H‘G TA\ | ' W Us!!! L 1 ”Inf“! 2 \mmmmgw * ABSTRACT THE EFFECT OF TANGIBLE AND SOCIAL CONTINGENCIES ON THE PERFORMANCE OF SEVERELY MENTALLY RETARDED IN AN ASSESSMENT SESSION BY Marshall F. Zumberg The primary intent of this study was to determine the relative effects, during an assessment procedure of tangible and social contingencies upon achievement on the assessment measure and upon behavior in the test session. For this study three dependent variables were selected to reflect the influence of the two types of contingencies being used. First, the scores on the assessment device itself were selected. The other two dependent measures selected were more direct measures of attention to the task: eye contact with the examiner and incompatible motor responses. These three measures then determined the follow- ing hypotheses: 1. Mean Assessment Scale Scores following tangible contingencies will not differ significantly from mean scores following social contingencies. 2. Mean number of client to examiner eye. contacts following tangible contingencies Marshall F. Zumberg will not differ significantly from the mean number following social contingencies. 3. Mean number of incompatible motor responses following tangible contingencies will not differ significantly from the mean number of responses following social contingencies. A repeated measure design was utilized. To con— trol for bias in treatment groups, subjects were exposed to repeated treatments: each treatment was the presenta- tion by the same evaluator of the "Deve10pmental Check- list: Reasoning and Problem Solving" utilizing either a tangible contingency or a social contingency. Thus S's were compared to themselves and not to a randomly selected or matched group. For this study, 24 students were selected from a long term health facility containing a school for the severely mentally retarded. Subjects were selected if they were: enrolled in the public school program for the severely mentally retarded: physically able to manipulate hand and arm; able to utilize visual and auditory cues; able to perform tasks without severe interfering beha- viors; accepts tangible and grid contingencies. The 24 subjects were divided into three test groups. Each subject was examined with the assessment device twice by the same examiner. These two assessments were performed at an interval of one month to minimize any test effect on the second assessment. Twelve subjects received verbal contingencies and twelve received tangible Marshall F. Zumberg contingencies the first time. In the second assessment, the contingencies were reversed. Observational strategies were developed for the counting of eye contacts and incompatible motor responses by the observers. Correct responses to the assessment measure were calculated by the examiners. Data for the number of correct responses to the assessment measure were analyzed by a three factor analy- sis of variance so that differences between the means under social and tangible conditions could be determined. An analysis of co-variance was also utilized to determine differences between client to examiner eye contact under social and tangible conditions. This analysis was undertaken after a correction was made for the varying amounts of contingencies presented. Missing frequency counts for one test group for incompatible motor responses prevented further analysis of these responses other than calculation of means. It was found that the type of contingency adminis- tered was not significantly related to assessment measure scores or to the frequency of subject-to-examiner eye con- tacts. Thus, the predictions that were initially put forth in hypotheses were confirmed. The limited data available on the number of incompatible motor responses sug- gest also that the frequency of these responses did not differ significantly under the two contingency conditions . THE EFFECT OF TANGIBLE AND SOCIAL CONTINGENCIES ON THE PERFORMANCE OF SEVERELY MENTALLY RETARDED IN AN ASSESSMENT SESSION BY Marshall F. Zumberg A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Elementary and Special Education 1976 Copyright by Marshall F. Zumberg 1976 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The development, implementation, and completion of this study reflects the cooperation and support of many people: some of whom will be acknowledged at this time. Most grateful appreciation must be given to Dr. Donald Burke, committee chairman, and to Dr. James Edwin Keller, dissertation chairman, for their time, patience, feedback and most importantly, their encourage- ment to complete the study. Deep appreciation is extended to Dr. Carol Peterson, committee member, for her continual support. A special note of thankfulness is extended to Dr. Eugene Pernell for his support and for being able to substitute for Dr. William Sweetland who increased my awareness of the humanistic educational approach at the University level. Deep appreciation is extended to David West for his continual assistance in the statistical analysis of the results of this study. Gratitude is extended to all members of the Michi- gan State University In-Service Project whose concern for appropriate programming for the severely mentally retarded will always be an inspiration to me. ii Deep love and sincere appreciation is extended to Cathy, my parents, and friends who offered personal encouragement throughout the years of doctoral work. Finally a note of thanks to Grover and Erma Gates whose emphasis on personal growth through community awareness and involvement will always be an inspiration to me. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES . . . . 4 . . . . . . . vi Chapter I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . 1 Statement of the Problem . . . . . 1 Background . . . . . . . . . . 1 Importance . . . . . . . . . . 4 Research Questions . . . . . . . 6 Generalizability' . . . . . . . . 6 Significance . . . . . . . . . 7 II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . 8 Tangible Paired With Social . . . . 10 Tangible Reinforcement . . . . . . 12 Social Reinforcement . . . . . . 14 Tangible Compared to Social . . . 16 Other Variables--Potency of Evaluator . 17 Schedule of Reinforcement . . . . . 19 III. METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . 21 Rationale and Hypotheses . .' . . . 21 Study Design . . . . . . . . . 23 Subjects . . . . 25 Description of School and Residence . 25 Selection of Subjects . . . . 27 Selection of Evaluators and Observers . 28 Evaluators . . . . . . . . . 28 Observers . . . . . . . . . 29 Measures . . . . . . . . 29 Reasoning and Problem Solving . . . 29 Contingency Treatments . . . . . . 30 Tangible Contingencies . . . . . 30 Social Contingencies . . . . . . 31 Description of Dependent Variables . . 33 Eye Contacts . . . . 33 Incompatible Motor Responses (IMR) . 34 Analysis of Data . . . . . . . . 35 iv Chapter Page IV. FINDINGS . . . . . . . . . . . 37 The Effect of Contingencies on Assess- ment Test Scores . . . . . . . 39 The Effect of Contingencies on Number of Eye Contacts . . . . . . . . 41 The Effect of Contingencies on Incompatible Motor Response . . . . 44 V. SUMMARY, DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS . . . 46 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . 50 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . 52 APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 A. Developmental Checklist: Reasoning and Problem Solving . . . . . . . . 56 B. Sample of Observer Frequency Counts . . 74 C. Demographic Information -. . . . . . 76 D. Michigan State University Active Response In-Service Training Method . . . .. . 78 BIBLIOGRAPHY O O O O O O O C O O O O 8 3 Table 1. LIST OF TABLES Schematic representation of the study des ign O O I O O O O O O 0 I 0 Raw scores, means, and standard devistions for assessment scores, eye contacts, and incompatible motor responses (IMR) under tangible and social contingency .' . . . Analysis of Variance for investigation of effect on assessment . . . . . . . Repeated-measures ANOVA for investigation of contingency effect on number of eye contacts controlled for number of contingencies . . . . . . . . . Percentage of eye contacts for number of contingencies . . . . . . . . . . Number of incompatible motor responses (IMR) for each subject . . . . . . . Demographic information . . . . . . . vi Page 24 38 40 42 43 45 77 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Statement of the Problem This study attempts to determine the effectiveness of social contingencies (verbal praise paired with physi- cal contact) and tangible contingencies (liquid or solid food) on assessment performance and behavior of severely retarded school-age children. Background Developments in education in recent years have led to the need for public schools to develop programming for severely retarded children. Appropriate programming depends on the development of methods to evaluate and .assess the severely mentally retarded. In 1971, large-scale public school programming for severely mentally retarded children became possible with the availability of Social Security funds (Federal Social Security Act of 1969, Title IVa of 1971). At the same time, in Michigan, the responsibility for education of the severely mentally retarded was transferred from the Michigan Department of Social Services to the Michigan Department of Education. In 1973, P.A. 198 of 1971 became effective in the State of Michigan. This act mandated public school edu- cation for all handicapped persons, including those who were severely mentally retarded. It requires that each handicapped child must be evaluated for purposes of appropriate educational planning and placement. However, formal test data (particularly I.Q., achievement, and personality tests) can at best be used as a narrow sample of behavior or as a means of identifying broad areas of deficit and strength. Particularly for this pOpulation, the data from these tests become even more irrelevant to teachers who must develop specific educational programs. Educational personnel responsible for instruc- tional development in the area of the severely mentally retarded have responded to this challenge by devising systematic, non-normative assessment devices based on a developmental model. For the severely retarded, informal assessments have been particularly useful as specific skills are assessed so that teacher strategies can be directly determined. Assessments such as those developed by the Michi- gan State University Inservice Training Project Staff are usually in the vital areas of self-care, language develop- ment, vocational competencies, reasoning and problem solv- ing, and gross motor skills. These assessments utilize an Examiner-Client Model and encourage the use of reinforcers (contingencies), including the use of tokens as a reinforcer during the assessment session. For example, the directions for the Modified Language Acquisi- tion Program developed by Martha Snell Rowland (1972) state that all appropriate responses are reinforced and no reinforcement is given following those tasks on which the child makes no response. Token economy system is recommended with eventual phasing out of tokens (tangibles) and introduction of social praise. However, there is little definitive research that this procedure or even the use of tangible contingencies is superior to the use of social contingencies when assess- ing the severely mentally retarded. In fact, Rowland (1972) indicates that unless the examiner was somewhat familiar with severely and profoundly retarded populations the retarded seemed unresponsive. Spurious testing results would often be obtained despite the use of tangi- ble reinforcement during the testing of clients not familiar with the examiner. In support of Rowland, the findings of a series of experiments in which retarded sub- jects appeared to be highly influenced by social rein- forcement were summarized by Zigler (1966). He stated that retarded children, as a result of social deprivation experiences, should be more affected than non-retarded children by social reinforcement. Yet, other studies support the use of tangibles such as candy or tokens. Baldwin (1967) found candy to be more effective than verbal rewards with retarded subjects on social skill development. Locke (1969b) found tokens, another form of tangible reward, to be more effective with his retarded subject population than the social con- sequence, "good." Tramontana (1972) measured "marble dropping" response and concluded that praise has less reinforcing value than candy on the performance of severely retarded subjects. The various studies cited above did not speak to performance or behavior during an assessment in which a variety of tasks is being required of the client. Thus, the purpose of this present study is to identify differ- ences, if any, between using tangible and social contin- gencies on the performance and behavior of severely mentally retarded during an assessment session. This information will enable educational personnel who utilize assessments to use procedures that increase the chances of securing Optimal performance from the child. Importance This study is important for the following two reasons. First, research is ambiguous regarding the specific effect contingencies have on assessment perform- ance and behavior in the severely mentally retarded. A review of studies indicates that the effects of contin- gencies may vary according to the task being required, the subjects, and the environmental situation. Furthermore, the effect of tangible contingencies is rarely compared to the effect of social contingencies. Comparisons supporting the effect of tangible contingencies are often made only to the uncontrolled previous conditions. In studies that compare social contingencies to tangible con- tingencies, there is no conclusive result. No studies were reviewed that pertain to the effect social and tan- gible contingencies may have directly on assessing skills of severely mentally retarded. Most of the research studies available concerning the severely retarded, stem from basic research in areas of discrimination, general- ization, linguistic development patterns, reasoning, retention, and stimulus control. The results from these studies are not directly applicable to the current readi- ness level of the public schools in programming for the severely/profoundly handicapped (Meyen, Altman, 1976). A second reason for the study's importance is that there is an expanding need for individualized instruction; consequently, an expanding need for assess- ments that are precise and a procedure that includes selection of contingencies that will enable maximum per- formance output by the client. Research Questions The following research question will be addressed: Will tangible contingencies have the same effect as social contingencies on the behavior of the severely mentally retarded during an assessment session. There are two sub-questions.to be answered. The first question is: What effects will social contingencies have on the assess- ment behavior of the severely mentally retarded as meas- ured by client to examiner eye contact and incompatible motor responses that interfere directly with the assess- ment process. The second sub-question is: What effects will social and tangible contingencies have on the assess- ment performance of the severely mentally retarded as measured by the number of correct responses measures by the assessment. Generalizability The findings of this study may have impact far beyond the limits of the study itself. First, since the students involved are from a nursing home consisting mostly of severely mentally impaired, it can be concluded that the findings will hold for a large proportion of severely mentally impaired in the above environment. Secondly knowing the effects of social compared to tangible contingencies in assessment situations may stimulate research on the use of social compared to tangible contingencies in other situations, particularly upon training within the classroom. Third, the findings of this study may apply to techniques of evaluating clients other than the severely mentally retarded. Significance The results of this investigation will provide information pertaining to the effectiveness of tangible and social contingencies in an assessment setting. The results could either confirm present methods of assessing severely mentally retarded or suggest possible refinement of these methods. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Behavior modification had its initial impact on education through special education (Jones and MacMillan, 1974). Programs were established that utilized token economy systems within the classroom for trainable men- tally impaired (Birnbrauer and Lawler, 1964), and educa- tionally handicapped (Hewett, 1968). Presently, educators and psychologists are finding behavior modification to be very effective with the severely mentally retarded. In the application of behavior modification to classroom and assessment practices, emphasis has been placed on tangible contingencies, particularly the use of token economies (Axelrod, 1971; Forness and MacMillan, 1970; Rowland, 1973). With the severely mentally retarded, it usually takes the form of acknowledging a desired response by giving a token (usually poker chips) paired with verbal praise ("good boy"; "good girl"). The tokens are used as a medium of exchange for a reinforcer such as candy, etc. However, token economies or the use of other tan- gible contingencies has not been accepted without criti- cism. It is the opinion of Forness and MacMillan (1972) that systematic use of social contingencies should pay greater dividends in classroom practices than intricate and involved token reinforcement systems. In some instances, token economies actually cause children to regress to reinforcement levels below which they can operate (Jones and MacMillan, 1974). O'Leary and Drabman (1971) argue that in practice the use of tokens may be dysfunctional with the majority of retarded children in educational settings. It is their opinion that social reinforcers are as potent as tokens with the mentally retarded; social reinforcers are more "natural" and closely resemble reinforcements existing in the child's natural environment. The conflict between the effect of tangible and social contingencies is not resolved in the research literature. There are few studies that directly compare the effects verbal and tangible contingencies have on performance levels and behavior. This review of the literature will thus take into consideration those studies that utilize tangible paired with social contingencies, tangible and social contingencies exclusive of each other, and social compared with tangible contingencies. In most of the studies,the authors assumed that social and tangible 10 contingencies carried reinforcement value. Thus unless otherwise indicated, reinforcements and contingencies will be used interchangeably. Also, all levels of retar- dation are included due to the paucity of literature regarding the use of systematic tangible and social con- tingencies with the severely mentally retarded. Tangible Paired With Social Some studies of social reinforcers have employed tangible-social combinations directly together or through the process of "fading" out tangible in favor of social rewards. In this type of study, the original reinforce- ment is a tangible reward given on a continuous schedule. This has been found to accelerate rate of subject response (Birnbrauer and Lawler, 1964). Once the behavior becomes stable in occurrence, the tangible reward is slowly removed by being made available only for increasing num- bers of correct responses. The tangible reward is even- tually phased out and verbal reinforcement is administered on a reduced frequency. Birnbrauer, Wolf, Kidder, and Tagne (1965) con- ducted a study in which an analysis of whether the increased attention to the pupil's learning problems rather than the reinforcement program itself was respon- sible for increasing the performance of 17 moderately retarded students in a token program. They sought to determine the effectiveness of the tokens on the 11 maintenance of correct responses and the rate of response in a sight vocabulary program. The study was arranged to initially pair attending to the teacher with tokens by continuous reinforcement. Tokens were then removed from the program and finally the tokens were reinstated with the ongoing social approval. Under these conditions, five children showed no decrease in performance when the tokens were removed, six maintained their rate of response, but decreased in accuracy of response, and four decreased in rate and accuracy and displayed a greater number of behavior problems. After tokens were rein- stated with ongoing social approval, all subjects main- tained rates equivalent to those established during the first phase or increased their performance. In another study (Coleman, 1970), an eight-year- old trainable boy was placed in a situation where imme- diate reinforcement (candy and praise) was made contingent upon correct counting. Within 10, 13-minute sessions, the child more than tripled his efficiency at counting correctly. Similarly, performance on standardized tests of achievement was greatly improved. However, in a study that did compare the effect of social paired with tangible reinforcement (candy), Rosenthal and Kellog (1973) found that immediate verbal feedback ("right" or "wrong") plus candy reinforcement conditions did not facilitate per- formance over a feedback condition alone. When speed of 12 response is considered, MacReynolds (1970) found that food paired with a social contingency given on a con- tinuous schedule during the acquisition of vocal responses in mentally retarded children will increase speed of initial acquisition. Staats (1964) successfully demonstrated the use of a token system with a variety of reinforcers. A child selected from a variety of items a toy for which he would work before beginning a specific training pro- gram. Staats demonstrated that a token system utilizing a variety of reinforcers could maintain reading behavior of four-year-old children for long periods of time. A basic assumption from the above research is that tokens will acquire reinforcing value by association with a variety of back-up reinforcers. By having a large variety of reinforcers (several varieties of candy or toys), one may assume that there will be at least one reinforcer without going through elaborate procedures of determining which tangible has reinforcing value. It has also been assumed that continuous pairing of the tangible contingency with praise will enhance praise as a positive reinforcing stimulus. Tangible Reinforcement Roos and Oliver (1969) evaluated the use of oper- ant conditioning utilizing tangibles with institutional- ized retarded children. The effectiveness of Operant 13' conditioning procedures implemented by attendants was evaluated by comparing the progress of three groups of severely and profoundly retarded institutionalized young children. In addition to the experimental and control group, another group received classroom-type training. The results indicated significantly greater improvement in the group trained by Operant conditioning. However, Osarchuk (1973) reviewed studies con- cerning the application of operant techniques using tangibles to the problems of toilet training severely and profoundly retarded children. It was concluded that no specific determinations could be made concerning the relative effectiveness of the operant procedure. He specifically suggested pre-testing the reinforcer for effectiveness with each child before training. Forness and McMillan (1973) also found in review- ing the literature that there are no studies that assess the relative merits of token systems and social rein- forcement with retarded children. Forness and McMillan point out that studies involving the use of tangible reinforcement with retarded children greatly outweighed in number studies using social or verbal reinforcement. They go on to criticize the first token reinforcement classroom study (Birnbrauer and Lawler, 1964): Once tokens were decided upon, they had to be used with all children within that treatment group to conform to the research design. The blanket use 14 of check marks, tokens, or other forms of tangible reinforcement for mildly retarded children in the public schools, however, may well represent over- kill, i.e., a situation in which teachers use more primitive and pervasive reinforcement systems than are necessary for Optimum performance (Forness and McMillan, 1972, p. 222). This author would have to agree with O'Leary and Drabman (1971) in a similar review of tangible reinforce- ment on behavior and academic achievement. They conclude, It appears that behaviors such as getting out of one's seat, talking out of turn and turning around in one's seat are most likely to change with the introduction of the token program whereas academic behavior would be most difficult to change. O'Leary and Drabman further indicate that behavior would be easiest to change because they have social behaviors as part of their repertoire of responses but may not have the appropriate academic abilities. Social Reinforcement The retardate's need for social approval as demonstrated by Zigler (1966) is one reason social rein- forcement may be effective. Following up on earlier experiments by Kounin (1941) Zigler presented satiation tasks to retardates and normals under two conditions of reinformcement: experimenter maintaining a non-supportive role and experimenter making positive comments on subjects' performance. Their findings indicated that retarded children are more persistent under conditions of social reinforcement than are normals. Zigler explained this 15 result in terms of "social-deprivation." An institutions alized retardate has a heightened need for social approval, and thus, increased responsiveness to social support in a testing situation. Zigler and his colleagues in other experiments consistently demonstrated the retardate's desire for interaction with an approving adult. They con- clude that social reinforcers are potent if teachers use them contingently. Zigler also indicated that retardates may be reluctant to interact initially with an approving adult (Negative Reaction Tendency) since past interactions have been of a negative nature, i.e., a disapproving adult. However, the concept of Negative Reaction Tendency may not apply to the severely mentally retarded who have not had extensive contact with adults. A study by Klaber (1969) on responsiveness to social reinforcement among institutionalized retarded children supports Zigler's hypotheses regarding social deprivation. Klaber found that children who remained in a more depriving institution approached closer and elected to stay longer with a socially reinforcing adult than did the children who were transferred to less depriving institutions. Siegler and Liebert (1972) also found that verbal feedback facilitated performance rela- tive to no feedback on a conceptual task. l6 Tangible Compared to Social Kelleher (1973) compared the effect of social reinforcement to tangible reinforcement on behavior change in classroom situations. Two groups of subjects, one with a verbal reinforcement format and the other with tangible reinforcement, underwent four experimental phases: baseline, learning, extinction (reversal), and relearning. Kelleher concluded that (a) either tan- gible or verbal reinforcement programs effectively reduced the amount of unacceptable classroom behavior in randomly selected groups of trainable mentally retarded children and (b) social reinforcement maintained approp- riate behavior at a higher level than did tangible rein- forcement during an extinction phase of the experiment. Forehand and Yoder (1974) compared the effects of modeling, verbal cues, and reinforcement on concep- tual learning. Each non-institutionalized retardate was exposed to one of three reinforcement conditions after completion of each of three test items. Within each of four possible cells, one-third of the subjects were given candy, one-third of the subjects given verbal reinforce- ment, and one-third given no type of reinforcement after each correct response. Forehand and Yoder failed to find that either tangible or social rewards improved perfor- mance on the conceptual task. They suggested three possible explanations: First, the consequences, food and l7 praise, were not reinforcing. Yet, according to Forehand and Yoder, studies indicate food and praise are generally reinforcing. Second, the evaluation situation provides an environment for maximum output. And third, the per- formance of conceptual tasks was not affected by rein- forcement. In the study of social versus edible rewards as a function of intellectual level, Tramontona (1972) found that candy was the more effective reinforcer regard- less of intellectual level on a marble-drOpping task. More importantly, he also found that social reward (praise) did not lose its reinforcing value as level of functioning decreased. Other Variables--Potengy of Evaluator In an assessment situation the potency of the experimenter as a reinforcer may actually offset any reinforcing value that a tangible would have because of the retardate's need for approval. In another series of studies (Green and Zigler, 1962; Zigler, 1963), institu- tionalized mentally retarded children were compared to normal and non-institutionalized children. The social deprivation hypothesis of Zigler was again confirmed. The institutionalized retardates showed significantly longer satiation times than either of the other two groups. Zigler (1968) contended that the retardate has 18 an extremely high desire (Positive Reaction Tendency) for adult approval. However, Zigler cautions that retardates are also reluctant to interact initially (Negative Reaction Tendency) since in the past they have perceived disapproval. Forness and MacMillan (1972) indicate that Negative Reaction Tendency "need not imply that social reinforcement is ineffective. It simply means that with some chldren social-reinforcement approaches may have to be modified." Further evidence of the possible effect of the presence of the evaluator is to be found in the contrast- ing studies of Eisman (1958) and Ring and Palermo (1961). Eisman compared educable mentally retarded with normals on a retention task. She found no difference between normals and retardates of the same age on a task using pictures of familiar objects presented by an adult. Sing and Palermo replicated the study but found significant differences. However, in their study the pictures were presented mechanically, not face to face. It was suggested that the presence of the experimenter and his attention may have been so reinforcing as to overshadow any differ~ ences which might have emerged as a function of the incen- tive variable in the Eisman study. 19 Schedule of Reinforcement Reinforcement schedules have extremely potent effects on the behavior of infrahumans such as rats and pigeons (Ferster and Skinner, 1957). Children's responses resemble these patterns of responding where Bar-Pressing as a dependent variable is concerned. For example, variable ratio schedules produce very high rates of responding while fixed ratio schedules are often asso- ciated with pauses after reinforcement (Jones and MacMillan, 1974). However, no strict use of reinforcement schedules meets classical scheduling definitions. The difficulty in controlling all variables within a classroom or test- ing situation is immense. O'Leary and Drabman (1971) conclude that the absence of any tightly Controlled scheduling research in field experimental settings may reflect methodological difficulties in meeting precise schedule execution. Furthermore, schedule control from tangible or social reinforcement may be mitigated by numerous other rein- forcers such as those provided by the teacher, evaluator, or peers. In summary, studies that investigate the effect of social contingencies and tangible contingencies indi- cate that social contingencies may very well be extremely 20 potent as reinforcers with severely mentally retarded. Depending upon the task, the environmental situation, the presence of an approving adult, the social contingency may have an effect equivalent to that of a tangible con- tingency. Evidence also indicates that due to the need for social approval,the presence of an approving adult may mitigate any effect either social or tangible con- tingencies may have on performance or behavior of the severely mentally retarded. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY The review of the literature revealed that there are no studies about the effectiveness of tangible and verbal contingencies on the assessment of cognitive func- tioning of the severely mentally retarded. The present investigation was designed to determine if either of the two contingencies is more effective than the other on the performance and on the behavior of severely mentally retarded in an assessment situation. The present chapter will provide a description of the procedures involved in this investigation. Rationale and Hypotheses One of many difficulties in assessing the perform- ance capabilities of severely mentally retarded children is the frequency with which the examiner encounters behav- iors that interfere with the child's concentration on the stimulus materials. A successful testing situation for this population would be one in which the examiner felt reasonably confident that the child's attention had been captured for each test item and that, in addition, the child was reasonably motivated to respond. With this 21 22 population, scores obtained using a device assessing reasoning and problem solving, as in the present study, must be considered to owe a portion of their variance to factors such as attention, ability to inhibit irrelevant motor activity, ability to relate to the examiner, in addition to the major factor of "reasoning and problem- solving ability" which the test purports to measure. These unique problems involved in the testing of severely mentally retarded were crucial in the selection of depen- dent variables to reflect the influence of the two types of contingencies being used. First, the scores on the assessment device itself were selected as a dependent variable. It was assumed that achievement on the test could be influenced by the strength of a child's motivation as generated by the contingencies. This assumption is tenable if the assess- ment test is appropriate to the skill level of the group being assessed. Obviously, if individuals were beyond either the "floor" or "ceiling" for the device it would not be appropriate as a measure of change. Pre-testing suggested that the assessment device used was of an apprOpriate level of difficulty. The other two dependent measures selected are more direct measures of attention to the task: eye contact with the examiner, and incompatible motor responses. It 23 was felt that if, for some reason, the assessment scores themselves were insensitive to the influence of varying contingencies, that such influence might still be detected by these direct observations of the child's responsiveness. These three measures then determined the follow- ing hypotheses: 1. Mean assessment scale scores following tan- gible contingencies will not differ signifi- cantly from mean scores following social contingencies. 2. Mean number of client to examiner eye contacts following tangible contingencies will not dif- fer significantly from the mean number fol- lowing social contingencies. 3. Mean number of incompatible motor responses following tangible contingencies will not dif- fer significantly from the mean number of responses following social contingencies. It should be noted that the above hypotheses are not meant to be stated in the null form. Rather, the prediction being made is that the two types of contingency will not differ in their effects. The writer is content to demonstrate only that tangible reinforcers add nothing to the child's performance. From a practical point of view, if social reinforcers alone are just as effective as tangible ones the added burden of providing tangible reinforcement can be eliminated. Study Design A repeated measure design was utilized. To control for bias in treatment groups, subjects were N \ 24 exposed to repeated treatments: each treatment was the presentation by the same evaluator of the Developmental Checklist: Reasoning and Problem-Solving Assessment utilizing either a tangible contingency or a social con- tingency. Thus S's were compared to themselves and not to a randomly selected or matched group. A schematic representation of this design is pre- sented in Table 1. Table l.--Schematic representation of the study design. Evaluator N Time lst Session 2nd Session A 4 a.m. tangible social 4 p.m. social tangible B 4 a.m. tangible social 4 p.m. social tangible C 4 a.m. tangible social 4 p.m. social tangible It will be observed that each evaluator administered both types of reinforcers, and that the schedule followed in regard to the sequencing of reinforcers was the same for each evaluator. Also, the table should be interpreted to indicate that each child was tested at the same time of day under the two conditions; that is, the first four 25 children were tested in the morning under each contingency condition. Thus, "time of day" and order of testing were eliminated as uncontrolled independent variables. Subjects were not assigned at random to the eval- uators. Instead, because of time pressures, the lack of mobility of some children, and the location of the testing rooms, children residing in one wing of the residential center were tested by the same evaluator. Thus, there were eight children in each of the three wings of the center. Since random assignment of children to evaluator groups did not occur, there is no assurance that the children in the three groups were equated on possible important independent variables. This means that the influence of the evaluators on performance cannot be separated from influences emanating from group differences. This fact became unimportant in the interpretation of results, even as a side issue, when it was found that the main effect for evaluator group membership in the analysis of variance was not significant. Subjects Description of School and Residence Subjects were identified in a private residential long term health facility for mentally retarded children and adults in the mid-Michigan area. The long term health facility contains a public school that is operated by an 26 intermediate school district. The school is funded on the basis that students qualify for special education programs for the severely mentally impaired. These qualifications are stated in the State of Michigan Guidelines, 1974: The Severely Mentally Impaired means a person iden- tified by an Educational Planning and Placement Committee, based upon a comprehensive evaluation by a school psychologist, certified psychologist, or certified consulting psychologist, and other per- tinent information as having all of the following behavioral characteristics: a. development at a rate approximately 4-1/2 or more standard deviations below the mean as determined by intellectual assessment, b. lack of development primarily in the cog- nitive domain. At the time of this study, 78 students were enrolled in the three classrooms Operated by the school district with instruction time ranging from 15 minutes to 2 hours a day. Instruction for these students was primarily on an individual basis. Approximately 26 stu- dents were assigned to each classroom teacher and three of her aides. The curriculum primarily included fine and gross motor development, physical therapy, language development, and pre-academic tasks and self-care skills. The three school classes were generally homogeneously grouped based on ability level. For most students, the classroom wing is also their residential wing. Attendance in class during the day was mandatory. It was the responsibility of nursing home aides to transport students to and from the class- rooms . 27 Selection of Subjects The size of the sample was limited by the scarcity of subjects residing in long term health facilities that had not been assessed on the selected reasoning and prob- lem solving assessment. The number of 24 was finally selected as a feasible size group that, at least minimally, met the needs of the study design and could be obtained at one facility. From the 78 students enrolled in the public school program, the teachers selected 29 students who met the following criteria: 1. Enrolled in the public school program for the severely mentally impaired 2. Physically able to manipulate hand and arm 3. Able to hear and see 4. Without behavior problems that continuously interrupt instruction (screaming, getting out of the seat, etc.). To increase the probability that subjects in the final sample would be adequate subjects, two pre-assessment sessions were conducted with the 29 children. The intent was to eliminate children who proved to be gross behavior problems in a testing session, or who were not responsive to either the tangible or social reinforcers. Each of the students was given the first three items of the Reasoning and Problem-Solving Assessment 28 device on two consecutive days by volunteers familiar with the assessment. On the first day all subjects were given candy as the tangible contingency. If the candy was rejected (not swallowing), the subjects were given juice. If both juice and candy were rejected (three subjects), the subjects were eliminated from the study as not respon- sive to the tangible reinforcers. On the second day all subjects were given the first three items of the assessment device with verbal praise and physical contact given as the social contin- gency. One subject who turned away from the social con- tingency was eliminated from the study. To reduce the sample to 24 subjects the youngest subject of the remaining 25 was dropped as least likely to be safely above the "floor" of the assessment test. Selection of Evaluators and Observers Evaluators It was necessary to have experienced evaluators for this study; thus the experimenter sought well-trained and experienced evaluators from the Michigan State University In-Service Training Project. All members of the project were approached to be a paid volunteer to participate in this study. Three evaluators indicated that they could participate, which was the minimum number needed for this study. 29 Each of the evaluators who volunteered for this project was trained via a modification of the Active Response In-Service Training Method (Appendix D) and had extensive experience assessing severely mentally retarded students utilizing the Reasoning and Problem-Solving Assessment device, the instrument used for this study. Observers Observers were selected from a group of under- graduate students enrolled in Special Education 200-- Field Experience with the Severely Mentally Impaired at Central Michigan University. Each observer was thus familiar with the population under study and the selected instrument. Of 10 students enrolled for the class at the time of this study, three females and one male student volun- teered to participate in the study. An observer who had the least experience was asked to be an alternate, as only three observers were needed. Measures Reasoning and Problem Solving The first measure selected as a dependent variable was the child's score on the assessment instrument itself. The device used was the DevelOpmental Checklist: Reason- ing and Problem—Solving (Hecht, 1974), developed for use 30 by the Michigan State University In-Service Training Project. This assessment device was designed to evaluate cognitive development in the severely mentally retarded pOpulation, as a basis for the planning of educational prescriptions for the individual child. The assessment device is made up of 39 items each measuring some simple cognitive skill. A copy of the Developmental Checklist: Reasoning and ProblemrSolving is included in Appendix A to acquaint the reader with the nature of the items and the format of the test. In its present use in the Michigan State University In-Service Training Project no total score is computed; the pattern of successes and failures is used directly in the preparation Of training prescriptions. In the present study, however, a total score was calculated. A score higher than 39 could be earned, since some of the 39 items have sub-tasks which were scored separately for the purposes of the present study. The highest possible score was 64. Since in the previous uses of this assessment device no total score was utilized, the reliability or validity of this score had not been determined. Contingency Treatments Tangible Contingencies All subjects were given pieces of candy or cereal except for two subjects who during a three-item pre- assessment rejected candy but accepted juice. The 31 tangible contingency (candy, cereal, or juice) was given after each attempt at the designated task or completion of a task. A task attempt was defined as any movement toward performing the designated task. For example, touching a block or a "tower building" task could be considered a task attempt. Each of the evaluators was given the following verbal instructions: Give the reasoning and problem-solving assessment as you normally would except adhere to the follow- ing contingency schedule. After each completed task, or if the task is not completed, after each task attempt give a tangible contingency. Any motor movement toward performing the task is con- sidered a task attempt for these assessments. Do not give a contingency if the subject does not attempt the task. Do not give verbal praise, touch or any other social contingency when providing the tangible contingency and throughout the entire assessment. Continue giving tasks and contingencies until five incorrect responses in a row are calcu- lated. To check the consistency of the implementation of the contingency schedule, the observers were instructed to remind the evaluator if he/she failed to give a con— tingency following an apprOpriate response. Social Contingencies All subjects were given a social contingency after a task attempt or task completion. The social contingency consisted of verbal praise such as "good girl," "good boy," "Great," or similar verbal praise paired with physical contact that usually consisted of a 32 simple pat on the shoulder, hand, or head. For older subjects, evaluators were given instructions that they could use verbal praise occasionally paired with physi- cal contact because of the likelihood that the older subjects would object to constantly being touched. Each of the three evaluators was given the fol- lowing verbal instructions: Give the reasoning and problem-solving assessment as you normally would except adhere to the follow- ing contingency schedule. After each completed task, or if the task is not completed, after each task attempt give a social contingency. The social con- tingency should consist of verbal praise, "good girl or good boy" or some other similar verbal praise along with a pat on the shoulder, head or appropriate part of the client's body. Give only occasional "pats" to older clients if they resist physical touch. Do not give any tangible contingencies throughout the assessment. Do not give any social contingency if the subject does not make any attempt to perform the task. Continue giving the social contingency until five incorrect tasks in a row are made. The observer may remind you if you forget. To check the consistency with which the evaluators followed the instructions on the contingency schedule, the observers were instructed to remind the evaluator if he/ she forgot to give an appropriate contingency after a task attempt or completion. The evaluators had to switch from giving tangible without verbal praise or physical contact to social con- tingencies void of tangibles. To insure that the evalua- tors were able to follow the contingency schedule, the evaluators had a practice session with this experimenter. 33 The experimenter demonstrated the contingency schedule utilizing the social contingency and the tangible con- tingency. Evaluators practiced with each other until they were able to do 10 items without error on each con- tingency schedule and were personally satisfied they could successfully follow the instructions. Description of Dependent Variables Eye Contacts An eye contact consisted of the moving of the eyes toward the examiner immediately after receiving a tangible or social contingency. The number of eye contacts imme- diately after receiving a contingency was counted. The number of eye contacts was counted, as opposed to duration of contact, because of the problem of recording the length of the eye contact. To facilitate the counting of eye contacts, the observer was placed about three feet behind the right shoulder of the examiner. In this position, the observer could detect minimal as well as gross eye contact without disturbing the assessment. At no time did an examiner or observer report that the presence of the observer inter- ferred with the responses of the subjects. A form for recurring observations of eye contacts was developed (see Appendix B). Observers were trained to detect eye contact in a practice session. ApprOpriate eye contact was demonstrated 34 by a video tape of a simulated assessment session using no handicapped adult subject. Discussion ensued after each demonstration of eye contact. The observers then viewed another video tape in which 10 tasks on the assessment were given in another simulation using adult subjects. The observers were asked to indicate whether there was eye contact after either a tangible or social contingency was given to the client. The observers were required to achieve 80 percent accuracy in terms of agreement with a prior scoring of the TV tape which served as the criterion measure. All observers during the first view of the tape reached this level of accuracy. Incompatible Motor Responses (IMR) An incompatible motor response was motor response by the client that directly interfered with the assessment process. Examples of an IMR were getting out of seat, touching objects prior to task directions, excessive yell- ing, turning back of the client toward the examiner. IMR's were counted between the time one contingency was given and the next time the contingency was given. To facilitate the counting of IMR's, Observers were asked to count IMR's from their position behind the right shoulder of the examiner. There was no indication by the observers that they had any difficulty or that their presence was interfering with the assessment process. 35 A form for recording observations of incompatible motor responses was developed (see Appendix B). As with eye contact, observers were trained to detect IMR's approximately a week before the experimental sessions. IMR's were demonstrated via a simulated video tape of an assessment. Discussion occurred after each demonstration of IMR. The observers then viewed another video tape in which 10 tasks on the assessment were given. The observers were asked to count IMR's during the period between one contingency and another contingency. The observers were required to achieve 80 percent agreement with a prior scoring of the video tape. A11 observers during the first viewing of the tape reached this level of accuracy. Analysis of Data The major analysis used in this investigation to determine the effect of tangible and social contingency on performance output as measured by number of correct responses was the three-factor analysis of variance. To determine the effect of tangible and social contingencies on client behavior as measured by eye contact controlled for number of contingencies, an analysis of covariance was utilized. To measure contingency effect on incom- patible motor responses, a simple comparison of means was calculated due to the incomplete data that was obtained. 36 This design allowed for random assignment of the subjects to contingency conditions which are fixed (tangible and social). This design also allowed for each subject to act as his own control. This investigator decided to set a low level of significancetXJmake it easier to have a significant dif- ference between the two treatments. At the p > .10 level, results indicating no difference would thus be a stronger statistical conclusion. CHAPTER IV FINDINGS The complete set of raw scores for the study is presented in Table 2, along with the means and standard deviations. As noted in the table, scores in parentheses are scores from the second session with a child; those not in parentheses are from the first session. It will also be noted that some data are missing; namely, the incompatible motor responses for Evaluator C. The alternate observer erred in recording his observations during the second session. His observations during the first session were not used since the scores to which these first session's observations would have been com- pared were missing. Attention should be called to the fact that no standard deviation was computed for the IMR scores because of the peculiar nature of the distribution of these scores. For example, the modal score for IMR under the tangible contingency is zero. Even the mean is not descriptive of the central tendency of this distribution. Finally, the lack of independence of the raw scores for the assessment measure and for the measure of 37 38 Table 2.--Raw scores, means, and standard deviations for assessment scores, eye contacts, and incompatible motor responses (IMR) under tangible and social contingency. Sfiflecflsby Thngflfle axial Evaluator Group Assess. Eye IMR .Assess. Eye IMR ane Cbnuxm :kxme Omuact ENahxuerX l 8 3 0 ( 6F1 (11) (2) 1““ 2 41. 43 7 (41) (25) .(2) 3 0 5 0 (ll) (14) (0) 4 12 3 l (11) (9) (0) 5 (34) (29) (0) 55 29 0 PM 6 (55) (28) (0) 58 30 2 7 ( 7) ( 6) (9) 5 5 5 8 (34) ( 9) (O) 49 10 9 EwihmmorIS 1 53 36 0 (54) (26) (0) 1“4 2 58 32 0 (61) (19) (0) 3 30 13 l (32) (20) (l) 4 23 24 1 (21) (27) (2) 5 ( 8) (8) ( l) 11 5 1 EM 6 (10) (8) ( 0) 8 9 0 7 (16) (27) (12) 2 3 3 8 (49) (28) ( 0) 53 32 l Ewflnaflxrc l 9 6 ( 6) ( 4) 184 2 58 30 (60) (27) 3 30 21 (24) (10) 4 15 6 (l7) (2) 5 (50) (17) 47 27 PM 6 (16) (22) 3 7 7 (ll) (1) 10 2 8 (3) ( 0) 18 12 Mean = 26.25 16.88 2.0 27.62 15.21 1.75 S.D. = 19.36 12.67 21.57 10.25 DmmmemsinlxmenUKEES:Ufiuomxzsxnes:fixmmflM2sexxd testing sessicm; those without parentheses, from the first testing fifififlflh 39 eye contact should be noted. Eye contact was observed only following the administration of a contingency. It is roughly true that the greater the number of assessment items administered the greater the number of contingencies and, hence, the greater the possible number of observed eye contacts. This lack of independence will be dealt with more fully below in the discussion of the findings relating to eye contact. The Effect of Contingencies on Assessment Test Scores It was hypothesized that the subjects would do as well on the assessment test when social contingencies were given as when tangible contingencies were given. To test this hypothesis a three-factor ANOVA for repeated measures was carried out. The ANOVA results are pre- sented in Table 3. The F test for the contingency main effect is not significant, nor are the F's for any of the inter- action effects involving the contingency variable. Thus, the prediction that the type of contingency would have no effect on assessment scores is confirmed. The non-significance of the main effects for order and evaluator in Table 3 suggests that neither of these variables was significantly related to assessment test performance. Apparently second session scores were not significantly higher than first session scores; thus, 40 no practice effect occurred. The lack of a significant main effect for evaluator suggests that no significant assessment score variance was being generated by factors in the three subgroups, variance that might have con- fused the interpretation of the contingency effects. Table 3.--Ana1ysis of variance for investigation of effect on assessment. 32323.? 333.22. F Contingency (C) 38.521 1 38.520 1.4524 Order (0) 72.521 1 72.520 0.0924 Evaluator (E) 470.167 2 235.083 0.3000 C X 0 17.521 1 17.520 0.6600 C X E 92.667 2 46.333 1.7460 0 X E 3604.667 2 1802.333 2.2960 C X 0 X E 36.167 2 18.083 0.6810 Subj./O x E (error term) 14130.125 18 785.006 c x Subj./O x E (error term) 477.625 18 26.534 Since the reliability of the assessment device was not known prior to this study, it was of some interest to determine the test-retest reliability of the instrument using the correlation between the sets of scores derived from the two sessions. The Pearson product-moment r for 41 these two sets of scores was found to be .94, a very satisfactory reliability coefficient. The Effect of Contingencies on Number of Eye Contacts It was hypothesized that no more eye contacts would occur following tangible contingencies than follow- ing social contingencies. To test this hypothesis it was necessary to correct the eye contact count. Because the number of eye contacts depended upon the number of contingencies, the number of contingencies had to be con- trolled. In order to do this, the number of eye contacts was regressed upon the number of contingencies. A repeated measures analysis of variance was then performed on the number of eye contacts, controlled for the number of contingencies. This is equivalent to performing a repeated measures analysis of covariance with the number of contingencies serving as the covariate. This analysis is presented in Table 4. Again, neither main effects nor interaction effects were significant. Thus, it may be concluded that the type of contingency had no effect upon subject-to-examiner eye contact. 42 Table 4.--Repeated-measures ANOVA for investigation of contingency effect on number of eye contacts controlled for number of contingencies. 23:222. 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Reacts to sound 2. Fixates visually, momentarily_y 3. Tracks visually with eyes 4. Attends visually to object 5. Tracks visuallyi turns head 6. Discriminates direction of sound 7. Intentionalityjreaches for objects 8. Intentionality/picks up objects 9. Intentionality/persistent reach 10. Intentionality/retrieves dropped object L 11. Anticipation of action 1 12. Object permanence/finds hidden object 13. Eye-hand coordination/causality 14. Eye-hand coordination/causality 3 i 15. Eye-hand coordination/imitation i 16. Intentionality/takes object out i I 17. Eye-hand coordination/causality i 18. Visual discrimination/shape match i 19. One-to-one correspondence % 20. Eye-hand coordination [replication 21. Follows 1 step direction with 2 objects X 22. Visual discriminationlshape match 73 .p—m..-_.—....¢ 23. Visual discrimination/object match 24. Visual discrimination/shapgymatch : 25. Visual memory/location of object : 26. Size comparison/2 at a time 27. Language comprehensionlgse of objects 28. Visual discrimination/size match 29. Visual discrimination/color match 30. Concept of one 31. Eye-hand coordination/replication 32. Visual discriminationjshape representation match 33. Puts 2 parts together to make whole 34. Visual discrimination/color sort 35. Visual memoryjpicture 36. Visual memory/shape representation 37. Color recognition 38. Number concepts (1-5) 39. Seriation of 3 objects KEY + = does independently; - = skill to be trained (when mastered, add vertical line in color); x = physically unable (deaf, blind, etc.) APPENDIX B SAMPLE OF OBSERVER FREQUENCY COUNTS 74 SAMPLE OF OBSERVER FREQUENCY COUNTS Name Date Observer Contingency Eye Contact I.M.R. Comments 1. 61. 62. 63. 64. 75 APPENDIX C DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION 76 TABLE C.l.--Demographic Information. Subject Sex Age 1 M 15 2 F 18 3 F 11 4 M 13 5 F 18 6 M 17 7 F 9 8 F 20 9 M 21 10 M 19 11 F 13 12 M l9 13 F 11 14 F 13 15 M 16 16 M 17 17 M 10 18 M 22 19 M 18 20 F 14 21 F 19 22 F 18 23 F 17 24 M 20 77 APPENDIX D MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY ACTIVE RESPONSE IN-SERVICE TRAINING METHOD 78 APPENDIX D MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY ACTIVE RESPONSE IN-SERVICE TRAINING METHOD The first of these is the identification and behav- ioral statement of the problem or area of interest in the classroom. The identification of the problem or area of interest in the classroom where inservice training will be pro- vided is generally done as a cooperative effort by the inservice trainer and the staff. Informal dis- cussions during breaks or after school coupled with classroom observations aid in defining these areas of concern. The problems or interest areas identi- fied are numerous; some have included behavior manage- ment of a student, grouping children for language training, getting an entire class to improve their dressing and undressing skills, and providing pre- vocational training tasks for a class. Concerns are stated behaviorally so that the inservice training may proceed to the next step. I 1} inservice Lstudent (s) I trainer The second step is the assessment of the student or students identified as part of the classroom problem or area of interest. Assessments are made to further define the problem or to identify the instructional levels of the student or students concerned. These assessments may be formal measures or they may be informally constructed devices to fit the specific needs of that classroom. The inservice trainer may assess the students. - E V)! inservice [student (3) J trainer 79 80 or the staff may assess the students. inservice [student (8)—l trainer At times the staff may wish to be trained to give a new assessment; in this case, the Active Response Inservice Training Method is used by the inservice trainer to instruct staff in the using assessment procedures. inservice I lstaff F £>- lstudent(s) trainer I '— The third step involves the creation of an assessment- based training program designed to remediate the identified problem or to serve the identified area of interest. Using the assessment results, a training program is created by the inservice trainer and staff to reme- diate the identified problem or to serve the inter- ests identified. Besides the reading and thought needed at this step, the inservice trainer and staff may also need to locate or construct training mater- ials, to arrange a training area in the classroom, to pilot test the training procedures, to determine appropriate reinforcers for the students involved in the training program, and to describe acceptable approximations of the behavior being trained. inservice istaff I [student(s)] _ trainer The fourth step involves a demonstration of the train- ing program with the student or students by the inservice trainer in the actual training setting. The inservice trainer demonstrates the training pro- cedures to the staff in the classroom situation with the students assessed in step two. A vocal explana- tion may accompany the demonstration to clarify the inservice trainer's procedures with the students. 81 Vocal explanations without physical demonstrations are used only when staff members are more skilled in the particular training area and when there is a certainty that the training program is appropriate to the students and does not need to be tried out by the inservice trainer. At this point in the in- service training the demonstration step serves two purposes: first it allows the staff to become fami- liar with the training procedures through observa- tion of their use; second it is possible, during the demonstration, for the inservice trainer to adjust the training procedures if needed to better fit the students, the learning goals, and the actual situa- tion. In this step, as in all other steps, an inabi- lity to obtain success results in going back to the prior step in the method; therefore, if the demon- stration reveals that adjustments must be made in the training procedures, then the inservice trainer makes these adjustments and repeats the demonstration. l Jr inservice [ student (s) ] trainer The fifth step involves the development of the staff's skills using the training program. The staff member is given an opportunity to use the training procedures with the students. During this time the inservice trainer observes and provides the staff with cues and prompts as needed while simul- taneously reinforcing them for their approximate and correct usage of the training procedures. This instructional process is generally done immediately following the demonstration by the inservice trainer. If necessary, additional demonstrations are given by the inservice trainer and the more complex procedures may be demonstrated in small portions so as to guaran- tee more success for the staff member as they try to use the training program for the first time. The time needed for this instruction depends upon the complexity of the training program. Written guides describing the training procedures in a step-by-step manner are always left with the staff to reinforce their skills in the absence of the inservice trainer. L Y inservice staff Istudent(s) trainer 82 The sixth step concerns follow-up with the staff mem- ber on the implementation and progress of the train- ing program. The inservice trainer follows-up the progress of the training program as it is being carried out by the staff in the classroom by providing any needed adjust- ments in procedures, re-assessments of students, or additional instruction of staff in the training pro- cedures. The inservice trainer discusses student per- formance data with staff during informal meetings so as to evaluate the progress and direction of the training. Follow-up may include group staff train- ing sessions with or without students before or after school hours. These sessions would be used only to reinforce and extend understanding of con- cepts already being used by staff with students, such as: training procedures, assessment procedures, progress record keeping and graphing, terminology, etc. Sessions of this type may include active use of material covered with a few sample students or in simulated training sessions or in reaction to video-taped situations with students. inservice §> lstaff t~ >> [student(s)] trainer BIBLIOGRAPHY 83 BIBLIOGRAPHY Axelrod, S. "Token Reinforcement Programs in Special Classes." Exceptional Children 37 (1971): 371- 3790 Baldwin, V. L. "Development of Social Skills in Retard- ates as a Function of Three Types of Reinforcement Programs." 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"Experimental Studies of Rigidity in the Measurement of Rigidity in Normal and Feeble- minded Persons." Character and Personality 9 (1941): 251-272. Levine, G., and Simmons, J. "Response to Food and Praise by Emotionally Disturbed Boys." Psychology Reports 11 (1962): 539-546. Locke, B. "Verbal Conditioning with the Retarded: Rein- forcers, Sex of Subject, and Stimulus Pacing." Journal of Mental Deficiency 73 (1969): 616-620. McManis, D. L., and Bell, D. R. "Retardate Reward Seeking or Punishment Avoiding Under Three Types of Incen- tives." American Journal of Mental Deficiency 72 (1968): 844-850. Meyen, E., and Altman, R. "Public School Programming for the Severely/Profoundly Handicapped: Some . Researchable Problems." Education and Training of the Mentally Retarded (February 1976). \ Osarchuk, M. "OPerant Methods of Toilet Behavior Training of the Severely and Profoundly Retarded: A Review." Journal of Special Education 7 (1973): 423-37. 87 O'Leary, K. D., and Drabman, R. 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