‘ A". .L

15' 43%: ;
WE? .._ - 1m

§*t:i3.s-Ea"%5 7: an

     

  

1'.‘§'r."¢'- ',
v \x‘ '4”) '
55."."1":

   

 

JUN18
Mag '13

2013

 

OVERDUE FINES;
25¢ per day per item
RETURNING LIBRARY MATERIALS:

P1ace in book neturn to remove
charge from circulation records

 

 

A RE-EXAMINATION OF DEBUSSY'S INDEBTEDNESS
TO INDONESIAN MUSICAL CULTURE

by

Choon Mee Hong

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Music

1980

ABSTRACT

A RE-EXAMINATION OF DEBUSSY'S INDEBTEDNESS
TO INDONESIAN MUSICAL CULTURE

by

Choon Mee Hong

The Indonesian gamelan music performed at the 1889 Paris
Exposition has been regarded by scholars as an important in-
fluence in the development of Debussy's mature style. But
one finds that these scholars disagree as to the exact nature

of this influence.

Part I of the present study summarizes the character—
istic criteria of Indonesian music in light of the 1889 per-
formance. From this base Part II seeks to establish precisely
what the nature of any Indonesian influence on Debussy may
have been by examining Debussy's musical style before 1889,
scholars' opinions on this influence, new artisitic movements

of the time, and Debussy's mature works.

The conclusion of this study is that the Indonesian
influence on Debussy lies in his adaptation of the principle
of gamelan orchestra, namely in his fuller deve10pment of
the percussion instruments and the sonority produced by a
number of registral and timbral variants, rather than in his
use of Indonesian musical rudiments like "pentatonic scale,"

colotomic structure or harmony, as others have suggested.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author would like to express her profound
gratitude to Dr. Kazadi wa Mukuna, who initially sug-
gested this project, and also to Dr. Dale Bonge and
Dr. David Liptak, without whose encouragement and help-
ful criticisms this study might have been impossible

to complete.

The writer also wishes to gratefully acknow-
ledge the help provided by Dr. Sue Carter Devale of the
Chicago Field Museum, who offered many valuable docu-

ments and illustrations.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

 

Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS O O O O O O O O O O O O O O C i i
TABLE OF PHOTOGRAPHS AND ILLUSTRATIONS . . . . v
PREFACE O O O O O O O O O O O O O C O O O O 0 Vi
PART I
INDONESIAN MUSICAL STYLE
CHAPTER
\) I. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
' INDONESIAN MUSIC 0 O O O O O O O O O O 1
II. JAVENESE GAMELAN MUSIC AT THE 1889
PARIS EXPOSITION . . . . . . . . . . . 30
PART II
DEBUSSY'S MUSICAL STYLE
III. DEBUSSY'S STYLE BEFORE 1889 . . . . . . 54
IV. INDONESIAN INFLUENCE ON DEBUSSY
AFTER 1 8 8 9 O O O O O O I O O O O O O O 7 4

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

APPENDICIES: Musical Examples Discussed
in Chapter III:

A. Nuj-t d' étOileS O O O O O O O O O O O O 117
B. Green 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 119

iii

C. Recueillement

D. Harmonie du Soir .

E. Le Balcon

F. Le Jet d'eau .
BIBLIOGRAPHY .

iv

120
123
125
130

135

TABLE OF PHOTOGRAPHS AND ILLUSTRATIONS

PHOTOS

Gong Ageng and Kempul . . . . . . .
Kenong and Ketuk . . . . . . . . .

saron O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O

Bonang . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gambang . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Suling . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Bedug and Kendang . . . . . . . . .

Javanese Gamelan, Entire Set-Up .

ILLUSTRATIONS

Map of Indonesia . . . . . . . . . .

Javanese Dancers at the Exposition

The Procession of Javanese Musicians
the Exposition . . . . . . . . . . .

Page

10
10
11
ll
14
15
15
16

41

42

PREFACE

Debussy's life, and the trend of his musical style,
have been the subjects of countless writings by biographers
and musicologists. In spite of the divergent areas of their
concern, most of these writers seem to agree that Debussy's
style reveals the impact of Indonesian musical culture.
Delving into this literature, however, one finds that scholars
contradict each other as to the exact nature of the influence
derived from Indonesia. It is the task of the present thesis

to clarify the nature of this influence.

The period of Debussy's formative years was dominated
by a search for a new mode of eXpression common uaall domains
of artistic endeavour. A primary concern of the artistic
movements of the time was the expression of pure nature, a
nature not yet deformed by intelligence or society. Impres-
sionistic painters, for example, left their studios for the
broader world, endeavoring to draw pure nature on their can-
vas by using various colors of light; symbolist poets tried
to find more condensed words which consisted of the exact
truth related to the purity of the earth; in music, the search

for nature was represented in exoticism.

When we consider the factors which affect Debussy
deeply, the question arises whether Debussy's hearing of the
Indonesian gamelan music at the Exposition might have accele-

erated the develOpment of his style by exposing him to

vi

broadened possibilities for the use of musical elements such

as scale, harmony, rhythm, instruments and their sound color.

In order to discover whether there was such an Indo-
nesian influence on Debussy, and to identify its exact
nature, the Indonesian musical culture will first.bmastudied
in its own context in order to shed light on the principles
of Indonesian musical organization which are thought.t£>have
had an impact on Debussy. Debussy's early musical style
and important events in his early life will then be closely
examined to establish what Debussy had practiced in his cam-
position before he heard Javanese gamelan performance at
the 1889 Exposition. Finally, the existing opinions of
other scholars on the subject of the Indonesian influence
on Debussy, and the new artistic movements which were cur-
rent when he heard the gamelan music will be reviewed before
examining selected mature works of Debussy to determine pre-
cisely what the nature of the Indonesian influence may have

been.

vii

CHAPTER I

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INDONESIAN
GAMELAN MUSIC

Indonesia, a southeast Asian nation, consists of
over 3,000 islands and stretches some 3,000 miles from east
to west. These islands are divided into three main groups
based on their geographical positions within the archi-
pelago: the Greater Sundas in the west (serving as the
center of the entire nation, is composed of some of the
nmmt important islands, such as Java and Bali, whose musical
expression will be the focus of this chapter), the Lesser
Sundas in the south and the Moluccas in the east. Favored
by its geographic location, Indonesia stands at the cross-
roads of trade routes from mainland Asia to Australia and
from Western Asia to China and the Pacific, thus becoming
a meeting place of races and cultures from diverse corners
of the world, including China, India, Arabia, Portugal,
England and Holland, some of whose imprints on the culture
of this nation are evident in its religion, language, archi-

tecture, and social organization.

It is agreed that Indonesian culture existed well be-
fore the time of Christ; however, relatively little has come
down to us in the way of written history prior to the first

century A. D. A report from Chinese court annals written

in the Han period during the reign of Wang Mang (A.D. l -

 

.Am .m .hva .mow>uom cofiumEuowcm
ucoficum>00 moHUcH mocmaumnuoz ”afi>mumm .mnouomh can muomm ”Emanoum
swammcoccH msa.oow>uwm cowumEH0mcH Homecum>ow mmfiocH mocmauonuoz Eonmv

 

 

.x. \
35......» .
... . .. J o J.- .n).\/ .
. O . .0:«u..... , \thP k) a
.5 o.mzno.m\. . ... «9.. b
..H..“.¢u...m..¥~....... £2“. 25o... «.....Ilwxlsu‘wv

   
   

. .. . . 2.094025 . x no. .4

a
Zc<wUO

a

 

     

U_..__U<Q.

a..._IU 002.

10.1%..

 

 

 

mwmococcH mo mm: "a .HHH

A.D. 23) makes mention of the existence of a number of
states in Indonesia, and numerous pieces of ceramics from
the Han dynasty excavated in Indonesia corroborate on exten-

sive commercial exchange between that country and China at

that time. In spite of this early contact, the Chinese
influence was not as strong as that which was introduced by
traders from India in form of religions (Buddhism and Hindu-

ism) and social organizations.

The bulk of the oldest Indian art works, thus far,

discovered in Indonesia are statues of Buddha which date

from the third century A.D. The earliest Indonesian inscrip-
tions (writing) are also derived from the Indian Sanscrit at
the beginning of the fifth century. The magnificent EEEQ’
b39313 temple, constructed near the present city of Jogjakarta
from the eighth through the ninth century, still reminds one
of the glorious period of the Indonesian Shrivijaya Empire,
which was deeply influenced by Indian culture. Other king-

doms in the archipelago, such as Majapahit, founded in 1294,

 

and including almost all the territory of present-day Indo-

nesia, revealed the strong impact of Indian culture.

At almost the very time that the Majapahit kingdom
was founded, a new religious-cultural force, Islam, began
to gain influence in coastal regions. Perlak, the first
Islamic town in Indonesia, arose around 1290. The Moslem

merchants began to spread their faith and doctrines over the

 

strongly Hinduized society at about the same time. The king-
dom of Majapahit, meanwhile, was weakened and conquered by

a coalition of the Moslem states in 1478, after which they
became one of the most powerful Islamic regimes, located in
Demak, Java. Culturally, Demak absorbed several of the
earlier Hindu traditions. By the sixteenth century, the most
powerful Islamic kingdom, Mataram, sought direct contact
with the heart of the Moslem world in the Middle East, and
introduced a developed form of Islamic culture into the arch-
ipelago. In the late sixteenth century, however, the coming

of the Europeans ended the spread of Islam.

The first European to come to Indonesia were Portu-
guese who had recently driven the Moors from their homeland.
They preceded the Moslems by little more than a quarter of
a century in Indonesia. Traces of Portuguese influence can
be found in the many Indonesian words derived from their
language and in some art works of the eastern part of the
archipelago. Their influence can also be detected in the
form of the religion, Christianity, that was introduced at

the time of their arrival.

The Portuguese in Indonesia were followed by the
Spanish, the Dutch, the French and the English. But before
the seventeenth century ended, the Dutch had won a position

of commercial predominance over all their EurOpean rivals.

The Dutch East Indies Company, a tool of full-scale

colonization was employed by the Dutch in Indonesia until
1799. In 1803 this Dutch rule was interrupted when forces
of Napoleon occupied the Netherlands, but the greater part
of the nineteenth century was a period of Dutch consolida-
tion of power in Indonesia. Although the Dutch introduced
the cultivation of new crops, and other technologies, the
condition of individual Indonesians deteriorated undertheir
rule. During this period peasants moved in large numbers
to settle in new, uncultivated lands away from the Dutch

domain.

At the turn of the century the idea of nationalism
grew rapidly in Indonesia, but Indonesia remained a colony
during the first four decades of the twentieth century.

Then came the Pacific War and the Japanese occupation of
Indonesia. For three and a half years the Japanese ex-
ploited the people by forced labor and military service.
Finally, in early August, 1945 after the Japanese surrender,

the independence of Indonesia came.

There are over three hundred different ethnic groups
in Indonesia, and an almost equal number of distinct lan-
guages throughout the vast archipelago; however, within this
cultural diversity, some generalizations can be made. First,
there is a strongly Hinduized cultural group of wet-rice
growers located in the inland areas. Derived from India,
this culture is characterized by the recognition of status

distinctions between aristrocrat and commoner. Some of

the most refined forms of Indonesian arts, dance, music,
drama and literature are found with the wet-rice growers.
The second group, located in the coastal regions, is Islamic
and participates in spice trade with the outside world. The
p0pulation of this particular culture is of a more cosmo-
politan nature, composed of Malayans, Moslem Indians, Arabs,
Portuguese, Javanese, Makassarese, English, Dutch and Chinese.
The third cultural category includes pagan ethnic groups
whose geographic location in various mountains has kept Emma
isolated from both Hindu and Islamic influences. These
groups include the people of Halmahera, inland Ceram, most
of the interior Lesser Sundas, the inland area of Sumatra,
the Toradja of Celebes, and the Dayak of interior Borneo,
whose agricultural crops include dry rice, root crOps, or
gardeners of sago and maize. Several small groups not men-
tioned above, such as the Batak, Minangkabau, Minahassans

and Ambonese, are also important for their own traditions.

The aforementioned cultural and ethnic diversities

are reflected in various aspects of Indonesian life. Cities
and towns are sharply segmented according to ethnic identi—
ties. The ceremonies, arts, dances, dramas and costumes pro-
duced by villages take different forms, each with its own
cultural expression. Musical cultures are not exempted hxml
this diversity, and ranging from simple local variants to

the highly developed regional gamelan music in Java and Bali.

Out of these diverse musical cultures, the Javanese and

Balinese gamelan music, commonly regarded as the character-
istic style of Indonesian art music tradition, will consti-

tute the core of this discussion.

The term "gamelan," derived from gamgl (to handle),
is used as a generic term for orchestra.1 The gamelan is
compomaiprimarily of idiophones belonging to the following
musical instrument families: those made of bronze, such as

bonang, saron, gender and gongs and those made of wooden

 

material, such as gambang. Also, included are the aerophone
suling (flute), the chordophone rebab (bowed two-stringed

fiddle) and several membranophones (drums: kendang gending,

 

bedug, ketipung and tjiblong). To these basic musical in-

 

struments several others may be added, according to local
variations. The term "gamelan" is also sometimes used to
designate a musical ensemble composed solely of bamboo idio-

phones known as anklung.

There are no striking differences, in terms of musi—
cal instruments used, between Javanese and Balinese gamelan.
However, they do differ from each other in sound quality,
the former, being more mellow and subtle, while the latter

has a more brilliant quality. In his Music in Bali, Colin

 

 

1For different opinions about the translation of the
word "gamelan," see M. Hood, "Music of Indonesia," in Hand-
buch der Orientalistik, (Leiden, Koln: E. J. Brill, 1972),
pp. 5-6, and M. Hatchy, "Toward a MOre Open Approach to the
History of Javanese Music," Indonesia, XXVII (1979), 131.

 

 

McPhee expresses a similar idea in the following terms:

With essentially the same instruments,
scale system, basic musical forms and
orchestral methods, each island produces
its own style of music different from the
other in mood and color as night from day.

Dalton, on the other hand, compares the two in the
following terms:

The Balinese gamelan is played more vigor-
ously and passionately than the slower,
more aimless and haunting Javanese gamelan.
The Balinese like their music electrifying,
very loud, with sharp changes in tempo and
volume.

In the early periods of the Indonesian culture there
were two types of gamelan, the strong or loud for outdoor
occasions and the soft for indoor performances. Since the
post-Hindu period these two have been combined in accompany-
ing both indoor and outdoor events. For an indoor occasion

all the instruments are played, but the loudest ones are

played softly.

Instruments

The instruments of the gamelan can be classified into

three major types according to their function in the ensemble:

 

2(New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1966),
p. 4.

3Dalton, Indonesia Handbook, 2nd ed. (Singapore: Bill
Dalton, 1978), p. 190.

 

“U1

.4!“—

(‘5-

4

colotomic4 instruments. The colotomic instruments include
both vertically- and horizontally-suspended gong families

the most important of which are gong ageng, kenong, kempul

 

 

and ketuk. Gong ageng, the largest vertically-suspended

 

gong, has a central boss and a turned rim. It has a low-
pitched tone of thirty to thirty-five beats per second, and
marks the end of the fixed thematic melody. The tone is
produced by striking the boss with a mallet (Photo 1).

Kenong, whose function is to punctuate every fourth pulse

of the fixed melody, is a large horizontally-suspended gong,
also with a central boss (Photo 2). Kempul is a smaller,
hanging gong, pitched two octaves higher than ggpg ggggg
(Photo 4). Its function is to subdivide the fixed melody

into smaller motives. 52325 is a small variety of horizontal
gong (Photo 2). It divides the fixed melody into the smallest
sections, like one beat or two beats. The origin of this gong
family is usually sought in Southeast Asia, but Jaap Kunst

5 Though several

attributes it to the East Mediterranean.
large bronze kettledrums of the pre-Hindu period have been

excavated in Indonesia recently, they have hour-glass-shaped
bodies, and Jaap Kunst believes that these gangs in Indonesia

were imported from north India and south China some centuries

before the time of Christ.

 

4The word "colotomy' was created by Jaap Kunst to des-
scribe the system 0 punctuating gongs which sectionalize the
fixed melody in Javanese gamelan music.

5Sibyl Marcuse, Musical Instruments, (N.Y.: W. W.
Norton & Company, 1975), p. 215.

 

10

 

Photo 1: Gong Ageng (two in L), Kempul (R)
(Courtesy, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago)

 

Photo 2: Kenong (L), Ketuk (R)
(Courtesy, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago)

ll

 

Photo 3: Saron _ _ _
(Courtesy, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago)

 

Photo 4: Bonang
(Courtesy, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago)

12

Melody-playing instruments include the saron family

and gender panembung. Saron, a type of metallophone which

 

has bronze slabs fixed over a wooden box, is played with a
Egbgh (beater) made of thick wood (Photo 3). It was first
depicted in a Borobudur temple about eight hundred years

A.D. The §§52n_family is of three different sizes (Photo 8):

the largest, saron demung, the middle sized saron barung and

 

 

the small saron peking. They all play unembellished fixed

 

themes. Gender panembung is the smallest of the gender

 

family, and has thin slabs over long bamboo resonators. Its
mallet is a short-handled wooden disc covered with cloth or

rubber. Gender panembung normally plays the fixed melody,

 

although at times it may play a simple anticipation of the
melody. At its first appearance in the Majapahit kingdom
period, gender has no resonator. The latter was a later in-

vention by Pangeran Buminata (b. 1786 - d. 1820).

Improvising instruments comprise the bonang family,

gender barung, gambang, rebab and suling. Bonang is a set

 

 

of two rows of inverted kettle gong played with two thin

heaters (Photo 4). It also is of three in sizes: the largest

bonang panembung, the middle-sized bonang barung and the

 

 

smallest bonang penerus. The function of the bonang family

 

can be described as follows.

1. Paraphrasing the nuclear theme
2. Anticipating the nuclear theme

3. Analyzing the nuclear theme into smaller
values

p5;-
.‘ d
III-II

. n
.-

‘ I
ii.“

'14-
(‘9

"r1

13

4. lmitating the nuclear theme
5. Syncopating the nuclear theme; and

6. Filling in melodic gaps.6

Various bonang improvisatory techniques7 are employed
by players, including staccato, turns, glissando and broken
octave. The date of origin of this bonang family is not cer-

tain, but appears to be around the tenth century.

Gender barung and gender penerus are the small var-

 

 

ieties of the gender family described above. These are im-
portant improvising instruments in soft-style playing. Gender
barung is the middle-sized type, and usually plays at a ratio

of four beats to one of the nuclear theme. Gender penerus

 

improvises at a ratio of eight to sixteen to one of the main
'melody. Gambang is a xylophone with sixteen to twenty-one
wooden keys over a small wooden trough (Photo 5). It usually
encompasses from three to four octaves and moves at the same

ratio as ggnder penerus. The most ancient image of a xylo-

 

phone is to be found on the Borobudur relief. This has the
appearance of a modern gambang cut in half. Egbgb is a spiked
fiddle, introduced by the Moslems during the Islamic period
(Photo 8). It has two copper or brass strings, two elongated
lateral pegs and a high bridge, but no fingerboard. Sometimes
it is played as a solo, but within the orchestral combination

it plays the fixed melody with slight elaborations. Suling

 

6M. A. Gaestano, Jr., "Definite Pitched Idiophones of
the Javanese Gamelan," Percussionist, XV (1978), 133.

7See Ibid., pp. 139-140 for illustrations.

 

l4

 

Photo 5: Gambangs
(Courtesy, Field Museum of Natural History,Chicago)

15
(Courtesy, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago)

Suling

 

Photo 6

 

Photo 7: Bedug (Lg), Kendang (two Sm.)

 

 

 

(Courtesy, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago)

AomMOHnU .muoumflm Hmucumz mo Booms: pagan .wmounsoov

mcmafimw .nmnwm .mcocmx tam xsumx .HDQEwM paw

mcwmfl mcoo.mcmpcmm paw mspwm.mcmnEmo A.m on .q Hmmmv .mcnumm mcmcom .mcflxom

Icoumm .mczumm coumm .mCDEon coumm .msuwcmm mcmcom A.m on .Q m3ou ozu uconmv
mnluom wuflpcm .cmHoEmw wmocm>Mh "m ouonm

 

17

is an end-blown flute made of bamboo tube (Photo 6). Four,
.five or six fingerholes are pierced at the lowest part of the
laody. This is the most popular solo instrument. In orchestra
:it penetrates the thick gamelan sound clearly with ornamental

twanes. This bamboo flute is regarded as an Indonesian-origin

iristrument.

Besides instruments discussed above, anklung and drums
aare often employed by gamelan music enbemble. Anklung, a bam-
tnao rattle, is, like suling, also of Indonesian origin. gag-
25533 is a customary signalling instrument, which consists of
tune or three bamboo segments of different lengths, tuned to
Several octaVes. These tubes are suspended vertically onto
the horizontal bamboo frame. The sound can be produced by
shaking the instrument to and fro. This instrument is more

Pmrmonic and rhythmic than melodic.

The drum is an important rhythmic instrument in
gamelan music (Photo 7). It is played with the hands or

heaters, and produces interlocking rhythms. Kendang gending

 

is a large, barrel-shaped, double-headed handdrum. Bedug

is also a large barrel-shaped drum, but is played with a

beater. Keipung and tjiblong are handdrums smaller than
kendangfgending.

Tjiblong is used for dance accompaniment. These bar-

rel-shaped drums might be from India, because very small

drums of the pre-Hindu period are thought to have no connec-

PLEASE NOTE:

Page 18 is missing in number only. No text is lacking. Filmed as received.

University Microfilms International

19

tion with large barrel-shaped drums, and Jaap Kunst8 suggests
that the names of similar barrel—shaped drums with kendang

are derived from Sanskrit word "mrdagga," which means drum.

In strong gamelan playing the drummer plays a role as a leader;

in soft style, the rebab player does.

In sum, the various gongs of the bonang family, saron

family, gender family, gambang, rebab, suling and drums are

 

the major instruments used in all gamelan orchestras. Because
each instrumental family comprises several octaves of range
produced by different-sized varieties, the total range of a

gamelan usually reaches six to seven octaves.

In regard to the style of Indonesian music, D. A.

Lentz says:

In spite of the strong Indian influence

on the islands for such a long time, sur-

prisingly little of Hindu musical theory

or practice is noted in the technical

aspect of the music of the gamelan.9

This implies that Indian music introduced in the Hindu

period was reinterpreted into typical Indonesian music as it
was at a certain time in history. Jaap Kunst's research seems

to suggest that this probably occurred around the tenth

century:

at the time that prosa—redaction of the
Mahabharato-Canto (996), the instrumen-

 

8Music in Java, p. 202.

9The Gamelan Music of Java and Bali, (Lincoln,Nebraska:
University of Nebraska Press, 1965), p. 5.

 

 

 

20

tarium of the ruling castes still bore

a predominanterindu character. One may

take it as certain, however, that in

many respects the music played on it

differed considerably, already at that

time, from the music of the Indian home-

land. Just like the architecture and

the poetry of that period it probably

possessed its own pronounced Hindu-

Javanese character..

Whatever their precise origins, the characteristics

(of the Indonesian music that we hear at the present day can
be generalized on several levels, such as nuclear theme or
fixed melody, scale system, modes, colotomic structure, mus—

ical form and orchestration.

Nuclear Theme

Nuclear theme, to borrow a A. Gaestano's definition,
is a "fixed melody which is equivalent to a western cantus
firmus--usually an eight to sixteen-beat melody, slow and
simple, and of equal values, around which layers or orna-

ll

mentations and elaborations are built." The saron family

and the gender panembung play this fixed melody. The nuclear

 

theme is the base of all gamelan compositions. The combina-

tion of the melodic pattern and the mode of the nuclear

theme established the actual identity of a gamelan piece.

 

10
Music in Java, p. 112.

 

11"Definite Pitched Idiophones of the Javanese Gamelan,"
Percussionist, XV (1979), 126.

 

'41-

.
.pn

‘41“

 

u.

..
‘u—

.
nu.
Nu.

 

>v 1
(h

 

 

21

Scale

There are two basic scale systems in the gamelan: pelog

 

l .
and slendro. 2 The pelog system conSists of seven tones, and
sslendro includes five tones in an octave. Traditionally, pelog
is considered a feminine or sad system, and slendro a masculine

(Dr festive system. It seems that various kinds of tuning sys-

tems have been used in Indonesia throughout history. But M. Hood13

ssays that the modern form of gamelan slendro and pelog had been

 

eestablished by the late seventeenth or early eighteenfli century.
the five tones of slendro have an equal intervallic relathmhip,
lout those in pelog do not. The names of the tones and their

intervallic arrangement14 are as follows:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

’1 L
Pelog .jR O
J + 43 0 V
I + 3 0
e O V
bem Gulu dada Pelog lima nem barang bem
120 130 270 130 115 165 250
'1
Slendro
"' 9
I], “k 2; C)
+ e
-e— 0
Name: barang Gulu dada Lima Nem barang
Cents: 240 240 240 240 240

 

12The words "pelog" and "slendro" are Central Javanese
in origin. ‘

13Music of Indonesia, p. 14.

14

Intervals are from Jaap Kunst, p. 14.

 

 

22

The following chart compares the two systems in an
15

octave of the same level.

Nem barang bem Gulu dada pelog Lima Nem
Pelog 165\ 250 I120 /130 270 [130 X115

 

 

 

 

 

 

Western C D E F ‘ C
Scale 200 200 100 200 200 200 100
Slendro 240 240 240 240 240
nem barang Gulu dada Lima Nem
Patet

Each of the two scale systems consists of three
modes called "pate ." The three modes in the pelog sys-

tem are patet Lima, patet Nem, and patet Barung. The modes

 

 

 

in the slendro system are patet Nem, patet Sanga, and patgt
Manyuna. All six 23523 have different sets of principal
tones, on which special colotomic and melodic emphases are
laid. The table below presents the patgt of each system

with its principal tones (dasa).16 The principal tones

 

15To assist understanding, the western tempered
scale is added.

16This is derived from W. P. Malm, Music Cultures
of the Pacific, the Near East and Asia, (New Jersey: Pren-
tice-Hall, Inc., 1967), p. 31.

 

 

23

are indicated by X's:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

S barang lima gulu nem dada
E Patet manyuna x x d
g Patet nem x x x
g Patet sanga x x x

barang bem gulu dada pelog lima nem
E Patet Lima x x x
O Patet nem ' x x x
G Patet barang x x x

 

 

Colotomic Structure

Colotomic structure refers to the unique Indonesian
basic rhythmic structure which occurs in an eight to sixteen

17 of a nuclear theme. The structure

beat melodic phrase
is determined by four colotomic instruments: gong ageng,

kenong, kempul and ketuk. These instruments divide music

 

into several sections by entering in a certain time and
order. The following illustration represents one of the

most common colotomic structures in use today. An eight-

beat phrase is presented as an example:

 

17This is called gongan in Indonesian.

 

 

 

 

24

Number of

beats 1 1 4

Ketuk X X

><——-—-U1

 

Kempul X X

 

Kenong X X

 

 

 

Gong ageng X

 

Gong ageng always marks off the end of the nuclear
theme or phrase. Then keggng divides this phrase, called
'gongan, into two equal parts, and kempul beats fall within
‘the kenong beats. Kempul beats are filled by kgtuk beats.
7Phe principle of this colotomic cycle seems to be strongly
<:onnected with Indonesian cosmology. Gongan is thought by
IIndonesians to be an universal circle which goes round con-
‘tinuously without having beginning or end. The following
diagram18 show the relationship between the eight-beat colo-

tubmic structure and the concept of Indonesian cosmology.

G: Gong ageng t \\\<f

N: Kenong

 

P P
P: Kempul
t: Ketuk t .. t
N

 

188. B. Hoffman, "Epistemology and Music: A Javanese
Example," Ethnomuicologyr XXII (January, 1978), 84.

 

25

Repeating the rule related to the above diagram, the
completion of this circle, which is a phrase of the nuclear

theme, is marked by gong ageng, and kenong divides the circle

 

into two equal parts. Kempul beats fall within the kenong
beats and ketuk beats fill the kempul beats. The balance of
the circle or universe is very important. Thus the order

of punctuating this circle always seems to follow this
principle. When the length of gongan is more than eight
beats, further subdivisions are made in the circle as fol-

l9

lows:

G: Gong ageng

 

N: Kenong

P: Kempul
t: Ketuk

 

N
Though the illustration above shows a further sub-

division, the same principle as with the eight-beat phrase

is implied: gong ageng marks the end of a phrase, and

 

kenong divides it into several equal sections. Kempul beats
fall within the kenong beats, and ketuk beats fill the rest
of the space for balance. The colotomic cycle also corres-

ponds with the points of the compass and calendrical reckon-

 

19Sue Carter DeVale, "The Gamelan," Field Museum of
Natural History Bulletin, January, 1978, 12.

 

 

26

20

ing.

S. B. Hoffman attributes the importance of gamelan
music in rites and ceremonies to a need to reaffirm the order
of the universe, which is thought to be in danger in such
times of transition as births, marriages, exorcisms, corona—

tions, etc.21

Form

The musical form of a gamelan piece is usually a two—
part construction, consisting of the first introductory move—
ment and the second main movement. The introduction, called
bebuka or buka, always comes first in composition (gending). It
introduces a nuclear melodic formula or mode, frequently in a
melodic pattern similar to that of the fixed melody. During this
introduction the players have an opportunity to "get into the
atmosphere" of the piece to be played. There are two types
of introduction in gamelan: instrumental and vocal. An instru-
mental introduction can be performed by a solo or an ensemble.
The most important instruments employed in bng are £2232,

bonang barung, and gender. When these instruments play

 

a buka, the word "buka" is put in front of the name of
each instrument: buka rebab, buka bonang barung, and buka

gender. It is said that each instrument is played according

 

For further discussion-see S. B. Hoffman, pp. 79-80.

21For further discussion see S. B. Hoffman, p. 78.

27

to the needs of the occasion. Buka rebab is used for adding

 

luster to festivities, including the accompaniment of dances

and puppet plays; buka bonang barung is used for ceremonials

 

(hormat); bebukaggender is used for soft music, such as

 

Puspawarna and Babat Kencheng. In addition to these instru-

 

 

ments, buka kendang is used for martial music. Vocal intro—

 

duction can be performed by a solo, a chorus, or both. When
the introduction is performed by an instrumental ensemblecn:

a chorus, the resultant texture is heterophony, in which a few
extra tones or ornaments are added to the main melodic:line.
The instrumental bgkg is usually no longer than a few mea-

sures, but the vocalintroduction is longer.

Because the character of the buka is usually in agree-
ment with the section that follows it, the names-gending

rebab, gending bonang, and gending gender-are sometimes used

 

 

to indicate the character of a whole piece. Both instrumental

and vocal introductions are concluded by a gong ageng stroke.

 

After a gong beat at the end of the introduction the orches—
tral playing gradually accelerates, and this is the start of
the second, developmental part. In this part comes the fixed
melody based on the mode introduced earlier. As this movement
develops, a thick orchestral texture is established around
the nuclear theme, and the tempo becomes very fast. At the
end of this vigorous development the tempo slows down and,

after one or two slow measures, the gong ageng beat concludes

 

the piece. It is said that the colotomic structure is not

28

always maintained in the strict principle in the last few
measures of this part: it seems that players tend to change
the colotomic pattern during the performance. In short, the

form of a gamelan piece might be presented as follows:

First part: buka
Second part: a b c d e f - - - -.

The letters a, b, c, d, etc., each indicate a gongan and each

gongan can be repeated.

Orchestration

The principle of gamelan orchestration may be referred
to as stratification. There is an indeterminate number of

repetitions of the nuclear theme, and Lentz writes that,

on each recurrence of the theme (or cantus),

a new tonal register or a rhythmic intensi-
fication is introduced. Later new tonal color
is added by instruments such as bonangs, thus
stratifying the basic outline. The flexible
suling or rebab supply florid embellishment.
Improvisatory elaborations of a heterophonic
nature develop with the music progressing in

a free manner.

Although the essential line of all strata is a simple
fixed melody, each stratum produces a thick harmonic texture

by adding various improvisatory and contrapuntal lines to

 

22The Gamelan Music of Java and Bali, p. 44.

29

the fixed melody at a certain intervallic distance verti-
cally. Improvisation is a very important musical practice
in the gamelan orchestra. About the orchestral color, M.
Hood says the following:

Another underlying deep structure of this

music appears to be an aesthetic prefer-

ence for a homogeneity in orchestral color

rather than the concept of contrast fea-

tured in the Western orchestra through the

juxtaposition of strings, woodwinds, brass

and percussion.

In summary, the general characteristic features of
Indonesian gamelan music may be described as follows: the
use of nuclear theme, which is equivalent to a western can-
tus firmus; two basic scale systems,-pelog and slendro, and
their six modes; colotomic structure; orchestration, whose
principle can be referred to as stratification; two-part

formal structure; and instruments composed primarily of idio—

phones.

Despite successive periods of foreign influence, the
peoples of Indonesia have certainly established richly diver—
sified modes of their own cultural expression. Among these,
the highly-developed gamelan music in Java and Bali is prob-
ably the most important tradition, which has developed into
a form uniquely Indonesian in character, in connection with

religion, literature, drama and dance.

 

23Music in Indonesia, p. 10.

 

CHAPTER II

THE JAVANESE MUSIC AT THE 1889 UNIVERSAL
EXPOSITION IN PARIS

In a broad sense, expositions and fairs are events
where people gather to present or see exhibits that show
other people's works and goods. The terms "exposition" and
"fair" have often been used interchangeably, but the general
distinction between them is that fairs traditionally are
gatherings for immediate trade, and expositions are a form
of advertisement. Fairs thus are meetings of peOple for the
sale and purchase of goods, taking place regularly in a known
or fixed locality. Expositions are set up not so much to sell
goods as to display the industrial, scientific and artistic
achievements of a given country or period, and are not neces-
sarily at regular intervals. The origins of fairs date as
far back as the second.millenium B.C., when caravans of mer-
chants customarily travelled to the most important religious
festivals in Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia and Egypt. Com-
pared with these fairs, expositions seem to be of very recent
origin. It is said that the first exposition founded on a
fine arts exhibition was held by the French Academy of Paint-

ings and Sculpture in 1673 A.D.

From the middle of the eighteenth century to the

first half of the nineteenth century expositions grew rapidly

30

31

in size and number, perhaps because of the economic, social
and political changes during this period. The striking
economic change was the industrial revolution, involving

the introduction of manufacturing machines. With the new
machines, vast quantities of goods and materials could be
produced rapidly. Thus, machinery and industrial products
became very important parts of an exposition. As industry
developed further, factories were built in many cities, rail-
roads linked these cities, and the invention of the telegraph
furnished instant communication between distant places. All
these factors led to more frequent expositions around indus-

trial centers.

The growth of industrialism brought a social change
of great importance: a middle class grew in size and influ-
ence. The members of the middle class were neither noblemen
nor peasant, but rather businessmen and wealthy landowners.
They owned most of the factories and operated the banks,
mines, railroads and shops. These people played an impor-
tant role in the development of expositions. Since they
deemed it a great honor to win the first prize in an exposi-
tion, they competed with each other to make new products,

inventions and objects of distinguished workmanship.

Politically, democracy, nationalism and imperialism
began to take shape during this period. Democracy developed

in part from revolutions--the American and French revolutions-—

32

that established the right of people to govern themselves.
Nationalism developed from strong feelings of national

pride that united the people of each country as they fought
for their democratic ideal. Nationalism for many European
countries meant a sense of separateness, a sense of national
identity, and a pride in their own achievements and tradi-
tions. These political movements caused keen rivalries
between industries among the EurOpean countries. The compe—
tition among industries in turn created the colonial expan-
sionism which later became known as imperialism. Partly
because the industrial nations needed large supplies of raw
materials for their factories, they began to establish many
colonies in Africa and Asia, which had these materials in
abundance. The nations which had the most colonies during
this period were Great Britain, France and Germany; impor-
tant colonies were also established by Belgium, Netherlands,
and Portugal. With all the above changes, expositions be-
came very important tools for displaying a nation's power
and achievements, and from the second half of the nineteenth
century expositions on an international scale began to appear

alongside the already numerous national expositions.

The "Exposition of the Industry of all Nations"
organized by the London Society of Arts in 1851 is regarded
as the first international exposition. The important uni-
versal expositions after this were those of 1855 (Paris), 1862

(London), 1867 (Paris), 1871-1874 (London), 1873 (Vienna),

33

1876 (Philadelphia) and 1878 (Paris), to name just a few.

The 1889 Exposition held in Paris was one of these universal
expositions, organized by the French government. While there
were several international expositions held in other European
countries between 1879 and 1889, the French government did
not organize any international expositions in France for ten
years after the 1878 universal exposition. This was because
France wanted to hold a magnificent exposition in the year

of 1889, the centenary of the French revolution (1789).

In the year 1889 it was very important to the French
people to reassess their strength. Industrialism and imper-
ialism climaxed in the late nineteenth century, and most
European countries became economically wealthy and militarily
strong. Their arts, sciences and scholarship reached high
levels of development. France had been one of the leading
powers in this course of development since the time of
Napoleon's domination over Europe. During the eighteen-
sixties, however, France became alarmed over the growing
strength of Prussia, fearful that an united Germany under
Prussian leadership would upset her power.24 After a series
of disputes, France declared war on Prussia in 1870.25 Fol-
lowing disastrous Prussian victories, the French established

the Third republic. Although France held an exposition in

 

2 . .
4Now the northern part of Germany. Bismark of PruSSia

united other German states between 1866 and 1871.

25Franco-Prussian war or Franco-German war.

34

1878, most Frenchmen felt that they needed a stronger dis-
play of their power throughout Europe. Therefore, France
carefully planned a centenary exposition in commemoration
of the French revolution, an event which sparked national-

istic feeling throughout the country.

Great endeavours were undertaken for ten years to
make the exposition of 1889 worthy of its centenary charac-
ter. The Eiffel Tower, completed in 1888, was one of the
new monuments established during these years of preparation.
.Jules Bertaut explains the circumstances of the year 1889

as follows:

The year 1889 was a year of excitement.
Events tumbled over each other in every
department of national activity, as though,
after ten years of apprenticeship to the
tempo of modern life, the nation had at
last reached its full stride.

The 1889 exposition was held from the 6th of May to
the 3lst of October. It is said that the exposition comprised
altogether 55,486 exhibitors, including 30,000 French ones,
and the space the exposition occupied was larger than on any
previous occasion. The whole plan of the exhibition was to
show the progress accomplished in every branch of human ac-
tivity during the last century, ranging from small cultural

products to various industrial works. But above all, the

exhibition of 1889 marked the establishment of technological

 

26Paris 1870-1935, translated by R. Millar, (New York:
D. Appleton Century Company, 1936), p. 101.

.35

science as predominant among human activities.

An immense gallery of machines was thought to be the
backbone of all exhibitions, and the French seemed to be
very proud of theirs. This gallery was said to have been
the largest ever constructed up to that time. However, the
most picturesque and interesting parts of the exposition were
the displays of various French colonies and protectorates in
Africa and Asia: Algeria, Tunis, Senegal, Madagascar,f&fluti,
Guiana, Gabon, Cochin-China, Annam, Tonquin, etc. William
Walton states the purpose and plan of the colonial exhibi-
tion as follows:

Its purpose was to faithfully reproduce
the physiognomy of France's principal
possessions, to raise a grand central
palace (an Annamese palace and Cambodian
and Tonquinese pagodas), as well as types
of native villages, and to give life to
the whole by the presence of military and
civilian natives, to show the location of
the public services, to exhibit maps and
statistical documents prepared with the
most scrupulous care, to publish informa-
tion to enlighten persons who might be dis-
posed either to enter into commercial re-
lations with the colonies or to go there
in order to study their resources.2

In addition to all these French colonial exhibitions,
there was a special colonial exhibition which greatly attracted

people's attention. This was the Javanese exhibition from

Indonesia.

 

27Library ed., Paris from the Earliest Period to the
Present Day, 10 vols., (Philadelphia: G. Barrie & Son, 1899-
1922),;"Expositions," in vol. 9, p. 391.

 

 

36

In the year 1889 Indonesia was under Dutch control
and it was the Dutch who decided to organize the Javanese
exhibition, along with their other industrial items, to show
off their colony. The Dutch erected a Javanese kampong
beside the Cochin-Chinese village and brought in Javanese
native artisans, dancers and musicians with their families.
These artisans demonstrated their drawings and crafts live
in the village houses, and dancers and musicians performed
in a big pavilion, which served as a theatre in the middle
of the kampong. The number of native artisans and musicians

is not certain, but according to E. Raoul's Javanais et

 

. . . . 29
Javanaises a 1'EXP051t10n: there were four court dancers

and two public dancers.3O The four court dancers and musicians

31
were sent from 5010: a city in Central Java, but it is not

certain from what region in Java the native artisans and two

 

28A village or migrant living compound in the city or

country. Usually it is made up of hundreds of shanties separ—
ated by narrow lanes or footpaths. Each kampong reflects the
ethnic background of its inhabitants.

29(Paris, Quantan, 1889).

\V 0Javanese dancers are generally grouped into two
social classes, the tandak and the ronggeng. The tandak
constitutes the high-class court dancers, and the ronggeng
comprises the low—class public dancers.

31A different Opinion suggests that these performers
were sent from Jogya, which is also a city in Central Java.
But Arthur Pougin says in his Le Théatre a L'Exposition Uni-
verselle de 1889, (Paris: Librarie Fischhacher, 1890, p. 110)
that these four court dancers were sent by the prince, called
Mangko-Negro, who resided in Solo. He also says (Ibid., p.
111) that the one of the four dancers, named Sariem, was

 

 

37

public dancers were sent. However, the Javanese dances and
music, which shall be discussed presently, were said to be
the most noticeable of all the exotic parts of the exposi-

tion.

The Javanese performance at the exposition included
processional music, a court dance and a public dance with
gamelan accompaniment. It is possible that several more
musical pieces and dances were performed at the exposition,
but in light of available documents written around that time?2

it is thought that the above program was performed several

times per day.

The court dance called Serimpi33‘was performed by

four girls,34 Wakin, Saekia, Sariem and Tamina, aged between

 

the daughter of one of the musicians of the troupe. Thus,it

is presumed that these court dancers and musicians were all
from Solo. Actually, before 1755 these two cities wereiufler'
the same empire, sharing the same cultural background, but 8010
had more of a reputation for the traditional court dance than
Jogya.

3%. Pougin, Le Théatre a L'Exposition Universelle de 1889,E.
Raoul, Javanais et Javanaises a l'Exposition. (Paris, Quantin,
1889), and J. Tiersot, Musique Pittoresques: Promenades Mus-
icale a l'Exposition de 1889, (Paris: Le Menestrel, 1889).

 

 

33Debussy's friend Godet says that this dance was Bedaya.
Both Serimpi and Bedaya are very famous Central-Javanese
court dances, but Bedaya is usually performed by nine dancers,
and Serimpi is performed by even-numbered dancers (like four,
six, eight and so forth). Therefore it is thought that the
piece performed at the exposition was Serimpi.

34See Illustration 2.

38

twelve and seventeen, in compliance with the tradition which
requires that when the dancers reach the age of twenty, they

are no longer allowed to dance in court.

Javanese court dance is generally characterized by
its restraint and control of movement and emotion. There
are rigid rules prescribed by tradition, and each movement
or posture has a name and meaning. Every movement must be
made with absolute precision, while the facial expression of
the individual must remain detached and immobile throughout
the performance. The stories of Serimpi are mostly derived
from Hindu epics such as Mahabarata and Ramayana. This class-
ical dance is really a highly-skilled art requiring hard
training. Jules Bertaut 35 quotes an European's impression
of this dance movement, which describes the characteristics
of the dance very well, as follows:

It is a frieze of youthful bodies offered
in prayer. They approach each other with
stiff, hieratic movements, their arms taut
from their bodies, the hand flat from the
wrists. Their eyes stare blankly ahead as
their files approach and mingle. All their
gestures signify their utter obeisance be—
fore their Divinity.

In contrast with the court dance, a public dance,

whose theme was based on a love story, was performed by

 

3SZParis, 1870-1935, pp. 108-109.

 

39

female and male public dancers.36 Public dancers move town
to town to entertain at weddings, birthdays and festivals.
Julien Tiersot137describes this dance in the following terms:

The dance, far from having a general char-

acter, is composed of unique figures and

evolutions of both dancers, the male and

female running after each other and escap-

ing from each other all the time, accord-

ing to a theme which is as old as humanity,

and which can be found in the popular tradi-

tion of all races.

It seems that curious Europeans gave secondary atten-

tion to this piece because of its less mystical character.
However, it must also have given every European who visited

the Javanese theatre an unforgettable visual impression of

these dances.

Another element of the Javanese performance which

. ' o o o o o o
piqued Europeans curiOSity and some mu51c1ans' artistic

 

36
The title of this dance is not available to us, but

in View of its theme and the life of these dancers explained
by A. Pougin (Ibid., pp. 114-115), we may say that it was
joged gandrung love-dance). Jgged gandrung is a kind of foflc
dance in Central Java which is generally accompanied by a
complete or little abridged gamelan. Therefore, we might con-
clude that the public dancers were also sent from Central.kne.

37

 

 

 

Musique Pittoresque, p.‘44.

38"la danse, loin de prendre jamais un caractere
général, se compose uniquement des figures et des evolutions
des deux danseurs, l'homme et le femme se poursuivant l'un
et se fuyant sans cesse, suivant un theme aussi vieux que
l'humanité, et que 1'on retrouve dans 1es traditions pOpu-
laires de toutes les races."

40

interest was the Javanese gamelan music performed Uiaccom-
pany the procession and dances. A transcription of these
musical pieces is made available by Julien Tiersot,39 and

other versions of the music were given by Bendictus.4olkww-
ever, for the purposes of this study the work of Benedictus
will not be considered because its pianistic adaptation makes
it difficult to observe the detailed instrumentation of the
gamelan orchestra, and this discussion will be based on the

transcription by Julien Tiersot.

The processional music is generally played in special
festivals and celebrations, such as processions of ruling
princes, principalities, some members of the nobility, and
for a bride in a wedding. The Javanese performance which
began the procession of musicians at the exposition was one
of these special occasions. The processional music could
be played by the regular gamelan, by the anklung ensemble,

or by a number of membranophones. At the exposition the

procession was accompanied by the anklung ensemble. J.

 

Musique Pittoresques.

 

40Les Musique Bizarres a l'Exposition. (Paris: G.
Hartmann et Company, Editeurs, 1889).

41

.Amm .m .msmfi .muoxcnz mconunam

uw>wcmw .hmmmmmmlwmmMflw .wusqu mfloocmnm Eouhv
enchmm .Em mo mcfl3mna

coauawomxm wsu um mucocma unsoo omocm>mb

l

‘(
"'-'l
u.AIoI
\

aw

sea.

N

 

42

.AHm .a .mkaa .mmoxcnz
mcowufipm .o>wcmu .Nmmsbmn opoHo .oHDmoA mwoonmum Eoumv
.H .u .Amwwav magma we conunmomwm.a an emamansa noumxm
SOHUHmOQNM mfiu um mfimfloflwflz wmwfiwxrmh MO SON—“mmwoobnm 03H. "m .HHH

 

           

"ah-if" - _
V

at,
y .

..\.‘W. . .

. .... ......isv... awn. ....Ax:

      

 
    

      

 

 

.u u.\..“. .13.. .de . \...Vr. ....xs ... .. .‘w‘. Ar 9;. Iivi . ...
x. . .\%.sw&h$ a... x. a... wfi..\,2.% _ ...... -
. .A .‘R \. \. \\~\\ “A. u. u...» .\. . M xv. \ {..u.. \x\ .0an Jami-RIM... . .pyi . .......v
, may wesssgn.iosawxvm»ss.mn . ...Luuwjmaq. .umu

‘ .Q .....c x \ M.\\..u\\m\§.\.s‘\\ ......\.x \u. \Rrrul .z... .A} ”11.,- ..r h.

. \\ .\x , .Cux . . .....nw. xiv“. unwrff 9‘ ”H r

. . “WA/“flu b.7403 .... : . .
.. 1 .. .. .5 .I . a

43

Tiersot gives the transcription of the principal melodic

textures of the anklung music performed on that occasion:41

Ex. 2-la

 

Ex. 2-1b

 

The successive entrances are made to a slow movement, as
seen in No. 1 of Example 2-1a, and this movement gradually
speeds up as more instruments enter, like those of No. 2

and 3 (Ex. 2-la). As the procession proceeds, the movements

Allbid. pp. 34-35.

44

are further accelerated as is shown in No. 4 to 8 (Ex. 2-la).
In the meantime the drum, in conformity with the movement
of the ensemble, marks the strong beats with its fundamental
note. Then all the instruments are agitated together and
create a sort of tremolo as is illustrated in Example 2-lb.
Each numbered unit can be repeated any number of times, in
accordance with the procession. Looking at the transcription
it can be observed that the anklung had five pitches: d', f',
g', a', and d'. The manner of development of this music
represents the same characteristic as gamelan ensemble music:
the simple rhythmic and melodic plan or motive develops
through repetitions and variations, and thus creates a rich
texture. J. Tiersot expressed his view of the last, tremolo-
1ike portion of the music as follows:

What is this chord? A chord of the ninth

with a full and rich harmony, an absolutely

modern, wagnerian chord, of which character-

istic examples could be found in Tristan et

Yseult and Les Maitres chanteurs. This is a

witness of the artistic feeling of the Jav-

anese brought by them from their remote

island, that we could not consider as in-
different.

 

 

After the processional music the musicians settled

at the back of the stage. Then, with the entrance of the

 

42Musique Pittoresques, p. 35, "Et quel est cet accord?
de neuvieme, harmonie riche et pleine, absolument moderne,
accord wagnérien, dont on pourrait trouver des exemples charac-
téristiques dans Tristan et Yseult et Les Maitres Chanteurs,
Voila un témoignage de sentiment artistique des Javanais, apporté
par eux de leur ile lointaine, que nous ne saurions considérer
comme indifférent.‘

 

 

 

45

four court dancers, the gamelan music for this dance started.
It is said that the rebab played the introductory melody,and
the dancers left their seats and danced to:U; The introductory

melody was transcribed by J. Tiersot (Ex. 2-2a):43

Ex. 2-2a

ad lib

    

 

 

An instrumental introduction was placed by buka rebab.
Since the introduction's scale system determines the scale of
the following section of a piece, it can also be said that
the whole piece was in the five-tone slendro scale system
like Example 2—2b. It is said that the introductory melody:
sentence was punctuated by a colotomic instrument at the end
of the melody, which always happens in gamelan music, and the
colotomic instrument must have been a gong ageng. The inter-
vals of the descending fourth and descending second are a
characteristic of this melody.

The introduction was followed by the developmental

section which started the nuclear theme with a slow and

44

simple accompanimental line. The following nuclear

 

43 Ibid., p. 39.

For an illustration, see J. Tiersot, p. 39.

46

themefis‘which nearly always remained the same, was played by

the rebab:

Ex. 2-3

 

The nuclear theme above has a sixteen-beat phrase, which is

46
a very commonly-used length in a gamelan music, and a fivedrme

slendro scale system. The use of the intervals of descending

fourth and descending second as predominant intervals shows a
melodic similarity to the introduction. Based on this melody
the piece slowly develops. In the course of this development

several instrumental lines are added around the theme,and the

texture becomes a little thicker, as in the following emxnpt:47

Ex. 2-4

 

:9:

 

ngerived from J. Tiersot, p. 40.
The note c was played in the other parts.

47ibid., p. 40.

47

According to Tiersot, the first line representS'Ura

rebab, the second line is played by saron barung, the third

 

line, upper part is bonang ageng, and the third line lower

 

part is gongs. The fragments of the nuclear melody appear

in the part for the bonang ageng, which is one of the im-

 

provising instruments. It seems that the last measure of
the above score the movement becomes agitated with groups
of eighth notes. Soon the movements of the orchestra be-
come much faster, and all the instruments participate in it.
With the increase of instrumentation a fast, contrapuntal
and polyphonic section is created, carrying a rich harmonic
texture and orchestral color. Tiersot provides us with an

excerpt of this highly-developed section:

 

48Ibid. , p. 41.

48

Ex. 2-5

*bonang aigu

rebab

xylophones

bonang gra
et
gongs

drums

 

 

*
The names of instruments are added by the author accord-
ing to the description by J. Tiersot,p. 41.

49 '

In this section the nuclear theme is only slightly
ornamented. The small bonang appearing in the first line

must be a bonang penerus, which is a small-sized bonang; here

 

it plays contrapuntal improvisatory figures of the nuclear
theme, with rapid sixteenth notes. The third line is indi-
cated as the part of xylophones. It could be gambangs or
genders or sarons or a combination of all these instruments.
However, the third line improvises on the nuclear theme by
dividing it into smaller note values. The fourth line is for

bonang grave, which is probably a bonang ageng and gongs.

 

 

This line simply marks the principal beats of the nuclear
theme. The bottom line, lower voice is for a drum with a
beater. The drum played by a beater may be either bgdgg or
ketipung. The bottom line, upper voice is said to be a

sort of sistrum. It might be a kelontong of Chinese origin,

 

because at first sight it seems like a kind of sistrum. A

kelontong is a very small drum, placed on a long stem and

 

usually barrel-shaped.’ The skin covers both sides of the
head; and in the middle of the body of the drum two small
balls--one on each side-—hang on chords. The player moves
the handle to and fro to give a swinging movement to the
balls, and they hit each of the two skins in turn. The
eighth-note figures which occur in the bottom line, upper

voice seem to be a note-figure produced by this instrument,

 

49

document.

The names of the gongs are not specified in Tiersot's

so

each two-note figure by one swinging movement. However, this
section provides vigorous improvisational lines of theiuxflear

theme at some intervallic distance vertically, and thus es-

tablishes a rich harmonic texture.
It is hard to analyze the colotomic structure of this
piece from the above excerpt, because the colotomic instru-

ments share the fourth line under the indication "1e bonang

grave et les gongsfl without further specification. Butsnmpos-
ing that all the notes in the fourth line are played by both
bonang and gongs, it might be said that the colotomic struc-
ture of this piece follows the regular principle of an ordin-
ary sixteen-beat phrase.50 This conclusion receives further
support from the fact that gamelan pieces nearly always fol-
low a certain order of colotomic pattern. If all the notes

in the fourth line were shared by colotomic instruments in

the regular fashion, the colotomic structure of this piece

would have been as follows (dividing the sixteen beats):

 

 

Ex. 2-6
2 T 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ll 12 13 4 15 16
ketUk X X )i )|( )1 X X
kempul X
kenong x X X X
gong ageng X

 

 

0
See the diagram in Chapter I, supra. P. 24-25.

51

After the big agitation the tempo of the piece slows
down again, and stays in a slow tempo for a few measures.

The piece is ended by a gong—ageng stroke.

The music for the public dance is not available to

us, except for the following nuclear theme51 played by the

rebab:

Ex. 2-7

 

Although the whole transcription is not available,

this music seems to have the same characteristics as the
court dance music analyzed above. J. Tiersot52 states that
the music of the public dance does not differ from the pre-
ceding one, and his further explanations about the piece
present the same features and development as the court dance

music.

The features of the gamelan music heard at the expos-

ition then could be summarized as follows: first, this piece

 

51

52
Ibid.

J. Tiersot, p. 44.

52

has sixteen-beat phrase nuclear theme which is very common
in gamelan music, and this theme is the base of the piece;
second, it has the five-tone slendro scale; third, the form
of the piece is in two part structure, the instrumental in-
troductory section and the developmental section; fourth,
most of the important gamelan instruments are employed by

this piece, such as rebab, saron, bonang, drums, gongs and

 

xlephones; fifth, the rhythmic structure probably follows
the regular sixteen-beat principle; sixth, the manner of de-
velopment is in the principle of polyphonic stratification,
in which the various improvised lines of the nuclear theme
establish a thick orchestral and harmonic texture. Jaap
Kunst53 says that the serimpi orchestra, in its ancient form
is like a much reduced ordinary gamelan, including kendang

gending, ketipung, gong, kenong, ketuk, and kenmanak,54 and

 

 

 

that the melodic lines are presented by unison choir singing.

The exoticism that sprang up with the rise of colon-
ialism in Europe in the late nineteenth century, combined
with the exposition of 1878, had brought the revelation of
the music of the Hungarian gypsy and that of the Tunisian
and Algerian. But the Javanese music was still absolutely
foreign to EurOpean laymen and musicians, and the perform-

ance at the 1889 Exposition created diverse reactions among

 

Music in Java, p. 279.

Kemanak is an idiophone in the shape of a banana
with a stalk.

53

them "horrible noise," "metallic sonorities tear your ears,‘
and "strange music" were some of the comments. J. Tirsot
compared this music with that of the fifteenth- and sixteenth—
century polyphonic school. Saint-Saéns felt that the music
was exquisite, with delicate instruments and unexpected
rhythms. But for Debussy this music was not merely a cur-
iosity, but became something that would affect him deeply.
Edward Lockspeiser quotes Debussy's impression of this music
as follows:

Their conservatoire is the eternal rhythm

of the sea, the wind among the leaves and

the thousand sounds of nature which they

understand without consulting an arbitrary

treatise. Their traditions reside in old

songs, combined with dances, built up through-

out the centuries. Yet Javanese music is

based on a type of counterpoint by compar-

ison with which that of Palestrina is child's

play. And if we listen without European

prejudice to the charm of their percussion

we must confess that our percussionsgs like

primitive noises at a country fair.

The Javanese performances at the 1889 Exposition in

Paris certainly captured the admiration of those who heard
them, arousing artistic interest in some, while in others

they created a feeling of awakening of regard and respect

for cultures other than their own.

 

553rd ed. Debussy: His Life and Mind, (Cambridge,

New York, Melbourne: Cambridge‘UniverSity Press, 1978), p.
115.

 

CHAPTER III

DEBUSSY'S STYLE BEFORE 1889

The time between the late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries was for composers a period of searching for fresh
and new modes of musical expression. Although linked with
tradition, composers began to make their way in various new
directions.56’0ne of the most important figures of this time
in France was Claude Achille Debussy, whose style is often

called "impressionism."

Debussy, born in 1862, was intensively trained in.the

classical tradition from 1873 to 1884 at the Paris Conserva—

tory. Debussy's attitude toward this traditional training
that he received during his school years is well demonstrated

in a conversation with Ernst Guiraud, his composition teacher:

Guiraud: (Debussy having played a series of
intervals on the piano) What's that?

Debussy: Incomplete chords, floating. One
can travel where one wishes and
leave by any door. Great nuances.

Guiraud: But when I play this it has to re—
solve.

fi

 

56The nationalistic composers, post-Wagnerian composers
and the French impressionistic composers made up the main
streams which were to flow into the new music of the twen-
tieth century.

54

55

Debussy: I don't see that it should. Why?
Guiraud: Well, do you find this lovely?

w

Debussy: Yes, yes, yes!

 

Guiraud: But how would you get out of
this?

we;

‘

I am not saying that what you do
isn't beautiful, but its theoret-
ically absurd.

Debussy: There is no theory. You have
merely to listen. Pleasure is
the law.57
In 1884, at the age of twenty-one, Debussy gained

the Prix de Rome with his Biblical cantata L'Enfant prodigue.

 

This entitled him to a period of three years of quiet work
at the French Institute in the Villa Medici in Rome. The

Prix de Rome was the highest honor the Conservatory could

 

bestow, and an attached condition to this award was that the
recipient should submit each year a composition of some ser-
ious value. The first work to be sent by Debussy for consid-

eration was Printemps for chorus and orchestra, and the

 

 

57Edward Lockspeiser, Debussy; His Life and Mind, Vol.
1: 1862-1902, (London, Casell, New York: Mcmillan, 1962—1965;
reprinted ed., Cambridge, London, New York, Melbourne: Cam-
bridge University Press, 1978), p. 206.

 

56

second was a cantata called La Damoiselle élue. In accor-
dance with the rules of the Institute, the works were to be
performed, but neither of these was played. Officials of

the Institute objected to the choice of key, F-sharp major,

in the first part of Printemps as unplayable, and Debussy

 

didn't want La Damoiselle élue to be performed alone. Thus,

 

the performance was cancelled, and Debussy returned to Paris

in 1887, a year before his scholarship expired.

At the time of Demumy's return, Impressionism in art
and Symbolism in poetry were at their height in Paris. Debussy
began to establish closer relationships with painters and
poets who nourished his imagination. Inspired by their im—
pressionistic paintings and symbolistic poems, he became very
interested in the interrelationship among art forms. And in
1888 and 1889 he encountered different experiences when he
became acquainted with Wagner's chromatic music and Mussorgsky's

Boris Godunov, and when he heard Javanese gamelan music attflma

 

Paris Universal Exposition. All these relationships and exper-
iences helped Debussy to develop his own musical technique,
and what are commonly regarded as his best works date from

1890 to 1910, including Cinq Poemes de Baudelaire, L'Apremidi

d'un Faune, Chansons de Bilitis, Péllas et Mélisande and

 

 

La Mer.

Debussy's output before 1889 shows a predominance

of works with text: song, cantatas and choruses. This asso-

ciation with text becomes even more prominent when we include

57

his earlier works left still unpublished. Debussy's musical
style before 1889 sometimes anticipates his later style, but

mostly reveals the use of existing musical idioms.

The earliest of the known works are Nuit d'étoiles,

 

Beau Soir and Fleur des blés. Although these are works wrfljen

 

 

at the ages of fourteen and fifteen, they represent Debussy's
early, fluent compositional technique which was derived from

what he had heard.

Nuit d'étoiles is a good example of his early style.

 

The harmonic structure of this song is as follows:

 

58See Appendix, pp. 115—116, for musical example.

 

 

 

58

m
.<l
.0"
El

 

 

F”: I”;

:li
D‘W‘v Vii7ir 1'2 Vfiv

6

0607
II

Eb ‘V 07 V I

 

I

59

Nuit d'étoiles begins with eight measures ofthe cruc-
added-sixth chord. The chord with added sixth would conven—
tionally be considered the first inversion of a seventh.dxnd.

Thus, the theoretical root of the chord is the added-sixth

tone, but the actual root that functions is the third tone of
a seventh chord. Likewise, the theoretical root of the first
chord of Nuit d'étoiles is the note "c" but the real function

of the chord is the Undo with the added sixth. Added-sixth

chords wenaalso used by other composers ofthe time (Ex. 3—2).

Ex. 3-2. E. Chabrier, L'invitation au Voyage

 

 

Debussy's use of the added-sixth chord hithe Opening

setion of Nuit d'étoiles anticipates his preference of the

 

chord for a color modification in his later pieces. One finds

this chord frequently in his later works (Ex. 3-3a, 3b, 3c).

Ex. 3-3a. Danse

m. 104

       

60

Ex. 3-3b. La Terrasse desaudiences du clair de lune

 

 

Ex. 3-3c. Fetes

m- 0 Modéré moi: toujours trés rythmé

  

Trpts.

lat
Harp

Another harmonic characteristic of Nuit d'étoiles is

the use of successive seventh chords followed byxiinth chords.
This is not only a long-established traditional practice

but also a commonly-used harmonic procedure among the French
composers of the time. Example 3-4 illustrates other French

composers' employment of seventh and ninth chords.

61

Ex. 3-4a. E. Chausson, Serres chaudes

m. 53

   
          

D: 7 VH7

Ex. 3-4b. Franck, Sonata for Violin and Piano, 3rd mov.

 

m.

Into a masto.

 

H

72:;

. . 9 6 4
F . I I iv7 v /V V4/II V2/ V IV? I
Nuit d'étoiles has a traditional I-IV(ii)—V-I harmonic
progression, and a five part form, A B A'B'A". Debussy uses
the first four lines of the poem (A) as the text for each

return of the principal section, and in each case complements

62

it by returning to the home tonality, E-flat major. The
song basically contains standard four-measure phraseology.
Other works written during his school years, until
1884 are in a style similar to Nuit d'étoiles: they exhibit
traditional forms, clearly established tonal areas, frequent
use of seventh and ninth chords, traditional harmonic pro-
gressions and clear phrase structure. The cantata with which
he gained the Prix de Rome in 1884 is also written in this

style.

 

Pourquoi nu-m quit . t‘ .
erhtwfnn 4.13m... Ian If,

 

The above short excerpt from the cantata L'Enfant prodigue
presents the four-square phrasing, the pleasing melodic
line and incidental imitations between melody and accom-

paniment. The perfect authentic cadence is preceded by

63

the dominant seventh chord of bar seven. After comple-

tion of this cantata in 1884, Debussy spent three years in
Rome (until 1887). During this time his only output was
a few works which remain unpublished.

From 1887 to 1889 Debussy completed two sets of songs

to poems of Baudelaire and Verlaine, Cing Poemes de Baudelaire

 

and Ariettes Oubliées. The chronddogical order of these two

 

sets of songs is as follows:

1887: Green

11 Pleure dans mon coeur

 

C'est l'extase

 

La Mort de amants

 

1888: Recueillement

 

Le Balcon

 

L'Ombre des Arbres

 

Spleen

1889: Le Jet d'eau

 

Harmonie du soir

 

The songs written in1887 still show a derivative style.
These songs exhibit exact A B A', or some variant of this
form. Tonality is clearly established. The song, 95333,
will serve as an example of these works. figggg is in A B A'

form, and the harmonic structure of this song is as follows:

AI

 

64

Ex. 3-6

 

:1 V9 W 19’va ii: 179 I

Here A-flat minor dominates both melody and accompaniment
for the first eight measures. It then moves:hmb a series
of dominant chords. In measure sixteen, the last of these
dominant chords resolves through the secondary dominant
seventh to an A-flat major chord. This chord resolves

to a D-flat dominant ninth in measure nineteen, whichrmm'
cadences to G-flat major to end the section (A). At this
point the significance of the whole tonal picture can be
understood. The Opening A-flat minor enacts the role of
a supertonic area. The first dominant in measure nineteen

is the real vag, and the classical progression Of II to

65

V is present. The following dominants simply maintain harmonic
activity, ultimately resolving to the final key center of G-
flat major. Thus, the entire first stanza, labeled as 'A',
might be regarded as an elaboration of the familiar II—V—I
cadential formula.

In Erggg there can be observed two interesting harmonic
aspects, the treatmentof the ninth chords and the use of
augmented sixth chords. The ninth chord is used first as
a secondary dominant chord and afterwards as a chord before
resolution to tonic, producing a dissonant chord tone.

These harmonic situations can be found in many works of
French composers of the time (Ex. 3-7a, 7b) as well as in

those of Romantic composers in other countries (Ex.3~7c, 7d).

Ex. 3-7a. Franck, Sonata for Violin and Piano, lst mov.

 

   
 

 

 

— —- _. — — r_‘—
a

3. 3-

A: V9 I

    

Ex. 3—7b. Faure, Apres un Reve

lull-tin». Urn. < ,A a a >—

    

66

Ex. 3-7b (continued)

 

C=i Ehwv v: vii/N

Ex. 3-7c. Brahms, Intermezzo, op. 76, no. 3

" -

-..- ... . ,._:;=,_.‘~ ‘.
i .-- '- '-. O“ ...-—
m--— -
-_-—__-=:E=:..-=.~_ mm-—

:- -;: '

 

 

 

 

 

 

#4- {-
[n- 1 l K II
[II J I l I [l
[L h 1 V II
I V U l I]

T

d: V9 I

In Green, Debussy resolves augmented sixth chords irregularly.

A German sixth chord in measure thirteen is resolved in the

67

pattern of #Ivgg - V. It is said that such an irregular

resolution was uncommonly used by Debussy's contemporaries
but was recognized as a characteristic feature Of the har-
monic style of Cesar Franck. Since Debussy was once a
student Of Franck, he must have been familiar with this

harmonic implication. One of Franck's well-known works

also includes an irregular progression (Ex. 3-8).

Ex. 3-8, Sonata for Violin and Piano. lst. mov.

 

In 1888 Debussy visited Bayreuth for the first time,

and heard Wagner's Parsifal. It was a period Of Parisian
enthusiasm for Wagner and influence of Wagner becomes appar-
ent in Debussy's works written in 1888. A Baudelaire song,

Recueillement, is one Of the Obvious examples of that in-

 

fluence; it presents many chromatic passages, including the
chromatic root movement which appears in 11-14 as well as
measures 32—34 (Ex 3-9). In measures 4, 5 and 6 the dimin-

ished chords move chromatically (Ex. 3—10).

68

 

In this work the intervals of the minor second and minor
third form the basis of the tonal framework of the piece. For
example, the first entrance of the vocal melody is accom-
panied by elements based on the minor third and the chromatic

movement of the minor second (Ex. 3-11).

 

69

In Debussy's works written in 1888 the phrases become
longer, the accompaniment is much heavier, and the motivic
ideas appear to be related to those of Wagner. For instance,

Le Balcon has a two—measure-long motive (Ex. 3-12a). The

 

poem is composed of six Stanzas, and the individual stanzas,
are further connected by the presence of the basic melodic
motive which recurs throughout the song (Ex. 3-12b).

EX. 3-l2a

H01

 

Ex. 3-12a

 

“a: s:

 

and.m.72-78, 97,110-111,113,118. . .

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

7

Le Jet d'eau and Harmonie du Soir, written in 1889,

 

 

mark the end Of the domination of Wagnerian influence. Tex-
ture is lighter and clearer, and melodic activity forms armnxa
arched line. These two works seem to suggest that Debussy is
beginning to find himself, anticpating the style that is to

come. These songs also reveal further evidence of the com-

poser's imaginative expression of the poem. For example,

70

throughout Le Jet d'eau Debussy emphasizes the image of the

 

fountain by representing the upward flight of the water
with repetitious arpeggios and the fall as the minor second
clusters in the accompaniment (Ex. 3-13). The following is

a translation Of the text of Example 3-13:

The column of water
which cradles its
thousand flowers.

Ex. 3-13.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Cc Sea mil -le Hours,
9 .7 ‘

 

Both Le Jet d‘eau and Hanmonie du Soir_display more repeti-

 

 

tion than any Of Debussy's other songs of this period. Chords
are largely released from regular functional rules. Bass
notes become more important as temporary centers than as func-

tional chord roots (Ex. 3-14).

71

Ex. 3-14. Harmonie du Soir

 

, 3 4 5 6 7 8

 

1} é}

The above reduction, in which barlines separate lines of text,
illustrates the careful balance Of movement on either sidecfif
the central B: moving first by a major second on either side
in bar three, thennin the sixth and eighth bars by a major
third tO either side, by a tritone at bar eleven and a perfect
fifth at bar twelve; then going back toward the tonic. The
conclusion Of the song, with a bass line which suggests the
traditional IV-V-I pattern, is actually harmonized with a

much weaker chord progression, IV7 —iii6-I (Ex. 3-15).

Ex. 3-15

   

m.69 ‘ many“.

Into
cwfio

 

B: I 1V5 IV 1116 I

72

Another good example Of Debussy's harmonic technique

of this period is revealed in the last part of Le Jet d'eau.

 

Here the words "Lager pleur" are accompanied by chords on
G-sharp minor, F-sharp and D-sharp major before the music
settles into C major (Ex. 3-16). This downward progression
contributes to the image of falling water and to a feeling

of repose.

111.32

 

 

In . .
"Mg! II!

c: #v #11! #11 I V

While these two songs do not yet display the extraordinary
harmony exhibited in Debussy's more mature music of his

later years, they foreshadow his later practice of employing
chords for sonority and color instead of using them to fulfill

the demands of harmonic function.

Summary

From the above discussion it appears that Debussy's

works before 1889, though sometimes anticipating his later

73

style, reveal the existing, traditional musical idiom. In
harmony Debussy employs seventh and ninth chords frequently;
the chord progressions are largely in conventional I-IV(ii)-V-I
formula; many chords are in simple triadic formation. The
tonality is clearly laid out and the formal structures are
mostly traditional two-part or three-part. Phrase structuna

is generally short and clear. Debussy's works before 1889

also show his preference for a musical genre connected with

text, such as songs and cantatas.

CHAPTER IV

INDONESIAN INFLUENCE ON DEBUSSY
AFTER 1889
It has been the task of many scholars to trace and
identify various influences on the development Of Debussy's
mature style. The major influences thus far examined are
those Of the impressionist painters, symbolist poets, Russian

music, medieval church modes, and Wagner's chromaticism.59

 

59For example,

IMPRESSIONISM, Ruth Moser, "L'lmpressionnisme francais.
Peinture-Litterature-Musique," (Dissertation,
Geneva: Droz, 1952).

SYMBOLISM, Henry Phillips, "Symbolists and Debussy,"
Music and Letters XIII (July 1932), 296-
ll.

RUSSIAN MUSIC, Andreas Liess, "Claude Debussy and
die 'Ffinf'," Neue Zeitschrift fur Musik, 128
(Feb. 1967), 69477. . "Der junge Debussy
und die Russische Musik," in Bericht fiber
dgn Internationalen Musikwissenschaftlichen
Kongress der GeselISchaft ffir Musicforschung,
pp. 24l-244,(Cassel: Barenreiter VerIag, 1963)

 

Rollo, Myers, "Claude Debussy and Russian Music,'
Music and Letters, 39 (Oct. 1958), 336-342.

MEDIEVAL MUSIC, Katherine Heyman, The Relation of
Ultramodern to Archaic Music, (Boston: Small,

Mayhard & CO., 1921).

WAGNERIAN MUSIC, Andreas Liess, Claude Debussy and
das deutsche Musikschaffen, (wurzbury: Triltsch,

 

1939).

Calvocoressi, M. D., "Debussy and the Leitmo-
tive," The Musical Times, 11 (Aug. 1925),
695-697.

74

75

In addition to these, the Javanese gamelan music performed

at the 1889 Paris Exposition has also been considered a
strong contributing factor to Debussy‘s stylistic mold. Much
of the literature on Debussy has mentioned this aspect in

one way or another.

One finds general comments such as,

An influence that diverted Debussy from the
dominant Romanticism of his time was his en-
counter with the Javanese orchestra at the
Paris World Exposition Of 1889. He was cap-
tivated by their seemingly ngsural expressive
skill and delicacy Of sound.

New horizons Opened up before him and he real-
ized the tremendous advancement that this form
of art (gamelan), apparently primitive, might
mean for one who could assimilate certain of
its principles and apply thgm tactfully. This
Achille accomplished later. 1

Sometimes one encounters more specific comments, like
those Of Leon Vallas and Rollo Myers:

Undoubtedly the gamelan helped to Open up
new musical pathngor Debussy; this soon
became evident.

He fortunately came under other influences.
. he could be heard the famous gamelan
orchestra which accompanied the native
dancers. Debussy was fascinated by the
skill with which the Javanese musicians
manipulated their percussion instruments

 

6OSharon Scholl and Sylvia Shite, Music and the Cul-

ture of Man, (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.,
1970). p. 228.

61Maurice Dumesnil, Claude Debussy, (IVes Washburn,
New York; Vail-Ballou Press, Inc., 1940), pp. 152-153.

62Leon Vallas, Claude Debussy: His Life and Works,
translated by Maire and Grace O'Brien, (London: Oxford Uni-
versity Press, 1933), p. 59.

 

76

and by the extraordinarily rich and subtle
rhythm and harmonies. This was also his
first introduction to the oriental penta-
tonic scale; the experience thus gained
undoubtedly tended to influence his musical

thinking.6

The above-mentioned comments illustrate the general-
ized presence in the literature on Debussy Of some kind of
influence by the Javanese gamelan on the development Of his
musical expression. Before proceeding further, we shall

review, in chronological order, the existing literature on
this topic.

In 1954 Chou Wen-Chung stated that:

When he (Debussy) spoke Of Javanese music
as being based on a counterpoint beside
which that of Palestrina pales, he reveals
himself as having perceived not only the

multilayered structure in gamela24music
but also its rhythmic intricacy.

Constantin Brailioiu commented in 1979 that the epi-
sodes showing marked Javanese influence are Nuages, mea-
sures 65-78; La Mer, Part 1, measures 33-34; and the last

bars of Part II,65 but he included no further explanations.

 

63110110 Myers, Debussy, (New York: A. A. WYN., Inc.
1972), p. 39.

64"Asian Concepts and Twentieth-Century Composers,"
The Musical QuarterlerVII (April 1971), 212.

6S"Pentatony in Debussy's Music," in Studiae Memoriae .
Belae Barték Sacra, (London: Boosey and Hawkes, 1959) p. 415.

 

77

On the other hand, in 1963 Edward Lockspeiser's work

included the following description, followed by musical

illustrations:66

Pagodes makes use of the five-note scale
that Ravel used so effectively in his

Ma Mere l'Oie and which was borrowed from
or suggested by, the music of the Javanese
and Cambodian dancers heard at the Paris
World Exhibition. It appears first simply
and nonchalantly:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The following is R. Nichols' observation in 1973:

In Clair de lune, Debussy abandoned an
earlier version altogether and started

66Debussy, 4th ed., (London, Dent, New York, Farrar:
Straus and Giroux, 1963), pp. 138-139.

78

afresh, and here for the first time we
find the pentatonic scale in prominent

use . . . Debussy had been fascinated by
the gamelan at the Paris Exhibition of
1889 and it was entirely typical of him
that he should later use the sound not
only imitatively, in a piece like Pagodes,
but also in the String Quartet, in La Mer,
and in this song, where it is recreate to
serve a different imaginative purpose.

Nichols gives an excerpt from Clair de lune as follows:

 

Tris mod“

    

pp "3: deux

In 1978 E. Lockspeiser added new musical titles that
he had not mentioned in 1963. Having introduced Debussy's
experience, with a friend, in Javanese kampong, Lockspeiser
says that "memories of these oriental visions were later

evoked, Godet [Debussy's friend] believed,in Pagodes, Et la

 

lune descend 1e temple qui fut, and perhaps also in the pre-

lude, Terrass des audiences au clair de lune."68

And most recently an extensive analytical study of
Javanese influence on Debussy was carried out by Louise Duch-

eneau in regard to Pagodes. She stareswith a remark that,

 

67 Debussy, (London: Hutchinson University Library,
1973), p. 21.

68 Debussy: His Life and Mind, (London: Cambridge
University Press, 1978), p. 114.

 

79

Several authors have made comments on the
more or less important influence of Javan-
ese music on the works of Debussy. In spite
of the Obvious interest in this aspect of
the poetic of the composer, a systematic
analysis of Javagfse influences has never
been undertaken. 9

And, after a comparative study, she concludes as follows:

There is no doubt that the musics from the
Far East guided him (Debussy) in his choices.
That's what we have tried to prove concern-
ing the Pagodes. Such elements as scale,
colotomy and levels of structure have been
easily assimilable, whereas the formal re-
semblance is only suggested.70

Although the authors mentioned above do agree on the
existence of a Javanese influence on Debussy's musical lan-
guage, there still remains a certain degree Of contradiction

when their Opinions are compared with those of some other

 

69 mglement de la Tradition Gamelan dans Pagodes de

Debussy," Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Society
for Ethno-Musicology. (Montreal, 10 October, 1979), p. l.
"Plusieur auteurs ont commenté sure 1'influence plus ou

moins importante de law musique javanaise sur 1'oeuvre de
Debussy. Malgré l'intéret evident pour cet aspect de la
poétique du compositeur, une analyse systematique des in-
fluences javanaises n'a jamais été entreprise."

70Ibid., p. 16, "Il ne fait aucum doute que les musi-
ques d'ExtrEme Orient 1e guidérent dans ses choix. C'est
ce que nous avons tenté de prouver en ce qui concerne Pagodes.
Les elements tels 1es gammes, la colotomie at 1es niveaux
de structure ont été facilement assimilables, tandis qu'une
resemblance formelle n'est que suggérée."

80

writers. For example, Marion Bauer attributes such influ-

ence not to Indonesia but to China:

Debussy's use of exotic subjects with conse-
quent exotic mood and harmony is still an-
other means he cultivated for developing
tone-color. In Pagodes he uses at least six
patterns based ontflmapentatonic scale, inter-
weaving them in such a manner as to make the
work sound completely Chinese, and, by means
of rhythmic variety in the patterns, taking
away any feeling of monotony.

And he gives the following excerpts:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Other opinions, such as the following, also reveal contra-

dictions:

The pagodes, striking attention by the

 

71Twentieth Centur Music, (New York, London: G. P.
Putnam's Sons, 1933), p. 150.

81

systematic use, nearly exclusive of a
Chinese scale of five notes.

The immediate influence Of the Far
Eastern music on Debussy seems to have
been almost none. The Debussy of the
Quartet, of prelude and of Pelleas is
obviously a modal composer.73

The priority in the introduction of the
rhythm and mood of the East into Euro-
pean music remains with our Russian
composers. These languors, these tonal
ardours, these effervescing and at the
same time dreamy rhythms Of the impression
Of life--all these had been presented by
the Russians before Debussy, in his Soiree
dans Grenade, Nocturns, or Pagodes.7

 

And Franz Liebich describes Debussy's Quartet and Nocturns

as Russian-influenced.75

All these contradictory Opinions which intend to pro-
vide precise knowledge, instead create a state of confusion
because Of their different conclusions. This study will

attempt a resolution of this question through direct examin-

 

72Quoted by Louise Decheneau, p. 2, "Les Pagodes, frap-
pérent l'attention par l'emploi systématique, presque exclu—
sif, d'une gamme Chinoise de Cinq notes."

73Antoine Golea, Claude Debussy (Paris: Editions Seghers,
1966), p. 57. "L'influence immediate de la musique d'Extréme
Orient sur Debussy semble avoir été a peu pres nulle. Le
Debussy du Quatuor, du Prélude et de Pélléas est évidemment
un compositeur modal."

74Leonid Sabaneieve, "Claude Debussy," Music and Letters,
X (January, 1929), 21.

75Claude-Achille Debussy, (London: Jan Lane, The Bodley
Hey LTD.,71925), p. 32.

 

82

ation of Debussy's music.

If we postulate a Javanese influence on Debussy, sev-

eral questions may be formulated about its nature. It may
be asked:

1. Was it pentatonic scale?

2. Was it Harmony?

3. Was it rhythm (colotomic structure)?

First, was it pentatonic scale which affected Debussy?
Perhaps not. A comparison of the pentatonic scale as used by

Debussy to the Javanese five-tone slendro scale shows that
these are different in their nature, having different inter-

valic relationships:

Pentatonic Scale used by Debussy

    

.9.

Indonesian Slendro Scale

 

 

M
O!“

$l

M

83

PENTATONIC SCALE

 

CENTS

240

 

ne
SLENDRO SCALE

Curt Sachs was also aware Of the Westerner's misunderstanding
which regards a slendro scale in the same light as a penta-
tonic scale. 76 Furthermore, Constantin Brailiou, in his ex—

tensive work, "Pentatony in Debussy's Work," explains that:

Pentatony in his composition is not an
unconscious or reflex—like reminiscence.
He proves it himself by referring to it
whenever he wants to evoke something "not
from here": Pagodes; the exotic herdsman
and the English soldier Of La Boite a
joujoux; the honorable S. Pickwick; La
Fille aux cheveux de lin; (conveying a
kind of mysteriousneSS)T’ This admitted
pentatony aiming at couleur locale serves
in a way as a screen for all that emerges
from his works. On the other hand, we
must remember that the majority of penta-
tonic features characteristic Of Debussy's
idiom appear as early as his first works
and persisted up to the last ones.

 

 

 

And this author provides quite a few musical examples. A

few of these are given below to show that the pentatonic idiom

78

was already in existence in Debussy's early works:

 

76The Rise of Music in the Ancient World, East and West
(New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1943), pp. 130-131.

77In Studiae Memoriae Belae BartOk Sacra (London; Boosey

and Hawkes, 1959), p. 378.

 

 

73mm. , p. 379.

84

La belle au bois dormant (1882)

 

 

 

 

 

0m 0 1 4 1 C‘ l 3 I
I “:4; T ,1 I

 

' " ' r' r ”r '
Lo longdes ble's que la bri-sc fait on - du - (let)
Romance (1883)

m1

 
 
 

 

 

D’u-no va- poursur-na- tn - rel - lo

Paysage Sentimental (1883)

.44 r—~ r"

   
 

Par cet. a. - pres-mi - di dc bai-sers sous la: bran-clues

La mort des Amants (1887)

 

.16

 
 
 

 

 

leur: don-bios In - mié - res Dans nos deux es-prits, ces (miroirs)

Second, was it harmony? This also seems quite doubtful.
The Javanese music heard in 1889 at Paris had afive-tone scale
system. The harmony produced by this music, resulting from
the heterophonic stratification of instrumental Lhes,displayed
a simple characteristic: a nuclear melody was played by the

rebab; another modified line of this melody came in, creating

an interval of a third or fifth, and later on the intervals

85

of seventh and ninth chords (when all the instruments were

79

participating). The harmonic characteristic of the Jawmmme
music that caught Western ears, and was discussed by Julien
Tiersot 80 was this use of ninth chord. But a ninth chord was

not only a commonly-used harmonic tool Of the period, but also

one that Debussy had already used in his earliest works.

Third, was it then the Javanese rhythmic structure col—
otomy? Colotomic structure, is in the gamelan orchestra,<ib-
ectly related to Javanese cosmology, and it always follows

the same strict rule: gong ageng marks a phrase; kenong sub-

 

divides this phrase into several equal parts; kempul further
divides the kenong beats equally, and the rest of the Odd-
numbered beats are played by ketuk. L. Ducheneau says:

It seems that Pagodes manifest a Javanese
influence in the level of colotomy: there
is surely an impression Of tegforal accen-
tuation more or less regular.

Pagodes has two measures Of introduction and a four-measure

phrase in 4/4 meter. The following shows the comparison of the

regular Javanese colotomic structure with the findhmhzstructure

of the first phrase of Pagodes as analyzed by L. Ducheneau:

 

79See p. 34, Ex. 2-1 and p. 39, Ex. 2-5.

8OMusique Pittoresque, p. 35.

 

81See p. 58, Ex. 3-1.
82
"Element de la Tradition," p. ll, "11 semble que Pagodes
manifeste une influence Javanaise au niveau de la colotomte.
A l'audition il y a sfirement une impression d'accentuation
plus ou moin réguliere des temps."

86

Pagodes

 

Pagodes: Colotomic structure as analyzed by R. Decheneau.

 

m.3 4 5 m.6
l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ll 12 l3 14 15 16
Ketuk X X X X X X X X. X X X X
l
Kenong X X

gong ageng

 

 

 

87

The following shows, for comparison, the pattern of

regular, Javanese colotomy:

 

 

 

 

l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ll 12 13 14 15 16
Ketuk X X X X X X X X
kempul X X X X
kenong X X X X
gong ageng X

For this writer, the structure Of Pagodes and Javanese
colotomy seem quite dissimilar, and it is difficult to agree
that Debussy perceived and followed the Javanese rhythmic

S tructure .

In View of the above, it is this paper's contention that
it was not the Javanese musical elements--slendro scale, har-
mony, colotomic structure--which affected Debussy. Perhaps
it was, rather, the source of sound of the gamelan orchestra
which astonished him. This View becomes more plausible when
we consider the new artistic movements of the time which in-

fluenced Debussy's aesthetic view most strongly.

The last fifteen years of the nineteenth century and

the first years Of the twentieth century, a period Of inten-

sive activity in Debussy's life, witnessed great cultural un
rest, unrest caused by the rapid strides made in science and
technology which the collective conscience Of the people was

unable to follow and understand. During this time there was

88

wide gap between what science and technology Offered and the
degree to which society was able to adapt it to conform with
current ideas. Writers and painters responded sharply to

the changes in civilization caused by science and the mach-
ine. Rather than trying to speak for the oppressed, most
artists now turned their backs on society, seeking escape in-
to an autonomous world Of art, where they could impose what-
ever rules they desired upon elements Of their own creation.
The most important movements were impressionism in painting

and symbolism in poetry.

Impressionist painters had abandoned their studios in
order to study the effects of sunlight in nature, which gave
them the idea that reality could only be achieved by repre-
senting what the artist sees, rather than what he knows. In
other words, they were concerned with seizing the image of a
reality which had not yet been deformed by the intervention
of the intelligence, and transmitting the pure impression in
the form in which they had actually experienced it. But things
(or reality) appear to the artist in a different light, accord-
ing to the time of day. Thus, to express this reality, artists
tried new techniques, juxtaposing on their canvases all the
colors of a visual impression in rapid strokes. They use
colors as a material (like clay or bronze) in which they

worked. The combination of these colors thus created a.n§flity

 

83

'See Francois Mathy, Impressionists, translated by Jean
Steiberg (N.Y.: rederick—AI’Praeger,‘l961), pp. 10-30.

 

. 83
related to the flow of the tire, somewhat hiding the outline of objects.

89

The poetic movement called Symbolism, like Impression-
ism, also places its emphasis on subjectivity. Stephan

Mallarme writes:

In a society which lacks stability and unity
it is impossible to creage an art which is
stable and well-defined. 4
The symbolists held the view that by penetrating to the
depths of one's "self" one can come closer to the essence of
the world. As tools they use suggestive and evocative words
rather than descriptive words. They believed that symbolic

words areIMJrons which concentrate the light from a hundred

different angles upon the exact meaning.

These aesthetic views of the contemporary painters and
poets affected Debussy deeply. Debussy's artisitic view be-
gan to take shape when he attended Mallarme's Tuesday gather-
ing after returning from Rome. Although Debussy had some
vague ideas in his early years about how he was to develOp,

according to the following conversation with his teacher:

Guiraud: What kind Of poet would you your-
self have in mind?

Debussy: One who only hints at what is to be
said. My idea is of a short libretto
with mobile scenes. A variety Of
scenes in regard to place and char-
acter. No discussion or arguments
the characters whom I see at the

 

84Quoted in Stefan Jarocinskyh Debussy, Impressionism and
Symbolism, translated by Rollo Myers (London:IIEulenburgIBOORs,
1976), p.31.

85598 Henry PhillPS: "Symbolists and Debusy," Music and
Letters XIII (July 1932), 296-311.

 

 

 

90

86
mercy of life and destiny.

The following comments of Debussy express his artistic

View, which was shared by other contemporary artists:

Music is a sum total of scattered forces.

You make an abstract ballas of them! I pre-
fer the simple notes Of an Egyptian shepherd's
pipe; for he collaborates with the landscape
and hears harmonies unknown to your treaties.
Musicians listen only to the music written

by cunning hands, never to that which is in
nature's script. To see the sunrise is more
profitable than to hear the pastoral swmtnny.

Music is a mysterious form of mathematics whose
elements partake of the infinite. It is respon—
sible for the monuments of water, the pattern

of curves traced by the wavering breeze;.mmjung
is more musical than a sunset. For anyone
capable of seeing it emotionally, it is the
finest development.~8

And talking about Grieg's music he says:

At first I thoughtthat I could only give a
colour impression of Greig's music.3

All of the aforementioned comments by Debussy reveal

his notion of the aesthetics of his contemporaries in art and

 

86

87Claude Debussy, "Monsieur Croche the Dilettante Hater,"
in Three Classics in the Aesthetic of Music, translated by
B. N. Langdon Davies from the 1927 Noel Douglas ed. (New York:
Dover Publication, Inc., 1962), p. 7.

Edward Lockspeiser (1978), p. 205.

 

88Jarocinsky, p. 95.

9Monsieur Croche, p. 54.

91

poetry as well as his musical thought. In impressionistic

art the medium of the expression of reality was color, and

in symbolist poetry it was symbolic words. In music it would
be sound. When discussing the actual sound of a musical com-
position, two things have to be taken into consideration;
first, the means employed in its performance, and second, the
way in which the composer treats his sound material. Before
going further about sound, let us go back to the initial ques-

tion, "What was the Javanese influence on Debussy?"

The year 1889, when Debussy attended the Universal Expo-
sition, was a time when the new aesthetic movements in art
and poetry were at their height-movements dealing with light,
colour and condensed words. Like the impressionists and sym—
bolists, Debussy was also searching for the proper methodscu'
techniques of expression which could convey his ideas. It was
at this point that Debussy had a chance to hear other coun-

tries various modes of expression at the Exposition.

Debussy's reaction to the Javanese music was that it
was remarkable, as he himself expressed it at least three
times-~in 1895, 1903 and 1913. In 1895 he wrote to one of
his friends: "Remember the Javanese music which had all the

"90

nuances . . . When he wrote about the People's Theatre,

he said in 1903:

 

9ODucheneau, p. 1.

92

We could glean valuable hints from the enter-
tainments arranged by the Javanese princes,
where the fascination of speech without

word almost attains perfection.'

And in 1913 he records:

There have been, and they still exist, des—
pite the disorders which civilization brings
in its train, charming little peOple who
learned music as simply as one learns to
breathe. Their Conservatoire is the eternal
rhythm of the sea, the wind of the leaves,
the thousand sounds of nature which they
understand without consulting an arbitrary
treatise. Nevertheless, Javanese music is
based on a type of counterpoint by compar-
ison with which that Of Palestrina is child's

play.92

These statements suggest that Debussy was deeply impressed
by the Javanese music whose expression as he perceived it,
was the direct image of their untouched nature. This View
of gamelan music reflects both his personal aesthetics and

those of the artistic movements to which he was sympathetic.

Accordingly, Debussy who was searching for a way of
expressing his ideas through the medium Of sound, must have
been very interested in the Javanese source Of sound, the
means employed in its performance, and the way in which these
were treated. Considering the artistic situation Of the
time, as discussed above, it is possible that the influence

Of Javanese music on Debussy was in this aspect (sonority)

 

91Monsieur Croche, p. 43.

92Jarocinski, p. 95.

93

rather than the practical musical elements of scale, colotomy

and harmony.

The means employed in the gamelan performance are princ-

ipally idiophones (gong ageng, kenong, kempul, ketuk, bonang,

 

 

 

saron, gambang, anklung) and membranophones (kendang—ageng,

 

 

bedug), besides {shah and suling. The treatment of these
instruments, or the principle of gamelan orchestration, is
referred to as stratification: there is an indeterminate
number of repetitions of the nuclear theme, and on each re-
currence of the theme a new tonal register is introduced.
Later, new tonal color is added by instruments such as b23-
aggs, thus stratifying the nuclear melody. Improvisatory
elaborations of a heterophonic nature develop, with the music
progressing in a free manner. According to M. Hood, "another
underlying deep structure of this music appears to be an
aesthetic preference for homogeneity in orchestral color

rather than the concept Of contrast."93

Conceivably, in view Of the above discussion, two of
Debussy's most characteristic orchestral features--his fuller
use of the potential of the percussion instruments, and his
use of sonorities produced by the admixture of a number Of
registral and timbral variants of a single linear movement--
could be regarded as his conscious adaptations of the gamelan

orchestra. Debussy used the percussion instruments not so

 

Music in Indonesia, p. 10.

 

94

much for dynamic intensity or rhythmic emphasis as for their
distinctive color attributes. For example, the single stroke
of the triangle at the apex of the harp glissando in La Mer
has the effect of a sound-color image Of spray flung from

the crest of a wave:*

 

*See p. 95.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

_.. _— ——
—-—_—r—___—————-__v
\- __.. _--—__—

 

In Debussy's other works there are innumerable passages in
which the suspended cymbal or bass drum sustains almost

imperceptible rolls (played with soft—headed mallets) as

96

background to color effects, as shown in the following ex-

amples:

Gigues

 

      

 
 

   
  

 

 

 

‘5- $JE§=EQ==EéEE=
""14”“!7 L5!

  

: _._ —._——fi______—___

    

     

In. .-;;.—___-—:T’—._—§—l——___=—.“__:j—~——=:
l— — — —
H -
:g-—————*—*_—_
ir——:K——=i—~__—————'»—_—i_:==

'—' — " ' -‘ _= —i---‘

Egg

 
   

Rondes de Printemps, Images, No. 3.

oh".

El"

 

 

J

‘I
an.

 

98

La Parfums de la Nuit, Iberia, II.

 

 

99

Printemps

5 Tempo

 

 

____—_ - -. -..—.—
. - ,w—
.__.__—-s—- .—

l—fl

MM

m.

M
m_
_

:

 

I.

 

100

Fetes

E Iodévo' and. (onions we. rylhno'

"on. (Saudi-r-

V'Ill'l

2' Man PP}!

”3»

E Iode’re' nalo £0.10." Ives (Inn'-

 

101

Nuages

 

Jeux

 

 

 

 

 

103

lloprondre you i you Is Mom." @

    

P'" II.

Cu A.

(In

4!
.>

Cyra-

Y

Reprendro peu i pen lo Mouvi
l.=. n--
up n ‘_ _ Ute.-

    

104

Le Martyre de Saint Sebastien

C. I“

O.

4 Tun-p.
on Us

in: la Sardine

I Tron-Ii.

fl...

I" u 1'
lot...

 

105

The Classicists, the early Romanticists, and, to a de-
gree, the late Romanticists regarded the orchestra as a nmfleus
of stringed instruments to which were added the complementary
and contrasting sections of woodwinds, brasses and percussion.
By contrast, in Debussy mostly the woodwinds are the focal
point of his orchestral thought, and Often a basic core of wood-
wind melodies is stratified by strings, brasses and pennmsion,

establishing a thick structure around the basic melodic line:

La Mer

  

 

    
   

        
  

l
H

ll
“1

l
l

i
l
i.-

l

um one.

I!)

ll

I
l
l

._ .
I. (O crnr.
A

J
H

 
      

.N

"I.
ll

   

    

A

(ll

  
 
 
  

  

     
   

—' - _' " —' ——="-

 

 

  
 

~ '=-—':'_' :_=== : _.-’_==
-— ===z=5====35=’-==—

 

 

       

  

 

 

 

 

      
 
  
 

  
   
  
 
   

is}? g_=—-__;-.~ - =£Eg§£
. ._ -
=———. .,

IF .‘=" -_ -5=-, ___,=;§-=:=.§=;==;;i-'.=._ ‘- =4

   

 

      
 

   

.—

  

i. _

-r—- -‘
_._—_

     

  

L—L—L

___=

—.‘ r—‘ '—
- -__-.-._

“.

  

L L:
L. L

.Q.

__
L.

     

 

 

 

106

Cu.
[II
In»
1"
Im-

 

107

L— _____L_LL
LL_LLLLL_ L:

A

            

“A

__
. L
o

O

-——_——.

   

 

can pndul on 4 noun. .

   

 
      

  

 

 
   

..

.2 .L L H L
LL L_L H L _
H __L L .. LL L L L H L L .L ,
L LL LL L LL”

.. _ . LL _ L L

l
I" X

0'- n
In
a.
(If!
Inn-
‘1-
lm-

Jeux

1"" II.

I" H J’
(I

1"“ I.

6,...

1" lu-p

2' law

qm van
DIY.

:4. y»..-

E PM nodéré

108

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

[K
p, a“. lull r 11'.an
. “’k‘
I" '1'. li-III um I
p, 1.1:. 'i” ' nan/l
I ' " I: A
14 an"! "pr-u]

. L .__..—.-.2 ..
f 41".“ fl (xi-rt": . __.__—————-
2"!"rm ,3 v 3 V _. y urn-u] ‘ ‘— '
‘3? ul ; ‘—-’- ' pupnur ? —" '

|———J '——u‘ L—u
I" Pr‘ IP
I; I ”V n v
I .....1 ‘H-i' a ...; I
"(liar i
’pli'n-
‘ .
Plan nodéré
.."IIIII‘. ........ ... . ."'IIII£:"""“" I"":Ill'fl .......... ‘
\—
”3% III. =—'in. In“ mu
- ' I. ~ I ' A- \ u. '
" "a“ pun. m kylu. "I. \un.
If ' 'P n
. . ié.
I, kg. . \tu. I‘Im . . \yl‘l. If"?- \Ifln
I . A §

" w . I‘“- I". I‘ll "m , Ila.
fl Mu.

I,

‘12.. N '\

v
If ‘ (um) I

109

 

 

 

ll
!L

It}?

I
|
I

ill 2
L!

 

110

Sirenes

.AV
‘5 ‘ t 5 0 £7
tam"???
“r "p.81:-

._:_ '

 

 

 

Rondes de Printemps

 

 

 

 

mun ,, '
J A- ,. ...- ~ pg 2..
In ' ___ — —’ . ——.———=__— :—
' ’ L P
c-IA _'
L
. == m?—
n, , . «F— PI'
V _¢1}.- —L—_._.- AL
‘3, _“___ .____ __ .._r=r_—_
r
A
Wu” K. —o—
”a:
' - Li. ..— —
Curl v ’ . l I I I p" |
J3 - 3 ~ .3 '3 ~ g: 3 g” - z -
I n l h
' v t— I 1 v ——I T
Gym. : : ' ' n . : - .
I 1'
2 ‘ _ -
til-u- ’ - - ' I ‘ I
l--- "'0. Fme
E z E z
’ .nqn' A
"m" ’2‘\ \,—'\ * z .. 2 :
\~__J ~.___’
. a ' f I , v‘ . f‘ .I" '
*4 '§ 3 .§ £~=w ,‘:717?-§%_'e 1" t 2-3 5471?
I‘m - r ... I ..._ —‘ -- -— -_ -—
m '._ : ;_ ' ' " -' - '. . a " ”
L O— -' . ...—--—- I."
_ ' I _
- .‘3_—:_:L__ -'=;1;=Fr
finn- ‘ '—< P
m. _ ‘_
. *3 -—— _ - -
A . _ . I
A I g F!— Im- f“ l
- J _ . .. -v ‘ . .:._.__.
1:; - ("r—o. .' . _.._—.. ' ‘ <“'—— — an:
All. 7::
D" 4‘. T u T _ um /-
\LL ‘-¥—;* " __‘===:: »; v
L - L
A
_—.==-_ ..—
nuu - 40-: u up":
an. A A ._ .
L‘ L ,L L,
e... _- - - -
DIV.
v

 

 

 

 

 

 

(an I.

1" vi.
I"

80 van
It“

AM
Mr

y‘lln
I".

112

 

 

 

 

 

 

”Na

u/f‘l
J"\'JI-‘J. g 4
__‘=t
.. ' ' ‘.'.'./‘.--’R.
4
.. ‘ :am’
A P
7%
'L—‘r
- .,
= g.
- I
A
P
V

 

  

113

AuMouv‘ I. -‘ }... f'i' !.

 

   

~——;' "mm/77.7."

 

 

 

p "pry-u u Inr'nl
pace 0 put a":
o.

 

 

Gigues

 

 

 

SUMMARY AND CONCLUS ION

In the course of this study, attention has been
focused on the question, "What was the real Indonesian im-
pact on Debussy?" In investigating this problem, we have
examined various opinions held by scholars concerning
Debussy's indebtedness to the Indonesian musical culture
in the light of the characteristics of Indonesian music,
Javanese music performed at the Paris Exposition, Debussy's
musical style before he heard the gamelan music in 1889
and, finally, in the light of those non-musical artistic
activities which dominated the period in which Debussy
evolved musically, and which might also have had a signif-
icant impact on his stylistic development. Having exam-
ined Debussy's music from this perspective and in this con-
text, we conclude that the Indonesian influence on Debussy
lies in his adaptation of the principle of the gamelan or-
chestra-—his fuller develOpment of the potential of the per-
cussion instruments, and his use of the sonority produced
by a number of registral and timbral variants of a single
linear movement-rather than in his use of the Indonesian
musical rudiments: pentatonic scale, colotomic structure

and harmony.

It should be noted that this hypothesis remains a

tentative one, for while it seems that Debussy's exposure

115

116

to Indonesian music occurred at a time when he was still
developing toward his mature style, and was open to congen-
ial outside influences, it is possible that in the context
of the music and artistic climate of the time Debussy would
nevertheless have undergone the same development, even with-
out having heard gamelan music. Be that as it may, it would
seem that the Javanese performance at the Exposition, which
clearly impressed him, would have shown him possibilities

in the handling of sonority to which he might not otherwise

have been exposed.

Debussy's works examined here from the perspective
of sonority have been restricted to those for orchestra.
It is possible that further examination of these works would
bear additional fruit, and in particular it would be valuable
to study the works in other genres for additional evidence
bearing on the problem of Indonesian influence on the music

of Debussy.

APPENDICES

MUSICAL EXAMPLES
DISCUSSED IN CHAPTER III

   
      
    

 

IN),

. |
'v-IIF

III
I; ‘H:
E; 1‘, EL!

A. NUI'I‘ D’E’JTOILES

: .
8

T.
L};

Ii '\ .1
Fit LI ..
l

  

I...
W

 

 

 

a
C
o
E
.9.
3
o
S
o
o
(31
:5

 

 

°. !
u—

 

' r .
.-.—,— . _.__.._=

 
  

    

 

 

 

 

.
_=
. . . _. . .—
dvl. . I . I. . . . I ll .
M a! 'l I! I. . .hfi.
' - ~ _ _ n A a -
,-. _' ‘_-.: ‘ ‘LL. =1 _
;. - __ .-—
. _ V _
.- —— . r - _

. llll g-‘iiu In

fl: ‘ l\ ii Pu £qu“ It"

all ii ° .:;i '5 ":0;
' r :5“ ' lll=||||- II'L a “I
: 'lwfi I; gulf {Lag—‘1.“ &’ I!

 

    
   

 

   

 

 

 

D. Harmonie du Soir

. II

 

 

Allah '2... rub-I-
> . 5

 

 

III I:
IIIII-E 3i IIII'V III
in.
II;

III ,1

III

 

 

  
    
    
  
  
 

 

124

   

I
IN (‘1'I I“ -'I 3':- q! I
I. 1:} I ' " I
g! [I ‘II In ’ .II [I
‘3
I” . IIII I ".' .

I ‘3 Inf-5 I553 .

 

 

 

  

 

 

 
   
 

E. Le Balcon
fl! IALUOIVY

125

.5

 

 

'% l

 

( .
L m
I

.- ‘I ~
'I "
a. {... ll L
H _ I'll-l _‘
H‘-
1.3-. I t. “‘
EE ‘ ‘—

I; w

 

 

 

 

 

 

9

HI ' '

iT“:I III-:"II i "II
’ ‘ II III
III "‘1': ‘5;

III:i =5“ III IIIL

II III
I I!“fig In}: "F- In!

' : - . --
: fun I ll '31:.” --:* '
l
L"; Iii

' I
I IIsz

  
  
   

 

>—
u n In. . l“ 5 on .
I n u. h a [M
'I
I -- A -‘
v' 5
F

 

 

 

 

 

4 €
g s - .
g < I-
It: ‘In I '
t g . ix
: = .. I
u * ‘m" ‘ 1:.“ h." I .
1"
II -, II 5 I : ILI I III!
C E E WI .
a E“: :
I II -£: I .- ' a
: " .II B I en
"I a l‘ .3] _~ In I‘
I .
II 3 :ll 1. ' I
1| | . I
. I n
I LI

 

 

 

   
 
 
 
   

I
II:

II“- ‘II III

II

91‘ I“
II‘
I ‘a I ...; I I
, ' I I E .
II " I' I
I :3‘ -- I
I I“ l" ‘-.'
I' II is.
I . I .
:III ‘III “u“;- t g ;:I I
LI I II“' :4“
"II; “II I . I 36..
4!"; j is ‘ I {I
“i .' ' n
II ‘3 I ..
III? ' I "”I I'IIT’E ‘ ' II I
I12: I'll!“ ‘- ‘I‘I I I: .. ‘ I;
-- i I' ' III " I ) I ”-
I | I' I .: u . I .. I-
EI I I II I! ‘5: , . III:
H 5* II I . | ' I I c:- ‘ I
Imié ' "'5— ( 5- -' . sé ' II;.«‘_ a :—
IJ‘“ I III I I II .
‘h? nu; 'II: ' 1.: :h In" Ir" {l L3 5. .h

 

 

    

ll 1" 1%].
[1 .

y uI ,\ III
E . ‘l '0) 1‘ i: .
Z ; I g l h I ‘ ' ' ‘3' I
"’ I l i ‘ E: 0 , l .-
I I t "‘ III) ‘ 1 * .n
E ' ' R! l|‘='.g I ‘sl ....' E? .I ..
.. II! ' .
. n n ma ,|.. j‘ "n } 1:;; l“ 2;:
‘ u ' ‘ II Q ‘E- k nu: . ll" .- Jé ‘ R...
' I. '1 f ' II
| I ‘ I
II‘ :

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
 

U 5.1.
n ;
.. ii

.5. ah H '
I, ' fl
.3' ‘ if;
, - . ; z
i
‘ 5‘ -’ 5
ll. I E 5' H ".1
l ' x ‘
n " fl,
. . n
I I 'l
I “I I

 

 

 

  

11W) ‘
I' . C} I 43.-3 IL
,I !

1;..‘7

|

1' U1 . -‘

 

  
 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Allen, W. Dwight. Philosophies of Music History. New York:
Dover Publications, Inc., 1962.

Barraque, Jean. Debussy. Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1962.

Bauer, Marison. Twentieth Century Music. New York, London:
G. P. Putnam‘s Sons, 1933.

Brailoiu, Constantin. "Pentatony in Debussy's Music." In
Studiae Memoriae Belae Barték Sacra, edited by
Zoltan KodaIy and Laszlo Lajtha, London: Boosey
and Hawkes, 1959, pp. 377-417.

Becker, Judith C. "Time and Tune in Java." Paper presented
at the conference on Symbolic Systems in Indonesia,
Malaysia, and Philippines, University of Michigan,
1974.

. "Percussive Patterns in the Music of Mainland
Southeast Asia." Ethnomusicology, XII (1968), 173-
191.

 

 

Belo, Jane. Traditional Balinese Culture. American Ethno-
logical Society Series, No. 16, New York: Columbia
University Press, 1970.

Benedictus.. Les Musique Bizarres a l'Exposition. Paris:
G. Hartmann et Co., Editeurs, 1889.

Berenson, Bernard. Aesthetics and History. New York:
Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1948.

 

135

136

Bertaut, Jules. Paris, 1870-1935. Translated by R. Millar,
New York: D. Appleton Century Company, 1936.

 

Borgeaud, Henri. ed. Correspondence de Claude Debussy et
Pierre Lbuys, 1893:1904, with an Introduction by
G. Jean-Aubry. Paris: J. Corti, 1945.

 

 

 

Boluez, Pierre. "Claude (Achille) Debussy." In Notes of
an Apprenticeship. Translated by Herbert Weinstock,
New York: A. A. Knopf, 1968, pp. 334-357.

 

 

Boucher, Maurice. Claude Debussy. (Essai pour la con-
naissance du devenir), (Maitres, de la Musique
ancienne et moderne, No. 4), Paris: Les Editions
Rieder, 1930.

 

Burk, T. N. "Estimating Debussy.” The Music Review
XVIII (1919), 76-80.

 

Calvocoressi, M. D. "The Tragedy of Claude Debussy.”
The Nineteenth CenturerXIII, (Jan. 1933), 220-226.

 

Chatfield, G. A. Indonesia. Singapore: Donald Moore, 1961.

 

Cooper, Martin. French Music: From the Death of Berlioz
to the Death of Faure. London, New, Toronto: Oxford
University Press, 1951.

 

Cox, David. Debussy: Orchestral Music. London: British
Broadcasting Corp., 1974.

 

Cubertin, Baron Pierre. The Evolution of France under the
Third Republic. TransIatedBy Isable F. Flapopid.
New York: Thomas Y. Cromwell & Company, 1897.

 

137

DeVale, Sue Carter. "The Gamelan." Field Museum of
National History Bulletin, Chicago: Field
Museum ofINational History, Jan. 1978.

 

 

Debussy, Claude. "Monsieur Croche the Dilettante Hater."
in Three Classics in the Aesthetic of Music,
translated by B. N. Langdon Davies from the 1927
Noel Douglas ed, New York: Dover Publication, Inc.,
1962, pp. 3-71.

DeVriés, Anix. Les Musique d'Extreme-Orient a l'Exposition
Universelle deI1889. Geneve: Edition Minkoff, 1977.

 

deling, Wolfgang. Claude Debussy: La Mer, Mfinchen: Wilhelm
Fink Verlag, 1976.

 

Duchesneau, Louise. "Element de la Tradition Gamelan dans
Pagodes de Debussy." Paper presented at the Annual
Meeting of Society for Ethnomusicology, Montreal,
10 October 1979.

Dumesnil, Maurice. Claude Debussy: Letters a son Editeur.
York: Ives Washburn, 1950.

Durand, Jacques. ed. Claude Debussy: Letters a son Editeur.
Paris: Durand and Cie, 1927.

 

Einstein, Alfred. "National and Universal Music.” Modern
Music XIV (Nov.-Dec. 1936), 3-11.

Frankenstein, Alfred. "The Imagery from Without." High
Fidelity Magazine XII, (Sept. 1962) pp. 59-62.

 

Gaestano, A. Mario, Jr. "Definite Pitched Idiophones of
the Javanese Gamelan." Percussionist, XV (1978),
121-143.

 

138

Garrett, Allen M. An Introduction to Research in Music.
Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of
America Press, 1958.

 

Gatti, Guido M. "The Piano Works of Claude Debussy." The
Musicalgguarterly, VII (April 1920), 418-460.

Gauthier, André. Debussy: documents iconographiques. E
(Collection Visages d'Hommes Celebres, No. 7),
Introduction and Notes by Andre Gauthier, Geneva:
Pierre Cailler, 1952.

 

Gilman, Lowrence. "Claude Achille Debussy, 1862-1918." ,
in Orchestral Music. London: Oxford University
Press, 1951, pp. 137-148.

 

Godet, Robert and G. Jean-Aubry. ed. Letters a deux amis.
Paris: J. Corti, 1942.

Graf, Max. "Claude Debussy, The Impressionist." In Modern
Music. New York: Philosophical Library, 1946,
pp. I02-116.

Gray, Cecil. "Claude Debussy." In A Survey of Contemporary
Music. London: Oxford University Press, 1927, pp. 95-
113.

Greer, Thomas H. A Brief History of Western Man. 2d. ed.
New York, Chicago, San Francisco, Atlanta: Harcourt
Brace Jovanovich, Inc., 1972.

Harvey, Harry B. Claude De France: The Story of Debussy.
New York: Allen, Towne & Heath; Toronto: Oxford’
University Press, 1948-1949.

139

Hatch, Marty. "Towards a More Open Approach to the Histor
of Javanese Music." Indonesia, XXVII (1979), 129-1 4.

 

Heins, E. L. "Cueing the Gamelan in Javanese Wayang
Performance." Indonesia, IX (1970), 101-127.

 

Heyman, Katherine R. W. The Relation of Ultramodern to
Archaic Music. Boston: Sma11,Mayhard & Company,
1921.

 

Heyworth, Peter. "An Inner Unity: Conversations with
Ernst Ansermet on the Art of Debussy." High
Fidelity XII (Sept. 1962), 56-58.

Hill, Edward B. Modern French Music. Boston, New York:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 1924.

 

Hood, Mantle. "Challenge of Bi-Musicality." Ethnomusicology,
IV (1960), 55-59.

 

. "Music of Indonesia." in Handbuch der Oriental-
istik, Leiden, Koln: E. J. Brill, 1972, pp. 1-27.

 

"The Effect of Medieval Technology on Musical
Style in the Orient." ‘Selected Reports: Institute of
Ethnomusicology, U.C.L.A., III (1970), pp. 147-170.

 

. The EnduringTradition: Music and Theatre in
Java and Bali. (Indonesia, Ruth T. McVey, ed.). South-
east Asia Studies, Yale University: New Haven, 1963.

 

 

Music of the Venerable Dark Cloud: The Javanese
Gamelan Khjai Mendung. Los Angeles: University of
California Institute of Ethnomusicology, 1969.

 

 

 

140

Jarocinski, Stefan. Debussy: Impressionism and Symbolism.
trans. Rollo Myers. London: Eulenburg, 1976.

 

Jones, A. M. Africa and Indonesia: The Evidence of the
Xylophone and Other Musical and Cultural Factors.
Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.

Kartomi, Margaret J. "Music and Trance in Central Java."
Ethnomusicology, XVII (1973), 163-208.

Kaufmann, Walter. Musical Notation of the Orient. Bloomington:
Indiana University Press, I967.

Keeler, Ward. "Musical Encounter in Java and Bali." Indonesia,
XIX (1975), 85-126.

Keston, A. E. "Debussy: His Science and His Music." The
Nineteenth Century, LXVI (September 1909), 492-502.

 

Ketting, Pier. Claude-Achille Debussy. (Symphonia Books),
trans.W) A. G. Doyle-Davidson. New York, Stockholm:
The Continental Book Company, 1947.

Koechlin, Charles. Debussy (Les Musiciens Célébres).
Paris: Laurence, 1956.

Koentjaraningrat, R” M. Introduction to the People and
Cultures of Indonesia and Malaysia. Melon Park:
Cummings Publishing Company, 1975.

Kunst, Jaap. "The Cultural Background of Indonesian Music."
(A lecture held at the First Congress of the Inter-
national Folk Music Council, 13-18 Sept., 1948).
Amsterdam: Indisch Institute, 1949.

141

. Music in Java. II vols. ed. by E. L. Heins,
The Hague: Nijhoff, 1949.

 

Lambert, Constant. Music Ho! London: Faber and Faber LTD.,
1933.

Lawton, Frederick. The Third French Republic, Lon on: rant
Richard, 1909.

Lentz, Donald A. The Gamelan Music of Java and Bali: An
Artistic Anomalngomplementary to Primary Tonal
Theoretical Systems. Linco1n, Nebraska: UnIVersity
ofiNebraSka Press, 1965.

 

Lesure, Francois. "Claude Debussy after his Centenary." The
Musical Quarterly, XXXXIX (1963), 277-288.

. Claude Debussy. (Iconographie Musicale, 4).
Geneve: Editions Minkoff, 1975.

 

 

 

Debussyyon Music: The Critical Writin s of
the Great French Composer Claude Debussy, CoIIected
and introduced by Francois Lesure; translated and
edited by Richard Langham Smith, lst American ed.,
(New York: A. A. Knopf, 1977).

 

Monsieur Croche et autre écrit. with an
introduction and noted by Francois Lesure, Paris:
Gallimard, 1971.

 

Liebich, Frantz (Mrs.). Claude-Achille Debussy~ London:
John Lane the Bodley Hey LTD., 1925.

 

Liess, Andreas. Claude Debussy: Das Werk in Zeitbilt.
Leipzig, Strassburg, Zurich: Heitz & Co., 1936.

 

142

Lockspeiser, Edward. Debussy (The Master Musician). 4th
ed., London, Dent, New York, Farrar: Straus &
Giroux, 1963.

. Debussy: His Life and Mind. 2 vols. London,
Casell, New York: McMillan, 1962-1965. reprinted ed.
Cambridge University Press, 1978.

 

 

. Debussy et Edgar Poe. with a preface by André
Schaeffner, Monaco: Editions du Rocher, 1962.

 

 

. "Debussy, Tschaikovsky and Madame von Meck."
The Musical Quarterly, XXII (January, 1936), 38-45.

 

 

Music and Painting, A Study in Comparative Ideas
from Turner to Schoenberg, London, Cassell: Cassell
& Company LTD, 1973.

 

 

. "New Literature on Debussy," Music and Letters
40 (April 1959), 140-149.

 

 

Loevgren, Sven. The Genesis of Modernism, Bloomington,
London: Indiana University Press, 1971.

Machlis, Joseph. "Claude Debussy, (1862-1918)," In
Introduction to Contemporary Music, (New York:
Norton, 1961), pp. 484-492.

Malm, W. P. Music Cultures of the Pacific, the Near East
and Asia. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1967.

Marcuse, Sibyl. Musical Instruments. New York: W. W. Norton
& Company, 1975.

143
Marr, John. "Oriental Influence on Western Music,"

Journal of the Music Academy, Madras XXV (1954), 62-72.

Mathy, Francois. Impressionists. Translated by Jean Steiberg,
New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1961.

 

McDermott, Vincent and Sumarsan. "Central Javanese Music: The
Patet of Iaras, Slendro and Gender Barung." Ethno-
musicology, XIX (1975), 233-244.

 

McPhee, Colin. Music in Bali. New Haven and London: Yale
University Press, 1966.

 

Mellers, Wilfrid. "The Later Work of Claude Debussy," in
.SEudies in Contemporary Music. London: Dennis Dobson
LTD., 1947. pp. 43-55.

Mellers, Wilfrid. Romanticism and the 20th Century. New
Jersey: Essential Books, Inc., Fair Laen, 1957.

 

Nettl, Bruno. Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology. New York:
The Free Press of Glencoe, CoIlier-Macmillan Limited,
1964.

 

Nichols, Roger. Debussy. (Oxford Studies of Composers,
10). London: Oxford University Press, 1973.

Onghokhams "The Wayang Topeng World of Malang." Indonesia,
XIV (1972), 111-124.

 

Ornstein, Ruby. "The Five-Tone Gamelan Angklung of North
Bali." Ethnomusicology, XV (1971), 71-80.

 

144

Palmer, Christopher. Impressionism in Music. London:
Hutchinson University Library,gl973.

 

Park, Raymond Roy. "The Later Style of Claude Debussy."
Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 1966.

 

Phillips, C. Henry. "Symbolists and Debussy." Music and '
Letters, XIII (July 1932), 296-311. I

Piston, Walton. Harmony, 3d. ed., New York: W. W. Norton
& Company, Inc., 1962.

 

Plum, Werner. Les Expositions Universelles au 19 éme siecle. E
Bonn: Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, 1977.

 

Pougin, Arthur. Le Théatre a l'Exposition Universelle de 1889.
Paris: Librarie Fischbacher, 1890.

 

Raoul, E. Javanais et Javaises a l'Exposition. Paris:
Quantin, 1889.

 

Read, Gardner. Style and Orchestration, Foreword by Nicolas
Slonimsky. Hew York: Schirmer Books, 1979-

 

Reti, Rudolph. "The Tonality of Debussy," in Tonality in
Modern Music. New York: Collier Books, 1963, pp. 36-
48.

 

 

Sabaneiev, Leonid L. ”Claude Debussy." Music and Letters,
X (1929), 1-34.

Sachs, Curt. "East Asia." in The Rise of Music in the
Ancient World, East and West. New York: W. W.
Norton & COmpany, Inc., 1943, pp. 105-153.

 

 

 

145

"Southeast Asia." in The History of Musical

 

 

Instruments. New York: W. W. Norton 8 Company, Inc.,

 

1968, pp. 233-243.

Salzer, Felix. Structural Hearing: Tonal Coherence in
Music. 2 vols. Forworded by Leopold Mannes. New
York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1962.

 

Salzman, Eric. Twentieth-Century Music: An Introduction.
New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1967.

 

 

Schneider, Marius. "Javanese Music." Bulletin of the
Colonial Institute of Amsterdam. VoI. I, (I938)
pp. 274-285.

Scholl, Sharon and White Syluia. Music and the Culture
of Man. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,
Inc., 1970.

 

Scott, Curil. Musisi Its Secret Influence Throughout
the Ages. Philadelphia: The David Mckay Company,

 

Seroff, Victor, 1. Debussy, Musician of France. New
York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1956.

 

Shera, Frank Henry. Debussy and Ravel. London: Oxford
University Press, 1925}

 

Smith, Datus C., Jr. The Land and People of Indonesia.

 

Philadelphia and New York: J. B. Lippincott Company,

1963.

Somervell, Arthur. ed. The Musical Pilgrim: Debussy and
Ravel. London: Oxford University Press, 1927.

146

Spaeth, Sigmund. "Tonal Impressionists." in A Guide
to Great Orchestral Music. New York: The Modern
Library, 1943} PP. 283-289.

Staekenschmidt, H. H. ”Debussy or Berg" The Mystery of a
Chord Progression." The Musical Quarterly, LI, (July
1965), (Translated by Piero Weiss), 453-359.

Stanley, Hoffman. "Epistemology and Music: A Javanese
Example." Ethnomusicology, XXII (1978), 69-88.

 

 

Surasan. "Gender Barung, Its Technique and Function in the
Content of Javanese Gamelan." Indonesia, XX (1975),
161-172.

Sypher, Wylie. Rococo to Cubism in Arts and Literature.
New York: Random House,ilnc., 1960.

Tiersot, Julien. Musigue Pittoresques: Promenades
Musicale a l'Exposition de 1889. Paris: Le
Menestreal, 1889.

Ulehla, Ludmila. Contemporary Harmony; Romanticism through
the Twelvetone Row. New York: Free Press, 1966.

 

Vallas, Leon. Claude Debussy: His Life and Works, Trans-
lated by Maire and Grace O'Brien. *LonHOn: Oxford
University Press, 1933.

The Theories of Claude Debussyprusicien
Francais. Translated by Maire O‘Brien. London:
Oxford University Press, 1967.

 

Vizetelly, Ernst A. Paris and Her People under the Third
Republic. New York: Frederick A. Stockes Co., 1971.

147

Walton, William. Paris from the Earliest Period to the

Present Da . 10 vol. Philadelphia: George Barrie
& Son, PuEIishers, 1900, Vol. 9.

 

Wasisto Surjodiningrat, R. M. A First Introduction to
Javanese Gamelan Music. Ohio: ’Oberlin College
Board of Trustees,il978.

 

 

Weber, Edith. ed. Debussy et l'Evolution de la Musique:
an XXe Siecle. (Colquues Internationaux du Centre
National de la Recherche Scientifique). Paris:
Editions du Centre National de la Recherche
Scientifique, 1965, 365 pp.

 

 

Barraqué, Jean. Debussy: ou 1'approache d'une
organisation autogene de la composition, pp.

83-95.

Gervais, Francois. Debussy et la Tonalité, pp.
97-106.

Almendra, Julia D'. Debussy et le movement modal

dans la musique du XXE siécle, pp. 109-126.

Lockspeiser, Edward. Quelque Aspects de la Psy-
chologie de Debussy, 141-150.

Jarocinski, Stefan. Quelque Aspects d 1'univers
sonore de Debussy, pp. 167-185.

Austin, William. Quelque Connaissances et Opinions
de Schoenberg et Weber sur Debussy, pp. 319-
329.

Kremiev, Jules. Les Tendances réalites dans 1'
esthétique de Debussy, pp. 189-198.

“5 Wen-Chung, Chou. ”Asian Concepts and Twentieth-Century

Composers. The Musical Quarterly, LVII (April
1971), 211-229.

 

148

Wenk, Arthur B. Claude Debussy and the Poets. Berkeley,
Los Angeles, London: University of California Press,
1976.

 

Whittall, A. "Tonality and the Whole-Tone Scale in the
Music of Debussy." The Music Review, XXXVI (1975),
261-271.

 

Wilenski, R. H. Modern French Painters. New York: Reynal
& Hitchcock, 1940.

 

Wilkinson, Charles W. Well-Known Piano Solos. Philadelphia:
Theo. Presser Co., 1924.

 

Zoetmulder, P. J. S. J. "The Wayang as a Philosophical Theme."
Indonesia, XII (Oct. 1971) 85-96.

 

 

"11111111111111111115