director of the CCIs. This last move was considered dangerous by some delegations from developed countries who feared that Directors of the C015 would be elected on the basis of political rather than technical strength. 229 In 1952 and 1959, many of the proposals for change had as their purpose the elimination of problems that had arisen as a result of the major reorganization of the ITU, accomplished at the 1947 Atlantic City Plenipotentiary. Since 1965, the workload of the committees on changes to the Convention has been dominated by the attempt by newer members of the ITU to eliminate practices which they considered gave special privileges to certain of the older developed countries. The decision to elect the Directors of the CCIs in the Plenipotentiary is a case in point. The Nairobi Conference was especially busy in this respect. World and regional administrative conferences have evolved with regard to their duties, although the basic one of revising the Regulations annexed to the Convention has always been retained. In subsequent Conventions, the function of the radio administrative conferences was limited, revision of the General Regulations being removed and a stipulation being inserted in the Conventions of Montreux and Malaga-Torremolinos reading: "Admi-' nistrative conferences shall normally be convened to consider specific telecommunication matters. Only items included in their agenda may be discussed by such conferences." The latter clause was proposed by some developed countries who feared that these conferences would become "politicized" by countries introducing matters thought to be irrelevant to telecommunication. Lastly, the Nairobi Convention goes even further by stating: When adopting resolutions and decisions, administrative conferences should take into account the foreseeable financial implications and shall try to avoid adopting resolutions and decisions which might give rise to 230 expenditure in excess of the upper limits on credits laid down by the Plenipotentiary Conference. This clause, proposed mainly by industrialized countries, was aimed at ensuring that the ITU ordinary budget would not be used to support technical assistance programs, a proposal by developing countries that was gaining ground. The IFRB and Allotment of the Geostationary Orbital Slots Another fundamental change in the structure of the ITU, of great importance to the developing countries, was the creation of the International Frequency Registration Board (IFRB). Its essential duties were "to effect an orderly recording of frequen- cy assignments made by the different countries" and "to furnish advice to Members...with a view to the operation of the maximum practicable number of radio channels." The changing task of the IFRB was reflected in the successi- ve Conventions. The Buenos Aires Convention added "to any additional duties concerned with the assignment and utilization of frequencies...in preparation for or in pursuance of the decisions of a (competent) conference" and ”to maintain such essential records as may be related to the performance of its duties." The geostationary orbit (GSO) has been for fourteen years, since the 1971 WARC-Spa, considered in the International Telecom- munication Convention as a "limited natural resource," and over that period several principles and procedures have been intro- duced with the intention of allowing all states access to this 231 resource. It is at an Extraordinary Administrative Radio Confe- rence (EARC) in 1963, however--only one year after the launch of Telstar--that developing countries first commented on the use of satellite communications. This comment resulted from the intru— sion of the UN General Assembly promulgations into the work of the ITU. At the UN there had been unanimously expressed the view that satellite communications should be made available on a non-discriminatory basis to all states.“ Resolution Spa 2-1 introduced the idea that ”the radio frequency spectrum and the geostationary satellite orbit are limited natural resources and should be effectively and economically used." It should be noted that Resolution Spa 2-1 was not introduced by the developing countries but by the USSR.5 At the Malaga-Torremolinos Plenipotentiary in 1973, the Convention was updated to include the new principles and procedu- res resulting from WARC-Spa-71. Accordingly, the terms of. reference of the IFRB were expanded to include "recording of the ‘See General Assembly Resolution 1721 (XVI) of September 20, 1961. 5 The USSR did not display an ability to place satellites in the 680 until 1974 (Cosmos 637) and was, therefore, equally concerned about access to the orbit. In addition, Article 7 of WARC-Spa was not introduced by the developing countries; the prime movers were Canada, Sweden, and France. Article 7 states: In devising the characteristics of a space station in the broadcast—satellite service, all technical means available shall be used to reduce to the maximum extent possible, the radiation over the territory of other countries unless a agreement has been previously reached with such countries (ITU, EARC—Space, Ref 6, annex 5, p. 117). See also the work of the Committee 6, especially Document 414-E, 397-E where the USA commented on the various drafts and spoke in favor of the final text. 232 positions assigned by countries to geostationary satellite." Of some significance is Article 33 of the Convention, which was intended to incorporate the spirit of Resolution Spa 2-1: ...members shall bear in mind that radio-frequencies , and the geostationary satellite orbit are limited (2» natural resources, that they must be used efficiently and economically [by all states]...according to their needs and the technical facilities at their disposal (emphasis added).6 This addition did not meet with any objection from the developing countries who interpreted it in terms of equity in the use of the orbit. However, it was subsequently considered, by developing countries, as allowing a res nulliug regime. In this latter interpretation, the "spirit" of Article 33 was negated, heightening the fears of developing countries that their most powerful counterparts could not be relied on to adhere to general principles of equitable access and, thus, led the developing countries to advocate rigid mechanisms that would allow access. Article 33 was modified, in 1982, at the next Plenipotentiary Conference at Nairobi to remove the last part of the article.’7 This modification was made in response to.the developing coun— tries’ challenge of the "first come, first served" policy which so far dictated geostationary orbit allotments. The Nairobi Convention also instructed the IRFB to take account of "the needs of Members requiring assistance, the specific needs of developing 6International Telecommunication Convention, Malaga-- Torremolinos, Geneva, ITU, 1973, p. 20. 7M. Naraine, ”WARC-ORB-85: Guaranteeing Access to the Geostationary Orbit," Telecommunications Policy (June 1985), pp. 100-101. 233 countries, as well as the special geographical situation of particular countries" and "to provide technical assistance in making preparations for and organizing radio conferences...and assistance to the developing countries in their preparations for these conferences." Representation in ITU Organs On the subject of representation in the various ITU organs, since the Government of the Swiss Confederation was responsible for the organization of the Bureau of the Union, the Madrid Convention contained no provision concerning the status of Union staff. No specific article appeared until the Geneva Convention, although the subject was dealt with at Atlantic City in the article on the General Secretariat. The article with its present title, ”Elected Officials and Staff of the Union," was introduced in the Montreux Convention. The article specified that elected officials "shall all be nationals of different countries, Members ”on of the Union" and emphasized that staff should be recruited as wide a geographical basis as possible." This has created problems. Geographical distribution does not necessary equate technical competence and there has always been a tension between the two criteria, and over which should prevail. The developed countries, though sympathetic to the need for fair geographical representation, have always insisted upon the technical expertise of the potential candidates for posts, whereas the developing countries, though recognizing the impor- tance of technical and administrative competence, have continu- 234 ously emphasized the criterion of geographical representation. This conflict illustrates the differing perceptions between the developed countries, who see the ITU purely as a technical agency, and the developing countries, who look at the Union as a policy-making body. ‘ The current situation is one where most of the high-level positions in the different organs of the ITU are still occupied by officials from the European countries and the USA, and the low level positions by representatives from developing countries. Whatever the provisions of the Convention to that effect, it is very difficult for delegates of a Third World nation to be promoted to a position previously occupied by somebody from the industrialized world, particularly in specialized organs like the CCIs.8 The change in the financial participation of the members follows the changing environment. The Madrid Convention quoted a scale of contributory units from 3 to 25, with a total of six classes. Two more classes of 30 units and 1 unit were added at Atlantic City. The Buenos Aires Convention introduced the half-unit and five other intermediate units. The Nairobi Confe- rence has extended the scale to include classes of 40 units and 1.5 as well as 1/4 and 1/8 units, the last-named to be reserved "for the least developed countries as listed by the United 8See "List of Permanent and Temporary Posts With Incumbents at 15 May 1985," International Telecommunication Union, Geneva. The problems of promotion was mentioned in an interview with an ITU delegate who requested anonymity. 235 Nations and other countries determined by the Administrative Council.‘ Since the Madrid Convention every Member has been free to choose its class of contribution There was the desire of many at Nairobi to change over to a UN contribution system which would have placed the USA in the 25—percent contribution bracket rather than the current 6-per- cent. This move was fought hard by the industrialized countries who sought to retain the voluntary contributory system. In term of general expenses of the Union, the Atlantic City Convention classified expenditures as ”ordinary" and "extraordi- nary," the former including the costs of the Administrative Council and the permanent organs of the Union, the latter the expenses of Plenipotentiary Conferences, administrative conferen- ces and meetings of the CCIs. The Nairobi Conference also included in the expenses of the Union the costs of "technical cooperation and assistance provided to the developing countries," an article vehemently fought by many developed nations and the United States in particular.9 ITU’s Adaptation to Its Environment The ITU’s behavior appears to conform to the principle of "congruity" according to which, at a given point in time and space, a group’s attitude is in some state of equilibrium with its environment. If and when some of the elements of the structu- 9F. Molina Negro & J. M. Novillo-Fertrell Y Paredes, ”The International Telecommunication Convention from madrid (1932) to Nairobi (1982): Half a Century in the Life of the Union," Telecommunication Journal 49/12 (1982), pp. 814-818. 236 re are altered, an inconsistency is introduced into the prevail- ing structure. As Tannenbaum suggested, "One of the main means of accommodating such an inconsistency is for modifications to occur in attitudes toward the environment, changes in accord with the maintenance of a new state of equilibrium."10 By allowing for constant modification, the ITU’s Convention tends to reflect the preoccupations, needs, and demands of the majority of the organization’s constituency. But the majority, as is true in all world bodies, has shifted from the industrialized countries to the developing countries during the late 19605.1.1 The powerful Western European industrialized nations who in the late nineteenth century created an organization responsive to their needs, had to cohabit in the first half of the twentieth century with their Eastern European counterparts whose political agenda was different. During these years, the emerging nations born in the wake of decolonization tried unsuccessfully to direct the attention of the ITU toward their specific "under-developed situation," (the terminology used at the time). At the end of the 19603 and early 19705, the balance of power within the Union shifted in favor of 1°Percy H. Tannenbaum, "The Congruity Principle: Retrospecti- ve Reflections and Recent Research," in R. P. Abelson et al. (eds.) Theories of Cognitive Consistency (Chicago: Rand McNally and Company, 1968), p. 63. 11There are exceptions. The OECD, whose membership is restricted to the developed countries, has obviously not been affected by this shift. The OECD was an outgrowth of efforts by the United States to help rebuild Western European economies after World War II and to promote economic cooperation among the industrialized democracies. 237 the developing countries who attained a majority status. It was then the turn of the developed countries, both Eastern and Western, to be on the defensive and relentlessly fight the proposed amendments to the Convention aimed at changing the initial purpose of the ITU. But to a great extent, the developing countries have achieved much of their original agenda. From this summary presentation, it can be observed that at any time the status quo, whatever it is, usually protects the interests of a particular group of members. In order to slow down and possibly bring to a halt a process engineered by the develop- ing constituency aimed at altering fundamentally what was percei- ved to be the historical purpose of the Union, in which technical assistance to developing countries was only incidental, the industrialized countries have been attempting to change the ITU’s basic instrument into a Charter, which is believed to bring organizational stability by making its. subjection to amendment more difficult. Discussion About a Constitution The debate on whether the ITU should replace its Convention with a Charter is intimately linked with the evolving nature of the former. The first thought given to a complete redraft of the International Telecommunication Convention was contained in a proposal by Paraguay (Document 16) submitted to the 1959 Plenipo- tentiary Conference at Geneva. The Conference passed Resolution 39 instructing the Administrative Council to study it and make 238 recommendations to the next Plenipotentiary Conference at Montreux (1965). At its 1960 meeting the Council realized that the Paraguayan proposal did not advocate simply a redraft of the Convention but the preparation of a completely new Charter.12 At the 1965 Plenipotentiary, Japan made a proposal "Sugges- tion for establishment of an ITU Constitution. From than on, Japan become a leading prOponent calling for a Constitution. The reasons for the perceived need to move away from the present Convention had little to do with the arguments put forth in more recent times by a number of developed countries, namely, the lack of stability of the Union’s basic instrument and the inconve- nience of having each Plenipotentiary Conferences ratify after long debates a revised version of the Convention. Japan’s arguments were of a purely legalistic and financial nature: 1) The present Convention guarantees non-ratifying countries the membership in the Union by granting to a signatory government, the rights conferred on Members of the Union, for a period of two years from the date of its entry into force, even though it may not have deposited an instrument of ratification. 2) The Members of the Union under the regime of the Buenos Aires Convention of 1952, which have not ratified the Geneva Convention nor acceded thereto, actually share in defraying the expenses of the Union. How can this fact be legally explained?13 At the same Plenipotentiary, Argentina proposed the trans- formation of the Convention into a Charter invoking arguments which are still those of today’s proponents for a change, namely, 12See doc. 2499/CA15 13Doc. 19, PC 1965 239 for the ITU to be in line with all other UN specialized agencies and to provide the Union with an instrument that does not require constant revisions owing to the increasing number of countries joining the ITU. The proposal called for "the elevation to a Constitution which can only be amended with the approval of two-thirds of the Members."14 Committee 9 (Editorial Committee) resolved to set up a Group of Experts with instructions to prepare a Constitutional Charter for the ITU. The Soviet delega- tion suggested that the discussion be deferred until the Commit- tee had studied all the proposals for amending the existing Convention, stating that the existing Convention has proved its effectiveness and that there was no data to decide whether a new Charter would be superior to the Convention. Cuba contended that it might be a difficult matter to accept a permanent Constitution which must also remain democratic in character. Committee 9, however, voted in favor of replacing the Convention by a Charter by 51 votes to 40, with 9 abstentions. It was then the turn of the Plenary Assembly to vote Resolution 35 instructing the Administrative Council to set up a Study Group with the following term of reference: - to prepare a draft Constitutional Charter and General Regulations for the International Telecommunication Union, based upon the decisions taken by, and the discussions which took place at the Plenipotentiary Conference (Montreux, 1965), the Convention and the experience of the Union, the Constitutions and the experience of other specialized agencies of the United nations, and the comments, suggestions, and proposals 1“Doc. 91, PC 1965 240 submitted by Member countries.15 A special study group was created which worked from December 1967 to March 1969, to carry out the 1965 Montreux mandate. The report was presented to the 1973 Plenipotentiary at Malaga-Torre- molinos. By 1973, however, the developing countries were in the majority, and had second thoughts on giving a minority substan- tive veto rights concerning any fundamental changes in the structure of functions of the ITU, As a result, although it accepted the breakdown between the various provisions as sugges- ted by the working group, the Malaga-Torremolinos conference refused to give the basic provisions the title "Constitution" and decided to postpone any decision on whether to raise the majority needed to modify them until the next Plenipotentiary. In the meantime, at the 1971 Administrative Council session, Mr. E. Sawkins, from the Australian Post Office presented an influential document on the future of the ITU. It was severe regarding the possibility for the Union to adapt to the changing telecommunication environment. Strengths were noted. They included; a) the spirit of international cooperation which is based on the tradition of consensus; b) the empirical base of the Union’s work, rooted in tried and proven practices rather than on speculative theory; c) commercial and political impartiality illustrated by the fact that the Union’s recommendations although not mandatory, have great persuasive effect; and d) cross-ferti- lization of ideas through international consultation in which the 15Doc. 394/PC 1965. 241 private sector participates.16 The document, however, gave greater emphasis to the weaknes- ses in the operation and effectiveness of the Union. a) the most damaging weakness is that the Union operates too slowly a result of the unanimity rule; b) the Union follows rather than lead. Other organizations take up break-throughs in technology and tend to bypass or supersede the Union by the rapidity with which they exploit the new techniques in world communications; c) adminis- tration and working methods materially contribute to its slowness in operation. Perhaps too much insistence on control by members has led the Union into too much rigidity, and not enough delega- tion of authority from Plenipotentiary Conferences to the Administrative Council; d) inability to adapt its institutional structure quickly enough to meet a changing world environment and workload which leads to a failure to meet the challenging need of a rapidly developing world; and e) uncoordinated technical assistance with financial organizations to rationalize overall effort and avoid duplication.1'7 Although the document did not call specifically for the drafting of a new Charter, it suggested a basic restructuring. In its response to the document, the United State delegation challenged Sawkins’s harsh criticism of the Union, underlining that, notwithstanding its shortcomings, the ITU had been effecti- ve to date in adapting to change and in facilitating the growth 45Doc. 4178/CA26 (1971), Annex, pp. 8-9. 1'7Ibid., pp. 13-14. 242 in telecommunication activities throughout the world.18 As a matter of fact, of all the industrialized countries, the United States was the least convinced of the need to equip the ITU with a permanent Charter. A 1972 US proposal for the work of the 1973 Plenipotentiary Conference at Malaga-Torremolinos seems to echo the position that the new, developing countries will later take in their opposition to a Charter, but not for the same reasons: The United States 'consider that the Union’s present structure is well suited to carry out its purposes of maintaining international cooperation 'and promoting technological development in international telecommuni- cations. This structure has evolved during one hundred eight years of successful operation and should not be hastily altered. We therefore propose only minor refinements to correct what we deem to be deficiencies in the Union’s workings. [...] Whether to fix the Union’s structure on a permanent basis at a time when the volume of international telecommunications is rapidly expanding, the technology undergoing fundamen- tal change and new institutional arrangements evolving should be carefully considered.19 This reflected the position of the United States on the work of the ITU. Its leadership was not yet challenged by the numerous African countries that are joining the organization. The United States with the other industrialized countries was still dominant in the organs of the ITU. Many Latin American countries were evolving in the sphere of influence of the US. The structural and organizational arrangements of the ITU met the needs of the US, be it in radio-frequency allocations or in the establishment of 18Doc. 4264/CA27 (1972) 19Doc. 22, PC 1973. 243 technical standards. The call for development assistance was not‘ yet fully articulated by the Third World and therefore was not ' considered yet as a disturbing element. The United States did not have any strong reasons for altering the status guo which has enabled it to maintain an uncontested leadership in the organiza- tion. This situation will later change when the United States will no longer be in a position to influence so much the work of the Union owing to its minority status along with its Western European counterparts. As the US interest in keeping the existing Convention faded, the developing countries took over the fight, but with very different arguments. For them, the flexible character of the present Convention would enable the ITU to be more responsive to their needs and concerns by allowing for continuous revision in the purposes and work program of the Union in such a way as to reflect more quickly the new demands. The flexibility of this contractual arrangement allowed for am ever increasing represen- tation of the Third World countriesw in the organs of the ITU. Commanding a majority in the Plenary Assemblies, they were better able to set the agenda of the organization. A Constitution requiring a two-thirds (or any other more restrictive formula) would not have allowed them to shape the work program of the Union. Though supporting the present Convention on the ground that it enables the ITU to adapt to the advancing technology,mo mm_u=mo¢ o=_«~cmac uzn>scm mean taco: ‘1; mascucaoU nmao_m>mo \ \ \ macmcam \ cosmacmaoou - moz: >c~amcumm \ mmuaenumh \ ~ . ofimg IniilllllllllalIIIIDIIIIII . \ l/ I ’r '— ‘ \“Afl , , <. \ I V Amy// I a I \ x , I I .x r ”I wcocoo . mzo~pcz aubfiza 309 311 tration within which it is to be'tackled. Functionalism postula- tes that cooperation must begin in areas of "low politics" issues which can be "decoupled" from "high politics" such as the more symbolically and ideologically charged political processes. By confining decision-making to relevant technical considerations, non-rational behavior--that is, decision-making seeking personal, party, or other sectional gains--is reduced if not eliminated. It is argued that the growth of functional international organiza- tion would erode the basis for identification with the nation- state by bringing together individuals from different nations into a more "neutral" international context. Developed countries voiced their concern at the ITU’s becoming "politicized," that is, they perceived that controver- sial issues not always relevant to the agency’ work were introdu- ced by nations to further their political interests. An idea developed that economic and social programs were "non-political” in nature, and that the specialized agencies should not, there- fore, be "politicized." To the extent that the specialized agencies are thought of in functionalist terms, it is not surprising that dissatisfaction with their_performance is often expressed in charges of "politicization." Those who see "politi- cization" as an organizational defect are likely to accuse ”irresponsible" states of distorting the purposes of a speciali- zed agency by attempting to place inappropriate controversial items on the agenda, and development assistance to the Third World was seen as such. 312 Wallenstein argued that at first glance, the rational for development-assistance is persuasive. If agreement-making is to be effective for all participants, with their voluntary coopera- tion, then all must be in a position to participate and cooperate in the knowledge of what is involved. The human resources required for technical agreement-making, however, are becoming scarcer in view of the enhanced demand for more and diverse agreements. These are the same resources in demand for assistance to developing countries. The dilemma confronting most representatives of advanced technology states is more complicated than the choice of budget preferences would indicate. It is a question not only of human resources and financial limitations, but ultimately of the principal personal motivation for seeking agreement in the first place. This motivation feeds on the recognition of technical and administrative problems caused by uncoordinated telecommunication services and systems. The delegates to conferences are conversant with such problems and are, by and large, eager to minimize them. The delegates concentrate their efforts on the substance of the new problems, and, logically therefore, on those people who are contributors to this substance. These are their colleagues from other high-technology organizations. By contrast, concentration on the problems of the developing countries tends to distract from participation in the technological problems of the future, in favor of a tutorial effort to overcome the past. The attention devoted to interests of developing countries may translate into a 313 personal disillusionment with the entire agreementmaking systems on the part of the principal contributors to new technology. Indications of such disillusionment have appeared in recent years, particularly at the Plenipotentiary Conference of Malaga- Torremolinos, 1973.66 An alternative view considers "politicization" as an indicator of forces bearing on the organization, that is, as a function of the environment within which the institution operates and of the problems that it addresses. International organiza- tions should and do reflect the realities of the international system. ”Politicization" can be viewed as part of a planetary bargaining process in which the Third World nations negotiate with the developed nations regarding the relative importance of various global problems. One could view the confrontations as part of a continuing process to "widen the circle of interna- tional decision-making" or to "integrate dissatisfied powers into the central management of the international system.67 Conventional functionalist theory stressed that agencies should meet the criteria of being technical, fanctionally specific, and essential.68 An agency is called "technical" when 66Wallenstein, International Telecommunication Agreements. 67G. Lyons, D. A. Baldwin and D. W. McNemar, "The 'Politici- zation’ Issue in the U.N. Specialized Agencies," in D. A. Kay (ed.) The Changing United Nations (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1977), p. 85. 68See E. B. Haas, Beyond the Nation-State: Functionalism and International Organization (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1964); I. L. Claude, Plowshares: The Problem and Progress of International Organizations 3rd ed. (New York: Random House, 314 there is a body of sophisticated professional or scientific knowledge that is necessary to the conduct of its work. It is "functionally specific" when its work relates to one specialized area of public policy. It is "essential" when the function per- formed is necessary to intercourse among nations. According to this theory, organizations having such characteristics should not be much affected by world political cleavage or what we can call the pattern of conflicts and alignments. The findings of the present study, concurring with Jacob- son’s own investigation,59 partially confirmed the functionalist concepts in the case of the ITU in that this organization, being both technical and functionally specific has been affected less than others by world political cleavages. The ITU’s task of securing international agreements on the use of radio frequencies and standards for equipment may be considered as both essential and international in scope. What is implied in the use of the concept of essentiality is a compeling need for states to organize the performance of certain tasks internationally. If this need is very high, the task may come in time to be regarded as essential because the actors will have become used to having it performed internationally. The ITU was originally designed as a technical and universal organization rather than a political organization with a restric- ted membership. There was a strong initial notion within the ITU 1964), chap. 17. 69See Jacobson, in Cox and Jacobson, op. cit. 315 that technical decisions can and should be taken on technical grounds and that it will be possible for experts to agree on technical issues. In reality, of course, the distinction between technical and non-technical issues is often far from obvious. This ambiguity is reflected in the dissatisfaction surfacing in the industrialized nations during the 19605, when the developing countries started to take the ITU to task to involve itself in technical assistan- ce. Technical cooperation to developing countries is no longer perceived by the earlier opponents as an "irrelevant" issue. The ITU is no longer a club of like-minded countries preoccupied exclusively with technical coordination and standardization of operating procedures. As a consequence, the traditional concept of functionalism has lost some of its explanatory power as applied to the ITU. The call for technical cooperation goes beyond purely technical aspects. It includes request for assistance in develop- ing financing schemes and policy planning. The new states that have come to constitute the majorities in the ITU were not attracted by functionalism. They were interested in building, rather than in breaking down, national sovereignty, and they looked to international organizations to effect redistribution so as to facilitate their development, something about which functionalism had little to say. Furthermore, individuals became disillusioned with functionalism when its promised benefits with 316 respect to peace and security failed to materialize. Nor were younger recruits to international organization, reading the historical record of functionalist activities and noting its ineffectiveness in broader issues, attracted to its teleological goal. The decline in functionalist thinking as it relates to the ITU does not mean that the Union’s various constituencies question the centrality of the Union. The controversy about the IFRB, for example, illustrates the desire of the developing countries to strengthen the ITU. The IFRB was not abolished at the Montreux Conference in 1965 largely because of the votes of the African, Asian, and Latin American members of the ITU. Developing countries in general felt a pressing need for space on the frequency spectrum. They felt that the rich and established states, mainly because they were established, had more than their fair share of the spectrum. Rightly or wrongly the developing countries saw the IFRB as a protector of their own interests and as an instrument that they could use in their efforts to gain more space on the spectrum. They saw the IFRB also as a resource for technical advice that they badly needed. To a limited extent, than, decolonization has lent some support to the notion of institutional autonomy and authority for ITU to the extent that developing countries turned to international bodies for help. Cox and Jacobson contend that the ideology that has sup- planted functionalism for general purposes is "developmentalism." In all of the agencies, one can find some persons--and more 317 frequently large numbers of them--who are dedicated to the notion of development. Developmentalism, though, is a value commitment rather than a carefully articulated, coherent ideology. It is not relevant, as was functionalism, to the transformation of the international system by strengthening authorities other than those of nation-states. It is a pledge to do something for the poorer parts of mankind, a pledge to which both the United States and the Soviet Union could subscribe, albeit for their own reasons, and one warmly welcomed by the majority of member states, the recipients of the proffered assistance. It is a pledge, moreover, to attain a tangible goal: progress toward it can be measured and actually achieved. Consequently, the doctrine is infinitely more satisfying to individual participants than functionalism is. Developmentalism in many respects contradicts, implicitly if not explicitly, the political values underlying functionalism. Developmentalism stresses the coordination and coherence of economic policy at the national level, whereas functionalism seeks to stimulate sectoral interests and their transnational linkages. Developmentalism leads to stress upon centralization of policy control and action at the international level, whereas functionalism favors the autonomous growth of sectoral interna- tional agencies. Developmentalism stresses the primacy of the general interest of the collectivity in development, whereas functionalism places a higher value upon the freedom of indivi- 318 duals and of associations distinct from the collectivity.7° The ITU as a Communication Network One can view the ITU according to how far it involves the effective policy-making processes of governments rather than how independent of states it has become. This view leads towards a fuller understanding of the role of international organizations in international relations, though their role does not appear to conform to the ultimate goal of functionalism. In this perspective, international organizations are sensitive communications networks within which the power holders in world affairs have been responsive to signals from the less powerful without abandoning the control of action to them. International organizations facilitate the orderly management of intergovernmental relations without significantly changing the structure of power that governs these relations, at least in the short term and somewhat beyond. Over their longer history, the greatest potential for change from international organizations may lie in the opportunity that they give the less powerful to influence the climate of opinion and the accepted values accor- ding to which action is determined.71 Thus, the ITU can be seen as a medium for gaining widespread acceptance of the obligation on the part of the wealthier and 7°See Cox and Jacobson, pp. 403-405. 718ee I. L. Claude, "Collective Legitimization as a Politi- cal Function of the United Nations," International Organization, 20/3 (Summer 1966), pp. 367-79. 319 more powerful to give technical assistance to the poorer and weaker; and it may be a means of giving the less powerful majority of countries a greater collective voice in the manage- ment of world telecommunications, to the extent that this majority is able to take advantage of the available communica- tions networks by aggregating persuasive views. At times the industrialized countries have criticized their developing counterparts for substituting rhetoric for concrete propositions in ITU general assemblies and thus misusing the organization’s forums. This situation takes a new meaning in light of Claude’s contention that its [United Nations] debating society aspect is not to be deplored and dismissed as evidence of a 'slump’ but that it deserves to be examined for evidence of the functional adaptation and innovation that it may represent.”2 Claude’s thesis is that the function of collective legiti- mization is one of the most significant elements in the pattern of political activity that the United Nations has evolved in response to the set of limitations and possibilities posed by the political realities of our time. Collective legitimization has been thrust upon the organization by member states. It is an answer, not to the question of what the United Nations can g9, but to the question of how it can be agag. Referring to the ITU, collective legitimization suggests that it is an agency capable of bestowing politically weighty 72Inis L. Claude, The Changing United Nations (New York: Random House, 1967), p. 25. 320 approval and disapproval upon projects and policies. One may question whether proclamations of approval or disapproval by the Union, deficient as they typically are in both formal legal significance and effective supportive power, are really impor- tant. The answer is that statesmen, by so obviously attaching importance to them, have made them important. They take collec- tive legitimacy seriously as a factor in international politics. A major campaign has been waged in the U.N. to delegitimize colonialism, to invalidate the claim of colonial powers to legitimate possession of overseas territories--in short, to revoke their sovereignty over colonies. The ex-colonial states have not confined themselves to using the U.N. or the ITU, for that matter, for legitimization of the campaign for definitive liquidation of the colonial system. In the telecommunication sphere, they have undertaken, in concert with other developing countries, to use the organization to secure the establishment and general acceptance of the doctrine that they have a right to receive, and advanced states have a duty to provide, assistance in promoting telecommunication development. CONCLUSION The study has explored the evolution of the ITU as it engaged in technical assistance to the developing countries. This evolutionary process was not only discernible in the changing priorities of the Union, it was also reflected in the changing attitude of the actors. What was initially considered unaccepta- ble forty years ago has come to be seen as part, perhaps the most important, of the Union’s mandate. The Western industrialized nations who created an organization mostly geared toward techni- cal coordination, equipment specification and operating stan- dards, and therefore uniquely responsive to their needs, have come to accept the idea of their special duty as a group to assist their less-endowed counterparts in the Third World which may involve redirecting the ITU toward policy planning. The purpose of the study has been to document and explain this changing dynamics. The investigation was two-fold. First, it provided an historical account of the origin and development of technical-assistance activities, under the aegis of the ITU, targeted to developing countries. In accomplishing this task, the study maps a territory largely unexplored. Second, it proposed and tested three hypotheses aimed at explaining the reason5for the longevity of the ITU in the midst of a changing political and technological environment. The research has revealed 1) that to a large degree the basic instrument of the ITU, namely its flexible Convention, accounts for the integration 321 322 of conflicting demands within the institutional framework, even though this arrangement may have reached the point of diminishing return in view of the complexity of the Union. 2) that as telecommunication networks become more sophisticated and global in scope, the technologically-advanced nations which manage them are increasingly dependent upon a healthy institution, and for the sake of stability are ready to accommodate demands unrelated to their interests 3) that it is the unique characteristic of the ITU’s province-- telecommunication--which accounts for the centrality and longevity of the organization, since all nations arepdl compehed to collaborate if they want to safeguard their domestic telecommunication systems. Evaluating the ITU’s performance in the provision of assistance to developing countries is difficult. The proposal from representatives of developing countries that ITU begin financing technical-cooperation activities from its own budget has been rebuffed by the donors, the industrialized countries. The situation may change but had it been adopted earlier, the proposal would have had the effect of giving a certain priority to telecommunications. Under the present system, states must decide whether the UNDP funds that they might receive should be used for telecommunications or for some other purpose. It remains that few states are really willing to take the position that telecommunications should be accorded an absolute priority. ITU training enterprises have been more innovative and lively than 323 those that were run under colonial rule by metropolitan powers. These training activities have also been held to be less effi- cient than those managed by commercial enterprises. There is little interaction between those elements of the ITU engaged in technical cooperation activities and those engaged in its more traditional functions. Undoubtedly the tasks are different, but' it is not inconceivable that greater interaction might lead to the formulation of more innovative projects, some of which might have an impact on the feelings of developing states about the Union’s traditional functions and the conduct of these states in these functions, (see Appendix E). Institutional reform is on today’s agenda. If a constitu- tional charter is adopted, no longer would it be possible to reconsider ITU’s basic mandate and institutional structure at each Plenipotentiary Conference. Undoubtedly the adoption of a Charter would ease the burden of these conferences. On the other hand, it could mean that the ITU’s mandate and institutional structure would be firmly set for some years to come, for the experience of the United Nations and the specialized agencies indicates that charters are seldom amended--and when they are, the changes are minor. With all its disadvantages, the ITU’s present system of reconsidering the entire Telecommunication Convention at each Plenipotentiary Conference may allow greater flexibility than a constitution. If the flexibility of a charter is to be renounced, then it is incumbent on all participants in future meetings to reconsider 324 not only how well ITU has performed its functions in the past, but also how adequate it is to the needs of the future. Clearly the demand for telecommunication facilities will increase. At the same time, the less-developed countries are strongly interested in the rapid development of their economies, and this development will involve increased telecommunication facilities. Normal growth in established sectors plus demahds stemming from these newer sources will have to put increased burdens on the Union. Perhaps the ITU with its present organs is adequate to meet these demands, but it is not unreasonable to suggest that as the Union approaches the twenty-first century, it may need to streamline, modernize, and supplement its inheritance from the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The system of allocating radio-frequencies through Adminis- trative Conferences has been attacked by representatives of both developed and developing countries. The former are uneasy about having such a complicated technical matter decided by majority vote in a forum where the technical qualifications of the participants are not assured; they would like to limit the role of Administrative Radio Conferences and increase the jurisdiction of the CCIR and its Recommendations. The latter, on the other hand, feel overpowered by the developed countries with their immense technical resources, and oppose any change that would be translated as a loss of their power by transferring these matters to the Consultative Committees in which they do not (or cannot) 325 actively participate.1 It is hard to conceive of a system fundamentally different from the present one that would be widely accepted. There is little evidence that states would be willing to turn such a sensitive matter over to a group of experts or a small council of governmental representatives. The composition of this group would become crucial, and the possibility of reaching agreement would be extremely remote. It is mostly the financing aspect that accounts for the historical reluctance of the industrialized countries fully to embrace technical-cooperation activities directed to developing countries as an integral part of the ITU’s mandate. Thus, the opposition of the industrialized countries to use the Union’s regular budget for this purpose. Some long-time participants in ITU-administered technical-cooperation programs feel that more often than not, the financing argument is a dubious one. The issue may revolve around the dichotomy between engineers and administrators. Most of the delegates from the developed countries are specialists, engineers, and technicians. Because telecommunica- tion networks already exist, these delegates are primarily interested in operating standards, signaling, and equipment specifications, all of which relate to telecommunication servi- ces. As a consequence, examination of the economic impact of 1See A. Rutkowski, "Deformalizing the International Radio Arrangements," Telecommunications Policy (December 1983), pp. 309-316. 326 telecommunication systems on the general performance of the economy is largely irrelevant to them. Developing countries, on the contrary, send administrators and managers primarily preoc- cupied with the establishment of not-yet-existing telecommunica- tion infrastructure, and much less interested with CCITT Recom- mendations. To delegates from these countries, planning is fundamental. UNESCO, through its International Program for Development of Communication (IPDC), became the first agency to deal with communication problems specific to the Third World countries. In many respects, the IPDC is for developing countries what the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development is for the developed countries. But UNESCO is embroiled in controversy that affects its credibility in the eyes of the industrialized members and OECD is perceived by developing countries to be a "club of the rich." The ITU, which has gained the credibility of all sides, would seem to be the appropriate forum for the implemen- tation of technical cooperation programs. Paradoxically, the administrators from the Third World are in a better position to convince their counterparts in the First World that by helping them they would help themselves as well. There are already signs that developed countries are interested in sending non-technical experts to ITU forums. These experts have started to work on economic analyses of the impact of telecommunication on economic development. It is probable that, in the future, those countries will send more telecommuni- 327 cation managers. As a matter of fact, the last ITU Secretary-- General to belgngineer by training was Mohamed Mili who retired in 1982. Richard Butler, the current head, is an administrator. Managers and administrators speak the same language and may recognize that network implementation in developing countries is to the advantage of all parties. There is the perception that what the ITU needs is the realization of the common interest which will build the basis for the political will necessary to expand ITU development assistance. APPENDICES APPENDIX A Note on International Organizations The Yearbook of International Organizations (1976-77) lists eight criteria for inclusion under the rubric of international organization. They are summarized by Archer as follows:1 1. The aims must be genuinely international with the intention to cover at least three states. 2. Membership must be individual or collective participa- tion, with full voting rights, from at least three states and must be open to any individual or entity appropriately qualified in the organization’s area of operations. Voting must be so that no one nationalo group can control the organization. 3. The basic instrument must provide for a formal structu- re giving members the right periodically to elect governing bodies and officiers. Provision should be made for continuity of operation with a permanent headquarters. ‘ 4. Officers should not all be of the same nationality for more than a given period. 5. There should be a substantial contribution to the budget from at least three states and there should be no attempt to make profits for distribution to members. 6. Those with an organic relationship with other organiza- tions must show it can exist independently and elect its own officials. 7. Evidence of current activities must be available. 8. There are some negative criteria: size, politics, ideology, fields of activity, geographical location of headquarters, nomenclature are irrelevant in deciding whether a set-up is an "international organization" or not. The Union of International Associations (UIA) distinguishes between Inter-Governmental Organizations (1605) and Non-Govern- mental Organizations (INGOs), as does the United Nations. In the 1Clive Archer, International Organizations (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1983), p. 32. 328 329 conventional sense, IGOs are all those organizations that owe their existence to formal treaties or comparable legal instru- ments and that are directed by functionaries designated through formal governmental actions. Under this definition, any organiza- tion that does not require a governmental treaty pr other formalized, government-ratified instrument for its operation is an INGO. This concurs with the language used in the U.N. ECOSOC Resolution of Feb. 1950. The distinction of IGOs and INGOs can seem arbitrary and unclear. Yet it is an important criterion for an organization’s powers, legal status, and effectiveness. A clearly intergovern- mental organization may serve as an umbrella for a number of relatively autonomous suborganizations, including one or more that operate at the nongovernmental level. A case in point is the International telecommunication Union. The ITU not only has a federated structure comprising the CCIR, CCITT, and IFRB, but it allows for the participation of Recognized Private Operating Agencies (RPOAs), Scientific and Industrial Organizations (8105), and International Organizations (105). Those entities contribute to the budget of the ITU. The ITU might be thought of as a hybrid INGO, since it includes both governmetal and non-governmental representation. However, if such a hybrid organization has been established by a treaty or convention between government, as is the case of the ITU, it should be counted as an 160.2 3A. J. N. Judge, "International Institutions: Diversity, Borderline Cases, Functional Substitutes, and Possible Alternati- ves," in Taylor, P and Groom, A. J. R. (eds.) International Organization: A Conceptual Approach (London: Frances Pinter, 1978), p. 57. APPENDIX B Note About Convention and Charter3 To shed light on the unique features of the International Telecommunication Convention of the ITU, comparison is made with the Charter of the United Nations. Both instruments state the principles of universal represen- tation and of "one country, one vote." Both Convention and Charter can be revised by their supreme organs-the Plenipoten- tiary Conference, in the case of the ITU, and the General Assembly, in the case of the United Nations. The modality for revision, however, is what differentiate fundamentally the ITU from the UN. The ITU Convention can be amended by a simple majority, where as modification of the UN Charter requires a two-thirds majority, including the five permanent members of the UN Security Council. Any one of the permanent members can prevent the entry into force of an amend- ment even though it may be ratified by all other members of the United nations. The veto power granted to the five permanent members has serious repercussions in the balance of force between states. The Charter maintains ad eternum the five major powers (USSR, USA, Great Britain, France, China) as permanent members. They can veto proposals to admit new members to the UN. The Basic Provisions of the ITU Convention contain a clause permitting a member to withdraw from the Union by denouncing the Convention by simple notification through diplomatic channels to the SecretaryGeneral. In contrast, no formal right has been given in the UN Charter of withdrawing from the organization. Although by stating that "coersion will not be brought to bear on a member wishing to withdraw," the Charter implies a recognition of the right to withdraw at one’s own discretion. The ITU Convention, by "fully recognizing the sovereign right of each nations to regulate its communications," is actually non-binding as it allows for Reservations to its Final Protocol. The standard formula states: The delegation of _____ reserves for its government the right: 1) not to accept any financial measure which might lead to an increase in its contributory share in 3Information on the ITU Convention is borrowed from Codding, op. cit., Chapter 9 "Basic Arrangement," pp. 203-222. Discussion of the UN Charter relies on M. Waters (ed.), The United Nations: International Organization and Administration (New York: The MacMillan Company, 1967) and M. Hill, The United Nations System: Coordinating Its Economic and Social Work (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 1978). 330 331 defraying Union expenses; 2) to take any action it deems necessary to protect its telecommunication services should any member fail to observe the terms of the International telecommunication Convention. The provision for Reservations is a unique feature that distinguishes the ITU Convention from the UN Charter, in which no reservation is made with regard to the fundamental provisions concerning the purpose of the Charter. Consequenly, when a member does not honor a UN Charter provision, it finds itself in breach of contract by negating the "principle of the binding force of agreements," a situation which may possibly lead to a institu- tional crisis. Through a blend of obligatory requirements and convenient escape clauses, the ITU Convention does not allow for this situation to occur. Another basic difference between the ITU Convention and the UN Charter relates to the financing mechanisms. ITU members are free to choose any class of contribution to defray the Union’s budget, though a Resolution invites members to select a class of contribution "most in keeping with their economic resources." The UN contributory system is supervised by a lB-member Committee on Contributions, which assesses each country’s contribution on a pro-rata basis using a formula that adjusts national income (using a 10-year average) upward or downward according to per- capita income but with the provision that no contributor shall pay less than .01 percent or more than 25 percent of the tOtal. Until the 19705 the U.S. paid considerably more. In 1946, it contributed to nearly 40 percent of the UN regular budget. In 1970, after a series of gradual decrease had lowered the U.S. contribution to 31.5 percent, a Commission recommended a reduc- tion to a level not to exceed 25 percent. This financing scheme, however, gives undue influence to the major powers. The top 10 contributors to the current UN budget account for nearly 78 percent of the total. In view of the recent debates in the ITU regarding the wisdom to equip the Union with a more stable Charter, it is worth noting that the United Nations is similarly discussing the revision of its Charter. But, unlike the concern of the ITU, the UN attempts to answer the following question: Is it possible to inject sufficient flexibility into the Charter in order to provide room for adaptation, without at the same time making it too easy for groups of member states to upset, through the amendment procedure, the delicate balance of power that had been worked out between the large and small states? APPENDIX C List of the 161 Members of the ITU with Indication of Date of Their Admission in the Union (April 1985) Gereany F.R. 1866 Austria Belgiue Deneark Spain France Greece Hungary Italy Luxeeburg Norway Netherlands Portugal Rueania Sweden Switerland Turkey USSR Yugoslavxa India 1869 Iran Great Britain 1871 Egypt 1876 Brazil 1877 New Zealand 1878 Australia Japan 1879 Bulgaria 1880 Thailand 1883 Argentine 1889 Sri Lanka 1897 Uruguay 1902 Iceland 1906 Bolivia 1907 Chile 1908 Canada Mexico Monaco United States South Africa 1910 Philippines 1912 Panaea 1914 Coloebia Guateeaia Peru 1915 Cuba 1918 Source: China Czechoslovakia Venezuela Equador Finland Poland Albania Ireland Lebanon Syria Honduras Nicaragua Boeinican Rep. El Salvador Haiti Liberia Paraguay Afghanistan iraq Vatican N. Yeeen Costa Rica Ethiopia Burea Byelorussia Jordan Pakistan Ukraine Tsrael Saudi Arabia indonesia Viet Nae S. Korea Kaepuchea Laos Libya Morocco Tunisia Nepal Ghana Sudan Malaysia Guinea Kuwait Telecommunication Journal 52/4 (1985), p. 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1931 1932 1937 1947 1948 1949 1951 1952 1953 1956 1957 1958 1959 3132! Caeeroon 1960 Central African R. Chad Congo Tvory Coast Gabon Mali Niger Senegal Benin 1961 Cyprus Madagascar Nigeria Togo Sierra Leone Zaire Burgina Faso 1962 Rwanda Soealia Tanzania Mauritania Algeria 1963 Burundi Jaeaica Liechtenstein Uganda Mongolia 1964 Kenya Malawi 1965 Malta Singapore Trinidad 1 Tobago Zaebia Barbados 1967 Guyana Lesotho Maldives Botswana 1968 S. Yeeen Mauritius 1969 Nauru Equat. Guinea 1970 Swaziland Fiji 1971 Tonga 1972 Dean U.A.E. Bangladesh 1973 Gerean 0.8. Buatar Bahaeas 1974 Gaebia Bahrain 1975 Mozaebique Papua New Guinea N. Korea Angola 1976 Cape Verde Coeoros Guinea-Bissau Sao Tune 1 Pcp Surinaee Djibouti 1977 San Marino liebabwe 1981 Grenada Belize Brunei 1983 Naeibia St Vincent 1 Bren. 1131.. APPBND I X D 333 .7 5 Hillions General 1 1 Statistics of the ITU’S Technical Cooperation Activities Growth and Nature of the Assistance Provided by the ITU iii_i,1isim,i 1...- Value at Equipment ___———-Expert Mi lTU Meebers léfiD 1.. ,, . 1 1C) ~1 1Cub v l ,.--+-— Fellmwehipfi f }SN3C3 / '7CHD fifDC) - EifluD ...niyr) «300 rw-ROD ~v 113C) 19? 63C) ' .s :I. ;___;;; Tmtal (Humor-mmL ‘.l ‘ i va- vv" Financing of the ITU’s Technical Cooperation Activities fT3377l"w"'l l .r,..,s___iiii-7i_ii_i -i. .1 , y l lJl’slli'JFi‘ 1’53) it it c3c:;-.-i‘1‘.:i (31183; ITU’fi me Regmurcem k~- i ,, L ,1 l . I 1 1' ”7 Department Technical 4 Cooperation set up 3 /? First Technical: by the ITU l hfiflkl V l : Asia+Pac L.§§§ i_ii.si _,_, Cd AFrica . x x .. lfifii .. E.E rope I H.Europe 1 Americas 1. / / .. ‘ V 1960 {1 y? r L kéééé' G _ Assistance Prog.f‘ ‘ 4rw<-entirely managedj~~~ 'r-m*-~ $40 Millions , -530 Hillions L ~s20‘niiiions l ».-T $10 Hillions ’ rowth in Membershi of the ITU the Administrative Council ' . . . ———~—~——————————________.__________J . and Significant Events -.HMDN ‘ .;y. ' . ‘ ' ITU-UNESCO , “Clinnc “ TW ‘ r v ' ' ' reorganizedii: , ifglilhprltinl. set up 1 OPEC raises f oil rice 3 : ‘ .' created 1 f PEBFSGH i A A A NIEU ‘ MacBride . ‘ y i ‘ Jackson ; * j Declaration‘ j ;L Report Ar‘fii , i '»Report , ‘, 1 . \ a 111.1%{121 =0 lbhéil if! bf, (I '/ Maitland ‘ Commission oluntary Prograe set up i . . .I BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Anstee, M. J. The Administration of International Development Aid. New York: The Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs, 1960. Claude, I. L. Swords Into Ploweharee: The Problems and Progress of International Organization. New York: Radom House, 1956. ---------- . 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ITU Documents Pertaining to Technical Cooperation Administrative Council--CA 1948, l4.--Proposal Concerning the Organization of an Agency of the ITU in the Western Hemisphere. CA 1949 378.--Resolutions of the United Nations Conference on Freedom of Information CA 1951 Resolution 225, Technical Assistance 831.--United Nations Programme of Technical Assistance 922.--Draft Resolution on Technical Assistance 923.--Proposed Amendments to document 922 924.--Possibilities for the Participation of the ITU in the Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance Within Present Budgetary and Constitutional Limits 970.—-Minutes, Draft Statement to Amplify the Repoprt of Committee 4 on TA CA 1952 lOO7.--Participation by the Union in the Expanded Programme of TA, Report by the SG. Resolution 244.——ITU Participation in the UN Expanded Programme of TA. Annex to 244.--Provisional Arrangement Between the UN and the General Secretariat of the ITU 1239.——Minutes 342 CA 1953 l276.--Technical Assistance, Report by the SG 1277.-—Annual Report by the Union to the ECOSOC (1952), Report by the SG CA 1954 1480.—-Technical Assistance, Report by the SG.+ Resolution 492 of the ECOSOC 1552.-—Minutes 1562.--Technical Assistance, Draft Resolution 1603.--Minutes CA 1955 l74l.--Technical Assistance, Report by the SG + Annex, Agreement Between the UN Technical Assistance Administration and the General-Secretariat of the ITU l762.--Minutes Resolution 322.--Technical Assistance CA 1956 1860.--Draft Resolution Submitted by the Representative of the USSR, Technical Assistance 1863.--Aid to Countries with Under-Developed Telecommunication Systems 1878.--Minutes Resolution 346.--Technical Assistance CA 1958 2012.—-The Financing of Economic Development, Report by the SG 2020.--Technical Assistance-Participation in the Expanded Programme, Report by the SG 2021.--Technical Assistance-Apportionment of the Administrative and Operating Costs Incurred by the Organizations Taking Part in the Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance (Table) 2077.--Meeting of the Preparatory Committee for the Special Fund DT 2.--TA-Debiting of Administrative and Operating Costs Incurred by Taking Part in the Expanded Programme of TA DT 4-- Relations with the UN, The Specialized Agencies and Other 108 + ITU Contribution to the Improvement of Telecommuni cations in Asia and the Far East 215l.—-Participation in the work of the 001s CA 1959 2152.-—The Financing of Economic Development, Report by the $6 + Establishment of the Special Fund 2189.--TA, Development of TA by the ITU from 1952 to 1959 CA 1960 23lO.--Financing of Telecommunication Development, Report by the SG 343 2366.--CCIR, Technical Assistance 2373.-—Technical Assistance Activities in the ITU, Memorandum by the IFRB 2415.--ITU TA Programme for 1961/1962 (Table) 2436.--Minutes, Financing of TC Development 2478.--Financing of TC Development CA 1961 2573.-—Complete Redraft of the ITU Convention (Resolution 39) 2658.--Minutes, Collaboration of the Union with the UN Special Fund, Preliminary Recommendations Relating to Technical and Economic Assistance CA 1962 2734.--Financing of TC Development + Flows of Capital 2754.--Measures to Improve the Effectiveness of the Union’s Participation in the Technical Assistance Programmes of the UN 2757.--The Union’s Participation in the UN Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance 2761.--Financing of TC Development 2813.--Specia1 Fund Assistance to Developing Countries in Deter~ mining the Most Appropriate Sources of Development Capital and Assistance 2842.--Technical Assistance to New or Developing Countries (Proposal by Ethiopia) CA 1963 2934.——Collaboration with the UN Special Fund 2960.--Organization of the Technical Cooperation Department (table) 3022.-—Report by the Working Party on Technical Cooperation 3059.--Technical Assistance to New or Developing Countries-IFRB Seminars 3060.—-Document from Colombia on ITU Technical Cooperation 3106.--Minutes, Future Policy with Relation to Technical Coopera tion CA 1964 3118.—-International Cooperation and Technical Assistance in the Field of Space Radiocommunications (Resolution 4a) 3129.--Memorandum of Understanding Between the Economic Commis sion for Africa and the ITU for Telecommunications Work in Africa 3137.—-The Union’s Participation in the Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance of the UN 3215.--Revision of the Structure and Staffing of the Technical Cooperation Department CA 1965 3305.--Work of the Standing Committee on Technical Cooperation 3316.--Possible Negotiation of a Memorandum of Understanding 344 Between ITU and the ECLA 3321.—-Consolidation of the Special Fund and the Expanded Programme of TA in a United Nations Development Programme 3330.—-Technical and Special Assistance to New or Developing Countries 34l3.—-Minutes, Annual Report of the IFRB CA 1966 , 3473.——Application of Science and Technology in the Interest of Developing Countries 3511.——Standing Committee on Technical Cooperation 3562.--Minutes, ITU’s Participation in the UN Expanded Programme of TA 3573.--Minutes Report of the TA Activities of the ITU, 1966 CA 1967 3620.--Activities of the CCIR in the Field of Technical Coopera ' tion 3623.--Improvement of Technical Cooperation 3660.--The Organization of Technical Cooperation in the ITU 3672.--Minutes 3696.-—Organization of Technical Cooperation, Draft Resolution CA 1968 3751.--Organization of Technical Cooperation in the ITU DT 3.—-TA Activities, Annual Report by SG 3769.--Geographical Distribution, Decision 3775.--Minutes CA 1969 3862.--Organization of the Department of Technical Cooperation 3875.--Preparation of a Draft Constitutional Charter 3918.--Minutes 3927.--Minutes, Report on TA activities 3935.--Minutes, Organization of the ITU Technical Cooperation Dept. CA 1970 403l.--Increasing the Effectiveness of Technical Cooperation 4047.--Minutes CA 1971 4169.--Detailed Report on Technical Cooperation Activities in 1970 4178.--General Discussion on the Future of the Union 4206.——Minutes, Discussion on the Future of the Union 4209.—-Minutes, TA 4210.--Minutes, Discussion on the future of the Union 4213.—-Minutes, Report on TA CA 1972 345 4264.--Future of the Union, (USA) 4265.-—Future of the Union, (Australia) 4270.-—Future of the union, (Brazil) 4285.-—Future of the Union, (Japan) 4346.—-Minutes, TA Activities 4375.--Minutes, TA, UNDP, Regional Offices CA 1973 4492.--Minutes, Technical Cooperation 4499.--Minutes, Activities of Regional Experts CA 1974 4590.--Regulation Relating to the Administration of the ITU Special Fund for Technical Cooperation 4658.--Minutes, TA Activities 4666.--Minutes, Union Participation to UNDP CA 1975 4720.——The Special Fund for Technical Cooperation 4730.--Modification of the Organization of the Technical Coopera- tion Dept. 4745.—-Preparations for the 7th Session of the GA Devoted to Development and International Cooperation 4748.--Cooperation Among Developing Countries 4788.--Minutes TA Activities 4816.--Minutes, Training Standards 4840.--Minutes, Modification of the Organization of TA CA 1976 4888.--Development and International Economic Cooperation 4925.--Some Aspects of TA Programme of the ITU 4939.--Implementation of the International Development Strategy for the DDII 4947.--UNDP, Request of the ITU 4956.--Minutes, Union’s request to UNDP 4957.--UNDP Letter to the ITU 4981.--Minutes, TA 4992.--Handling of Questions of a Political nature 5004.-—Handling of Questions of a political Nature CA 1977 5066.--Evolution of the Structure and Staffing of the Technical Cooperation Dept in the Light of the Dept’s Activities 5073.—-Telecommunications, an Imp[ortant Factor in Economic and Social Development: Role of the ITU in This Domain 5100.--Minutes, Regional Experts’ Activities 5110.--Minutes, Future of TA at the ITU 5116.—-Minutes, Future of TA at the ITU CA 1978 5201.——ITU/UNESCO Cooperation, Resolution 800 5253.--Minutes, TA Activities 346 5258.—-ITU Technical Assistance Programme, (Table) 5275.--Minutes, Proposal of Setting Up a Commission to Study the future of TA at the ITU 5277.--Future of TA Activity by the Union 5294.--ITU Activities under UNDP, (Table) CA 1979 5312.—-Conference on Technical Cooperation Among Developing Countries, TCDC 5322.——Statistics Concerning the Union’s Activities in the Field of Technical Cooperation 5359.--Minutes 5366.--Action Taken on Res, Rec, TCDC 537l.--Role of the CCITT in ITU Technical Cooperation 5372.--USA Resolution on the Future of ITU TA 5377.--Future of ITU Technical Cooperation Activities 5416.--The Institutional Framework of Technical Cooperation in the ITU 5418.-—Future of Technical Cooperation, (Questionnaire) CA 1980 5467.--Technical Cooperation, Specific Resolutions and Recommen- dations A 5494.--Intergovernmenta1 Conference for Cooperation on Activi- ties, Needs, and Programmes for Communication Development + Annexes 5509.--Minutes, TA 5551.--Minutes, Report on the Future of TA 5561.--Minutes, Intergv. Conference for Cooperation for Communi— cation Development CA 1981 5617.--UN Transport and Communications Decade in Africa 5618.--Action Taken on the Decisions on the UN Conference on Science and Technology for Development 5619.—-Support Costs for Technical Cooperation Activities + UNDP doc 5625.--International Programme for the Development of Communica- tion + Annexes 5634.-—CCITT Assistance to Developing Countries 5639.--TA, Specific Resolutions and Recommendations 5677.—-Minutes, Costs for TA 5687.--Minutes, TA 5721.-—Report on the Future of TA at the ITU CA 1982 5758.—-Report of the Working Group on the Future of ITU Technical Cooperation Activities, (Large report) 5805.——Complementary Information on TA 5816.--Report on the Organization and Methods of the Technical Cooperation Dept 5851.--Minutes, TA 347 5856.--TA, UNDP Refund Policy 5876.--Minutes, TA CA 1983 5948.--Special Voluntary Programme for Technical Cooperation 5956.--Assistance to Least developed Countries 5958.--Telecommunication Infrastructure and Socio-Economic Development 5982.—-Estab1ishment of the Voluntary "Maitland Commission” 6030.--Minutes, Voluntary Programme for TA CA 1984 6115.--Telecommunications and Socio-Economic Development 6126.--Special Volunrtary Programme for TA 6129.—-Independent Commission for World-Wide TC Development 6146.--Organization and Overall management of the TA Dept 6205.—-Minutes, CODEVTEL, TA 6227.--Minutes, TA Resolutions on Technical Cooperation Methods to Assess Contributions CA 1985 6259.-—1985-l989 Conferences and Meetings Timetable 6261.--Continuation of the CODEVTEL Project 6262.--Technical Cooperation Special Account Budget 6279.--Technical Cooperation Activities (1984) + Participation of member countries to ITU meetings 6292.--Special Voluntary Programme for Technical Cooperation (Progress) 6293.—-Assistance to Least Developed Countries 6302.--Arusha Declaration on World Telecommunications Development 6332.--International Programme for the Development of Communica tion and Other UNESCO Programmes 6337.--Maitland Commission, Statement of Accounts of the Commis- sion 6353.--Provisional Summary Record of the Third and Fourth Plenary Meetings--Telecommunications for Development 6368.--Draft Resolution on the Establishment of a Center for Telecommunications Development 6381.-- ” (continued) 6385.—-Center for Telecommunications Development, Resolution 6390.--Draft Resolution for the Establishment... (continued) 6392.-- ” (continued) 6394.--Draft Resolution + Future of the ITU + TA World Administrative Radio Conference, 1979 196.--Minutes, Colombia Statement on Geostationary Orbit 981.--Jipguep’s Address Resolutions on TA Plenipotentiary Conference--PC 1952 99.-— Minutes, IFRB 348 103.--US Proposal, Participation in Expanded Programme of TA 187.——Participation de l’UIT au Programme Elarge d’Assistance Technique 199.—-Minutes, TA 446.——Minutes, Participation in the UN Expanded Programme Report by the CA to the PC on Activities from 48 to 52 PC 1959 l3.--ITU Participation in Technical Assistance Financed by the UN Special Fund 60.--Minutes, Art. 3 62.-—Resolutuions and Decisions Concerning TA Taken by the Admi- .nistrative Council After the PC of Buenos Aires, 1952 + Annexes 64.—-Proposal for the Organization of the TA of the ITU 73.--Proposal Art. 3 (Poland) 183.--New Proposal Art. 3 (Poland) l90.-—Minutes, Gepgraphical distribution in CA 214.--Minutes, Amendment Convention 260.--Establishment of an International TC Development Bank, (Mexico) 268.--Addition to Convention 333.—-Resolutions TA matters 370.--Resolutions, TA matters 414.--Minutes, 420.--TA, Report to the PC 421.--Minutes, TA 422.-—Minutes, ITU Collaboration with UN Special Fund for Economic Development 443.--Minutes, IFRB 447.--Minutes, Expenses of the Union 452.—-Minutes, TA Proposals for Modification of Convention Provisions PC 1965 4.-- Porposal on Art. 9, (Tunisia) 19.--Suggestion for the Establishment of an ITU Constitution, (Japan) 30.--Proposal for Art. 4, (India) 58.--Proposal on Modification of Convention, (Canada) 63.--Establishment of an International Telecommunication Studies Institute, (Saudi Arabia) 65.--Proposal on IFRB, (Cameroon) 76.--Establishment of an ITU Regular Programme of TA, (Malaysia) 91.—-Proposal for a Permanent Charter, (Argentine) 92.—-Reorganization of the Union, (Mexico) 95.--Proposal on the Establishment of ITU Regular Programme of TA 121.—-Regional Offices, Resolution ‘ l57.—-Minutes, On South Africa, (Trinidad & Tobago) l77.--Draft of a Charter, Resolution 185.—-Minutes, on a Permanent Charter 186.--Draft on a Permanent Constitution, Resolution 349 223.--Regional Center for the Study of Space Communications 23l.--Draft Resolution on a Charter 256.--Institution of a Regular Programme on TA by the ITU 284.——Establishment of an International Institute for TC Studies 320.—-Exclusion of South Africa 324.--Minutes, ITU Special Fund 374.--Minutes, Establishment of an International Institute for TC Studies 384.—-Minutes, on a Charter 394.——Resolution on a Permanent Charter 428.--Minutes, on the Establishment of a Center for TC Studies 511.--on TA, Report by Canada 521.--Minutes, on TA 535.-—Minutes, Regional Offices 536.--Minutes, Regional Offices 572.--Regional Offices, Resolution 601.--Minutes, on TA matters Note on Article 4 PC 1973 22.--US Proposal on Charter 27.--Geographical Distribution, (Table) 64.--Proposal on a Constitution, (India) 83.--Setting Up of Regional Offices 89.--Emergency Fund for Technical Cooperation, Resolution 96.--Creation of an International Committee for Technical Cooperation in Telecommunications 99.--Minutes, on Budgetary Considerations, (USSR), (Ivory Coast) lO3.--Additional Financial Resources for ITU’s TA 124.--Minutes, Geographical Distribution l45.--Minutes, Structure of the Union l52.--Charter, Statement by the SG 154.*-Minutes, On Israel 166.--More Favorable Treatment, (Mexico) 168.--Consideration of a Permanent Committee for TA 169.--Minutes, on TA 188.--Minutes, International Committee on TA 199.--Helping New or Developing Countries to Attend CCI Meetings 206.--Minutes, New Basic Instrument of the ITU 213.—-Minutes, Regional Offices 229.--Regiona1 Offices for TA, Resolution 240.--Special Measures for the Least Developed Among the Develop- ing Countries 261.--Regional Offices 329.--Special Measure for the LDCs 338.--Special Fund for Technical Cooperation 351.--Unrestricted Transmission of News 360.--Favorable Treatment for LDCs 372.——Minutes, Regional Offices 373.—-Minutes, on TA 374.-—Minutes, Resources for TA 385.--Admission of Liberation Organizations 350 410.--Minutes, TA 4ll.—-Minutes, TA DT 9.--ITU/UNDP Statement by the SG DT lO.-—Contribution of CCITT to Assistance DT ll.-- .. .. IFRB .. DT 12.-— .. .. CCIR .. DT 31.--Consideration of a Permanent Committee for TA DT 60.--Application of TC Science and Technology in the Interest of Developing Countries DT 65.-—Improvement of Union Facilities for Rendering Technical Assistance to New and Developing Countries DT 81.--Special Fund for Technical Cooperation Report of the CA to the PC of Malaga-Torremolinos, 1973 PC 1982 20.--Art. 4, (USSR) 46.--Implementation of Resolutions, etc, Relating to the TA Activities of the Union 52.--World Communications Year 54.--International Programme for the Development of Communica- tion, (IPDC) lO7.--Art. 4, (Cameroon) l43.--Adoption of UN scale for contribution, Proposal (Algeria) 163.--TA Operation, Proposal by USA l75.—-UNDP/ITU Codevtel Project 206.--Minutes, TA matters 219.-—Special Voluntary Programme for Technical Cooperation, Resolution 24l.--Minutes, Discussion on TA 250.--Special Voluntary Programme for TA, Resolution 254.--Minutes, TA 266.--Minutes, on the Charter 267.--Minutes, Services to LDCs 291.--Special Voluntary Programme for TA, Resolution 292.--The A. C. Clarke Communication, Energy and Space Technology Training Center 299.--Minutes, future of ITU TA 305.--Minutes, Personnel Question in ITU 325.--Research on the Interrelation Between TC Infrastructure and Development 346.--Improvement of the Union Facilities for Rendering TA to LDCs 354.--Note on TA 367.--Establishment of the Maitland Commission, Resolution 369.--Minutes, Finance Participation of 1605 374.--Minutes, Future of TA 378.--Resolutions on TA 402.--Proposal by Cameroon 404.--A. C. Clarke, Resolution 426.--Final Protocol, (Sample) 43l.--Minutes, Article 4 449.--Final Protocol 351 451.--Minutes, Future of the ITU TA 452.--Minutes, Regional Presence, TA Activities paid by ITU 485.--Minutes, Finance 489.--Minutes, Special Voluntary Programme for TA 504.--Minutes, Art. 4 505.--Minutes, Art. 4 DT DT DT DT DT 19.--Budget of 1605 from 1973 to 1982 20.-~Basic Instrument of the Union, Resolution 34.—-Amendment of Art. 4 58.—-Basic Instrument of the Union, Resolution 68.——Resolution on Regional Presence of the ITU HICHI N ST E U I RQRIES wwwwxnmmw 29