,A -1- III/7W FIT/ilifl/B’fl'lffii/W/WW m ””9 '““ . 3 1 a . w 293 10684 0642 L“ - -._.L n' .-, p . ----- 711 £1.54: This is to certify that the dissertation entitled A STUDY OF THE POSITIVE IMPACT OF PARENTS' AND TEACHERS' ATTITUDES AND EXPECTATIONS ON POOR. BLACK STUDENTS WHO ARE SUCCESSFUL READERS presented by MADGE BONNER-DOUGLAS has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. de eein Curriculum and Teac ers'EducafionET Policies DWWL Major professor Date (A [7 (-— MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771 MSU RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to Lnaakmss remove this checkout from ”3—.- your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. MI 28 '87 i? 13? A145 «2151“ T'éa :23: 1001A159 ”Q't2flni were 531 A STUDY OF THE POSITIVE IMPACT OF PARENTS' AND TEACHERS' ATTITUDES AND EXPECTATIONS 0N POOR, BLACK STUDENTS WHO ARE SUCCESSFUL READERS By Madge Bonner-Douglas A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Teacher Education 1985 ABSTRACT A STUDY OF THE POSITIVE IMPACT OF PARENTS' AND TEACHERS' ATTITUDES AND EXPECTATIONS ON POOR. BLACK STUDENTS NHO ARE SUCCESSFUL READERS By Madge Bonner-Douglas The purpose of thiS Study was to determine whether a difference exists between parental and teachers“ attitudes and expectations toward black, disadvantaged children and a child's success in reading. It was hoped that the findings would have implications for inspiring more poor, black children to become good readers. The study involved four specific groups: thirty poor, black, sixth grade students who scored at or above 5.7 grade level on the California Achievement Test in Reading, level lSD; thirty poor, black, sixth grade students who scored below 5.7 grade level on the California Achievement Test in Reading, level lSD; thirty parents for each group of students; and eighteen teachers (past and present) for each group of students. Instruments used to collect data required to test the hypotheses were: the Parental Attitude Reading Inventory (PARI) (Mussen, l979); the Parent Perception of Pupil Expectations Survey; the Teacher Attitude and Expectations Inventories (Brookover, 1979); the Student Perceived Present Evaluations-Expectations Inventory (Brookover, l979); and the California Achievement Test (CAT), Level l5D (l977). Madge Bonner-Douglas Five hypotheses were formulated and projected for the study. Two of these dealt with parental attitudes and expectations and their difference with their child's success in reading. Two hypotheses were concerned with teacher attitudes and expectations and how they affect the reading success of poor, black children. The fifth hypothesis relates to the students' perceived attitudes and expectations of their parents and teachers and the students' success in reading. The student's t test was used to analyze the data collected from the Parental Reading Attitude Inventory (PARI) (Mussen, l979). The chi-square test of significance was employed to analyze the data collected from the Brookover (1979) instruments. Findings Of the study indicated that there was a significant difference between the attitudes and expectations of parents and teachers and the reading success Of poor, black children. Students who perceived positive parental and teacher attitudes and high expectations were more likely to be successful readers, while those students who perceived negative attitudes and expectations were more likely to be unsuccessful readers. IN LOVING DEDICATION To my husband, Robert L. Douglas, D.D., and our sons, Robert Lafayette and Patrick Mack. With God All Things Are Possible (Mark l0:27) ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS NO student is an island in the sea of academic accomplishments. This study could not have been develOped and brought to fruition without the contributions of many persons who have acted as major guideposts along the way, as essential links in the chain of research, or as vital supporters in moments Of distress and discouragement. I wish to express my deepest appreciation to the following: Dr. Lonnie D. McIntyre to whom I'm indebted for his expertise as my committee Chairman, who has given unsparingly of his time in reading numerous drafts, and in offering scholarly criticism and . encouragement. Dr. Roy Wesselman who was instrumental in helping me to plan my program of graduate studies and who, along with other committee members, Dr. Larry Lezotte and Dr. George Logan, gave valuable assistance and suggestions for the improvement of this manuscript. Dr. Lester Morrow, statistician, par excellence, for sharing his counsel and helping me to rightly apply my statistical data. Joyce Campbell for her prayerful encouragement and skillful typing and help with the organization of this manuscript. Principals Donald N. Reed and Russel Tynes, for their support in the collection of my data and to the Benton Harbor Area Schools teachers, parents, and students who responded to the surveys and questionnaires. My parents, Mack and Bernice Bonner who, with their support and through their exemplary lives, have continually encouraged my personal and academic development. A very dear friend, Mary Louise Duncan for her Cheers and encourage- ment at every milestone. My sons, Robert Lafayette and Patrick Mack for their inspiration and belief in the success of their mom's undertakings. Robert, my husband--the greatest inspiration for the completion Of this study--for his patience, financial and moral support, encourage- ment. and for loving me through it all. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ........................ Chapter I. INTRODUCTION ...................... Statement Of the Problem ............... Importance of the Study ................ Statement of Objectives ................ Generalizability of the Study ............. Research Hypotheses .................. Definitions of Important Terms ............ Summary and Organization of the Study ......... Population and Sample ................. 11. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ................ Introduction ..................... The Disadvantaged Student ............... The Causes and Effects of Poverty on Students ..... Parents/Teachers Contribution to School Success or Failure of Disadvantaged Children ........ Summary ........................ III. METHODOLOGY ....................... Restatement of the Problem .............. Subjects ....................... Instrumentation .................... Data Analysis Plan .................. Testable Hypotheses .................. Summary ........................ IV. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA .................. Overview ....................... Statistical Procedures Utilized ............ Reading Performance and Parental Attitudes and Expectations .................. Relationship Of Findings to Research Hypothesis . . . . Reading Performance and Teachers' Attitudes and Expectations .................. Reading Performance and Students' Perceived Attitudes . Summary ........................ V d \IO‘O‘U'IU'I-wa TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued) Chapter V. SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Purpose of the Study ................. Research Design, Population, and Instrumentation . . . Findings ....................... Discussion ...................... Recommendations .................... APPENDICES A. LETTERS AND INSTRUMENTS ................. B. TABLES ......................... BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................... vi TO. LIST OF TABLES Analysis of the T-Test of Statistical Significance for Fourteen Survey Items on PARI Which Reflect Attitudes Which Suggest that Parents Consider Reading to be Unimportant ............... Analysis Of the T-Test of Statistical Significance for Fourteen Survey Items on PARI Which Reflect Attitudes that Discourage Children from Asking Questions, Expressing Ideas, or Participating in Conversations ................... Analysis Of the T-Test of Statistical Significance for Fifteen Survey Items on PARI Which Reflect Attitudes Which Favor Restriction of Childhood Experiences from Participating in Activities Which Provide Information, Ideas, and Experimental Background ...................... Contingency Table Observed for Chi Square Analysis Performed to Analyze Parents' Expectations Of Their Child's Ability to Complete College ....... Contingency Table Observed for Chi Square Analysis Conducted to Analyze Parents' Expectations Regarding Their Children's Academic Performance ......... Contingency Table Observed for Chi Square Analysis Performed to Compare Parents' Expectations of the Kinds Of Grades They Felt Their Children Capable of Getting .................. Contingency Table Observed for Chi Square Analysis Conducted on Teachers' Attitudes Toward Whether Students would be Content to do Less Than They Should . Contingency Table Observed for Teachers' Estimations of the Number of Their Classroom Students Willing to do Extra Work ............... Contingency Table Observed for Teachers' Expectations Regarding Whether Their Pupils Would Complete High School ........... Contingency Table Observed for Teachers' Expectations Regarding Percentages of Their Students Who Will Complete College ....... vii 37 39 40 43 45 46 48 50 52 53 ll. 12. l3. I4. 15. l6. l7. l8. 19. LIST OF TABLES (Continued) Contingency Tab'le Observed for Teachers' Expectations Regarding How Many Students They Felt Were Capable of Being Successful Readers by the Time They Were in the Fifth Grade Contingency Table Observed for Chi Square Analysis Conducted on Students' Beliefs Regarding Parents' Expectations of Their Academic Performance ...... Contingency Table Observed for Chi Square Analysis Conducted on Students' Views of Teachers' Expectations of Their Academic Performance ............. Contingency Table Observed for Chi Square Analysis Performed on Students' Estimations Of Their Standing in College .................. Contingency Table Observed for Chi Square Analysis Performed on Students' Ratings of the Quality of Their Academic Performance ............. Contingency Table Observed for Chi Square Analysis Performed on Students' Ratings of the Importance of Being A Good Student ................ Data Collected for the Analysis of the T-Test of Statistical Significance for Fourteen Survey Items on PARI Which Reflect Attitudes Which Suggest that Parents Consider Reading to be Unimportant ...................... Data Collected for Analysis Of the T-Test Of Statistical Significance for Fourteen Survey Items on PARI Which Reflect Attitudes that Dis- courage Children from Asking Questions, Expressing Ideas, or Participating in Conversations ....... Data Collected for Analysis Of the T-Test of Statistical Significance for Fifteen Survey Items on PARI Which Reflect Attitudes Which Favor Restriction of Childhood Experiences from Participating in Activities Which Provide Information, Ideas, and Experimental Background ................ viii 54 57 59 60 62 63 ll4 115 117 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Over a generation after the Brown v Board of Education of TOpeka, Kansas decision, many researchers continue to concentrate their interest on school desegregation policies as the ultimate means for academic success with black children from low sociO-economic backgrounds. Public Opinion holds that many of these children are destined to failure by virtue Of being poor, black, and economically disadvantaged. Brookover (1979), Edmonds (1979), and Lezzotte (1981) revealed that inner-city public schools could be effective schools--refuting the stereo- typed Opinion that predominantly black inner-city schools are inferior. Studies of Coleman (1966) and Shields (1983) concluded that parental involvement appears to be a requirement for successful learning of school related subjects. Coleman further reported that of all the variables which affect school achievement--race, socio— economic status, and other aspects Of family background tend to have the greatest effect on a child's success in school. Is there a significant difference between the attitudes and expectations of parents and teachers and the success of poor, black children who are successful readers? If so, these findings would have implications for inspiring more poor, disadvantaged, black minority children to become good readers. Other researchers (e.g., Webster, 1966; Good and BrOphy, 1973; and Edmonds, 1979) discovered a corre- lation between teacher expectations and children's performance. I Statement of the Problem Benton Harbor, located in the southwest corner Of Michigan, has a pOpUlation Of 14,707, according to 1980 census data, of which 12,693 or 83.3 percent are black. It is speculated that over 40 percent of the pOpUlation, Of both the township and the city, is. unemployed. According to the Child Accounting Office of the Benton Harbor Area Schools, the 1983-1984 student enrollment was 7,224 of which, 5,144 or 71 percent were black. The 1980 census data also revealed that a large percentage of the students come from low sociO-economic areas Of the city which often lack those aspects of a middle-class culture. i.e., educated parents, formal language, newspapers, books, a wide breadth Of traveling experience, and learning games which aid in the development of positive learning behaviors in children. The district's Michigan Education Assessment Program (MEAP) test (an instrument designed tO assess reading and math scores Of Michigan's fourth, seventh, and tenth graders) mean scores have con- sistently fallen below the expected state norm of the 75th percentile in the area of reading for fourth, seventh, and tenth graders. This study will focus on the sixth grade students of whom 47 percent scored below the 75th percentile On their fourth grade MEAP test. For several years, the administration of the Benton Harbor Area Schools has concentrated its efforts on improving reading through the implementation of federal, state, and local programs and projects which resulted in constant but minimal gains toward reading pro- ficiency according to MEAP scores. 3 Despite this concentration of effort to produce successful readers, the district has failed to reach the expected state norm of 75 percent on the MEAP test. Watson (1963) speculated: The only thing that can improve American Education is a con- certed investment in individuals and not in the proliferation of programs, projects, and administrative innovations. Importance of the Study There are four reasons why a study of this nature would be important. First, a review of the literature on learning behaviors Of poon black children indicates that much emphasis has been placed upon the poor,black child as a victim of circumstances which pre- vent the mastering of reading in a middle-class setting. Very little concern has been given to the poon black child who is a successful reader. Second, there is an expanding need to consider the problems of poon black children as individuals rather than to stereotype all such children as being destined to failure. A third reason for the importance of this study is that through the identification Of positive attitudes and expectations of parents and teachers of poor black children who are good readers, guidelines could be established to increase the number Of successful readers. And fourth, Gordon (1966) may have expressed a need for this type of study when he claimed that: The real danger in misperceiving the abilities and desires of the child is that it leads to an attitude which treats him as different, and when this happens, the child in fact tends to become "different." Children who are treated in school as if 4 they were ineducable tend to see themselves in this way and almost invariably become ineducable. . . . In simple terms they come to dislike themselves, and tend to function in a self-defeating, self destructive manner. Statement of Objectives As aforementioned, the basic concern for this study was to ascertain whether there exists a difference between the attitudes and expectations of parents and teachers and the reading success of poor black children. Hopefully, the findings will provide guide- lines for increasing the number of successful readers among black sociO-economically deprived children. Specific Objectives of the study are: Objective 1: TO describe the characteristics of the black disadvantaged students who are good readers. Objective II: To describe the coping strategies for overcoming the effects of poverty on educational success. Objective III: To examine the characteristics of economically disadvantaged black parents of academically successful readers. Objective IV: To determine if a positive difference exists between the attitudes and expectations of parents and the reading success of poor, black children. Objective V: To determine if a positive difference exists between the attitudes and expectations of teachers and the reading success of poon black Children. Objective VI: To determine if a positive difference exists between black student perceived attitudes and expectations and their reading performance. Generalizability of the Study The findings Of this study should have an impact on education for poorgblack children beyond the scope Of the study itself. First, since the pupils involved are from one urban elementary school building of 300 pupils, the findings should generalize to the remaining segment of poon black disadvantaged school children and should have implications for their success in reading. Second, the concept of positive attitudes and expectations having a positive effect on the reading success of poon black children is applicable in all content areas of education and training where the transmission of knowledge is of utmost importance. Research Hypotheses The following general research hypotheses are investigated in this study and are restated in testable form in chapter III. Hypothesis I. There is a significant difference between the attitudes Of poor black parents toward their children and a child's success in reading. Hypothesis II. There is a significant difference between poor, black parents' expectations and the reading success Of their children. Hypothesis III. There is a significant difference between teachers' attitudes toward pupils and the reading success of poor, black children. Hypothesis IV. There is a significant difference between teachers' expectations Of pupils and the reading success of poor, black children. Hypothesis V. There is a significant difference between student perceived attitudes and expectations and their reading performance. Definitions of Important Terms Definitions for key terms used in this study will provide a common basis for understanding. Successful: scoring at 5.7 grade level or above in reading on the California Achievement Test at the end of grade five. 3993: according to the Federal Guidelines for Michigan Public Schools Management Service, those persons whose yearly income, per family member, is $6,000 or less. Disadvantaged: persons lacking in the basic resources or con- ditions (as standard housing, medical and educational facilities, civil rights) believed to be necessary for an equal position in society. Poverty: lack of money or material possessions. SociO-economic: relating to or involving a combination of social and economic factors. Attitude: Thurston and Cave (1929) defines it as a generalized reaction for or against a specific psychological Object. It refers to an emotional stereotype. Expectation: that which is expected or looked for as due, prOper, or necessary. Summary and Organization of the Study This chapter consists of the introduction and states the problem, importance, objectives, generalizability of the study, and definition of important terms. It also includes the research hypotheses and the organization of the study. The review of related literature is presented in chapter II and is organized under five major headings. These are: (1) Studies related to a description of the disadvantaged pupil; (2) Causes and 7 effects of poverty on students; (3) Characteristics of economically disadvantaged parents; (4) Effect Of negative parent and teacher expectations and attitudes on learning behaviors, and (5) Effect of positive teacher and parent expectations and attitudes on disad- vantaged children who are good readers. In chapter III the research design describes the population and instruments for the study. It also describes the procedures to be followed for the collecting and analyzing Of the data and states the null hypotheses. Chapter IV presents and analyzes the data which is presented and tested hypothesis by hypothesis. Chapter V contains a summary, conclusions, and recommendations. Population and Sample The population under investigation comprises those sixth graders, from an enrollment Of 150 in one Benton Harbor upper-elementary school with an enrollment of 300 fifth and sixth graders. The sample consists of 30 poor black students who are successful readers as determined by scores on the Fifth Grade California Achievement Test. The control group consists of children identified by teachers as capable of being good readers but are low achievers. Eighteen teachers (past and present) and thirty parents of each group of students are included in the study. The decision to use this particular school was made on the basis of an identifiable group of black successful readers from poor sociO-economic backgrounds and the interest and support of the Benton Harbor central administration in this study. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Introduction The purpose of the review of the literature here presented is to examine the psychological and educational literature for relevant studies regarding how parents and teachers contribute to both the general academic success and to the reading success of black, dis- advantaged children. TO this end, the review provides context by first examining studies related to a delineation Of the “disadvantaged" student and to the general effects of poverty on education. The review then proceeds to examine studies investigating teacher influence on the academic behaviors Of these students. Finally, an examination of studies which show positive teacher and parental influence on black disadvantaged children who are successful readers. The Disadvantaged Student A series of studies conducted over the last few decades have con- tributed to a comprehensive profile of the "disadvantaged“ student. First and foremost, the disadvantaged student comes from a family whose income is below the poverty line (Havighurst, 1970). Ethnically, of the families whose income is below the poverty line, Liebert and Wicks- Nelson (l98l) report, approximately 63 percent are white, 25 percent are black, 9 percent are Hispanic and about 2 percent are American Indians. It is important to note that while most of the poor are white, 8 9 minority groups are over-represented, e.g., blacks compose only about 11 percent of the total American population while they compose over 25 percent of the poor. The disadvantaged student, in addition to coming from a poor family, also tends to come from a family whose jobs are low in occupational status (KOpp & Krakow, 1982). Most likely, the student's family is in a labor occupation. This low occupational status is Obviously related to poverty. Another Characteristic of the disadvantaged student is that he or she most likely comes from a home in which the educational levels attained by family members is low (Duberman, 1976). "The disadvantaged" as referred to in this review are those who are environmentally disadvantaged-~being deficient either socially, economically, or educationally. Jacob Landers (1963), coordinator Of the Higher Horizons Program of Queens College in New York, also gives a very fitting definition of these children. They suffer from all the ills which a modern society can visit upon the children unfortunate enough to live in its decaying areas. Many of the families receive welfare assistance, and even more of the children receive free lunch. A high proportion come from broken homes. Many of them are latch-key children, around their necks the key which is mute evidence of an empty apartment when they return from school. (Landers, 1963) Finally, research findings indicate that as a group, disadvantaged students are less successful in school (Coleman, Campbell, Hobson, McPartland, Mood, Weinfeld & York, 1966; Hess, 1970). In the case Of disadvantaged blacks, Coleman et al. (1966) observed, in a study 10 conducted for the U.S. Office of Education, that disadvantaged, black first graders were already behind their peers one full grade level with the gap widening as the students progressed through school. Given the foregoing, the picture Of the disadvantaged student that emerges is that Of a poor, undereducated child and/or youth who suffers from a multitude Of conditions (over which the child has little control) that Operate to generally decrease upward social mobility and maximal education. It can be seen, however, that the detrimental effects experienced by the disadvantaged student arise primarily from poverty. For this reason, the next section of this review examines research investigating the causes and effects of poverty on students. The Causes and Effects of Poverty on Students The general effects of poverty on children is a depressant, cumula- tive effect that mushrooms out to cloud the youth's general life and educational experiences. This depressant effect begins even before birth due to the generally inadequate prenatal care received by low- income mothers. The inadequacy of this care is well described by Biehler and Biehler (1981) as follows: The low-income woman who is expecting a child Often receives little or no benefits from health knowledge and services. A low-income woman who seeks medical advice during pregnancy is likely to receive it from a series of different medical prac- titioners on the staff Of a clinic. If she . . . is uneducated, she may not know of the availability of programs and information that might contribute to a healthy pregnancy and a safe uneventful delivery. A low-income mother may not be aware of the importance ll of good diet during pregnancy . . . (or) protect herself from exposure to infectious diseases. She may take a variety of drugs without realizing that even aspirin . . . may cause abnormalities. (p. 382) In other words, due to the low income of their families, some children are at a disadvantage even before birth; and the problems just delineated can, and Often do, result in children being born with physical defects that can affect their learning. Once the child is born, Biehler and Biehler (1981) note, low income parents may know little about their physical and psychological care. There may be deficits in clothing and play things. There may not be money enough to take the child out of the immediate neighborhood and thus expose him or her to these experiences. The result often is that the disadvantaged child is ignorant of objects and experiences thoroughly familiar to more advantaged Children. The depressant effects of poverty are of direct relevance to educa- tion in many ways. Reissman (1962) reports that due to the low educa- tional levels of most poor parents, the fact that school has never done much to help these parents, and other such factors, disadvantaged child- ren, when they enter school, find their parents are unenthusiastic about the child's school experiences. In some cases, parents may actually display overt antagonism toward school. Even in those cases where poor parents do not feel negatively toward education, Riessman (1962) reports, they still tend to take little interest in what goes on at school. Often they fail to show up for parent conferences and tend to be indifferent to report cards. Riessman further reports that poor parents' negativity, their 12 apathy, and/or indifference to education combined with the child's general lack Of learning experiences before attending school as well as the debilitating effects Of poor health care, result in the poor child's failing to learn his school assignments to an adequate degree. This decreased learning, especially when it is in the areas of reading and writing, leads to further problems. The child falls further and further behind. Often failure leads to attitudes of fatalistic resigna- tion, anger and resentment. Even when these children try to do better, the attempt will Often be cut short due to factors such as no place to study, no reference works and no encouragement from parents. The overall depressive effects of a poverty environment on children was the topic of a‘longitudinal study of 670 children conducted by Werner, Bierman, and French (1971). These children, when first born in 1955, suffered prenatal and birth complications. Over the years periodic assessments were made of the children's physical health, intel- ligence, social maturity and general environment. The authors observed that most children from middle and upper income homes had overcome their disadvantages due to prenatal or birth complications even before they entered school. Children from lower class homes, on the other hand, remained at a disadvantage even when they entered school. In terms of IQ tests, the lower income children scored from 19 to 37 points below their peers. The authors concluded that the single most important factor leading to retardations in development and academic achievement was the poor environment in which disadvantaged children matured. Given the foregoing review of the studies pertaining to the disad- vantaged child and the causes and effects of a poor environment in 13 terms of education, it seems reasonable to review the literature con- cerning parents and teachers adn their contribution to the educational success or failure Of disadvantaged children. This concept is explored in the next section of this review. Parents/Teachers Contribution Of School Success. or Failure of Disadvantaged Children - Middle and upper-income children do better in school than lower- income children (Hess, 1970). Some researchers suggest that one reason for this finding is differential child-rearing practices implemented by the two sociO-economic groups. For example, Liebert and Wicks-Nelson (1981) report that lower class parents permit their children less self- direction and freedom than do middle-class parents. Further, Bronfen- brenner (1958) observed that lower-class mothers more frequently punish failures of self-control and have more Of a tendency to use physical punishment than do middle-class mothers. Also, Bronfenbrenner noted that lower-class mothers are more concerned with appearances and expect less independent activity from their children. Hess and Shipman (1965; 1968) have looked at parent-child interac- tion with the specific focus of determining how it is related to cogni- tive growth in the hOpes that this might have some implication for school success. They argue that the socialization practices of poor parents, be they black or white, cause their children to acquire a pattern of learning that is unadaptive in the classroom and that these patterns are learned very early, primarily through maternal contact. The patterns to which Hess and Shipman are referring are ones that are restrictive to the point of precluding reflection, consideration, and choice among the child's alternatives of speech, thought, and 14 action. They saw that this restrictive pattern teaches the child to develop methods of dealing with stimuli that are impulsive rather than reflective, to deal with the immediate rather than the future and to see things as discrete or disconnected rather than sequential. Such methods of dealing with stimuli, Hess and Shipman claim, reduce the likelihood that an individual will attain achievement and success in middle-class environments. One of the reasons this restrictive pattern is said to lead to failure is because it breeds acceptance of the status quo and passive compliance to rules as unquestionable and appropriate. Middle-class families, in contrast to the foregoing, are said to be person-oriented, to emphasize attention to individual feelings and roles and to consider alternatives and variations rather than simple rule Obedience. Hess and Shipman (1968) tested the above hypothesis using a sample Of 163 black mothers and their four-year old children. Mothers belonged to four different socioeconomic levels: Group A were college educated women with professional, executive and/or managerial occupations; Group 8 had high school diplomas only and worked in skilled blue-collar positions; Group C had predominantly elementary school educations and held unskilled or semi-skilled jobs; and Group D were mothers whose families were supported by public assistance, living in father-absent homes. The researchers interviewed all mothers twice in their homes. Afterwards, they were brought to the university for testing which entailed an interaction session with their children as part of the procedures. The interaction session entailed the mother teaching her child three simple tasks which had been taught to her by the experimenter. 15 These tasks involved grouping plastic toys by color and function, grouping blocks by two characteristics simultaneously and working together to copy patterns on an Etch-a-Sketch. The authors reported that the most striking finding was the degree to which the person orientation Of the mother decreased as her social status decreased. They provide an example Of this in two responses to the question, "Suppose your child was starting school tomorrow for the first time. What would you tell him or her. How would you prepare him or her for school?" The response which typified the mothers Of the higher social levels was: Hess First of all, I would take him to see his new school. We would talk about the building, and after seeing the school I would tell him that he should meet new children who would be his friends. He would work and play with them. I would explain to him that the teacher would be his friend who would help him and guide him in school, and that he should do as she tells him to do. (p. 96) The foregoing response can be contrasted with this response which and Shipman feel typified the attitude of the lower class mothers: Well, I would tell him he going to school and he have to sit down and mind the teacher and be a good boy, and I show him how when they give him milk, you know, how he's supposed to take his straw and do, and not put nothing on the floor when he get through. (D. 96) The way in which the latter maternal orientation breeds behavior that is unadaptive in the classroom can be seen if one considers the fact that the first mother provided the Child with a number of reasons and ways in which he would find school rewarding and fun. The second l6 mother, on the other hand, concentrated on a very minor part of the school experience and gave her son no reason to look forward to school. What the Hess and Shipman studies reveal is that if disadvantaged children are to do better at school in general and/or reading in partic- ular, parents can contribute to this by re-examining and perhaps changing their child-rearing habits, an effort which educators could assist them with. The move from status-oriented to person-oriented patterns would greatly facilitate their child's success in school. Not only parents but teachers also can hinder or contribute to the disadvantaged child's school success. Barr and others (1968) con- cluded that teaching is not an isolated situation. It is very relevant to the students' environment. Teacher effectiveness arises from the interrelationship of the learning-teaching situation and the social environment of the children. Several studies have examined the contri- bution Of teachers to children's school success or failure. One of the most influential factors Observed to be related to teacher effects on children's school behaviors is expectancy. Specifically, teachers treat children differently depending upon what they expect from them. In a study of the above, BrOphy and Good (1970) noted the different ways teachers interact with children depending upon whether they expect the children to be high or low in school success. In the study, the researchers had teachers rank their first graders' level of achievement. They then selected the six highest and six lowest students from the list and observed the teachers interacting with these students. BrOphy and Good Observed that with pupils for whom the teachers' expectancies Of school success/achievement were high, the teachers were more likely to praise correct answers, less likely to criticize wrong answers, more l7 likely to provide some kind of feedback after each answer. Obviously, this sort of behavior would tend to improve these children's future performance while the tendency to do these things only infrequently with those students for whom less was expected would tend to depress their success rate even further. Coleman's data on Eguality Of Educational Opportunity showed that school factors did not appear to be major determinants of the achieve- ment levels Of disadvantaged pupils. He recorded that ". . . teacher characteristics accounted for more variation in standardized performance in cognitive skills than did variations in any other characteristics of the school” (Coleman, 1966). Many researchers (e.g., Brookover et al., 1979; BrOphy & Good, 1974; Finn, 1972; and Rist, 1970) have documented the fact that teachers' expectations have a very definite influence on student achievement. Such expectations can promote either a positive or a negative self- fulfilling prOphecy, defined by Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) as the tendency of children to become whatever a predominate figure (teacher, parent, etc.) expected them to become. Rist (1970) examined the effects of teacher expectancy for a group of black children as they moved from kindergarten through second grade in an all black, urban school. By the eighth day of kindergarten the teacher had sorted the children out on the basis of her expectancies Of their success and placed them at either Table 1, Table 2, or Table 3. The teacher said that the children sitting at Table l were the "fast learners" and that the Children at the other two tables "had no idea of what was going on in the classroom." Criteria used for grouping was based on cleanliness, physical appearance, speech, and 18 social status rather than on information from diagnostic test results. Rist examined the information the teacher used as a basis for deciding which children to put at which tables and determined that the children sitting at Table l differed from the children sitting at the other two tables in the following ways: 1. Table 1 children were dressed in neat and clean clothes that suited the weather. The other youngsters were poorly dressed. Their hair was also not cared for and the odor of urine increased from Table 2 to Table 3. 2. Those at Table l interacted easily with the teacher while the other students did not. 3. Table 1 children were verbal and used standard English more frequently than the other youngsters who tended to use black dialect and frequently did not respond to teacher's questions. 4. The children sitting at Table 1 came from intact, smaller, more educated and wealthier homes than the children sitting at the other tables. The differential treatment the teacher gave to children at each table continued throughout the entire school year. What was especially disheartening for Rist was that when the youngsters went into first grade, they were pretty much separated in the same manner; this as a result of the kindergarten teacher passing on her thoughts of their ability to the first grade teacher via school records. What is especially interesting about the Rist study is that all Of the pupils and the teachers were black so that racial background was simply not a factor affecting teacher treatment. Instead, the factor producing differential treatment was Class. Teachers tended to be l9 middle-class with middle-class values and they responded to those child- ren who evidenced the same. It is human for one to think that his culture is superior to another. Klopf (1963) stated that many have questioned whether or not some public schools and teachers are catering to middle-class values and expectations to such an extent that their aim is to prepare all Children for a place in a middle-class world, a world which is perceived by many disadvantaged children as being unapproachable to them and in turn they reject the education Offered. Another way in which teachers can influence children to succeed at school is through their assignment of grades. Rosenberg (1965) Observed that students with relatively low grades developed low self- esteem as a result of which, in turn, served to further depress their school standing. In addition, this low self-esteem generated by grades made the students withdrawn, overly sensitive and suspicious, qualities which did not easily lend themselves to situations which would Operate to elevate self-esteem. The influence of teachers on students' self-esteem has been said by some researchers to be especially salient for black children. For example, Taylor (1976) stated that poverty, low racial stereotypes, poor school performance, broken homes and the like were not really crucial to the develOpment of self-esteem in black children. Rather, he said, the self-esteem of black Children is almost entirely shaped by the attitudes Of significant others such as parents, relatives and teachers. A study by Vernon (1957) claimed that high or low teacher expectancy might be responsible for the underachievement Of some pupils. To return briefly to the Rist study in which it was said that the teachers evidenced a middle-class attitude and value scheme, it 20 should be mentioned that not all teachers are middle class in background or outlook and that a study by Gottlieb (1966) supports the notion that teachers with lower-class origins have different attitudes which result in the teachers being more empathetic to the lower-class students. Specifically, the Gottlieb study had two groups Of teachers, those from middle-class origins and those from lower-class origins, to indicate the most outstanding features of their lower-class students. The middle- class teachers checked adjectives like "lazy,“ "rebellious," and “fun- loving,“ while the lower-class teachers checked such adjectives as "happy," "COOperative," "energetic,“ and "ambitious." In other words, the teachers of lower-class origins perceive their students' behavior in terms of adaptive given their sitaution whereas the middle-class teachers view the behaviors as falling short of their personal standards. Related to the effects of teacher expectancies on children's school success, it will be remembered that some teachers treated children differently depending on whether they expected the children to succeed or not to succeed, to achieve or not to achieve in school. It has been observed that children conform to teacher expectancies, succeeding when they are expected to and failing when this is expected of them (Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1964). Good and BrOphy (1974) cited how a. teacher's expectations cause him to notice certain things and ignore others and commensurate with his expectations of a group or an individual, the teacher tends to set tasks which may either stifle or stretch the attainment of the pupils. The teacher's input usually varies with the teacher's assessment of the groups' potential. Given the above findings, it seems reasonable to wonder how teachers react when children defy their expectations of performance. This has 21 been studied by Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) who noted that when children not expected to do well actually did so, teachers reacted with disapproval and anger over unmet expectations (Weinberg in Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1964, p. 204). Rubovits and Maehr (1973) attempted to assess white teachers' expectations for black children on the basis Of the Rosenthall and Jacobson (1968) findings. The authors reasoned that if white teachers generally did not expect black children to do as well as whites, then those black children who did as well or better than whites would be treated in a negative and educationally unproductive manner by their white teachers. To test the above notion, black and white school children were randomly assigned by the experimenters to be labelled either very bright with an IQ between 130 and 135, or average with an IQ between 98 and 102. These students were then taught one forty-minute lesson by a white student teacher. The authors observed that the black children labeled very bright were given the least attention and were praised least and criticized most for their work. Some studies have attempted to ignore demographic variables such as teacher age, race, sex, etc., and just concentrate on determining those personality traits which are the mark of a successful teacher. For example, Ryans (1961) found that successful teachers: (1) had favorable opinions of their students; (2) cultivated independency on the part of their students; (3) liked to socialize; (4) had a wide breath of interests; and (5) worked well with their colleagues. In another study comparing successful with unsuccessful teachers, Combs (1965) observed that successful teachers were those with strong 22 feelings of personal adequacy, those who were usually comfortable with other people, who were able to develOp feelings Of trust for other people, and who were able to trust their own judgments rather than depending upon others to make their decisions for them. Stone and Neilsen (1982) have suggested that the fully competent teacher functions well in terms of three basic dimensions: (1) person- ality, (2) knowledge of the subject being taught; and (3) teaching skills. In addition to the foregoing, the authors provide some concrete ways in which teachers can contribute to their students' school success. These are: 1. Use a democratic teaching style in which students get to participate in structuring their learning experiences. 2. If paraprofessional instructional aides are available, use them as tutors; however, do not let them work with more than 1-3 Children at a time. 3. Use students as teacher aides with a special emphasis as tutors. 4. Be alert to the Classroom management and the possible effects it might have on the personalities and the self-concepts of students. 5. Encourage goal setting. In relationship to Stone and Neilsen's reference to self-esteem, Johnson (1982) Observed that when a child develOps a positive self- concept he becomes (1) more Open to experience, (2) is more able to learn about himself, (3) more able to receive stimuli, and (4) able to experience his world more fully and he then becomes capable of learning effectively in a school climate. Coopersmith (1967) defines self-esteem as “an evaluation which an individual makes and customarily 23 maintains with regard to himself. It expresses an attitude of approval or disapproval, and indicates the extent to which the individual believes himself to be capable, significant, successful, and worthy. . . .“ Shields and others (1983) in a study of black families with child- ren of various reading ability levels found that low-income black families can promote good reading if they use certain practices that foster reading achievement in children. These practices include lavish- ing praise, teaching responsibility, and providing the home with books related to the children's interest. She also noted that parent practices are more influential on the reading success of black children than either sociO-economic status or race. A study was conducted by Durkin (1982) to acquire information about poor, black children who were successful readers in order to determine what can be done to improve the achievement of poor readers. For purposes of the study, "Successful" was defined as scoring at or above grade level on a standardized reading test at the end of fifth grade, while "poor" was defined as being eligible for free meals and milk. Data on the twenty-three subjects were collected through obser- vations, review Of school records, and interviews with the students, teachers, administrators, parents, and other family members. Results indicated the importance of four factors in producing successful readers: (1) preschool reading ability, (2) families that were interested in school because they saw achievement there as a step toward a life better than their own, (3) student love of reading, (4) contacts with other good readers thorugh homogeneously grouped classes, and the use Of challenging materials within those classes. 24 Summar The purposes Of the foregoing review of the ltierature was to examine studies which: (1) depicted the general life situation of the disadvantaged black student; and (2) evidenced ways in which the parents and the teachers of these children could help or hinder their school success. Regarding the first purpose of the review the point was made that the disadvantaged student is at an educational disadvantage primarily due to the dull, ignorant environment that tends to accompany poverty. This environment does not foster a child's educational enthusiasm and the ways in which this enthusiasm is depressed were delineated. After compiling a profile Of the disadvantaged Child and the general effects of being raised in an impoverished environment, the review examined research on parental and teacher behavior and how it can help or hinder the disadvantaged, black child's academic success. In this regard, several points were made. These are: 1. Parents can assist their children to do better in school by showing enthusiasm in the children's school affairs. 2. Parents can assist their children to do better in school by exposing preschoolers to new environments beyond the boundaries of the neighborhood they live in. 3. Parents can assist their children to do better in school by providing quiet, well-lighted places for the child to study. 4. Parents can assist their Children to dO better in school by using less restrictive, people-oriented modes Of child-rearing. 5. Parents can assist their children to do better in school by painting preschoolers a rewarding and pleasant picture of school. 25 6. Teachers can assist children to do better in school by being aware Of the fact that children tend to conform to teacher expectancies Of their success or failure. 7. Teachers can assist children to do better in school by treating all children in the manner research has revealed they treat children for whom they expect a high level of success. This treatment consists of praise for correct answers, non-criticism of wrong answers, the following Of wrong answers with a restatement of the question and the provision of feedback. 8. Teachers can assist children to do better in school by being aware that they may be trying tO get the disadvantaged child to conform to middle-class standards and values. 9. Teachers can assist children to do better in school by being aware Of the double-edged nature Of grades. 10. Teachers can assist children to do better in school by arrang- ing circumstances to bolster the child's sense of self-esteem. 11. Teachers can assist children to do better in school by attempt- ing to develop those characteristics research has shown to be associated with teaching success, i.e., characteristics such as finding favorable things about their students, attempting to cultivate independency on the part of their students, etc. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY Restatement of the Problem This study examined whether success or non-success in reading was related to differing attitudes and expectations of poor, black children held by teachers, parents, and the children themselves. It was postulated that successful performance in reading would be related to the attitudes and expectations Of all three groups; i.e., teachers, parents, and children. Subjects Four specific groups comprised the subjects Of this study. These groups were: (1) 30 poor, black sixth grade students who scored at or above their grade level on The California Reading Test, Level 150; (2) 30 poor, black sixth grade students who scored below their grade level on The California Reading Test, Level 15D; (3) 30 parents for each group of students (N=60); and (4) 18 teachers (past and present) for each group of students (N=36). All students were, at the time of the study, currently enrolled in a single Benton Harbor upper-elementary school. The decision to use this particular school was made on the basis of an identifiable group of black, successful readers from poor socio- economic backgrounds, and the Benton Harbor Central Administration's interest in and support for this study. 26 27 Instrumentation Five test instruments were used in the study. Four of these instruments assessed attitudes and expectations and the remaining instrument assessed students' reading achievement. Each instrument is discussed below. The Parental Reading Attitude Survey. This instrument is used to assess parental attitudes toward their children's reading per- formance; it was developed and validated by Mussen (1979). The test consists of 50 items, each item contains a statement applicable to the life styles of black parents regarding child rearing and family practices in relationship to reading. The instrument utilizes a Likert-type response scale weighted such that a response of "strong agreement“ to the given statement is assigned a point value of 4, a response Of "mild agreement“ is assigned a point value of 3, a response Of "mild disagreement“ is assigned a point value of 2 and a response of "strOng disagreement" is assigned a point value of 1. In his discussion of the test instrument, Mussen (1979) reported that because Of its comprehensiveness, efficiency, and Objectivity, the Parental Reading Attitude Survey is the most adequate parental attitude questionnaire available for educational research on black students. Parent PerceptiontH’Pupil Expectations Survey. This instru- ment, develOped and validated by Brookover (1979), consists of 12 questions designed to assess parental expectations regarding the gen- eral academic success or failure of their children. Response cate- gories for the instrument are nominal as can be seen by the following example of a test item: 28 4. Do you think your child has the ability to complete college? a. yes, definitely b. yes, probably c. not sure either way d. probably not e. no Student Perceived Evaluation-Expectations Inventory. This instru- ment was also used by Brookover (1979). The isntrument consists of 50 items, each of which is rated on a nominal scale. An example of an item on this instrument is: 3. Would your teacher say that your grades would be with the best, same as most, or below most of the students when you graduate from high school? a. With the best b. Same as most c. Below most Teacher Attitude Inventory. This instrument, developed and validated by Brookover (1979), is used to assess teachers' attitudes toward the school, the general student body and their students in particular. The instrument consists Of 38 items, each of which is rated on a nominal scale. An example of an item in this instru- ment is: 22. It would be unfair for teachers in this school to insist on a higher level of achievement from students than they now seem capable of achieving. ' a. Strongly agree b. Agree 29 c. Not sure d. Disagree e. Strongly disagree Teacher Expectation Inventory. This instrument, consisting of 32 items, is used to assess the expectations teachers hold for the student body in general and their students in particular. Once again,all ratings were made on a nominal scale as can be seen by the following example Of a test item: 32. What percentage of the students in this school do you feel are capable of being successful readers by the end of the fifth grade? a. 90% or more b. 70% or more c. 50% or more d. 30% or more e. Less than 30% The California Achievement Test (CAT) Level #15 Form D (1977) in Reading provides information about the relative ranking Of an individual student against a norm group. The Reading section measures two areas: Reading vocabulary and Reading comprehension. Test 1, Reading vocabulary, contains 30 items that are divided into three sections. The first section requires that students identify the synonym for an underlined word in a phrase. The second section requires that students identify the antonym for an underlined word in a phrase. The third section of test 1 requires that students determine the meaning Of multimeaning words by using sentence context. 30 Test 2, Reading comprehension Of the CAT, contains 40 items based on several reading selections which measures skills in literal, interpretive, and critical comprehension. This standardized instrument (CAT) is frequently used to measure students' reading vocabulary and comprehension and provides a general score for the child's overall ability to read silently. It has the characteristics of both norm referenced and criterion referenced tests. Data Analysis Plan As noted in the discussion of the study's test instruments, all instruments, with the exception of The Parental Attitude Reading Survey, assessed responses on a nominal scale. This means that the statistical procedures applied to data from survey instruments other than The Parental Attitude Reading Survey, should be non-parametric. Therefore, all responses were tabulated and comparisons between groups were made in terms of response frequencies utilizing the non— parametric procedure, the Chi Square analysis. As for data from The Parental Reading Attitude Survey, since this instrument utilizes a Likert-type rating scale, it can be con- sidered to yield equal-interval data and is, thus, amenable to para- metric statistical treatment. Therefore, comparisons made on the data collected from this instrument were analyzed using the para- metric procedure Of the t-test. All performed analyses were conducted utilizing a .05 signifi- cance level. This meant that results were not termed significant unless only 5 out of 100 times they could be obtained on the basis of chance alone. 31 Testable Hypotheses Hypothesis 1. There is no significant difference between the attitudes of poor, black parents toward their children and their child's success in reading. Hypothesis I-a. There is no significant difference between the degree to which poor, black parents consider reading to be important and the reading success of their child. Hypothesis I-b. There is no significant difference between the degree to which poor, black parents encourage children to ask questions, express ideas, and ask questions and the reading success of their child. Hypothesis I-c. There is no significant difference between the degree to which poor, black parents favored holding back the child from participating in activities which would provide information, ideas, and experimentation and the reading success of their child. Hypothesis II. There is no significant difference between poor, black parents' expectations and the reading success of their children. Hypothesis Il-a. There is no significant difference between poor, black parents' expectations of their children's ability to complete college and his child's success in reading. Hypothesis II-b. There is no significant difference between poor, black parents' expectations regarding their children's academic performance and his child's success in reading. Hypothesis II-c. There is no significant difference between the parents' expectations of the kinds of grades they felt their children capable Of getting and the reading success of poor, black children. Hypothesis 111. There is no significant difference between 32 teachers' attitudes toward pupils and the reading success of poor, black children. Hypothesis III-a. There is no significant difference between teachers' attitudes toward whether students would be content to do less than they should and the reading success of their poor, black students. Hypothesis III-b. There is no significant difference between teachers' estimations Of the number of their classroom students willing to do extra work and the number Of their poor, black students who are successful readers. Hypothesis IV. There is no significant difference between teachers' expectations of pupils and the reading success of poor, black children. Hypothesis IV-a. There is no significant difference between teachers' expectations regarding whether their pupils would complete high school and the reading success of their poor, black students. Hypothesis IV-b. There is no Significant difference between teachers' expectations regarding percentages of their students who will complete college and the reading success of their poor, black students. Hypothesis IV-c. There is no significant difference between teachers' expectations regarding how many students they felt were capable of being successful readers by the time they were in the fifth grade and their poor, black students' success in reading. Hypothesis V. There is no significant difference between student perceived attitudes of parents and the students success in reading. 33 Hypothesis V-a. There is no significant difference between poor, black students' beliefs regarding their parents' expectations of their academic performance and the students' success in reading. Hypothesis V-b. There is no significant difference between poor, black students' views of teachers' expectations of their academic performance and the students' success in reading. Hypothesis V-c. There is no significant difference between poor, black students' estimations of their standing in college and their success in reading. Hypothesis V-d. There is no significant difference between poor, black students' rating of the quality of their academic performance and their success in reading. Hypothesis V-e. There is no significant difference between poor, black students' rating of the importance of being a good student and their success in reading. Hypothesis VI. There is no significant difference between student perceived attitudes of their parents and teachers and the students' success in reading. Summar In this chapter the purpose of the study was restated and the methodology and data analysis procedures were discussed. The pOpU- lation (consisting of parents, teachers, and students) was described with the method used to select it. A description of the instruments used in the study was given. The statistical procedures involving the t-test and the Chi Square analysis was explained. The fourth chapter will contain the analysis of the data gathered from this study. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF THE DATA Overview The purpose of this study was to ascertain what positive effect the attitudes and expectations of parents and teachers have on the reading success Of poor, black children who are successful readers. This chapter of the study delineates the findings of all performed analyses. Where necessary, findings are presented in the form Of tables in order to clarify understanding. Also, findings are dis- cussed in terms of whether they support or fail to support the study's five research hypotheses. To add clarity to the presentation, findings are discussed in three broad categories. These are: (1) findings related to reading performance and parental attitudes and expectations; (2) findings related to reading performance and teacher attitudes and expectations; and (3) findings related to reading performance and perceived student attitudes and expectations. The population selected for this study included: (1) 30 poor,' black sixth grade students who scored at or above their grade level on the California Reading Test, Level 15D; (2) 30 poor, black sixth grade students who scored below their grade level on the California Reading Test, Level 150; (3) 30 of the parents of each group of students (N=60); and (4) 18 teachers (past and present) of each group Of students (N=36). 34 35 Six instruments were utilized to collect the data required to test the 18 hypotheses: (1) the Parental Attitude Reading Inventory (Shaefer and Bell, 1958); (2) the Parent Perception of Pupil Expectations Survey (Brookover, 1979): (3) the Teacher Attitude Inventory (Brookover, 1979); (4) the Teacher Evaluation--Expectations of Students Inventory (Brookover, 1979); (5) the Student Perceived Present Evaluations--Expectations Inventory (Brookover, 1979); and (6) the California Achievement Test, Level 150 (1977). Statistical Procedures Utilized A test of significant differences Of parental responses from the PARI (Shaefer and Bell, 1958) were tabulated by the parametric procedure of the t-test. The t value was calculated and used to determine whether the proportions (e.g., the percentage of ”agree" answers to a question- naire item) in two samples (parents of successful students and parents Of unsuccessful students) differ significantly from each other. The Chi-square, a nonparametric test of statistical significance, was used to analyze the data from the Brookover (1979) instruments because the research data were in the form Of frequency counts rather than interval scores. The hypotheses stated in null terms were tested as follows. Reading Performance and Parental Attitudes and Expectations Hypothesis 1. There is no significant difference between the atti- tudes of poor, black parents toward their children and their child's success in reading as tested by PARI (Shaefer and Bell, 1958). For data analysis Shaefer and Bell (1958) divided the items of PARI into three sections: (1) items relating to the degree to 36 which parents considered reading important; (2) items relating to the degree to which parents encourage children to express themselves; and (3) items which assess the degree to which parents prevent their children from participating in activities which would provide information. Hypothesis I relates to findings related to reading performance and parental attitudes. Hypothesis I-a. There is no significant difference between the degree to which poor, black parents consider reading to be important and the reading success of their child. Hypothesis I-b. There is no significant difference between the degree to which poor, black parents encourage children to ask questions, express ideas, and ask questions and the reading success of their child. Hypothesis I-c. There is no significant difference between the degree to which poor black parents favored holding back the child from participating in activities which would provide information, ideas, and experimentation and the reading success of their child. Sub-hypotheses I-a, I-b, and I-c were designed to test the impact of the attitudes of parents toward their children and their child's success in reading as measured by PARI. The sample consisted of 30 parents of unsuccessful readers and 30 parents Of successful readers. Hypothesis I-a. There is no significant difference between the degree to which poor, black parents consider reading to be important and the reading success of their child. 37 The first t test analysis Of responses to the Parental Reading Attitude Inventory consisted of collapsing across test items numbers 2, 5, 8, 12, 15, 18, 22, 25, 28, 32, 35, 42, 45, and 48 (see Table 17 in Appendix B). A student's t was performed to determine the degree of significance between the degree to which poor, black parents consider the importance of reading and their child's reading performance. A mean for each group of parents (the parents Of successful readers and the parents of unsuccessful readers) was computed across all fourteen items. It should be noted that all of these items assessed the degree to which parents considered reading important. It was observed that the mean importance score of the parents Of successful readers was 19.64 while the mean importance score of the parents of unsuccessful readers was 20.21 as illustrated in Table 1. Table 1 Analysis of theLT-Test of Statistical Significance for Fourteen Survey Items on PARI Which Reflect Attitudes Which Suggest that Parents Consider Reading to be Unimportant Group Number Mean Variance Std. Dev. 1 14 19.64 33.0165 5.7460 2 14 _ 20.21 31.1044 5.5771 Mean Difference Var. Difference Std. Div. Difference -.5714283 4.580063 2.140108 1 ratio -.267 on 26 Degrees of Freedom 0 = .05 = 2.055 As seen in Table 1 the independent variable, parents who consider reading to be important, has a t score value of -.267 with 26 38 degrees of freedom, and has a probability level of 2.056. Because this probability was less than the accepted level of significance (.05) the null hypothesis was accepted. There was no significant difference between parental attitudes toward the importance of reading and their child's reading performance. Because the variable, parents who consider reading to be important, has a significance of -.267 and because this was less than the acceptable significance level of .05, the null hypothesis I-a was accepted. This indicates that parental attitudes toward the importance of reading were more likely not to differ as a function of whether their children were successful or unsuccessful readers. ,Hypothesis I-b. There is no significant difference between the degree to which poor, black parents encourage children to ask questions, express ideas, and to participate in conversations and the reading succeSs of their child. The t test analysis of parental attitudes necessitated com- puting a mean for both groups of parents. The following PARI items (3, 6, 9, 13, 16, 19, 23, 26, 29, 33, 36, 43, 46, and 49) (see Table 18 in Appendix B) were designated by Shaefer and Bell (1958) to assess the degree to which parents encouraged children to ask questions expressing ideas and to participate in conversations--factors which could affect Children's reading achievement. The results of the t test, presented in Table 2, computed to compare the observed means Of the two groups was not significant. It should be noted that numbers increase as the degree of encouragement increases. 39 Table 2 Analysis of the T-Test of Statistical Significance for Fourteen Survey Items on PARI Which Reflect Attitudes that Discourage Children from Asking Questions, Expressing Ideas, or Participating in Conversations. Group Number Mean Variance Std. Dev. 1 14 21.93 37.7637 6.1452 2 14 19.79 79.8736 8.9372 Mean Difference Var. Difference Std. Div. Difference 2.142857 8.402668 2.898736 T Ratio .739 on 26 Degrees of Freedom 9 = '05 = 2°056 Table 2 shows that the independent variable, parents who encouraged children to ask questions and to participate in conversations, has a t score value of .739 and with 26 degrees of freedom has a proba- bility level of 2.056. Because this probability was less than the accepted level of significance (.05) it was concluded that the degree to which parents encouraged children to ask questions expressing ideas and to participate in conversations did not make a difference in the manner in which parents view their Child and their child's reading performance. Because this variable has a level Of significance .739, and because this was less than the acceptable significance level of .05, the null hypothesis I-b was accepted. This indicates that the parents of unsuccessful readers (Mean = 19.79) were more likely to evidence a lower level of encouragement toward their children than did the parents of successful readers (Mean = 21.93). 4O Hypothesis I-c. There is no significant difference between the degree to which poor;black parents favored holding back the child from participating in activities which would provide information, ideas, and experimentation and the reading success of their child. A third t test analysis of parental attitudes was performed for PARI item numbers 4, 7, 11, 14, 17, 21, 24, 27, 31, 34, 37, 41, 44, 47, and 50 (see Table 19 in Appendix B). These 15 items were designated by Shaefer and Bell (1958) to assess the degree to which the parent favored holding back the child from participating in activities which would provide information, ideas, and experimentation. Research findings are illustrated in Table 3. It should be noted that as numbers increase the degree of holding the child back also increases. Table 3 Analysis of thg_T-Test of Statistical Significance for Fifteen Survey Items on PARI Which Reflect Attitudes Which Favor Restriction of Childhood Experiences from Participating in Activities Which Provide Information, Ideas, and Experimental Background Group Number Mean Variance Std. Dev. 1 15 16.87 24.6952 4.9694 2 15 10.40 29.2571 5.4090 Mean Difference Var. Difference Std. Div. Difference 6.466667 3.596825 1.89653 T Ratio 3.409 on 28 Degrees of Freedom a = .05 = 2.048 Table 3 presents the independent variable which reflect parents' attitudes which favor restriction of childhood experiences from 41 participating in activities which provide information, ideas, and experimental background has a t score value of 3.409 and with 28 degrees of freedom has a probability level of 2.048. Because this probability was greater than the accepted level Of significance (.05) the null hypothesis was rejected. Parental attitudes toward providing an experimental background were more likely to make a difference in the manner in which parents view their child and their child's reading performance. Results of the t test performed on computed means were found to be significant (t = 3.40, df = 28, alpha = .05). This means that parents of unsuccessful readers (Mean = 16.82) were significantly more likely to hold their children back than were parents Of successful readers (Mean = 10.40). Because the variable of parents preventing children from participating in experimental activities has Chi square score value Of 3.409, and because this number was greater than the acceptable level of significance of .05 the null hypothesis I-c was rejected Based on the results Of the t-test on sub-hypotheses I-a. I-b, and I-c, it was concluded that there was a moderate degree of difference between attitudes of poor, black parents toward their children and their Child's success in reading. Hypothesis II. There is no significant difference between poor, black parents' expectations and the reading success of their children as tested by the Parent Perception Of Pupil Expectations Survey (Brookover, 1979). Hypothesis II relates to findings concerned with reading per- formance and parental expectations. 42 pHypothesis II-a. There is no significant difference between poor, black parents' expectations of their children's ability to complete college and his child's success in reading. Hypothesis II-b. There is no significant difference between- poor, black parents' expectations regarding their children's academic performance and his child's success in reading. Hypothesis II—c. There is no significant difference between the parents' expectations of the kinds of grades they felt their children capable Of getting and the reading success Of poor, black children. In addition to comparisons of parents with reSpect to their attitudes, expectations were also compared. In order to test hypothesis 11, three sub-hypotheses were designed to test the impact of parental expectations on a child's success in reading. A Chi-Square analysis was performed to analyze parents' expectations on 3 variables. This non-parametric significance test was used for assessing how many members fall into each of the following 3 categories of Brookover's (1979) Parent Perception of Pupil Expectations Survey. The categories are designated in the null sub-hypotheses II-a, II-b, and II-c. The sample comprised 30 parents of successful readers and 30 parents of unsuccessful readers. Hypothesis II—a. There is no significant difference between poor, black parents' expectations of their children's ability to compelte college and his child's success in reading. A Chi-Square analysis was performed to determine the degree of significance between a parent's expectation Of their child's ability to complete college and his child's success in reading. The first performed 43 analysis of parental expectations and the reading success of children compared the responses of the parents of both successful and unsuccessful readers regarding whether they believed their children had the ability to complete college. The analysis was performed by first dividing responses into two categories: (1) believed children did have ability to complete college; and (2) did not believe children had ability to complete college. The frequencies Observed for both categories are presented in Table 4. Table 4 Contingency Table Observed for Chi Square Analysis Performed to Analyze Parents‘TExpectations of Their Childe Ability to Complete College Parents Of Successful Unsuccessful Ability Readers Readers Totals Yes 30 15 45 No 0 15 15 Totals 30 3O 60 Chi Square = 53 on 4 OF a = .05 = x2 a 9.49 As presented in Table 4, 30 Of the parents Of successful readers believed their children had the ability to complete college while only 15 of the parents of the unsuccessful readers believed that their children had the ability. Table 4 presents the independent variable, parents expectation Of their child's ability to complete college. It has a Chi square score value Of 53 and with 4 degrees of free- 2 dam and has a probability level of X z 9.49. Because this probability 44 level was greater than the accepted level of significance (.05) the null hypothesis was rejected. The variable, parents' expectation of their child's ability to complete college, has a chi square score value of 53 and because this was greater than the acceptable significance level Of .05 the null hypothesis II-a was rejected. ,Hypothesis II-b. There is no significant difference between poor, black parents' expectations regarding their children's academic per- formance and their child's success in reading. The chi-square test was performed to compare parents' responses regarding how good the parents themselves felt about their children's academic work. The contingency table observed for the chi square analysis conducted to compare the square analysis conducted to compare the observed frequencies is presented in Table 5 (see p. 45). As seen in Table 5, the independent variable parents' expectations regarding their children's academic performance, has a chi-square score value of 40.517 and with 4 degrees of freedom has a probability level of X2 z 9.49. As this probability was greater than the accepted level of significance (.05), the null hypothesis was rejected. Results of the analysis were significant; the variable, parents' expectations regarding their children's academic performance, has a chi square score value Of 40.517 and because this was greater than the acceptable significance level of .05, the null hypothesis II-b was rejected, indicating that parents of successful readers were signifi- cantly more likely to think their children's work was at or above average than were parents of unsuccessful readers. 45 Table 5 Contingency Table Observed for Chi Square Analysis Conducted to Analyze Parents' Expectations Regarding Their Children's Academic Performance Parents of Successful Unsuccessful Academic Work Readers Readers Totals At or Above Average 30 16 46 Below Average 0 14 14 Totals 30 3O 60 Chi Square = 40.517 on 4 DF 0 = .05 = x2 a 9.49 Hypothesis II-c. There is no significant difference between the parents' expectation of the kinds of grades they felt their children capable of getting and the reading success of poor, black children. The third Chi-square analysis performed on parents' expectations examined parents' responses regarding the kinds Of grades they felt their children were "capable“ of getting. The contingency table Observed for the Chi-square analysis performed on these data is reported in Table 6. Table 6 reveals that the independent variable, parents' expectations Of the kinds Of grades they felt their children capable Of getting, has a Chi-square score value Of 46.613 and with 3 degrees of freedom has a probability level of X2 2 9.49. Because this probability'level was greater than the accepted level of significance (.05), the null hypothesis was rejected. It was observed that of the 30 parents whose 46 children were successful readers, 29 felt that their children were capable of mostly A and B grades and one felt that their children were capable Of mostly C grades. Of the 30 parents whose children were not successful readers, 3 parents felt their children capable of mostly As and Bs, 10 felt their children capable Of mostly Cs and 17 felt their children capable of mostly 05. Table 6 Contingency Table Observed for Chi Square Analysis Performed to Compare Parents' Expectations of the Kinds of Grades They Felt Their Children Capable of Getting Parents of Grade Successful Unsuccessful Capability Readers Readers Totals Mostly As or B5 29 3 32 Mostly Cs 1 10 11 Below C O 17 17 Totals 30 30 60 Chi Square = 46.613 on 3 OF a = .05 = x2 2 9.49 The variable, parents' expectations regarding their children's academic performance, has a chi square value of 46.613, and because this was not within the acceptable significance level of .05, the null hypothesis Il-c was rejected. Relationship of Findings to Research Hypothesis This study's findings with respect to parental data, indicated support for the general hypothesis that parents' expectations were 47 related to their Children's reading success. In general, the nature of the difference appears to be that parents of successful readers hold far more positive attitudes and expectations regarding their children's academic abilities and capabilities than do the parents of unsuccessful readers. Moreover, analysis of the attitudinal data indicated that parents of successful readers tend to encourage their children to be exploratory and to seek out information more than do parents of unsuccessful readers. Based on the statistical test for hypotheses I and II, the null hypotheses were rejected. Reading Performance and Teachers' ‘Attitudes and Expectations Hypothesis III. There is no significant difference between teachers' attitudes toward pupils and the reading success Of poor, black children as tested by Brookover's (1979) Teacher Attitude Survey. Hypothesis III is concerned with findings related to reading per- formance and teachers' attitudes. Hypothesis III-a. There is no significant difference between teachers' attitudes toward whether students would be content to do less than they should and the reading success of their poor, black students. Hypothesis III-b. There is no significant difference between teachers' estimations of the number of their classroom students willing to do extra work and the number of their poor, black students who are successful readers. Two Chi-square statistical tests were used to ascertain the impact teachers' attitudes had upon poor, black students. Sub-hypotheses III-a, and III-b were designed to test the significance of the 48 difference between teachers' attitudes toward pupils and the reading success of poor, black children as measured by the Chi-square analysis of data collected from Brookover's (1979) Teacher Attitude Inventory. The sample for this study consisted of 18 teachers, past and present Of each group of students (N=36). Hypothesis III-a. There is no significant difference between teachers' attitudes toward whether students would be content to do less than they should and the reading success Of their poor, black students. The first performed analysis conducted on the positive impact of teachers' attitudes and expectations compared the teachers of successful readers and the teachers Of unsuccessful readers regarding whether they felt the students in their class were content to do less than they Should. Observed frequencies are presented in Table 7. Table 7 shows that the independent variable, teachers' attitudes toward whether students would be content to do less than they should, has a Chi-square score value of 10.8254 and with 4 degrees Of Table 7 Contingency Table Observed for Chi Square Analysis Conducted on Teachers' Attitudes Toward Whether Students would be Content to do Less Than They Should Teachérs of Number of Students Successful Unsuccessful Content to do Less Readers Readers Totals All or Host 8 6 14 Less than Half 10 12 22 Totals 18 18 36 Chi Square = 10.825 on 4 OF G = .05 = x2 z 9.49 49 freedom and has a probability level of X2 a 9.49. Since this prob- ability was greater than the accepted level Of significance (.05) the null hypothesis III-a was rejected. Of the 18 teachers of successful readers, eight felt that almost all or most Of their pupils would be content to do less than they should and 10 felt that less than half of the students would be content to do less than they should. Of the 18 teachers Of unsuccessful readers, six felt that all or most of the students would be content to do less than they should while 12 felt that less than half of the students would be content to do less than they should. Results of the chi-square analysis performed to compare these frequencies for significance were found to be significant. The variable, teachers' attitudes toward whether students would be content to do less than they should, has a chi square score value Of 10.825 and because this was greater than the significance level of .05 the null hypothesis II-a was rejected. Hypothesis III-b. There is no significant difference between teachers' estimations Of the number Of their classroom students who are willing to do extra work and the number Of their poor, black students who are successful readers. The next performed analysis examined teachers' attitudes regarding the number Of students in their school they believed would seek out extra work in order to get better grades. The observed frequencies are presented in Table 8. As Observed in Table 8 the independent variable, teachers' estima- tions of the number of their classroom students willing to do extra work, has a chi square score value of 9.866 and with 4 degrees Of freedom has 50 a probability level Of 9.49. Since this probability was greater than the accepted level of significance (.05) the null hypothesis was rejected. Table 8 Contingency Table Observed for Teachers' Estimations of the Number of Their Classroom Students Willing to do Extra Work Teachers of Willing to 00 Extra Work for Better Successful Unsuccessful Grades Readers Readers Totals At Least Half or More 12 4 16 Some and/or None 6 14 20 Totals 18 18 36 Chi Square = 9.866 on 4 OF a = .05 = x2 a 9.49 With the respect to the general student body at the school, it was observed that 12 of the teachers of successful readers estimated that at least half or more of the students would be willing to do extra work, while the remaining six teachers estimated that only some or none of the students would be willing to do extra work. Four teachers of unsuccess- ful readers estimated that at least half or more Of the students would be willing to wOrk extra while the remaining 14 teachers estimated that only some and/or none of the students would be willing to work extra. The variable, teachers' estimations of the number of their class- room students willing to do extra work, has a chi square value of 9.866, and because this is greater than the acceptable significance level of .05, the null hypothesis II-b was rejected. This finding 51 indicates that estimation of the number of students in the school willing to work extra for better grades did differ as a function Of whether teachers taught successful or unsuccessful readers. Hypothesis IV. There is no significant difference between teachers' expectations of pupils and the reading success of poor, black children as tested by Brookover's (1979) Teacher Expectation Inventory. Hypothesis IV is concerned with findings related to reading per- formance and teachers' expectations. Hypothesis IV-a. There is no significant difference between teachers' expectations regarding whether their pupils would complete high school and the reading success of their poor, black students. Hypothesis IV-b. There is no significant difference between teachers' expectations regarding percentages of their students who will complete college and the reading success of their poor, black students. Hypothesis IV-c. There is no significant difference between teachers' expectations regarding how many students they felt were cap- able Of being successful readers by the time they were in the fifth grade and their poor, black students' success in reading. Hypothesis IV was divided into three sub-hypotheses and tested statistically. Hypotheses IV-a, IV-b, and IV-c, were designed to test the impact of teachers' expectations of pupils and the reading success Of their poor, black pupils. The Chi-square test of significance was used to analyze the data collected. Hypothesis IV-a. There is no significant difference between teachers' expectations regarding the percentages of their students who will complete high school and the reading success of their poor, black students. 51 indicates that estimation Of the number Of students in the school willing to work extra for better grades did differ as a function of whether teachers taught successful or unsuccessful readers. Hypothesis IV. There is no significant difference between teachers' expectations of pupils and the reading success Of poor, black children as tested by Brookover's (1979) Teacher Expectation Inventory. Hypothesis IV is concerned with findings related to reading per- formance and teachers' expectations. Hypothesis IV-a. There is no significant difference between teachers' expectations regarding whether their pupils would complete high school and the reading success of their poor, black students. Hypothesis IV-b. There is no significant difference between teachers' expectations regarding percentages of their students who will complete college and the reading success of their poor, black students. Hypothesis IV-c. There is no significant difference between teachers' expectations regarding how many students they felt were cap- able of being successful readers by the time they were in the fifth grade and their poor, black students' success in reading. Hypothesis IV was divided into three sub-hypotheses and tested statistically. Hypotheses IV-a, IV-b, and IV-c, were designed to test the impact of teachers' expectations Of pupils and the reading success of their poor, black pupils. The Chiasquare test of significance was used to analyze the data collected. Hypothesis IV-a. There is no significant difference between teachers' expectations regarding the percentages of their students who will complete high school and the reading success of their poor, black students. 52 The next performed analysis examined whether teachers differed regarding the percentages of students in their class that they expected to complete high school. Frequencies for this test are presented in Table 9. As seen in Table 9, sixteen of the eighteen teachers of successful readers, expected that over 50 percent of their students would complete high school and two teachers expected that 50 percent or less would complete high school. Ten of the eighteen teachers of unsuccessful readers expected that over 50 percent Of their students would complete high school. Findings of the Chi-square analysis Show that the independent variable, teachers' expectations of the percentage of students who will complete Table 9 Contingency Table Observed for Teachers' Expectations Regarding Whether Their Pupils Would Complete High School Teachers of Expectations of Class Percentages Completing Successful Unsuccessful High School Readers Readers Totals More than 50% 16 10 26 50% or Less 2 8 10 Totals 18 18 36 Chi Square = 14.4 on 3 OF a = .05 = x2 a 9.49 high school has a Chi-square score Of 14.4 and with 4 degrees of freedom has a probability level Of x2 2 9.49. Since this probability level is greater than the accepted level of significance (.05), the null hypothesis IV-a was rejected. 53 The chi square value of 14.4 was greater than the acceptable sig- nificance level Of .05. Thus, the null hypothesis was rejected. Hypothesis IV-b. There is no significant difference between teachers' expectations regarding percentages Of their students who will complete college and the reading success Of their poor, black students. The third Chi-square performed analysis in this category compared teachers' expectations of the percentages of students in their class P who they expected to complete college. The frequencies Observed for this analysis are presented in Table 10. Table 10 Contingency Table Observed for Teachers' Expectations Regarding Percentages Of Their Students Who Will Complete College Teachers Of Expected to Complete Successful Unsuccessful College Readers Readers Totals Less than 50% 8 13 21 50% or More 10 5 15 Totals 18 18 36 Chi Square = 3.484 on 4 OF a = .05 - x2 a 9.49 Table 10 reveals that the independent variable, expectations of teachers regarding percentages of their students who will complete college, has a chi-square score value of 3.484 and with 4 degrees 2 2 9.49. This probability of freedom has a probability level of X level was less than the accepted level of significance (.05) and the null hypothesis IV-b was accepted. 54' The data in Table 10 on teachers' expectation of percentage of students to complete college, has a chi square value of 3.484 and since this was less than the significance level Of .05 the null hypothesis IV-b was accepted. Based on chi square analysis, the expectations of teachers did not differ as a function of whether their students were or were not successful readers. Hypothesis IV-C. There is no significant difference between teachers' expectations regarding how many students they felt were capable of being successful readers by the time they were in the fifth grade and their poor, black students' success in reading. This Chi-square analysis concerned teacher expectations of how many students they felt were capable of being successful readers by the end of the fifth grade. The frequencies observed for this analysis are presented in Table 11. Table 11 Contingency Table Observed for Teachers' Expectations Regarding How Many Students They Felt Were Capable Of BengiSuccessful Readers by the Time They Were in the Fifth Grade Teachers of Expectations of the Numbers of Successful Successful Unsuccessful Readers Readers Readers Totals 70% or More 18 ll 29 Less than 70% O 7 7 Totals 18 18 36 .05 = x2 a 7.82 Chi Square = 6.228 on 3 OF a 55 Table 11 shows that the independent variable, teachers' expectations regarding how many students they felt were capable of being successful readers by the time they were in the fifth grade, has a chi-square score value of 6.228 and with 3 degrees of freedom has a probability level of X2 2 7.82. This probability level was less than the accepted level of significance (.05) and the null hypothesis was rejected. All 18 teachers Of successful readers expected 50 percent or more of their students to be good readers by fifth grade. As for the teachers of unsuccessful readers, only 11 estimated that 50 percent or more of their students would be good readers by fifth grade. The results of the chi-square analysis conducted to compare Observed frequencies were found to be significant indicating that teachers of successful readers are more likely to view their students as capable of being successful readers by the fifth grade than are teachers of unsuccessful readers. This variable (IV-c) concerning teachers' expectations has a chi square score value of 6.228. Because this was within the acceptable significance level of .05, and the null hypothesis was accepted. Relationship of findings to research hypotheses. This study's findings regarding the attitudes and expectations of teachers support the research hypotheses III and IV that there was no significant difference between teachers' attitudes and expectations and the reading success of poor, black children. Moreover, these findings also support research hypothesis IV-c concerning teacher expectations of how many students they felt were capable of being successful readers by the end Of the fifth grade. Null hypothesis IV was rejected. 56 Readin Performance and Students' Perce1ved Attitudes Hypothesis V. There is no significant difference between students' perceived evaluations-expectations and the student's success in reading as tested by Brookover's (1979) Student Perceived Evaluations- Expectations Inventory. Hypothesis V relates to findings related to students' perceived evaluations-expectations and the students' success in reading. Hypothesis V-a. There is no significant difference between poor, black students' beliefs regarding their parents' expectations of their academic performance and the students' success in reading. Hypothesis V-b. There is no significant difference between poor, black students' views Of teachers' expectations Of their academic performance and the students' success in reading. Hypothesis V-c. There is no significant difference between poor. black students' estimations of their standing in college and their success in reading. Hypothesis V-d. There is no significant difference between poor, black students' rating of the quality of their academic performance and their success in reading. Hypothesis V-e. There is no significant difference between poor. black students' rating of the importance of being a good student and their success in reading. Sub-hypotheses V-a, V-b, V-c, V-d, and V-e were designed to test students' perceived evaluations-expectations adn the students' reading success. Hypothesis V was tested using five chi-square statistical 57 test Of significance. The sample comprised 30 students who were successful readers and 30 students who were unsuccessful readers (N=60). Hypothesis V-a. There is no significant difference between ' students' perceived expectations Of parents and the students' success in reading. The chi—square analysis was used to determine if there was a difference between students' perceived parental expectations and their reading performance, examined students' responses to the survey item asking them whether their parents thought them among the best students in class, the same as most, or below most. The frequencies Observed for both students who were successful readers and students who were unsuccessful readers are presented in Table 12. Table 12 Contingency Table Observed for Chi Square Analysis Conducted on Students' Beliefs RegardingParents' Expectations Of Their Academic Performance Students Academic Performance Successful Unsuccessful Expectations Readers Readers Totals Best 14 8 22 Same as Most 16 18 34 Below Host 0 4 4 Totals 30 3O 60 Chi Square = 4.893 on 2 0F c .05 = x2 a 5.99 58 Results Of the performed analysis revealed the calculated value of Chi-square not to be significant. Table 12 shows that the independent variable, students' beliefs regarding parents' expectations of their academic performance has a score value of 4.893 and with 2 degrees of freedom has a probability level of .05. Since this probability level was less than the accepted level of significance (.05) it was more likely that students' perceived expectations of their academic performance did make a difference in the manner in which students view their parents and the students' reading performance. The variable, students perceived expectations and their reading performance, has a chi square value of 4.893, and because this was less than the acceptable significance level of .05, the null hypothesis V-a, was therefore accepted. Hypothesis V-b. There is no significant difference between poor, black students' perceived views of their teachers' expectations and the students' success in reading. The second chi-square analysis performed with respect to students' perceived evaluations and expectations focused on students' conceptions Of their teachers' academic expectations of them. The frequencies Observed for these data are presented in Table 13. Table 13 shows that the independent variable, students' views of teachers' expectations Of their academic performance, has a chi-square value of 12.0 and with 2 degrees of freedom and has a significance level of .05. Because this probability was greater than the accepted level of significance (.05) the null hypothesis V-b was rejected. It was Observed that of the 30 successful readers, eight claimed their teacher viewed them as one of the best students in class and 59 22 claimed that their teachers viewed them as the 'same as most. Of the 30 successful readers, 9 claimed that their teachers viewed them as among the best in class, 12 claimed they were viewed 'the same as most and 9 claimed that they were viewed below most.' Table 13 Contingency Table Observed for Chi Square Analysis Conducted on Students' Views of Teachers' Expectations of Their Academic Performance Students Academic Performance Successful Unsuccessful Expectations Readers Readers Totals Best 8 9 17 Same as Most 22 12 34 Below Most 0 9 9 Totals 30 3O 60 Chi Square - 12.0 on 2 OF a = .05 x2 a 5.99 The variable, students' views Of teachers' expectations of their academic performance, has a Significance of 12.0, and since this was greater than the acceptable significance level of .05 the null hypothesis, V-b was rejected. Results of the analysis were significant indicating a clear association between students' conceptions of teacher expecta- tions and their reading performance. Hypothesis V—C. There is no significant difference between poor, black students' estimations of their standing in college and their success in reading. The next Chi-square analysis examined students' responses to the 60 question: "If you went to college, do you think you would be one of the best students, about the same as most Of the students, or below most of the students?" The frequencies of successful and unsuccessful readers observed in all three response categories are presented in Table 14. Table 14 Contingency Table Observed for Chi Square Analysis Performed on Students' Estimations Of Their Standing in College Students Type of College Successful Unsuccessful Student Readers Readers Totals One of the Best 5 3 8 Same as Most 23 24 47 Below Most 2 3 5 Totals 30 30 60 Chi Square = .721 on 2 OF a = .05 = x2 z 9.49 Table 14 shows that the independent variable, students' estimation Of their standing in college, has a chi-square score value of .721 and with 2 degrees of freedom has a probability level Of X2 2 5.99. Since the variable, students' estimation Of their standing in college, has an X2 value of .721 which was less than the acceptable significance level of .05 the null hypothesis V-3 was accepted. It could be seen that the results of the chi-square analysis performed on the data in Table 14 was not significant. Hypothesis V-d. There is no significant difference between poor, black students' rating of the quality of their academic performance and their success in reading. 61 An additional Chi-square analysis was conducted on student reSponses to the survey item asking them to forget their teachers' marks and indicate how well they personally thought their academic work to be. These frequencies are presented in Table 15. Table 15 Contingency Table Observed for Chi Square Analysis Performed on Students' Ratings Of the QuaTTty of Their Academic Performance Students Quality of the Successful Unsuccessful Work Readers Readers Totals Good to Excellent 23 15 38 Same as Host 6 12 18 Below Most l 3 4 Totals 30 3O 60 Chi Square = 7.733 on 4 DF 0 = .05 = X2 a 9.49 Table 15 shows that the independent variable, students' ratings of the quality of their academic performance, has a Chi-square value of 7.733 and with 4 degrees of freedom has a probability level of X2 a 9.49. This score was less than the accepted level of significance (.05) and the null hypothesis was accepted. It was observed that students' estimations of the quality of their academic performance was more likely not to make a difference in the way in which students view themselves and the student's reading performance. Fifteen of the unsuccessful readers thought their work good to excellent, 12 thought their work to be about the same as most students, and 3 felt their work below that of most students. It 62 was Observed that 23 of the successful readers thought their work good to excellent, 6 thought their work to be ‘about the same as most of the students, and one felt his work to be below that of most students. In summary, because the variable, students' ratings of the quality of their academic performance, has a significance level of 7.733 and since this was less than the acceptable significance level of .05 the null hypothesis V-d was accepted. Hypothesis V-e. There is no significant difference between poor, black students' rating of the importance of being a good student and their success in reading. A final chi-square analysis was conducted to determine the difference between responses Of black students' rating of the importance of being a good student and their success in reading. These Observed frequencies are presented in Table 16. Table 16 Contingency Table Observed for Chi Square Analysis Performed on Students' Ratings Of the Importance of Being A Good Student Students Successful Unsuccessful Importance ‘ Readers Readers Totals Most Important 24 16 40 Other Things As or More Important 6 14 20 Totals 30 3O 60 Chi Square = 12.411 on 4 OF a = .05 - x2 z 9.49 63 Table 16 shows that the independent variable, students' rating Of the importance of being a good student, has a chi-square value of 12.411 and with 4 degrees of freedom has a probability level of X2 2 9.49. This probability level was more than the accepted level of significance. It was more likely that students' rating of the quality of their academic performance, did make a difference in the manner in which students view the importance of reading and the students' reading performance. It was Observed that of the successful readers, 24 felt being a good student to be the most important thing they could do while the remaining 6 students felt that other things were equally if not more important. Sixteen Of the unsuccessful readers felt that being a good student was the most important thing they could do while the remaining 14 unsuccessful readers felt that other things were equally if not more important. The variable, students' rating of the importance of being a good student, has a chi square score value Of 12.411. This is not greater than the acceptable significance level Of .05. Thus, the null hypothesis V-e was rejected. Relationship of findings to research hypothesis. The question that now needs to be asked is whether the findings support the hypothesis V: There is no significant difference between students' perceived evaluations-expectations and the students' success in reading. In reviewing the findings it can be seen that of the five analyses performed to examine students' attitudes and expectations in relation to their reading performance only two of the null hypotheses were accepted. There was moderate support for the research hypothesis that StudentS' attitUdes and expectatiOnS'are related to reading performance. 64 Summary This chapter has presented the statistical analysis of the data gathered as it relates to the five null hypotheses previously stated in this study. Descriptive data of each tested item was presented. The descriptive and statistical data in this chapter were collected by six questionnaires administered to six sample groups: (1) teachers of successful readers (N = 18); (2) teachers of unsuccessful readers (N = 18); (3) parents of successful readers (N = 30); (4) parents of unsuccessful readers (N = 30); (5) students who are successful readers (N = 30); and (6) students who are unsuccessful readers (N = 30).\ CHAPTER V SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS This chapter presents a summary of the study with conclusions, implications, and recommendations drawn from the findings. The study was concerned with the relationship between the attitudes and expectations of parents and teachers and poor, black children who are successful readers. The summary is presented in six sections covering: (1) the purpose of the study, (2) a review Of related literature, (3) a brief description of the research design, including the pOpUlation and instrumentation, (4) findings, (5) discussion. and (6) recommendations. Purpose Of the Study Negative preconceived attitudes and expectations of some teachers toward the disadvantaged child's learning abilities are considered to be major factors which hinder the deprived child's success in reading. While still other teachers have developed positive attitudes and expectations toward their disadvantaged pupils which have played an important role in develOping positive concepts in deprived children whereby enhancing their ability to become successful readers. Parents' attitudes and expectations toward child rearing are also considered to be major factors affecting their children's reading success. 65 66 The purpose of this research was to ascertain the attitudes and expectations of parents and teachers Of successful readers and to relate these attitudes and expectations to the reading success of a selected group of children. After a Careful review of the related literature, it was assumed that findings from a study of this nature would provide guidelines for increasing the number of poor, black, disadvantaged Children who are successful readers in spite of the circumstances which are beyond their control. Five null hypotheses were formulated and tested for this study. Two of these dealt with parental attitudes and expectations toward learning and their correlation with a child's success in reading. Two hypotheses were concerned with the correlation Of the attitudes and expectations of teachers with students' success in reading. The fifth hypothesis was concerned with the correlation between students' perceived attitudes and expectations and the students' success in reading. Research Design, POpulation, and Instrumentation To ascertain the correlation between parent and teacher attitude and the reading success of peor, black children, the pOpUlation used in this study consisted Of four Specific groups: (1) 30 poor, black, sixth grade students who scored at or above 5.7 grade level on the California Achievement Reading Test, Level 150; (2) 30 poor. black, sixth grade students who scored below 5.7 grade level on the California Reading Test, Level 150; (3) 30 parents for each group 67 of students (N = 60): and (4) 18 teachers (past and present) for each group of students (N = 36). The data from the California Achievement Reading Test, administered to the students in April 1984, were collected and analyzed during the first week of September 1984. All of the sixty selected subjects participated in the Student Perceived Expectations/Evaluation Inventory (see Appendix B). Sixty envelopes, containing the Parental Attitude Reading Inventory and the Parent Perception of Pupil Expectations Survey (PARI) (see Appendix B), a covering letter of explanation, and a self- addressed return envelOpe were sent to the parents Of the students included in the study-~one of each survey to each home. Completed responses were received from each of the parents. The Teacher Attitude and the Teacher Expectation inventories with a covering letter were forwarded, through inner-school mail to each of the thirty-six teacher subjects. All of the inventories were returned and used in the study. The data were collected over a period of three weeks during November 1984. In order to ensure anonymity, the parental and teacher test numbers were matched with the student numbers which had originally been assigned at random by the school secretary. The results of the surveys were then computed. The collected data were analyzed at the Andrews University Computing Center. The student's t-test for statistical analysis was used to evaluate the PARI (Mussen 1979). The Chi-square test was used to analyze the data from the Brookover (1979) instruments. differences between the attitudes and expectations of parents and 68 teachers and the reading success of poor, black students were examined from several perspectives. Findings This section presents a summary of the findings of the study with regard to the five hypotheses. Each hypothesis was accepted or rejected according to the findings in the data anlysis. Hypothesis 1. There is no significant difference between the attitudes of poor, black parents toward their children and their Child's success in reading. On the basis of the data analysis, it was found that parental attitudes toward the importance of reading did not differ as a function of whether their children were successful (Mean = 20.21) or unsuccessful (Mean = 20.21) readers. Neither was there significant difference. evidenced between parents of unsuccessful readers and parents of successful readers and the level of encouragement given their children. However, the data indicated that parents of unsuccessful readers (Mean = 16.82) were significantly more likely to say they would hold their children back from participating in activities which would provide information, ideas, and experimentation than were parents Of successful readers (Mean = 10.40). This seems consistent with Shield's (1983) findings which indicated that low-income black families can promote good reading by exposing their children to learning experiences. Lack of parental involvement in the fostering Of education may imply that the parents Of unsuccessful readers lack the skills and information to impact upon their children. Hypothesis II. There is no significant difference between poor, black parents' expectations and the reading success of their children. 69 As shown in Table 4, the data analysis indicates that 30 or more Of the parents Of successful readers believed their children had the ability to complete college while only 15 or less of the parents of unsuccessful readers believed that their children possessed the ability. This finding is consistent with an earlier statement by Hess and Shipman (1968) which stated a possible explanation of the correlation between disadvantaged parents' expectations of their children's ability to complete college and their child's success in reading. They argUed that the socialization practices Of poor parents teaches the child to deal with the immediate rather than the future and to see things as discrete or disconnected rather than sequential. Tables 5 and 6 presented summaries of the data analysis of the parents' expectations Of the academic performances of their children. It was found that of the 30 parents Of successful readers, 29 felt that their Children were capable of attaining A or B grades. Of the 30 parents of unsuccessful readers, 17 felt their children capable of getting Cs or less. It can thus be seen that a significant difference was found between the parental expectations and the reading success of their children. Hypothesis III. There is no Significant difference between teachers' attitudes toward pupils and the reading success Of poor, black children. Tables 7 and 8 present the correlations between teachers' attitudes toward whether students would be content to do less than they should as expressed on the Teachers' Attitude Inventory. The analysis shows 70 that there is more likely to be a significant difference between the teachers' expectations of the amount of class work a student will do and the reading success of the child. Based on the findings Of this study, hypothesis III was rejected. Hypothesis IV. There is no significant difference between teachers' expectations of pupils and the reading success Of poor, black children. As shown in Tables 9 and 10, findings of the chi-square analysis, of the Teacher Expectation Inventory, shows that teachers' expectations regarding whether their pupils would complete high school and college did make a difference in the manner in which teachers view their students and their students' reading performance. According to findings Of this study there was a significant difference between teachers' expectation Of students as capable of being successful readers by fifth grade and their students' reading performance. It Should be noted that based on test scores, students in the target school were placed in reading groups commensurate with their ability. 0f the 30 poor, black unsuccessful readers included in the study eight were one year below grade level, eighteen were two years below grade level and four were three years below grade level. Hypothesis V. There is no Significant difference between students' perceived evaluations-expectations and the students' success in reading. Based on the analysis Of collected data, it was observed that students' conceptions of the academic expectations that their parents and teachers held for them did differ as a function of whether or not they were successful readers. This concurs with the findings in 71 the data analysis of hypothesis II which revealed that there was no significant difference between the attitudes of parents and the reading success Of their children. Research has revealed that parents are among the “significant others“ in the life Of a child. Could it be that the positive attitude and expectations of the parents are over- shadowed by the negative attitudes and expectations Of teachers? This study reveals that selected attitudes and expectations of parents and teachers are more likely to have a significant impact upon the reading success of students. Discussion This section contains an overall discussion of the results Of the hypotheses. It can be seen as reported earlier, that there is a significant degree Of difference (.05) between attitudes of poor, black parents toward their children and their child's success in reading. It is interesting to note from the findings that parents of both successful and unsuccessful readers are more likely to consider reading to be important and to encourage their children in self-expression. Could it be that these positive attitudes of poor, black, disadvantaged parents of unsuccessful readers are overshadowed by their neglect or inability to provide certain practices that foster reading achievement in Children as revealed in a study by Shields (1983)? The overall results of this study suggests that if teachers expect children to do less than they should, this attitude communicates to the students the behavior and achievement the teacher expects from ‘ them and affects their self-concepts, achievement motivation, and levels Of aspiration: this condition is defined in studies by Rosenthal and 72 Jacobson (1964) as the self-fulfilling prOphecy. Studies by BrOphy (1973) and Lezotte (1980) Clearly demonstrate that children can be educated successfully, regardless of their sociO-economic status but one of the main prerequisites is the positive attitude of the teacher that all students can be taught to be successful. Recommendations The present study investigated the difference between the attitudes and expectations of parents and teachers and the reading success of poor, black students who are successful readers. It was evident that the findings of this study raise a number of questions related to the reading success of disadvantaged children. Finding answers to these questions would necessitate further studies. Therefore the following recommendations are suggested: 1. As a result of the findings in this study, it is recommended that more attention be given to schools to ensure that they demonstrate respect for the dignity Of all students and be committed to Offer both quality and equal education. Items for consideration are: (a) the need for teacher training and experience in multi-cultural/ multi-ethnic education. (b) the need for longer student teaching experience in inner-city schools, and (c) racial differences and economic standing and the use of tracking in the teaching of reading. 2.’ An indepth study on the high expectations of teachers in terms of reading achievement and behavior in the lives of disadvantaged black students. 3. It is recommended that the study be replicated, using subjects 73 from other cultural backgrounds for comparison of Similarities and/or differences in parental and teacher attitudes toward children and the reading success Of students. 4. It is also recommended that further study be given to the notion of whether parental involvement in classroom reading might be necessary to help slow learners become successful readers. This study might include a comparison of parents which receive supervised training related to reading Opposed to parents who do not. 5. It would be enlightening to conduct a study of the policies and procedures which insure racial fairness in classrooms, such as fairness in grading and disciplining, and relate the findings to the number of black, disadvantaged students who are successful readers. APPENDICES APPENDIX A LETTERS AND INSTRUMENTS SORTERELEMENTARYSCHOOL /’ 1421 Pipestone Benton Harbor, Michigan 49022 (616) 925-1251 \ Benton Harbor September 10. 1984 Am Schools Donald Reed, Principal Sorter Elementary School 1421 Pipestone Benton Harbor, Michigan 49022 Dear Mr. Reed: The purpose of this letter is to ask permission to administer a survey of Student Perception of School Academic Norms to sixty (60) sixth- grade students at Sorter School. This would require approximately forty-five minutes. Then, in order to further the research project, permission is needed to use the students' results of the California Achievement Tests in the study, and to contact the parents with the Parental Reading Attitude Inventory and Brookover's Parental Expectation Questionnaire. Attached please find a revised COpy of the approved proposal topic which is self explanatory. I appreciate your consideration and eagerly await your reply. Sincerely, Madge 8. Douglas 74 A to PA! I A I AHEADTI ILII'I'V EMDI nVED I “"Tfff, SORTERELEMENTARYSCHOOL r’ 1421 Pipestone Benton Harbor, Michigan 49022 (616) 9254251 k Benton Harbor Area Schools Madge B. Douglas, Teacher Sorter Elementary School 1421 Pipestone Benton Harbor , Mi. 49022 September 11, 1984 Dear Mrs. Douglas, I wish to inform you that permission is being granted to you to administer a survey of Student Perception of School Academic Norms, to sixty (60) sixth grade students here at Sorter School. Permission is also being granted for you to use the student results of the California Achievement Test in the study and to contact the parents of those students with the Parental Reading Attitude Inventory and Brookover's Parental Expectation Questionaire. I wish you success with your project and if I can be of any further assistance please feel free to call on me. Sincerely, Donald W. Reed, Principal 75 am PA: I AI nannn‘rl IMITV C'Mpl nvrp O Sorter Elementary School 1421 Pipestone Benton Harbor, Michigan 49022 October 23, 1985 Dear Parents: As a part of my graduate studies, permission has been granted for me to contact parents of sixth grade students at Sorter Elementary School. The items in the surveys have been selected to measure those aspects of the home environment that are related to student learning. On Thursday you will receive a copy Of the Parental Reading Attitude Survey and a Parental Expectations Questionnaire to be completed by each parent and returned to me in the enclosed envelope by Monday, November 5. The information which you give on this questionnaire will be completely confidential. Returns will be identified by number only. Informaiton from the surveys will be collected as a whole and no one will be identified with his or her answers. After the answers on your questionnaire have been recorded on a general graph, your question- naire will be destroyed. Thank you for your kind consideration and prompt reply. Sincerely yours, Madge B. Douglas Teacher 76 Sorter Elementary School Benton Harbor, MI 49022 November 26, 1984 Dr. Wilbur Brookover Urban Affairs Programs Michigan State University 138 W. Owen Hall East Lansing, MI 48824 RE: Information about validity and reliability of instruments for (1) Parent Perception of Pupil Expectations: (2) Student Perceived Present Evaluations-Expectations; (3) Student Perception Of School Academic Norms; (4) Teacher Attitudes Inventory to Sample Opinions About Teacher-Pupil Relations: and (5) Teacher Present Evaluation-Expectations Of Students in Their School. Dear Dr. Brookover: Would it be possible for me to receive information concerning the validity and reliability of the above mentioned survey instruments? I was directed to you by my committee chairman, Dr. Lonnie D. McIntyre. It would be greatly appreciated if this information could be sent as soon as possible. Thank you for your kind consideration. Sincerely yours, Madge 8. Douglas 77 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY URBAN AHAIIS PIOGIAIS EAST LANSING 0 MICHIGAN 0 48824-1109 OWEN GRADUATE CENTER January 11, 1985 Ms. Madge 8. Douglas Sorter Elementary School Benton Harbor, Michigan 49022 Dear Ms. Douglas: I am not at all certain that I responded to your letter of November 26 concerning the research instruments. I am sorry if I have not gotten back to you. You mentioned five different instruments, but a couple of them are not instruments that we have used. We have no parent data in our study of "School Social Systems and Student Achievement." We, therefore, did not have a scale for measuring parents' perception of pupil expectations. We did have pupil data which we measured pupil's perception Of others' evalua- tions and expectations. The second instrument you mentioned, therefore, is available as well as the third one - "Student Perception Of School Academic Norms." The fourth one you mentioned, "Teacher Attitudes Toward A Sample of Teacher-Pupil Relations," 1 am sure we did not have. We had a number of teacher satisfaction scales, some of which had some relevance to teacher-pupil relations. The teachers' present evaluation and expectations was a part of our study. The best data on these instruments is the report by Brookover and others under the title, School Social Systems and Student Achievement. Since these were primarily research instruments and we were constructing a new scale, the Specific validity is dependent upon their usefulness in pre- dicting our hypothesized relationship. Since students' perceptions can and do change with Changing school situations, the concept of reliability has limited value. The reliability is based on the assumption that you are trying to measure a constant which never changes. Since we presume that teachers' expectations and students' perceptions may change from time to time, the measures of reliability may give inappropriate information. In our use of these instruments, we have generally used mean school and classroom data and have not been particularly concerned about measuring a specific student's perception or a specific teacher's perception at a given time. 78 MSU is an ail/{motive Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 79 Ms. Madge B. Douglas January 11, 1985 Page 2 I would suggest that you get a COpy of the report identified above to check the specific scales that we used. If I can be of further assistance please call upon me. Cordially, 111.8.BrooIL/vc (IL /Q/72§-— // Professor Emeritus WBB/mfm November 2, 1984 Dear Parents: Enclosed please find a copy of The Parental Attitude Reading Inventory and a copy of the Parent Perception of Pupil Expectations Inventory to be completed and returned promptly in the enclosed self-addressed envelOpe. Please remember that the information which you give on this question- naire will be completely confidential. Therefore please be very frank and honest in your answers. The results of this questionnaire will help me to better understand the factors which help students to become successful readers. Sincerely yours, Madge 8. Douglas Teacher 80 Parent No. Check one: Male Female INVENTORY 0F ATTITUDES CONCERNING FAMILY LIFE AND CHILDREN (Form PARI, produced by the Society of Research in Child Development, Mussen, 1979) DIRECTIONS: This survey is concerned with parents' attitudes toward child rearing. Read each of the fifty statements below then choose the answer that best represents your point of view. Rate your answers as follows: A a d 0 strongly mildly mildly strongly agree agree disagree disagree Indicate your Opinion by drawing a circle around the "A" if you strongly agree, around the "a" if you mildly agree, around the “d“ if you mildly disagree, and around the "0" if you strongly disagree. There are no right or wrong answers, so answer according to your own Opinion. It is very important to the study that all questions be answered. Many of the statements will seem alike but all are necessary to show slight differences of Opinion. Agree Disagree 1. A good mother should shelter her child from life's little difficulties. A a d D 2. A child will be grateful later on for strict training. A a d D 3. Children will get on any woman's nerves if She has to be with them all day. A a d D 4. It's best for the child if he never gets started wondering whether his mother's views are right. A a d D 5. More parents should teach their chldren to have unquestioning loyalty to them. A a d D 81 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 82 There are so many things a child has to learn in life there is no excuse for him sitting around with time on his hands. If you let children talk about their troubles, they end up complaining even more. A mother should make it her business to know everything her children are thinking. Children would be happier and better behaved if parents would show an interest in their affairs. Most children are toilet trained by 15 months of age. A mother Should do her best to avoid any disappointment for her child. Strict discipline develops a fine strong character. Mothers very Often feel that they can't stand their children a moment longer. A parent should never be made to look wrong in a child's eyes. The child should be taught to revere his parents above all other grown-ups. Children who don't try hard for success will feel they have missed out on things later on. Parents who start a child talking about his worries don't realize that sometimes it's better to just leave well-enough alone. A child should never keep a secret from his parents. Laughing at children's jokes and telling children jokes makes things go more smoothly. Agree A a A a A a A a A a A a A a A a A a A a A a A a A a A a Disagree d D d D d D d D d D d D d D d D ' d D d D d D d D d D d D 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 83 The sooner a child learns to walk the better he's trained. A child should be protected from jobs which might be too tiring or hard for him. Children who are held to firm rules grow up to be the best adults. It's a rare mother who can be sweet and even tempered with her Children all day. Children should never learn things outside the home which make them doubt their parents' ideas. A child soon learns that there is no greater wisdom than that of his parents. Parents should teach their children that the way to get ahead is to keep busy and not waste time. Children pester you with all their little upsets if you aren't careful from the first. An alert parent should try to learn all her child's thoughts. Parents who are interested in hearing about their children's parties, dates and fun help them grow up right. The earlier a child is weaned from its emotional ties to its parents the better it will handle its own problems. Parents should know better than to allow their children to be exposed to difficult situations. Most children should have more discipline than they get. Raising Children is a nerve- wracking job. Agree A a A a A a A a A a A a A a A a A a A a A a A a A a A a Disagree d D d D d D d D d D d D d D d D d D d D d D d D d D d D 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 84 The child should not question the thinking of his parents. Parents deserve the highest esteem and regard of their children. A child who is “on the go“ all the time will most likely be happy. If a child has upset feelings, it is best to leave him alone and not make it look serious. A mother has a right to know every- thing going on in her child's life because her child is part of her. If parents would have fun with their children, the children would be more apt to take their advice. A mother should make an effort to get her child toilet trained at the earliest possible time. Children should be kept away from all hard jobs which might be discouraging. Children are actually happier under strict training. It's natural for a mother to "blow her top“ when children are selfish and demanding. There is nothing worse than letting a child hear criticisms of his mother. Loyalty to parents comes before any- thing else. The sooner a child learns that a wasted minute is lost forever the better off he will be. The trouble with giving attention to children's problems is they usually just make up a lot of stories to keep you interested. It isamother's duty to make sure she knows her child's innermost thoughts. Agree A a A a A a A a A a A a A a A a A a A a A a A a A a A a A a Disagree d D d D d D d D d D d D d D d D d D d D d D d D d D d D d D 85 Agree Disagree 49. When you do things together, children feel Close to you and can talk easier. A a d D 50. A child should be weaned away from the bottle or breast as soon as possible. A a d D 86 PARENT PERCEPTION 0F PUPIL EXPECTATIONS (Brookover, 1979) DIRECTIONS: The following fifteen statements are designed to sample Opinions about parents' expectations of their child's progress in school. Circle the letter in front Of the statement which best answers eachyguestion. 1. How do you rate your child in school ability compared with his/her close friends? a. the best b. above average c. average d. below average e. the poorest 2. How do you rate your child in school ability compared with those in his/her class at school? among the best above average average below average among the poorest (DQOU'D! 3. Where do you think your child would rank in his/her class in high school? among the best above average average below average among the poorest OQOUD 4. DO you think your child has the ability to complete college? yes, definitely yes, probably ' not sure either way probably not no (DO-.079! 5. Where do you think your child would rank in his/her class in college? among the best above average average below average among the poorest 00.069, 10. 11. 87 In order to become a doctor, lawyer, or university professor, work beyond four years of college is necessary. How likely do you think it is that your child could complete such advanced work? very likely somewhat likely not sure either way unlikely most unlikely GQOO'DD Forget for a moment how others grade your child's work. In your own opinion how good do you think his/her work is? work is excellent work is good work is average work is below average work is much below average (DQOU'W What kind Of grades do you think your Child is capable Of getting? a. mostly A's b. mostly B's C. mostly C's d. mostly D's e. mostly E's How important to you are the grades your child gets in school? very important important not particularly important .grades don't matter to me at all Q07!” How important is it to you for your child to be high in his/her class in grades? a very important b. important c. not particularly important d doesn't matter to me at all How do you feel if your child doesn't do as well in school as you know he/she can? feel very badly feel badly don't feel particuarly badly doesn't bother me at all QOU’O‘ 12. 13. 14. 15. 88 How important is it to you to have your child do better than others in school? a. very important b. important c. not particularly important d. doesn't matter to me at all Which statement best describes your child? a. likes to get better grades than everyone else b. likes to get better grades than almost everyone else c. likes to get about the same grades as everyone else d. doesn't care about any particular grades In schoolwork does your child try to do better than others? a. all of the time b. most Of the time c. occasionally d. never How important to you are good grades compared with other aSpects of school? a. good grades are the most important thing in school b. good grades are among the important things in school c. some other things in school are more important d. good grades don't matter to me at all November 2, 1984 Dear Teacher: This inventory, concerned with attitudes and expectations Of teachers toward students, is part of a study to measure those aspects Of the school environment which are known to be related to student learning. The information which you give on this questionnaire will be completely confidential. TO ensure complete anonymity, Donna Parmer, school secretary, has assigned test numbers and will mail the letters to you. She will not have access to the survey results which you will return to me through inter-school mail. It is important to be as candid as possible in your answers. In answering the questions, please circle the letter which corresponds to your answer. Thank you for your kindness in completing the attached survey con- cerning your school, your work, and your students. Please return by Wednesday, November 7. Madge 8. Douglas Sorter Elementary School 89 Teacher No. Check One: Male Female TEACHER ATTITUDE INVENTORY (adapted from Brookover, 1979) TO SAMPLE OPINIONS ABOUT TEACHER-PUPIL RELATIONS Are you male or female? a. Female b. Male What is your race or ethnic group? Black Chicano Other Spanish Speaking Native American Oriental Origin White 'thQOU’OJ How long have you taught school? a. This is my first year b. 1-4 years c. 5-9 years d. 10 years or more How long have you taught in this school? a This is my first year b. 1-4 years c. 5-9 years d 10 years or more What grade level(s) are you teaching? a lst grade 6 2nd grade c. 3rd grade d. 4th grade e. 5th grade f 6th grade 90 10. 91 How much formal preparation do you have? a Less than a Bachelor's degree b Bachelor's degree c. Some graduate work but less than Master's degree d. Master's degree e More than Master's degree but not Doctorate f Doctor's degree How did you feel about your assignment to this school before coming here? a Very happy about the assignment b. Somewhat happy about the assignment c. NO feelings one way or the other d Somewhat unhappy about the assignment e Very unhappy about the assignment Which best describes the students in your c1ass(es)? a. All children Of professional and white collar workers Mostly children of professional and white collar workers c Children from a general cross section of society d. Mostly Children Of factory and other blue collar workers e. All children of factory and other blue collar workers f Children of rural families If you had your choice of school settings, which would you select from among the following? a. All children of professional and white collar workers Mostly children Of professional and white collar workers c Children from a general cross section Of society d. Mostly children Of factory and other blue collar workers e. All children of factory and other blue collar workers f Children of rural families What kind Of school do you prefer to work in as far as racial composition is concerned? . An all white school b. A mostly white school but with some non-white students c. A school that has about half white and half non-white students d. A mostly non-white school but with some white students e. A school with all non-white students f I have no preference 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 92 In your judgment, what is the general reputation of this school mong teachers outside the school? Among the best Better than average About average Below average A poor school (DQOU'OI If you had to choose a Single one, which Of the following sources of information do you think best predicts a pupil's success or failure in higher education? a. Teacher recommendations b. Group or individual intelligence or scholastic aptitude test scores c. Other standardized test scores (e.g., personality and vocational inventories, etc.) d. School grades e. Other PLEASE FEEL FREE TO WRITE ANY ADDITIONAL COMMENTS AFTER EACH QUESTION In general, how are students in the same grade level assigned to different classes? Homogeneous grouping according to ability in all subjects Homogeneous by ability in some subjects Heterogeneous grouping according to ability Random grouping No intentional rouping Other (indicate? "thOU’m o o o o e o In general, how dO you group the students within your class? Homogeneous grouping according to ability in all subjects Homogeneous by ability in some subjects Heterogeneous grouping according to ability Random grouping No intentional rouping Other (indicate? 'fifDQOU'O O o I o o o How important do you think standardized intelligence test scores of your students are? Very important Somewhat important Not very important Not important at all We do not give intelligence tests in this school (DQOU'DD coco. l6. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 93 How often do you refer to or consider the 1.0. test scores of your students when you plan their work? a Very Often b Often c. Sometimes d Seldom e Never On the average, what level of achievement can be expected of the students in this school? a Much above national norm b. Slightly above national norm c. Approximately at national norm d Slightly below national norm e Much below national norm How many Of the students in this school are capable of getting mostly A's and 8's? a 90% or more b. 70% to 89% c. 50% to 69% d. 30% to 49% e Less than 30% How many of the students in your class are capable of getting mostly A's and B's? a 90% or more b. 70% to 89% c. 50% to 69% d. 30% to 49% e Less than 30% How would you rate the academic ability of the students in this school compared to other schools? a Ability here is much higher b. Ability here is somewhat higher c. Ability here is about the same d Ability here is somewhat lower e Ability here is much lower What percent Of the students in this school would you say want to complete high school? a 90% or more b. 70% to 89% c. 50% to 69% d. 30% to 49% e Less than 30% 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 94 It would be unfair for teachers in this school to insist on a higher level of achievement from students than they now seem capable of achieving? A. Strongly agree b. Agree c. Not sure d. Disagree e. Strongly disagree If I think a student is not able to do some school work, I don't try to push him very hard. A. Strongly agree b. Agree c. Not sure d. Disagree e. Strongly disagree I am generally very careful not to push students to a level of frustration. A. Strongly agree b. Agree c. Not sure d. Disagree e. Strongly disagree How many teachers encourage students to seek extra school work so that the students can get better grades? Almost all of the teachers Most of the teachers About half of the teachers Some of the teachers Almost none of the teachers (DQOU'U How many students in this school try hard to improve on previous work? Almost all of the students Most of the students About half of the students Some of the students Almost none of the students GQOU'OD How many students in your class try hard to improve on previous work? Almost all Of the students Most of the students About half of the students Some of the students Almost none of the students 09.00”!!! 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 95 How many students in this school will try hard to do better school work than their friends do? a Almost all Of the students b. Most of the students c. About half of the students d Some of the students e Almost none Of the students How many students in your class will try hard to do better school work than their classmates do? a Almost all Of the students b. Most of the students c. About half of the students d. Some Of the students e Almost none Of the students How many students in your school will try hard to do better school work than their Classmates do? a Almost all of the students b. Most of the students c. About half of the students d Some of the students e Almost none of the students How many students in your class are content to do less than they should? a Almost all of the students b. Most of the students c. About half of the students d Some Of the students e Almost none of the students How many students in this school will seek extra work so that they can get better grades? a Almost all of the students b. Most of the students c. About half of the students d Some of the students e Almost none of the students How many students in your class will seek extra work so that they can get better grades? a Almost all of the students b. Most of the students c. About half of the students d Some of the students e Almost none Of the students 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 96 The parents Of students in this school regard this school primarily as a “baby-sitting" agency. a Strongly agree b. Agree c. Not sure d Disagree e Strongly disagree The parents of students in this school are deeply concerned that their children receive a top quality education. a Strongly agree b. Agree c. Not sure d Disagree e Strongly disagree How many of the parents of students in this school expect their children to complete high school? a Almost all of the parents b. Most Of the parents c. About half of the parents d Some Of the parents e Almost none of the parents How many Of the parents Of students in this school expect their children to complete college? a Almost all Of the parents b. Most of the parents c. About half of the parents d. Some of the parents e Almost none of the parents How many of the parents of students in this school don't care if their children obtain low grades? a Almost all of the parents b. Most of the parents c. About half of the parents d Some of the parents e Almost none Of the parents 97 TEACHER PRESENT EVALUATION-EXPECTATIONS OF STUDENTS IN THEIR SCHOOL (T.P.E.E.) What percent of the students in this school do you expect to complete high school? 1 90% or more 2 70% or more 3. 50% or more 4. 30% or more 5. less than 30% W t hat percent of the students in this school do you think he principal expects to complete high school? 1. 90% or more 2. 70% or more 3. 50% or more 4. 30% or more 5. less than 30% What percent of the students in this school would you say want to complete high school? 1. 90% or more 2. 70% or more 3. 50% or more 4. 30% or more 5. less than 30% How many parents in this school service area expect their children to complete high school? almost all of the parents most of the parents about half of the parents some of the parents almost none of the parents mth-H What percent of the students in your class would you say want to complete high school? 1. 90% or more 2. 70% or more 3. 50% or more 4. 30% or more 5. less than 30% 10. 11. 98 Completion of high school is a realistic goal which you set for what percentage of your students? 90% or more 70% or more 50% or more 30% or more less than 30% 01-5de What percent of the students in your class do you expect to complete high school? 1 90% or more 2 70% or more 3. 50% or more 4. 30% or more 5 less than 30% O t n the average what level of achievement can be expected of he students in this school? much above national norm slightly above national norm approximately at national norm slightly below national norm much below national norm n the average what level of achievement can be expected of he students in your class? (*0 (fl-500“)“ much above national norm slightly above national norm approximately at national norm slightly below national norm much below national norm I m-DWN—f ow many teachers in this school aren't concerned how hard most students work as long as they pass? almost all of the teachers most of the teachers half of the teachers some of the teachers almost none of the teachers m-wa-d How would you rate the academic ability of the students in this school compared to other schools? ability here is much higher ability here is somewhat higher ability here is about the same ability here is somewhat lower ability here is much lower m-DWNH 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 99 How many students in this school try hard to improve on previous work? almost all Of the students most of the students about half of the students some of the students . almost none Of the students U'l-bboN-d What percent of the students in this school do you expect to complete college? 1. 90% or more 2. 70% or more 3. 50% or more 4. 30% or more 5. less than 30% What percent of the students in your class do you expect to complete college? 1. 90% or more 2. 70% or more 3. 50% or more 4. 30% or more 5. less than 30% What percent of the students in this school do you think the principal expects to complete college? 1. 90% or more 2. 70% or more 3. 50% or more 4. 30% or more 5. less than 30% What percent of the students in this school do you think the principal expects to attend college? 1. 90% or more 2. 70% or more 3. 50% or more 4. 30% or more 5. less than 30% What percent of the students in this school do you expect to attend college? 90% or more 70% or more 50% or more 30% or more less than 30% thN—I' 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 100 What percent of the students in your class do you expect to attend college? m-wa-d 90% or more 70% or more 50% or more 30% or more less than 30% Completion of college is a realistic goal which you set for what percentage of your students? 1 2 3. 4. 5 H 90% or more 70% or more 50% or more 30% or more less than 30% ow many of the students in this school are capable of getting mostly A's and B's? (II-{>WN-J 90% or more 70% or more 50% or more 30% or more less than 30% How many parents in this school service area expect their children to complete college? 1 2 3. 4. 5. H b 01%de almost all of the parents most of the parents about half of the parents some of the parents almost none Of the parents ow many students in this school do you think the principal elieves are capable of getting mostly A's and 8'5? 90% or more 70% or more 50% or more 30% or more less than 30% How do you think the principal rates the academic ability of students in this school, compares with other schools? m-wa—J rates it much better rates it somewhat better rates it the same rates it somewhat lower rates it much lower 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 101 How many students in your class are capable of getting mostly A's and 8'5? 1. 90% or more 2. 70% or more 3. 50% or more 4. 30% or more 5. less than 30% How would you rate the academic ability of the students in this school compared to other schools? ability here is ability here is ability here is ability here is ability here is U‘IQWNH What percent of the to go to college? 1 90% or more 2 70% or more 3. 50% or more 4. 30% or more 5. less than 30% W t hat percent of the 0 go to college? 90% or more 70% or more 50% or more 30% or more less than 30% m-wa-a On the average what much higher somewhat higher about the same somewhat lower much lower students in your class would you say want students in this school would you say want level of achievement can be expected of the students in this school? mwa" What percent of the much above national norm slightly above national norm approximately at national'norm slightly below national norm much below national norm students in this school do you expect to complete high school? 1. 90% or more 2. 70% or more 3. 50% or more 4. 30% or more 5. less than 30% 30. 31. 32. 102 What percent of the students in your clasp do you expect to complete high school? 1. 90% or more 2. 70% or more 3. 50% or more 4. 30% or more 5. less than 30% Completion of high school is a realistic goal which you set for what percentage of your students? 90% or more 70% or more 50% or more 30% or more less than 30% 01-9de What percent of the students in this school do you feel are capable of being successful readers by the end of fifth grade? 1. 90% or more 2. 70% or more 3. 50% or more 4. 30% or more 5. less than 30% STUDENTS: You have been invited to answer the following questions with the hope that your answers might help me to better understand the factors which help students to become successful learners. Read questions 1 - 49 carefully. Then, mark an (X) before the letter which corresponds with your answer. 103 Student No. Check One: Male Female FACTOR 1. - STUDENT PERCEIVED PRESENT EVALUATIONS- EXPECTATIONS (S.P.P.E.E.) (Brookover, 1979) Would your mother and father say that your grades would be with the best, same as most, or below most of the students when you finish high school? a. The best b. Same as most c. Below most Would your best friend say that your grades would be with the best, same as most, or below most Of the students when you graduate from high school? a. With the best b. Same as most c. Below most Would your teacher say that your grades would be with the best, same as most, or below most of the students when you graduate from high school? a. With the best b. Same as most c. Below most How good of a student do your parents expect you to be in school? One of the best Better than most of the students Same as most of the students Not as good as most of the students They don't really care 00.00”“ Think Of your teacher. Would your teacher say you can do school work better, the same, or poorer than other people your age? a. Better b. The same c. Poorer 104 10. 11. 105 Forget how your teachers mark your work. How good do ygp think your own work is? Excellent Good About the same as most of the students Below most of the students Poor 00.079, How good of a student does the teacher you like the best expect you to be in school? One of the best Better than most of the students Same as most students Not as good as most students She doesn't really care (DQOO'N When you finish high school, do you think you will be one of the best students, about the same as most of the students, or below most of the students? a. One of the best b. About the same as most Of the students c. Below most Of the students Think of your mother and father. 00 your mother and father say you can do your school work better, the same, or poorer than your friends? a. Better b. Same as most c. Poorer Think of your best friend. Would your best friend say you can do school work better, the same, or poorer than other peOple your age? a. Better b. The same c. Poorer If you went to college, do you think you would be one of the best students, about the same as most of the students, or below most of the students? a. One of the best b. About the same as most of the students c. Below most of the students 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 106 Think of the students in your class. 00 you think you can do school work better, the same, or poorer than the other students in your class? a. Better b. The same c. Poorer What marks do you think you really can get if you try? a Mostly A's b Mostly B's c Mostly C's d Mostly D's e Mostly E's How good of a student does your best friend expect you to be in school? a One of the best b. Better than most Of the students c. Same as most students d Not as good as most students e He doesn't really care Think of your friends. DO you think you can do school work better, the same, or poorer than your friends? a. Better b. The same c. Poorer What grades does your teacher think you can get? a Mostly A's b. Mostly B's c. Mostly C's ______d e a Mostly A's b Mostly B's c Mostly C's d Mostly D's e Mostly E's What grades do your mother and father\that you Egg get? Mostly A's Mostly B' 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 107 FACTOR 2. - STUDENT PERCEIVEO FUTURE EVALUATIONS- EXPECTATIONS (S.P.F.E.E.) How far do you think your best friend believes you will go in school? a. Finish grade school b. GO to high school for a while c. GO to college for a while d. Finish college DO they think you could finish college (mother & father)? a. Yes b. Maybe c. NO Does your best friend think you could finish college? a. Yes b. Maybe c. No Remember you need more than four years of college to be a teacher or doctor. DO your mother and father think you could do that? a. Yes b. Maybe c. NO Remember you need more than four years of college to be a teacher or doctor. Does your best friend think you could do that? a. Yes b. Maybe C. NO How far do you think your parents believe you will go in school? Finish grade school Go to high school for a while Finish high school GO to college for a while Finish college (DQOUQ If you could go as far as you wanted in school, how far would you like to go? Finish grade school GO to high school for a while Finish high school Go to college for a while Finish college maria-m 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 108 How far do you think the teacher you like best believes you will go in school? Finish grade school Go to high school for a while Finish high school GO to college for a while Finish college 00.079! Remember you need more than four years of college to be a teacher or doctor. Does your teacher think you could do that? a. Yes b. Maybe c. NO Does your teacher think you could finish college? a. Yes b. Maybe c. No If you want to be a doctor or a teacher, you need more than four years Of college. 00 you think you could do that? a. Yes, with no difficulty at all b. Yes, as long as I work hard c. Yes, but I will probably have a lot of difficulty d. No, it will be too difficult Do you think you could finish college? a Yes, with no difficulty at all D. Yes, as long as I work hard c. Yes, but I will probably have a lot of difficulty d. No, it will be too difficult If the teachers in this school think a student can't do good work, how many will try to make him work hard anyway? a Almost all Of the teachers b. Most of the teachers c. Half of the teachers d Some of the teachers e Almost none of the teachers Of the teachers that you know in this school, how many think it is not good to ask more work from a student than he is able to do? a Almost all of the teachers b. Most of the teachers c. Half of the teachers d Some Of the teachers e Almost none Of the teachers 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 109 FACTOR 3. - STUDENT PE(RCEPTION OF) SCHOOL ACADEMIC NORMS S.P.S.A.N. How important do you think most of the students in this school feel it is to do well in school work? a. Almost everybody thinks it is the most important thing you can do. b. Most students think it is quite important to do well. c. Doing well in school work is a good thing but other things are important too. d. Most students don't seem to care how good they do, but it's okay for others to do well. e. Most students don't seem to care how good they do, but they don't like other students to do good. How important do most Of the students in this class feel it is to do well in school work? a. Almost everybody thinks it is the most important thing you can do. b. Most students think it is quite important to do well. c. Doing well in school work is a good thing but other things are important too. d. Most students don't seem to care how good they do. but it's okay for others to do well. e. Most students don't seem to care how good they do, but they don't like other students to do good. How many students in this school do you think the principal believes can get high grades? a Almost all Of the students b. Most Of the students c. Half Of the students d. Some of the students e Almost none of the students If your best friend told you that you were a poor student, how would you feel? a. I'd feel very bad b. I'd feel somewhat bad c. It wouldn't bother me very much d It wouldn't bother me at all How dO you think most Of the students in this school react when one of you does a bad job on school work? a. They feel badly and want to help him (her) do better b. They feel sorry, but don't say anything c They really don't care d They are secretly happy that it happened 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 110 If the teacher you like the best told you that you were a poor student, how would you feel? a. I'd feel very bad b. I'd feel somewhat bad c. It wouldn't bother me very much d. It wouldn't bother me at all If your parents told you that you were a poor student, how would you feel? a. I'd feel very bad b. I'd feel somewhat bad _____ c It wouldn't bother me very much d It wouldn't bother me at all How many students in this school try hard to get a good grade on their weekly tests? a Almost all of the students b. Most of the students C. Half of the students d. Some of the students e Almost none of the students How many students in this school will work hard to get a better grade on their weekly tests than their friends do? a Almost all of the students b. Most Of the students c. Half of the students d Some of the students e Almost none of the students How many students in this school do more studying for weekly tests than they have to? a Almost all of the students b. Most of the students c. Half of the students d Some of the students e Almost none of the students How do you think your principal would grade the work of the students in this school, compared to other schools? a Would grade it much better b. Would grade it somewhat better c. Would grade it the same d Would grade it somewhat lower e Would grade it much lower 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 111 How important is it to you to be a good student? It's the most important thing I can do It's important, but other things are just as important It's important, but other things are more important It's not very important 0.0691 Of the teachers that you know in this school, how many tell students to try hard to do better on tests? a Almost all of the teachers b. Most of the teachers c. Half of the teachers d. Some of the teachers e Almost none of the teachers Of the teachers that you know in this school, how many tell students to do extra work so that they can get better grades? a Almost all of the teachers b. Most of the teachers c. Half Of the teachers d Some of the teachers e Almost none of the teachers Think about the boys and girls you play with at recess or after school. How often do they read in their free time? a Very Often b. Quite a bit c. Sometimes, but not very much d Seldom e Almost never Of the teachers that you know in this school, how many believe that students should be asked to do only work which they are able to do? a Almost all of the teachers b. Most of the teachers c. Half of the teachers d Some of the teachers e Almost none of the teachers week-ends, how often do you talk about your school work? a Very Often b. Quite a bit c. Sometimes, but not very much d Seldom e Almost never 50. 112 There are many people who are concerned about how well young peOple do in school. In the space below, list the NAMES Of the people you feel are concerned about how well you do in school. Please indicate who each person is. NAMES WHO IS THIS PERSON? APPENDIX B TABLES 113 Table 17 Data Collected for the Analysis Of the t-Test OEIStatistical Significance for Fourteen Survey Items on PARI Which Reflect Attitudes Which Suggest that Parents Consider Reading to be Unimportant Parents of Successful Unsuccessful Item # Readers Readers 2. A child will be grateful later on for strict training. 27 3O 5. More parents should teach their children to have unquestioning loyalty to them. 10 19 8. A mother should make it her business to know everything her children are thinking. 20 15 12. Strict discipline develops a fine strong character. 21 28 15. The child should be taught to revere his parents above all other grown-ups. 21 13 18. A child should never keep a secret from his parents. 15 16 22. Children who are held to firm rules grow up to be the best adults. 20 24 25. A child soon learns that there is no greater wisdom than that Of his parents. 13 16 28. An alert parent should try to learn all her child's thoughts. 16 21 32 Most children should have more discipline than they get. 14 18 35. Parents deserve the highest esteem and regard of their children. 22 23 42. Children are actually happier under strict training. 19 12 45. Loyalty to parents comes before any- thing else. 27 26 48. It is a mother's duty to make sure she knows her child's innermost thoughts. 3O 22 114 Table 18 Data Collected for Analysis of the t-Test of Statistical Significance for Fourteen Survey Items on PARI Which Reflect Attitudes that Discourage Children from Asking Questions, Expressing Ideas, or Participating in Conversations. Parents Of Successful Unsuccessful Item # Readers Readers 3. Children will get on any woman's nerves if she has tO be with them all day. 15 16 6. There are so many things a child has to learn in life there is no excuse for him sitting around with time on his hands. 19 22 9. Children would be happier and better behaved if parents would show an interest in their affairs. 3O 27 13. Mothers very Often feel that they can't stand their children a moment longer. 10 9 16. Children who don't try hard for success will feel they have missed out on things later on. 26 27 19. Laughing at children's jokes and telling children jokes makes things go more smoothly. 23 21 23. It's a rare mother who can be sweet and even tempered with her children all day. 11 19 26. Parents should teach their Children that the way to get ahead is to keep busy and not waste time. 30 27 29. Parents who are interested in hearing about their children's parties, dates and fun help them grow up right. 30 24 33. Raising children is a nerve-wracking job. 8 26 36. A child who is ”on the go" all the time will most likely be happy. 5 12 43. It's natural for a mother to "blow her top" when children are selfish and demanding. 17 26 115 Table 18 - Continued Parents of Successful Unsuccessful Item # Readers Readers 46. The sooner a child learns that a wasted minute is lost forever the better off he will be. 23 21 49. When you do things together, children feel close to you and can talk easier. 30 30 116 Table 19 Data Collected for Analysis of the_t-Test of Statistical Significance for Fifteen Survey Items on PARI Which Reflect Attitudes Which Favor Restriction of Childhood Experiences from Participating in Activities Which Provide Information, Ideas, and Experimental Background Parents of Successful Unsuccessful Item # Readers Readers 4. It's best for the child if he never gets started wondering whether his mother's views are right. 5 12 7. If you let children talk about their troubles, they end up complaining even more. 4 23 11. A mother should do her best to avoid any disappointment for her child. 14 21 14. A parent should never be made to look wrong in a child's eyes. 15 l9 17. Parents who start a child talking about his worries don't realize that sometimes it's better to just leave well enough alone. 10 14 21. A child should be protected from jobs which might be too tiring or hard for him. 9 12 24. Children should never learn things out- side the home which make them doubt their parents' ideas. 7 19 27. Children pester you with all their little upsets if you aren't careful from the first. 21 22 31. Parents should know better than to allow their children to be exposed to difficult situations. 10 19 34. The child should not question the thinking of his parents. 8 18 37. If a child has upset feelings, it is best to leave him alone and not make it look serious. 12 9 41. Children should be kept away from all hard jobs which might be discouraging. 5 9 117 Table 19 - Continued Parents of Successful Unsuccessful Item # Readers Readers 44. There is nothing worse than letting a child hear criticisms of his mother. 11 24 47. The trouble with giving attention to children's problems is they usually just make up a lot of stories to keep you interested. 5 13 50. A child should be weaned away from the bottle or breast as soon as possible. 21 19 BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Barr, A. S. et al. The measurement and prediction of teacher effective- ness. Madison, Wisconsin: Dunbar Publications, 1968. Biehler, R. F., and Biehler, R. Child development: an introduction (2nd edition). Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1981. Brookover, W. et a1. School social systems and student achievement: schools can make a difference. 5. Hadley, Mass.: J. F. Bergin Co., 1979. Brookover, W. et a1. Creating effective schools. Holmes Beach, Florida: Learning Publications, Inc., 1982. Bronfenbrenner, U. Socialization and social class through time and space. In E. E. Macoby, T. M. Newcomb, and E. L. Hartley (eds.). Readings in social psychology. 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