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Psychological Features of Rape Victims:
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PSYCHOLOGICAL FEATURES OF RAPE VICTIMS:
TRAUMA, COUNSELING, AND RECOVERY

By
Judith Anne Smith

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Clinical Psychology
1982

ABSTRACT

PSYCHOLOGICAL FEATURES OF RAPE VICTIMS:
TRAUMA, COUNSELING, AND RECOVERY

By
Judith Anne Smith

Three groups of rape victims were studied to identify
variables associated with the frequency and/or intensity of
adolescents' and adults' postassault symptoms. These included
20 Incoming Victims at Erie, Pennsylvania's Rape Crisis Center
assaulted during the period of this research, 38 Previously
Counseled victims raped from about three months to three years
earlier, and l3 Uncounseled rape victims recruited through
media advertisements and local womens' "grapevines". During
the 90-days following rape, Incoming Victims were interviewed
at nine standard intervals. Thirteen completed a series of
sixteen psychological questionnaires,including the Tennessee
Self-Concept Scale, the Profile of Mbod States, Bem's Sex-
Role Inventory, and Levenson's Locus of Control Scales. Their
responses were compared with a demographically matched control
group. Measures of anger, guilt, Rosenberg's Self-Esteem
Scale, Assault-Related Symptom Interviews, and a Degree of
Violence questionnaire were completed by all three victim
groups.

Among 33 variables investigated, the severity of

postassault symptoms linked most strongly to the rapist's vio-
lence (Victim-Reported) and to being physically struck during
rape. Arrested rapists' victims consistently reported lesser
postassault symptoms than other victims. Other statistically
significant findings included lower self-esteem, greater
guilt, and more symptoms among those victims who subsequently
sought professional counseling and lower self-esteem among
victimis of interracial rape. The Previously Counseled re-
ported lesser present-day symptoms, while Incoming and Un-
counseled victims reported such symptoms equally often.
Prior sexual assaults were reported by 20 to 25 percent of
rape victims and by other women surveyed as potential
demographic controls.

These findings seem especially important for counselors
and therapists of rape victims, but also deserving of atten-
tion from social service administrators and policy makers.

These exploratory findings merit early verification.

Copyright by
JUDITH ANNE SMITH
1982

TO MY PARENTS
for their

LOVE, GUIDANCE, and SUPPORT

ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to extend a sincere word of thanks to the
following individuals and agencies:

The 71 rape victims discussed in this study--without
their courage and openness this project could not have been
done. Their desire to help others at a tbme when they had
just been harmed was truly admirable.

Mrs. Joan Martin, Director of Erie County Rape Crisis
Center, and all her staff--their friendship, humor, belief
in the project, and support of my efforts was invaluable.
Their instruction consistently resulted in new professional
growth for me. O

Dr. John Hurley, chairperson of my doctoral committee,
whose patience, encouragement, and advice was instrumental in
the completion of this project. His feedback consistently
provided a sense of clarity and direction in the often
bewildering process of analyzing and writing the project's
results.

Dr. Al Aniskiewicz, Dr. Elaine Donelson, and Dr. Dozier
Thornton, doctoral committee members who were readily avail-
able to provide support and direction throughout the project.

Dr. John Gamble and the psychology faculty of Behrend

Campus of Pennsylvania State University for allowing the use

iii

of their computer facilities. Particular thanks goes to Dr.
John Alessio and Dr. Stephen Knouse for their statistical
and computer advice.

The staff and students of Opportunities Industrializa-
tion Center in Erie for their cooperation with the collection
of control group data, and to the media representatives in
Erie County who publicized the project.

Ms. Sharon Phelps, dissertation typist, whose confidence,
patience, and reliability were greatly appreciated. Sharon's
skill in rendering a presentable typed draft from the maze of
my writing was truly remarkable.

Ms. Paula Freeman, Mr. Jeffrey Smith, Ms. Linda Williams,
Mia. Susan Reeder, and Mr. Russell Smith for their assistance
in the coding and scoring of data. Their humor, energy, and
accuracy turned often tedious work into fun. Additional
thanks goes to Jeffrey for his professional drafting as-
sistance.

My family and friends whose affection, support, and
camaraderie could always be relied upon.

Jessica Marie Smith, who accepted the dissertation's
demands on her mother's time as patiently as any thirteen-
year-old could, and whose love and excitement made this

project just a little easier to complete.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
LIST OF TABLES ............................................. ix
INTRODUCTION ................................ . ............... l
The Historical Development of Interest in the
Postassault Reactions of Rape Victims ..................... 2
Rape: An Overview of the Crime ........................... 7
Incidence ............................................... 8
Setting .......................................... . ...... 9
Profile of the victfln ................................... 9
Profile of the assailant ............................... 11
Victimeoffender interaction ............................ 13
Legal proceedings ...................................... 15
A Review of the Literature Regarding Rape Victims
Reactions ................................................ 16
Demographic profiles: Amir and MacDonald .............. 17
Questionnaire surveys .................................. l8
Clinical/empirical studies ............................. 21
Dynamics suggested by the literature ................... 33
Methodological problems of the studies of rape ......... 41
METHOD ..................................................... 44
Purpose and Procedures ............................ I ....... 44
Statement of purpose ................................... 44
Location ................................................ 47
The victims ............................................ 48
Research procedures with the incoming group ............ ‘49'
Research procedures with control group ................. 53
Research procedures with previously counseled
ECRCC victims .................. .... .................. 54
Research procedures with previous victims without
counseling... ..... ....................... ....... . ...... 56
Measures ............... . ..... ........ ........ . ........... 57
Assault-Related Symptom.Interview (ARSI).... ........... 57
Bem Sex Role Inventory ................................. 60
Body Cathexis Scale .................................... 63

V

Degree of Violence ..... ........................... ..... 64

Demographic Data................. ....... ..... . ..... 66
Fear Survey Schedule III (FSS III). ....................67
Guilt Index. .......... ..... ....................69

Inventory of Psychosocial Development. ....... ..........7l
Levenson' 3 Internal- External Locus of Control Scale....73

Life Experiences Survey (LES). .......... . ............ 75
Profile of Moods State (POMS) ........... A..... .......... 77
Religiousity Scales ............................. . ...... 80
Rosenberg' 3 Self- Esteem.Scale ................... . ...... 81
Support System.Rating.. ............................... 82
Tennessee Self— -Concept Scale (TSCS) .................... 83
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) ....................... 85
RESULTS .................................................... 88
Final subject pool ..................................... 88
Control group .......................................... 91
Group differences on demographic variables ............. 92
Missing data ........................................... 93
Demographic Features ..................................... 95
Sex .................................................... 96
Age ...................................... . ............. 96
Marital status ......................................... 96
Socioeconomic status ................................... 96
Educational level ...................................... 96
Occupation ............................................. 96
Religious Identification ............................... 97
Importance of religion ................................. 97
Prior mental health counseling ......................... 97
Prior sexual assaults .................................. 98
Sexual experience ........................... . .......... 98
Race of assailant ...................................... 98
Degree of relationship with assailant .................. 99
Location of the rape ................................... 99
Presence of threats .................................... 99
Presence of weapons .................................... 99
Use of restraints ..................................... 100
Striking the victim ................................... 100
Injuries ......................... . .................... 100
Feelings towards the assailant ........................ 100
Criminal justice system involvement ................... 101
Support systems. .................................... 102
Counseling systems. . ........... . .................. 103
Reasons for research participation ....... . ....... .105
Factors germane to recovery. ............. .......... 105
Analyses of Measures Common to All Victim Groups ........ 106
Questionnaire results ..................... I ............ 107
Intercorrelation matrix of questionnaires ............. 109

vi

ARSI-W results for the four time periods sampled ...... 109

Intercorrelation matrix of ARSI-W totals .............. 112
Areas of assault-related disturbance .................. 113
A comparison of ECRCC-affiliated and nonaffiliated
uncounseled group members ............... . ............. 117
Effects of Demographic Variables on Measures Common
to all Groups ........................................... 119
Sex ................................................... 120
Age ................................................... 120
Education ............................................. 120
Socioeconomic level ................................... 121
Religious identification .............................. 122
Marital status ........................................ 122
Race of the victim .................................... 122
Occupation ............................................ 122
Prior mental health counseling ........................ 123
Virgin at time of rape ................................ 124
Quality of previous sexual experiences ................ 124
Length of time since the assault ...................... 124
Location of the rape .................................. 125
Previous history of sexual assaults ................... 125
Race of assailant ..................................... 125
‘Number of assailants .................................. 126
People told during the first 7-10 days ................ 127
If the victims knew the assailant ..................... 127
Presence of threats ................................... 128
Presence of weapons ................................... 128
Use of restraints ..................................... 128
Sexual events during the rape ......................... 128
Victims struck ........................................ 129
Injury ................................................ 129
The arrest of the assailant ........................... 131
If the case went to court ............................. 131
Court verdict ......................................... 132
Contacted professional counselors for rape-
related reasons ....................................... 132
Analyses of Data From the Incoming Group ................ 132
Comparison of control and incoming groups ............. 133
ARSI-O results: Means and correlations ............... 135
Questionnaire results: Multiple administrations ...... 138
Questionnaire results: Single administrations ........ 138
Correlation matrices for all questionnaires ........... 138
Summary of the Results Regarding Each Hypothesis ........ 147
DISCUSSION ................................................ 156
Reaction patterns ..................................... 156
Primary finding: The impact of violence .............. 164

vii

Present day symptoms in the uncounseled group.. ....... 167

Previous sexual assaults ...... ,........ ............... 167
The assailant' 3 race ..... . ......................... 169
Findings not consistent with previous literature ...... 171
Limitations of the Present Study and the Issue of
Generalization .......................................... 173
Implications for future research ........................ 176
Summary ............................................... 178
APPENDIX A: Questionnaires Used In The Study ............. 180
APPENDIX B: The DOV-O Scoring System ..................... 218
APPENDIX C: ARSI-O Scoring Guidelines .................... 220

APPENDIX D: Correlation Matrices of Single and Multiple
Administration Questionnaires Used with the

Incoming Group ............................... 227
APPENDIX E: Summary on Questionnaire and ARSI-W Scores

Affected by Demographic Variables ............ 230
APPENDIX F: Independent Effects of Demographic Variables

on Questionnaire and ARSI-O Scores ........... 235
BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................. 243

viii

Table
Table

Table
Table
Table

Table
Table
Table

Table
Table

Table
Table
Table
Table
Table

Table

10:

ll:

12:

13:

14:

15:

16:

LIST OF TABLES

Page
Incoming Group Symptom Interview Schedule ........ 51
Incoming Group Questionnaire Administration
Schedule ......................................... 52

Number of Incoming Victims Who Completed Forms...94

Time and Percentages of ARSI-O Completions ....... 95
Questionnaires Common to All Victim Groups;

Means with (N's) ................................ 107
Analysis of Variance Results from Comparisons

of Questionnaire Scores by Victim Groups ........ 108
Questionnaire Measures Common to All Victim

Groups .......................................... 109
Total Victims' ARSI-W Means, Variances, and

Ranges .......................................... 110
Group's ARSI-W Means at Each Time Period ........ 111

Intercorrelations of ARSI-W Totals for Each
Time Period .................................... 113

Correlations of ARSI-W and Questionnaire
Scores ......................................... 114

ARSI-W Group Means, Ranges, and Variances
for Symptom Areas .............................. 115

Group Differences on ARSI-W Symptom Areas
(ANOVA) ......... . .............................. 115

Intercorrelation Matrix of ARSI-W Symptom
Area Scores....................... ............. ll6

Correlations of ARSI-W Symptom Areas with
Questionnaires ................................. 117

Uncounseled Victim Subgroup Comparisons
(ARSI-W) ....................................... 119

ix

Table

Table

Table
Table
Table

Table
Table

Table
Table
Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

17:

18:

20:
21:

22:
23:

24:
25:
26:

27:

28:

29:

30:

31:

32:

33:

34:

35:

Mean Scores of Victims Assaulted at Home

vs. Elsewhere ..................... ... .......... 126
Comparison of Victims of Single Versus

Multiple Assailants ............................ 127
Comparisons of Struck vs. Unstruck Victims ..... 130
Comparisons of Injured vs. Noninjured Victims..130
Mean Scores on Variables Pertinent to

Professional Counseling ........................ 133
Means of the Control vs. Incoming Groups ....... 134
ARSI-O and Subscale Means, Variances,

and Ranges ..................................... 136
Intercorrelations of ARSI-O Symptom Areas ...... 137
ARSI-O Severity Indices Intercorrelated ........ 137
Mean Anger, Guilt, and TSCS Scores of

Incoming Members ............................... 139
Incoming Victim Scores on Single-

Administration Questionnaires .................. 140
Correlations of Self-Esteem Measures

with ARSI-O Symptom Profiles ................... 142
Correlation of Measures of Mood with

ARSI-O Symptom Profiles ........................ 143
Questionnaires Correlations with ARSI-O

Symptom Profiles ............................... 145
Correlation of Self-Esteem with ARSI-O

Symptom Areas .................................. 146
Correlations of Mood Measures with ARSI-O

Symptom Areas .................................. 147
Correlations of Support System Measures

with ARSI-O Symptom Areas ...................... 147
Correlations of Questionnaires with ARSI-O

Symptom Areas ......................... . ........ 148
Correlations of TSCS with Guilt for

Incoming Victims ............................... 152

Table 36:

Table 37:

Intercorrelation Matrix of Singme
ong

Administration Questionnaires

Incoming Victims ....... .. ................ 228

Correlation of Single with Multiple
Administration Questionnaires ............. .....229

xi

Introduction

 

Rape is a crime that affects tens of thousands of women
each year. Forcible rape is distinguishable from other crim-
inally violent acts such as assault, murder, and armed rob-
bery in two primary ways: its victims are overwhelmingly
female, and the violence is expressed sexually-~that is,
there is forcible sexual penetration of the woman's body
against her will. In our culture, sex is an issue invested
with highly charged emotions and beliefs. It can be antici-
pated that the rape victim will manifest a series of psycho-
logical reactions, both to the act of violence, and to the
sexual component as well.

Investigation into the area of rape victim reactions
began in the late 1960's. Although the field is still young,
and characterized by a limited number of empirical studies
with many methodological problems, significant knowledge
about the behavioral and affective changes typically occur-
ring in the rape victim has been gained. This information
has been immediately applied towards the construction of
more effective treatment programs for the victims of rape
and other forms of sexual assault.

It is the author's hope that the present study will add
significantly to ongoing efforts to understand the impact of

rape on a victim's life, and the factors germane to recovery.
1

Specifically, this study will examine how demographic vari-
ables, affective states, and victim perceptions influence
the pattern of recovery in adult and adolescent victims of
forcible rape.

The Historical Development of Interest in the Postassault
Reactions 9: Rape Victims.

 

 

 

 

During the 1960's behavioral science investigations of
reactions to crises precipitated by death, war, natural
disasters, and other such traumas began to flourish. Curi-
ously lacking, however, was interest in empirically defining
the psychological reactions of victims of another type of
crisis, that of sexual assault. This omission was consis-
tent with a broader inattention to the psychological after-
effects of any violent crime. However, as crime rates began
to soar in the late 60's, victims of violent crime increas-
ingly became a focus of national attention. For the first
time, behavioral scientists began to conceptualize victims
of violent crimes as individuals worthy of study.

The psychological consequences of rape on its victims
has been a silent area throughout the centuries. Only in-
frequently are references heard regarding the plight of the
victim and those close to her. One such reference was found
in Greek mythology. This was the Greek myth of Demeter,
goddess of life, who upon discovering that Hades’(god of
death) had raped and abducted her daughter, Persephone, or-
dered that all earth become barren and cropless and carried
out this threat until her daughter was indeed returned

(Graves, 1957). In The Rape of Lucrece, Shakespeare

documented the tale of Lucretia, a Roman matron, who was
raped by one of her inlaws and who killed herself given the
sense of shame that followed. With the exception of these
occasional literary references, however, the idea that a
woman who had been raped had just experienced a very per-
sonal and damaging assault seemed to be outside people's
awareness. A fact which explained how this could be so:
emerged as the literature was reviewed. Rape was not de-
fined as a crime against a person, so there was no "real
victim" to consider. Rather, the early laws against rape
defined this assault as a criminal act by one man against
the property of another man, violating the property owner's
rights and damaging his goods (Clark & Lewis, 1977). This
definition was possible given that the status of women,
particularly in the Judeo-Christian cultures, was that of a
poSsession owned first by the father and later by the hus-
band. WOmen's sexual and reproductive value was always of
prime importance, this ability to reproduce and provide her
mate with heirs and status made her a valuable property.
Thus, once married, the marriage contract awarded her owner-
husband total and exclusive rights of sexual access to the
wife.

Six hundred years ago, Anglo-Saxon law, the foundation
of our contemporary legal codes, punished rapists by order-
ing them to pay compensation and reparation fees to the
father or husband of the woman raped (Clark & Lewis, 1977).

This fee was paid directly to the male having ownership of

the woman at that time as he was considered the person who
had been wronged, i.e., his property had been stolen and
damaged. The amount of the compensation was dependent upon
the woman's economic position and how her market value had
been changed by the rape. For example, the rape of a virgin
daughter of a wealthy landowner would be a serious matter,
as it would have seriously damaged the father's chances of
extending his wealth by arranging an advantageous match for
his chaste daughter. However, the rape of a daughter of an
innkeeper perhaps rumored to already have lost her virginity
would generally not be considered seriously as the woman had
little property value to start with.
The definition of rape as a property crime, rather than
a personal crime, endured to varying degrees over the years.
An article from.the 1952-1953 Yale Law Journal (cited in
Griffin, 1971) described the rationale for present laws
against rape, by noting:
The consent standard in our society does more

than protect a significant item of social currency

for women (i.e., her power to withhold or grant

sexual access): it fosters, and is in turn

bolstered by, a masculine pride in the exclusive

possession of a sexual object...A... reason for the

man's condemnation of rape may be found in the

threat to his status from a decrease in the "value"

of his sexual possession which would result from

forcible violation. The man responds to this

undercutting of his status as possessor of the

girl with hostility toward the rapist: no other

restitution device is available. The law of rape

provides an orderly outlet for his vengeance.

The lay definition of rape often was that rape was a

crime of passion (not aggression) that could not occur in a

truly unwilling victim. The economic and sexual status of

the victims continued to play an important role in whether
the victim was viewed as credible, or not.

Given the influence of early legal definitions of rape
and the folklore accompanying lay understandings of the
crime, it is less surprising that the personal reactions of
rape victims has received so little concern.

Early authors in psychology were not immune to lay
views on sexual assault, and psychoanalytic writings ini-
tially seemed to illustrate this. Thus, Deutsch (1944)
wrote that women, as the naturally more passive and masoch-
istic of the sexes, needed stronger, more violent fantasies
to stimulate them. Consequently the postassault distress of
the rape victim was often viewed (Hilberman, 1976)Vsimply as
an expression of guilt arising from previous unconscious
desires for such an assault to have occurred.

Society had to redefine rape as a personal crime which
directly harmed its victims before serious attention could
be given to the rape victim. The Women's Movement that de-
veloped in the United States in the late 1960's spearheaded
the redefinition process. Gager and Schurr (1976) noted
that within the feminist perspective, rape was not viewed as
"an isolated phenomena of sick males," but rather as an
inevitable part of a social matrix based upon sexual in-
equality. The issue of forcible rape served to focus at-
tention on many aspects of women's position in modern Amer—L
ican society, as it symbolized the damaging effects of sex- :

'ual exploitation and male dominance (Geis, 1977). More

radical feminists viewed society's traditional lack of be-
lief in the victim, and low rate of convictions of rapists,
as due to the need of a patriarchal society to keep such
tools as rape operable to enforce female timidity and sub-
missiveness. Griffin (1971) wrotezv/
Fear of rape keeps women off the streets at
nights. Keeps women at home. Keeps women pas-

sive and modest for fear that they be thought

provocative...Finally, rape is a form of mass

terrorism.for the victims of rape are chosen in-
discriminately, but the propogandists for male
supremacy broadcast that it is women who cause

rape by being unchaste or in the wrong place at

the wrong time -— in essence, by behaving as

though they were free.

Although one may agree or disagree with the theoretical
perspective on rape taken by feminist authors, it was
through the interest, controversy, and debate stirred by the
WOmen's Movement that national attention became focused on
reconsidering the definition of rape and the treatment of
rape's victims. Demographic studies such as those conducted
by criminologist Menachim.Amir (1971) and MacDonald (1971)
began to appear, and presented major statistical profiles of
rapists and their victims as reflected in police records.
Questionnaire surveys, case studies, and, finally, empirical
research focused on rape victim reactions began to appear.
These studies found immediate applicability and use by those
counselors working with forcible rape victims. Before con-
sidering these findings, further attention will be given to

the legal definition of rape and to statistics regarding the

the crime, the victims, and the offenders.

Rape: Ag_0verview g£_the Crime.

 

 

There are two classifications of rape: forcible rape
and statutory rape. Statutory rape defines the event where
a victim.consents to sexual intercourse, but is legally con-
sidered incapable of such consent by virtue of age or mental
impairment (e.g. retardation). Forcible rape, the topic of
this study, is defined somewhat differently from state to
state. However, most legal codes for forcible rape are gen-
erally consistent with Pennsylvania's codes which define
rape as penetration of the vaginal area, however slight,
without the victim's consent, and under force or threat of
force. Erection and/or ejaculation need not occur for a
charge of rape to be filed. One further stipulation is that
a spouse cannot be charged with rape unless the couple is
in fact separated, divorced, or living in separate resi-
dences.

This matter of definition frequently arises in compar-
ing studies of rape victims, as different researchers have
frequently relied on different definitions. Peters (1975),
a Philadelphian psychiatrist, only investigated those vic-
tims meeting the criteria of vaginal penetration. Other
studies have included victims of attempted rapes as well as
of actual rapes. More frequently, authors (Burgess & Holm-
strom, 1974; Medea & Thompson, 1974) have concurred with
Hursch and Selkin's (1974) definition of rape as involving
"any one or more of the following - intercourse, fellatio,

cunnilingus, anal sex, or penetration of the genital area by

any part of the assailant or a foreign object as reported by
the victim or determined by medical examination" when the
woman does not consent, and force or threat of force is
used. This definition has been particularly useful given
that vaginal penetration is often not the rapist's sole in-
tent. In fact, Selkin (1975) found that less than one-half
of the rape victims at Denver Hospital Emergency Room had
been simply assaulted vaginally. Similarly, Amir (1971) and
Peters (1975) both reported that approximately twenty-one
percent of their rape cases involved other forms of sexual
practice than vaginal intercourse.

Incidence. The F.B.I. Uniform Crime Reports provide

 

information on the number of attempted and/or successful
rapes reported to the police in the United States. (They
define rape as vaginal penetration only). Between 1960 and
1970 the Report showed a one hundred-twenty-one percent in-
crease in reports of forcible rape, so that by the early
1970's about fifty thousand cases were reported a year.
This rate of increase was significantly higher than that
seen for other violent crimes.

It was difficult to know whether figures such as these
reflected an actual increase in the crime, or merely an in-
creased willingness to report it. It is likely that both
factors were involved. These figures, of course, did not
convey how many rapes occurred each year that were never
brought to the police's attention. In an effort to approxi-

mate that figure, the United States Presidential Commission

9

on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice (1967) sent
a national survey to a randomly selected sample. Their re-
sults suggested that the true incidence of rape was at least
three-and-a-half times that reported to the police. This
suggested a ratio of one hundred-sixty-five rape victims per
every one hundred thousand women.

Setting. Although rape may occur at any time or place,
like other violent crimes it has been found to have its
highest incidence on week-end nights in urban areas (Katz &
Mazur, 1979). The summer months also seem to have a slight-
ly higher incidence than the winter.

MacDonald (1971) in Denver, and Amir (1971) in Phila-
delphia found that about forty-eight percent of rape victims
they studied were apprehended on the street, the majority of
which were then taken to some indoor location where the
actual rape occurred. Their statistics also showed that
one-third of the victims were initially contacted and as-
saulted within their own homes. The third most frequent
initial meeting place was in a tavern, accounting for ap-
proximately eight percent of the assaults.

Profile 2f the victim. There are no sure rules about
who will become a victim of rape, it is a crime that can oc-
cur to anyone. However, there are certain groups and sub-
groups of individuals who are found to be more at risk than
others. For example, women remain the prime candidates for
rape, although men are by no means totally excluded. Hursch

and Selkin (1974) and Massey, Garcia, and Emich (1972) each

10

reported that ninety-six percent of their sample was female,
while four percent was male. Rape victims were generally
young, with seventy-five percent of forcible rape victims
used in research studies up to 1978 falling in the thirteen
to thirty age range (Katz & Mazur, 1979). This figure ap-
peared fairly uniform across the country. However, no age
group was really immune; in fact, the youngest victim re-
ported in the literature was five months (Massey, et. al.,
1972); while the oldest was ninety-one years old.

Even when victims under sixteen years old were excluded
from.consideration, it was the woman who was single that had
the highest rate of rape. The percent of single victims in
existing studies ranged from sixty-two percent (Burgess &
Holmstrom, 1974) to seventy-five percent (MacDonald, 1971).
Single individuals were more vulnerable to other violent
crimes as well.

It is of note that in all violent crimes, including
rape, the percentage of minority victims was higher than
would be expected given general population figures (Katz &
Mazur, 1979). Also, the highest rates of reported rape and
other crimes of violence came from lower socioeconomic
.groups, perhaps largely because it was the lower socioeco-
nomic neighborhoods that also spawned most of the assail-
ants (National Crime Panel Survey Report, 1975).

A frequently raised question is whether victims of rape
have a greater incidence of pathological families and psy-

chiatric disturbances than nonvictims do which may

11

predispose them to the assault. Research done in this area
appeared very sparse and inconclusive overall (Katz & Mazur,
1979). Peters (1975) had found that ninety-two percent of
the adult victims treated at the Philadelphia General Hospi-
tal Rape Center, were reported by themselves and their fami—
lies as functioning well previous to the assault. Further
study revealed that approximately one-third of these adults
had received individual psychological counseling for person-
al concerns at some time in their life prior to the rape.
However, as there was no control group, the question that
remained unanswered was whether this was a higher figure
than for the population as a whole, or for the victim's
particular socioeconomic group.

Schuker (1979), a psychiatrist at Columbia University,
presented some preliminary statistics that suggested that
victims of a previous sexual assault were slightly more at
risk for a second assault, than were women without such life
histories. Possible reasons suggested for such "recidivism"
were that some of Schuker's sample lived in neighborhoods
that were typically quite violent, and that some of the wom-
en were rather "fearful, dependent individuals who appear
more vulnerable to a successful attack." (Schuker, 1979)

Profile 2: the assailant. A review of the literature

 

regarding the offender revealed that the rapist, like the
victim, was most often young (ages fifteen to twenty-four),
single, and from a low socioeconomic group (Katz & Mazur,

1979). Statistics from the early 1970's stated that about

12
ninety percent of the reported rape cases occurred between
members of the same race (Amir, 1971; Eisenhower, 1969).
Certain urban areas have since reported an increased rate of
reported interracial rapes (Hursch & Selkin, 1974; Peters,
1975), although it was not clear if the incidence of such
assaults was increasing, or merely the tendency to report
them.

Approximately sixty-seven to eighty-two percent of
rapes involved a lone assailant (National Crime Panel Sur-
vey, 1975). Most rapes involved some degree of planning,
and thirty-six to fifty-one percent of the rapists carried a
‘weapon (National Crime Panel Survey, 1975). More than one-
third of the apprehended rapists were married, and the ma-
jority of the offenders had regular sexual contacts avail-
able to them that didn't require force to obtain (Groth &
Burgess, 1977). Approximately one-third of the rapists
studied were sexually dysfunctional during the rape, so
it was not uncommon that ejaculation did not occur. For
many rapists, there was a repetitive, compulsive quality
to their committing of the crime. For example, "first

offenders frequently reported many previous assaults for
which they were never caught, and the recidivism rate for
rapists following release from prison was high (Enterlin,
1978; Groth & Burgess, 1977).

Those researchers studying the assailant maintained

that both sexual and aggressive components were involved as

motivations in every rape, although the relative

l3

contribution of each varied from individual to individual
(Cohen, Garofalo, Boucher, & Seghorn, 1971). Rape was the
only illegal activity of some. For others, rape was simply
one of their many antisocial behaviors. Some offenders ap—
peared to rape primarily for the sexual stimulation, using
just enough aggression to secure a victim's cooperation;
while others were primarily focused on displaying aggressive
and/or sadistic behavior towards the victim, with the sexual
act being rather incidental. Thus, what actually occurred
to the victim during the assault was somewhat dependent on
the type of rapist.

Victim-offender interaction. Familiar questions asked

 

when a woman is raped are: did she know her assailant, did
she somehow bring the rape on herself, had she fought back,
and was she injured. In reviewing the literature it was
noted that the National Crime Panel Survey (1975) had found
that the percentage of rapes of women age twelve and over in
which the assailant was a stranger ranged from.seventy-two
to ninety-one percent. Thus, while children under twelve
usually knew their assailants, such was not the case in the
majority of adolescent and adult rape victims.

One percentage that crime surveys also attempted to
calculate was how frequently a victim of a violent crime
seemed to engage in some behavior that may have precipitated
the crime. Interestingly, despite the persistent folklore
of "the woman who is raped, asks to be raped", the empirical

findings from the National Commission on the Causes and

14

Prevention of Violence (Eisenhower, 1969), which conducted a
seventeen-city survey, revealed only four percent of the
rape victims "assisted" in the precipitation of the crime.
The two criteria by which victim precipitation of rape was
said to occur were: 1) the victim agreed to sexual rela-
tions, but retracted her consent before the actual act oc-
curred, and 2) the victim clearly invited sexual relations
through language or gestures. The Federal Commission on
Crimes of Violence (Russell, 1975) also independently ar-
rived at a four percent victim-precipitation figure for
rape. This was significantly lower than the victim-precipi-
tation rate for any other violent crime, including homicide
which had a twenty-two percent rate, or assault with a four-
teen percent rate (Eisenhower, 1969).

Surveys also examined what percentage of the victims
took some measures to defend or protect themselves. In the
National Crime Panel Survey (1975), self-protection was de-
fined as engaging in any of the following behaviors: "hit-
ting, kicking, or scratching the offender; screaming, or
yelling for help; fleeing from the offender, and using or
brandishing a weapon." The crimes of rape, assault, and
burglary in five large American cities were surveyed. In
all five, rape was more likely than robbery to provoke self-
protective behavior, and in two cities, rape was also more
likely than assault to provoke self-protection. In sum, the
percentage of rape victims who make some attempt to protect

themselves ranged from sixty-seven to ninety percent

15

(National Crime Panel Survey, 1975).

In most cases, the rape victim did not receive obvious
physical injury, as defined in terms of lacerations, frac-
tures, or concussions. Only a very small percentage of
victims required overnight hospital care following the as-
sault (National Crime Panel Survey, 1975).

Legal proceedings. No overview of the crime of rape

 

would be complete without some discussion of the legal pro-
cess presently available to rape victims. For those rape
victims who choose to report their rape to the police, and
who press charges if their assailant is apprehended, a set
sequence of legal proceedings will follow. These proceed-
ings vary somewhat from state to state. In Pennsylvania,
the police will require that the victim receive a documented
medical examination and give a statement to their detectives
as soon after the crime as possible. Once the assailant is
apprehended, the victim will attend a preliminary hearing
before a district magistrate seven to ten days after the
arrest. If the magistrate believes there is enough evidence
to warrant taking the case before a criminal court judge,
the case will be "bound over", which means that a criminal
court trial, generally before a jury, will take place within
.the next one-hundred-eighty-days. If the assailant is found
guilty, a separate hearing may be held for sentencing. Un-
like the rulings in many other states, in Pennsylvania the
victim cannot be questioned in court regarding any past

sexual behavior unless she has had prior consentual

l6

intercourse with the defendant, in which case that infonma-
tion can be brought forward.

In examining the statistics regarding the legal conse-
quences for rape, the arrest and conviction rates in rape
cases has risen since the 1960's, although national figures
indicate that the present rate continues to be lower than
that of other violent crimes. One reason for this may be
that in rape, more often than in other crimes, the assailant
is a stranger and therefore more difficult to identify to
the police. Another may be that victims of rape still re-
main somewhat less likely to report the crime for fear of
embarrassment or blame, than do victims of other crimes.

A Review gf the Literature Regardinngape Victim Reactions.

The literature from.the behavioral sciences regarding
individuals who have been raped may be conveniently grouped
into one of four categories. First, demographic profiles of
the victims and offenders have been constructed and have
yielded many of the statistics referred to in the preceding
section. This demographic information was generally secured
from surveying police and/or medical records, but it in-
cluded little or no information regarding the victimis psy-
chological reaction. Second, questionnaire surveys were
conducted in various sections of the country that asked vic-
tims not only for demographic data, but also inquired about
their feelings and reactions following the assault. Third,
clincial studies documented postassault reactions as ob-

served or discussed during counseling sessions. More

17

recently, some authors have begun to study postassault re-
actions in a more empirical fashion, using large representa-
tive samples, careful documentation of incidence and dura-
tion of postassault symptoms, and objective psychological
'measures to discern rape's impact. In this section of the
paper, selected studies from each of the four areas will be
reviewed. Those studies falling in the clinical and empiri-
cal groups will be considered jointly for clarity and read-
ability.

Demographic profiles: Amir and MacDonald. In 1971,

 

 

Menachim Amir, an Israeli sociologist who had studied under
the leading criminologist Marvin Wolfgang, examined six hun-
dred and forty-six Philadelphia police records on rapes re-
ported between 1958-1960. From this, he published the first
‘major statistical profile of rapists and their victims in-
cluding as variables sex, age, socioeconomic class, prior
victim-assailant relationship, interracial factors, etc.

While Patterns i3 Forcible Rape (Amir, 1971) was a landmark

 

publication presenting a composite picture of the victim,
assailant, and their interaction during the assault, reac-
tions of the victims following the assault were largely
unaddressed.

MacDonald (1971) conducted a similar study examining
two hundred rape cases on record with the Denver City Po-
lice. His book, Rape Offenders and Their Victims considered
the same variables addressed by Amir, and included only a

two-page section on the victim's reaction to rape. He noted

18

here that the victim's reaction during and immediately fol-
lowing the assault was related to such variables as threats
of violence, age of victim, cultural background, personali-
ty, and prior sexual experience. The specific postrape
reactions noted in the Denver Police records ranged from
true or apparent lack of concern, to major emotional upheav-
al leading to suicidal attempts. 'MacDonald cited five il-
lustrations of these reactions. Four exemplified lack-of-
concern attitudes, and one was an instance of a fatalistic
attitude of acceptance displayed by a middle-aged woman
while no anecdote related strong emotional reactions to the
rape. However, MacDonald followed this section with a five-
page excerpt of a study just completed by Sutherland and
Scherl (1970) that investigated the pattern of reactions to
rape. The results of that study are detailed later in this
section.

The method of using police, court, or hospital records
to increase the understanding of the victim, assailant, and
crime itself has also been used by Svalastoga (1962) in Den-
mark; Hursch and Selkin (1974) in Denver; and Chappell,
Geis, Schafer, and Siegel (1977) in Boston and Los Angeles.
While some variations exist from city to city, the demo-
graphic information has merely extended, rather than
changed, the early findings of Amir and MacDonald.

Questionnaire surveys. Another means of studying the
psychological and behavioral reactions of rape victims has

been to encourage victims to respond to an anonymous

l9

questionnaire. Bart (1975) published such a fonm in VIVA
magazine and received 1070 completed responses. The occur-
rence of the rapes ranged from one to three years before the
questionnaire was completed. Symptoms that were reported
included: nightmares, postrape sexual problems, and suici-
dal ideation. Intrapersonally, a loss of self-respect, con-
fidence, and sense of independence occurred. Interpersonal-
ly hostility towards men, and decreased trust in male/female
relationships was noted. Twenty-two percent of the victims
reported seeking psychological counseling although only
thirty-five percent of these reported it as helpful. Of the
sixty-five percent of the victims who sought professional
help and did not find it useful, thirty-nine percent subse-
quently reported going to women's groups for help. It is
interesting that only nine percent of the victims raped a
year or less before the study reported seeking help, while
the figure doubled for the two subsequent years. This sug-
gested that some victims experienced long-term difficulties
directly related to the rape.

In 1975, the Queen's Bench Foundation in San Francisco
solicited a total of eighty victims from.media advertise-
ments and professional referrals to come in for one-to-two
hours of structured interviewing. These interviews were
similar to Bart's questionnaire, and their findings on symp-
toms and reactions were essentially the same. Among their
conclusions were: 1) Stranger rapes seemed to effect the

sense of personal safety, while familiar rapes effected

20

self-concept and social relationships. 2) Ventilation of
the victim's feelings was reported as important for recovery
to prerape levels of functioning. 3) The rape was ex-
perienced as a life-threatening event; during which the wom-
an may have felt afraid, angry, or detached. Her concern

at that time was usually less with the sexual aspect, and
more with concern for physical well-being. 4) Shame,
guilt, and concern over what occurred sexually followed the
assault, probably reflecting the internalization of societal
views. 5) The intensity of symptoms was greatly influenced
by how others responded to the victims.

The final questionnaire study considered was published
by Medea and Thompson in 1974. Their questionnaire, pub-
lished in underground newspapers and at rape conferences,
elicited sixty replies from rape victims. The majority of
these women were fifteen to twenty-one years old (the total
age range was seven to thirty-nine years). Eighty-eight
percent were single and fifty-seven percent were students
suggesting this sample was representative of the national
figures on victims in several aspects. Two problems with
the sample were selection biases, given how the form was
published, and the high (ninety-five percent) number of
Caucasian victims. A summary of the psychological reactions
their victims reported is as follows:

42% felt more afraid of men

28% said it affected their lives sexually

29% were more afraid of being on their own

23% reported damaged trust in male-female relation-

ships
17% were more hostile to men

21

7% had suicidal impulses following and related to
the rape

5% reported nightmares
When asked who they sought for help in dealing with their
psychological reactions, fifty percent of their respondents
stated "no one". Twenty-five percent relied on friends,
twelve percent on women's groups, and eight percent on pro-
fessional counselors. Medea and Thompson did not examine
the time lapse between the rape and these responses, so it
was unclear which symptoms were short-term, and which were
long-term difficulties.

Clinical/empirical studies. The questionnaire studies
identified data about the symptoms that follow the rape and
estimated their frequency. To discover what phases of re-
covery victims typically go through, what symptoms are pre-
dominate during each phase, and how the postassault re-
sponses resolve themselves over a period of time, required
clinical studies.

One of the earliest clinical studies of the reactions
of rape victims was published in 1970 by Sutherland and
Scherl. Their sample consisted of thirteen young (ages
eighteen to twenty-four), middle-class, Caucasian women who
moved into a lower class housing area to "do something real"
in today's society, and were subsequently raped. Sutherland
and Scherl interviewed them in the weeks following the as-
sault and described their reaction pattern as having three
phases. Phase 1 was the Acute Reaction, lasting from a few

days to a few weeks. It was characterized by intense

22

affect, disturbed sleep, and maximum disruption of function-
ing at work or in the home. Phase 2, the Outward Adjustment
phase, was a period in which the woman's energies were di-
rected at regaining control of her daily functioning. She
was attempting to make her life like it was before the rape.
To do this, she temporarily suppressed her feelings about
the assault. Denial of the impact of the crime and ratio-
nalizations regarding the rapist were common at this time.
This appeared to be a normal phase, with the denial and
suppression becoming impairments only if the woman remained
in this phase. Phase 3 involved Integration and Resolution.
The woman began to reexperience some depression and found
herself beginning to think about the rape again. She often
had a need to talk about the event. During this "working
through" period the woman had to resolve her feelings to-
wards the rapist, and her feelings about herself. She had
to define how much guilt she should bear and integrate the
fact that she could not always be guaranteed safety in her
world. The main design problems of Sutherland and Scherl's
study were the small sample size and the homogeneity of
their sample. The average length of time spent in Phase 2
or 3 was unspecified, apparently due to sizeable individual
differences.

The most definitive and well-constructed clinical
studies to date of rape victim reactions and long-term ef-
fects were those of Ann Burgess and Lynda Holmstrom (1974)

at Boston City Hospital. A psychiatric nurse and

23

sociologist, respectively, Burgess and Holmstrom worked for
the Victim Counseling Program that provided twenty-four-hour
crisis intervention to the victims of sexual assault who had
been brought to the hospital's emergency room. During the
pilot year, 1972-1973, ninety-two adult victims were seen.
The sample was heterogenous for race, age, marital status,
socieconomic status and occupation. Seventy-four of the
ninety-two were under age thirty, and fifty-four were sin-
gle. Either Burgess or Holmstrom interviewed the victim
within thirty minutes of her arrival, and conducted followup
interviews via telephone or home visits weekly for the first
three months, and then at six-month, nine—month, and one-
year intervals. Long-term followup was accomplished by re-
interviewing eighty-one of the original sample four to six
years after the rape.

Burgess and Holmstrom (1974) learned enough about these
victim's initial reaction patterns to delineate what they

termed the "rape trauma syndrome.‘ The syndrome was defined
as an acute stress reaction to a life-endangering situation.
It consisted of two phases, the acute and the long-term re-
organizational. The acute phase was marked by disorganiza-
tion, and typically persisted for two to three weeks. The
primary initial affect of the incoming victim was not guilt
or shame, as the authors had presupposed, but fear of physi-
cal injury, mutilation, or death. In the few hours immedi-

ately following the crime the victim's reactions were almost

evenly divided between the expressed style, characterized by

24

sobbing, restlessness, and intense affect; and the con-
trolled style, manifested by subdued or hidden affect.

Those utilizing the controlled style often experienced so-
matic reactions such as vomiting, choking, or gagging. Be-
yond recovering from whatever physical trauma was incurred
during the rape, the woman commonly experienced sleep and
appetite disturbances, stomach pains, fatigue, headaches,
anxiety and tension. Sexual functioning was commonly dis-
turbed. Affectively, this period was characterized by feel-
ings of shame, embarrassment, anger, revenge, fear of retal-
iation, and self-blame.

The long-term reorganization process began two-to-
three-weeks after the assault, and its expression was again
dependent on such independent variables as ego-strength and
the reactions of significant others. Approximately one- .
third of the sample experienced nightmares at this time.
Traumatophobic reactions, or phobic reactions to circum-
stances surrounding the rape were common. WOmen attacked in
their own beds might develop a phobia of the indoors, while
women attacked outdoors tended to develop fears of being
outside. The woman might still approach such situations, or
could actually avoid such places all together.

Almost all victims were increasingly fearful of being
alone, and experienced varying degrees of tension, anxiety,
or panic when alone. Other traumatophobic reactions were a
fear of crowds, fear of people behind them, and sexual

fears. The disruption of normal sexual style initiated in

25

the acute phase might continue during the second phase. One
victim, assaulted five months before this interview, ex-
pressed her difficulty as: "There are times I get hysteri-
cal with my boyfriend. I don't want him near me; I get
panicked. Sex is O.K., but I still feel like screaming."
Another common symptom of the phase was increased mo-
bility--forty-four of the ninety-two victims changed resi-
dences shortly after the rape. Of the forty-five who had
been employed, nineteen had changed or quit their job within
six weeks. The portions of this mobility that were planned
before the assault, and that occurred as a result of it,
were unclear. Of the symptoms discussed, thirty-one of the
ninety-two experienced mild versions, that is, they could
discuss their symptoms and still feel they had some control
over them. Twenty-one of the victims experienced moderate
to severe versions, including clear lifestyle disturbances.
Burgess and Holmstrom did not initially indicate the
length of this second phase. They implied that its effects
gradually faded as the woman began to integrate the rape ex-
perience. In victims who had previous psychiatric disor-
ders, or substance abuse problems, integrating the experi-
ence was more difficult. These victims showed what was
termed compounded reactions, symptomatized by depression,
psychotic behavior, substance abuse, suicidal behavior, and
other serious problems. Eighteen of the ninety-two women
experienced this type of reaction. Other categories of

victims listed in the literature as sustaining more

26

psychological damage and/or needing more intervention in-
cluded victims of multiple-offender rapes (MacDonald, 1971;
Amir, 1971); physically brutal rapes; rapes where the as-
sailant was a formerly trusted acquaintance (Bart, 1970);
and rape where the assault is the woman's first sexual ex-
perience (Burgess & Holmstrom, 1974).

The majority of victims successfully maintained some
psychological equilibrium throughout their reactions. No
ego disintegration or self-destructive behavior occurred in
any of the ninety-two during the acute phase, and the eigh-
teen "compounded reactions" occurred in the four-to-six-week
period following the crime. Those who quit jobs during the
first six-weeks quickly reentered the job markets.

This early study had notable strengths including the
heterogeneity of the population, thorough interviews, a sub-
stantial sample, and attention to the victim's perception as
well as the clinician's. These findings have been widely
published, and their book, 3322‘ Victims pf Crisis, is a
handbook used by many rape crisis centers nationwide.

In 1979, Burgess and Holmstrom reinterviewed eighty-one
of the original ninety-two victims. They asked each victim
whether she felt back to normal yet, whether any afteref-
fects of the rape remained, and if so, what they were.
Seventy-four percent of the victims felt fully recovered and
the remainder did not feel that way. Of the fully recover-
ed, half stated they had recovered within months, and the

other half stated that this had taken years.

27

The majority of those who reported full recovery also
reported using a variety of conscious coping strategies

with the rape aftereffects. The four most common defenses

Burgess and Holmstrom found were explanation (e.g., "he must
be sick"), minimization (e.g., ”It could have been worse -
I'm still alive"), suppression (e.g., "I don't want to talk

about it anymore"), or dramatization, so defined to closely
resemble catharsis. Interestingly, only five of the twenty-
one unrecovered victims made any use of these four strate-
gies.

Burgess and Holmstrom also noted that victims who pres-
ently defined themselves positively were all recovered.
Victims having stable partners at the time of rape seemed to
recover faster. Those who remained unrecovered more often
had poor social networks, and poor occupational histories.
Victims who relied on drug or alcohol, suicidal behavior, or
serious withdrawal in the early months of recovery were us-
ually among those whom took longer to recover. The authors
suggested that additional factors that affected a recovery
from rape included the style of attack, relationship of vic-
tim and offender, number of assailants, language of assail-
ant, type of sexual acts, amount of violence, social net-
work, and institutional (hospital, police) response.

One difference between Burgess and Holmstrom's find-
ings (1974) and those of Sutherland and Scherl (1970) is
that the former did not address the issue of middle, pseudo-

adjustment, or recoil phase occurring during recovery. Some

28

authors believed that not all victims went through it, and
stated that it might be common only to those victims who
typically rely on control and suppression of affect, or in
those whose environmental situation would not support con-
tinued overt processing of the rape (Schuker, 1979).

Peters (1975) also conducted a large, thorough clinical
study of rape victims. A psychiatrist at the Philadelphia
General Hospital Rape Center, Peters and his colleagues
clinically interviewed three hundred and sixty-nine victims
of sexual assault, ninety-eight percent of whom were report-
ing forcible rape. They received a standard psychiatric
interview and evaluation from one to two weeks following the
assault, often by home visits. Common psychiatric symptoms
noted were again fears, phobias, anxiety, increased motor
activity, obsessions, depressive symptoms, somatic symptoms,
and suicidal ideation. Peters' evaluations at the one-to-
two-week point revealed that seventy-three percent of the
victims had one or more of these postrape symptoms.

Sixty-five percent of Peters' sample experienced night-
mares whose frequency seemed to increase for the first few
weeks or months. Seventy percent of the adults were more
afraid of strangers, and thirty-seven percent were aware of
more negative feelings towards men. Thirty-one percent re-
ported decreased libido, stating they were too tense or felt
too "dirty" to engage in sex. This was often compounded by
the mate's reaction to the victim. Many women refused to

return to their homes for several days following the

29

assault, and seventy-six percent permanently changed their
residences. Ten percent of the victims were judged clini-
cally depressed at the one-to-two-week postrape interview.

The literature on rape victims included such additional
symptoms as compulsive washing or vomiting, inability to
leave the home, panic at darkness, and pathological shyness
(Greer, 1975). Price (1975) noted that some women neglected
their appearance, dressed sloppily, or gained weight, as
though to become less attractive to men. An additional
trauma the victim often encountered, as suggested by the
demographic and clinical studies, was financial loss (Na-
tional Crime Panel Survey Report, 1975). Often the victim
had to pay for her emergency room medical expenses. Bur-
glary may have accompanied the rape. The assault may point
out a need for additional costly security precautions (e.g.,
security locks, sturdier window screens). Some victims did
not return to work for two weeks or more resulting in some
loss of pay. If the victim also had to attend preliminary
hearings or court trials, more income was lost (Katz &
Mazur, 1979).

Saturnansky (1976) used projective techniques (Thematic
Apperception Test and Machover Figure Drawings) along with a
standard clinical interview in a research project comparing
nine women who had been raped from four months to seven
years before her study with a control group of five women
who had never been raped but had experienced some traumatic

accident earlier in their lives. She found that those raped

30

told significantly more TAT themes of suicide, negative
evaluations of men, and stories of romance and love. From
these data, Saturnansky inferred greater depression and dif-
ficulty in male-female interpersonal relationships among her
rape victims, but given this small sample, it was unclear
whether these qualities antedated or followed the rape.
Kilpatrick, Veronen and Resick (1979) investigated the
effects of rape on forty-six victims from a period soon
after the rape to six months past it. They used standard-
ized psychometric instruments, rather than clinical inter-
views, to assess the effects. Specifically, they adminis-
tered the Derogatis Symptom Check List, Modified Fear Sur-
vey, Profile of Mood States Scale and State Trait Anxiety
Interview at the following time points: (a) six to ten
days, (b) one month, (c) three months, and (d) six months
postassault. A control group of thirty-five nonvictims was
also used. Of the twenty-eight variables generated by their
measures, victims scored higher than nonvictims on twenty-
five during both periods (a) and (b), indicating a very high
level of internal and behavioral distress. This finding
seems to coroborate Burgess and Holmstrom's (1974) acute
phase. This level of distress had greatly decreased at
three months postrape with the exception of a continued in-
crease of anxiety and phobic anxiety items, with similar
findings six-months postrape. The use of standardized
questionnaires with a sizeable homogenous group of subjects,

and a control group, seems unique to this study. Its

31

results correspond closely with the clinical findings of
Burgess and Holmstrom.(l974), and Peters (1975). The au-
thors' interpret their results as consistent with their
learning theory model of the rape experience that predicted
that fear and anxiety would be classically conditioned by
the rape and generalized to similar stimuli in the victimis
life. As the victim would often avoid these newly anxiety-
timed objects, her general anxiety would not be readily ex-
tinguished, and might persist over time longer than other
symptoms. Kilpatrick et a1. (1979) also maintained that the
greater the.intensity of fear induced by the assault, the
greater would be the number of conditioned stimuli.
Increased attention has recently been directed to
clearly defining the impact of rape upon future sexual func—
tioning. Burgess and Holmstrom (1979) investigated this
topic among the eighty-one victims from their original study
whom they were still following four-to-six-years postas-
sault. Of the seventy-eight percent of their group who had
been sexually active before the rape, sixty-six percent re-
ported decreased frequency of sexual activity at six months
postrape and only nineteen percent reported no change. Ap-
proximately ten percent of the sample reported increased
postrape sexual activity, a phenomena that Schuker (1979)
'viewed as one means that some victims might use to assure
themselves that their bodies are normal, or that might re-
flect unresolved feelings of degradation in other cases.

Burgess and Holmstrom (1979) noted-that.some.victims seemed

32

to sexually "act out" postassault as an expression of anger
and proof that they could maintain control over a man.

Of those victims who reported increased sexual dys-
function following the rape, the nature of the dysfunctions
ranged from vaginismus and loss of orgastic ability, to
aversion for sexual acts specifically associated with the
assailant (thirty-three percent reported this) and varying
degrees of "flashbacks" of the rape scene while making love
with a current partner (fifty percent reported this).

Feldman—Summers, Gordon, and Meagher (1979) had fifteen
rape victims and controls retrospectively rate their satis-
faction with twenty-three sex-related activities before and
after the rape. They found that the victims reported their
current satisfaction with sex was significantly less than
that of the controls, and generally less than the victim's
recall of their preassault experience. Overall, however,
both the controls and the victims reported their present
sexual contacts were more satisfactory than unsatisfactory.
Two areas of sexual behavior that appeared unchanged after
the rape were satisfaction with autoerotic practices and
primarily affectional responses (i.e., being hugged, or held
without erotic intent).

The impact of rape on adult and adolescent male victims
is another new topic of study. Groth and Burgess (1979)
studied twenty-two male rapes in a New England community.
They concluded that males were less likely to report the

crime, although the biopsychological impact of the rape

33

seemed similar to women. Kaufman (1980) compared the reac-
tions of fourteen male victims treated in a County Hospital
emergency room to those seen in one-hundred female victims
treated concurrently. The male victims evidenced more deni-
al and less overt emotional reactions than the women vic-
tims. Men were also reputed to be more likely to have had
multiple assailants, been held captive longer, and have sus-
tained more physical injury. The findings from these two
studies are quite preliminary, and much further research is
needed before these claims can be evaluated. In Kaufman's
(1980) study a factor that was not well considered was that
if male victims were less likely to report the assault than
females, it may only have been those male victims of more
extreme rapes (e.g., multiple assailants) that presented
themselves for medical attention. In this case, the fea-
tures of Kaufman's sample might not generalize to male vic-
tims in general.

Dynamics suggested py_the literature. The dynamics

 

 

 

undergirding the rape victim responses are important to
understand for providing effective research or treatment de-
signs to this population. .TheSeudynamics_have been dis-
cussed from two perspectives. First, the victim's responses
have been examined in terms of a crisis-theory model. Sec-

ond, the sociocultural context of rape and how this was in-

~.-r Vu—xV'I-

ternalized by the Victim. has been examined.
KM rue“ “W“

When considering the crisis model, an initial under-

standing of what was implied by the word "crisis" was first

34

needed. Bard and Ellison (1974) defined a crisis as a sub-
jective reaction to a stressful life experience that so af-
fected the individual's stability that her ability to cope
or function became seriously damaged. Stressful situations
which resulted in crisis reactions have as criteria "sudden-

ness so that there is no preparation time, arbitrariness in

 

that the event is perceived as unfair and capricious, and

unpredictability which stands in contrast to the normal

 

developmental or anticipated life crisis" (Hilberman, 1976).
The crisis typically disrupted the victimds level of func-
tioning in the physical, emotional, social, and sexual
areas. Its degree of impact depended on such variables as
the victim's ego-strength and outside support system” Fair-
ly predictable responses, however, included:

1) disruption of normal patterns of adapta-
tions with disturbances in eating and sleeping,
diminished functioning, and attention and concen-
tration span 2) regression to a more helpless
and dependent state in which support nurturance
are sought outside of the self and 3) increased
openness and accessibility to outside interven-
tion, which presents a unique opportunity to
affect the long-term.outcome of the crisis.
(Hilberman, 1976)

This crisis model clearly represented what was known
regarding the rape victim's reaction to the assault. In
terms of the criteria for a stressful life experience that
could instigate a crisis, the rapist's assault was usually
totally unsuspected and unprepared for. Selkin (1978) in-
terviewed thirty-two rape victims who had been assaulted

anywhere from a few days to several years before his inter-

view. When questioned as to the emotional responses

35

experienced during the rape, the four adjectives selected
most frequently by the victims were frightened (ninety-four
percent), startled (eighty-four percent), shocked (seventy—
eight percent), and terrified (seventy-six percent). While
forty-four percent noted they were also angry, many other
felt panicked (fifty percent) and frozen (forty percent).
Clearly, the victims had not had time to assess or prepare
for the assault before its occurrence.

Schuker (1979) elaborated on the view of the rape vic-
tim as a victim of crisis by comparing the process of recov-
ery as somewhat akin to the grief work that occurred follow-
ing a death. She noted that the rape victim had suffered a
loss, or a "narcissistic injury to the self" that had to be
resolved. In doing this, the victim in essence had to
grieve for her lost sense of herself and worldview. Schuker
noted that Lindemann's (1944) study of the grief process
suggested that it was often two years before the whole pro-
cess was complete, and observed that it may take a similar
period of time for the rape victim to fully resolve her
loss.

Sharon McCombie, Director of the Rape Crisis Intervenl,
tion Program at Boston's Beth Israel Hospital, and author 3
of The Rapngrisis Intervention Handbook (MtCombie, 1980)
maintained that while the rape victim was typical of any /;
victim of crisis in many ways, there were three universal
factors specific to the rape that comprised the "rape work"/‘

the victim must consider to resolve the assault. These

36

factors were derived from her program's experiences working
with six hundred victims of rape over a five-year period.
The first factor was to resolve how vulnerable she was dur-
ing the assault. The second was to deal with any child
Oedipal concerns, anxieties regarding sexual acts of the
rape, and the sense of being invaded and/or defiled that
could be precipitated by the loss of body boundaries during
rape. Finally, McCombie maintained that the victim.must
deal with what the rape implied to her about the power rela-
tions between men and women in society. Individually, this
would mean coming to terms with relationships to men.

Psychiatrists Notmann and Nadelson (1976) noted that it
was often the capriciousness and unpredictability of the as-
sault that was most difficult for the victim to resolve.
They stated that for victims of all ages, the rape acted as
a proof of a woman's vulnerability, challenging her belief
in her ability to be independent and competent. This
seemed particularly the case in women attacked in "safe"
territory (their home) or by someone they once trusted
(Bart, 1970; Brodsky, 1976). The woman attacked while in
her own bed had no similar recourse, and typically showed
more life-style disruptions.

Not only was the victim's view of her world as predict-
able and relatively safe often severely shaken, but her
culturally-taught view of men as protectors was disrupted as
well. Notman and Nadelson (1976) expressed this when they

stated that:

37

"WOmen expect men to be their protectors and pro-
viders, as well as relating to them sexually...The
betrayal by the supposed protector who turns

aggressor has a profound effect. Almost all rape

victims say they trust men less after the rape.

All men may be suspect, and all are potentially

on trial. Uncertainty about one's ability to

control the environment reverberates with con-

cerns about the ability to control and care for

oneself."

The victim's affective response to the unpredictability
of the assault might be anger, terror at it reoccurring,
disillusionment, loss of self-worth or guilt. The guilt
could in part be a defense during the assault. That is, by
assuming the blame, a victim could deny the reality of how
truly helpless and vulnerable she was at the time of the
assault. I

Guilt could also be seen as reflecting the victim's
discomfort with how she behaved during the assault. Symonds
(1975), a psychoanalyst who had done research on victim.re—
actions in general, noted that often the victims of violent
assault evidenced a frozen fright response. That is, some
victims initially became so shocked and then terrified that
they became temporarily immobilized. All their thoughts be-
came directed towards self-preservation. Given this terror,
their perceptions and judgements often were unclear. They
might display submissive and even cooperative behavior
towards the assailant. Symonds likened this to the submis-
sive response of an animal that offers its most vulnerable

spot to its attacker. This response in the animal kingdom

has a biological component, and the dominant animal in

38

nature usually ceases its aggressive attack once the sub-
missive gesture is offered. Suarez and Gallup (1979) echoed
Symond's position stating that the rape-induced paralysis
often described by victims was essentially identical to the
tonic immobility, or animal hypnosis, seen in the animal
kingdom.

Another response to terror victimis evidenced was to
regress. Some victims displayed clinging behavior to the
assailant, similar to the identification with the aggressor
1_seen in concentration camps (Symonds, 1975).

During the assault, many women automatically and often
unconsciously displayed the behavior they felt was most
likely to ensure that no permanent physical harm would occur
to them. In the days following the assault, those women
might review their behavior, and frequently would repeti-
tively rethink the assault situation and alternative be-
haviors they might have used. If a woman had "froze", or
displayed submission and/or cooperation during the assault,
she would often feel considerable guilt and shame, even in
those situations where the assailant had had a knife or gun
(Burgess & Holmstrom, 1974).

In summary, the rape victim was often conceptualized as
a person in crisis who would display the life-style disrup-
tion and regression characteristic of other crisis victims.
Long-term dysfunctions seemed best prevented by immediate
interventions (Hilberman, 1976). It was noted that the de-

sire to avoid settings associated with the rape trauma was

39

frequently present, and could become generalized to less
clearly related phenomena such as fear of crowds. Just as
victims of a tornado might later experience feelings ranging
from mild anxiety to terror at the approach of a rain storm,
so did the victim of rape often deve10p varying degrees of
fear and distrust in regards to what she perceived as the
source of her hurt. If the victim generalized the source

of trauma to include all men, or if she attributed the trau-
ma to her own lack of strength and ability, serious implica-
tions for future interpersonal relationships and autonomous
functioning were often raised.

Criminology researchers, Weis and Borges (1973), dis-
cussed how the sociocultural context of rape influenced
victim reactions. They maintained that society had a "need"
to have deserving victims, and that rape was the most ex-
treme exemplification of this. That is, they viewed the
traditional sex roles as creating and facilitating an en-
vironment in which rape could occur. They discussed the
traditional socialization of women, whereby girls have been
taught to view themselves as weak, dependent, passive, and
needy of male protection. Little self-defense instruction
has been given. Furthermore, girls have been taught that
being attractive was very important, so that much of her
self-esteem would be related to her body and how favorably
she could get men to view it. At the same time that she was
being instructed to be desirable, she was also being taught

to be unavailable. Traditional dating rules assigned the

40

woman the responsibility of setting the limit to how much
sexual contact was permissible, and also assigned her the
blame when she "failed" to set appropriate limits.

When faced with a physical attack, women trained in
this fashion were generally unprepared physically or psycho-
logically to defend themselves, and often became paralyzed
'with fear. Following the report of the assault, however,
society would ask for proof that they resisted. Trained not
to resist, and to believe themselves incapable of successful
self-defense, victims would often lack such proof. The
folklore that no healthy, unwilling woman could be raped by
one man persisted and often inhibited or prevented legal re-
course. Even more damaging was the woman's internalization
of this lore, an internalization that generally resulted in
feelings of worthlessness, guilt, and occasionally suicidal
ideation. Weis and Borges concluded their analysis by
stating:

”We have demonstrated that socialization and es-

pecially sex-role learning exploit both males and

females and produce both victims and offenders...

If these processes of victimization are successful

with regard to rape, the raped woman is a 'legiti-

mate' or 'safe' victim who will not be dangerous to

the rapist, since she is unable to relate her ex-

perience to others or to effectively direct blame

and accusation against the person who raped her."

Notman and Nadelson (1976) further noted that despite
the wide variety in types, locations, and violence of sex-
ual assaults, the woman's reaction of guilt and shame ap-

peared universal. Like Weis and Borges they attributed this

to the victimis internalization of societal norms which

41

misdefined the rape as a sexual event, and assigned the wom;
an the blame for not somehow assuming her role of setting,§
sexual limits. These authors suggested that if previous '
erotic fantasies of rape were entertained before the as-
sault, they might be remembered by the victim with shame,
and with a sense that the fantasy somehow had caused the act
to occur.

The authors also noted that since the expression of
anger was such a conflictual area for many women (given cul-
tural restrictions against women feeling and expressing it),
anger often was transformed into self-blame. Other defenses
against expressing anger were seen as attempts to identify
with the assailant through efforts to understand or pity
him" Thus, while most authors in the field agreed that an
individual who had been raped was a victim of crisis, the
emotional meaning of the assault, and the affective re-
sponse, appeared heavily influenced by sociocultural in-
structions regarding sexuality and the woman's role.

Methodological problems pf Ehg_studies pp ggpg. The
study of rape victims from a demographic and/or psychologi-
cal perspective is barely over ten years-old. Not surpris-
ingly, methodological problems abound, particularly in the
initial studies.

Katz and Mazur (1979), authors of Understandipg the

 

Rape Victim: A Synthesis pf Research Findingg, noted that

 

 

it was still difficult to determine the "true" facts re-

garding victims due to disparities in the data presently

42

available. They identified five major methodological prob-
lems. First, studies have varied as to whether they focus
entirely upon rape victims, or victims of other sexual as-
saults. This has been particularly true of some of the de-
mographic studies. Second, studies have differed notably
in age groups included, especially the youthfulness of vic-
tims. “Third, initial studies differed in their definition
of rape. Fourth, the way the samples were collected were
quite different. Hospital studies were used by Burgess and
Holmstrom.(l974) and Peters (1975), while others recruited
from the community or even through the women's Movement
(Saturnansky, 1976; Medea & Thompson, 1974). These first
four problems have made comparisons of their findings dif-
ficult. A fifth problem is that practically all reviewed
clinical studies were essentially studying the reactions of
women who had reported rape, at least to the hospital or
rape crisis center, so that it remained unknown hOW”Well
their findings would generalize to nonreporting victims.

At the 1979 time of Katz and Mazur's book, only sixteen
empirical studies regarding rape victims were reviewed.
Mbst had serious methodological problems, including lack of
control groups, lack of a systematic followup procedure, and
too little direct interview contact with the victim. Only
four empirical studies specifically addressed to adolescent
and adult rape victims were found. These were the studies
by Burgess and Holmstrom (1974), Peters (1973, 1975), and

Medea and Thompson (1974). The number of empirical studies

43'

in this area has increased in number and quality since 1979,
although more high quality research is clearly needed. An
additional consideration is that all of the clinical/empiri-
cal studies mentioned that have directly interviewed victims
have obtained their data through some type of counseling and/
or support agency or institution. This may bias the results.
Not only are the findings limited to self-reporters of rape,
but also to those rape victims who have received some degree
of crisis intervention and/or supportive counseling. The
amount, quality, and timing of the counseling has, of course,
varied from victim.to victim.and from agency to agency. It
seems important to recall this final factor when discussing
what professionals now know regarding rape victims reac-
tions, for in essence, this data has primarily reflected

data from counseled victims.

Method

Purpose and Procedures

 

Statement pf_purpose. The main goal of this project
was to examine relationships between the rape victim's af-
fective states, perception of the crime, and demographic
variables to determine if certain variables exerted an in-
dependent effect on the recovery pattern. Especially sought
were those variables that best differentiated between pro-
tracted or difficult recoveries versus more rapid returns to
preassault status. The primary sample was adolescent and
adult victims of forcible rape who received crisis interven-
tion counseling at Erie County Rape Crisis Center (ECRCC) in
Pennsylvania immediately following their assault, subse-
quently referred to as the "incoming" group. A matched con-
trol group was also studied. A subphase involved Obtaining
retrospective, self-report data on the long-term effects of
rape using two sources: (1) the accounts of women pre-
viously treated at ECRCC whose rapes had occurred three
months to two years earlier and (2) information from other
Erie County women raped at least six months before this
study who had received no formal crisis intervention coun-
seling. It was anticipated that obtaining representatives

of these latter groups would be difficult, but even a small

44

45

amount of data seemed potentially useful given the sparse
empirical data on the long-term affects of rape and on dif-
ferences between the reaction patterns of women who did or
did not receive counseling.

Several methods were used to obtain information regard-
ing the impact of rape on the victims Standard clinical in-
terviews were administered at different time points to ex-
amine changes in the incoming group's symptom profiles.
Traditional demographic data were gathered on each victim or
victim.group, including previous psychiatric history, the
preassault life-stress level, and a detailed account of the
assault's features. Paper-and-pencil measures of anger,
guilt, self-esteem, mood state, locus of control, adherence
to sex role characteristics, and level of interpersonal
trust were obtained to provide data regarding each victimds
affective state and personality. The victimis perception of
the degree of violence involved in her assault, the extent
and quality of her present support system, and her religious
commitment and affiliation were also systematically record-
ed. The study was primarily exploratory, but a review of
the literature had suggested the following hypotheses as
well:

1. The incoming group would describe more severe
symptoms at the time of the research participa-
tion than would members of the other victim
groups.

2. Individuals raped in their own home would
describe more severe symptoms overall,
particularly in the area of rape-related

fears, than would victims assaulted else-
where.

10.

11.

12.

46

More severe symptoms would be described by
persons having a previous history of psycho-
logical problems.

Victim's across all groups would evidence
lower self-esteem if their assailant was a
known other, rather than a stranger.

The incoming group would report higher self-
esteem at three months postassault than during
the first few days following the assault.

The incoming group would evidence lower self-
esteem at three months postassault than would
members of the control and other victim groups.

Victims adhering to traditional sex-role
stereotypes wou d report less anger and more
guilt than those whose sex-role identification
was more androgynous.

Those individuals expressing high amounts of
guilt would evidence lower self-esteem than
those expressing relatively little guilt.

Incoming victims would manifest greater
heterosexual anxiety and more isolation
than the controls.

Individuals who perceived their rape as
particularly violent would report greater fear
of heterosexual situations, less interpersonal
trust, and a higher incidence of sexual dif-
ficulty than would individuals who perceived
their assault as relatively less violent.

Incoming group members whose assailants had not
yet been apprehended would report less anger the
first week postrape than victims whose assailants
had been quickly apprehended.

The amount of negative life changes in the year
preceding the assault and the intensity of guilt
would correlate positively with the amount of
mood disturbance reported at seven to ten days
postassault. The degree of religious commitment,
the helpfulness of the individual's support
system, and a positive self-concept would cor-
relate negatively with mood disturbance.

47

Location. The study was conducted at ECRCC, a model
rape crisis center that since 1973 has served Erie, Pennsyl-
vania, its suburbs, and the rural surrounds that constitute
Erie County. It has provided direct service to over 1200
victims of sexual assault and their families. Licensed by
the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania as a Mental Health Emer-
gency Service Provider, the Center also provides public edu-
cation services, operates a hotline, and acts as a referral
agent.

During the time this project was conducted, the ECRCC
counselors were largely community volunteers who had been
screened before their acceptance by the agency's director
and consulting clinical psychologist. These counselors
ranged in age from twenty-one to forty, and their level of
formal education ranged from high school diplomas to post
graduate degrees. Volunteers had completed a one-hundred-'
hour training program.during their initial months at the
Center that involved learning crisis intervention techniques
and the legal and medical procedures pertinent to sexual as-
sault victims. They accompanied senior counselors on visits
to victims, first as observers, and later as assistants.

Typically, emergency room staff or area police would be
the first to notify the Center that a rape had occurred af-
ter receiving the victim's consent to contact Rape Crisis.
ECRCC counselors then went out to the victim, accompanied
her through the medical and legal systems, and provided

crisis intervention services to her and her significant

48
others. If a victim called in on her own, the procedure was
the same. Counselors did not attempt to convince victims to
press criminal charges, rather they presented the legal op-
tions and attempted to help the victim to reach her own de-
cision. All victims were encouraged to seek medical atten-
tion. ‘Male counselors did not make initial calls, but were
readily available to work with male victims or male signifi-
cant others as needed.

The initial counseling contact was usually between four
and six hours. The client and her family were regularly
contacted by home visits and telephone interviews for follow-
up care over the next six to nine months. Each counseling
contact with the victim was documented, and ongoing cases
were reviewed at least once a month by the agency's staff
supervisors and/or consulting psychologist. Treatment plans
‘were written for each victim and were formally updated every
three months by the psychologist. Counseling was generally
terminated when the victim felt ready to close contact with
the Center.

The victims. Three groups were studied. The first

 

was composed of women who requested ECRCC's services for a
rape that occurred between January 15 and August 15, 1980.
The second consisted of earlier ECRCC clients who had been
raped three or more months before this study began. The
third was composed of individuals in Erie County who had
been raped at some time previous to the research period, but

who had never received any crisis intervention counseling.

49

Only victims of forcible rape, as defined by Hursch and

Selkin (1974), who were thirteen years-old and older were
studied. Data on male and female victims was collected. If
the assailant was a member of the immediate nuclear family
(e.g., uncle, father), or a spouse not in fact separated
from the victim, the case was excluded from this study as
the assault was not legally termed a rape because dynamics
appeared somewhat different than those of forcible rape vic-
tims (Katz & Mazur, 1979). Also excluded were: (a) 'mental-
1y retarded individuals who appeared to be functioning at a
mental age younger than thirteen, (b) court-adjudicated
adolescents for whom obtaining permission to interview them
was a complex and lengthy process, and (c) previous clients
in such psychiatric disarray (usually from.causes not di-
rectly attributable to the rape) that the ECRCC director and
the author believed that participation in the research was
contraindicated.

Research procedures with the incoming group. When the
proposal for this project was written, it had been planned
to have the Center's counselors conduct the standard symptom
interviews on each victim to minimize research intrusions
into the counselor-client relationship. The author was to
directly contact the victims only during the time periods
that questionnaires were to be completed. However, given
widely varying schedules and styles of interviewing, this
plan's impracticality became apparent when it was discussed

with the ECRCC staff. Instead, the author conducted all

50

research interviews. Therefore, within forty-eight hours of
receiving a new forcible rape case, the ECRCC counselor
asked the client's permission to be contacted by the author.
In cases where the counselor firmly believed that requesting
the client's participation in the research project during
the first few days was contraindicated, the counselor waited
until what seemed the first appropriate day to ask. It was
explained that the author was conducting a research project
regarding the impact of rape, and would like to determine if
the victim was interested in participating. The client was
assured that her confidentiality would be protected, and
that she had a right to refuse the research project without
affecting the counseling services she was receiving. If the
victim agreed to meet the author, I accompanied the coun-
selor to the next session. At that time the research proce-
dures and guarantee of confidentiality was explained. If
willing to participate in the projects, the victim signed a
consent form, and was then administered the first symptom
interview and packet of questionnaires. In the case of vic-
tims under the age of eighteen, parental permission was also
documented on the consent form. Following the initial con-
tact, the author independently met with each victim at set
time points. Interview sessions were typically conducted in
the victimis home in a room.where other family members would
not intrude. It was not always possible to keep this loca-
tion standard, and victims were sometimes interviewed at the

Center, in the hospital, or by telephone if the victim's

51

commitments precluded face-to-face contact during the period
when the interview was scheduled.

Standard symptom.interviews were conducted with each
victim at nine time points during the first three months
postassault. These were designed to measure the victimis
behavioral symptoms and affective responses to the rape. The
interview schedule, where Day 1 equaled the day of the as-
sault, is shown in Table 1. Asterisks identify occasions
when questionnaire packets were administered along with the
interview.

Table l

Incoming Group Symptom Interview Schedule

 

 

Time Period Days Following Assault
First few days * 2 - 5

Week 1 * 7 - 10

Week 2 l4 - 17

Week 3 * 21 - 24

Week 4 28 - 31

Week 6 42 - 45

Week 8 56 - 59

Week 10 70 - 75

Week 12 * 83 - 88

If the victim.was absolutely unavailable during one or
more of these time periods, during her next interview she
was asked to try to remember that period as clearly as pos-
sible, and to also recall assault-related thoughts, feelings,
and behaviors from the missed time period in addition to the
present one. When a questionnaire packet was given, it was
administered prior to the symptom interview. The sequence
of questionnaires and directions was the same for each vic-

tim. Adolescents who had difficulty in either reading or

52

comprehending questionnaire elements were assisted. Follow-
ing administration of the packet and symptom interview, time
was taken to discuss all concerns that the research ques-
tions raised for the victim, A copy of each questionnaire
form is given in Appendix A (p. 180). The time sequence and
order in which the forms were administered is listed in Ta-
ble 2.

Table 2
Incoming Group Questionnaire Administration Schedule

Time Period Questionnaires

 

 

2 - 5 days Tennessee Self-Concept Scale
Anger Subscale
Guilt Index
Degree of Violence

7 - 10 days Support System Rating
Profile of Moods State (POMS)
Life Experience Survey
Religious Commitment Measure

3 weeks Thematic Apperception Test
(selected cards)
Tennessee Self-Concept Scale
Anger Subscale
Guilt Index
Inventory of Personality Develop-
ment
Fear Survey Schedule III (modi-
fied)
Bem's Sex Role Inventory
Levenson's Locus of Control Scale
Body Cathexis Scale (modified)

12 weeks Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale
Tennessee Self-Concept Scale
Anger Subscale
Guilt Index
Assault-Related Symptom Interview
The author terminated contact with each client following the
final research session at the twelve-week period. Each in-

dividual was informed that she could call the author in the

53

future if any questions or concerns regarding the research
arose.

Research procedures with control group. Women students

 

from Opportunities Industrialization Center (OIC), a voca-
tional training center in Erie, and teenage volunteers were
the controls for members of the incoming group. OIC allowed
the author to attend four core classes during August 1980.
This vocational school serviced a broad range of people from
many age groups and socioeducational backgrounds, and was
seen as a likely source of matches for members of the exper-
imental group. The course instructors arranged for male
students to be in another classroom, while the author re-
quested the participation of the remaining (female) students
in completing a questionnaire packet. Participation was vol-
untary and confidentiality was assured. Directions for the
questionnaires were explained. Definitions of sexual as-
sault were provided, and students were asked to note in
their questionnaire packet if they had ever been a victim of
sexual assault, and, if so, the type of assault and when it
had occurred. Seating was sufficiently spaced to ensure
privacy while forms were being completed. Each individual
signed a consent form and completed the following forms in
the listed order: a demographic data form, Rosenberg Self-
Esteem Scale, Anger Subscale, Guilt Index, Constantinople's
Inventory of Personality Development, WOlpe-Lang Fear Sur-
vey Schedule III (modified), Bem's Sex-Role Inventory,

Levenson's Locus of Control Scale, and the Body Cathexis

54

Scale. Control group members who had never been assaulted
were then matched with incoming victims as closely as pos-
sible on the following variables: age, race, socioeconomic
background, educations, previous mental health history, and
religious identification and commitment.

In an attempt to obtain controls for rape victims
younger than seventeen, I approached two schools, a Girl
Scout Troop, and the YWCA for possible assistance. Given
the topic of this paper the officials of these organizations
did not feel comfortable approaching parents for permission.
Colleagues of the author were then provided with control
group packets and instructions in the hope that the parents
of adolescents they knew might be willing to allow their
daughters to complete a packet. Initial responses to this
strategy were poor, but by December 1981 enough packets had
been received to complete the control group.

Research procedures with previously counseled ECRCC

 

victims. All client case folders from 1978 to 1980 were re-
viewed by the author to compile a list of forcible rape vic-
tims whose assaults had occurred three months or more before
the research period. I telephoned each individual to re-
quest her or his participation in completing a research
packet. The following standard phone conversation was used
‘with each individual:

This is Judy Smith, a counselor from Erie Rape

Crisis. Did I catch you at a good time to talk

for a few minutes? A while back you were a client

at the Center. I am doing a research project there

to see how clients of ours, whose rapes occurred three
months to a few years ago, are doing now. I wondered

55

if you would be willing to complete a questionnaire
packet I'd send you through the mail. It asks
queStions about how you are feeling now, how you
feel you reacted to the assault at first, and how
you felt later as you began recovering from it.
Your responses are completely anonymous and con-
fidential.

I am using the results in a couple of ways. First,
it will let us hear how you're doing, and how much
our Center helped or didn't help you. This lets us
know how we're doing. Second, I'll be using the re-
sults as part of a research project I'm doing for my.
doctoral degree in psychology. My project's purpose
is to help educate counselors who may work with rape
victims to the reactions women who've been raped
have, and how counselors can be most helpful. What
are your feelings about completing a packet for us?

(If agrees). I'll mail the packet to you within the
next few days. The first page on it will be a con-
sent fomm which must be signed by you for us to use
your paper. This packet will take about thirty
minutes to complete. We ask that if at all possible
you complete it during the first week you receive
it. There will be a postage-paid envelope with the
packet that you can use to return the packet to us.
If you have any questions about anything on it, or
if it stirs up any bad feelings, please give me a
call. (Author gives Center's phone number to
victim). Do you have any questions for me now?
Thank you very much ..... goodbye.

If the victim had no telephone, her ECRCC counselor
would speak to her about the project. Victims were informed
that their packets would not be viewed by any ECRCC staff
unless express permission was given. This was done in an
attempt to reduce possible distortions of self-reports in
order to "please" the counselor. If the individual kept the
packet for longer than ten to fourteen days without return-
ing it, a reminder phone call was made. If the individual
still did not return the packet following this call, no
further contact was made. Thank-you letters were mailed out

to victimis who returned completed packets. The

56

questionnaire packets sent these victims contained the fol-
lowing forms: a consent form, demographic sheet, Rosenberg
Self—Esteem Scale, Anger Subscale, Guilt Index, Degree of
Violence, and Symptom.Review questionnaire.

Research procedures With previous victims without coun-

 

seling. To recruit participants, the author relied on tele-
vision appearances, radio announcements, and local newspaper
articles to publicize the project to the Erie County commu-
nity. Between late Spring and August 1980, city, county,
and area college papers ran ads at different times regarding
the research; the author taped four radio interviews, and
appeared on three area television shows asking forcible rape
victims who had never received any crisis intervention coun—
seling from the Rape Crisis Center or any other agency, to
call the Center for a research packet. Individuals were
given the choice of leaving their address so a packet could
be mailed, or appearing anonymously at the Center to receive
one. This publicity also elicited responses among a "grape-
vine" of friends and colleagues who asked for packets to
complete personally, or to give to rape victims known to
them. In each case, the packets were number-coded, the name
removed, and the address cards destroyed to fully protect
the identity of these individuals. These packets were iden-

tical to those mailed to previously counseled victims.

57

Mbasures

Assault-Related symptom Interview (ARSI). A standard
symptom interview was necessary to measure the wide variety
of symptoms which often follow a rape. Based on a thorough
survey of the literature in the field, the author constructed
a forty-four item interview sampling assault-related behav-
ioral changes in the following areas of functioning: sleep,
appetite, heterosexual relationships, sexual expression, oc-
cupation, somatic distress, assault-related fears, and
changes in affect and mood. The respondent was instructed to
describe only those symptoms that she believed to be directly
assault-related. Two forms of the interview, a written
(ARSI-W) and an oral (ARSI-O), were used. Occupation items
in the oral version were devised so that students and home-
makers could be rated on them as well as employees. For ex-
ample, questions focused on the individual's ability to con-
centrate while completing a work task, be it studying, clean-
ing the home, or operating a machine. ARSI-W occupation
questions were pertinent only for employees and students.
Two sets of questions were also available in the areas of
heterosexual relationships and sexual expressiveness to ac-
commodate persons with and without partners. The ARSI-W's
construction was such that participants having partners were
asked five questions on the sexual expression subscale,
while single persons were only asked three. As a correction,
two items for single individuals were weighted to count

twice to facilitate comparisons between single and partnered

58

victims. These two items were: "are you as comfortable with
physical contact?" and ”are you as comfortable with sexual
contact?" The ARSI-O contained an equal number of questions
for partnered and single victims.

The ARSI-W'was mailed to members of the previously
counseled and uncounseled groups, and administered to members
of the incoming group at the twelve-week point. Respondents
were asked to place a checkmark next to a particular symptom
if it occurred during any of the following time periods: one
week, one month, three months, or presently. Each symptom
was scored as "l" (occurring), or "0" (not occurring), and
all "l"'s were tallied for each symptom area, and also for a
total interview score. Total scores were obtained for each
time period as well as for all time periods combined.

The ARSI-O was administered to members of the incoming
group on nine separate occasions over a twelve week period.
The author inquired about each item within the context of a
general interview. If a respondent noted she was having a
particular symptom, details were sought (duration, severity,
etc.). This procedure was seen as preferable to administer-
ing the written form each time as it appeared to allow for
more flexibility, the acquisition of clinically richer mate-
rial, and provided for greater rapport and good-will between
the researcher and victims. Although the interviewer oc-
casionally took notes during the interview, the results were
generally written out immediately following the session. To

reduce ARSI-O data into manipulable numerical form and to

59

minimize the loss of detail, a three-point rating system was
devised. Each symptom was rated "1", "2", or "3", indicating
that the severity of the symptom was mild, moderate, or se-
vere, respectively. Severity was defined according to the
frequency and/or intensity of symptoms. For example, a re-
spondent having one assault-related nightmare during a set
time period received a "1", whereas a victim reporting four
such dreams in one time period was assigned a "3". Similar-
ly, a victim.who felt more frightened of being alone, but
did not let this fear alter her behavior received a "1",
while a victim responding to the same fear by literally
avoiding being alone at all received a "3". The scoring cri-
teria used for each item can be found in Appendix C (p. 220).
Item scores were tallied to form a subscale score for each
symptom area. These subscores were tallied to form a total
score of assault-related symptom severity for a given time
period, and for a global total over all time periods. To
ascertain the reliability of this rating system for oral in-
terviews, three independent judges, selected on the basis of
their experience in working with victims of rape, were in-
structed in the system.and asked to score ten randomly se-
lected interviews from the total pool of 150. Each judge's
total score per interviews was correlated with those of the
author and yielded interrater reliability coefficients of
.76, .76, and .82. An interrater reliability index was also
calculated for each subscale area, yielding median correla-

tion coefficients of .65 (Sleep), .61 (Appetite), .72

60

(Somatic), and .77 (Mood), .53 (Assault-related Fears), .56
(Heterosexual Functioning), .76 (Sexual Expression), and .63
(Occupation).

Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI). The BSRI (Bem, 1974) was

 

constructed using sixty adjectives arranged in a seven-step
Likert format divided into three subscales of twenty items
each: masculinity (M), femininity (F), and social desirabil-
ity (SD). Bem treated masculinity and femininity as separate
dimensions represented by positive behaviors, rather than as
opposite points. To develop these scales, 100 student judges
were asked to rate 400 personality characteristics as to
their appropriateness for men or women. An item was judged
masculine (M) or feminine (F) if both male and female judges
independently voted that the characteristic was significantly
more desirable for one sex than the other. Ten positive and
ten negative sex-role personality characteristics were se-
lected as neutral, that is, they were not judged to be more
desirable for one sex than the other. These items comprised
the measure of social desirability (SD). Four final scores
resulted: M, F, SD, and androgyny (A). The first three
were obtained by finding the mean rating of the items rep-
resenting that characteristic. A difference score was found
by subtracting the mean feminine score from the mean mascu-
line score. Multiplying this figure by the standard score

of 2.322 yielded a p-ratio. The androgynous score was de-
termined by examining how nearly equal the M and F scores

were, for Bem had maintained that persons attributing a

61

nearly equal amount of masculine and feminine qualities to
themselves were androgynous. Bem used a normative sample of
2000 undergraduates and found test-retest reliability coef-
ficients for a four—week interval of .89 to .93. Negri
(1978) and Sommers (1980) also found comparable figures.
Bem's p-ratio for the BSRI appeared internally consistent
(average alpha coefficient was .86), and the M and F scales
were found to be empirically independent (Bem, 1974; Bernard,
1980). Low positive correlations were found between the
BSRI and the Masculine-Feminine scale on the Guilford-Zimmer-
man Temperment Survey suggesting the BSRI tapped somewhat
different aspects of sex-roles.' Criticism's of Bemis sub-
tractive method of defining androgyny led Bem to adopt
Spence's (1975) scoring method. Spence had maintained that
the truly androgynous individual would score relatively high
on both M and F scales or that they would describe themselves
as possessing the most desirable qualities of both dimen-
sions. She used a median-split method of categorizing sub-
jects into high masculine, low masculine, high feminine, and
low feminine categories. Androgynous individuals were those
scoring above the median on M and F whereas those scoring
DEIOW’it on both dimensions were considered undifferentiated
in terms of sex role. Those scoring above the median on M,
and below it on F, were considered masculine, and the re-
verse pattern was considered feminine. Bernard (1980) eval-
uated the impact of various BSRI scoring procedures, in-

cluding the p-ratio and the median-split method, and

62

concluded that for research purposes the median-split proce-
dure was best. It was used in the present project.

Bem (1974) had maintained that androgynous individuals
would have more positive characteristics than sex-typed in-
dividuals. In subsequent research, androgynous persons were
found to be more flexible (Bem & Lenny, 1976) and better ad-
justed (Cristall & Dean, 1976; Nevill, 1977). More recent
findings, however, suggest that masculine-typed men and woms
en manifested better personal adjustment in some sectors than
did androgynous persons (Erdwins, Small, & Gross, 1980;
Jones, Chernovetz, & Hansson, 1978). Erdwins et al. adminis-
tered the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale (TSCS), BSRI, and Man-
ifest Anxiety Scale (MAS) to one-hundred-thirty-six subjects
and found that is was the masculine, rather than the androg-
ynous, persons who reported the lower levels of anxiety,
although these groups did not differ significantly in self-
concept. Results of a factor analytic study conducted by
Gross, Batlis, Small, and Erdwins (1979) suggested that the
Masculinity items had greater connotations of adaptive func-
tioning, while the Femininity scale contained at least five
items reflecting attributes that were clearly undesirable.

Therefore, these authors predicted that individuals who
attributed many feminine qualities to themselves were partic-
ularly likely to be at a disadvantage on measures of adjust-
ment, while individuals attributing more positively valued
adjectives (i.e., high Masculinity scorers) to themselves

would be at an advantage. In summary, the significant

63

amount of debate regarding the validity of Bem's definition
of, and predictions for, androgyny appear inconclusive and
Bernard's (1980) critical review of the BSRI literature
stated that Bem's original idea regarding androgyny has yet
to be conclusively contradicted.

Body Cathexis Scale. The Body Cathexis Scale (Secord &

 

Jourard, 1953) was designed to measure facets of self-esteem
related to satisfaction with body features. Forty physical
characteristics were listed and respondents were asked to
rate their satisfaction with each on a five-point Likert
Scale. These ratings were summed to create a total score.
The higher the score, the greater the degree of negative
feelings indicated; Eleven items were taken from the origi—
nal scale for use in the present study. This abbreviated
scale included items related to sexuality, strength, and
pain tolerance, as well as some general body features. Se-
cord and Jourard's (1953) normative sample contained only 45
male and 43 female college students. The corrected split-
half reliability for their body esteem scores ranged from
.78 to .83, depending on the sex of the respondent. No test-
retest data were reported. A positive correlation of .66
was obtained between physical self-esteem and general es-
teem. This last finding was replicated by Weinberg (1960).
A moderate correlation of .62 was also found between self-
esteem and satisfaction with physical characteristics when
only those characteristics rated important by the respondent

were used (Rosen & Rosen, 1968; Watkins & Park, 1972).

64

Finally, Johnson (1956) reported a correlation of .79 be-
tween physical esteem and anxiety among female respondents.
This significantly exceeded the comparable male correlations,
perhaps reflecting the cultural training that emphasizes the
importance of physical appearance for females.

Degree gf_Violence. The Degree of Violence (DOV) scale
was created by the author to provide both a measure of how
violent a rape might "objectively" appear and to assess the
degree of violence perceived by the victim. As it seemed
doubtful that these two facets would be identical, the DOV
was divided into three subscales, each of which could be
scored separately or combined into a total scale score.
Wébster (1977) defined violence as the "exertion of physical
force so as to injure or abuse". In an attempt to provide
some measure of hOW'ViOIQnt the assault might appear to in-

H

dividuals examining only the "objective facts of the crime,
a six-item measure of the objective degree of violence
(DOV-O) was constructed. These items asked the respondent
for the following information: whether the assailant was a
known and trusted other; whether threats, weapons, physical
restraint (tying or gagging), or physical blows were used
against her; and whether the assault left her with any phys-
ical injuries. For each question answered affirmatively by
the respondents, one point was assigned and further informa-
tion requested. Additional half-credits (0.5) were added to

the score dependent on what this new data revealed. For ex-

ample, if the assailant made a threat (scored 1.0), the

65

victim was asked to describe it. If it was either to kill
her, or to kill or maim a loved one, such as her husband or
child, an additional half-credit was assigned, resulting in

a total item score of 1.5. If the threat was relatively
milder in nature (e.g., "Move and I'll kick you."), the total
item score remained 1.0. Criteria for each item were defined
to determine when to assign additional increments (see Appen-
dix B, p. 213). Depending on the question, possible total
scores of each item ranged from 1.0 to 2.0. These item
scores were summed to provide a total index of the objective
degree of violence. To determine how reliable this rating
system was, three independent judges, again selected on the
basis of their experience in working with rape victims,

rated 13 of the 66 DOV-O forms collected in the present
study. These 13 were selected on the basis of belonging to
victims who had never been clients of the judges, thus con-
trolling for any prior knowledge that judges might have about
the assault. The judges' ratings were then compared with the
author's. Interrater reliability indices ranged only from

.96 (median £_= .93).

p_= .92 to E
The DOV's second subscale consisted of fourteen ques-
tions arranged in a five-step Likert format designed to mea-
sure the victim's perception of the violence of the assault.
Summing these scores yielded a measure of the subjective de-
gree of violence (DOV-S). Item three ("The rapist's voice
was soft, 'polite'.") was the only item scored inversely.

DOV-S items considered factors related to physical force

66

(e.g., "The rapist handled me roughly.") and also to the vic-
tim's psychological state (e.g., "I felt invaded and taken
over.").

Section three consisted of one item which asked the re-
spondents to rate how violent their attack seemed to them
overall on a scale of 1 (minimally violent) to 10 (very vio-
lent). It was anticipated that in assigning this rating the
victim would probably consider both her subjective response
to the attack as well as her view of its "objective" fea-
tures.

This rating could be considered independently, or added
into a total degree of violence score (DOV-T) obtained by
simply summing all subscale scores.

Demographic Data. The demographic information general-

 

ly included the following: present data (age, sex, level of
education, occupation, marital status, and socioeconomic
group), past data (history of previous sexual assaults, pre-
existing mental health problems, quality of previous sexual
experiences), and assault data (location, length of assault,
sexual events, use of threats, assailant's voice tone, pres-
sence of weapons, degree of relationship between the assail-
ant and victim, and amount of physical force). For control
group members, the demographic data form.also included a sec-
tion to describe one's religious background, and asked a
brief series of questions regarding major life changes occur-

ring in the past year.

67

Fear Survey Schedule III (FSS-III). Wolpe and Lang

 

(1964) designed the FSS-III to use in assessing the effect of
desensitization on phobic and anxious clients. Derived from
Lang and Lazovik's (1963) earlier Fear Schedule Survey, it
contained 72 anxiety-engendering stimuli, each rated by the
respondent for the degree of fear evoked. Five choices,
ranging from no fear elicited to a high intensity of fear,
were offered. The authors did not develop a formal scoring
system for the inventory, but simply observed how the fre-
quency and intensity of reported fears changed as a client
participated in behavior therapy. In the present study, how-
ever, the five choices were assigned numerical weights of one
to five, with one signifying "no fear elicited." These rat-
ings were summed to provide a total score.

Several factor analytic studies of the FSS have used
student (Geer, 1965; Lang and Lazovik, 1963) and clinical
populations (Bates, 1971; Dixon, DeMonchaux and Sandler,
1957; Rothstein, Holmes and Boblitt, 1972). Both populations
have yeilded four major factors: fears about interpersonal
events (Social Anxiety), fears related to small animals
(Small Animal Fears), and fears associated with death, pain,
or surgery (Fears Related to Bodily Injury, Death, and Ill-
ness). An additional component, termed the Agoraphobia fac-
tor, has recently been identified (Arrindell, 1980; Hallam.&
Hafner, 1978). These factors corresponded closely to WOlpe
and Lang's (1964) original subclassification of items into

-animal; tissue damage, illness, death or associated stimuli;

68

classical phobias; social stimuli; noise; and miscellaneous
categories.

Arrindell (1980) studied the FSS-III's reliability and
validity using a sample of 703 noninstitutionalized members
of a society for phobic patients. Subjects were administer-
ed the FSS-III, the Symptom Checklist (Derogatis, 1977), and
Zung's Self-Rating Scale for Depression (Zung, 1965). A
principal components factor analysis with varimax rotation
was performed. Six factors emerged, with the Social Anxiety
Component accounting for most of the variance. This factor
described a form of interpersonal anxiety that involved such
elements as the fear of negative evaluation, concerns re-
garding criticism, and lack of competence. While female sub-
jects endorsed significantly more of these items as fear-
arousing than male-subjects, this sex difference did not hold
for all factors. Statistically significant correlations were
found between Arrindell's factors although these were only
low to moderate in size. Cronbach's alpha was calculated as
a reliability index for each component and the resulting co-
efficients ranged from .79 to .91, and .95 for the FSS-III
total score. The Social Anxiety coefficient (.91) reflected
high interitem.consistency. Internal validity studies in-
dicated that each FSS-III item correlated positively and
significantly with the total scale score. As anticipated,
the FSS-III total score correlated rather highly with the
global index of psychopathology of the Symptom Checklist.

The Social Anxiety factor correlated substantially (p = .61)

69

with the same Symptom Checklist (SC) index as well as the
SC's Inadequacy Scale (p_= .65).

The present study employed only the 17 FSS-III items
classified as interpersonal stimuli by Wolpe and Lang (1964).
Eleven of these items were contained in Arrindell's Social
Anxiety factor, as discussed above. As heterosexual anxiety
was what was of particular interest, each interpersonal item
was rewritten to identify the stimuli as involving males,
rather than people in general. For example, "speaking before
a group" was changed to "speaking before a group of men”.
Similarly, the item."angry people" was rewritten as "angry
men". The ratings of each item were summed to provide a
measure of the subject's anxiety regarding interpersonal
situations involving the opposite sex.

Guilt Index (CI). The GI is an eight—item, five-step

 

Likert format scale devised by the author to assess feelings
of guilt. Items #3, #5, and #6 were taken from the Guilt
subscale of the Buss-Durkee Hostility Inventory (BDHI) and
five new items were constructed. The BDHI (Buss & Durkee,
1957) consisted of 75 true-false items, each representing
one of eight subtypes of hostility; Factor analytic studies
revealed two main factors: an attitudinal component (repre-
sented by Resentment and Suspicion subscales), and a "motor"
component indicating hOW'hOStility was directed (represented
by Assault and remaining subscales). The seven subscales
directly dealing with aggression yielded a Total Hostility

Score (THS), while the eighth subscale (Guilt) was a

70

nine-item global index of guilt independent of the THS. A
test-retest reliability coefficient of .72 for this scale
was found using a college-aged sample (Biaggio, Supplee, &
Curtis, 1981). The latter study found no significant dif—
ferences between male and female respondents on the Guilt
scale, although Sarason (1961) had earlier observed signifi-
cantly higher scores among females. This Guilt subscale cor-
related significantly with the Guilt subscale of the Anger
Self-Report, a 64-item Likert-type questionnaire also pur-
porting to measure various aspects of hostility and its ex-
pression (Zelin, Alder, & Myerson, 1972). Both guilt mea-
sures correlated negatively with measures of constructive
action, contributing to an inference that persons high on the
measure of guilt were less likely than others to involve
themselves in constructive action when provoked (Biaggio et
al., 1981). Researchers who have employed the Buss-Durkee
Hostility Inventory have encountered problems related to the
dubious reliability of some subscales and their fairly high
correlations with social desirability (Biaggio, 1980; Buss &
Durkee, 1957). The GI was administered to a normative sample
of 20 male and 11 female undergraduate students enrolled in
an Introduction to Psychology course at Behrend College of
Pennsylvania State University. A corrected split-half re-
liability coefficient of .77 was found indicating moderate
internal consistency. A test-retest reliability coefficient
of .92 (p <1.01) obtained over a two-week interval, yielded

evidence of its stability. To provide some estimate of

71

concurrent validity the BDHI Guilt subscale was also admin-
istered to these students. Only a moderate correlation co-
efficient (E = .68, p_<Z.Ol) was obtained between these
guilt measures despite the three overlapping items. This
suggests that the GI may assess a different facet of guilt
than does the BDHI.

Inventory pf Psychosocial Development (IPD). Constan-

 

tinople (1969) designed the IPD to operationalize and vali-
date the first six stages of ego development proposed by
Erikson (1959), namely: trust versus mistrust, autonomy
versus shame, initiative versus guilt, industry versus in-
feriority, identity versus identity diffusion, and intimacy
versus isolation. Her inventory was based on Wessman and
Ricks' (1966) 60-item Q-sort. Each of Erikson's stages was
represented by ten items, half of which reflected successful
resolution, and half of which signified unsuccessful resolu-
tion, of a stage. Constantinople substituted a seven-point
Likert scale for each of the sixty words or phrases and di-
rected the respondent to rate how characteristic each item
was of her/him, The ratings in each subscale were summed,
yielding twelve subscale scores. High scores on the posi-
tive scales (e.g. trust, industry), if accompanied by low
scores of the negative scale, were said to indicate success-
ful resolution of a particular stage. Goldman and Olczak
(1980) offered a somewhat different scoring procedure for
the IPD, summing the ratings of the five positive subscale

items and adding them to the reversed scores for the five

72

negative items. That is, a rating of ”7" on an item reflec-
ting unsuccessful resolution would be changed to a "l", and
added in to the total score. Constantinople's scoring sys-
tem was used in the present study, which employed only the
Trust4Mistrust and Intimacy-Isolation subscales of the IPD.
These two stages were selected as they seemed particularly
likely to be vulnerable to the impact of a rape. To increase
clarity, Somer's (1979) reworded items were used.
Constantinople's normative sample consisted of 925 un-
dergraduate students. She characterized the psychometric
properties of these scales as "adequate but not impressive".
Test-retest reliability coefficients over a sixdweek interval
ranged from .45 to .81 with a median correlation of .71.
Somers (1979) obtained somewhat lower reliability figures
with a sample of 106 college women. Constantinople acknowl-
edged that no validity data was available on Wessman and
Rick's Q-sort format, although she maintained that these au-
thors had found an "encouraging" relationship between their
scales and other clinical rating forms. Social desirability
response sets appeared to influence these subscale scores,
although not to an overwhelming degree. Constantinople's
analysis of the IPD indicated that clear bipolar factors ex-
isted for only 3 of the stages, with the stage of autonomy
vs. shame appearing particularly weak. The two subscales
selected for the present studies were found to have clear
bipolar construction. Some evidence for IPD's construct

validity was cited, as college students appeared to achieve

73

more successful resolution on specific subscales (e.g., in-
dustry vs. inferiority) as they aged. This was consistent
with Constantinople's expectations, as was the finding that
seniors typically evidenced greater resolution than fresh-
man. Constantinople noted that one weakness of her scale
was that the utility of items appeared to vary by sex.
Somer's (1979) report of significant correlations between
the Eriksonian scales and Bemis'M and F scales seems a re-
lated finding. Specifically, Trust, Mistrust,Autonomy, In-
dustry, and Inferiority correlated with Bem's M scale, while
Intimacy was correlated with her F scale.

Levenson's Internal-External Locus pf Control Scales.

 

For several years Rotter's Internal-External Locus of Con-
trol Scale (Rotter, 1966) was the predominant locus of con-
trol measure. Rotter had explained the difference between
internal and external attributions of control as follows:

When an event is interpreted as the result of luck,

chance, or fate..by an individual, we have labeled

this a belief in external control. If the person
perceives that the event is contingent upon his own
behavior or his own relatively permanent character-
istics, we have termed this a belief in internal
control.

Subsequent factor-analytic studies revealed that more
than the two factors originally proposed by Rotter accounted
for portions of the variance. In an attempt to obtain a
conceptually cleaner measure, and to delineate the apparent
third factor in Rotter's scale, Levenson (1974) devised an

IE scale which retained several original items while adding

some new ones. Levenson's IE scale consisted of 24 items

74

arranged in a Likert six-point format. These were divided
into three 8-item subscales: Internal (corresponding to an
internal locus of control), Chance (representing an external
framework in which events occur by chance), and Powerful
Others (representing a belief that the world is ordered but
under the control of powerful others). Levenson (1974) ad-
ministered the scale to a normative sample of 329 male col-
lege students and processed their responses by a prinicipal
component factor analysis with varimax rotation which yield-
ed the three predicted factors of the Internal (I), Chance
(C), and Powerful Others (P) scales. This result was repli-
cated by Lindbloom and Faw (1982) using a sample of 175 col-
lege students. Each subscale was found to be statistically
independent (Levenson, 1974). The I-scale's high mean was
consistent with Rotter's finding that most subjects were
primarily internally-oriented. P- and C-scale scores were
moderately correlated (£_- .59, p_<(.01) as anticipated,
given their shared belief in an external locus of control.
These two scales correlated negatively with the I-scale.
Levenson also normed her measure on a sample of 96 adults
and found that test-retest reliabilities for a onedweek in-
terval ranged from .64 to .78. Although internal consisten-
cy estimates yielded only moderately high correlations,
Levenson concluded that these were appropriate given the
variety of situations sampled by the items. Negligible cor-
relations between the IE scale and Marlowe-Crowne Social

Desirability scale were found. Correlations between the

75

three IE subscales and demographic factors, such as age or
education, were also insignificant. In examining the valid-
ity of these scales, Levenson found that the more externally-
oriented patients in a hospital sample were, the lower they
scored in objective information about their illness. This
was seen as supportive of the hypothesis that internally-
oriented persons would attempt to control their environment
through knowledge. Lefcourt (1976) reported that internals
‘were better able to delay gratification than externals, and
that they also explored more effective cognitive strategies.
Molinari and Khanna (1981) explored the relationships of lo-
cus of control to depression and anxiety. Both of the latter
linked inversely with internality, while externality had op-
posite bonds. High C-scale scorers showed the most debili-
tating anxiety.

Life Experiences Survey (LES). Life stress, operation-

 

ally defined as self—reported life changes, has been found
linked to many other measures, including physical illnesses,
academic performance, and psychiatric symptoms. One early
life stress measure was Holmes and Rahe's (1967) Schedule of
Recent Experiences (SRE), a self-administered questionnaire
of 43 life changes. Items were checked off by subjects if
the event had occurred to them within the past 12 months.
The SRE was based on the assumption that any life change,
positive or negative, was stressful in and of itself. This
assumption was challenged, however, and Sarason, Johnson,

and Siegel's (1978) Life Experience Survey (LES) was

76

designed as an improved life stress measure in which positive
and negative changes could be handled separately. The LES
consisted of 57 life change items which subjects rated as
occurring 0 to 6 months, or 7 to 12 months ago. Respondents
also rated whether the event's impact was positive or nega-
tive at the time it occurred, using a seven-point scale rang-
ing from.extremely negative (-3) to extremely positive (+3).
The LES's last 10 events concerned academic life change
events for use only with student populations. Responses were
scored for mean positive, mean negative, and total change
scores. A normative sample of 345 undergraduate students was
used. Test-retest correlations for the positive change
scores over a 5 to 6 week time interval ranged from..l9 to
.53 (Sarason et al., 1978). Reliability coefficients for
negative change and total change scores ranged from .56 to
.88, and .63 to .64 respectively. No change score correlated
significantly with either social desirability bias or sex.
Negative change scores were found to link positively with
anxiety measures, but to associate inversely with grade

point averages. Students at the university counseling center
displayed significantly higher negative change scores than
students who had not sought such services. Positive change
scores showed fewer linkages to selected dependent variables.
This last finding was viewed as supporting the belief that
life stress is better conceptualized in terms of negative
change, rather than change in general.

Johnson and Sarason (1977) noted that although

77

statistically significant correlations were obtained between
negative change scores and dependent measures, these corre-
lations were relatively small. They attributed this to the
tremendous variability in how individual's handle negative
life changes and suggested that life stress measures alone
might be unable to yield strong results. They hypothesized
that moderating variables helped to determine the individu-
al's response to a high level of negative change. Nuckolls,
Cassell, and Kaplan (1972) had found that women with high
Schedule of Recent Experiences scores and low levels of so-
cial support systems in their environment evidenced more
birth complications than women with greater social supports.
Johnson and Sarason (1977) also found a significant correla-
tion between high negative change scores (LES) and dependent
measures of depression and anxiety when the individual in-
dicated an external locus of control (Rotter, 1966). This
correlation did not exist when the locus of control was in-
ternal, suggesting that locus of control operated as a moder-
ating Variable in determining the individual impact of high
life stress.

Profile pf Moods State (POMS). The POMS, a rating scale

 

composed of 65 adjective items, was designed to measure fluc-
tuations in 6 factor-analytically derived dimensions of sub-
jective mood states: tension-anxiety, depression-dejection,
anger-hostility, vigor-activity, fatigue-inertia and confu-
sion-bewilderment (McNair, Lorr, & Droppleman, 1971). The

respondent was directed to rate each adjective on a

78

five-point scale according to how closely it described the
subject's mood during the past week, including the present
day. A Total Mood Disturbance score (TMD) was obtained by
summing the scores across all six factors after inversely
weighting Vigor. Two normative samples were used: the first
consisted of 1000 psychiatric outpatients, and the second of
856 college students. The respondent's sex accounted for
little variance. Internal consistency reliability indices
for the subscales ranged from .87 to .95 (McNair, et al.,
1971). Test-retest reliability coefficients were obtained
from outpatients immediately before and after beginning
treatment, also following 6 weeks of therapy. These coef-
ficients were somewhat low, ranging from .65 to .74 for the
first interval and .43 to .53 for the second. However, the
authors maintained that these were adequate for their pur-
poses as mood would be expected to fluctuate by definition,
particularly given the circumstance of initiating psycholog-
ical treatment.

Six independent factor analytic studies were conducted
in the validation of the POMS, with a correlation of .30 or
higher required for a factor to be considered significant
(McNair et al., 1971). Each study indicated that the same
set of 6 mood factors could be identified, measured, and
replicated--even when the population was varied.

Four areas of research offered validational evidence
for the POMS. The first involved short-term psychotherapy

studies in which at least some of the POMS factor scores

e:
we
Re
ar

01'

me
Te
310

De

St

79

appeared sensitive to the changes associated with treatment
(Lorr, McNair, & Weinstein, 1964; Pugatch, Haskell, &
McNair, 1969). The POMS factors also appeared sensitive to
the short-term changes associated with some tranquilizers as
evidenced by the results of different controlled outpatient
drug trials (McNair, Fisher, Sussman, Droppleman, & Kahn,
1970; McNair, Kahn, Droppleman, & Fisher, 1967, 1968). POMS
factor scores have often been sensitive in studies (Fisher,
Pillard, & Yamada, 1968; Pillard & Fisher, 1967) in which an
emotion-inducing condition (e.g., viewing an autopsy film)
was introduced. In a similar vein, Kilpatrick, Veronen, and
Resick (1979) administered the POMS to 46 recent rape victims
and 35 nonvictims at four time intervals and found, that at
one-month postrape these groups differed significantly on all
factor scores except Vigor-Activity. Finally, some evidence
for concurrent validity has been found. Patients in the
original normative sample completed the Hopkin's Symptom Dis-,
tress Scale (Parloff, Kelman, & Frank, 1954) which yielded 3
distress scores: Somatization, Anxiety, and Depression.
These three scores correlated moderately to highly with
nearly all POMS factors. High correlations between POMS
Tension-Anxiety and the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale, and -
moderate correlations between POMS Depression and the MMPI
Depression scale, have also been found.

The POMS Anger scale was used separately in the present
study to provide a measure of the fluctuations in subjective-

ly experienced anger. The 12 items comprising this factor

In

(n

(n

80
had yielded an internal consistency reliability coefficient
of .92, and test-retest reliability indices of .53 to .71
(McNair et al., 1971).

Religiousipy Scales. .Measures of religious commitment

 

and affiliation was derived from Faulkner and DeJong's (1965)
Religiousity Scales. These were designed to measure Clock
and Stark's (1965) five dimensions of religiousity: ideolo-
gy, ritualism, experiential, consequential, and intellectual.
Each was represented by a scale containing four or five mul-
tiple-choice items that met Guttman's criteria for unidimen-
sionality. Each subscale was scored separately with one
point assigned to selected multiple-choice responses. After
analysis of the 23-item measure, an eight-item composite
scale of religiousity was formed. The normative sample con-
sisted of 372 college students. The reproducibility coef-
ficients for the subscales ranged from .90 to .94. No test-
retest data were reported. The original authors cited no
validational evidence other than the construct validity
claimed for the Guttman procedure. The five dimensions
proved moderately intercorrelated, although no two dimensions
appeared identical. The belief or ideological dimension cor-
related most highly with the others. This was interpreted as
appropriate given that belief was thought to be the central
component of religiousness (Glock & Stark, 1965). Although
reliability and validity data for'the measure appeared sparse,

it offered some access to differences between subjects in

terms of religious commitment and affiliation. Six items of

81

the original 23 were chosen for the present study, with four
selected from the ritualistic scale and the remaining two
drawn from the experiential subscale. Items from the ex-
periential scale were rewarded into simpler language to im-
prove readability for the younger adolescents of this sample.

Rosenberg's Self-Esteem Scale. Crandall (1973) cited

 

Rosenberg's Self-Esteem Scale (1965) as one of the eight best
measures of self-esteem in the sense of self-acceptance.
Originally designed as a Guttman scale, the Rosenberg has
been most frequently used as a ten-item Likert scale (Jacques
& Chason, 1977; Marsland & Perry, 1973). This was also true
in the present study where each item was scored using a four-
step Likert framework such that the higher the score, the
lower the self-esteem. Rosenberg's normative sample con-
sisted of 5024 high school juniors and seniors. The scale
was found to have relatively high reliability despite its
brevity. Silber and Tippett (1965) found a test-retest cor-
relation over a two-week interval of .85. The high conver-
gent validities found between the Rosenberg and other self-
esteem measures, and its inverse correlations with measures
of anxiety, interpersonal insecurity, and depressive affect,
have supported this scale's construct validity (Silber &
Tippett, 1965).

Some authors have maintained that the Rosenberg scale is
not unidimensional. Kaplan and Pokorny (1969) subjected the
responses obtained by an adult sample of all ages to a factor

analysis with varimax rotation and reported two independent

82

factors. Dobson, Goudy, Keith, and Powers (1979) used a
similar procedure with a sample of 1332 adults of at least
60 years of age, and again found a two-factor solution.
Among samples of adolescents and young adults (the age group
the measure was originally designed for), however, others
have continued to find support for the Rosenberg's unidimen-
sional claim, For example, Hensley and Roberts (1976) used
the Rosenberg with an undergraduate sample and again subject-
ed the responses to a factor analysis with a varimax rota-
tion. Although two factors were found, they concerned re-
sponse sets. The five factor one items were exclusively

positive self-acceptance statements, while only negatively

 

worded items constituted factor two.

Hensley's (1977) factor analytic study of the scale with
a college-aged sample also yielded a one-factor solution.
Furthermore, no significant differences were found between
the scores of male and female respondents. Dobson, Goudy,
Keith, and Powers (1979) concluded that age appears to have
some as yet not clearly defined influence on the structure
of Rosenberg, with the unidimensionality evidence strongest
among younger samples.

Support System Rating. An author-constructed checklist
was used as a brief measure of a person's support system.
Respondents were asked to list the people currently in their
lives who were most important to them. They then indicated
which of these people they wanted to tell about the assault;

and how many they actually did tell. The victims rated the

83

helpfulness of each person's response on a five-point scale
ranging from low (1) to high (5) support. An average score
was then obtained. Respondents also were asked why they
chose not to tell some people about the rape despite an ini-
tial desire to.

Tennessee Self-Concept Scale (TSCS). The TSCS, devel-
oped by Fitts (1965) was designed to measure self-esteem.us-
ing a facet design that provided for a multidimensional de-
scription of the self. This lOO-item scale consisted of two
main dimensions, the internal modality of the self, and the
self as an external referent. The first was composed of
three scales, identity (how a person sees herself), behavior
(how she acts), and self-satisfaction (self-acceptance). The
second dimension consisted of five scales; physical self,
moral-ethical self, personal self, social self, and family
self. Ninety of the scale's 100 items were involved in these
eight subscales, with the ten remaining items (taken from.the
MMPI's Lie scale) comprising a self-criticiam score. The 90
items were equally divided into positive and negative subsets
and could be responded to on a five-point scale. The TSCS
thus yielded eight subscale scores reflecting different as-
pects of self-esteem, one measure of social desirability,
and a total self-esteem score (derived by summing the eight
subscales). All items had been selected by seven clinical
psychologists from.an item-pool composed of statements from
other self-concept measures as well as from.written self-

descriptions of patients and nonpatients. The test was

84

designed for use with individuals aged twelve and over who
had at least a sixth grade education. Test-retest reliabil-
ities ranged from .67 to .92 for the various subscales
(Fitts, 1965). Construct validation for the hypothesized
two-dimensional grid of the TSCS was offered by Levin, Karni,
and Frankel (1978). They conducted a smallest space analy-
sis of the TSCS using eight replications, each of which con-
firmed that the scale tapped the two basic facets it claimed
to. Vacchiano and Strauss (1968) conducted a principal com-
ponents factor analysis on the responses of 260 college
students to the TSCS, and found that 20 factors accounted for
66% of the variance. Boulton (1979) examined the interrela-
tionship among the TSCS scales with the Sixteen Personality
Factor Questionnaire (16PF). He concluded that the main
dimension underlying the TSCS was positive self-evaluation,
also characterized by good adjustment, the absence of anxi-
ety, or the freedom from.neurotic symptoms. This central
dimension correlated highly with the 16 PF's secondary Anxi-
ety vs. Adjustment measure but was essentially independent
of the other dimensions of the personality sphere tapped by
the 16PF. Fitts (1965) had constructed four scales of TSCS
items which had best identified particular samples of psychi-
atric patients. Boulton (1979) examined these and found
that three of these scales (Maladjustment, Personality Dis-
order, and Neurosis) had very high negative correlations
with Total Self-Esteem. Validational evidence was also of-

fered by LaVoie (1976) who found that adolescents scoring

85

high on ego-identity (a stage characterized by strong, posi-
tive commitment to beliefs and occupation) also scored high-
er on TSCS subscales of physical self-esteem, family self,
and social self than did adolescents having lower ego-identi-
ty scores.

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). The TAT was designed
by Murray (1955) as a projective test measuring preconscious
themes, conflicts, and concerns. It consists of 20 cards
depicting black-and-white pictures of individuals in various
environmental settings with the visual stimuli highly vari-
able in terms of its clarity and structure. The test was
presented as assessing imagination and subjects were asked to
‘make up a story about each picture which contained a begin-
ning, middle, and end and to provide information about what
the characters were thinking or feeling. The particular
identities, motives, and patterns that each subject assigned
to the cards were used in interpreting the results. General-
ly, results were interpreted on the basis of clinical exper-
tise. However, various authors have devised formal scoring
systems, such as Pine's (1960) system for rating drive con-
tent. Smyth (1979) used Pine's approach to devise a system
from.which he could measure the amount of hostility or ag-
gression in a TAT story, the amount of paramnesia material
projected, the degree to which projected material was inte-
grated in the story, and how distorted and disguised the
projected material was. He used this rating system in an

experiment in which he selected two groups of subjects, each

86

noted for obtaining a high score on a measure of hypnotic
suggestibility. Each group was hypnotized and read a story.
The experimental group heard a story designed to arouse their
anger and a desire for revenge. The control group heard the
same story minus all the portions designed to induce aggres-
sion, Smyth then administered five TAT cards (33M, 6GF, 83M,
l3MF, and 4) selected as being particularly likely to elicit
aggressive or sexual themes to each subject. Each protocol
was independently rated by three judges trained in Smyth's
rating system. The results indicated that the experimental
group told significantly shorter stories and, after correct-
ing for this factor, this group expressed more blatant anger
than did the control group. Interrater correlations were
satisfactory, and reliability coefficients were in the mid-
nineties. The present study utilized Smyth's three-point
scoring system for measuring the degree to which aggressive
material was disguised. That is, a rating of l was assigned
when instruments or states of being suggestive of aggression
were reported in the story (e.g., "gun", "death"). A score
of 2 was used when behaviors more directly implying aggres-
sion were used (e.g., "fighting", "wounding", "arguing"). A
rating of 3 was assigned when anger was explicitly stated
(e.g., "angry", "mad”). As the present author was interest-
ed only in the degree to which anger was disguised (and
therefore theoretically less accessible on a conscious lev-
e1), the ratings on this portion of the system were summed

to provide a total score. To conserve time, only four TAT

87

cards (3BM, 4, 3GF, and 10) were administered to members of
the incoming group at three weeks postassault. Because it
required individual administration, the TAT was not adminis-

tered to the control group.

Results

Eipgl subject p231. Between January and August of 1980,
37 forcible rape cases involving victims 13 or older were
reported. 0f twenty-four asked to participate in this re-
search, 22 agreed. Refusals were given by a young adolescent
who did not want to tell her parents of her rape, and, there-
fore, could not provide a valid research consent form, and a
young adult whose mother discouraged her participation. Of
the 37 forcible rapes reported, 13 victims, or about one-
third, were not invited to participate in this project.
These included two retarded persons, one victim whose mother
refused to allow her participation, two individuals who no-
tified ECRCC of a rape but who refused counseling services,
three adolescents whose accounts of the assault eventually
revealed that no legally defined rape had occurred (they
‘were describing, instead, a sex stress incident), and another
adolescent who later acknowledged having purposely made a
false rape claim. The remaining three cases included an al-
coholic woman who did not follow through with counseling, one
mental health system client who periodically called claiming
to have been group raped, and one prostitute, believed to
have been raped and badly beaten by her pimp and associates,
who did not follow through with counseling. 0f the 22 in-

coming group women, two withdrew from the research project
88

89

and ECRCC at one week postassault, two others at four weeks,
and two more at six weeks postassault. The two oneaweek
‘withdrawees were in their early 20's. After initially agree-
ing to participate, they avoided and/or refused further

ECRCC contact. One stated this was because she did not want
her boyfriend upset by being reminded of the assault each
time that counselors contacted her. Of the fouraweek‘with-
drawees, one was an 18 year-old who had experienced severe
mood disturbance during her first two postassault weeks. Her
rape had revived painful memories of prior incestuous experi-
ences with her father and she terminated ECRCC contact,
stating that further meetings would remind her of the incest
that she wished to forget. The second woman, a 33 year-old,
had only allowed phone contact with ECRCC since that assault.
At about four weeks postassault she changed her phone num-
ber and did not respond to a letter requesting her new num-
ber if she desired further ECRCC contact. 0f the six-week
withdrawees, one was a 33 year-old partner in a dysfunction-
al marriage who terminated contact for unknown reasons; the
other was a 21 year-old college student who was also a pre-
vious sexual assault victim. She experienced severe mood
disturbances that seriously jeopardized her academic stand-
ing during the initial postassault month. To help restore
her school functioning she sought professional counseling
and, once focused on this, she seemed to choose to suppress
further thoughts or discussion of the assault. Except for

the two earliest withdrawees, the other victims contributed

9O

sufficient data to permit some data analyses from 20 incom-
ing victims. Nineteen of these were Caucasians and ranged,
in age from 13 to 33 years. The author initially interviewed
11 of these victims within 72 hours of their assault and 16
(80%) within their first postassault week.

ECRCC case records from 1978 and 1979 were examined and
yielded a list of 110 previously counseled rape victims who
met this project's criteria. Current addresses and/or phone
numbers could be located for only 61 and all but one agreed
to participate. The sole refusal was by a mother who pre-
fered that her young daughter (the victim) not be reminded
of the assault. Thirty-eight (63%) of the others completed
and returned questionnaire packets. These previously coun-
seled victims included 36 women and 2 men. They ranged in
age from 14 to 61 and all but two (94.7%) were Caucasian.
The time since their assault varied from.six years to three
months prior to this project. Sixty-five percent (23) had
been raped less than 18 months before this research project
and half (19) within 12 months.

Fourteen additional rape victims who had received no
crisis intervention counseling voluntarily contacted the
Center and completed the research data packets. Six had
learned of this project via media advertisements, while
three more were friends or relatives of ECRCC staff members,
and four others were introduced to this project by community
members unaffiliated with ECRCC. Of these 14, 13 completed

research packets. They were all Caucasian females who

91

ranged in age from 19 to 54. Eight had been raped more than
six years before this project started and four had been as-
saulted from between four and six years earlier. The re-
maining woman had been raped only three to four months before
her participation.

Cantrol group. Thirteen incoming rape victims completed

 

all interview-based measures at three-weeks postassault. This
created a need for 13 matched controls to provide an appro-
priate data base for comparisons. Thirty-seven.women volun-
teered to participate in this control group. Twenty-seven
were female OIC students, seven of whom were excluded be-
cause their questionnaire responses disclosed that they had
also previously experienced rape or incest. The remaining

20 OIC students consisted of 11 Caucasian and nine Black wom-
en ranging in age from 17 to 49 years. Four of these were
selected as controls. Ten other adolescents and adults
learned of the need for this control group through a grape-
vine of the author's colleagues and friends. All were Cau-
casian females ranging in age from 15 to 27 years. Nine were
chosen as controls. The selection criterion was the degree
of match between potential control group members with a mem-
ber of the incoming group on the following variables: age,
marital status, educational level, socioeconomic group, his-
tory of prior mental health counseling, religious identifica-
tion, and the present importance religion had in their life.
These matched groups did not differ significantly on any of

these variables by the Chi-square test.

92

Group differences _o_n_ demographic variables. In summary,

 

 

 

a total pool of 71 rape victims was generated: 20 incoming,
38 previously counseled, and 13 uncounseled. Chi-square was
used to test for significant difference between theSe groups
on each demographic and assault feature variable. The chi-
square results were reported only when a difference signifi-
cant at least at the p < .05 level was found. The two-tailed
test of significance was exclusively used as there were no
assumptions about how the groups might differ on these vari-
ables. Only variables that revealed statistically signifi-
cant intergroup differences received cement. Incoming vic-
tims were found to be more likely than previously counseled
victims to have experienced a prior sexual assault (Z_(2 (1) =
5.98, p < .05), been struck during this assault (242' (1) =
5.98, p <.05) and been injured (25"- (1). - 8.12, p <.01).
The uncounseled victim group was less likely than the in-
coming to have been a victim of previous sexual assaults

(_7_C2 (l) - 3.96, p < .05) and more likely to have been virgins
when assaulted (32 (l) =- 4.16, p < .05). This group was also
significantly older, (3’- (3) = 10.18, a <.05), and better
educated (252 (5) - 16.25, p < .01) than the incoming group.
In comparing the uncounseled group to the previously coun-
seled victims, uncounseled members were more educated than
previously counseled victims (752(5) = 16.90, p < .01), more
likely to have been acquainted (usually only slightly) with
their assailant (>_<?' = 6.38 (l), p < .05), more likely to
have been injured (242(1) = 8.12, p < .01), and more likely

93

to have been virgins when assaulted ()_(2 (l) = 9.37, p_ < .01).
Uncounseled group members also had been raped significantly
longer ago than previously counseled clients (32 (7) = 39.34,
B < .001) .

‘Missing data. Little missing data was found in the re-

 

search packets completed by members of the previously coun-
seled, uncounseled, or control groups. All had completed
Rosenberg's Self-Esteem scale and the Anger and Guilt scales.
Only one previously counseled subject omitted portions of the
DOV and all the ARSI-W. Quite substantial amounts of data
were missing from the questionnaires completed by the 20 in-
coming victims (see Table 3, p. 94).

Several factors contributed to these omissions. Al-
though they generally remained willing to be interviewed by
the author, six women refused to complete most question-
naires. Their reasons varied. One woman declined all face-
to-face contact with the author/researcher and was also un-
willing to have the questionnaires mailed to her home. Three
claimed to not comprehend the research questionnaires. The
author attempted to read the questions aloud to them while
explaining the vocabulary. They quickly became frustrated,
however, and declined further questionnaires. Two of these
three completed the DOV before giving up. A fifth person
completed the questionnaire packets administered at both a
few days and one week postassault, but then refused to com-
plete subsequent forms stating that doing so made her feel

"like a guinea pig". The sixth woman completed most of the

94

Table 3
Number of Incoming Victims Who Completed Forms

Postassault Questionnaires Number Completed of 20 Possible

 

 

 

 

2 - 5 Days
TSCS I 14
Anger I 11
Guilt I 11
DOV ' l6
7 - 10 Days
Support System 15
POMS l3
LES 15
Religious Commitment 15
3 Weeks
TAT ll
TSCS II 13
Anger II 11
Guilt II 13
IPD 9
F33 12
Bem SRI 9
Locus of Control .11
Body Cathexis 11
lg_Weeks
Rosenberg Self-Esteem ll
TSCS III 10
Anger III 11
Guilt III 11
ARSI-W 13

early questionnaires, but refused to complete more, main-
taining that they seemed "stupid and meaningless". She
later agreed, however, to complete the ARSI-W at lZaweeks
postassault. The remaining 14 participants who were willing
to complete most questionnaires varied in their refusals.
Adolescents frequently rejected Bem's SRI as "too difficult",

and persons in a hurry or "not feeling up to it" on a

95

particular day could often be encouraged to complete only
what they felt "able to", typically considerable less than
the whole data packet. Those who could not be interviewed
until well after the initial few days were not then adminis-
tered the Guilt or Anger measures.

Incoming victims did maintain a high rate of interview
contacts with the author. All 20 victims completed each of
the first three interviews and 18 completed the next two.

By the sixth week's interview, this number declined to 17,
to 16 at eight weeks, and only 14 completed the two later
interviews. All interviews were completed by only 10 vic-
tims. Table 4 shows the percentage of on-time interviews
and also those completed later. Most interviews occurred on
time, and the vast majority (75% to 94.1%) occurred no more
'than one week late.

Table 4

Time and Percentages of ARSI-O Completions

 

 

 

 

 

Interview On Late 1 dEy| Late 8 da 3 Late over
Period Time to 1 ee to _ weeks __ ays
few days 55 25 . 10 10
'week 1 65 20 - 15
week 2 65 10 20 5
week 3 50 38.9 11.1 -
week 4 44.4 38.9 16.7 -
week 6 82.4 11.8 5.9 -
week 8 75 18.8 6.3 -
week 10 64.3 14.3 21.4 -
week 12 85.7 7.1 7.1 -

Demographic Features

 

The final pool of 71 rape victims (20 Incoming, 38 Pre-
viously Counseled, and 13 Uncounseled) was used in tabula-

ting the demographic variable totals discussed below.

96

In some instances tabulations totaled less than 71 as victims
occasionally neglected to complete certain items. Signifi-
cant group differences on these variables were discussed on
page 92.

Sex, Nearly all victims were female; only two were
male. Aged 15 and 27, both were among the previously coun-
seled.

Age. Victims ranged from 13 to 61 years, while most
(73%) were 25 years-old or younger. Specifically, 12 were
between 13 and 17, 40 between 18 and 25, 14 between 26 and
35, and only five were over 35 years of age. Only the un-
counseled group contained no adolescents.

Marital status. The majority (43) were single, 14 were

 

married, three were divorced, nine were separated, and one
was widowed.

Socioeconomic status. The majority defined themselves

 

as either lower middle-class (28) or middle-class (27),
while smaller percentages labeled their socioeconomic status
as at poverty (9) or upper middle-class (6) levels.

Educational level. The majority had a high school edu-

 

cation (32), and seven were college graduates. Nine were
currently enrolled in college. Ten victims had dropped-out
of high school, and four had left college after one to three
years.

Occupation. A wide range of occupations was noted, in-

 

cluding students (18), homemakers (7), semiskilled and un-

skilled laborers (28), professional or technical employees

97

(7), and the unemployed or welfare recipients (10).

Religious identification. Thirty-two were from Protes-

 

tant backgrounds, 30 from Catholic backgrounds, and two were
Jewish. The two remaining people listed themselves as agnos-
tic or "other".

Importance g£_religion. Respondents were asked to

 

choose one of four phrases that best described hOW'important
religion presently was to them. Fourteen stated that reli-
gion was "very important”, twenty-two defined it as "some-
what important", eleven termed it "not very important" and
four viewed it as "not important".

Prior mental health counseling. When asked: "Do you

 

have any problem with drug or alcohol abuse, severe depres-
sion, or other psychological problems?", 22 acknowledged
having received some variety of mental health counseling.
Among previously counseled and uncounseled victims, this may
have preceded or followed their assault. Thirty-one victbms
(44%) acknowledged some type of mental health concern, wheth-
er or not they specified having received counseling for it.
Of these, eleven (36%) stated they had periods of depression,
although these were not defined as severe. Ten (36%) had
been hospitalized for psychiatric reasons (primarily for de-
pression) or for drug or alcohol abuse treatment. Three
complained of substance abuse, two described severe depres-
sion, two described a combination of depression and sub-
stance abuse, two complained of anxiety, and one described

sexual dysfunction.

98

£532; sexual assaults. Of the 69 victims reSponding to
this question, 54 reported to have never been sexually as-
saulted before the time of the rape. However, 15 acknowl-
edged prior sexual assaults of either forcible rape (9), in-
cest (3), attempted rape (2), or indecent assault (1). In-
coming group members were significantly more likely to have
been previously assaulted than members of the previously
counseled group (32 (1) =- 3.95: p_ < .05). This distinction
may be artifactual, however, given that when the nine prior
incoming victims were first asked whether they had been pre-
vious victims, five denied it. The assaults were not ac-
knowledged until later interviews when the women apparently
were more comfortable about sharing this information. Pre-
viously counseled and uncounseled groups did not have an
opportunity to develop this relationship, so that their sta-
tistics were based only on initial replies.

Sexual experience. Forty-nine participants (70%) iden-

 

tified themselves as nonvirgins when assaulted and 26 of
these characterized their earlier sexual experiences as pri-
marily negative, and seven labeled them as a mixture of pos-
itive and negative experiences.

Race of assailant. Of the 57 victims describing the

 

race of the assailant, 14 cases involved an assailant of a
different race. Eleven involved Caucasian victims and Black
assailants, and one case each was reported of a Caucasian
victim and a Chicano assailant, a Black victim and a Cau-

casian assailant, and a Chicano woman and a Black assailant.

99

Degree gfrelationship with assailant. Victims were

 

asked whether they had previously known the offender and 29
responded affirmatively, while for 40 (58%) the assailant was
a total stranger. Of those acquainted with assailants, 15
defined him as a "formerly highly trusted other", 10 stated
he was "only a slight acquaintance", two had first met him
the day of the assault, and two did not describe the extent
of the relationship.

Location 9§_Ehg rape. Twenty-two (31%) of the rapes oc-
curred in the victim's home, 20 (28.2%) happened in the
streets or the woods, 14 (19.7%) took place in buildings
other than the victimfs or assailant's home, 10 (14.1%) oc-
curred in the assailant's home, and five (7.0%) happened in
cars.

Presence 3: threats. Their assailants verbally threat-
ened 46 victims (64%) in an attempt to prevent her from
struggling during the assault and/or to discourage her from
telling anyone about the rape. In these cases, 21 involved
a threat to kill the victim, 17 threatened to physically
harm her without specific mention of killing, four involved
a threat to kill a victim's loved one (most frequently her
child), one was intimidated with threats of telling others,
and three of the threatened victims did not describe the
nature of that threat.

Presence 9; weapons. Sixty-seven victims responded to
the question of whether a weapon were present. In 22 (33%)

of these cases weapons were involved, and 21 of these

100

concerned guns or knives.

Use of restraints. No restraints, such as gags, ropes,

 

or blindfolds were used by offenders in most cases according
to the 68 victims responding to this item. In four cases,
the victimis hands and/or feet were tied, gags were reported
in four others, and four additional cases involved blind-
folds.

Striking the victim. Seventy victims responded to the

 

question of whether they were struck during the assault.
Twenty-five (36%) had been struck and 11 of these victims
were slapped repeatedly, eight were slapped once, five were
kicked or punched repeatedly, and one was struck with another
object.

Injuries. Of the 70 victims responding to this ques-
tion, 30 (42%) reported no physical injury; sixteen (22.5%)
sustained minor scrapes or brushburns not directly inflicted
by the assailant's blows; fifteen (22%) reported minor in-_
juries caused by being struck (e.g., bruises around the
throat, arms, or face), and 9 (13%) sustained major injuries,
such as extensive contusions, lacerations, or concussion.

Feelings towards the assailant. Presented at the end

 

of the ARSI-W, series of open-ended questions asked victims
to describe their feelings toward their assailant, both soon
after the assault and at present. They were asked to de-
scribe how they thought their spouse or boyfriend had felt
about the assailant. Several victims listed more than one

feeling, so multiple categories were used. The most common

.101

feelings reported immediately following the assault were
hatred (58%), fear (29%), anger (21%), and a desire for re-
venge (13%). Smaller numbers reported pity, confusion, self-
blame, or a refusal to let themselves think about the as-
sailant. Their present day feelings still included hatred
(52%) and anger (16%), although fear appeared greatly re-
duced (7%). Other feelings described were a desire for re-
venge (10%), pity (10%). and a refusal to let themselves
think about the assault or the assailant (7%). Victim's
most commonly described their spouse's or boyfriend's feel-
ings toward the assailant as a desire for revenge (39%),
hatred (35%), or anger (23%), while less than 10% reported
such feelings as disgust, lack of any feeling, or feeling
betrayed by the assailant. The latter feelings occurred in
partners who had previously considered the assailant a
trusted other.

Criminal justice system involvement. Seventy victims

 

 

responded to a question asking if their assailant had been
arrested. Most (45 or 64.3%) were unarrested by the time of
this project. In some instances this was because legal-
charges had either not been pressed or had been dropped,
while many other assailants had simply never been found: Of
25 arrested, 21 had been bound over at the preliminary hear-
ing and ten of these were still awaiting criminal court
trials. Of the 11 cases already tried, ten "guilty" and one
"not guilty" verdicts had been returned. Of the "guilty"

ten, four had yet to be sentenced and two had been sentenced

102

but the victims could not recall what the sentence was. Of
the four sentences known, one entailed only probation, two

had received between one and three years imprisonment, and

one received over 15 years.

Support systems. During their first 7 to 10 postassault
days, 41 (57.7%) of the victims reported telling at least one
significant other (friend, relative, or spouse) about the as-
sault. Six (8%) had notified only medical or counseling per-
sonnel while nine (13%) had told no one. Five of these lat-
ter were members of the uncounseled group. Of the subjects
having a boyfriend or spouse at the time of the assault, 90%
informed their partner and 64% of these described their boy-
friend or spouse's reaction to them as supportive and under-
-standing, 14% described it as angry and blaming, and 9%
stated that it alternated between understanding and blame.
These victims said that their partners did not seem to know
what to say or how to act, and three others could not dis-
cern how he felt towards her. On a Support System.question-
naire, the Incoming victims identified an average of 7.5 sup-
porters. The mean number of the latter that the victim.wish-
ed to tell of her assault was 4.0 and the mean number of in-
dividuals they reported telling was 4.2. Victims rated the
helpfulness of the significant other's response on a scale
from "not helpful" (1) through "highly helpful" (5). The
mean rating obtained was 4.2. Forty-four victims responded
to questions asking whether or not they had told their

"bosses or teachers" about the assault. Twenty-four (55%)

103

responded affirmatively and, of these, fourteen were glad
that they had done so while ten were not. Twenty-six as-
saultees responded to questions asking how they felt about
co-workers or fellow students knowing of their rape (includ-
ing cases in which the victim.told peers, and where peers
found out through others). Fourteen (54%) of them felt glad
that co-workers knew of the assault while five (19%) had
mixed feelings, and six (27%) wished to not inform their
peers. Eighteen of these 26 victims stated that there was at
least one peer whom they wished to not know about their as-
sault.

Counseling systems. Sixty-eight victims answered wheth-

 

er they had ever sought out a professional counselor for as-
sistance with personal problems resulting from the rape.
Eighteen (26.5%) responded affirmatively. In some cases,
this occurred before the client began seeing an ECRCC coun-
selor and, in other instances, it was concurrent with or had
followed ECRCC involvement. Of those who went to profession-
al counselors, eleven were still working with that counselor
when they participated in this research. Nine had attended
a total of four or fewer sessions, three had attended 5-12
times, three had attended 13-24 sessions, one had attended
for over six months, and two did not describe the length of
treatment. A variety of assault-related symptoms had prompt-
ed victims to contact professional counselors. The cited
symptoms included: depression (8), sexual dysfunction (2),

disruption of heterosexual relationships (2), and one each

104

for increased fearfulness, increased substance abuse, and
suicidal impulses. Victims were asked to rate how helpful
they had found professional counseling, using a scale of not
helpful (1) to very helpful (10). Thirteen of these 18 com-
pleted this section, yielding a mean rating of 4.92.
Fifty-eight subjects were ECRCC clients, 46 (79%) of
whom first began seeing an ECRCC counselor within 24 hours of
the assault. Forty-four of these 58 completed ratings of the
helpfulness of their ECRCC counselor(s). Using the same rat—
ing scale employed for professional counselors, their mean
rating was 8.61. No‘significant difference was found between
the ECRCC ratings assigned by previously counseled versus in-
coming clients. In examining the nine victims who assigned
ratings to both professional and ECRCC counselors, quite
similar ratings were observed such that the mean rating of
professional counselors was 6.44 versus 7.66 for ECRCC coun-
selors. Forty-two (72%) of the ECRCC clients wished to have
some type of continued ECRCC contact, whether in the form of
continued ongoing counseling or periodic phone calls from
the counselor. Of 43 respondents, 26 (60%) felt they had
'met with their counselor as often as they wished, while 16
(37%) felt they had seen too little of their counselor, and
one felt she had received too much contact. Of the 16 who
felt they saw too little of the counselor, two included a
written comment that they had been responsible for decreased
contact, but now regretted that choice. The 13 uncounseled

victims were asked why they had not contacted ECRCC, or a

105

similar agency, for services following the rape. Five (39%)
replied that there either was no such facility at the time of
their assault, or that they were unaware of the availability
of such services. Five others responded that they felt too
embarrassed and/or guilty, while two stated they felt they
should have been able to handle their feelings regarding the
assault on their own.

Reasons for research participation. The victims who
completed research packets were asked why they had chosen to
participate. Thirty-four responded to this question, and
their responses fell into four general categories. Twenty
said that they participated to help other victims, seven "to
help ECRCC", four thought that the general public needed to
have more information of this type, and three thought that it
would help them better understand their own continued feel-
ings about the assault.

Factors germane E9 recovery. After completing the

 

 

AR814W participants were asked "What has helped you the most
in putting your life back to normal since the rape? (Please
be specific)". Fifty-eight victim's cited one or more im-
portant factors. Most frequently cited were counseling (20
or 34%), the victimis own attitude (17 or 29%), her family
(13 or 22%), husbands or boyfriends (13 or 22%), friends (11
or 19%), and staying busy (11 or 19%). Five (3%) stated that
changing their location or jobs helped, four (7%) stated that
their religion had been important, and two noted that the

passing of time was helpful. Five others responded that

106

nothing had helped, and that their lives were not yet back to
normal. Of the 20 that cited counseling as beneficial, l6
referred to ECRCC's assistance, while four were receiving
counseling from both ECRCC and a professional counselor. It
was unclear whether these four references included both coun-
selors, or primarily referred to only one. Examples of re-
sponses in which the victim attributed her own attitude as
being important in the recovery process included references
to "my logic", "my self-confidence", and "my stubbornness",
as well as statements such as "I decided I was not going to
let it get to me", and "I decided I had to pull myself to-
gether and I did".

Analyses gf_Measures Common to All Victim.Groups

 

The data analyses of measures common to the total victim
pool are organized in the following fashion. The results of
standardized questionnaires will be presented in terms of
mean scores and group differences. A correlation matrix ex-
amining relationships among these measures will next be de-
veloped with all statistically significant relationships
identified by the following superscripts: a for p <1.001; b
for p <1.01; and c for pf< .05. All decimal points will be
omitted in the correlation matrices. The ARSI-W scores for
each of the four time periods sampled will next be similarly
reported followed by a consideration of the ARSI-W symptom
area scores. Finally a comparison of the ECRCC-affiliated
members of the uncounseled group with the unaffiliated mem—

bers will be documented to justify the use of the uncounseled

107

group as one group rather than two smaller ones.

Questionnaire results. The scores on the Rosenberg

 

Self-Esteem scale, Anger scale, Guilt, DOV-T, and DOV sub-

scales were calculated and compared for all three victim

groups.

victims (in parenthesis) that completed each measure.

Table 5

Table 5 shows each groups"mean scores and number of

Questionnaires Common to All Victim.Groups; Means with (N's)

 

 

 

 

Group Rosenberngnger Guilt DOV-T DOV-O DOV-S DOV-R
Incoming 19.82 16.82 21.73 65.39 3.56 53.88 7.29
(11) (11) (11) (16) (18) (16) (17)
Previously 19.84 13.00 23.37 58.44 2.99 49.65 5.62
Counseled (38) (38) (38) (37) (37) (37) (37)
Uncounseled 20.23 16.62 20.39 64.58 3.39 54.15 7.08
(13) (13) (13) (13) (13) (13) (13)

A one-way analysis of variance was calculated to determine
whether the three groups differed significantly in their re-
sponses on these measures. The two posthoc procedures used
to analyze significant differences were the LSD procedure,
essentially a Student's p—test (Nie, Hull, Jenkins, Stein-
brenner, & Bent, 1975), at probability level p <1.05, and
the Scheffe procedure at a probability level of p <1.10.
This latter probability level was recommended by Scheffe
(1959), given the relative rigor of his procedure. The LSD
procedure was used as it was exact for unequal group sizes.
A disadvantage is that the LSD's error rate increases with
the number of groups compared. However, the number of pres-

ent groups was generally small, so the procedure seemed ap-

propriate.

108

Statistically significant between-group differences were
found on the DOV-T, DOV-R, and DOV-S. The results of the LSD
and the Scheffe (p <1.05) procedure indicated that the pre-
viously counseled group scored significantly lower on the
DOV-T (H = 58.44) than did members of the incoming group (H =
64.58). Post-hoc analyses of the DOV-R and DOV-S by both the
LSD and Scheffe indicated that the previously counseled group
also rated their assault as significantly less violent (M =
5.62, E = 49.65) than did the incoming group's members (fi'=
7.29, H = 53.88). Hypothesis 6 stated that the incoming
group would evidence lower self-esteem than the others, but
this was not supported by Rosenberg's Self-Esteem index,

F (2,58) = 0.05, p,= .96. Nor were significant group differ-
ences found for either Anger or Guilt (see Table 6).
Table 6

Analysis of Variance Results from.Comparisons of
Questionnaire Scores by Victim Groups

 

 

 

Questionnaire E'Value and (df) Probability
Rosenberg 0.05 (2,59) .96
Anger 0.79 (2,58) .46
Guilt 0.84 (2,58) .44
DOV: T 5.09 (2,57) .01
DOV: O 1.03 (2,58) .36
DOV: S 3.84 (2,57) .03
DOV: R 3.15 (2,58) .04

109

Intercorrelation matrix pf questionnaires. Hypothesis

 

 

8 had predicted that victims scoring high on the Rosenberg
would also score high on Guilt. An intercorrelation matrix
depicted the associations among these and other measures, and
the hypothesis was supported. (see Table 7). Negative self-
esteen, anger, and guilt were found to be significantly in-
tercorrelated (p_<I.001). The DOV subscales each correlated
significantly with DOV-T, however DOV-S was most strongly re-
lated. DOV subscales also correlated significantly with one
another with the exception of the DOV-O/DOV-R comparison
where p’= .05.
Table 7
Questionnaire Measures Common to All Victim Groups

Questionnaires

 

 

Degree pf‘Violence (DOV)
Rosenberg Anger Guilt O S R T.

 

 

Rosenberg -— 56a 67a -08 17 15 17
Anger sea —— 453 -01 20 -07 15
Guilt 67a 45a - -02 ll -02 08
DOV: o -08 -01 02 -— 31c 05 463
DOV: s 17 20 11 31° —— 27c 95a
DOV: R 15 -07 -02 05 27c - 51a
DOV: T 17 15 08 463 95a 51a -—

ARSI-W results for the four time periods sampled. A

 

total of 62 victims completed the ARSI-W. The means, vari-
ances, and ranges for each of the four sampled time periods

are listed in Table 8, p.110.

110

Table 8

Total Victims' ARSI-W’Means, Variances, and Ranges

 

 

 

Statistic one week one month three months p23;
Mean 19.82 15.16 10.76 8.32
Variance 61.33 76.00 55.17 43.37
Range 1-34 2-34 0-27 0.23

These figures were derived by aggregating the number of symp-
toms that occurred throughout the ARSI-W subscale areas on
each occasion. Occupation was the only subscale omitted as
some (N’= 11) victims were not employees or students at the
time soon after they were assaulted and, therefore, had no
opportunity to obtain a score on any of the four occupation
questions asked at each time period. In computing ARSI-W
scores for the "now" time period, Incoming victim scores were
also the scores for their three months postassault period as
this group's "present day" report was done at three months
postassault.

As the incoming group completed the ARSI-W closer in
time to their actual assault than did the other groups, it
seemed possible that the previously counseled and uncounseled
group's report of symptoms during the first three time peri-
ods might differ significantly from the incoming's, given
the effect of retrospective error. A oneway analysis of
variance was performed comparing incoming member's scores
for each of the first three time periods with all other group
members. No significant differences were found, however.

The relevant Ffvalues were: one week, F (2,59) = 0.81

111

(p,= .45); one month, F (2,59) = .30 (p = .74) and three
months, F (2,59) = 2.90 (p a .06). Differences were not ap-
parent in the "now" category either, such that F (2,59) =
2.64 (p = .08). Thus, these groups did not differ in the
number of symptoms reported at any one time period, and Hy-
pothesis 1, which had stated that incoming group members
would evidence more symptoms in the "now" category than would
members of the other groups, was unsupported. The data
trends suggested, however, that at present the previously
counseled victims reported the fewest symptoms, while uncoun-
seled victims were still reporting essentially the same
amount as incoming victims who had been assaulted only three
months ago (see Table 9).
Table 9
Group's ARSI-W Mbans at Each Time Period

 

Grou N one week one “£13.12. phpgg months 933
Incoming 12 22.00 16.92 10.67 10.67
Previously

Counseled 37 19.76 14.65 9.32 6.78
Uncounseled 13 18.00 15.00 14.92 10.54

Another question was whether the number of reported
symptoms decreased as the time since the assault increased.
A repeated measures analysis of variance was calculated to
test whether the victim groups as a whole reported fewer
symptoms across the first three time-periods. The results
were highly significant, F (2,59) = 46.32, p <(.001. Post-
hoc analysis using the Scheffe procedure indicated that a

significant decline had occurred between one week and one

112

month postassault (p <I.05), and between one and three months

(p <I.01). The "now" category was excluded from this analy-
sis, as the incoming group's scores were not free to vary.

Additional repeated measures analysis of variance were
made to determine whether each victim.group evidenced a pat-
tern of symptom decline. Incoming group members evidenced a
significant difference, §_(2,9) = 8.92 (p <3.001). However,
a post-hoc Scheffe analyses (p <I.10) revealed no significant
differences between any single pair of means. The previously
counseled group also evidenced a significant change, F (3,33)
= 42.49 (p <I.001). Post-hoc analysis with the Scheffe pro-
cedure indicated a significant difference in the number of
symptoms reported at one week and three months (p <Z.05), and
one week and now (p_<j.01). The uncounseled victims also
evidenced a significant difference in the number of symptoms
reported over time, F_(3,9) = 3.36 (p < 0.05). A post-hoc
analysis using the Scheffe (p'< .10) failed, however, to re-
veal significant differences between any single pair of
means.

Intercorrelation matrix p£_ARSI-W totals. The intercor-

 

relation matrix, depicted in Table 10, p. 113, gives Pearson
correlation coefficients between,ARSIrw totals for each time
period. Positive and significant correlations existed be-
tween every combination of scores, except for scores at one
‘week postassault versus present day.

Table 11, p. 114, shows the product-moment correlations

between the number of reported symptoms (ARSI-W) on the four

113

Table 10
Intercorrelations of ARSI-W Totals for Each Time Period

one week one month three months now

 

 

one week: -— 76a 30b 00
one month: 76“1 - 63° 24°
three months: 3ob 63° — 606'
now: -00 24° 60a —

occasions with the questionnaire data for participants who
completed all of these measures. Present symptoms ("now")
correlated significantly with most questionnaire measures and
25 of the 28 linkages overall were positive. Total degree of
violence correlated positively and significantly with ARSI-W
at all four time periods, a pattern closely approached by
DOV-S. Only DOV-O showed no statistically significant bonds
to ARSI-W. The correlations of ARSI-W with Anger steadily
shifted from -.10 at one week postrape to .55 (p <1.001)

now . This interesting pattern was closely parallel by the
Rosenberg versus ARSI-W associations. Guilt was linked with
the number of reported symptoms one week postassault and
during the present-day period, but not during the intervening
periods.

Apgpp pf assault-related disturbance. ARSI-W scores
were also aggregated over time periods, yielding a subscale
total for each symptom area for the combined four periods.
The Occupation subscale was computed only for the 51 victims

who were employees or students when assaulted. Table 12,

p. 115, depicts the mean subscale scores, ranges, and

114

Table 11
Correlations of ARSI-W and Questionnaire Scores

Questionnaires N_ one week one month three months now

 

 

Rosenberg 61 -03 06 18 45°
Anger 61 -1o -06 28° 55°
Guilt 61 23° 14 13 36b
DOV: o ' 61 13 15 09 -04

DOV: s 60 22° 24° 21 43°
DOV: R 61 05 24° 25° 20

DOV: T 60 21° 29° 27° 36b

variances for the total victim group as well as the mean sub-
scale scores for subgroups.

A one-way analysis of variance was used to determine
whether the three victim groups differed significantly from
each other on each ARSI-W subscale. The only statistically
significant difference was for somatic disturbance: F (2,59)
= 3.52 (p = .04). Post-hoe LSD and Scheffe analyses proce-
dures (p <I.05) revealed that previously counseled victims
(M'a 4.22) obtained significantly lower scores in this area
than incoming group members CM - 5.62). However, the previ-
ously counseled group generally had the lowest means, and
the uncounseled group generally had the highest.

The following abbreviations for each symptom area were
used in Table 12, p. 115, and subsequent tables: Sleep
(SLP), Appetite (APP), Somatic (SOM), Assault-related Fears
(ARF), Heterosexual Relationships (HXL), Sexual Expression
(SXL), and Occupation (OCC).

115

Table 12

AR814W Group Means, Ranges, and Variances for Symptom Areas

 

 

 

 

 

 

Total Group Subgroup
Previously
‘Mean variance Rppgg 'Incoming» Counseled Uncounseled
SLP 9.08 23.55 1-19 9.17 8.57: L 10.47: H
APP 3.15 5.01 0-8 4.00: H 2.70: L 3.62
SOM 5.16 16.30 0-18 7.58: H 4.22: L 5.62
MDOD 2.92 6.96 0-8 2.50: L 2.97 3.15: H
ARF 10.42 36.84 1-24 12.50: H 10.05 9.54: L
HXL 9.27 29.42 0-20 9.42 8.38: L 11.69: H
SXL 8.34 34.42 0-20 8.83 7.57: L 10.08: H
OCC 3.88 13.19 0-12 4.00 3.80 4.00

Note. H indicates the highest group score and L indicates
the lowest.

 

Table 13
Group Differences on ARSI-W Symptom Areas (ANOVA)

9: E. E
SLP 2,59 0.73 .49
APP 2,59 1.94 .15
SOM 2,59 3.52 .04°
MOOD 2,59 0.21 .82
ARF 2,59 0.91 .41
HXL 2,59 1.85 .17
SXL _2,59 0 93 .40

116

An intercorrelation matrix of the AR814W symptom area
scores for all groups (N = 62) revealed positive, signifi-
cant, and IOW’tO moderate correlations between each subscale
(see Table 14). The strongest linkages were obtained between
Appetite and Somatic symptoms (.70) and between Heterosexual
Relationship and Sexual Expression (.67). Also, both Ap-
petite and Somatic disturbance correlated appreciably with
Occupation (5's = .65 and .62, respectively). The most cen-
tral symptom average was Sleep disturbance, which correlated
at least moderately with every other symptom.

Table 14
Intercorrelation Matrix of ARSI-W Symptom Area Scores

Symptom.Areas

 

Symptom

A___rea seagmmgwaage
SLP 62 - 56° 54° 42° 41b 42° 37b 49°
APP 62 56° -— 70° 19 30° 16 17 65°
SOM 62 54° 70° -— 29° 31b 26° 27° 62°
MOOD 62 42° 19 29° - 37b 43° 22° 36°
ARF 62 41b 30° 31b 37b - 37° 21 41b
HXL 62 42° 16 26° 43° 37° —- 67° 37b
SXL 62 37b 17 27° 22° 21 67° - 33°
000 45 49° 65° 62° 36° 41b 37b 33° -—

Pearson correlations were also calculated between all
questionnaire scores and postassault symptoms (as shown in
Table 15, p. 117). Nearly all (51 of 56) were positive,

showing general linkages of postassault symptoms with less

117

favorable questionnaire responses. Total violence (DOV-T)
linked to symptoms most consistently. Disturbances of both
Mood and Heterosexual Relationships linked most strongly and
diversely to these questionnaires. The weakest bonds were
obtained for DOV-O and also for the Sleep, Appetite, Occupa-
tion, and Assault-Related Fears areas of symptoms, closely
trailed by Sexual Expressiveness. The DOV-S and DOV-T yield-
ed low but positive and significant correlations with Sexual
Expression and Heterosexual Relationships. These supported
Hypotheses 10 which predicted that the more violent the as-
sault, the more disturbed would be postassault male-female
relationships.

Table 15

Correlations of ARSI4W Symptom Areas with Questionnaires

 

 

 

 

 

Symptom

Area Rosenberg_ Anger Guilt DOV: O DOV: S DOV: R DOV: T
SLP 13 13 20 09 15 19 19
APP 05 -00 03 11 18 11 21
SOM 11 08 13 02 35b 20 34b
M000 47° 43° 35b -11 20 23° 22°
ARF 05 14 17 13 21 20 25°
HXL 24° 17 30b 05 31b 17 31°
st 10 10 13 16 _ 24° 05 24°
000 -07 -10 07 07 16 18 18

A_comparison pf ECRCC-affiliated and nonaffiliated up:

 

counseled group members. As three of the 13 uncounseled vic-

 

tims had preexisting affiliations (e.g., as friends or

118

relatives) with at least one ECRCC staff member, it seemed
possible that this association might have unique effeCts. If
this preexisting ECRCC association was linked with signifi-
cantly different scores on questionnaire and interview mea-
sures, it would seem unfeasible to consider them as repre-
senting the same.set of victims. Both uncounseled subgroups
‘were compared for questionnaire responses using a one-tailed
pftest with a probability level of p <2.05 (i.e., it was as-
sumed that if the three ECRCC-affiliated victims responded
differentially, it would be in the direction of evidencing
less disturbance). Significant differences were found on
Rosenberg's Self-Esteem scale, the Anger scale, and Guilt.

In each instance the three affiliated persons obtained more
favorable scores, indicating higher self-esteem (p (11) =
3.21; p_<j.01), less anger (p (11) = 3.15; p <2.01), and less
guilt (p (11) = 2.49; p <:.05).

The ARSI-W scores of the ECRCC-affiliated uncounseled
group members were also compared to those of the ten remain-
ing uncounseled victims for each of the four time periods.

No significant differences were found, however, and the fol-
lowing Efratios were obtained: one week, F_(l.1l) a .81

(p = .39); one month, F_(l,ll) = .58 (p = .46); three months,
F (1,11) = .61 (p.= .45); and now, F (1,11) = .59 (p = .45).

Finally, the ARSI-W symptom scores of the ECRCC-affili-
ated uncounseled victims were compared to those of their un-
affiliated peers. No significant differences were found for

any symptom areas (see Table 16, p. 119).

119

Table 16

Uncounseled Victim Subgroup Comparisons (ARSI-W)

 

Symptom Areas 5 d: ‘p

SLP 0.05 11 .96
APP 0.26 11 .79
SOM 1.06 11 .31
MDOD 1.11 11 .29
ARF 0.37 11 .72
HXL 0.01 11 1.00
SXL 0.14 11 .89
OCC 0.52 8 .61

Given the relative lack of differences on dependent measures,
particularly on the symptom profiles, all uncounseled vic-
tims were treated as one group during the comparisons of
measures common to each victim group.

Effects prDemographic Variables pp Measures Common pp all Groups.

 

 

Each demographic variable was tested to determine if
it exerted an independent influence on the scores from
ARSI-W, Rosenberg's Self-Esteem scale, the Anger scale,
Guilt, DOV-T, or DOV subscales. The pertinent victims were
the 62 who had completed the ARSI-W and related measures.
p—tests were used in the comparisons when the independent
variable was composed of two categories. Only when a hypoth-
esis was tested was the single-tailed p-test used. Statis-
tical significance was set at the p <1.05 level. When the

dependent variable was repeated a measure, as was the case

120

with the ARSI-W scores for the four time periods, a oneway
analysis of variance was used. The oneway was also used in
all instances when the independent variable consisted of more
than two groups. A probability level of p <:.05 was neces-
sary for the results to be reported as significant. Two
posthoc analysis for significant results were used as previ-
ously discussed (pages 107 and 108).

Sgg, No significant differences were found between the
two males and 60 females on any measure.

Agg. The variable of age was measured in two fashions.
First, adolescents (N = 9) were compared to all adults age 18
and older (N = 53). The adolescents reported significantly
more anger (p (59) = 2.24; p_<I.05), less Appetite distur-
bance (p (60) a 2.03; p <I.05), and less Occupational dis-
turbance (p (60) = 2.36, p <:.05). They also reported signi-
ficantly fewer symptoms at the one month postassault period
(N_(1,60) = 4.04, p <Z.05). Victims were further divided in-
to the following three age categories: adolescents (N = 9),
adults age 18-29 (N.= 45), and older adults above 30 years
(N = 8). The only significant difference occurred for Anger
(N (2.58) = 4.31; p <:.05). The LSD and Scheffe procedures
(p <:.05) indicated that adults age 30 and older reported
significantly less anger (M'= 7.5) than the adolescents
(M = 21.56) .

Education. Individuals were classified into four cate-

 

gories of education: eight high school dropouts, seven high

school students, 28 high school graduates, and 19 with

121

college backgrounds or degrees. Significant differences were
found in the amount of sexual disturbance that was reported,
N (3,58) = 3.10, p < .05. Posthoc analysis indicated that
victims having college backgrounds reported more sexual dis-
turbances (M = 10.95) than did high school dropouts (M =

4. 88) .

Victims were also classified into a high school back-
ground (N = 49) and college background (N = 19) group. Those
with only high school background evidenced lower self-esteem
(_t_ (59) = 2.22; p <.05), more anger (p (59) = 2.01; p <.05),
and more guilt (I_:_ (59) = 2.24; p <.05) than those with some
college training. It should be noted that the "some high
school background" group included dropouts, present students,
and high school graduates.

Socioeconomic level. Individuals socioeconomic status

 

was categorized as poverty (P) level (N = 7), lower middle-
class (LMC) (N = 23), middle-class (MC) (N = 25), and upper
middle-class (UMC) or wealthy (N =- 7) . A significant differ-
ence was found in the number of symptoms reported at three
months postassault (N (3,58) = 5.73; p < .01), with the
Scheffe's indicating that P's reported significantly more
symptoms (M = 18.43), than did LMC individuals (H = 7.43) .
Posthoc analysis using the LSD yielded the same results, but
also indicated that P victims reported more symptoms than
MC's (M = 12.36). Significant differences between the groups
were also indicated in the symptom areas of Mood, (N (3,58) =

7.17, p <.001), Assault-Related Fears (N (3,58): = 4.86,

122

p <1.01), and Heterosexual Relationships (N (3,58) = 2.82,

p <:.05). Posthoc analysis indicated P victims reported more
Mood disturbance (M'= 5.57) than LMC's (M'= 1.65) and UMC's
(M = 1.57), and that they also reported much more Assault-
Related Fears (MT= 17.51) than any other socioeconomic group,
(mean scores were: LMC = 8.52, MC = 10.52, and UMC = 9.14).
Posthoc analysis using the Scheffe disclosed no significant
difference between any pair of categories in Heterosexual
disturbance. However, the LSD procedure indicated that P
victims reported more heterosexual disturbance (MT= 12.14)
than LMC's (M = 6.91).

Religious identification. Respondents were classified

 

into persons of Catholic (N = 28), Protestant (N = 28),
Jewish (N_= 2) and other (N = 4) religious background. No
significant differences were found on any measures.

Marital status. Individuals were categorized as single

 

(N.= 38), married (N = 14), separated or divorced (N.= 9),
and widowed (N'= 1). No significant differences were found
between these groups. This also held when victims were sim-
ply categorized as single or married and compared.

Race pf_the victim. Participants were classified as

 

Caucasian (N = 58) or a minority group members (N = 3). A-
gain no significant differences were found.

Occupation. Victims were first classified as employed

 

(N’= 53), a category which also included homemakers, and un-
employed (N = 6). These groups differed only on the DOV-S
(5 (57) = 2.46; E < .05), such that unemployed individuals

123

obtained significantly higher scores (M = 59.00) as compared
to the others (M'= 51.09). The victims were then classified
into the following occupational groups: students (§.= l4),
semiskilled and unskilled laborers and homemakers (N’= 34),
professional/technical employees (N = 7), and the unemployed
(N_= 6). Significantly different scores on Guilt were in-
dicated (N_(3,56) = 3.08; p <1.05), and posthoc LSD analyses
revealed that the professional/technical employees showed
less guilt (M'= 17.29) than did semiskilled laborers (M's
24.09) or the unemployed (MT= 24.00). The Scheffe procedure
yielded no significant differences between pairs of groups.

Prior mental health counseling. Individuals who had re-

 

 

cieved previous mental health counseling (N'= 17) were com-
pared to those who had not (N = 39). Those who had received
preassault counseling for a personal problem scored higher
on Guilt (p (53) = 2.68; p <I.01), reported greater postas-
sault Mood disturbance (p (54) = 2.24; p_<Z.05), greater
Assault-Related Fears (p (54) = 2.35; p <:.05), and greater
disturbance in Heterosexual Relationships (3 (54) = 1.75;

p <:.05). Those having preassault counseling also reported
significantly more present day symptoms (M'a 11.06) than did
the others (M'= 6.80), N (1,54) = 5.34; p <I.05. The one-
tailed p-test was used in the comparison of Heterosexual
functioning, for Hypothesis 3 had predicted that individuals
with previous histories of counseling would evidence more
disturbance in male-female relationships and sexuality. The

first part of this hypothesis appeared supported by data.

124

These groups did not differ significantly, however, in the
area of Sexual Expression (3 (54) = .36; p.= .72).

Nipgip pp pips pf pppg. Victims were classified into
virgins (N_= l9) and nonvirgins (N'= 42) at the time of the
assault. No significant differences were obtained.

Quality pf previous sexual expgriences. Participants

 

were classified into those who described earlier sexual ex-
periences (ESE) as all or mostly positive (N = 23), those who
described ESE's as largely negative (N_= 4), and those who
described ESE's as a mixture of positive and negative (N =
10). Significant differences between these groups were found
on the Anger (E.(2»34) = 4.17, p_<I.05) and Guilt (N (2,34) =
3.66, p_<:.05) scales. Posthoc analysis using the LSD and
Scheffe (p <3.05) procedures indicated that those having
mixed ESE's scored significantly higher on Anger (M = 11.30)
than those reporting primarily negative ESE's (M'= 6.00).
Similarly, those with primarily mixed experiences scored
higher on the Guilt (H'= 25.60) than those with primarily
negative experiences (H = 17.00). ,

Length pf time since the assault. Individuals were cat-

 

egorized according to the length of time since the assault as
follows: 0 - 3 months (N = 14), 4 - 12 months (N’= 24), 13 -
24 months (N = 7), or 25 months to six years ago (N = 17).

A significant difference on the DOV-S (N_(3,56) = 5.32,

p <I.01) and DOV-T (N (3.56) = 5.34, p <:.01) was found.
Posthoc analysis indicated that those assaulted 13 - 24

months ago (all 24 of these individuals were members of the

125

previously counseled group) scored higher on the DOV-S and
DOV-T than did members of all other groups.

Location pf £92 pgpg. Hypothesis 2 had predicted that

those assaulted in their own home (N = 19) would evidence
more severe symptoms than those assaulted elsewhere (N,= 43).
The results generally conflicted with this prediction. Vic-
tims assaulted in their own home evidenced less disturbance
in Mood and in Heterosexual Relationships (see Table 17,
p. 126). They also evidenced higher self-esteem, less anger,
and lower DOV-S and DOV-T scores. These victims did not dif-
fer significantly from those assaulted elsewhere in the num-
ber of symptoms reported at any time period, or in any other
symptom area except for Occupation, although they did report
significantly more Occupation-linked symptoms.

Previous history pf sexual assaults. Individuals were

 

 

categorized into those who had been previously sexually as-
saulted (N_= 10), and those who had not (N_= 51). The pre-
viously assaulted obtained significantly higher Anger scores
(M = 23.70) than the others (M = 12.74), p (58) = 3.26,
p'<?.01.

Race pf assailant. Victims were classified into those

 

raped by an assailant of the same race (N’= 37), and those
assaulted by any offender of a different race(N_= 11).

Those raped by an assailant of a different race scored signi-
ficantly lower in self-esteem on the Rosenberg (M = 21.82)
than for those raped by same-race assailants (M7= 18.35), p

(46) = 2.11, E < .05.

126

 

 

Table 17
Mean Scores of Victims Assaulted at Home vs. Elsewhere
Measure Nppg Elsewhere p’or N d: (one-gailed)
Rosenberg 17.32 20.95 2.44 59 .01b
Anger 9.89 16.76 2.49 59 .01b
Guilt 20.95 22.88 1.05 59 .15
00v: 0 3.58 3.11 0.90 59 .19
00v: 8 48.77 53.07 2.00 58 .03°
00v: R 5.56 6.72 1.56 59 .06
00v: T 57.65 62.83 1.95 58 .03°
ARSI-W:
one week 20.58 19.49 0.25 1,60 .62
one month 15.95 14.81 0.22 1,60 .64
three months 9.53 11.30 0.75 1,60 .39
now 6.90 8.95 1.29 1,60 .26
SLP 9.42 8.93 0.36 60 35
APP 3.42 3.02 0.64 60 26
SOM 5.74 4.91 0.74 60 23
M000 2.05 3.30 1 75 60 04°
ARF 11.16 10 09 0 63 60 26
HXL 7 53 10 05 1 71 60 46°
SXL 7.68 8.63 0 58 6O 28
000 5.38 3.20 2.05 49 .02b

Number pf assailants. Individuals were classified into

 

those attacked by a single (N = 52) versus multiple assail-

ants (N = 7). Those having multiple assailants obtained

127

significantly higher scores on the DOV-S (M = 58.29) and
DOV-T (M = 69.86) than those with single assailants (M =-
51.02 and Mf= 60.24, respectively). They also indicated sig-
nificantly more Assault-Related Fears (M'= 15.86) than others
(M = 2.93). Finally, multiple assailant victims reported
more symptoms at one month postassault (M's 21.57) than those
with single assailants (M'= 13.60), N (1.57) = 5.98; p <I.05.
T-test values are given in Table 18.

Table 18

Comparisons of Victims of Single Versus Multiple Assailants

Measure p d: p_
DOV: S 2.41 57 .02
DOV: T 2.62 57 .01
ARSI-W: ARF 2.95 57 .01

People told during the first 7-10 days. Fifty-three of

 

the individuals who completed the ARSI-W'and related measures
told at least one other person about the rape within 7-10
days of its occurrence, while nine individuals told no one.
No significant differences were found between these groups,
however.

1; the victim knew the assailant. A DOV-O item asking

 

whether the victim knew the assailant was responded to af-
firmatively by 26 individuals completing the ARSI-W, and neg-
atively by 34 people. Hypothesis four predicted that indi-
viduals knowing their assailant would have more difficulty
recovering than if he were a stranger. The sole statistical-

ly significant difference was in the opposite direction.

128

Thus, those raped by strangers reported significantly more
disturbance in Assault-Related Fears (p_(59) = 2.05, p <I.05)
than did others. The pertinent mean scores were 8.50 versus
11.63.

Presence pf threats. Those reporting verbal threats
during their assault (N = 40) were compared to those who did
not (N’= 19). This classification was based on responses to
DOV-0 item and these groups differed significantly on the
DOV-O (p (57) = 7.11; p_<1.001), DOV-S (p (57) = 2.02;

p < .05), and DOV-T (_t_:_ (57) = 2.84; p < .01).

Presence pf'weapons. Victims were also grouped into
those who reported that their assailants had a weapon (N =
21) and those who did not (N,8 37). These data were also ob-
tained from a weapon-inquiring DOV-O item and the only sig-
nificant difference found between these two groups was on
that scale (p (56) = 4.84; p <I.001).

Use pf restraints. Ten victims who reported that their

 

assailants had used restraints such as rope, gag, or blind-
fold were compared to 45 victims reporting no such re-
straints. The information for this classification was de-
rived from a DOV-O item, and these groups differed signif-
icantly only on this scale, (p (58) = 2.16; p <1.05).

Sexual events during the rape. Victims were also clas-

 

sified into those whose rape reportedly involved vaginal pen-
etration alone (N’= 36) versus those reporting fellatio, cun-
nilingus, or sodomy (N|= 26). These latter cases may have

occurred singlely or been combined with vaginal penetration.

129

Those whose rapes involved vaginal penetration alone were
found to rate the degree of violence (DOV-R) as significantly
less (M'= 5.78) than those whose assaults involved Involun-
tary Deviate Sexual Intercourse (IDSI) (M'= 7.24), p (59) =
2.14, p < .05).

Victims struck. Participants were classified into those

 

reportedly struck by assailants (N = 19) and those not struck
(N = 42). The information for this classification was taken
from the DOV-O, and the groups differed significantly on both
this scale (p (59) = 4.60; p <1.001) and on the DOV-T (p (58)
= 2.87; p <I.01). Those struck showed greater disturbance
evident in several symptom areas, including: Sleep (5 (60) =
2.09; p < .05), Appetite (_t_:_ (60) =- 2.83; p < .05), Somatic
disturbance (p (60) = 2.83; p <I.05), and Heterosexual Rela-
tionships (p (60) = 2.65; p <2.05). The struck group's mean
scores on these symptom areas were, 10.90, 4.25, 7.15, and
11.80, respectively, versus 8.21, 2.62, 4.21, and 8.07 means
for the nonstruck. Struck victims also reported more symp-
toms during each time period (see Table 19, p. 130).

ijppy, Victims were classified into those having se-
vere (N = 10), mild (N’= 26), or no injury (N = 26) following
the assault. This information was derived from a DOV-O item.
The relevant data analyses are listed in Table 20, p. 130.
Significant linkages between the severity of the injury and
how violent the assault seemed (DOV-R and DOV-T) were ap-
parent, with the affected DOV scores steadily increasing with

the severity of injury. A similar pattern held for the

130

linkage between the number of present day symptoms and the

amount of Appetite disturbance during the three month recov-

ery period.

Table 19_

Comparisons of Struck vs. Unstruck Victims

 

risers.
A§§E;N’ Sppupk. Not Struck NfNEEip
one week 23.20 18.21 5.94
one month 19.15 13.26 6.77
three months 13.60 9.41 4.58
now 10.90 7.10 4.81
Table 20

Comparisons of Injured vs. Noninjured Victims

 

 

None Mild Moderate F
to severe —
DOV: R 5.46 6.60 8.20 4.29

DOV: T 57.40 63
ARSI-W:

Symptoms
now 5.96 10
APP 2.54 2

Posthoc analysis
jured obtained higher
DOV-T (M -= 5.46 and M

cedure indicated that

.16 67.78 5.52

.39 9.10 3.24
.92 5.30 6.80

9.12
1,60
1,60
1,60
1,60

9:

2,58
2,57

2,59
2,59

.02
.01
.04
.03

.05
.00

indicated that the more severely in-

scores on the DOV-R (M = 8.20) and

- 57.41, respectively).

The LSD pro-

the mildly injured reported more symp-

toms at present (M'= 10.39) than the noninjured (M'= 5.96),

while the Scheffe did not identify any difference between

these pairs of groups.

Finally, posthoc analysis indicated

131

that those with moderate to severe injuries evidenced more
Appetite disturbance (M'= 5.30) than those mildly injured
(M = 2.92) or noninjured (M = 2.54).

The arrest pf the assailant. The assailants of 24 vic-

 

tims were reportedly arrested while 37 victims reported no
arrests as yet. Arrested assailants' victims reported sig-
nificant fewer symptoms during the three months postassault
period (N (1,59) = 10.68; p <C.01) and at the present day (N
(1,59) = 7.60; p <I.01). Their mean scores at these two time
periods were 7.33 and 5.71, respectively, as compared to the
substantially larger means of 13.22 and 10.22 for victims of
unapprehended rapists. Victimds whose assailants were ar-
rested also evidenced fewer symptoms in several sectors, in-
cluding Mood (p (59) a 2.29; p <1.05), Heterosexual Relation-
ships (5 (59) a 2.10; p_<I.05), and Sexual Expression (5 (59)
= 2.82; p < .01). Their mean scores on these measures were
2.04, 7.50, and 5.96, respectively, as compared to 3.57,
10.43, and 10.05.

if the case went pp court. Victims were further classi-

 

fied into those whose cases had gone to court (N,= l6) and
those whose cases had not gone to court because charges were
not pressed or the trial had not yet been scheduled (N = 15).
A significant difference was found in the amount of reported
postassault disturbance in Heterosexual Relationships (5 (29)
= 2.50, p <I.05), with those whose case had gone to court in-
dicating fewer Symptoms (M'= 6.63) than those whose cases had

not (M = 10.93).

132

Court verdict. Only 11 individuals reported court ver-

 

dicts. In 10 instances the assailant was found guilty, and
one "not guilty" verdict had been.made. Despite the small
size of this sample, comparisons were run between these two
groups. However, no significant differences were found.

Contacted professional counselors for rape-related rea-
pppp, Fourteen individuals who reported seeking a profes-
sional counselor for personal problems due to their assault
were compared to 46 who did not. The professional counselor
contactors evidenced lower Rosenberg self-esteem (p (57) =
3.67; p‘< .001) and higher Guilt (p (57) = 2.45; p <2.05)
scores. They also reported a significantly greater number of
ARSI-W symptoms at one month (N (1,58) = 4.02; p <I.05), and
three months (N_(l,58) = 8.84; p <f.01) postassault, as well
as in the present day (N (1,58) - 4.28; p <I.05). Victims
who contacted professional counselors also reported more dis-
turbance in the symptom areas of: Sleep (5 (58) = 2.71;
p (.01), Mood (p (58) = 3.03; p < .01), Heterosexual Rela-
tionships (p (58) = 2.58; p_<I.05), and Sexual Expression (p
(58) = 2.36; p <I.05). The mean scores on each of these mea-
sures were listed in Table 21, p. 133.
Analyses pf Data From the Incominngroup

The analyses of measures pertinent to the incoming group
alone began with a comparison of the scores obtained from
these victims and their matched controls. The remaining data
were organized in a manner similar to the format for the data

obtained from all victim groups. The independent effect of

133

each demographic variable on individual responses was assess-
ed. However, given the very small sample size the signifi-
cant results yielded by this analysis were simply listed in
Appendix F (p. 235), and only those findings pertinent to the
hypothesis were discussed in the text.

Table 21

Mean Scores on Variables Pertinent to Professional Counseling

 

Seekers Nonseekers
Rosenberg 11.43 7.35
Guilt 11.57 16.60
SLP 12.07 8.22
MDOD 4.71 2.41
HXL 12.43 8.37
SXL 11.43 7.35
One Month 19.07 13.98
Three Months 15.36 9.26
Now 11.65 7.61

Comparison pf Control and Incominngroups. Thirteen in-

 

 

coming members completed all or part of the packet of three
week postassault questionnaires. Their scores were compared
to those of the 13 matched controls using the one-direction-
al p—test, as shown in Table 22, p. 134. Hypothesis 6 had
predicted that incoming members would evidence significantly
lower self—esteem than the controls, but this was not sup-
ported by either of two self-esteem (Rosenberg and Body Ca-
thexis) measures. Hypothesis 9 had predicted that incoming

members would show greater heterosexual anxiety and more

isolation than controls.

134

The F53 and Constantinople's Isola-

tion scale scores were used to test this, but no significant

differences were obtained.

Although Hypothesis 9 was not di-

rectly supported, these groups differed significantly on Con-

stantinople's Mistrust and Intimacy scales, with the incoming

group members evidencing greater Mistrust and lower Intimacy.

Futhermore, the control group members consistently scored in

the "healthier" direction on virtually all measures.

Table 22

Means of the Control vs. Incoming Groups

Measure

Constantinople

Trust
Mistrust
Intimacy
Isolation
FSS
Bemis SRI
Levenson's
I
C
P
Body Cathexis
Rosenberg
Anger

Guilt

 

 

 

Incomipg Control Pairs p-test (df)
22.73 22.73 11 0.00 (20)
18.09 11.82 11 2.21' (20)
25.09 29.37 11 2.79 (20)
17.09 14.10 11 1.24 (20)
52.83 50.42 12 0.47 (22)
+0.84 1 82 9 1.44 (16)
33.11 35.89 9 1.09 (16)
29.00 24.11 9 1.42 (16)
23.22 22.78 9 0.10 (16)
29 09 25 82 11 1.25 (20)
19.82 18.82 11 0.51 (20)
16.82 12.18 11 1.00 (20)
21.73 19.46 11 1.20 (20)

E.

.50
.02b
.00°
.12
.32
.09

.15
.09
.46
.12
.31
.16
.12

135

ARSI-O results: ‘Means and correlations. ARSI-O symptom

 

interviews were scored so that each of the nine interviews
generated both subscale scores and a total score for that
time period. Subscale areas were also totalled over time
periods for those respondents who had completed at least five
interviews. Each victim's aggregated total across the time
periods was divided by the total number of completed inter-
views. This made it possible to compare symptom area totals
across individuals. This selection and compilation procedure
yielded data from 18 of the 20 available victims. Only the
two who dropped-out of the research project at four weeks
were excluded. Table 23, (p. 136) lists these ARSl-O mean
scores, variances, and ranges; also the subscale totals.
Table 24, (p. 137) shows the intercorrelation matrix of the
ARSI-O symptom areas.

The Appetite and Somatic disturbance subscales were
found to have strong positive relationships (p_< .01 and
p‘< .001) with Mood and Assault-Related Fears. The subscales
of Heterosexual Relationships and Sexual Expression were also
significantly and positively correlated (p <1.05). Interest-
ingly, the central symptom areas on the ARSI-O (Appetite and
Mood) were different than those on.ARSI-W (Sleep and Occupa-
tion). This is probably due to the different systems of
scoring for the two symptom area forms. The intercorrelation
matrix given in Table 25 (p. 137) displays the linkages be-
tween the ARSI-O symptom severity indices over the nine time

periods.

136

Table 23
ARSI-O and Subscale Means, Variance, and Ranges

ARSI-O Mean variance Ranges

 

Time periods

few days 29.90 152.73 0 - 59
one week 24.90 210.10 0 - 52
two weeks 18.05 101.73 1 - 38
three weeks 13.88 103.61 2 - 35
four weeks 15.53 180.77 0 - 50
six weeks 14.82 243.03 0 - 49
eight weeks 7.81 49.90 0 - 22
ten weeks 6.50 22.82 0 - 17
twelve weeks 9.13 85.55 1 - 38
Symptom.Areas

SLP 1.93 1.59 0 - 4.29
APP 0.93 0.59 0 - 3
SOM 1.23 0.98 0 - 3.11
MOOD 3.45 2.97 .50 - 6.50
ARF 4.02 5.30 0 - 8.71
HXL 2.15 2.57 0 - 5.75
SXL 1.22 2.96 0 - 6.63
OCC 1.27 1.22 0 - 4.00

A repeated measures analysis of variance was used to de-
termine whether reported symptoms declined over the nine time
periods, and, if so, when the significant changes occurred.

A significant difference was evident overall, N (8,1) = 8.51,

p_<:.0001, and posthoc analysis with the Scheffe (p‘< .10)

137

Table 24
Intercorrelations of ARSI-O Symptom Areas
Symptom.Areas SLP APP SOM ‘MOOD ARF HXL SXL OCC

 

 

SLP - 36 54° 63b 65b 15 26 44°
APP 36 - 47° 60b 76° 52° 61b 12
SOM 54° 47° - 65b 65b -01 -05 25
M000 63b 60b 65b -— 79° 26 42 46°
ARF 65b 76° 65b 79° - 38 31 33
HXL 15 52° -01 26 38 -— 53° 08
SXL 26 61b -05 42 31 53° - 10
occ 44° 12 25 46 33 08 10 _—
Table 25 '

ARSI-O Severity Indices Intercorrelated

32 1 2 3 4 6 8 lg, 5g

Few Days -— 89° 66b 29 51° 59° 40 07 08
Week 1 89° - 66b 27 30 40 27 08 51°
'Week 2 66b 66b -— 59b 48° 36 59b 75b 25
Week 3 29 27 59b - 47° 29 52° 88° 12
Week 4 51° 30 48° 47° —— 83° 54° 36 11
Week 6 59° 40 36 29 83° - 66b -07 -02
Week 8 40 27 59b 52° 54° 66b - 56° 09
Week 10 07 08 75b 88° 36 -07 56° —— 18

Week 12 08 51° 25 12 11 -02 09 18 -—
indicated that symptom.severity declined significantly from a
few days to eight weeks postassault, and remained low at ten
(p < .10) and twelve (p < .05) weeks. Although the mean

symptoms declined rather consistently between a few days

138

postassault and six weeks, these differences were not statis-
tically significant.

Questionnaire results: Multiple administrations. In-

 

 

coming members completed the Anger, Guilt, and TSCS measures
at three different time periods. The relevant means are
listed in Table 26 (p. 139). A repeated measures analysis of
variance was made on the scores from individuals completing
all three administrations of a given measure to determine if
any score changed with amount of postassault time. The Anger
scale yielded an N (2,5) = 1.32; p = .30; the Guilt N (2,6) =
0.75; p = .49, and the TSCS N (2,6) = 0.90, p = .43. Thus,
no significant changes occurred over time on any specific
scale, but their consistently positive trend was impressive
and probably statistically significant.

Questionnaire results: Single administrations. Several

 

 

measures were administered only once to incoming victims. Of
these, the DOV, Rosenberg, and ARSI-W have been previously
discussed. The remaining one-time measures, their means, and
the number of incoming members completing them are listed in
Table 27 (p. 140).

Correlation matrices for all questionnaires. Pearson
correlations were calculated between each of the major sin-
gle-administration measures (see Table 36, Appendix D) and
also between these and the multiple administration measures
(see Table 37, Appendix D). Hypothesis ten had predicted
that the more violent the perceived rape experience, the more

heterosexual anxiety and mistrust, and the less trust would

139

be evidenced. The F88 and Constantinople's Trust and Mis-
trust subscales were correlated with the DOV subscales and
total score but the DOV-S, DOV-R, and DOV-T did not correlate
significantly with any of the expected measures (see Appendix
D). The DOV-O, which was least expected to exert an effect,
as it tapped objective rather than subjective impressions,
correlated negatively and significantly with the FSS (p_=
-.67, p <I.05). Twelve or fewer victims provided data for
each of these correlations.

Table 26

Mean Anger, Guilt, and TSCS Scores of Incoming Members

(N)

 

 

‘Measure Members completing all ‘Menbers completing
three administrations (N) any administration
Anger
few days 26.63 (8) 29.64
three weeks 21.25 (8) 19.55
twelve weeks 16.75 (8) 16.82
Guilt
few days 24.78 (9) 25.44
three weeks 24.44 (9) 23.62
twelve weeks 22.56 (9) 21.73
TSCS
few days 313.33 (9) 318.36
three weeks 315.11 (9) 322.39
twelve 323.89 ‘ (9) 327 .80

Note, Only those who completed all three administrations of
Anger (8), Guilt (9), and TSCS (9) were used in subsequent
analysis.

(11)
(11)
(11)

(16)
(13)
(11)

(14)
(13)
(10)

Table 27

Questionnaire

Constantinople
Trust
'Mistrust
Intimacy
Isolation
Bem.Sex Role Inventory
Levenson
Internal
Control
Powerful Other
Body Cathexis Scale
Fear Schedule Survey
Thematic Apperception Test
Profile of Moods State
Religious Commitment
Life Experience Survey
Negative Change
Positive Change
Total Change
Support System
Number of People Listed
People That Wanted To Tell
People Told About the Rape

Level of Helpfulness

Mean

 

.22
22.
.09
25.
.68

18

33.
.00
.22
.09
52.
.55
95.
.27

29
23
29

4‘ka

.73

73

09

11

83

46

.88
.97
.21

.47
.00
.20
.21

140

Incoming Victims Scores on Single-Administration Questionnaires

N (Of 20 Maximum)

 

ll
11
11
11

9

11
12
ll
13
15

15
15
15

15
14
15
14

141

Hypothesis 12 had predicted that the greater the report-
ed Mood disturbance (POMS and TMD scores) at 7 to 10 days
postassault, the more guilt and negative life change in the
year preceding the assault would be reported. Conversely, it
was assumed that high religious commitment, positive self-
esteem, and a support system rated high in helpfulness would
correlate negatively with this score. Pearson correlations
were determined between these measures (see Appendix D,
pp. 227-229). Measures of self-esteem included the Rosen-
berg, TSCS, and the Body Cathexis Scale. The POMS-TMD evi-
denced a positive, significant relationship with the Body Ca-
thexis Scale (higher BSC scores denoted more negative body
stature self-esteem). This finding partially supported the
hypothesis. However, the POMS yielded no other significant
linkages with self-esteem measures. POMS-TMD correlated only
-.03 with LES negative although total LES total changes
scores linked positively (.57) and significantly to total
Mood Disorder (POMS). At two to five days postassault the
Guilt measures nearly linked (£’= .50) to POMS-TMD, but sub-
sequent Guilt scores correlated more weakly.

Pearson correlations were also calculated between each
questionnaire completed by incoming group members and their
ARSI-O score for each of the nine time periods. Although the
number of victims completing many of the questionnaires was
small, these linkages proved interesting. Correlations be-
tween the ARSI-O and self-esteem (e.g., the Rosenberg, TSCS,

and Body Cathexis Scale) yielded statistically significant

142

linkages between the Rosenberg and symptom severity at four
weeks postassault; also between the Body Cathexis Scale and
symptom ratings on several occasions, (see Table 28).
Table 28
Correlations of Self-Esteem Measures With ARSI-O Symptom Profiles

Postassault Times

 

Few Days N:l_ W-2 W-3 W-4 W-6 W-8 ‘W-10 W-12

 

 

Rosenberg 20 ‘09 12 -08 59° 38 54 -20 49
Body Cathexis 69b 79b 33 29 26 57° 73° -39 23
TSCS - 1 05 10 -21 08 -29 -46 -51 -35 32
TSCS - 2 -27 -24 -03 22 -14 -42 -03 -35 -16
TSCS - 3 42 32 66° 49 -02 02 03 31 -09

Over these time periods low self-esteem and a negative body
image tended to link with the amount of general postassault
disturbance. The TSCS linked more erratically to disturbance,
yielding 15 negative and 12 positive correlations, including
solo positive and negative values that reached significance.
ARSI-O disturbance generally correlated positively with
the several mood measures, including the POMS, Anger, Guilt,
and TAT rating of Anger (see Table 29, p. 143). The POMS,
administered seven to ten days postassault, rather consis-
tently linked positively and significantly to symptom severi-
ty. The scores from Anger's first administration correlated
positively and significantly with symptom severity at two and
eight weeks postassault, while Anger's final administration
at twelve weeks linked oppositely to early postassault symp-

tom severity ratings.

143

Table 29
Correlation of Measures of Mood with ARSI-O Symptom.Profi1es
Time
Measures FD l 2 3 4 g N lg lg
POMS 48° 63° 67 84b 45
Anger: 1 48 52 71 38 42 44 80° 16

 

: 2 41 41 53° 72 04 35 61° 36 38
: 3 -68° -65° -38 11 -36 -52 -23 37 09
Guilt: 1 02 05 21 29 47 52° 67b 50 ~27
: 2 30 23 43 11 39 46 64° 65° 80b
: 3 29 01 46 12 38 31 30 02 19
TAT 20 33 54 14 65° 59° 63° 15 12

Guilt scores had somewhat fewer significant bonds (5 of 27)
to ARSI-O symptom profiles. However, initial Guilt (1)
scores correlated positively with symptom severity indices at
six and eight weeks postassault and Guilt 2 scores similarly
linked with symptom severity at eight, ten, and twelve weeks
postassault. Representing disguised anger, the TAT index
yielded positive and significant correlations with symptom
severity at four, six, and eight weeks postassault despite
its very weak linkage (p}= .14) at three weeks postassault.
The various support system measures (i.e., the number of
people in it, the number she wished to tell about the rape,
the number finally told, the average level of helpfulness),
failed to yield any significant correlation with the symptom
severity at any of the nine time periods. Although not at-

taining statistical significance, eight of the nine'

144

correlations between the helpfulness of ECRCC counselors and
symptoms were positive in direction. Of the remaining ques-
tionnaires, only Constantinople's Trust and Mistrust sub-
scales, Bem's SRI p—ratio, and LES negative and total change
scores yielded any significant correlations with symptom se-
verity indices (see Table 30 on p. 145). The Trust scale
correlated negatively with indices at the four and twelve
week postassault points, while the Mistrust subscale correla-
ted positively with the disturbance at a few days postassault.
Levenson's Control scale correlated negatively with severity
indices at two, eight, ten, and twelve weeks postassault.
Bemds p—ratio scores correlated positively with symptom se-
verity scores at a few days postassault. LES total change
scores obtained significant, positive correlations with symp-
tom severity at two weeks postassault, while LES negative
change scores correlated positively with those at four to six
weeks postassault. Overall, however, few statistically sig-
nificant correlations were found between the number of re-
ported symptoms and the questionnaires cited in Table 30.
Two factors to be considered for their influence was the
small number of respondents, and the decreasing number of
victims completing symptom interviews as the time postassault
progressed.

Pearson correlations calculated between each question-
naire index and ARSI-O symptom areas are depicted in Tables
31 through 34. Among the self-esteem measures, the Rosenberg

correlated positively and significantly with the amount of

145

Table 30
Questionnaires Correlations With ARSI-O Symptom Profiles

Time in Weeks Postassault

 

32992329. 22 1 2 2 fl 9 9. 19 1%
c: T -38 -02 -11 -16 -60° -34 -49 -57 -83b
: MT 60° 22 39 25 52 48 17 32 35
: IN -26 -21 10 39 16 -27 28 38 08
: IS 41 18 06 -27 12 34 -16 -26 12
L: 1 -31 -19 -51 -25 -14 -12 -39 -85 -65
: c -36 -48 -67° -13 -04 -22 -76° -96° -67°
: P -27 -51 -51 -37 21 09 -32 -20 -53
FSS 31 22 45 12 36 25 48 -18 38
SRI 59° 26 21 03 33 40 12 11 56
Religion 33 14 27 43 27 23 03 39 19
LES: N 18 -14 -29 -20 68b 61 -12 -14 -21

: P 33 31 20 22 22 40 20 04 00
: T 48 44 56° 39 30 40 11 31 -07
00v: 0 01 -01 22 26 20 -01 08 44 21
: s 13 01 —11 30 32 12 -17 26 08
: R 00 01 -10 30 -10 -27 -28 35 08
: T 19 07 -06 36 36 18 -10 30 15

disturbance rated in Heterosexual Relationships (see Table
31, p. 146). The TSCS.yie1ded no significant correlations,
while the Body Cathexis scale was positively and significant-
ly correlated with disturbances in Sleep, Mood, Sexual, and
Occupational areas. It should again be noted that high

scores on the Rosenberg and Body Cathexis indicated low

146

self-esteem, while the opposite was true for the Tennessee.

Table 31
Correlation of Self-Esteem With ARSI-O Symptom Areas

Symptom Area

 

Msssgasa. §L£. ABE. §9§L 8992. ABE. AEEE. EKL. 999.
Rosenberg 01 28 -08 15 -01 67° 43 17
BSC 65° 32 20 78b 29 21 59° 69°
TSCS: 1 -37 -50 -29 -25 -15 -34 -28 19
TSCS: 2 04 -31 -29 04 -13 -35 -07 -16
TSCS: 3 32 38 —20 20 33 -19 48 16

The POMS Mood measure correlated positively and signifi-
cantly with disturbances in Sleep, Appetite, Mood, Assault-
Related Fears, and Occupation (see Table 32, p. 147). The
TAT score correlated positively and significantly with dis-
turbance in Appetite, Heterosexual Relationships, and Sexual
Expression. The Anger and Guilt scales correlated with sev-
eral symptom areas, as depicted in Table 32, (p. 147).
Support system measures again failed to correlate signifi-
cantly with ARSI-O symptom area scores (see Table 33, p. 147).
LES total change scores correlated positively with the areas
of Appetite disturbance and Assault-Related Fears, while
other LES scores obtained no significant correlations (see
Table 34, p. 148). The DOV-O correlated significantly with
Somatic disturbance and Assault-Related Fears, while the
DOV-S and DOV-T correlated significantly with Sleep distur-

bance.

Correlations of Mood Measures

SLP

POMS
Anger: 1

Guilt:

LONE-‘UON

TAT

Table 32

germ
34 83b
05 56
14 72b
-20 -10 ~38
46 33 46°
49 40
48 ~16 -07
-25 39
Table 33

Asses
76b ‘39
78b 58
70° 37

-13 -33
33 41
61° 48
15 59°
44 83b

147

'With ARSI-O Symptom.Areas

§§£. 999
39 65°
44 14
54 05

-43 -91°
13 -10
22 -13
57° 37
73b 46

COrrelations of Support System Measures With ARSI-O Symptom Areas

Measures SLP

# Supports ~22

# wanted
to tell 00
# Told 22

Helpfulness 22

ECRCC
Helpfulness 00

APP
~28

~14
~10
24

21

SOM
~13

21
07
36

~29

'MDOD
-11

39
36
17

~05

~33

03

43

38

HXL

~03

~10
~15
21

27

Summary pg the Results Regarding Each Hypothesis

 

SXL
02

05
25

OCC
~22

08
26
~20

~01

Before concluding this chapter on data analysis, the

evidence supporting each hypothesis will be reviewed and sum-

marized.

Hypothesis one stated that the incoming group would de-

scribe more severe symptoms at the time of the research

Table 34

148

Correlations of Questionnaires With ARSI-O Symptom Areas

Symptom Areas

 

Measures NE A_P_P_
c: T 17 -69°
: MT 29 78b
: IN 18 -09
: IS 05 39
FSS ~08 63°
SRI -30 78°
Religion 59b 30

Levenson: I 30 ~62

: c -09 -24
: P ~16 -27
LES: N 28 04
: P 40 44

: T 27 49°
00v: 0 29 21
: 8 43° -09
: R 21 -24
: T 47° -01

Note. The following abbreviations were used:

OCC

32
14
-02
04
10
-20
30
-55
-39
-14
18
43
30
17
22
08
25

999. 9999. 999 9K9. 999
-02 -11 -55 -51 ~48
23 09 63° 30 51
-29 15 02 -09 12
22 -22 15 15 17
~36 10 27 64° 67°
-15 05 61 43 42
57° 26 44 -29 09
-09 -22 -73° -01 ~36
-21 -54 -10 -20 -66°
-21 -66° -40 36 -30
25 ~26 04 44 -04
21 24 35 20 26
31 34 52° 09 31
67b 34 43° -22 -27
15 17 12 37 00
-19 15 ~06 18 03
28 26 22 34 01

Trust (T),

Mistrust (MT), Intimacy (IN), Isolation (IS), Internal (1),

Control (C), Powerful Others (P), LES negative change scores

(LES: N), LES positive change scores (LES: P), and LES-total

changescores (LES: T).

149
participation than would the other victim groups, Data anal-

yses revealed that incoming members did not report signifi-
cantly more symptoms during the "present day" ARSI-W category
nor, in fact, at any time periods. Of the eight sampled
areas of Assault-Related disturbance, incoming members sig-
nificantly exceeded the others only for Somatic disturbances.
Self-esteem (Rosenberg), Anger, and Guilt were also examined.
The incoming victim's scores did not significantly differ on
these measures from the other two victim groups. Overall,
this hypothesis was very weakly Supported.

Hypothesis two stated that persons raped in their own
home would have more severe symptoms, particularly in the
area of rape-related fears, than would victims assaulted
elsewhere. The total victim group was considered in its ini-
tial test and yielded no support. The home-assaulted did not
differ significantly on the ARSI-W from.the others at any of
the four time periods. In fact, the home-assaulted showed
significantly fewer symptoms (Heterosexual Relationships and
Sexual Expression) in two of the ARSI-W's eight symptom
areas. Only for Occupation did the home-assaulted evidence
more severe disturbance than others. Also examined were data
that assessed the amount of Assault-Related disturbance less
directly. The home-assaulted evidenced significantly more
positive self-esteem on the Rosenberg, less Anger, and lower
degree of violence (DOV-S and DOV-T) than victims assaulted
elsewhere.

The three home-assaulted incoming victims eVidenced

150

significantly lower self-esteem.on1y on the TSCS's second ad-
ministration (of three) than did the ten assaulted elsewhere
(see Appendix D, p. 227). No other self-esteem.measure sup-
ported this difference. The same victims also scored lower
on Constantinople's Intimacy scale, but higher on Levenson's
Internal locus of control. On the ARSI-O's direct measures
of symptoms, however, no significant differences were obtain~
ed. Overall, the ARSI-W and ARSI-O yielded little support
for hypothesis two and some evidence was contrary. Other
measures provided no substantial support.

Hypothesis three stated that victims having a previous
history of psychological problems would have more severe
postassault symptoms than others. The total victim group
yielded some support. Those having preassault mental health
counseling evidenced more severe symptoms on the ARSI-W's
"now“ category and more distress in three of eight sectors:
(Mood; Assault-Related Fears; and Heterosexual Relationships).
Precounseled victims also scored higher on the Guilt index.

Hypothesis four held that victims assaulted by a trusted
other would have lower self-esteem than those raped by
strangers. Although the Rosenberg self-esteem measure was
administered to all victims, it failed to differentiate
among those raped by strangers and acquaintances. A signifi-
cant related difference was found only on the ARSI-W index of
Assault-Related Fears where stranger-assaulted victims showed
more fears. Hypothesis four was rejected.

Hypothesis five stated that the self-esteem of incoming

151

victims rise from their first few postassault days to three
months postassault. A repeated-measures analysis of variance
failed to reveal any differences between the TSCS self-esteem
scores collected at three different postassault times nor was
the trend of these means in the hypothesized direction.
Hypothesis six held that the group of incoming victims
would show lower self-esteem at three months p6stassault than
would controls and other victims. Rosenberg scores failed to
differentiate between these groups. Comparisons of their
scores on the Rosenberg and Body Cathexis scale also yielded
no important differences. Thus, hypothesis six was rejected.
Hypothesis seven stated that victims adhering to the
traditional stereotyped female sex-role would report less
anger and more guilt than those having a more androgynous
sex-role identification. Of the nine victims who completed
the Bem Sex-role inventory, only one fit the feminine role
criterion, and only three could be classified as androgynous.
One of the latter dropped-out of the research at six weeks
postassault when she had completed only one administration of
the Guilt index and Anger measure. Further data analysis
seemed inappropriate. Thus, hypothesis seven was untested
and informal clinical impressions did not support it. The
sole feminine-identified victim reported strong anger and
guilt feelings to her interviewer (the author) during her
initial postassault weeks. This was also true for one androg-

ynous victim who reported strong feelings of guilt but

minimal anger until several weeks postassault.

152

Hypothesis eight stated that victims who expressed high
amounts of guilt would show lower self-esteem than those who
expressed relatively little guilt. Analyses of their Rosen~
berg and Guilt scores for the total victim group supported
this hypothesis. These measures correlated positively and
significantly, indicating that as self-eateem increased,
Guilt decreased. The Body Cathexis Scale also correlated
significantly and positively with first administration Guilt
scores for the ten victims who completed both measures. Ad-
ditional supportive findings were yielded by the significant
correlations, depicted in Table 35, between the postassault
on TSCS self-esteem measure and Guilt. Thus, hypothesis
eight was strongly supported.

Table 35
Correlations of TSCS With Guilt for Incoming Victims

 

Guilt
1 .2. 3.
TSCS 1: --68b (11 ~ 14) -66° (15. = 11) -53
2: ~18 -65° (11 = 12) -43
3: 54 -42 03

Hypothesis nine stated that incoming victims would show
greater heterosexual anxiety and more isolation than the
other victims. This hypothesis was tested by the Fear Survey
Schedule (F88) and Constantinople's Isolation scale, but no
significant differences were found. An examination of sec~
ondary measures disclosed that the incoming victims had

scored significantly lower than others on Intimacy, the

153

Isolation scale's polar opposite. The incoming victims also
scored significantly higher on Mistrust than did the con-
trols. Thus, although Hypothesis nine was not directly sup-
ported, the Isolation and Mistrust measures yielded signifi-
cant differencs in the predicted direction.

Hypothesis ten stated that victims who perceived their
rape as particularly violent would manifest greater hetero-
sexual fears, lesser interpersonal trust, and a higher in-
cidence of sexual difficulties than those who perceived their
assault as relatively less violent. The DOV-S and DOV-T were
used to assess the perceived violence. The total victim pool
provided data for correlations of ARSI-W total scores with
DOV-S and DOV-T in the sectors of Heterosexual Relationships
and Sexual Expression. Significant correlations were obtain~
ed between each DOV index and the two pertinent ARSI-W symp-
tom disturbance sectors (see Table 16, p. 119). Incoming
victim's data were further examined to determine whether the
predicted linkages also held between the ARSI-O totals in the
Heterosexual Relationships and Sexual Expression sectors with
the FSS and Trust measures. DOV-O correlated significantly
but inversely (-.67, p <:.05) with FSS, and the Trust and
DOV measures yielded no other significant correlations.
Overall, this hypothesis was only modestly supported.

Hypothesis eleven stated that incoming victims of as-
sailants not yet apprehended would report less anger their
first postassault week than victims of nonarrested assail-

ants. It was supported by the comparisons of initial Anger

154

scores of the two incoming victims whose assailants had been
arrested were compared with the nine others. Significant
differences were not found between these two groups on Anger
scores administered at seven to ten days postassault as part

of the POMS (p (11) = .80, p_<I.44), nor at any subsequent

time period. Thus, this difference was obtained only during the
initial two to five postassault days. Similarly, no signifi-
cant Anger differences were found between victims whose as-
sailants had been arrested and those whose assailant were not
yet apprehended among the total victim.group.

Hypothesis twelve held that both the amount of negative
life changes in the year preceding the assault and the inten-
sity of guilt would correlate positively with the amount of
mood disturbance reported at seven to ten days postassault.
The degree of religious commitment, the helpfulness of sup-
port systems, and positiveness of the self—concept were also
predicted to correlate negatively with postrape mood distur-
bance. Incoming Victims' POMS scores were correlated with
the LES negative change score and also with the three ad-
ministrations of the Guilt index. No significant relation-
ships were found, although the POMS and LES total change
scores did link positively. Similarly, correlations were
calculated between the POMS and religious commitment, the
average level of helpfulness of the support system, and self-
esteem measures provided by Rosenberg, TSCS, and the Body Ca-
thexis indices. The only significant linkage found was be~

tween the POMS and low self-esteem about bodily features on

155

the BCS. Thus, this hypothesis received only minimal sup-
port.

Overall, only Hypotheses two, eight, nine, and ten re~
ceived moderate to strong support. Hypotheses one and twelve
received very weak support, and Hypothesis seven could not be

tested.

Discussion

 

The present study attempted to increase the amount of
empirical information available on rape victims reactions
while avoiding many of the earlier research design problems
criticized by Katz and Mazur (1979). To this end, the pres-
ent definition of rape and the criteria for selecting victims
were clearly defined. Interviews were standardized and sup-
plemented with personality inventories. The length of time
postassault Was carefully considered and reported. A control
group was also employed. To the author's knowledge, this was
the first study to recruit a sample of uncounseled rape vic-
tims, to design and utilize a measure tapping the victimis
perception of the degree of violence, and to rigorously ex-
plore the independent effect of demographic variables on vic-
tim symptom profiles. The typical reaction patterns of vic-
tims is first discussed in this chapter, followed by a con-
sideration of several specific findings.

Reaction patterns. The pattern of symptoms observed

 

among the present adult and adolescent victims were found to
be quite consistent with the pattern of results described by
other investigators of the rape trauma.syndrome (Peters,

1975; Burgess & Holmstrom, 1979)i Acute life disruption was

followed by a gradual reduction in symtomatology.

156

157

Pseudoadjustment periods were common although victims differ-
ed dramatically in the length of time spent in this phase
ranging from a few days to a few months. The adolescents
seemed particularly likely to remain in a lengthy pseudoad-
justment period and reported fewer symptoms at one month post~
assault. Even when symptoms were present and clearly assault-
related, some of the teenage victims continued to insist they
were no longer effected in any way by the rape. This period

of denial usually faded as the length of time postassault in-

N—‘

 

creased.

Sleep disturbances were common in victims of all ages
particularly the first week postassault or preceding prelim~\
inary hearings and other court actions. For example, several
victims noted they had trouble falling asleep, for each time
they closed their eyes they would see the assailant's face or
hear noises in the house that alarmed them. Three victims
slept in their clothes for several nights to reduce feelings
of vulnerability./ Nightmares were common with many individu-
al differences noted in whether the assault was directly por-
trayed, or veiled in symbols. An example of the first con-
cerned a woman who could not consciously recall the assault
or assailant as she had been knocked unconscious during the
rape. However, she had repetitive nightmares in which the
assailant's hands could be seen striking her and she would
awake screaming and retching. Eventually the dreams expanded
to include the assailant's face, and this shift elicited a

less intense reaction. More veiled content occurred in a

158

woman brutally beaten and raped in her own car. She dreamed
that she was also in a car and was suddenly attacked by a
skunk that seized her arm with its teeth and would not let go
despite her struggle. This dream terrified her, but she had
not recognized it as assault-related until it was discussed
in counseling.

Appetite disturbances were also common, particularly the
first few weeks. The most common symptoms were weight losses
of three to five pounds, stomach cramps, reduced appetite,
feelings of nausea, and occasional vomiting. These symptoms
generally disappeared quickly, although several individuals
complained of a persistent "queasy" or "tight" feeling in
their stomachs for some weeks after the assault. One adult
described this as "it feels like something is kicking and
wants out." An adolescent evidenced anorexic-like symptoms
during the first and second postassault month which appeared
resolved by the third. Other Somatic symptoms included head-
aches, fatigue, diarrhea, and stomach cramps.

The report of crying jags, trembling, or, conversely,
feeling in a daze was common the first several days. In-
creased feelings of depression, anger, guilt, and anxiety in
the weeks that followed were frequent, and three of the in-
coming victims attempted to self-medicate their emotional dis-
comfort with alcohol and/or minor tranquilizers. A tremen-
dous range of individual differences was seen in the intensi-
ty of emotional upheaval and the manner in which it was mani-

fested and coped with. Vague suicidal ideation was present

159

in a few victims (e.g., "I'd like to go to sleep and not wake
up"), but only one incoming rape victim actually attempted
it. She was a 15 year-old adolescent who had preassault
problems stemming from a dysfunctional family, but no previ-
ous history of suicide attempts or mental health counseling.
She had been sexually assaulted by a stepfather over a two-
year period as a child, an event she had never told anyone
about. This experience was not revealed to Rape Crisis per~
sonnel (despite direct questioning) until she was hospital-
ized following her attempt on her life. Before the attempt,
the victim was denying any assault-related aftereffects a1~
though increased acting out at home and with friends was
noted. She cited her taking of 30 muscle relaxant pills be-
fore notifying the parent of a friend as primarily due to
feelings from both sexual assaults combined with her distress
over her family situation. She continued to threaten suicide
during her week of medical hospitalization and refused psy-
chiatric aftercare. Within a week of release, it was neces-
sary to involuntarily commit her to an inpatient psychiatric
unit as she remained suicidal and evidenced early anorexic
symptoms. She "fell in love" with a 44 year-old patient on
the Unit who treated her "like a father". Following the in-
evitable posthospitalization end to this romance, the victim's
recovery from the assaults remained slow and protracted, al-
though she stopped reporting suicidal ideation.

Several women found the intensity of postassault emo-

tion frightening and expressed fears that they were ”going

160

crazy". Victims with prior histories of mental health prob-
lems frequently feared the present upheaval would precipitate
relapses. Again, victims who had characteristically handled
strong affect by repression and denial applied these coping
stategies to the rape as well. Handling anger was often par-
ticularly problematic, and most victims reported greater ir-
ritability toward others. Several of the adolescents re-
ported uncharacteristically angry outbursts at school. Sev-
eral women described feeling frustrated and confused regard-
ing how to direct and manage their rage and the desire for
revenge that they felt toward the often unapprehended assail-
antnr This issue seemed more quickly resolved by victims
whose assailant had been arrested, perhaps as these women
could hOpe for some revenge or vindication through the crim-
inal justice system. Statistically, this seemed supported as
victims whose assailants were arrested reported fewer symp-
toms in the areas of mood, heterosexual, and sexual distur~
bance by the three month postassault period. Interestingly,
at this point few of those cases had actually yet reached
criminal court, rather the women typically were still waiting
for the trial to be scheduled. However, knowing the assail-
ant was arrested, and feeling that detectives and the dis-
trict magistrate had believed her story, seemed to lead to an
earlier sense of closure than if the assailant was still at
large. It also may have been easier to reduce generalizing
feelings about the assailant and his actions to other men and

life situations, as the specific offender was caught and the

161

victims therefore did not feel quite as\:pn guard" against a
possible reoccurrence. m

Victims often expressed anger about their own symptoms.
One woman who had previously prided herself on her self-con-
fidence and independence found her intense postrape fear of
leaving her home and consequent lifestyle changes infuriating.
Another described how angry she felt to think that "he (the
rapist) is out there walking around scot-free while here I
sit with my life twisted all around."

Assault-related fears appeared universal and, as per
Kilpatrick, Veronen, and Resick's (1979) findings, also ap-
peared to be among the most persistent of symptoms. Fear of
' the dark or being alone appeared common no matter where the
assault had occurred. Objects or situations reminiscent of
the assault also often elicited strong fear and avoidance re-
sponses. For example, an adolescent whose assailant had
grabbed her from behind attempted to go rollerskating one
week postassault but became so unnerved by hearing other
skaters come up behind her that she fled in tears to the
ladies room. Typically, fears were of sufficient intensity
the first few weeks that victims changed their lifestyle to
some degree to accomodate them. Examples of this included
refusing to be alone, crossing the street whenever an un-
known male approached, and moving back in with parents.
Gradually, the victims began to tentatively approach fearful
situations, testing their ability to resume their lifestyle

without incurring another assault. ‘With increasing success,

162

their fears lessened. By twelve weeks postassault specific
fears were often greatly reduced or absent, although wariness
or anxiety in those situations was still common. This reac-
tion pattern appeared to follow a classical conditioning par—
adigm, such that events paired with the aversive stimuli (the
rape) obtained the ability to independently stimulate similar
feelings of fear, flight responses, and anger. As the vic-
tims were encouraged to reapproach these objects through coun-
seling, and no aversive results occurred, the conditioned
fear responses began to extinguish. Kilpatrick, Veronen, and
Resick (1979) attributed the increased fear and anger with
men, and the victimfs frequently reported sexual dysfunction
as also due to this paradigm. The present findings seem con~
gruent. The presence of a supportive male, either boyfriend
or husband, with whom the victim could "test out" herfears,
was often later defined by the victims as a strong positive
factor in recovery. The fear that the assault might adverse-
ly affect future sexual functioning was a common initial con~
cern among both adult and adolescent victims. women in posi-
tive relationships with a male were able to test out this
concern, discover whether any sexual difficulties existed,
and, if so, discuss them in counseling. Adolescents and in-
dividuals not involved in a significant heterosexual rela-
tionship{did not seem to be able to allay their anxiety as
quickly,kand often avoided dating early in the postassault
period. Dating-avoiders often noted their primary reason

was a concern that their date might also assault them. One

163

observed that as she walked around her college town she found
herself preoccupied by the thought that some of the men prob-
ably were, or could be, assailants, and that she had no way

of distinguishing them from the others. A fourteen year-old
victim described similar fears, and further stated she also
feared she would kick or punch any date that tried to kiss
her. Conversely, one adolescent responded to her anxiety by
deciding to engineer her first affair to ascertain if she was
"sexually normal". Thus, great individual differences existed
in how victims dealt with heterosexual and sexual concerns.

It also was notable that three women in the incoming
sample (about 11%) were involved in marriages or relationships
in which they had been abused by mates during an earlier time
period. In each instance, this problem had been addressed
and no battering had occurred for six months or longer before
the assault. However, two of these women were again beaten
by their mates during the first three weeks postassault, and
identified the rape as the causefi}:lnterestingly, both men\\\
involved had initially verbalized support and understanding \\
when interviewed in the emergency room.. This phenomena seem~"
ed to reflect the general clinical finding that rape victims
involved in dysfunctional male~ female relationships often ex-'m\
perienced a dual crisis: 1 (l) the rape, and (2) the crisis 8

\vflfl '-

precipitated by their mate's response to it which frequently

Finally, problems at work during the acute phase of dis-

ruption were common with lack of concentration, absenteeism,

164

social withdrawal, and decreased efficiency the most frequent

symptoms. Co-workers and supervisors frequently noticed and
inquired about these changes. The adolescents in the sample
frequently had told a friend of the rape who told another
friend who told another, etcetera, and they then had to deal
'with the discomfort of entering school having more peers a-

ware of their assault then they initially wished. Adoles~'-

cents were less likely to confide in teachers and principals\.

than were adults to their supervisors. Concentration in the:

classroom frequently suffered, and grades often dropped.

Primary finding: The impact 9: violence. The two fac:

 

tors which were most strongly related to a more difficult re-

covery (as defined by more symptoms over several ARSI symptom

areas and times) were the degree of violence present in the

assault, and whether the victim was struck or not. The DOV-T

scores correlated significantly and positively with five of
the eight ARSI-W symptom areas, and with the number of symp-
toms reported at each time period. That is, the number of
symptoms often linked directly to how much violence had been
experienced. The subscale eliciting the victim's perception
of this (DOV-S and DOV-R) were more closely related to symp-
tom profiles than was the DOV-O. In fact, the DOV-O did not
correlate significantly with any symptom area, nor with the
number of symptoms reported at any given time.
Being struck during the rape appeared to be the demo-

graphic variable which exerted the strongeSt independent ef-

fect on recovery. Thus, the 19 victims who had been struck,

‘ ,..

165
once or repeatedly, reported more symptoms at eVery sampled
postassault period and evidenced greater disturbance in four
of the eight symptom areas than did the 42 nonstruck victims.
The most severe and dramatic postassault symptoms, i.e.,
anxiety attacks, amnesia, and a suicide attempt all occurred
in victims who had been struck although this certainly was
not the only influential factor.

These findings are consistent with the recent literature
in rape victimology which has emphasized that rape must be
understood primarily as an act of violence and power, rather
than as an act of passion or sex. Burgess and Holmstrom
(1976) noted that the most predominant affective response of
victims immediately following a rape was not guilt or shame,
but relief at being alive and unmutilated; Veronen and Kil-
patrick (1981) administered a Modified Fear Survey to 20 rape
victims and their content analysis indicated it was the viol‘}
lent, rather than the sexual, aspects which victims viewed as,
most fear-engenderingsquhus, whether the motive of the as-
sailant was for sexual pleasure, power, degradation, or com-5
bination of these, the victim primarily experienced and re~:?°
sponded to the violence.

Becker, Abel, and Skinner (1979) expressed concern that
the recent literature overlooked the sexual component of the
assault. They stated that:

"The most common conceptualizations of rape are

those of a crime of aggression, power, degradation

and anger. We agree with this conceptualization in

part but feel as do other researchers in the rape
field that the sexual component of a rape should

166

not be overlooked because: (a) of the negative

effect that the sexual component may have on a

victim's sexual attitudes, behaviors and feelings

after assault and (b) there is data available that

indicates that the rapist is motivated not only by

anger and aggression but is also sexually motivated."

While the sexual aspects of the assault frequently con~
cerned and distressed victims, and therefore were addressed
in counseling, the sexual components of the rape per se ex-
erted little significant effect on the recovery pattern in
the present study. That is, whether the victim.was a virgin
or not, whether previous sexual experiences were positive or
negative, or whether vaginal rape alone or a mixture of sex-
ual acts had occurred, the effects on the recovery pattern of
the victims were minimal. What did seem to negatively influ-
ence the woman's subsequent sexual expression was the physi—
cal violence within whigh the genital contact was couched.
This violence again seemed to serve as the unconditioned
stimuli effecting a panoply of objects, situations, and
events associated with the asSault including sexuality. Sex-
ual aspects of the rape which particularly disturbed the
present victims were the presence of oral or anal sex, de-
grading comments made regarding the victim's body, and the
rupturing of the hymen if the victim was a virgin. In re~
gards to the last item, some of the adolescents had highly
valued their virginity, regarding it as evidence of their
ability to stand by their values and convictions. In defin-
ing the rape as, in part, a loss of virginity, one teen noted

"when he took my virginity it was like he took my pride ......

what made me different than the other girls."

167

Present day symptoms ip the uncounseled group. Another

 

major finding was that uncounseled victims, themajority of
the research, reported essentially an identical mean number
of present day symptoms as did incoming victims raped only
three months before the survey. The uncounseled group mean
score of ten symptoms suggested that most of these victims
were still experiencing significant distress rather than a
mild residual effect.<:This interpretation appeared supported
by Burgess and Holmstrom's (1979) four to six year followup
study of the women from their initial survey (all of whom had
received some degree of crisis intervention treatment) in
which 74% of their sample described themselves as fully re-
covered within the first five postassault yearpl It appears
that the uncounseled victims, as a group, experience greater
difficulty resolving the assault than do counseled victims,
and that the former experience assault-related distress over
a longer period of time. If confirmed in a larger scale
studyfthis would emphasize the importance of crisis interven-
tion and advocacy services for rape victims. Followup studies
comparing the pattern of symptoms evidenced by counseled and
uncounseled victims also appear essential to determine wheth-
er they experience differential symptom patterns.

Previous sexual assaults. A third finding was that an
unexpectedly high percentage of the control and incoming
group members acknowledged a previous history of sexual as-

sault involving either rape, attempted rape, child

168

molestation, or incest. National Crime statisticians have
long been aware that many sexual assaults were unreported,
and that the percentage of sexual assault victims among the
general population was probably significantly higher than
present statistics reflected. What the percentage would be,
however, has remained unknown.

In the present study 21% of the total victim group, and
25% of the group initially surveyed to act as controls, had
been victims. Shuker (1979) had noted similar percentages
among her rape victim clients and accounted for this "recidi-
vism" by noting that such victims often lived in unsafe
neighborhoods or appeared more vulnerable than other women. _\
In the present sample, a higher percentage of women from low-4
er socioeconomic groups was represented than would be present
in a random sample of the general population and national sur- 7
veys on crime have noted that violent crimes of all types oc~  0
cur at higher frequencies among this group. Although this \
percentage of previous sexual assault might be lower if more
equal sampling of socioeconomic groups existed, it still
seemed startling high. When combined with the statistics on'
battered wives (walker, 1979), and sexual coercion and force”
within a marriage (Russell, 1982), the question of what socio~
cultural factors allow such violence against women remains.

That question is beyond this paper's scope, although
Diana Russell's recent study of rape in marriage provided

some insight. Russell, backed by NIMH, had retained the

Field Research Corporation to survey a large number of San

169

Francisco women to determine the prevalence of marital rape
and other sexual assault. The sample was carefully balanced
to be representative of the U,S. population at large. Four-
teen percent of the 930 women sampled reported they had been
raped by their husband with rape defined in a traditional 1e-
gal sense. Russell maintained that such rape was "a conse-
quence of the abuse of power husbands have over their wives
in the patriarchal family". That is, that the men involved
frequently viewed their wives as property which was there to
obey and accomodate. Certainly, this depersonalization of
the female, such that she was viewed as a subordinate object,
helps make it permissible to act out one's frustrations, de-
sires, and violence upon herrnghis phenomena has been found
to be a prominent feature in discussions with convicted rap-
ists as well (Groth, 1977).

It should be emphasized that the present study did not
establish that rape victims were more likely than other women
to have been previous sexual assault victims. Instead, the
percentages for the victim (21%) and initial control (25%)
samples were remarkably similar. Incoming victims were often
initially reluctant to reveal this history, perhaps for fear
of how they would be viewed in the perspective of this ad-
ditional assault. Clearly counselors need to be sensitive to
the possibility of previous assaults even if such a history
is initially denied.

The assailant's race. The present findings revealed

 

that the assailant's race had some differential impact such

170

that poorer self-esteem was noted at three months postassault
and the trend of the total victim group means also suggested
greater anger, guilt, and higher DOV-T scores for the eleven
interracial victims. Additionally, incoming group interracial
victims reported more guilt and anger at three weeks postas-
sault, and noted that significant others responded to them in
a more helpful manner. If a larger study supports these
trends as representative, the reasons for the findings may be
rooted in the degree of racial prejudice and the amount of
familiarity with members of another race that existed before
the assault. The three incoming interracial rape victims
were studied along these lines. The woman with the least ex-
posure to integration and Black friends reacted most strongly
to the racial aspect, while another Caucasian victim who had
spent the last several years in integrated neighborhoods and
who dated interracially reported no particular reaction to
her assailant's race. The most common adverse reactions to
the interracial aspect were a generalization of the fear and
anger toward the assailant onto Black coeworkers, peers, and
students but not onto Caucasian peers, and the victim report~
ed that she was making more racial slurs than normal for her.
The victims often verbalized discomfort with these changes.
The finding that significant others had responded more help-
fully to these victims than to same-race victims may reflect
the influence of the significant other's existing negative
view of members of that race. That is, in interracial rape,

racial prejudice may allow the victim to more readily blame

171

the assailant.

Findings not consistent With previous literature. Three

 

findings did not appear consistent with what has been found
in previous research studies, or with what has been described
in anecdotal writeups. These areas were: the influence of
the assault location, the effect of knowing the assailant,
and the differences between the control and incoming groups.
Previous authors (Notman & Nadelson, 1976) had suggested
that victims assaulted in their own home would experience
greater disruption in self-confidence and their sense of au-

tonomy, and therefore greater difficulty in resolving the as-

......

sault. The present study predicted that the victims raped in “3

their own homes would evidence more severe symptom profiles.
However, the 19 victims raped at home did not evidence more
symptoms than the 43 raped elsewhere. In fact, they exhibit-
ed higher self—esteem, less anger, perceived the rape as less
violent, and displayed fewer symptoms in the areas of mood
and heterosexual relationship. A possible explanation of ..
these surprising results emerged from their case records.{'
This group, besides being assaulted at home, also appearedas'
a group to be of a higher socioeconomic status than victims
raped elsewhere. I. Socioeconomic status was found to be a . I
moderately strong independent variable. POverty- ~level vic-
tims (which were more prevalent in the raped-elsewhere cate-
gory) reported more symptoms in the areas of mood, assault~

related fears, and heterosexual relationships, as well as

more symptoms at three months postassault, than did many of

172

the other groups. Thus, the attempt to measurethe impact of
the location of the rape may have been confounded by socio~
economic differences between the groups. Similarly, when
only the incoming group was surveyed, the finding that the
three victims assaulted at home reported more negative life
stresses in the preceding year may account for why they also
evidenced lower self-esteem and intimacy scores than the
eight victims raped elsewhere.

The present study had also predicted that individuals
knowing their assailant would have more difficulty in recov-
ering than if the assailant were a stranger. Implicit in
this hypothesis was that those knowing their assailant would
also have some trust for them which would then be betrayed by
the assault. However, of the 29 raped by "a known other"
only 15 described this other as a formerly ”well-known" per-
son. Furthermore, it was not uncommon for these victims to
note on the DOV-S that their preassault level of trust for
this person was rather low. Thus, it is not that surprising
that knowing the assailant did not directly equate to experi-
encing more postassault distress. Similarly, the finding
that the 40 victims of strangers experienced more assault-y
related fears may be due to these victim's inability to pre;
dict their assailant' s personality, location, or emotional '
stability. Victims well~ ~acquainted with the rapiSt had a
greafer capacity to realistically decide whether a reoccur-
rence or a retaliation for reporting the crime was likely.

“439M"...

Finally, incoming members had been expected to manifest

173

poorer self-esteem, greater heterosexual anxiety, and stron-
ger feelings of isolation than control group members. This
seemed reasonable as previous research had revealed signifi-
cant differences between victims and controls on such mea-
sures as the Derogatis Symptom.Checklist, POMS, Modified Fear
Survey, the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (Kilpatrick,
Veronen, and Resick, 1979), and the Social Adjustment Scale-
Self Report (Resick. Calhoun, .Atkespn,..,.&.£11\is, 1981). How-
ever, the present study displayed only significant differences
on Constantinople's scales of Mistrust and Intimacy, although
the incoming victims scored higher than did the controls on
all 43,1?999991: ..measures..wi.th the-exceptisn 051m“: and V.
Levenson's Internal scale. As most of these comparisons in-
volved ten or fewer victims per group, the small sample size
may have importantly limited these findings, and accounted
for the relative lack of significant differences.

Limitations 2: the Present Study and the Issue pf_Generaliza-
tion.

 

 

 

 

 

Although the previous chapter reported various interest-
ing and statistically significant findings, only four of the
hypotheses received strong support. Due to certain limita-
tions of this study, even these findings must be considered
as tentative and the lack of support for other hypothesis
cannot be considered conclusive. The small numbers of un-
counseled (N = 13) and incoming (N’= 8) victims who were
willing to fully complete questionnaires was a major limita-
tion. The uncounseled group was not randomly selected and

its inclusion of peers of counselors biased this subsample

174

toward being older and better-educated than the other vic-
tims. In examining the independent effect of demographic
variables, some classifications (e.g., the victim's race)
pertained to few victims, yielding very small N's for some
statistical comparisons. Another difficulty stemmed from.the
author's attempt to include as many measures of personality
and life functioning as possible. Some victims apparently
felt overburdened by the demands of these measures. In ret-
rospect, a lesser number of dependent measures may well have
yielded greater victim cooperation. Additionally, to utilize
so many measures, some were abbreviated and the resultant ef-
fects on their reliability and validity is unclear. Finally,
the ARSI-W and ARSI-O, which served as the main dependent
variables, met the needs of this study but had certain limi~
tations. The ARSI-W score, as a sample summation of the raw
number of symptoms reported, simply provided a gross, global
index of the victimds overall symptom profile. The intensity
and duration of the symptoms were not considered, nor were
the symptoms weighted in degree of severity. Future studies
may find a more comprehensive and complex symptom assessment
measure more sensitive to the differences between victim
groups. The ARSI-O did offer the advantage of considering
the frequency and intensity of symptomatology, although high-
er interrater reliability indices would have been preferred.
In considering the study's limitations, the question of
how well the present findings could be generalized to the'

broader population of rape victims remained an important one.

175

Two questions were posed in an attempt to provide some clari-
fication. The first queStion was how'similar was the demo-
graphic makeup of the total victim group to the demograhic
distributions found in larger studies, and secondly, was the
general reaction pattern of the victims consistent with what
Burgess and Holmstrom (1970) and Peters (1975) described as
the rape trauma syndrome?

In answering the first question, the statistics gathered
in large urban studies by Amir (1971), MacDonald (1971), the
National Crime Panel Survey (1975), and Peters (1975) were
compared to the present findings. Only two noteworthy dif-
ferences were obtained and both concerned race. That is, the
present study contained a much higher percentage of Caucasian
victims, and a higher frequency of interracial rape. It was
unclear whether the first factor exerted a significant effect.
Victimds race did not evidence an independent effect on any
of the questionnaire or symptom interview scores in this
study, but only three minority victims were involved. The
relatively high percentage (about 25%) of interracial rapes
was consistent with Hursch and Selkin's (1974) and Peters'
(1975) prediction that with increased integration and urban-
ization rape might more frequently cross racial lines. Over-
all, the demographic distributions of the present study seem-
ed comparable to earlier studies.

The second question, that of the similarity of the re-
action patterns of present victims to those described by ear-

lier studies, was answered affirmatively earlier in this

176

chapter. Thus, overall it appeared that present findings
could be generalized.
Implications for future research.

The literature regarding the general rape trauma syndrome
has become increasingly well-documented in the last five
years./‘Rape generally appears to precipitate a crisis in the
victim's life and leaves an aftermath of feelings and behav-
ior that may benefit from skillful counseling. Examination“
of the particular variables involved in such reactions could
be useful in predicting which victims are at risk for more
severe reactions, and for deepening counselor's understanding
of the variables involved in the reaction and recovery. This
area of study is new, and, to the author's knowledge, the
present study represents its first systematic examination.
Further research along these lines involving larger samples
and more sophisticated designs and data analyses would ad-
vance the state of research on rape, and might importantly
illuminate more effective interventions. Such investigation
seems most relevant if the sample is actually composed of
rape victims rather than relying on rape-analogues. Addition-
al followup studies reutilizing previous research samples,
such as Burgess and Holmstromds 1979 study, seem vital if
counselors are to better understand the long-term impact of
rape. Comparing previously counseled and uncounseled victim's
reactions has obvious importance in understanding the impact
counseling can have, however, obtaining random samples of

uncounseled victims is notoriously difficult. Such a

177

sampling could probably best be obtained in a large urban
area by a social service agency well-known and well-respected
in the community.

Future studies may want to further explore the impact of
the perceived violence in the assault to determine if the
present findings can be replicated. In regards to this, the
DOV questionnaire proved to be a useful and sensitive instru-
ment in the present study and could be adapted for future
use. However, a factor analysis of the items seems called
for to better define the dimensions the measure taps.

Finally, more research on the attitudes and knowlege pro-.
fessional counselors have regarding rape and the recovery
process seems essential if professionals are to be effective
with rape victims. Resick and Jackson's (1981) study of gen~
der differences in attitudes toward rape among mental health
professionals was a step in this direction. Schuker (1979)
noted that:

"all those who work with rape victims may be tempted

to try to avoid identification with them. One may

distance oneself obsessively (e.g., asking lots of

facts) or may shun the victim emotionally. Victims

of any tragedy are sometimes shunned or treated as

suspect...people fear being contaminated by some~

thing very frightening...a conspiracy of silence can

be set up to avoid shameful, painful, or frightening

material."

Silberman (1979) further warned against countertransference
issues male therapists may face in working with victims or
rape. In light of the powerful emotions the topic of rape

frequently stirs in individuals, and the typical lack of

university coursework regarding treating the sexually

178

assaulted client, better knowledge of counselor attitudes
could prove useful in designing training programs, manuals,
and inservice programs for beginning and experienced thera-
pists alike.

Summary. The present study systematically examined the
the independent effect of demographic variables on the recov-
ery pattern of rape victims, with this pattern primarily mea-
sured in terms of the incidence of assault-related symptoms.
The victim's perception of the violence inherent in rape, and
being struck during the assault appeared to be most strongly
associated with a difficult recovery. Additional féQFQrs
appeared to be a lack of crisis intervention counseling fol-
lowing the assault, a previous history of mental health coun-
seling, and a poverty-level socioeconomic status. Victims 1
who sought professional attention evidenced more guilt, poor
self-esteem, and greater difficulty in several symptom.areas
than victims not seeking such assistance. A substantial per-
centage (over 20%) of victims and controls were previous sex-
ual assault victims, emphasizing the need for professional
counselors to be aware of the needs of such potential clients,
and sensitive to the factors influencing their recovery. The
small sample size of the present study made it necessary to
interpret the results cautiously, and replication of the
findings in future research projects was indicated. While
only four of the twelve original hypotheses received signifi-
cant support, the study yielded various interesting and sta-

tistically significant findings. It is the author's hope

179

that these results may stir intereSt in further research so
that counselors may better understand the proceSs of recov-

ery, and what can be done to facilitate it.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

180

Appendix A

Questionnaires Used In The Study

181
Assault-Related Symptom Interview-Written

HOW DO WOMEN REACT TO A RAPE? WHAT CAN THE PEOPLE WHO CARE
ABOUT HER EXPECT TO SEE HER GO THROUGH, AND HOW CAN THEY HELP?
THIS FORM ASKS YOU TO HELP US IN ANSWERING THESE QUESTIONS BY
REMEMBERING HOW YOU FELT AND REACTED TO YOUR RAPE AT FOUR DIF-
FERENT TIME POINTS. THAT IS, WHAT WERE YOU GOING THROUGH

ONE WEEK AFTER THE RAPE

ONE MONTH AFTER THE ASSAULT

THREE MONTHS AFTER THE RAPE

AND PRESENTLY, THAT IS, WHAT REACTIONS DO YOU STILL
HAVE THAT YOU FEEL STEM FROM THE RAPE.

(LO 0"!”

BELOW ARE SEVERAL QUESTIONS. IF YOU HAD THE REACTION THE
QUESTION ASKS ABOUT, PLEASE PUT A CHECK MARK (/) IN FRONT OF
THE QUESTION AND UNDER THE TIME PERIOD YOU HAD IT IN.

FOR EXAMPLE, IF YOU HAD DIFFICULTY FALLING ASLEEP FOR THE WHOLE
FIRST MONTH AFTER THE RAPE, YOU WOULD CHECK THE FOLLOWING:

l 1 3
WEEK MOS MOS NOW

 

 

/ ' / Did you have trouble falling asleep?

IF YOU HAD TROUBLE FALLING ASLEEP DURING THE FIRST WEEK AFTER
THE RAPE, AND THEN AGAIN THREE MONTHS LATER (BUT AT NO TIME
BETWEEN OR SINCE) YOUR ANSWER WOULD LOOK LIKE THIS:

1 1 3
WEEK MOS MOS NOW

 

 

 

__L_, / Did you have trouble falling asleep?
1 l 3
WEEK MOS MOS NOW AFTER THE RAPE ........

Did you have trouble falling asleep?

 

 

 

 

Did you wake up more during the night?

Did you have nightmares?

 

 

Did you sleep more than usual?

 

 

Did you sleep less than usual?

 

Were you more tired during the day?

 

Were you less hungry than usual?

 

 

1 1 3
WEEK MOS MOS NOW

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

182

AFTER THE RAPE ........
If you were less hungry, and lost weight
because of it, put in this blank, ,
the number of pounds you lost.
Were you more hungry than usual?
If you were more hungry, and gained weight
because of it, put in this blank, ,
the number of pounds you gained.
Did you feel queasy when you tried to eat?

Did you throw up after eating (because you
were still upset by the rape?)

CHECK ANY OF THESE PHYSICAL PROBLEMS THAT
YOU HAD MORE AFTER THE RAPE THAN YOU USU-
ALLY WOULD HAVE HAD (PLACE THE CHECK UNDER
THE PROPER TIME PERIODS):

Headaches?

Dizziness?

Upset stomach?

Cramps?

Fatigue (always tired)?

Diarrhea?

Constipation?

Vaginal infections?

Bladder infections?

After the rape, were you more depressed
than usual?

Did you get angry with others more quickly?
Did you cry more?

Were you more withdrawn (i.e., did you keep
more to yourself)?

Did you have more trouble than usual get-
ting housework done?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1 1 3

WEEK MOS MOS NOW
1 l 3

WEEK MOS MOS NOW

 

 

183

WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING WERE YOU MORE
AFRAID OF AFTER THE RAPE?

Being alone?

The dark?

Male strangers?

Leaving the house?
Staying in the house?
Going to work or school?

Did you feel less trusting of men in
general?

Were you more afraid of men in general?

IF AT THE TIME OF THE RAPE YOU HAD A
HUSBAND/BOYFRIEND/OR LOVER, FILL OUT
THESE NEXT QUESTIONS. IF YOU DID NOT,
GO ON TO THE NEXT SECTION YOU SEE IN
LARGE LETTERS.

AFTER THE RAPE .......

Did you and your partner argue more after
the rape?

Did you feel less close to each other?

Did your relationship end because of
problems related to the rape?

Did you feel any differently when your
partner held you?

Did you have intercourse (i.e., did you
make love) as often as you would have
before the rape?

Did you find yourself responding dif-
ferently during lovemaking than you did
before?

Did you think about the rape when you were
making love?

1 1 3
WEEK MOS MOS

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

NOW

184

Did you enjoy sex as much as you would
have before the rape?

IF AT THE TIME OF THE RAPE YOU DID NOT
HAVE A HUSBAND/BOYFRIEND/OR LOVER,
FILL OUT THIS PART.

After the rape, were you less willing to
date?

Did you wonder if the rape would make it
harder for you to have a good relationship
with a man?

Did you find yourself spending less time
with men than usual?

Were you as comfortable with physical
contact (hugs, kisses, etc.) from male
friends and dates as you would have been
before the rape?

Were you as comfortable with sexual con-
tact (petting, propositions, etc.) as
you would have been before the rape?

Were you more worried about how you would
perform sexually in the future?

IF YOU WERE EMPLOYED OR A STUDENT AT THE
TIME OF THE RAPE, COMPLETE THE NEXT SECTION.
IF YOU WERE NOT, PLEASE GO ON TO THE FINAL
SECTION.

Did you miss any days of work or school
because of the rape? If so, please put
in this blank, , about how many days,
and place checkmarks in the proper time
periods.

Did you have a harder time concentrating
at school or work?

Did you think of quitting work or school
for reasons related to the rape?

185

1 l 3
WEEK MOS MOS NOW AFTER THE RAPE ........

Did you quit work or school because of the
rape?

If you did quit, did you get a new job or
enter a new school within a month of

quitting?

.____ ___ Did your boss or teachers know about the
rape?
Did you tell them? Where you glad
they knew?

Did you tell any of your co-workers or
fellow students about the rape?

Were you glad they knew? Were there
any you wished did not know aEOut the
rape?

 

PLEASE ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS IN YOUR OWN WORDS. THIS
IS THE FINAL SECTION OF THE FORM.

1. What were your feelings toward the man who raped you during
the first week after the rape?

2. What are your feelings about him now?

3. If you had a husband/boyfriend/or lover at the time of the
rape, how do you think he felt about your rapists?

4. How do you think your husband/boyfriend/or lover felt
about you?

5. What has helped you the most in putting your life back to
normal since the rape? (Please be specific)

6. Have you received any counseling from Rape Crisis counselors
since your rape?

186

If you answered #6 "yes", please answer the following
questions. If you answered #6 "no", please skip these
questions and go on to #8.

a. How long after the rape was it before you met with a
Rape Crisis counselor (or spoke to one on the phone)?

b. On a scale from 1 to 10 (where l = not helpful and 10 =
very helpful), how helpful has the counseling you have
received from rape crisis counselors been to you.
(Circle the number that best describes your answer).

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Not helpful Very helpful

c. During the time you have been involved with Rape Crisis,
have you met with or spoke to your counselor as often
as you would have liked, less than you would have liked,
or more than you would have liked?

d. Do you still wish to continue to meet with the rape
crisis counselor?

If you did not receive any counseling from Rape Crisis,
please answer the following questions:

a. I did not call Rape Crisis after I was raped because:
I did not know there was such a Center

At the time I was raped, there was no Center in

my city
I was too embarrassed to call
I felt too guilty to call

I felt I should be able to handle things on my

own

Other reasons (please explain):

 

 

b. I wanted to fill out this questionnaire because

 

c. WOuld you like to have a Rape Crisis Counselor get in
touch.with you now to arrange a time to sit down and
talk about some of your feelings about the rape?

Today, in my present day life, the rape effects the way I
feel and act towards men:

not at all very little some a great deal

187

10. Today, in my present day life, the rape effects the way
I feel about and respond towards sex:

not at all very little some a great deal
11. Today the rape effects the way I feel about myself:
not at all very little some a great deal

12. Today the rape effects the way I act, i.e., the things I
feel free to do or not to do:

not at all very little some a great deal

THANK YOU FOR TAKING TIME TO THINK BACK OVER WHAT I KNOW WAS
A PAINFUL EXPERIENCE, AND TO SHARE WITH ME YOUR ANSWERS. YOU
HAVE HELPED US BETTER UNDERSTAND HOW WE CAN BE MOST HELPFUL TO
OTHER VICTIMS OF RAPE. TAKE CARE!

188

Bem's Sex Role Inventory

DIRECTIONS: Please indicate on a seven point scale how well
each of the characteristics describes you. Write the number
apprOpriate for your answer beside each item on the answer
sheet. -‘_—_—

/ l / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 / 6 / 7 /

Never or almost Always or almost
never true of me always true of me
___1- Self-reliant ___29. Understanding
.——_2' Yielding .___30- Secretive
.___3. Helpful ___31. Makes decisions
___4. Defends own beliefs easily
5. Cheerful ___32. Compassionate
:::6. Moody ‘___33. Sincere
___7, Independent ___34. Self-sufficient
8, Shy 4___35. Eager to soothe

C i 1 hurt feelings
onsc ent ous 36. Conceited
10. Athletic

-- 37. Dominant

-—-::° :Efectionete ' 38. Soft spoken
—13 ' eatrica 39 . Likeab 1e
‘-- ' Assert ve 40. Masculine

l4. Flatterable “‘

\O

:——— 41. Warm
-———15' Happy ___42. Solemn
___16. Strong personality ‘_—43. Willing to take a
___17. Loyal ___ stand
___18. Unpredictable ___44. Tender
___19. Forceful ‘___45. Friendly
___20. Feminine ___46. Aggressive
___21. Reliable ___47. Gullible
‘___22. Analytical ___48. Inefficient
___23. Sympathetic ___49. Acts as a leader
___24. Jealous ___50. Childlike
___25. Has leadership ability 51, Adaptable

26. Sensitive to the needs .——52, Individualistic

of others
53. Does not use harsh

27. Truthful language
28. Willing to take risks 54, Unsystematic

55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.

Competitive
Loves children
Tactful
Ambitious
Gentle
Conventional

189

190
Body Cathexis Scale
Think about each of the following items, and circle the num-

ber that best shows your feelings for the item according to
the following scale:

1. Have strong positive feelings

2. Have moderate positive feelings

3. Have no feeling one way or the other

4. Have moderate negative feelings

5. Have strong negative feelings
1. hair ........................... 1 2 3 4 5
2. energy level ................... l 2 3 4 5
3. 'weight ......................... 1 2 3 4 5
4. sex organs ..................... 1 2 3 4 5
5. muscular strength .............. ‘l 2 3 4 5
6. chest (or breasts) ............. 1 2 3 4 5
7. sex drive ...................... 1 2 3 4 5
8. tolerance for pain ............. l 2 3 4 5
9. physical stamina ............... l 2 3 4 5
10. sex activities ................ l 2 3 4 5
ll face .......................... l 2 3 4 5

191

Degree of Violence

PLEASE ANSWER EACH OF THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS BY CIRCLING YES
OR NO, AND COMPLETING THE BLANKS.

1. Did you know your attacker? yes no

a.

2. Did

3. Did

4. Did

5. Did

6. Did

If so, what was his relationship to you:

 

your attacker make any threats? yes no
What were they?
your attacker say he had a weapon? yes no

If so, what kind

 

Did you see the weapon? yes no

the rapist tie your hands? yes no
tie your feet? yes no
gag you? yes ' no
blindfold you? yes no

your attacker strike you? yes no

If so, what did he use (ex. hands, stick, etc.):

About how many times did he hit you?

 

you have any physical injuries after the attack? yes no

If so, describe what they were:

 

 

PLEASE ANSWER EACH OF THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS BY CIRCLING THE

NUMBER THAT SHOWS HOW MUCH YOU AGREE WITH EACH STATEMENT WHEN:
l = strongly disagree
2 = disagree
3 = sentence is somewhat true, and somewhat false
4 = agree, sentence is basically true
5 = strongly agree
STRONGLY STRONGLY
DISAGREE AGREE
l 2 3 4 5 l. The assault took me totally by
surprise.
1 2 3 4 5 2. The attacker was someone I knew

and trusted.

192

STRONGLY STRONGLY
DISAGREE AGREE

1 2 3 4 5 3. The rapist's voice was soft,
"polite".

l 2 3 4 5 4. The rapist handled me
roughly.

1 2 3 4 5 5. My attacker treatened to
kill me if I did not do
what he wanted.

1 2 3 4 5 6. I believed the rapist would
kill or seriously injure me
even if I did what he wanted.

1 2 3 4 5 7. The sexual acts the rapist
ordered me to do humiliated
me.

1 2 3 4 5 8. The comments my attacker
made during the rape were
degrading.

l 2 3 4 5 9. I felt invaded and taken
over.

1 2 3 4 5 10. I felt helpless during the
attack.

1 2 3 4 5 11. The rape was physically
painful.

l 2 3 4 5 12. I felt powerless during the
rape, the rapist had all
the power.

1 2 3 4 5 13. My attacker threatened to
return if I told anyone
about the rape.

l 2 3 4 5 14. I believe my attacker

might return.

RAPE IS A VIOLENT CRIME. SOME RAPES INVOLVE MORE VIOLENCE THAN
OTHERS. ON A SCALE OF 1 TO 10, RATE HOW VIOLENT YOUR ATTACK
SEEMED TO YOU. PLACE THE NUMBER HERE .

 

 

SCALE
MINIMALLY MODERATELY VERY'
VIOLENT VIOLENT VIOLENT

l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

193
Demographic Data
BASIC INFORMATION
PLEASE FILL IN THE FOLLOWING INFORMATION:

ID no. ‘____ Age ____ Highest year of school completed

Marital status: single __ 'married __ separated __ divorced __
widowed __

Present occupation Race

 

 

Which category best describes your economic level:

poverty level
lower middle class
middle class

upper middle cIass

wealthy

What is your religious background (e.g. Protestant, Catholic,
etc.)

 

How important is religion in your life at present (CIRCLE ONE):

very important somewhat important not very important
not important

Do you have any problems with drug or alcohol abuse, severe

depression, or other psychological problems? (If so, please
describe):

Were you ever commited to a hospital for psychiatric (i.e.
mental health) reasons?

Information pn_the rape
How long ago did the rape occur?
How old were you at the time of the rape?

Where was the location of the rape? (i.e. your house, the
street, etc.)

Were you a virgin at the time of the rape?

194

If you were not a virgin, would you say the other sexual ex-
periences you had had before the rape were:

all positive experiences
mostly positive experiences
some positive experiences
mostly negative experiences
all negative experiences

 

CHECK ONE

 

 

was this rape the first time you had ever been raped?
(If not, please explain)

Tell, in your own words, what sexual acts were forced on you
during the rape:

In the first week to ten days following the rape, who did you
tell about it? Check the answers that apply:

police

doctor, or emergency room staff
rape crisis center
parent(s)

husband or boyfriend
sisters or brothers
friends

boss

minister

psychologist or counselor
other:

 

 

Have you ever contacted a psychologist or mental health counse-
lor (other than a rape crisis counselor) for any personal prob-
lems you felt were due to being raped?

If so, describe the problem briefly:

About how many times did you see the counselor?

 

On a scale from 1 to 10 where l = not at all helpful and
10 = very helpful, how helpful do you think your counselor
was?

Place the number here

 

Was the man who raped you ever arrested by the police? yes no

Did you take the case to criminal court? yes no

195
What was the verdict? (i.e. was he found guilty, or not)

If he was found guilty, what was the sentence?

 

196

Fear Survey Schedule (III)

DIRECTIONS: The items in this questionnaire refer to experiences
with male figures that may cause fear or other unpleasant feel-
ings. write the number of each item in the column that describes
how much you are disturbed by it nowadays.

NOT AT A A FAIR VERY
ALL LITTLE AMOUNT MUCH MUCH

1. Speaking before a
group of men

2. Being teased by men

LA)

Entering a room.where
some men are already
seated

Male strangers

Men in authority

Crowds of men

Tough looking men

CDNO‘UIp

Being watched working
by a man

9. Ugly men

10. Being criticized by
a man

11. Angry men

12. Parting from male
friends

13. Feeling rejected by
men

14. Feeling disapproved
of by a man

15. Being ignored by
men

16. Nude men

17. Looking foolish in
front of a man

197

Guilt Index
PLEASE ANSWER EACH OF THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS BY CIRCLING THE
NUMBER THAT BEST SHOWS HOW TRUE OR FALSE EACH STATEMENT IS OF
YOU. CIRCLING THE NUMBER 1 MEANS YOU FEEL THE STATEMENT IS
TOTALLY NANNN, CIRCLING A 5 MEANS YOU FEEL THE STATEMENT IS
TOTALLY NNNN. THERE ARE NUMBERS IN BETWEEN THESE THAT CAN BE
CIRCLED AS WELL. FOR INSTANCE, CIRCLING A 2 MEANS YOU FEEL THE
STATEMENT IS MOSTLY FALSE, CIRCLING A 4 MEANS IT IS MOSTLY
TRUE, AND SO ON.

TOTALLY TOTALLY
FALSE TRUE

1 2 3 4 5 1. If something goes wrong, I
usually feel I am to blame.

l 2 3 4 5 2. Lately, I feel guilty all the
time.

1 2 3 4 5 3. I am concerned about being
forgiven for my sins.

l 2 3 4 5 4. I often feel that I have not
lived the right kind of life.

1 2 3 4 5 5. When I do wrong, my con~
science punishes me severely.

l 2 3 4 5 6. I sometimes have bad thoughts
which make me feel ashamed of
myself.

1 2 3 4 5 7. When a friend is upset with
me, I feel that it is my
fault.

l 2 3 4 5 8. When something bad happens

to me, I feel like I de-
served it.

198

Inventory of Psychosocial Development

DIRECTIONS: Rate the following on a 7 point scale according
to the degree to which they do or do not apply to you; please
rate them according to how you really are, not how you would
like to be. A l means that the statement very much does npp
apply to you; a 7 means that the statement very much does
apply to you. The numbers between i and 1 represent different
degrees that the statements do or do not apply. Please circle
the number which represents the degree to which the statement
applies to you.

does applies
not applies very
apply somewhat much
1. calm and untroubled ....... l 2 3 4 5 6 7
2. little concern for the
rest of the world ......... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3. not able to stand
frustration and every-
thing frustrates her ...... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
4. honest, not afraid to show
herself ................... l 2 3 4 5 6 7
5. open to new ideas ......... l 2 3 4 5 6 7
6. overly concerned with
herself ................... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
7. can't share things with
anybody ................... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8. warm and friendly ......... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
9. always an optimist ........ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
10. very lonely ............... l 2 3 4 5 6 7
ll. pessimistic, little hope.. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
12. has sympathetic concern
for others ................ l 2 3 4 5 6 7
13. able to take things as
they come ................. l 2 3 4 5 6 7
14. cold and distant .......... l 2 3 4 5 6 7
15. longs for lost paradise... l 2 3 4 5 6 7
l6. tactful in personal re-
lations ................... l 2 3 4 5 6 7

17.

18.

19.

20.

does
not
apply
deep, unshakable faith
in herself ................ l

secretly doesn't pay at-
tention to the opinion of
others .................... 1

never gets what he
really wants .............. 1

comfortable in close
relationships ............. 1

applies
somewhat

4

5

199

applies
very
much

7

200
Levenson's Internal-External Locus of Control Scale

DIRECTIONS:

Below there is a list of statements about yourself or
your beliefs. For each statement indicate the degree to which
you personally agree with the statement. Read each item
care u y. n the line next to the number of the statement
place the number that indicates your agreement in the following
way:

1 2 disagree strongly 2 = disagree moderately 3 = disagree
slightly 4 = agree strongly 5 = agree moderately 6 = agree
slightly

1. Whether or not I get to be a leader depends mostly on
my ability.

2. To a great extent my life is controlled by accidental
happenings.

3. I feel like what happens in my life is mostly determined
by powerful people.

4. Whether or not I get into a car accident depends mostly
on how good a driver I am.

5. When I make plans, I am almost certain to make them
work.

6. Often there is no chance of protecting my personal
interest from bad luck happenings.

7. When I get what I want, it's usually because I'm lucky.
8. Although I might have good ability, I will not be given
leadership responsibility without appealing to those

in positions of power.

9. How many friends I have depends on how nice a person
I am.

10. I have often found that what is going to happen will
happen.

11. My life is chiefly controlled by powerful others.

12. Whether or not I get into a car accident is mostly a
matter of luck.

13. People like myself have very little chance of protecting

our personal interests when they conflict with those
of strong pressure groups.

‘4 v.’

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.
19.
20.

21.

22.

23.
24.

201
It's not always wise for me to plan too far ahead be~
cause many things turn out to be a matter of good or
bad fortune.

Getting what I want requires pleasing those people
above me.

Whether or not I get to be a leader depends on whether
I'm lucky enough to be in the right place at the right
time.

If important people were to decide they didn't like me,
I probably wouldn't make many friends.

I can pretty much determine what will happen in my life.
I am usually able to protect my personal interests.

Whether or not I get into a car accident depends mostly
on the other driver.

When I get what I want, it's usually because I worked
hard for it.

In order to have my plans work, I make sure that they
fit in with the desires of people who have power over
me.

My life is determined by my own actions.

It's chiefly a matter of fate whether or not I have a
few friends or many friends.

202

Life Experience Survey

Listed below are a number of events which sometimes
bring about change in the lives of those who experience them.
The researcher will read each item aloud. Check those items
that you have experienced in the last twelve months. When
you check them, indicate whether they occurred 0 to 6 months
ago, or 7 months to 1 year ago. Be sure that all check marks
are directly across from the items they correspond to.

Also, for each item checked below, please write in the
type and degree of impact the event had. To do this use the
following rating scale:

-3 = extremely negative +3 = extremely positive
~2 = moderately negative +2 a moderately positive
~l = somewhat negative +1 = slightly positive

0 = no impact

Thus, if an event seemed extremely negative to you, you
would place a :§_next to it under the Rating column.

 

Event

7 mos Rating
6 mos to 1 yr

 

1. Marriage

2. Detention in jail or
comparable institution

3. Death of spouse

4. Major change in sleeping
habits

5. Death of close family
member:
Who:

 

6. Major change in eating
habits

7. Foreclosure on mortgage
or loan

8. Death of close friend

9. Outstanding personal
achievement

10. Minor law violations
(traffic tickets, etc.)

-3 = extremely negative
~2 = moderately negative
~l = somewhat negative
0 = no impact

Event

11.

12.
13.

14.
15.

l6.
17.
18.
19.

20.

21.

22.
23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

Male: Wife/girlfriend's
pregnancy

Female: Pregnancy

Changed work situation
(different hours, etc.)

New job

Serious illness or injury
of close family member:

Who :

 

Sexual difficulties
Trouble with employer
Trouble with in-laws

Major change in financial
status

Major change in closeness
of family members

Gaining a new family
member

Change of residence

Marital separation from
mate (due to conflict)

Major change in church
activities
Marital reconciliation
with mate

Major change in number
of arguments with spouse

Married male: Change in
wife's work outside the
home

+3

+1

0 to

6 mos

203

extremely positive
moderately positive
slightly positive

7 mos

to 1 yr

Rating

204

-3 = extremely negative +3 a extremely positive
-2 a moderately negative +2 = moderately positive
~l - somewhat negative +1 = slightly positive
0 a no impact
Event 0 to 7 mos Rating
6 mos to l yp
28. Married female: Change
in husband's work
29. Major change in usual
type and/or amount of
recreation
30. Borrowing more than
$10,000
31. Borrowing less than
$10,000
32. Being fired from job
33. Male: Wife/girlfriend
having abortion
34. Female: Having abortion
35. Major personal illness
or injury
36. Major change in social
activities
37. Major change in living
conditions of family
38. Divorce
39. Serious injury or ill-
ness of close friend
40. Retirement from.work
41. Son or daughter leaving
home
42. Ending of formal
schooling
43. Separation from spouse
44. Engagement
45. Breaking up with boy-

friend/girlfriend

-3 = extremely negative
~2 = moderately negative
~l = somewhat negative
0 = no impact

Event

46.

47.

Leaving home for the
first time

Reconciliation with
boyfriend/girlfriend

Other recent experiences which
have had an impact on your

life.
48.
49.
50.
51.

52.

53.

54.

55.

56.

57.
58.
59.

60.

List and rate.

 

 

 

Beginning a new school ex-
perience at a higher aca-
demic level

Changing to a new school at
same academic level

Academic probation
Being dismissed from
dormitory or other
residence

Failing an important exam

Changing a major or
career plans

Failing a course
Dropping a course

Joining a fraternity/
sorority

Financial problems
concerning school

+3
+2
+1

0 to

6 mos

205

extremely positive
moderately positive
slightly positive

7 mos Rating
to l yp

DIRECTIONS:
people have.

Profile of Moods State

206

Below is a list of words that describe feelings

Please read each one carefully. Then fill in

the blank to the left of each word with the number which best
describes HOW YOU HAVE BEEN FEELING DURING THE PAST WEEK

INCLUDING TODAY.

descriptive phrases.

bUJNt-‘O

\OmVO‘Ul-DUJNH

10.
ll.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.

Not at all
A little
Moderately
Quite a bit
Extremely
Friendly
Tense
Angry
WOrn out
Unhappy
Clear-headed
Lively

Confused

Sorry for
things done

Shaky
Listless
Peeved
Considerate
Sad

Active

On edge
Grouchy
Blue
Energetic

Panicky

21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.

29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.

Hopeless
Relaxed
Unworthy
Spiteful
Sympathetic
Uneasy
Restless

Unable to
concentrate

Fatigued
Helpful
Annoyed
Discouraged
Resentful
Nervous
Lonely
Miserable
Muddled
Cheerful
Bitter

Exhausted

The numbers refer to the following

41.
42.

43.

44.
45.
46.
47.

48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.

57.

58.

Anxious

Ready to
fight

Goodna-
tured

Gloomy
Desparate
Sluggish

Rebel-
lious

Helpless
Weary
Bewildered
Alert
Deceived
Furious
Efficient
Trusting

Full of
P9P

Bad-
tempered

Worthless

#WNHO

59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.

65.

Not at all
A little
Moderately
Quite a bit
Extremely
Forgetful
Carefree
Terrified
Guilty
Vigorous

Uncertain about
things

Bushed

207

208

Religiousity Scale
My religious background is:
Catholic

___'Protestant
___' denomination
___ Jewish
type
Moslem
Athiest, agnostic

Other

 

 

 

Do you feel it is possible for an individual to have a
well-rounded religious life apart from the church?

a. No
b. Uncertain
c. Yes

How much time during the average week do you spend read-
ing the Bible and other religious literature?

a. One hour or more
b. One-half hour
c. None

Which of the following best describes your participation
in the act of prayer?

a. Prayer is a regular part of my behavior

b. I pray in times of stress and/or need, but not much
otherwise

I usually only pray during formal worship services
Prayer is of little importance in my life

I never pray

(0940

How many of the past four Sabbath worship services have
you attended?

9400‘!”

Three or more
Two

One

None

Do you believe that your marriage ceremony should be per-
formed by:

a. A religious official (minister, priest, or rabbi)
b. A religious official or a justice of the peace
c. A justice of the peace, or other civil authority

209
Are there times when you feel "close" to the divine (God)?
a. Frequently b. Occasionally c. Rarely d. Never

WOuld you say your religious beliefs give your life a
sense of purpose it would not have otherwise?

a. Strongly agree b. Agree c. Disagree

210
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale
USing the following scale, place in each blank the number

which best represents your feelings about each of the following
statements :

1 2 3 4
Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly
Agree Disagree

1. I feel that I'm a person of worth, at least on an
equal basis with others.

2. I feel that I have a number of good qualities.

00

All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a
failure.

I am able to do things as well as most other people.
I feel I do not have much to be proud of.
I take a positive attitude toward myself.
On the whole, I am satisfied with myself.

I wish I could have more respect for myself.

\OWVO‘UIP

I certainly feel useless at times.

10. At times I think I am no good at all.

\OCDNO‘U'I-L‘UONH

HI—‘Hl—‘H
booms-:0

Support System Rating

211

List below the people currently in your life who are most

important to you.
people as you choose.
ship to you. For example:

Mary, my best friend
Mr. Townsend, my boss
Mrs. Brown, the gym teacher

You may write in as few or as many
Be sure to write in their relation-

Enter this information in the column labeled Name and Re-

 

lationship.
this paper.
Name and Relationship 'N N

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

LOW
LOW
LOW
LOW
LOW
LOW
LOW
LOW
LOW
LOW
LOW
LOW
LOW
LOW

:4 F‘ r4 r4 14 h‘ r4 14 P' h‘ r4 r4 F‘ r4

 

If you need additional room, use the back-3f

 

n: no to h) to to N) ha Io h) hJ to. n: he :3

bbbbbbkbkbbkb
an'IUIU'IU'IU'IUIUILnUIUIUILn

Who on this list have you wanted to talk with about the
rape? Place a checkmark (7) under the column "NV next to
the name of each of the people on your list that you did

want to discuss the assault with.

212

Which of the people on your list in Question 1 did you
actually talk with about the rape? Place a checkmark (/)
under the column "NY for talked pp_next to the name of
these people.

The people that you did discuss the assault with may have
responded to you in a way that felt helpful, or they may
not have. Please rate how helpful you felt each person
was according to the scale given below. Select the num-
ber from 1 to 5 that best selects how helpful the person
you talked with seemed, and circle this number next to
their name under the column "H Rating".

Helpfulness Scale

 

2 3 4 5
MODERATELY VERY
HELPFUL HELPFUL HELPFUL
(LOW) (HIGH)

There may be people from your list that you've wanted to
talk to about the rape, but have not. Some possible
reasons for this are listed below. Please check as many
as apply to you, and write in any other reasons you may
have had for not speaking with them.

I am too embarrassed.
I am afraid the news would upset them.
I am afraid they would think less of me.
I feel too guilty.
I am afraid they would be hurt.
I am afraid they would blame me.

They might try to catch or hurt the rapist themselves.
Other: (EXPLAIN)

 

 

 

213

Tennessee Self-Concept Scale

ANSWERS: Completely Mostly Partly false Mostly Completely

false false and true true
partly true
1 2 3 4 5

PLACE YOUR ANSWER IN THE BLANK NEXT TO THE SENTENCE.

___ l. I have a healthy body

___ 3. I am an attractive person

___ 5. I consider myself a sloppy person

___ 19. I am.a decent sort of person

___ 21. I am an honest person

___ 23- I am a bad person

___ 37. I am.a cheerful person

‘___ 39. I am a calm and easy going person
41. I am.a nobody

55. I have a family that would always help me in any kind
of trouble

57. I am a member of a happy family

59. My friends have no confidence in me

___ 73. I am.a friendly person
___ 75. I am popular with men
____77. I am not interested in what other people do
___ 91. I do not always tell the truth
___ 93. I get angry sometimes
___ 2. I like to look nice and neat all the time
___ 4. I am full of aches and pains
___ 6. I am.a sick person
___ 20. I am a religious person
___ 22. I am a moral failure
24. I am a morally weak person

214
ANSWERS: Completely ‘Mostly Partly false MOstly Completely

false false and true true
partly true
1 2 3 4 5

38.
40.
42.
56.

have a lot of self-control
am a hateful person
am losing my mind

am an important person to my friends and family

60.
74.
76.
78.
92. Once in a while I think of things too bad to talk about

feel that my family doesn't trust me
am popular with women

I

I

I

I

58. I am not loved by my family

I

I

I am mad at the whole world
I

am hard to be friendly with

94. Sometimes, when I am not feeling well, I am cross

___ 7. I am neither too fat nor too thin
___ 9. I like my looks just the way they are
___ 11. I would like to change some parts of my body
___ 25. I am satisfied with my moral behavior
___ 27. I am satisfied with my relationship to God
____29. I ought to go to church more
___ 43. I am satisfied to be just what I am
___ 45. I am.just as nice as I should be
___ 47. I despise myself
'___ 61. I am satisfied with my family relationships
‘___ 63. I understand my family as well as I should
___ 65. I should trust my family more
___ 79. I am as sociable as I want to be

81. I try to please others, but I don't overdo it

ANSWERS:

83.
95.
97.

10.
12.
26.
28.
30.
44.
46.
48.
62.

64.
66.
80.
82.
84.
96.
98.
13.
15.
17.
31.

215

Completely Mostly Partly false Mostly Completely

false false and true true
. partly true
1 2 3 4 5

I am no good at all from a social standpoint
I do not like everyone I know

Once in a while, I laugh at a dirty joke

I am neither too tall nor too short

I don't feel as well as I should

should have more sex appeal

am as religious as I want to be

wish I could be more trustworthy

shouldn't tell so many lies

am as smart as I want to be

am not the person I would like to be

H P1 P4 r4 r4 :4 H

wish I didn't give up as easily as I do

I treat my parents as well as I should (Use past
tense if parents are not alive)

I am too sensitive to things my family say

I should love my family more

I am satisfied with the way I treat other people
I should be more polite to others

I ought to get along better with other people

I gossip a little at times

At times I feel like swearing

I take good care of myself physically

I try to be careful about my appearance

I often act like I am "all thumbs"

I am true to my religion in my everyday life

216
ANSWERS: Completely Mostly Partly false Mostly Completely

false false and true true
partly true
1 2 3 4 5

33. I try to change when I know I'm doing things that are
wrong

35. I sometimes do very bad things

49. I can always take care of myself in any situation

___ 51. I take the blame for things without getting mad
___ 53. I do things without thinking about them first
___ 67. I try to play fair with my friends and family
___ 69. I take a real interest in my family
___ 71. I give in to my parents. (Use past tense if parents
are not living)
___ 85. I try to understand the other fellow's point of view
___ 87. I get along well with other people
.___ 89. I do not forgive others easily
___ 99. I would rather win than lose in a game
___ 14. I feel good most of the time
.___ 16. I do poorly in sports and games
___ 18. I am.a poor sleeper
___ 32. I do what is right most of the time
___ 34. I sometimes use unfair means to get ahead
___ 36. I have trouble doing the things that are right
___ 50. I solve my problems quite easily
___ 52. I change my mind a lot
___ 54. I try to run away from my problems
___ 68. I do my share of work at home
___ 70. I quarrel with my family
72. I do not act like my family thinks I should

217
ANSWERS: Completely Mostly Partly false Mostly Completely

false false and true true
partly true
1 2 3 4 5

86. I see good points in all the people I meet
88. I do not feel at ease with other people
90. I find it hard to talk with strangers

100. Once in a while I put off until tomorrow what I ought
to do today

APPENDIX B

218

Appendix B

The DOV-O Scoring System
Question 1: Assign +1 if victim stated she knew the attacker,
except if victim stated she never met him but had seen him
around.
Question 2: Assign +1 if assailant made any threats, even if
victim does not describe them.
Add +.5 to the above score if the threat was to kill the vic-
tim, kill victim's loved one(s), or harm the victim's child.
Question 3: Assign +1 if assailant said he had a weapon.
Add an additional +.5 if he said he had a knife or gun. Add
another +.5 if victim actually saw or felt weapon.
Question 4: Assign +1 if lpp, ZEN, or 359 choice circled.
(Note: even if all 3 are circled, the score still is just "1").
Assign +1 if 4gp choice is circled.
(Note: if 4EN choice is circled, plus any of the others,
final item score is "2").
Question 5: Assign +1 if victim says she was struck. Add +.5
to this if victim was struck more than one time. Add +.5 if
victim was struck with an object other than a hand (example:
stick, rock, gun, etc.).
Question 6: Assign "0" if victim says she has injuries but

they were only brush burns, or small marks not directly or

219
The DOV-0 Scoring System

Question 6: purposely inflicted by assailant (example: a
brush burn from falling on the ground).
Assign +1 if victim stated she had any physical injuries after
the assault; and if the injuries were mild and directly placed
on victim by assailant. Examples of mild injuries include:
minor cuts, sprains, black eye, or a few small bruises.
Assign +2 for major injuries inflicted by assailant. Examples
include: fractures, vaginal cuts, wounds requiring stitching
or surgery, concussions, aftereffects of near strangulation,
extensive bruising and swelling due to severe beating.
Nppp: Assign +1 if victim said she had injuries after the

assault but did not describe their nature.

Note: DOV-O score equals the sum of scores for questions

one through six.

APPENDIX C

220

Appendix C

ARSI-O Scoring Guidelines

General guidelines:

Sleep

Difficulty falling asleep:

Nightmares:

Sleeping‘more:

Sleeping less:

Waking‘more:

WNH
II II II

NH
I

09
ll

LAN |-‘ WNH

symptom didn't occur

(Note: if a symptom is not
mentioned, score it 0).
mild occurrence

moderate occurrence

severe occurrence

taking up to l more hour
taking 1-2 more hours a
night to fall asleep

more than 2 hours a night on
an average

1 a week
2 a week
3 a week

l~2 more hours a day on an
average

2-3 more hours

3+ hours more

Same as above

1 a
2 =

3a

l~2 times that week

once or twice a night for 2
or 3 nights that week
waking once or twice a night
for the majority of the week

TOTAL = Sum of score on the above questions.

221

ARSI-O Scoring Guidelines

 

Appetite

Less hungry: l
2
3

More hungry:

yes, but no weight loss beyond
3 pounds

yes and has lost 4-6 pounds
yes and lost 7-10 pounds

Same as above, except indicating

weight gain

Queasy: l
2
3
Threw up: 1
2
3

yes, but infrequent and no
vomiting

yes, feels that way most of
the week but not vomiting or
losing weight because of it
yes, has been queasy to point
of vomiting at least one time
that week

once that week
2-3 times that week
3+ times that week

TOTAL = Sum up all points on appetite.

Somatic
Headaches: l
2
3
Upset stomach or cramps:. 1
(If only in association 2
with food, don't rate.)
- 3

a few mild ones, didn't inter-
fere with functioning

several times that week -—
when it happens, it's a long,
nagging headache, it may dis-
tract her from usual schedule
headaches all week long -—

or very severe headache or
migraines on occasion that
disrupted functioning

infrequent, didn't interfere
majority of week, some
interference

severe, majority of week and/
or so severe on occasion that
functioning is disrupted (e.g.
misses work, loss of appetite)

222

ARSI—O Scoring Guidelines

 

Somatic
Diarrhea/Constipation: 1
2
3
More tired: l
2
3
Somatic symptoms related
to anxiety (e.g. trembling,
cold sweats, heart palpita-
tion):
2
3
TOTAL 8 Total somatic points.
Affective
Depressed: l
2
3
Angry : l
2
3

1 time that week

2 times or more but not going
on majority of week

went on most of the week

yes, but didn't interfere
yes, mild interference

yes, interferes a great deal
with functioning that week

occasional, but not the rule
for the week

happens several times that
week

going on most of the week, or
severe interference such as
sporadic panic attacks

occasional low moods, but no
real interference

more frequent low moods, mild
interference with functioning
depressed most of week and/or
severe interference with func-
tioning. Suicidal ideation
during time period also give a
"3" here.

feels more irritable/angry but
no acting out

more outbursts or arguments
than usual with friends or
family

major explosions of temper,
"telling off" strangers or
authorities, fists in wall, etc.

223

ARSI-O Scoring Guidelines

Affective

 

Fearful:

(To rate, look at average
intensity of rape-related
fears client reports.)

More'withdrawn:

Anxiety tension:

MN

startles more easily, but not
avoiding anything ,

some avoidance of feared objects
near total avoidance of

feared object if on own

feels that way, but no observ-
able change in her behavior
yes, is decreasing social out-
ings and socializing

very intense avoidance of
usual amount of socialization

off and on feeling, no somatic
symptoms

feels that way most the week,

but no real interference with

functioning

feels most of the week and is

interfering

TOTAL = Sum up all points on affective.

Rape-related Fears

 

For each fear use the
following scoring system:

Heterosexual

 

Less trusting of men:

More afraid of men:

H

WNH

mild, more afraid than usual
but behaving the same
moderate, some avoidance or
change of behavior

severe, near total avoidance
of through most of time period
—— ex., won't stay in house
alone, must be driven to work
each day

feels, but doesn't act on
moderate change in behavior
dramatic change in behavior
around men

Same as above

224

ARSI-O Scoring Guidelines

£2 Has Partner

Less close:

Increase in arguments:

With Np Partner

Less willing to date:

Spending less time with
male friends:

TOTAL

MNH to NH

yes, but acting same
yes, and either she or partner'
have shown mild behavior change
major behavior change

mild increase

moderate increase

severe, with new threats of
leaving or relationship
actually disrupted

feels less like dating, but
still is

moderate change in dating
behavior

major change in dating
behavior

Same as above

Sexual Concerns

 

Np’Partner

As comfortable with
physical contact:

As comfortable with
sexual contact:

Anxious re: future
relationships:

UNI“

WNH
II II II

WNH

no, but no behavior change
no, and some behavior change
no, and major behavior change

no, but no behavior change
no, and some behavior change
no, and major behavior change

no, but no behavior change
no, and some behavior change
no, and major behavior change

225

ARSI-O Scoring Guidelines
Partner

Change in frequency of

intercourse: l = yes, mild or sporadic change
2 = moderate decrease'
3 = total decrease

Change in sexual

satisfaction: 1 = a bit more tense, so a little

less

2 = moderate change

3 = major loss of satisfaction -
for example: not orgastic,
refusing any sexual contact

Flashbacks while
making love: yes, but doesn't interfere
yes, and some interference
yes, and major interference
example: refusal of certain
sexual practices, avoiding

making love

CORN--|
II II II

 

School/Home/Work
Miss days: 1 = 1-2 days l§p_2 weeks, or much
debate about going but finally
'went
2 = 0-2 days after lst 2 weeks, or
3 or more days mi§sed lpp 2
weeks
3 = 5 or more days lst 2 weeks or
still sporadicalIy missing
after 5-6 weeks.
Concentration: l = mild
2 = moderate
3 = severe
Quitting: 1 = occasional thoughts but doesn't
2 = constantly debating
3 = actually quits due to rape
If a housewife or
unemployed, on this
question give: 1 = if thinking of moving into

more dependent situation (i.e.,
back to family) but doesn't
2 = moves into friends or family
for a few days
moving in with plans to stay
more than a few days

Lao
ll

226

ARSI-O Scoring Guidelines

School/Home/WOrk

Decline in performance,
production, on-job:

feels it has but no objective
measure

some drop noted (ex.: lower
grades, people at work asking
what's wrong)

flunks course(s), fired from
job due to rape-related
behaviors

APPENDIX D

227

Appendix D

Correlation Matrices of Single and Multiple
Administration Questionnaires Used with the Incoming Group

228

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229

 

 

 

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omo nu. ma. os NH no «N: sN Hem
as No as omo os No mm- os- moo
oNo so- no. om oo- oo No- oo- oo Ho
oso- om om NN- ow so oao no zH Ho
ms Hm- oo- os om ss om- oo- a: Ho
dam- we no- om- oo- no- no- as- a Ho
m m m .N. .H. m m a Mommas-a
noose Homes meme

 

maofiumuumocwao< mamwuaoz

mouwmccowumooo cooumuumacfiao< oaowuasz £uw3_oawcfim mo mp0HuwHomuou

um wands

APPENDIX E

230

Appendix E

Summary on Questionnaire and ARSI~W Scores Affected by
Demographic Variables

Rosenberg self-esteem Scale. Four demographic variables

 

linked significantly to Self-Esteem scores. Lower self-
esteem was displayed by victims whose educational background
was limited to high school (versus college), by victims of
different race (rather than same-race) rapists, and by seek-
ers of professional postassault counseling (versus those who
did not). Contrary to expectations, those assaulted in their
own home evidenced higher self-esteem than those assaulted
elsewhere.

Nngg_. Adolescents reported significantly more anger
than did adults. When the adult sample was broken into two
age categories, ages 18-29, and ages 30 and older, the ado~
lescents reported more anger. Victims with high school back-
grounds also evidenced more anger than those with college
backgrounds. More anger was also expressed by victims as-
saulted in their home and individuals who had been previously
assaulted sexually. Those who described their preassault
sexual experience as mixed (positive and negative) also ob-
tained higher Anger scores than did those whose previous ex-
periences were primarily negative.

Guilt. Individuals with a history of prerape counseling

231

and those who contacted professional counselors for rape-
precipitated problems obtained higher Guilt scores than those
without a history of counseling or who did not seek postas-
sault professional counselors. Victims having only high
school educations obtained higher Guilt scores than did those
with some college. Posthoc analysis with the LSD, but not
the Scheffe's, indicated that individuals employed as semi-
skilled/unskilled laborers or homemakers also obtained higher
Guilt scores than did professional technical employees.

Those with mixed positive and negative previous sexual his-
tory obtained higher Guilt scores than individuals reporting
a history of negative sexual experiences.

292:9, Significantly higher DOV-O scores characterized
victims who reported receiving verbal threats during the as-
sault, being physically restrained, struck, or threatened
with a weapon.

NQN;§, Victims of multiple assailants, or those receiv~
ing verbal threats during the assault obtained higher scores.
Those assaulted 13~24 months ago obtained higher scores than
those assaulted 0-3, 4-12, or 25 months. Home-assaulted vic-
tims and those employed (versus unemployed) obtained signifi-
cantly lower DOV-S scores.

pgy;§. Three groups of.victims scored significantly
higher than the others: (a) those injured by rapists; (b)
those receiving severe to moderate injuries as opposed to
milder injury; and (c) those whose assaults involved deviant

sexual acts alone or in combination with vaginal penetration.

232

292:3. Victims who reported having been threatened,
struck, and moderately or severely injured obtained higher
DOV-T scores than those less threatened or injured. If the
assault involved multiple assailants, or if the victim was
assaulted in any location but her home, DOV-T scores were
significantly higher. Victims who were assaulted 13~24 months
ago also scored significantly higher than those raped 0-3,
4-12, or 25-plus months ago.

ARSI-w: one week pestassault: Only struck victims evi-

 

 

denced more symptoms.

ARSI-w: one month postassault: Struck victims continued

 

 

to evidence more symptoms than nonstruck. Adults also evi~
denced more symptoms than adolescents. Victims of multiple
assailants, and those who contacted professional counselors
after the rape, also reported more symptoms.

ARSI-W: three months postassault: Victims whose assail-

 

ant had been arrested evidenced fewer symptoms than victims
of nonapprehended assailants. If a victim had been struck,
or had a history of receiving personal counseling before the
assault, more symptoms were reported. Similarly, those con~
tacting a professional counselor for postassault difficulties
evidenced more symptoms than those who didn't. Finally,
posthoc analysis with the LSD procedure indicated that vic-
tims receiving mild injuries reported more symptoms than did
the noninjured. The Scheffe confirmed no differences between
these two groups.

ARSI-w: Sleep. Two victim categories evidenced more

 

233

assault—related sleep disturbances: those who had been
struck, and those who had sought professional counseling for
postassault difficulties.

ARSI-W: Appetite. Adolescents evidenced significantly

 

 

less disturbance than adults. Greater disturbances were re-
ported by struck victims and by those who had been injured
moderately to severely.

ARSI-W: Somatic. Struck victims evidenced more distur-

 

bance than others.

ARSI-W: Mood. Victims assaulted in their own home, and

 

those whose assailants had been arrested, evidenced less mood
disturbance than those who were assaulted elsewhere or whose
assailants were unapprehended. Victims with a prior history
of counseling for personal problems, those from poverty-level
backgrounds, and those contacting professional counselors for
postassault difficulties evidenced more disturbance than
others.

ARSI-W: Assault-Related Fears. Victims who did not know

 

 

their assailant, had multiple assailants, or had a previous
history of receiving personal counseling, or had poverty~
level backgrounds reported more disturbance than their coun-
terparts.

ARSI-W: Heterosexual Relationships. Posthoc analysis

 

 

with the LSD procedure indicated that poverty-level individu-
als also evidenced more postassault disruption in heterosexual
relationships than did lower middle-class victims, but the

Scheffe procedure did not confirm this finding. Victims

234

assaulted at home evidenced less disturbance than those as-
saulted elsewhere. Struck victims, those who had previous
professional counseling, or who had contacted a professional
counselor postassault evidenced greater disturbance. Posthoc
analysis indicated that poverty-level individuals had more
difficulty in this area than the loweramiddle class. However,
the Scheffe did not confirm this finding.

ARSI-W: Sexual Relationships. Those having college back-

 

 

grounds reported more difficulty in this area than high
school dropouts, and those who had contacted a professional
counselor postassault evidenced more disturbance than those
who had not. Finally, individuals whose assailants were ar-
rested evidenced less disturbance than did victims of unap-
prehended assailants.

ARSI-W: Occupation. Adolescents reported less distur-

 

 

bance than adults, while those assaulted in their own home

evidenced more disturbance than those assaulted elsewhere.

APPENDIX F

235

Appendix F

Independent Effects of Demographic Variables on Questionnaire
and ARSI-O Scores

Several demographic variables were examined for any in-
dependent effect they might exert on the dependent measures
of incoming group members. These demographic variables in-
cluded: age (adolescents vs. adults), educational level
(high school vs. college), socioeconomic status (below middle
class vs. middle class and above), religious identification
(Catholic vs. Protestant), previous history of mental health
counseling, marital status (single, married, and either sep-
arated, widowed, or divorced), occupation (employed vs. un-
employed), location of the rape (at home vs. elsewhere), vir-
gins vs. nonvirgins, the quality of previous sexual experi-
ences (generally positive vs. generally negative), those as-
saulted before vs. those never assaulted before the present
rape, sexual events during the assault (vaginal penetration
alone vs. IDSI), race of the assailant, the number of assail~
ants (single vs. multiple), those whose assailants were ar-
rested vs. those whose were not, those who knew their attacker
vs. those who did not, the presence of threats or weapons
during the assault or not, and victims who were struck and/or
injured vs. those who were not. As could be seen from this

listing, the variables (with the exception of marital status)

236

were classified into two groups alone. Finer discriminations
could not be calculated given the small number of victims and
the correspondingly empty cells that resulted when more than
two classifications per variable were used. As was the case
when similar comparisons were made using the total victim
pool, p—test comparisons were used unless the dependent mea-
sure was a multiple administration measure. In this event a
oneway analysis of variance was employed. In each case, a
probability level of p:<_.05'was required for a result to be
considered significant. When a hypothesis was being tested a
one-tailed p-test was used, otherwise nondirectional p-test
were employed.

ng. Seventeen individuals had completed the ARSI-O at
six weeks postassault and the item about age. The six ado—
lescent victims obtained significantly lower scores at this
time period (M = 3.67) than adults (M = 20.91), N (1,15) =
6.33, p <2.05.

Arrest pg assailant. Eleven victims completed the first

 

administration of the Anger scale and the item regarding the
assailant's arrest. The two victims of arrested assailants
reported more anger (M'= 46.50) than the nine victims whose
assailant was not apprehended (M8 25.89). This difference
was significant (N (1,9) = 5.43, p <2.05) and supported Hy-
pothesis eleven which predicted that victimds whose assailant
was not arrested would report less anger at one week postas-

sault than victim's whose assailant was "safely behind bars".

237

Educational Ngygi. Ten victims completed the third ad-
ministration of the TSCS and the item regarding educational
level. The eight individuals of high school backgrounds ob-
tained a mean score of 335.38 while the two victims with a
college background obtained a lower mean score of 297.50.
This difference was significant with N (1,8) = 6.61, p_<I.05.

Nine victims completed Levenson's Internal scale and the
item regarding educational level. The six individuals of
high school background obtained a mean score of 29.67 while
the three victims with a college background obtained a sig—
nificantly higher mean score of 40.00 (p (7) = ~3.51, p’= .01).

Fifteen victims completed the LES and the item regarding
educational level. The twelve individuals with a high school
background obtained a mean score on the negative change items
of 2.03, while the three victims with college background ob~
tained a significantly higher score of 11.29 (p (13) = ~2.27,
p <2.05).

lpjupy. Of the 11 victims completing the four TAT cards
scored for disguised anger, the two uninjured persons obtained
significantly higher scores (MT= 10.50) than the injured
(M = 3.22). Fifteen individuals completed the support system
form and item about assault-related injuries. The two nonin~
jured reported telling significantly more people about the
assault (M = 7.50) than did the thirteen injured (M = 3.69) .

Location 9: assault. Of the eleven individuals complet-
ing Constantinople's Intimacy scale, the three victims as-

saulted at home evidenced lower scores on this scale than the

238

eight victims assaulted elsewhere (3 (9) = 3.68, p <1.01).
Those assaulted at home obtained mean scores of 21.33 versus
26.50 for those assaulted elsewhere.

Those victims raped at home reported significantly more
negative life change on the LES in theyear preceding the as-
sault (M = 9.34) than those raped elsewhere (M = 1.89) p (13)
= 1.94, p <I.05. A one-directional p~test was used as Hypoth-
esis two had predicted that those assaulted at home would ev-
idence more disturbance than those assaulted elsewhere. Fif-
teen individuals had completed the LES and location of the
assault items with four having been assaulted at home, and
eleven assaulted elsewhere.

Thirteen individuals completed the second administration
of the TSCS and the location of the assault item. The three
victims assaulted at home reported significantly lower self-
esteem (M'= 289.00) than the ten raped elsewhere (M7= 332.40),
N (1,11) = 8.00, p < .05. This supported Hypothesis two
which had predicted that those raped at home would evidence
lower self-esteem than those assaulted elsewhere.

Marital status. Seventeen individuals completed the
ARSI-O at four weeks postassault as well as the marital status
item. Three classifications of marital status were consider~
ed for comparison: single (5.: 12), married (N’= 2), and
separated, divorced, or widowed(N = 3). The groups differed
significantly on the ARSI-O score for this time period such
that N (2,14) = 5.18, p <1.05. Posthoc analysis with the

Scheffe indicated that the single victims (M = 15.42) and

239

married individuals (MT= 35.00) were significantly different
(p <1.10), and that married individuals also obtained signifi-
cantly higher scores than those separated, divorced, or wid-
owed (M = 3.00) with p < .05.

Number 3: assailants. Seventeen victims completed this

 

administration of the ARSI-O and the number of assailants
item. The four victims assaulted by multiple assailants ob-
tained significantly higher scores (MT= 37.50) than those as-
saulted by single assailants (M'= 16.39). This difference
was significant (N (1,15) = 4.87, p <1.05.

Previous mental health counseling. Individuals with a

 

history of receiving mental health counseling for some per~
sonal problem before the assault obtained significantly lower
scores on the Body Cathexis scale than those without such a
history (5 (9) = ~2.03, p < .036). Of the 11 members com~
pleting the Body Cathexis scale, four individuals had a his-
tory of counseling and obtained a mean score of 25.75, while
seven individuals had no such history and obtained a mean
score of 31.00.

Of the nine victims completing Levenson's locus of con~
trol measure, the victims with a history of preassault coun-
seling obtained higher scores on the Internal scale than
those without prior counseling (p (7) = 2.53, p <I.05). The
two precounseled victims obtained a mean score of 41.00, ver~
sus 30.86 for the seven others.

Fifteen victims completed the Support System Rating and

the previous mental health counseling item. The five victims

240

having prior counseling histories reported a significantly
greater number of significant others Cfi'= 9.80) than the ten
nonprecounseled victims (H‘= 6.30), E (13) = 2.21, p <I.05.

Previous sexual assaults. Fourteen individuals complet-
ed the LES and history of previous sexual assault items. The
seven victims with a preVious history of assault reported
significantly more positive life changes in the year preced-
ing the assault (M'= 2.59) than those seven never before as-
saulted (H'a 1.35), E (12) = 2.48, p <1.05.

Race of assailant. Twelve individuals completed both

 

 

the Support System Rating and the item regarding assailant's
race. Those raped by different race assailants rated the
level of helpfulness of significant others told about the as-
sault significantly higher (fi’= 4.74) than those victimized
by same-race assailants.

Ten individuals completed the second administration of
the Guilt and the race of assailant item. The seven individ-
uals assaulted by same-race assailants reported less guilt
(H = 19.71) than the four different-race victims (H = 31.75).
This difference was statistically significant (§_(1,9) = 7.86,
p <:.05).

Ten individuals also completed the second administration
of the Anger scale and the race of assailant item. The seven
victims raped by a member of the same race reported less anger
(fif= 19.71) than those raped by different-race assailants
(fi’= 31.75). This difference was significant CE (1,9) =
7.86, p < .05).

241

Fifteen individuals cmmpleted the ARSI-O at six weeks
postassault and the race of the assailant item. The nine in-
dividuals raped by a member of the same race obtained a lower
mean score (M'= 7.00) than those six assaulted by an assail-
ant of a different race (H'= 21.17). This difference was
significant with F (1,13) = 4.88, p <I.05.'

Sexual events during the assault. Of the eleven who both

 

 

completed the POMS and responded to a question asking about
the sexual events occurring during the assault, the seven who
experienced IDSI assaults obtained mean scores of 125.86,

much greater than the 60.00 mean of the six victims of vaginal
penetration alone. This difference was significant at a

p <1.05 level (5 (11) = -2.99, p_= .012.

Seventeen individuals also completed the ARSI-O at four
weeks postassault and information regarding the sexual events
during the rape. In eight instances, vaginal penetration a-
lone was involved, whereas nine cases involved IDSI in com-
bination with vaginal penetration or alone. Individuals
whose assaults involved IDSI obtained higher ARSI-O scores at
this time (fif= 21.67) than those whose assault did not in-
volve this (H = 8.63). This difference was Significant with
F (1,15) = 4.98, p <C.05..

Threats. Ten individuals completed the first administra-
tion of the Anger scale and the assailant's threats item.
Individuals who had been verbally threatened cg = 7) obtained
a mean score of 24.14 versus 44.33 mean for those not verbally

threatened, (E = 3). This difference was significant,

242

F (1,8) = 7.17, p <2.05. Similarly, verbally threatened vic-
tims reported significantly less anger on the second adminis—
tration of the Anger scale (M’= 15.13) than the three not
threatened (H = 41.00). This difference was statistically
significant (F (1,8) = 21.13, p <C.01).

Virginity. Seventeen victims completed the ARSI-O at

 

six weeks postassault and the item regarding virginity. The
four victims who were virgins before the assault reported no
symptoms at this time period (H7= 0.00) while the 13 nonvir-
gins obtained a mean score of 19.39. This difference was

significant (F (1,15) = 6.29, E <I.05).

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