MSU

 

 

 

RETURNING MATERIALS:
P1ace in book drop to

 

 

 

LIBRARIES remove this checkout from
1—13-— your record. FINES wil]
be charged if book is
returned after the date
stamped below.
"? r’ ’_{\f

 

 

 

 

THE CITIZENS EDUCATION PROGRAM IN THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC:

WOMEN PARTICIPANTS AND THEIR VIEWS

By

Ynés Maria Cardoso de Byam

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Educational Administration

1986

ABSTRACT
THE CITIZENS EDUCATION PROGRAM IN THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC:
WOMEN PARTICIPANTS AND THEIR VIEvS
By

Ynés Maria Cardoso de Byam

Women in Third World nations have experienced a
constant struggle to survive within systems that do ‘not
encourage social Justice. The purpose of this study was to
develop an understanding of what motivates women to
participate in a literacy program in a developing nation,~
since there are only a few opportunities in those countries,
and those opportunities are usually saved for the men.

The study described the women's point of view on three
major areas of focus. The first area of focus was a
description of the Citizens Education Program by the women
participants. The second area of focus was a description of
the women participant's prior educational experience. And
the third area of focus dealt with the motivation of the
women to participate in the Citizens Education Program.

The research used the Grounded Theory Methodology of
Glaser and Strauss to obtain the data. Interviews were done
by the researcher using open-ended questions during the
literacy classes.

The following conclusions were evident from the
findings:

Each of the women participants talked about the

Citizens Education Program in terms of how it affected them
individually.

The women are acquiring a sense of self-worth and self
sufficiency that was not there before.

The facilitator-student relationship is one of the most
important aspects of the Citizens Education Program.

Only one woman in twelve who had participated in
education, finished the first grade.

The most common reason for not participating in
education was family responsibilities.

Twenty women thought that the most important reason why
they were attending the literacy classes was in order to
reach a personal goal.

The women participants expressed the desire to continue
their education.

The women felt that the Citizens Education Program had

made them set goals for their lives.

DEDICATION

To the people of the Dominican Republic,
whose unselfish ways made me love that island

as my own.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to express my deepest appreciation for the
cooperation and commitment of trust given to me by everyone
I encountered during my stay in the Dominican Republic.

The entire staff at the Secretariat of Education gave
of their time, expertise, and hospitality to make this
project an unforgettable and rewarding experience. I would
especially like to thank Lic. Victor Brens for all his
support and faith in my ability to pursue this project. I
would also like to express my gratitude to Nieves Allpike,
who worked with me, encouraged me, and became one of my
closest friend.

Dr. S. Joseph Levine, as chairman of the committee,
provided his constant support and encouragement during the
length of the project. His help was invaluable as a guide,
consultant, and friend. The counsel and help of Dr. James
Buschman, Dr. James Snoddy, and Dr. Ben Bohnhorst were very
much appreciated. A

I am indebted to many people who gave of their time to
share with me, listen to me, and encourage me as I worked on
this project. They include my family, friends and

colleages.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page No.
APPENDICEOOOOIOOOOOOOOO00......OOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.00.000.000.00. Vii
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES. O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O OViii

CHAPTER

I. INTRODUCTIONOOOOIOOO0.0..00...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 1

Problem..........................................
Purpose of the study.............................
Site of the study................................
Definitions......................................
Importance of this study.........................

\lU‘IUc—A-A

II. LITERATURE REVIEW................................

\0

Introduction..................................... 9
The education of adults from a Third World
Perspective................................. 10
Characteristics of the adult 1earner............. 10
Motivation of adults............................. 13
Maslow's Theory of Human Motivation......... 14
The basic needs........................ 15
The participation of adults in educational
programs.................................... 18
MOdels of participation..................... 19
Motives for participation................... 20
Women in Latin America........................... Zn
The role of Latin American women............ 24
Class Structure........................ 24
Racial Background...................... 27
Education.............................. 30
The role of women in the Dominican Republic. 32
Class structure........................ 32
Racial Background...................... 3n
Education.............................. 35
Description of Programa de Reenforzamiento de
Educacién de Adultos........................ 37
Background.................................. 37
The Citizens Education Program.............. 39
Objectives and goals................... 39
The Citizens Education Program as a project
of the Central University of the East.. 41
Description of the project............. 43

iv

III.

IV.

Requirements of the project............
Objectives of the project..............

sumry...’......OOOOOOOOOOOOOO......IOOOIOOOOOOO

”ETHODOIIOGYOOOOOCOOOOOO ..... ......OOOOOOOOOOOO...

Introduction.....................................
Grounded Theory Methodology......................
Description.................................
Theoretical sampling...................
Defining the population..........................
Sample...........................................
Data collection and analysis.....................
Background..................................
Pilot study.................................
The study............... ..... ..... ...... ....
Beginning of the interview.............
Interview questions....................
Closing of the interview... ......... ...

ANALYSIS OF THE DATA. ............ ................

General background...............................
Description of the Citizens Education
Program................................
The literacy units.....................
The facilitators.......................
The materials..........................
Description of the women participants.......
Prior educational experience of the women
participants................................
Description of the Citizens Education Program
by the women participants...................
Benefits the women felt they have gained
from their participation in the
Citizens Education Program.............
The Citizens Education Program Follow-up
classes................................
Positive feedback about the Citizens
Education Program......................
Negative feedback about the Citizens
Education Program......................
Motivation.......................................

The
The
The
The
The
The
The

desire
desire
desire
desire
derire
desire
desire

to
to
to
to
to
to
to

know. ..... ....................
reach a personal goal.........
reach a social goal...........
reach a religious goal........
escape........................
take part in an activity......
comply with formal

reqUirementS.......OOOOOOOOO ........ .0.

1

A3
44
an
A6

A6
A6
46
H8
51
51
52
52
52
53
55
56
60

63
63

63
6A
64
68
70

75

78

79
82
83

87
88
9O
91
94
95
96
96

97

V.

CONCLUSIONS ........ ......OOOOOOO. OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 101

Problem...................... ..... ...............101
Review of the findings................... ..... ...101
Study Area No. 1.......................101
Study Area No. 2.......................107
Study Area No. 3~......................109
Conclusions......................................111
Future Research..................................116
Concluding comments........... ...... . ............ 118

BIBLIOGRAPHY...................... ......... “......119

FIGURE

LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES

MAP OF THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC.......................

PRELIMINARY QUESTIONS.................... ......... ..

FINAL QUESTIONS...OO...O......I...0.0......00.00....

DEMOGRAPHIC DATA OF THE WOMEN PARTICIPANTS..........

REASONS FOR NOT PREVIOUSLY PARTICIPATING IN
EUCATIONAL PROGRArIS................. ..... ...

BENEFITS THE WOMEN GAINED FROM THEIR PARTICIPATION
IN THE CITIZENS EDUCATION PROGRAM............

POSITIVE ASPECTS ABOUT THE CITIZENS EDUCATION
PROGRAM ......... . ...... . ........ ....... ......

NEGATIVE ASPECTS ABOUT THE CITIZENS EDUCATION
PROGRAM.................................0....

WOMEN RESPONSES ACCORDING TO BURGESS'SEVEN
CATEGORIES...........................O.......

58
59

7A

75

80

84

87

APPENDICES
Page No.
A. PODWOS IOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.000.000.0000000000125
B. PODEMOS IIOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0......0.0.0.0000000000000130

C. PODEMOS III............................ ....... . ...... ...135

CHAPTER I
Problem

The focus of this study was an examination of the point
of view of the women participants in a literacy program in
the Dominican Republic. There were three major areas of
study. The first area of study was a description by the
women participants of the Literacy Program. The second area
of study was a description of the women's prior educational
experience. And the third area of study dealt with the
motivation of the women to participate in the Literacy

Program.
Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of this study was to develop an
understanding of the motivation of women to participate in a
literacy program in a Third World nation. It is hoped that
through the findings of this research adult educators will
be able to design programs that encourage the participation
of women. This is important to the developing nations since
they are ignoring half of the adult population when creating
adult educational programs. Making available more
educational opportunities to ‘Hua women. would incorporate

them into the economic mainstream of their countries. Then,

the nations of the Third World would be able to use all of
their human resources in the development process.

Recent events in Latin America reveal the need to know
our neighbors better. Their past history and their present
struggles to achieve social justice must be understood in
order to obtain respect and interdependence between the
developed nations and those of the Third World.

Women in particular have lived in a state of
submission, and their everyday life has been a: constant
struggle to exist within systems that do not condone social
equality. It is necessary to realize that women in
developing nations are oppressed not only by political
structures of the left or the right, but also by poverty,
ignorance and injustice. President Nyerere of Tanzania has
said, "Village women work harder than anyone in the
country." This is true throughout the world, women in the
lowest class of society are working, yet they are underpaid
or not paid at all for their toil. They work under the most
difficult of conditions: they are discriminated because of
sex, race, and social class. They endure all types of
problems: malnutrition, lack of health care, lack of
adequate housing, and lack of jobs.

Brigalia H. Bam (1976) explains:

The priviledged woman in the Third World has
become aware of wcmen’s oppression, but there is
no solidarity built through her awareness with the
peasant woman of her country. The woman living in

a remote village or slum is totally unaware of
such concept as ’equality'. She has never

questioned the inequities between £132 and women,
simply accepting and living with them as part of
her culture. Full equality may not seem nearly as
important to her as the possibility of access to
the basic needs of life.

Many developing programs are designed with the male
population in mind while the females are seen as passive
bystanders, (Nash, 1976). This continues 'ho promote the
subservient role of women throughout the world.
Development, therefore, cannot be achieved if only half of
the population is involved in it, while the other half is
excluded from it.

Education and training have been named as the most
critical factors influencing the effectiveness of women’s
participation in the economy and development of their
societies, (Bam, 1976). At the same time, in almost all the
developing countries, women constitute the majority of
illiterates and school drop-outs. Nonformal education
programs that now exist for girls and women throughout the
Third World are designed to continue the assumption that the
place of the woman is solely in the home, (Bam, 1976).

Usually these programs teach them how to sew and cook, but

ignore skills that might improve their job Opportunities.
Site of the Study

The research took place in the Dominican Republic

because of the following criteria:

1. 2u.5% of the women between the ages of 15 and A9
are illiterate. This figure is tweed (M: a definition of
illiteracy which requires the people to be able to read and
write their own name. Therefore, the illiteracy rate is a
lot higher.

2. A literacy program was established in 1982 by the
government. This program will continue until 1986, at which
time an adult education program will go on providing the
necessary instruction for the illiterates and the new
literates. This literacy program hopes to lower the
illiteracy rate in the country.

3. The government, especially the Secretaria de
Educacién, Bellas Artes y Cultos (Secretariat of Education),
in the Dominican Republic was receptive to such a study.
The government considered the study an opportunity to
evaluate their efforts. Also the study was viewed as a
chance to demonstrate that the literacy program was
worthwhile, especially to those sectors of the population
that were not supporting the program.

A. Personal interest in Latin America, and
specifically the Caribbean, on the part of the researcher.
This region has special meaning since the researcher was
born in Cuba, and therefore the culture and problems of the

region are very familiar to the researcher.

Definitions

The following terms will be used in this research study
according to the definitions that are listed below.

Literacy

This term has been defined in many different ways and
contexts. Carman St John Hunter and David Hartman in their
book Adult Illiteracy in the United States offer the
following distinction of terms:

1. Conditional literacy: The ability to read, write,
and comprehend texts on familiar subjects and to understand
whatever signs, labels, instructions, and directions are
necessary to get along within one's environment.

2. Functional literacy: The possession cu? skills
perceived as necessary by particular persons andpgroups to
fulfill their own self determined Objectives as family and
community members, citizens, consumers, job-holders, and
members of social, religious, or other associations of their
choosing. This includes the ability to obtain information
they want, and to use that information for their own and
other’s well-being; the ability to read and write adequately
to satisfy the requirements they set for themselves as being
important for their own lives: the ability to deal
positively with demands made on them by society; and the
ability to solve the problems they face in their daily

lives, (pp.7-8).

One of the objectives stated in the Dominican
Republic's Programs Especial de Educacién Ciudadana
(Citizens Education Program or Literacy Program) is:

Lograr que las mujeres iletradas adquieran el
dominio basico de lectura, escritura y nociones de
matematicas, con miras a la participacién critica
en la vida econémica, social, politica y cultural
del pais. (Secretaria de EducaciOn, Bellas Artes
y Cultos, pp. 2)

(To have the illiterate women obtain the basic
knowledge of reading, writing, and some notion of
mathematics, in order’ to be able to participate in the
economic, social, political, and cultural life of the
country.)

Adult Education

 

Adult Education has been defined by UNESCO as:

"Organized programmes of education are provided for
the benefit of and adapted to the needs of persons
not in the regular school and university system and
generally fifteen or older." Proposals for the

 

Collection of Adult Education Statistics, Paris,
UNESCO, Office of Statistics, July 197%.

 

Brundage and Mackeracher refer to Adult Education as:

"The instutionalized system which provides the
programs, administrative structures, processes,
settings, resources, and so on to facilitate adult
learning." Adult Learning Principles and Their

 

Application to Program Planning. Ministry of
Education, Ontario, 1980, pp. 5.

 

Learning

 

"Adult Learning refers ‘h: the process which
individuals go through as they attempt to change or
enrich their knowledge, values, skills, or
strategies, and to the resulting knowledge, values,
skills, strategies and behaviors possessed by each
individual. Learning is most often defined in the
literature as a relatively permanent change in
behaviors as the result of experience and as the
activities involved in this process of change."

Adult Learning Principles and Their Application to
Program Planning; Donald H. Brundage and Dorothy
Mackeracher, Ministry of Education, Ontario, 1980,
pp. 5.

Participation

Participation is defined as the involvement in self-

directed or other directed learning experience.
Motivation
Motivation is defined as an internal desire to promote

the growth of the person toward fully-functioning

personhood.

Importance of This Study

The need ‘h: understand what motivates women to
participate in a literacy program is of the outmost
importance for the field of adult education. First, for the
developing countries themselves, since they need to make
available to women more opportunities and in this way use

all of their human resources. These programs should

 

encourage women to incorporate themselves into the economic,
political, social and cultural mainstream of the country.
Second, empowerment will come through education. Paulo
Freire in The Politics of Education, (1985) states,

The dominant culture needs to inculcate in the
dominated a negative attitude toward their own
culture...What happens when. the dominated people
finally realize their culture is not ugly as their
dominators say?...In truth, the dominated are human
beings who have been forbidden to be what they
are. They have been exploited, violated, and
violently denied the right to exist and the right

to express themselves. This is true whether these
dominated people represent a unique people, a
social group, a social class, or a particular
gender (like women), (Bergin and Garvey Pub.,
Massachusetts, pp. 192).

The dominated people tend to develop attitudes such as
withdrawal, submission, inferiority and passivity.
Education can help raise the consciousness of these people
if it is used to liberate them.

Adult education needs to understand the implications of
how specific cultural aspects might affect the participation
of women in programs dealing with literacy, in order to use

this knowledge 1H) design, plan and implement programs for

the benefit of the women in the developing countries.

CHAPTER II

Introduction

 

There are many terms used to describe the countries
that have not realized a potential economic level of
industrial standard of living, (Webster’s Collegiate
Dictionary, (L. C. Merriam Co., Springfield, Massachusetts,
1965). These terms range from developing, underdeveloped,
to Third World, and they are used synonymously throughout
the literature. In. this study, they will also be ‘used
interchangeably.

It is the purpose of this chapter to review the
literature relevant to the motivation of women to
participate in a: literacy program from the perspective of
the Third WOrld. There is almost no literature available
that deals directly with what motivates women in developing
nations to become involved in organized literacy
campaigns. Therefore, this chapter will begin with a review
of the literature on the education of adults, especially
from a Third World perspective: the characteristics of the
adult learner; the motivation of adults; and the
participation of adults in educational programs. Then, the
review of the literature will be focused on the role of the
women in Latin America, and in particular in the Dominican

Republic, where this study took place. Finally, the

10

background and objectives of the Citizens Education Program
in the Dominican Republic, and the role that the Universidad
Central del Este (Central University of the East, UCE) plays

in that program will be described.

The Education of Adults from a Third World

Perspective

 

Hely (1962) states that adult education is regarded as
an essential and normal part of the educational system in
the Third World. Adult Education is one of the more
important branches of education because of the problems
facing developing countries at this time. The adult
educator is well regarded and has never been faced with the
struggle of having to demonstrate the value of adult
education. There are two reasons for this, as Lowe (1975)
shows. The first is the need to implant a sense of national
identity and social homogeneity so that citizens will unite
for the common good. The second reason is that, with a few
exceptions, Third World nations have to overcome the problem
of poverty, and adult education is considered to be a

powerful factor in economic development.

Characteristics of the Adult Learners

In Learning How to Learn, Robert Smith (1982) lists

four critical characteristics of the adult learner:

11

1. Adult learners have a different orientation to
education and learning. Adults have multiple roles, tasks
and responsibilities. They bring a different orientation to
learning that arises from a different orientation toward
living. They attend because they want to, and time is a
precious commodity. Kidd (1973) expresses the idea that
time to an adult is as important as money or effort.

2. Adults have an accumulation of experience. Each
person is unique because of the experience they bring with
them. If learning threatens the values, meanings,
strategies, and skills; the adult will search back for
something suitable that can be applied indirectly. If
nothing can be found, the adult's self concept may be
threaten and may even withdraw from learning altogether,
(Brundage and MacKeracher, 1980, pp.32-33: Smith, 1982, pp.
41).

3. Adults have special developmental trends. "The
term development refers to more or less orderly,
predictable, and sequential changes in characteristics and
attitudes." Alan. Knox (1977) summarizes the :research on
adult development and its. relationship to learning by
focusing on "change events," such as retirement. Major
change of events can produce such positive effects as
increased motivation for education. But if several of these
significant events happen together they may traumatized the

adult, (1.6. the midlife crisis).

12

Aslanian and Brickell (1980) sampled 2,000 people over
twenty five. They found that 83% were learning in order to
cope with a life change, 50% of the transitions were career
related, 16% were family related, and 13% were related to
new leisure patterns.

4. Adults face new learning opportunities with anxiety
and ambivalence. Mixed feelings and even fear have been
related to the decision of participating in a new learning
opportunity» If adults understand these feeling, they can
help themselves and others to learn more effectively.

Roger’s (1969, pp. 154-164) principles of "self theory"
helps educators understand adult learners:

1. Human beings have a natural potential for learning.

2. Significant learning takes place when the subject
matter is perceived by the learner to be relevant to his/her
own purposes.

3. Learning that involves a change in self
organization (in the perception of self) is threatening, and
tends to be resisted.

A.~ Learning that threatens the "self" is more easily
perceived and assimilated when external threats are at a
minimum.

5. When the threat to self is low, experience can be
perceived in a differentiated way, and learning is enhanced.

6. Learning is facilitated when the learner

participates responsibly in the process.

13

7. Self-initiated learning that involves the whole
person (feelings as well as intellect) is the most lasting
and pervasive.

8. The most useful learning is learning the process by
which one learns, a continuing openness to experience, and

incorporation of the change process into oneself.

Motivation of Adults

Havighurst (1967), as an observer of the motivation to
learn, stated that motivation depends on two factors: The
first is the stage that has been reached in development, and
the second factor is the social roles that one is required
to play» This is especially important when thinking about
the division of classes that exists in Latin America,
because social roles are one of the most important aspects
of Latin American society, as we will see later on.

Hubermann (19711, pp. 221) explains that "adults will
continue to learn if they are able to concentrate their
learning areas of experience in which their personal
interests lie as well."

Although Levinson’s work (1978) has not been tested
cross-culturally, it is worth mentioning here since it
explains why adult vocational, literacy and other
educational programs have high attrition rates. Levinson’s

description of the difficulty of building a new life

14

structure may help to understand why some adults stay with
established patterns in their lives rather than venture into
new opportunities. The move into a new life structure is a
complex one and educators should provide support for
students in this transition.

Lasker (1978) conducted a cross-cultural study of
motivation and suggested that motives for education may be
stage related.

A key factor in the attitude of adults to learn is
whether or not they are capable of changing to the task at
hand and how clearly it is presented. One finding, which is
very important, is that adults of low applied intelligence
are more resistant to change than those of higher
intelligence. Also, it appears that intelligence does not
automatically decline with age, in fact, learning ability is

retained by regular exercise, (Lowe, 1975, pp. 50).

Maslow’s Theory of Human Motivation

H. Maslow in his book Motivation and Personality

 

 

(195A), underlines the basis of his Theory of Human
Motivation. He sees the individual as an integrated whole
that is motivated. "The study of motivation must be in part
the study of the ultimate human goals or desires or needs,"
(pp. 66).

The goals of individuals are not as different as their

15

conscious everyday exercises. The main reason for this is
that two cultures may have two different ways of satisfying
a particular need” Individuals yearn. for what might be
attained. "Attention to the factor of attainment is crucial
for understanding the differences in motivation between
various classes and castes within our own population and
between it and the poorer countries ,and cultures," (pp.
77). Maslow refers to the fact that in the United States
people may wish to have a car because they see that there is
a real possibility of obtaining it. The average American
does not yearn for yachts or planes, because they know that
these things are not within his reach. Therefore, we can
expect that the dreams or desires of the Latin Americans are
quite different from ours, because their factor Of

attainment is so different.

The Basic Needs

Maslow's theory is, as he calls it, a holistic-dynamic
theory, (pp. 80). He starts by dividing the basic needs of
man into the following:

1. The Physiological Needs

This is considered to be the most basic of all the
needs. The human being who is lacking everything in life
would have as his major motivation the physiological needs

rather than any other. All other needs may become simply

16

non-existent or they are placed in the background. The
whole philosophy of the unsatisfied human being tends to
change because In: will be thinking of meeting his
physiological needs first. In contrast, the people who have
been satisfied physiologically are best equipped to handle
deprivation of that need in the future.

2. The Safety Needs

Once the physiological needs have been fairly
satisfied, a new set of needs emerges, the safety needs. A
society that cares well for its citizens will make them feel
safe and secure. Therefore, the individual no longer has
any safety needs as motivators, (pp. 87). Another part of
the safety is seen as the attempt by the individual to seek
the known rather than the unknown, the familiar rather that
the unfamiliar things. The desire to belong to a family, a
religious or philosophical organization in order to give the
world some meaning, is part of the safety needs Of an
individual.

3. The Belongingness and Love Needs

As the physiological and safety needs are fairly met,
the love, affection, and belongingness needs will surface,
and the whole cycle starts again.

Maslow feels that these needs are at the core of cases
of maladjustment in our society. "Love and affection, as
well as their possible expression in sexuality, are

generally looked upon with ambivalence and are customarily

17

hedged about with many restrictions and inhibitions," (pp.
90).

Maslow goes on to say that love cannot be equated with
sex, since sexual behavior is determined not only by sexual
needs but other needs as well, for example the needs for
love and affection. Giving as well as receiving is an
integral part of love, and this is a factor that should not
be overlooked.

u. The Esteem Needs

This is a need for a stable, firmly based, usually high
evaluation of our worth as people, for self-respect, or
self-esteem, and for the esteem of others. These needs may
be divided in two sets:

a. The desire for strength, for achievement, for
adequacy, for mastery and competence, for confidence to face
the world, and for independence and freedom. "Whether or
not this particular desire is universal we do not know. The
crucial question, especially important today, is VHJJ. men
who are enslaved and dominated inevitably feel dissatisfied
and rebellious? We may assume on the basis of commonly
known clinical data that a man who has known true freedom
(not paid for by giving up safety and security but rather on
the basis of adequate safety and security) will not
willingly or easily allow his freedom to be taken away from
him. But we do not know that this is true for the person

born into slavery," (pp. 90, note no. u).

18

b. The desire for reputation. or prestige, status,
dominance, recognition, attention, importance, or
appreciation.

5. The Need for Self-Actualization

Even when all the preceeding needs are satisfied, we
may feel discontent and restless, unless we are doing what
we are fit to do. "What a man can be, he must be," (pp.

91). This is the need for self-actualization.

The Participation of Adults in Educational Programs

Darkenwald and Larson (1980) state that the most
powerful predictor of- participation in education is the
socioeconomic status (SES) of the person. The SES is based
on three factors: Educational attainment, occupational
status, and income. Statistical analyses by Anderson and
Darkenwald (1979a) in the United States have shown that
educational attainment has the strongest relation to
participation in educational programs.

Several studies have dealt with the issue of what it is
that prevents adults from participating in organized
learning activities, (Carp, Peterson and Roelfs, 197A;
Johnstone and Rivera, 1965: Mezirow, Darkenwald and Knox,
1975). Darkenwald and Larson (1980) summarized the
following barriers to the participation of adults in

educational programs:

19

1. Informational Barriers. These relate to the
individual's general awareness of the educational resources
offered to him in his community.

2. Situational Barriers. These relate ‘h: the
individual's life situation: Income, health, family
responsibilities, work obligations, place of residence, and
so on. Typical barriers are lack of child care, lack of
time and money, and lack of transportation.

3. Institutional Barriers. When an organization
ignores the special needs, problems and concerns of mature
learners. Cross (1979) named inconvenient schedules,
location, etc, as part of these barriers.

u. Attitudinal Barriers. These are defined by
Darkenwald and Larson (1980, pp. 6) as "individually and
collectively held beliefs, values , attitudes, or

perceptions that inhibit participation in organized learning

activities." The notions of "school are for Children,"
"education is impractical," "the classroom is a place for
failure and humiliation," and many others are part of

attitudinal barriers.

Models of Participation

1. The Economic Model. Dhanidina and Griffith (1975)
explain participation in education in terms of economic

concepts. Time is said to be the principal "opportunity

20

cost" for most adults. When the opportunity cost is low,
then, more participation is expected. The implications are
simple: Reduce the cost or increase the benefits and people
will participate.

2. The Force Field. Model. Miller (1967) said that
participation depends (Hi the positive versus the negative
forces that affect the behavior of the individual.

3. The Congruence Model. Boshier (1973) stresses the
interaction of psychological and environmental variables on
the participation of an individual.

4. The Expectancy-Valence Model. Kjell Rubenson
(1977) worked on an elaborate model of participation which
is based on valence (the positive or ‘negative affective
attitude toward the outcome of an action).

The implications for the last three models of
participation are not as clear as with the Economic Model.
Nevertheless, they share one thing in common, the result of
the interaction of the individual and the

social/environmental factors is important to participation.

Motives for Participation

People’s motives for participation are varied.
Johnstone and Rivera (1965) made a comprehensive study of
participation in adult education in the United States. They

concluded that the main motives were: (a) to become better

 

21

the-job training; (d) to spend leisure time in an enjoyable
and rewarding way; (9) to meet new and interesting people;
(f) to become more efficient in carrying out tasks and
duties in the home or elsewhere; (g) to escape from
routine: (h) to improve and understand their role in the
job, home or family life; (i) to improve skills; (j) to
increase general knowledge; (k) to increase income; (1) to
develop personality and to improve inter-personal relations:
(m) to develop some physical attribute or attributes.

John Lowe (1975) groups motives into three main
categories: Vocational, personal development, and social
relationships. He states that motives are more or less
similar throughout the world, (pp. 53). The vocational
category affects people from 18 to 40 years Old, and
especially young fathers that would like to train for
employment. Women whose children have grown, have a strong
interest in this category because of their desire to find
employment. The personal development category affects
almost everyone. People in this category tend to be older
(over 40 years of age) because they have more leisure time
on their hands, and fewer financial worries. Middle age
women, once their children have moved away, fall into this
category because of boredom. Men seemed to be less affected
by personal factors than women. The social group accounts
for much of the participation. People hope to find social
contacts in their classes. Participants are mostly

interested in meeting other people.

22

Burgess in 1971 designed an instrument called Reasons

for Educational Participation. It was administered to 1,046

 

adults participating in 54 different adult education
courses. Burgess reported seven factors which describe the
reasons why adults participate in adult education
activities:

1. The Desire to Know. This is defined as a desire to
gain knowledge for the sake of knowing. To grow in
qualities and intellect, to derive pleasure from learning,
to enjoy mental exercises, and to remain in command of
learning skills.

2. The Desire to Reach a Personal Goal. This is
defined as the desire to gain knowledge in order to achieve
a personal goal which the knowledge gained will make
possible. For example, earning a degree, motivation to get
ahead, securing a job, etc.

3. The Desire to Reach a Social Goal. This is
manifested by the need to gain knowledge in order to achieve
a goal which will improve society. The desire to learn
certain knowledge of skills which will assist an individual
to perform better the necessary functions as a contributing
member of society. For example, become a more effective
citizen, understand community problems, serve society, etc.

A. The Desire to Reach. a Religious Goal. This is
defined as a desire to learn in order to meet felt

obligations to a church, to some religious faith, or to some

23

religious missionary effort. For example, to be better able
to serve a church, to improve individual spiritual well-
being, etc.

5. The Desire to Take Part in Social Activity. This
is defined as the desire to take part in a social activity
because the activity is enjoyed for its own sake regardless
of what is intended to be taught at the activity. The
enjoyment may be in the fbrm of companionship, fellowship,
feeling of belonging, or positive association with others.

6. The Desire to Escape. This is defined as the
desire to escape from some other activity or situation which
is unpleasant or tedious. For example, to forget personal
problems, to have time away from responsibilities, to get
away from daily routine, etc.

7. The Desire to Comply with Formal Requirement. This
is defined as the desire to earn credit required by an
employer, to meet certain conditions required for membership
by certain groups, and to meet requirements of a judge, a

social welfare worker, or some other authority.

24

Women in Latin America

The Role of the Latin American Women

The women's role in Latin America depends on the social
class, the racial background and the education that the

women possess .

Class Structure

Contrary to the 'settlers in North America, the
Spaniards came to conquer, to exploit, to search for
treasures, and to bring the Old World's social structure to
the New World, (Burns, 1963). The Spaniards believed in an
elite minority ruling over the mass majority, and that
education was the exclusive property of the priviledge
class. This attitude brought as a consequence that in Latin
America it is not considered necessary or natural for all
men to be thought of as equal or to deserve to be treated
equally, (Burns, 1963). In the patriarchal world of the
Indians of Latin America, women were considered to be
property. This fitted the Spaniards' view of women at the
time of the conquest. For example, in Mexico, the Tabascan
Indians used women as a token of their alliance with the
Spaniards. The Tabascan presented Cortés and his men with

twenty virgins so that the conquerors would help this tribe

25

against the Aztecs, (Nieto-Gomez, 1976). "The seizure of
women was part of the general conquest," (Nieto-Gomez, 1976,
pp. 226). "Traditionally, sex through marriage or rape,
which are the tools of conquest, have been a means of taking
possession of women and land," (Nieto-Gomez, 1976, pp. 227).

Indian tradition, and later the education imparted by
the Catholic Church, continued to maintain the subjugation
of women. The concept of "Marianismo" (defined by Nieto-
Gomez, 1976, as the woman’s identity as a virgin, saintly
mother, wife-sex object, martyr, and as the contributor, by
means of her own sexuality, to her husband’s failures) is
still practiced today» The Catholic Church has guided the
women to identify themselves with the image of the Virgin
Mary, which is that of a passive, pure bystander. Maria Del
Durango talking about rape, describes the psychology taught
to Latinas by the Catholic Church today:

"We Latinas are not encouraged to be articulate about
any part of our experience, much less sexual abuse. Our
teachers are nuns who encourage our silence, as an exercise
in self sacrifice." (Nieto-GOmez, 1976)

Women in Latin America society are considered to be
below men. They are home-bound, untouched, submissive,
religious, apolitical and self-effacing, (Rivera, 1978).
The home centers around the woman, and she is the symbol of
family unity and security. According to Kinzer (1973), this

description is bound by the socioeconomic background of the

26

woman. Besides the traditional view of "hembrismo"
(exagerated femeninity as the answer to machismo), there is
another feminine tradition. shown ix: literature. In. this
instance, women are "portrayed as bored hedonist who
casually play with people's emotions and lives. One reason
why their female protagonists inmerse themselves in sensuous
pleasure may be to seek fulfillment in tawdry affairs as a
compensation for being denied equality before the law."
(Kinzer, 1973, pp. 302). Kinzer (1973) also points out that
most of the research done in Latin America is focused on the
lower classes of society, therefore the cult of machismo
(exaggerated masculinity) and hembrismo are perpetuated.

A study done by Cornelia Flora in 1971 concluded that
"the general view of the desirability of female passivity
was confirmed," (pp. 438). Latin America working class and
middle class was used in this study to compare the image by
class and culture to the United States working class and
middle class.

The high illiteracy rate, the lack of industry, and the
rural to urban migration bring as a result that women are
forced to work as domestics, prostitutes, and when there is
a .factoryy as ‘unskilled factory workers, (Kinzer, 1973).
For example, in Lima, Peru, 88% of the domestics are women
who have migrated there from the rural areas of the country,
(Smith, 1975). They composed the lower class.

The women themselves contribute to the status quo by

27

not being interested ix: social change. They are used and
trained to be second class citizens, and they see no point
in rebelling against the social structure.

The middle class in Latin America is small and weak.
They are the link between the priviledged few and the vast
majority composed by the poor. They identify themselves
more with the upper class than with the poor. Women in this
class have graduated from secondary schools and now hold low
level clerical positions or sex-typed jobs, such as

teachers, nurses, and airline stewardesses.

Racial Background

According 1H) Julius Rivera (1978), Latin America has
been divided into the following major groups of population:

The Indian. During the conquest many groups of Indians
were brought close to destruction in the Continent. In the
Caribbean, they could not survive the conquest. The wars,
the diseases, and the massive relocations of Indians broke
their native communities. For A00 years the flight of the
Indians to the mountains never stopped. The variety of
languages, family kinship systems, primitive technologies,
folkways, and the rugged terrain have isolated this group.
They have become separate entities within the Indian group.

The Mestizos. They range from a mixture, through

procreation of members of any distinctive ethnic groups or

28

races, to the more limited meaning of progeny of a European
and EH1 Indian. They possess sociocultural characteristics
of their own. Their visibility has increased throughout the
years. Where they are the majority, they are the dispensers
of power, wealth and prestige. The mestizo is said to be
tense, vibrant, gay, and incapable of concerted action.
They seem to communicate in order to disagree.

The Criollos. They are often called white. The
members of this group cannot be considered Europeans because
they were not born in Europe, neither can they be considered
Mestizos because they descend directly from Europeans. They
are defined as a Latin American born of European parents.
Many of them joined the forces of independence bitter
because of their second class standing in the society of the
Colonization period. They were the heirs of the Spaniards,
and therefore moved easily to the top of the power
structure. They are the most insecure of all the Latin
Americans types because they have no roots. They are not
well regarded by the Indians or Mestizos, and they are
scorned in Europe regardless of their high standing in Latin
America. Practically no Latin American considers himself a
criollo.

The Europeans. They are easily classified because of
their physical traits and language, (they speak a different
language form of Spanish or Portuguese, or a totally

different language other than these two). They' want ‘to

29

retain their European identity. Upon not finding the land
hospitable, they migrated to the cities and became the
working class. The early comer brought tragedy to America
(the conquest), and the late comer has become a tragedy,
(their dreams and hopes did not materialized, because the
young Latin American countries are still looking for sui
identity of their own).

The Orientals. They come mostly from Japan and

 

China. They are exposed to prejudice, even when most of
Latin America admits to being open minded on issues of
race. Orientals have complexed family structures and tight
unity to their group. Economically, they have done well.
Socially and politically they have remained marginal.

The Negros and Mulatos. The negros (blacks) were

 

brought as slaves with the blessing of the Crown of Spain
and the Catholic Church. They took the place of the Indians
in the Caribbean. Legal segregation has never existed in
Latin America, but prejudice has been effective, especially
in the Continent (not the Caribbean), in preventing the
blacks to reach the top of the military, the clergy or the
political sphere. Mulatos are the mixture of the blacks
with the Europeans, and several mulatos have obtained high
positions in Latin America.

The relationship between prejudice and socioeconomic
status is direct in Latin America, that is, the higher the

socioeconomic status, the greater the prejudice. This is in

30

contrast to what we find in the United States, where
prejudice is greater in the lower class.

The negros and .mulatos have had great influence in
areas related to music, religious beliefs, and poetry. But
their subculture has not been as penetrating in Latin
America as it has been in the United States, with the

exception of the Caribbean.

Education

Brigalia H. Bam in a lecture delivered during the
International Women's Year, ix: 1976, emphasized the
importance of education for women:

"Education and training, both formal and non-formal are
among the most critical factors influencing the
effectiveness of women’s participation in the economy
and development of their society." From New
Perspectives for Third World Women.

 

The hard reality for women is that they constitute the
majority of illiterates and school "drop-outs" in almost all
the developing countries, as the statistics show, (Burns,
1963: Kinzer, 1973; Ruddle and Hamour, 1970). The rural
areas are the worst in achieving any type of education. Out
of 800 million people who are considered illiterates, two
thirds are women, (Bam, 1976). Elementary education is
required in every country, but this is not enforced,
especially in rural areas, (Berta Corredor and Sergio

Torres, Transformacisn en efl. mundo rural latinoamericano:

 

31

Consecuencias econémicas y sociales de las estructuras
agrarias, Oficina Internacional de Investigaciones Sociales
de Feres, Bogota, 1961). As Rivera (1978, pp. 76) states,
"if thousands of families can hardly eat, it is simply
unthinkable to expect that their children would go to
school."

Education is dominated by the upper class in Latin
America. It is fairly typical to find a high attrition rate
in school age children. A child leaves school without any
special skill to find work.' According to UNESCO statistics,
of every 1,000 Latin Americans who enter school, 866 leave
before the sixth grade, and half of the 1,000 quit after the
first year. OnLy six percent enter secondary school, and
more than half drop out before graduation. Six of 1,000
enter the university, and five leave before graduating.
Thus, only one in 1,000 earns a university degree.

The Latin American educational structure is set by the
ministry of education in each country. The government
decides what programs are to be followed by all the schools
in that nation. Within this system of inflexible order, one
would think that the students follow as docile sheep,
instead they rebel and strike, and riots are not uncommon.
All this is seen as part of the process of growing up,
(Rivera, 1978).

This system is also extremely selective, and the

students are aware of the fact that the number of students

32

rejected at the university level‘ is often larger than the
number of students who finally attend. deay we find the
greatest number of students in Philosophy and History, which
might be considered by many Americans to be impractical.
These two areas of study give meaning and perspective to
life from the Latin American point of view, (Rivera, 1978).
Professionals who have successful careers and want to
add prestige to their practices, often work part-time as
faculty of the universities. This contributes to the
elitist character of the system. The most important factors
to the selective mechanism in education rest in the family
name and tradition because they go hand in hand with status,
(Rivera, 1978). This way continues to perpetuate education

for the priviledge few in Latin America.

The Role of Women

in the Dominican Republic

Class Structure

a. The Lower Class. (M: to 90% of the population
belongs to this class, and 65% are rural dwellers who plant
to feed their families only, (Brown, 1975).

The males in this class have been raised in the macho
tradition, which leaves the care of the children and home in
the hands of the women. Also within this tradition is the

unlimited size of the family, (Tancer, 1973).

33

In the cities, the lower class male is not in a
position to keep two households (wife and mistress) as
society expects. Therefore, he engages in a series of
relationships where he supports a woman and the children
until he loses interest in her, then In: leaves, (Brown,
1975). In cases like this, the deserted woman is forced to
work at jobs traditionally allotted to the male in order to
support the family. She is hard working as she assumes all
the responsibility for raising the children. At this time,
male dominance is more apparent than real. Poor urban women
may find work as domestics, relying on the extended family
or neighbors to care for their children, (Tancer, 1973).

b. The Middle Class. It used to be small and
unstructure, but under Trujillo’s stable years it
increased. They try to imitate the upper class, but they do
not have the necessary economic resources. Bosch (1965)
calls it unstable, frustrated, and not to be trusted. They
continually seek upper mobility through education, (Tancer,
1973). Women, become teachers, secretaries, white collar
workers. Pun: are usually government employees. The women
in. the middle class receive better' pay' than their lower
class sisters, because in this class they have achieved a
semiskilled profession. The middle class hires as much full
time help as they can afford to care for the children and
the home. This has double meaning: prestige and freedom

from household tasks, (Tancer, 1973).

34

c. The Upper Class. Three to five percent of the
population belongs in the upper class, (Brown, 1975). The
ownership of the land is in the hand of the rich: one
percent of the landowners control A7.5% of the fertil land,
(Brown, 1975).

The woman is again in charge of the household and the
children. She must keep herself pure and virtuous as
well. The wife is not supposed to enjoy marital relations,
so the upper class man, looking out for her sensibilities,
has a mistress and a "casa chica," (a home kept for the
mistress). Women are taught that it is natural for men to
seek other women without reflecting on their relationship.
From childhood, boys are taught to be "macho," and are left
to do as they please, as long as they are discreet and do
not shame the family name. Servants are common so that the
lady of the house do not have to lower herself to do the
household work. She is then free to devote herself to more
lady-like tasks, such as cards, teas, flower arranging, or
even work outside the home, as long as she does not tire

herself for her husband, (Tancer, 1973).
Racial Background of the Dominican Republic
The Dominican Republic was discovered by Christopher

Columbus in 11192. The result of the meeting between the

aborigines and the Spaniards was a mixture of races which

35

later added the blacks and the Orientals. All these races
and their mixture have learned to coexist peacefully
throughout the history of the country without completely
eliminating racial prejudice, (Peguero and De los Santos,
1981). The present population of the country is neither
aware of, nor concerned with its African heritage. The
mulato majority has obtained identification and acceptance

within the culture, (Tancer, 1973).

Education

Education is directed by a minister of public
instruction appointed by the president. The curriculum is
the same for the various schools throughout the country. In
theory, primary education is free and compulsory, (Logan,
1968). The cost of public education is borne by the
government, although textbooks, uniforms, and school
supplies in general are not free at any level. Therefore,
their cost is a burden on low-income families, (Weil, Black,
and others, 1973)-

During the Trujillo years, (1930-1961), public
education was improved and the number of schools
increased. But even then, education could not keep up with
the population growth, (Fagg, 1965; Rodman, 196A). In this
period, adult education consisted of forced attendance at

literacy classes, in accordance with the Compulsory Literacy

36

Training for Adults Act of 1951, under threat of severe
penalties. The literacy rate improved but education was not
well regarded, and school attendance dropped during the
following years, (Weil, Black, and others, 1973).

The adult illiteracy rate stands now at 66%, 24.5% of
the illiterates are women between the ages of 15 and 119,
(Reports on the 'World Fertility Survey, No. 5, June of
1982). Whether or not the women have the opportunity to
attend school depends on: Specific societal norms or
legislation, family relationShips, domestics duties, and
availability of educational facilities and teachers, (Status
pf Women: A. Comparative Analysis of Twenty Developing
Countries, by Leslie Curtin, Reports on the World Fertility
Survey, No. 5, Washington D.C.: Population Reference
Bureau, June 1982).

Very few women in the Dominican Republic have completed
secondary school (7.2% of the women between the ages of 15
and 49). Only 1.5% of the women went on to higher
education.

Women make up the large majority' of primary school
teachers, and a small majority at the secondary level. This
fact probably' contributes ‘MD the reluctance ‘h: recognize
teaching as a real profession. The proportion of women in

the labor force is one of the lowest in Latin America.

37

Description of PREA:
Programa de Reenforzamiento de Educacién de Adultos
(Program of Reinforcement of Adult Education)

in the Dominican Republic

Background

In December of 1979, the Ministers of Education of
Latin America met in Mexico City to consider the priorities
of the educational systems in their countries. From that
meeting, a resolution emerged in which the Latin American
States proposed as one of their primary goals to eradicate
illiteracy and to increase the educational services for the
adult population before the end of this century.

This preocupation with illiteracy' was linked. to the
process of industrialization and urbanization in the
countries of that region. While the nations were
fundamentally agricultural and rural, there did not seem to
be great concern for literacy. Now that Latin American
society is striving to develop, the need for better
education for all, and especially for the adult population,
has become a matter of top priority. The Ministers saw it
necessary to modernize the economy and therefore to try to
do away with illiteracy as a: remanent of the old society,
which was stopping the process of growth within their

countries. Illiteracy was viewed not only as an: economic

38

problem, but also as a phenomenon Of social and political
marginalization of great segments of the population.
Therefore, the Ministers of Education decided that
illiteracy could not and should not be accepted by the
governments in Latin America.

As a response to that resolution, the government in the
Dominican Republic, created a program to meet the needs of
the adult population, especially those who do not know how
to read and write. This program is called Programs de
Reforzamiento de la Educacién de Adultos (PREA). The
literacy program or Programs Especial de Educacién Ciudadana
(Citizens Education Program) is found within the PREA. The
goal of the Citizens Education Program is to teach 500,000
adults during a: four year period. Then, to continue at a.
rate of 50,000 adults per year, until the whole population
is reached. The Citizens Education Program is to be
followed by post-literacy efforts and by vocational training
for those who are willing to continue their education. The
post-literacy efforts or follow-up classes will reinforce
and enhance the knowledge gained in the literacy classes.

In a census taken by the Programa de Reforzamiento de
la Educacion de Adultos in 1981, there are an: estimated
882,000 illiterates in the Dominican Republic. This number
represents 26% of the adult population. But, we have to
consider that the definition of literacy in that country is

"a person who can read and write his own name" (Programa de

39

Reforzamiento de la Educacién de Adultos, pp. 32, April
1984). Therefore, the number of illiterates is much higher
than what the government estimates, because the task that
defines literacy is so simple and does not follow the
definition already stated by Hunter and Hartman in the

Introduction to this research study.

Programs Especial de Educacién Ciudadana:

The Citizens Education Program

Objectives and Goals

The main objectives of the program are listed by the
government as:

a. Reducing the number of adult illiterates, 15
years old and older.

b. Giving greater efficiency' and permanency to
the results of the program by providing poSt-literacy
opportunities to the new literates.

c. Providing the new literates the opportunities
to obtain vocational training.

d. Strengthening of the Adult Education Program
in the country, so it can continue to provide educational

opportunities after the Citizens Education Program is

finished.

A0

In accordance with those objectives, the program
hopes to accomplish the following goals:

a. Teach an estimated 550,000 adults how to read
and write.

b. Meet the educational needs of 250,000 adults
of low educational background, using the post-literacy
programs offered through the radio.

c. Publish a monthly newspaper for the radio
students.

d. Increase the capacity of night school from
89,000 to 259,000 students by reformulating their study
plans and by producing the necessary materials in the
different areas of study.

e. Build and equip nine Urban Centers of Citizens
Education. Also remodel and equip an existing Center in San
Pedro de Macoris. These ten centers would have the capacity
to train.9,500 adults per year.

f. Build and equip four Rural Centers and remodel
and equip an existing center in Mata de Palma. These five
rural centers would have the capacity to train 12,500 adults
per year.

g. Train the required personnel in order to
implement the program: 200,000 volunteers, 179 province and
municipal coordinators; 45 community agents: 3,158 member of
the night school personnel already in existence.

The: majority' of these goals and objectives have not

41

been achieved because of the lack of funds. The Dominican
Republic, as most of the Third World nations, is facing an
economic crisis. When the Literacy Program came up for
approval before the Senate, the action was defeated because
of fear of not being able to pay the loan required to run
the program. Since that time, the program has been running,
but not at its full capacity, making it almost impossible to

achieve its objectives and goals.

The Citizens Education Program
as a Project of the Universidad Central del Este

(Central University of the East, UCE)

The Secretariat of Education in the Dominican Republic
called upon the universities to make the Citizens Education
Program a vital part of their curriculum for the students in
the College of Education. The Universidad Central del Este,
located in San Pedro de Macoris, responded with a
revolutionary proposal, giving new life 'h) the Citizens
Education Program, and making it a national program for the
first time. The location of the University and other key

points for this study can be seen on Figure 1.

:2

d ouswwm
ouumammm z<onHzoa nah

mom cmmnpwumu

omcwsoa
mwuounz oucmm
an
enema
mom

 

a .
swash II\/:1
«HHw>
«caucus couWHsm

 

cameo caucmau< ommwucwm

amass

43

Description of the Project

The UCE sees literacy as a liberation process which
helps to bring together all the sectors of the population.
The College of Education at the UCE states that as a matter
of conciousness, the students are committed to bringing
knowledge to all people, and therefore, literacy work is

seen as an obligation on the part of the future teachers.

Requirements of the Project

The University states the following requirements as
part of the project:
1) Students must teach ten peOple how to read and write in
order to obtain their degree.
2) Students must have at least four semesters of enrollment
before gaining permission to participate in the literacy
project.
3) The students shall do their literacy work within their
own community.
4) All University Extension Services will have the same
requirements.
5) The students will be supervised by the administration of
each extension service, and by the person in charge of the
literacy project at the University.
6) The President of the University will be informed of all

the results and progress.

AA

7) There will be progress reports made to the Regional
Director and the Director of the Programs Especial de
Educacién Ciudadana (The Citizens Education Program).

This project will be in effect indefinitely, since the
University is committed to participate in the post-literacy
work also.

Objectives of the Project.

The University lists the following objectives for the
project:
1) The eradication of illiteracy.
2) The establishment of social consciousness in the
university student.
3) The stimulation of the university student to put into
practice the knowledge he has acquired in the University
classroom.
A) The evaluation of the future teacher.

At the same time, the Secretariat of Education has made
a commitment to train the students and to supply the

materials needed for the literacy work.

Summary

The first part of this chapter has dealt with the
knowledge needed to understand the adult learner, his

general characteristics, and his motivation and

A5

participation patterns. It provides the barriers that are
encountered by the adults when faced with the decision to
participate in an: educational program. And finally, it
provides the motives uncovered by research for adult
participation in educational programs.

The second section has dealt with women and her role in
Latin American society. In order to understand the
motivation of women, it is necessary to understand the
environment that surrounds the women. Class structure,
racial background, and education are the key elements to
provide an understanding of the Latin American women in
general, and the Dominican women in particular.

The last section provides a description of the Program
of Reinforcement of Adult Education (Programa de
Reenforzamiento de la Educacién de Adultos, PREA), the
Programs Especial de Educacién Ciudadana (Citizens Education
Program, PEEC), and the Literacy Project of the Universidad
Central del Este (Central University of the East, UCE), in

the Dominican Republic.

CHAPTER III

Introduction

 

This chapter will present an overall description of the
principles of grounded theory which served as the basis for
the methodology utilized in this study. A detailed
description of the population, the sample, and the data
collection and analysis used in this study closes this

chapter.

Grounded Theory Methodology

 

The grounded theory method was chosen for this study.
Barney G. Glaser and Anselm L. Strauss described it in 1965,
1966, and 1967, and Glaser in 1978. Grounded theory and the

steps it involves will be described in this chapter.

Description

Grounded theory is a strategic method for generating
theory. The data collected produce the theory rather than
being derived from an existing body of theory. The result
of this method is a theory or set of hypotheses that account
for much of the relevant behavior under study. Traditional

means can be used later to validate this new theory.

A6

A7

Glaser and Strauss (1967) state that theory generated
from data can rarely be negated by more data or replaced by
another theory. New data usually adds magnitude to the
theory. They mention that the criteria for a practical
theory are: it must have fit, relevance, and it must
work. Glaser in 1978 added a fourth criterion: a theory
should be modifiable. The categories or conceptual elements
of the theory emerging from the data refer to a theory’s
fit. Relevance refers to the value of the research. The
importance of the study is based on the data supporting and
serving as the source for identifying problem areas. A
theory's ability' to "explain. what happened, predict ‘what
will happen and interpret what is happening" refers to the
criterion of the work. A theory can be modifiable if it
changes and evolves according to a better understanding of a
problem, (Glaser, 1978).

Glaser in 1978 summarized the systematic steps to take
in order to use the grounded theory method as follows:

a) Identify the problem area.

b) Review the literature in areas related to the
area of study.

0) Collect research data.

d) Code and analyze data when data is being
collected.

e) Generate memos with as much saturation as

possible.

A8

f) Decide what data to collect next.

g) Continue data collection, analysis, coding and
memoing-- core theory appears.

h) Write memos on data, memos on memos until
saturation occurs.

i) Collate memos to develop framework of theory.

j) Write and rewrite the report, returning to

data whenever necessary to clarify and validate a point.

’Theoretical Sampling

It serves as a means for monitoring the emerging
framework of theory» It is the process of collecting data
for generating theory whereby the researcher collects, codes
and analyzes his data concurrently, and decides what data to
collect next and where to find them, in order to develop his
theory as it emerges, (Glaser and Strauss, 1967, pp.A5).

a. Collecting the data. The initial decisions on data
collection are based on the problem under study. These
decisions are not based on a preconceived theoretical
framework. Beyond these initial decisions for collecting
data, further data collection cannot be planned in advance,
because the data will give the researcher the criteria for
selecting groups and the necessary changes to be made in the
instrument to collect more data. Multiple comparisons add

richness and depth to the data.

A9

b. Coding. This provides a link between the data and
the theory. Here, the data are divided into categories and
properties. The categories and properties will later yield
the basis for a theoretical framework. This is achieved by
saturation.‘ Saturation is obtained when nothing new emerges
of the categories and properties. The following questions
are given by Glaser (1978, pp. 57) as a guide for coding:
"What are these data a study of?, What is actually happening
in the data?, What category does this incident indicate?."
These will help the researcher focus on emerging conceptual
patterns. The concept-indicator model as explained by
Glaser in 1978, describes a constant comparative analysis.
The data are compared to each other, after being categorized
as indicators. Each indicator is compared to the rest.
When a conceptual code is generated, each indicator is
compared to the emerging conceptual code. This provides a
‘means of determining the consistency of meaning of the
indicators or the ‘variations they represent. Variations
give the researcher a means for adjusting the conceptual
codes to more accurately represent "what is." A generating
theory finally emerges from the comparison of conceptual
codes which in turn are grounded in data.

c. Analysis. It starts with codings and it continues
with memo writing. This is to help clarify the analyst’s
thinking and to carry it to its most logical conclusions,

(Glaser and Strauss, 1967, pp. 107). There can be no

50

scheduled routine for analysis, it will depend on many
factors, such as the relevance of the material, saturation
of the categories, stage of formulation of theory, and the
mood of the analyst. All these factors are in continual
process of change.

d. Core Categories. Glaser (1978, pp. 95) recommends
the following criteria to determine which categories are
core categories: 1) It must be related to several
categories and their properties more so than other
categories, 2) IIt must reoccur frequently in the data, 3)
It will take longer to saturate a core category because it
is related to many other categories, 5) It has clear,
grabing implications for formal theory, 6) It is essential
and vital to data analysis, 7) It is a highly dependent
variable in degree, dimension, and type. Conditions vary it
easily.

e. Collating Memos. This is the basis for formulating
theory in order to present it to others. Collating memos
puts the divided data back together. It produces a general,
integrated model by which to write theory.

Collating is finished when the problem under study is
explained by the fewest number of concepts and the widest
possible scope including as much variation as possible. It
.is not expected to be total or all inclusive, instead the

theory that emerges is expected to be modified.

5?

Defining the Population

 

In defining the population, the researcher followed
Glaser and Strauss' suggestion to seek the group most likely
to provide the data related. to the problem. The women
attending literacy classes. in the ZDominican Republic met
that qualification. WOmen were chosen because of the high
percentage of illiteracy (2A.5% of the women between the
ages of 15 and 49 are illiterates, Curtin, 1982) and the
economic and cultural challenges presented to them by their

families as well as society in a Third World nation.

Sample

The subjects were selected by systematic random
sampling. The size of the sample was limited to 34 women
whose names were drawn from the 1984 and 1985 student roster
of the literacy program at the Universidad Central del Este
(UCE), located in San Pedro de Macoris. This: list was
supplied by the Director of the College of Education at the
university. The participants were contacted by the
researcher with the help of the supervisors and facilitators
of the program. They served to introduce the researcher to

the participants.

 

52

Data Collection and Analysis

Background

The Secretariat of Education was contacted prior to the
initiation of the research study. An exploratory visit was
made in May of 1984, the year before the study was to take
place. This visit served to examine the literacy program,
the people and the site. Santo Domingo and San Pedro de
Macoris were chosen_ because of their proximity to the
headquarters, of the jprogram, making resource persons and

documents more easily available.

Pilot Study

A pilot study was designed in order to test the
questions and interview procedures.

The site for the pilot study was the province of
Salcedo, in the northern part of the island. The literacy
units were located in the towns of Salcedo, Tenares, and
Villa Tapia. This location for the pilot study prevented
the contamination of the actual study site, which added to
the reliability of the data collected later on for the
study.

In that province, the literacy program had between 125

and 150 units, ranging from three to fifteen people in each

53

of the units. Most of the participants were women between
the ages of 13 and 60. The younger women, 13 to 15 years
old, usually helped with household chores, such as taking
care of ;younger brothers and sisters, cleaning, cooking,
and/or running errands. The rest of the. women were
housewives or domestics.

A set of preliminary questions and interview procedures
were formulated prior to the pilot study. Twenty interviews
were conducted in the pilot study following the preliminary
questions and interview procedures. These interviews served
to test the preliminary questions and interview
procedures. All questions were evaluated and changed, if
necessary, in order to help clarify the respondent answers
and obtain the greatest amount of information. Therefore,
the pilot study helped to bring a better understanding of
the problem, as well as being an excellent tool for the
evaluation of the preliminary questions and interview
procedures.

The interviews lasted between fifteen and twenty
minutes each, according to the subject’s willingness to
share her feelings. All the women were interviewed

individually during the literacy class.
The Study.

1. Scheduled Interviews. After completing the pilot

study and when all the changes to the preliminary questions

5A

were finished, the study began on March 30 of 1985, in San
Pedro de Macoris.

Each interview was conducted cu: an individual basis
during the literacy classes. There were no pre-established
times set for each interview. Each interview required
twenty to twenty five minutes, according to the subject’s
willingness to share her feelings with the researcher.

2. Format. All of the interviews were done in
Spanish, the official language of the Dominican Republic.
The interviews were conducted by the researcher, who is a
native speaker of Spanish and has a Masters Degree in that
language. This format contributed to the reliability of the
findings. Because the interviewer was the investigator,
data collection, coding and analysis were done at the same
time. This is consistent with grounded theory methodology.

Prior to the beginning of the interview, the
investigator explained to each subject the importance of the
accuracy and quality of the subject's answers, the purpose
of the study, the format of the interview, and the promise
of confidentiality.

The interview was semi-structured using Open-ended
questions. This format gave the interviewer freedom to
probe into answers and to adapt to the different
participants and situations. This also permitted the
interviewer: to probe into the participant's memories, in

order to obtain the greatest amount of information.

55

A series of questions were designed prior to the field
experience. These questions evolved and changed as the data
were collected.

The interviews were audio recorded while the
interviewer took notes of the content and inflections,
gestures and facial expressions, as well as the main themes
of the interview» This provided a permanent record to be
refered back to when the data were being analyzed, and when

a point needed clarification.

Beginning of the Interview

A friendly atmosphere was established by casual
conversation previous to the formal interview. Giving as
well as receiving general background information, gained the
confidence of the participant, and established. a relaxed
climate to the interview. The interviewer used this time to
obtain the following demographic data from each of the
participants: 1) Age: 2) Family background: married,
single (it was obvious after a few interviews that under the
category of single there were single women or those who were
in a common law marriage), divorced, widow, and the number
of children: 4) Employment.

Following this, the interviewer explained to the
participant the purpose of the study, the importance of the

accuracy and quality of the answers given, the format of the

56

interview, and reassured the participant of the promise of
confidentiality. This was done in a manner similar to this:
"The purpose of this study is to achieve a better
understanding of why women participate in classes such
as this one. It is very important for the outcome to
share your feelings truthfully and to give me as much
information as you can remember. The interview will
have three areas of information» The first area will
deal with describing the program in which you are
participating. The second area deals with your prior
educational experience. The last area deals with why
you are participating in these classes. I would like to
assure you that your identity as well as everything you

say will be kept in the strictest confidence."

Interview Questions

There were three study areas covered in the interview
questions. Study Area No. 1 covered the description of the
Citizens Education Program by the women participants. Study
Area No. 2 covered the prior edcuational experience of the
women participants. Finally, Study Area No. 3 covered what
motivated the women to participate in the Citizens Education
Program.

A preliminary set of questions were developed prior to

conducting the study. These questions were used for the

57

pilot study and were modified and changed based on the
responses of the women who participated in the pilot
study. Therefore, in each of the study areas there were two
sets of questions: the preliminary set, which was used in
the pilot study; and the final set, which came as the result
of the modifications and changes made to help the
respondents understand the questions better, clarify their
responses, and obtain the greatest amount of information.

A group of three or four main questions were asked in
each of the three study areas. When the information
generated by the main questions did not give a complete
description of the study area, additional probing questions
were asked as necessary. These probing questions also
changed in order to clarify or to add richness to the data
collected.

Table 1 shows the main preliminary and probing
questions in each of the study areas. Table 2 shows the

main final and probing questions.

58

TABLE 1
PRELIMINARY QUESTIONS

Study Area No. 1

Main Questions
1. Describe the program from your own point of view.
2. What are the positive things about this program?
3. What are the things that could be improved about this program?

Probing Questions
1. Describe the facilitators

2. Describe the materials used in the program.
3. Describe the time and place where classes are held.

Study Area No. 2
Main Questions

1. Describe any other program in which you participated.

2. Why did you become involved in that program?

3. How did you make the decision to participate in that program?
A. What were the reasons for which you left that program?

Probing Questions
1. What did you learn in that program?

2. Describe the facilitators, materials, and time and place where
classes were held.

Study Area No. 3
Main questions
1. What are the reasons why you are participating in the program now?

2. What were the triggers that helped you decide to participate?
3. What was the most important reason for your participation?

Probing Questions
1. What are your feelings about dropping out?

2. What are your feelings about starting in the program again?
3. What will you gain from your participation?

59

TABLE 2
FINAL QUESTIONS
Study Area No. 1
Main Questions

1. Tell me about the classes that you are in.
2. What are the things that you like about these classes?
3. What would you change in these classes?

Probing questions

1. What do you like and don't like about the facilitator?

2. What do you like and don’t like about the books and notebooks?

3. What do you like and don't like about the time and place where the
classes are held?

Study Area No. 2
Main Questions

1. Tell me about any other type of schooling you have had.

2. Why did you become involved in that schooling?

3. How did you make the decision to take part in that schooling?
A. Why did you leave?

Probing Questions

1. How long did you stay in that school? What were some of the things
that you learned there?

2. What did you like and didn’t like about the facilitators, books and
notebooks, and the time and place where classes were held?

Study Area No. 3
Main Questions

1. Why do you want to learn how to read and write?

2. What made you decide to learn how to read and write?

3. What was the most important reason for your participation in these
classes?

Probing Questions

1. Is there any reason that could make you drop out of these classes?
What?

2. What made you decide to start attending the classes?

3. What do you hope to accomplish as a result of learning how to read
and write? What are your personal goals?

60

Several interviewing techniques were used Aduring the
interviews:

1. Pauses were made by the researcher following the
participant’s responses, in order to allow the participants
more time to add information if they wished to do so.

2. The interviewer rephrased the participant’s answers
to ensure the interviewer’s correct perception of those
answers. This added to the reliability of the data
collected.

3. A summary was used at the end of the interview so
that the participant would have a chance to confirm, revise,

or add to the information.
Closing of the Interview

At the end of each interview and after the summary was
done, the interviewer restated how the content was to be
used. Each participant was thanked and the interview was
over.

3. Management of the Interview Data. Following
each interview, a summary was written from notes and memory:
long hand in Spanish; specific impressions about the
procedure were recorded in separate pages; a description of
the actual interview was written that included the date and
time of the interview, a description of the setting, and any

noteworthy behavior of the participant (i.e. relaxed,

61

hurried, tense, illnesses, or incidents which influenced the

session, etc).

A series of tasks were completed for _ each
participant. These included the completion of data
worksheets. These worksheets were used to record all

specific data regarding the three study areas; listening to
the audio-recording of the interview and extracting quotes
or pertinent data to be included in the data worksheets;
writing memos on impressions of context, content or behavior
of the study participant, the interview methodology, and
general emerging themes.

Following the approach of Glaser and Strauss (1967),
hypotheses were not stated at the beginning of the study,
since they were to emerge from the data. The study was
receptive to all data collected, and the conclusions were
drawn from the interviews with the participants.

The analysis began with the first interview and it
continued throughout the study. It involved reviewing the
data worksheets, writing memos about impressions, feelings
and contexts of the relationships as the study participants
shared with the interviewer. Gradually, main themes emerged
that reflected the nature of women’s motivation for
participating in the literacy program.

The categories were first grouped. by’ the researcher
according to the women’s responses. In order to check for

accuracy, a second person was used to categorize the

62

emerging themes. All the women’s responses were categorized
the same except for one, Antonia’s responses. Her responses
were discussed by both the researcher and the second
categorizer, until an agreement was reach as to where her
responses should be grouped. Antonia's responses were
placed in three different categories because of the richness

found in her responses.

CHAPTER IV

General Background

 

Description of the Programs Especial

de Educacién Ciudadana

The Programs Especial de Educacién Ciudadana (PEEC), or
Citizens Education Program, was created. by’ the IDominican
government to help with the education its citizens. The
goal established by the Citizens Education Program was to
teach 500,000 adults how to read and write during a four
year period. The program is going to fall short of that
goal partly because of the lack of resources. The Dominican
Republic is facing an economic crisis at this time. The
loan for the Citizens Education Program was never approved
by the Senate, because it feared that the country was not
going to be able to repay ixn In spite of this fact, The
Citizens Education Program is making steady progress against
illiteracy with the help of different institutions, such as
the churches and universities.

The Universidad Central del Este (UCE), located in San
Pedro de Macoris, was the first university in the country to
join the literacy effort. In order to graduate, the
education students at the Universidad Central del Este have

to teach ten people how to read and write. The University

63

6A

hopes to establish a social conciousness in the students by
helping them to put into practice what they have learned in
the classroom. Also, this program provides the University

with an opportunity to evaluate future educators.

The Literacy Units

The Universidad Central del Este joined the Programs
Especial de Educacién Ciudadana to try to eradicate
illiteracy from the Dominican Republic. The literacy units
for this study were part of that joined effort, and were
located in the cities of Santo Domingo and San Pedro de
Macoris and their surrounding areas. There were a total of
fourteen literacy units visited. Each of the units had
between two and seven students. Most of these units were

made up of women participants.

The Facilitators

The facilitators are students currently enrolled in the
College of Education of the Universidad Central del Este.
Before these facilitators assemble their literacy units,
they are required to participate in a training seminar
sponsored by the Secretariat of Education. During the
seminar, the facilitators are made aware of the differences

between teaching children and facilitating a learning

65

experience to adult students. The seminar also emphasizes
Paulo Freire’s methodology of generative words. "Generative
words within this method, are those that permit, by
combining their parts, the creation of new words, and at the
same time, these words help to bring the, element of
reflexion of the reality in which the Dominican people
live." (Orientaciones para el facilitador, The Dominican
Republic, no date).

Each facilitator is expected to have faith in the
ability of the adult student to think for himself; treat the
students as people, not as objects: believe in the students'
ability to create and contribute; be able to value the
effort put forth by the students; become a part of the
literacy unit by treating the students as equals: organize
and coordinate the analysis of each generative word or
phrase; encourage discussion as long as the group is
interested; facilitate the transition from the discussion to
the reading and writing part of the lesson: make the
students aware that learning is the responsibility of the
learner; create an atmosphere of trust so that everyone can
express their ideas freely; encourage everyone to
participate, so that even someone who is shy would feel the
need to express his experiences, since those experiences are
an important part of the learning process: understand that
literacy goes beyond the mechanics of reading and writing,

it is also the process of "conscientization."

adul

66

Once the training of the facilitators is completed,
they are encouraged to assemble a literacy unit within their
own community. This is what made the Citizens Education
Program a national program for the very first time. The
facilitators were from all over the country, and they
created their literacy units close to their homes.

The units usually consisted of between two and seven
adults, who had expressed the desire to participate in the
literacy classes. In order to assemble the unit, the
facilitators first visited the homes of neighbors, friends
and family, asking for referrals. This was a way of showing
personal concern and commitment to the iliteracy‘ program.
The facilitators sought out those peopLe who did not know
how to read and write, and were interested in learning.

This personal contact is extremely important in the
Dominican Republic. In that society, neighbors, friends and
family are an integral part of the culture which surrounds
and supports the individual. Who you are, (your family
background); and who you know, (your circle of friends,
neighbors, and acquaintances); are two of the most important
aspects by which the individual is judged in Dominican
society. The illiterates commit themselves through the
people they know. These adult students form a special bond
with the facilitators, which is not easily broken without
explanations to everyone’s concernedx The facilitators,
therefore, step beyond the teacher-student relationship,

they become a part of the student’s circle of friends.

67

During this study, there were occasions when the
facilitator went out of their way to help a student. For
example, buying medicine for a: sick child, providing money
for transportation, buying baked goods from a student even
though these items are not used because of the sanitary
conditions under which they were made. One woman explained
the role of the facilitator this way: "My facilitator made
me see the importance of reading and writing by showing me
how useful they are in daily life. But beyond that, she has
become 2: very dear friend, who shows care, concern, and
support when we have a family crisis. We have asked her to
become our youngest daughter's godmother, and we are very
happy she has accepted." Parents consider that only the
most intimate of friends and family, people whom they hold
in. high regard, should. be asked. to 'become part of ‘their
family by baptizing one of their children" Giving the
facilitator such an honor shows how much the parents admire
and rely on that particular facilitator.

The facilitator also experiences first hand the
pressure the students have to face in omder to attend the
literacy classes. The housewives complain about the
husbands and children being ashamed of the women because
these women do not know how to read and write. Those women
who work as housekeepers must face the pressure asserted by
their employers to quit the literacy classes. And the women

who own a business must make the time to come and learn.

68

The Materials

The materials used in the Citizens Education Program
are:

The Learning Manuals. These are divided in three
booklets. They are used by the students as a textbook. The

booklets are entitled Podemos I, II,Aand III,. The title

 

in Spanish means "we can." These texts introduce the
students to different levels of reading. Each of the
Podemos gradually takes the student from the more simple

forms of reading to the more complicated ones. Podemos I

 

presents the simplest sounds found in Spanish, yet the words
used are taken from the vocabulary of_the adult population,
in order to keep the interest of the adult student. Podemos
I; encourages the construction of more complicated words

and phrases. And finally, Podemos III is the most complex

 

of the three, but it is designed in such a way as to permit
the student to master it in a short period of time. The
pictures found in each of the, Podemos are used for
discussion purposes during the literacy class. Sample pages
are included in Appendix A, B, and C.

A notebook and a pencil. The notebook is used to
reproduce the words found in the Learning Manuals. This
practice helps the student to learn how in: write, while
permitting the student to generate new words on her own.

A wall map of the Dominican Republic. This is used to

provide the student with simple knowledge of the geography

69

of their country, and also as a means to encourage
discussion about the different regions found in the
Dominican Republic.

The Facilitator's Guide. This is an instructional
manual for the facilitators. It gives daily suggestions to
the facilitators on how they can draw the most benefits out
of each lesson.

A monthly newspaper. This publication of the
Secretariat of Education announces the activities of the
educational community. A section is dedicated cOmpletely to
the newly literate population.

The facilitator uses the materials in a series of steps
during the presentation of the lessons:

1. Shows the picture that accompanies the lesson at hand.
2. Discusses the central theme found in the picture. The
main objective here is to stimulate the thinking process in
order to make the student aware of her own reality.

3. Reads the words that accompany the picture. These words
introduce the family of sounds to be learned that day. The
words are divided into syllables and thus separating the
different sounds.

A. Uses a set of cards with the sounds to reinforce
learning those sounds.

5. Words are then made by the students using the new sounds
in that lesson.

6. Repeats steps three to five for the writing portion of

the lesson.

70

7. Assigns the students to find new words before the next
lesson.

8. Uses the map to find cities, provinces, and regions
mentioned in the lesson.

This method emphasizes the creative ability of the
adult by teaching the sounds first and then having the
student use that knowledge to form new words. The
discussion makes the adult student aware of the reality that
surrounds her by using her own words, thoughts and
experiences in relation to the pictures presented in the

booklets.

Description of the Women Participants

There were thirty four women interviewed to provide the
data for this study. The women interviewed were poor, often
living in below average housing. These women lived in
neighborhoods that have dirt roads and lack running water.
Most of their houses did not have electricity, the very few
that did have electric power had been connected illegally to
the electric company's lines. It was not rare to hear about
people who have been electrocuted trying to get electricity
into their homes on their own. Electricity was considered a
luxury, because the basic needs, such as food and shelter,
were only partially met. The literacy units, which usually

met in the early evening hours, studied by candle light.

71

In San Pedro de Macoris, the houses were located on the
river banks. During the rainy season, the families had to
face floods and land slides. Three women interviewed have
lost children under these conditions. But these women saw
this as part of their lives, fate as they called it, so they
rebuilt their houses in the same spot again and again,
because no other alternative was available to them. These
houses had cement or dirt floors, the roofs were made of
zinc or dried palm leaves, the walls were wood, or when wood
was not available, large pieces of cardboard were used until
the wind and the rain tore them apart.

The family diet was simple, rice, beans, plantains, and
meat. This last item was very expensive for the poor, so
they only ate meat when they could afford it. Some families
were lucky enough to be able to raise chickens for their
consumption, and they did so in the cities, as well as in
the outskirts. Any available space was used to raise the
animals.

Health care was another problem these women had to
face. The public hospitals were understaffed. and
underequipped. The number of patients was usually more than
the hospitals could handle. The poor could not afford to go
to private clinics, and if they went to the public
hospitals, they frequently did not have the money to buy the
medicine prescribed by the doctor. The living conditions of

the lower class made intestinal worms, upper respiratory

72

infections, and even tuberculosis, common diseases among the
poor. During the length of the research study, a strike by
the doctors in the public hospitals made the situation even
worse. The doctors demanded better working conditions and
better remmunaration in order to give the best care possible
to their patients. The doctors obtained a small pay
increase, and the promise from the government that the
hospital equipment would be upgraded and improved.

The minimum wage earned by a government or industry
employee was about $50 per month, (La Republics Dominicans

en Cifras, 1984, published by the Government of the

 

Dominican Republic). However, the majority of the people
were not employed by either the government or the industry
in the country. Therefore, the average salary was
considerably less than $50 a month. Women had less
opportunities to work because of the social and cultural
barriers they encountered in a: society where men are still
viewed as the only bread winner. The Dominican Republic was
facing an economic crisis, along with the rest of the Third
World nations. This crisis was forcing women out of the
homes, and into the work force, especially middle class
women. Unemployment was high for men, 16.3%, and it was
even higher for women at 24.4%, according to government

statistics, (Repfiblica Dominicans en Cifras, 1984, published

 

by the Government of the Dominican Republic). Again, the

fact must be considered that these numbers do not reflect

73

average citizen, since these figures only show government
and industry employees.

As a member of the Third World, the Dominican Republic
is facing an ever increasing foreign debt. This country’s
products, sugar, coffee, and cocoa, have dropped in world
market prices. This together with the fact that the
Dominican Republic must import all types of machinery, cars
and oil, have contributed to the worsening of the economy.

Table 3 shows the demographic data for each of the
women that participated in this research study. The data
were obtained at the beginning of the interview, during a
time of casual conversation used to establish a relaxed and

friendly atmosphere for the formal part of the interview.

DEMOGRAPHIC DATA OF THE WOMEN PARTICIPANTS

NAME

Mireya

Ada
Yolanda
Iris
Amparo
Gladys
Hilda
Margarita
Nércida
Oliva
Rosita
Natividad
Fany

Maria Elena
Consuelo
Carmen
Eliodina
Maria A.
Margarita B.
Marina
Altagracia
Alejandria
Francisca
Norma
Sandra
Maria B.
Maria C.
Antonia
Dinorah
Isabel
Dominga
Maria D.
Irma
Patricia

3 =single
m =married
w =widow

AGE

7A

TABLE 3

EMPLOYMENT

helps at home
helps at home
helps at home
housewife
helps at home
housewife
housewife
sugar mill worker
housewife
housewife
housewife
housewife
housewife
housewife
housewife
housewife
housewife
housewife

owns business
domestic
domestic
clothes washer
housewife
clothes washer
helps at home
housewife
housewife

aide in daycare
owns business
housewife
housewife
domestic
domestic
domestic

clm=common law marriage

MARITAL

STATUS

O

O
B

0
B

O
B

00
mHHmBBHBBSF‘Si-‘(BBBI—‘Smammm

or:
Bath-W400
BB

clm

NUMBER OF

CHILDREN

c>o<DRJMLuuupuao<3¢=acsunus=atn~anwe~am(ms:MChs:Oan>O<3

75

Prior Educational Experience of the Women Participants

The women interviewed were asked whether or not they
had participated in another educational program. Twenty two
of thirty four women interviewed responded that they had not
participated in any type of educational program. Some of
the women gave more than one reason why they had not been
able to participate in a program. The reasons the women

mentioned for not previously participating in educational

programs are shown in the following table.

TABLE A
REASONS FOR NOT PREVIOUSLY PARTICIPATING

IN EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS

 

 

NUMBER OF NUMBER OF

REASONS PRIMARY SECONDARY

RESPONSES RESPONSES
Family responsibilities 8 2
Family’s negative feelings about school 4 0
School was too far from home A 3
Working outside the home 3 0
Lack of money for school supplies 2 0
Health problems ___ 1 0
OTALS 22 5

 

*Note: Some of the respondents gave a second reason.

These are noted in the "Secondary Reason" column.

76

When discussing their reasons for not participating,
the women responded that:
1. Family responsibilities kept them from attending
school. These women mentioned taking care of younger
brothers and sisters, and helping with the household chores
while the mother worked. Eight women gave this as the
primary reason for not participating. Two women mentioned
it as the secondary reason for not participating.
2. Family's negative feelings about the importance of
school, especially for girls. The parents did not go to
school, and they have done fairly well. Therefore, these
parents felt that they did not need school, neither did the
girls need to go to school. Four women gave this as the
primary reason for not attending school.
3. School was too far from home, and the women did not have
the means to get there. The women spoke of the lack of
money to pay for transportation, because it is not provided
by the public schools there. They also stated that when
they were younger they had no one to take them to school if
it was far from home. Four women gave this as the primary
reason for not participating. Three women mentioned it as
the secondary reason for not participating.
A. Working outside the home was next on the list of
responses. Three women gave this as the primary reason why
they could not attend school. One woman remembers, "having

to pick coffee during the school year." The other two women

77

were domestics, working for middle class families as soon as
they were old enough to do the household chores. These
women did not have a chance to attend school because they
went from their own family responsibilites to getting paid
for working for another family.
5. Lack of money to buy the uniforms, shoes and supplies
necessary for school. Two women gave this as the primary
reason why they had not attended school.
6. Health problems. Only one women gave this as a reason
for not participating in educational activities as a
child. She was constantly sick and unable to attend school.
One of the most interesting findings in this area is
that although twelve women had been in another type of
educational program, only one of the twelve finished the
first grade in schoolx This woman did not continue in
school after that. Ten women did not even finish the first
grade at all. The other woman mentioned participating in
another literacy program. This took place during the
Trujillo era. In that dictatorship, the people were
required by law to seek an education, especially if they did
not know how to read and write. But even though the
literacy program was mandatory, it did not succeed in
eradicating illiteracy in the Dominican Republic. Most of
its participants would begin and then drop out after a short
length of time. A month was usually the amount of time an

average person would be involved in that literacy program.

78

These facts are a national reality in the Dominican
Republic. According to government figures, the total
population who is five years old or over in 1984 was
4,845,169, out of which 1,935,925 go to school, 1,5A2,662
went to school at some point, and 1,366,582 never attended
school, (Rgpfiblica Dominicans en Cifras, 1984, published by

the Government of the Dominican Republic).

Description of the CitizensAEducation Program

by the Women Participants

 

The women participants described the Citizens Education
Program using four main areas. These areas mentioned by the
women interviewed were as follows:

a. Benefits the women felt they have gained from their
participation in the Citizens Education Program.

b. The Citizens Education Program follow-up classes.

c. Positive feedback about the Citizens Education
Program.

d. Negative feedback about the Citizens Education
Program.

All thirty four women interviewed for this study knew
that the Citizens Education Program was sponsored by the
government of the Dominican Republic. Three of the women
voiced concern about the possibility of the politicians

using the Citizens Education Program to get reelected,

79

especially since the country’s general elections were
scheduled for May of 1986. Six women expresed concern about
whether or not the program would continue after the election
year. Obviously, the women were unaware of the fact that
the Citizens Education Program is scheduled to become a part

of the Adult Education Program in 1986.

a. Benefits the women felt they have gained
from their participation

in the Citizens Education Program

When the women participants were asked to describe the
Citizens Education Program, each of the women gave at least
two benefits they felt they have gained from their
participation in the program. The benefits mentioned by the

women participants are given in Table 5, which follows.

80

TABLE 5

BENEFITS THE WOMEN GAINED FROM THEIR PARTICIPATION IN THE

CITIZENS EDUCATION PROGRAM

 

CATEGORY RESPONSES

Being able to shop alone ' 20
Being able to sign their name 10
Being able to share with others during class 9
Being able to set an example for their children 7
Being able to read and write letters 5
Being able to write down messages in their jobs A
Being able to read street signs and advertisements 3
Being able to read the Bible 3
Knowing that they are not the only ones who needed to

learn how to read and write 3
Being able to read magazines and newspapers 2
Being able to keep records in their business 2

 

TOTAL NO. OF RESPONSES 68

Eighteen of the women interviewed are housewives, and
five help around the house. For twenty of these women,
shopping alone is a great benefit because they can read
labels and numbers, and figure out how much money they have
to spend. Shopping had been a struggle before learning how
to read and write. They had to depend on someone else to
accompany them which was not always possible, or they had to

rely on the honesty of the merchants.

81

Being able to write their names was a benefit mentioned
by those who worked and needed to cash checks. The women
who were interested in voting ix: the upcoming elections
needed to be able to get their registration card. This was
impossible if they were unable to sign their name.

Listening to the latest gossip, sharing their problems,
and just being able to get together with other women, were
given as benefits of the Citizens Education program by nine
women. The social aspect of these classes were made evident
by these statements.

Seven women felt that the most important thing that
they could do for their children was to set a good
example. They, as women, were attending school so the
children would do the same. The women mentioned that they
wanted the children to study, and pursue a career later on
in life. The women believed in the value of an education
for the children. The women thought that if the children
would get an education, they would not have to go through
the same sacrificies as their mothers. Economic reasons
were always mentioned for pursuing a career or trade.

Being able to read and write letters to family and
friends who live far away was another benefit mentioned by
the women. interviewed. This benefit was Toutstanding .for
them because they could be self sufficient. They did not
have to depend on anyone to read or write their letters.

Four women mentioned writing down messages as one

82

benefit of the Citizens Education Program. These women
worked for families who needed their phone messages written
down.

Three women felt that being able to get around was
important to them. Finding an address, and reading
advertisements were the responses under this category.

Reading the Bible was important to three women who had
been involved in a church. They wanted to be able to read
aloud in meetings and also to be able to study the Bible by
themselves.

Three women described the feeling of liberation they
experienced when they realized they were not the only ones
who did not know how to read and write. These women
mentioned not feeling ashamed anymore when they encountered
other people with the same problem.

Being able to read newspapers and magazines was
mentioned by two women. They felt an obligation to
themselves to keep up with the news of the country. It was
important to know the things that affected them in their
daily lives.

Two women owned their own business. It was useful to

them to be able to keep their business records without

relying on someone else.

83

b. The Citizens Education Program

Follow-up Classes

Nineteen of the thirty four women interviewed wanted to
know if there were follow-up classes available to them after
completing the literacy classes. Fifteen of the nineteen
women who were interested, wanted to continue their
education in order to have a career or to learn a trade.
These fifteen women were willing to go to night school to
reach their goal. Three of the nineteen said that the
school closest to their homes does not offer night courses.
These three women cannot afford to pay for transportation to
attend night school in another district.

Five women stated that if they had to leave home to
study they could not continue. The reasons these five women
gave relate to family responsibilities and pressures. The
reasons mentioned were not having adequate child care, the
husband’s reluctancy to let the wife attend night school,
and the fact that they had to work in order to support or to

help support the family.

c. Positive Feedback

About the Citizens Education Program

Eighty responses were obtained when the women were

asked about the positive aspects of the Citizens Education

8A

Program. The positive feedback about the program is shown
in the following table.
TABLE 6

POSITIVE ASPECTS ABOUT THE CITIZENS EDUCATION PROGRAM

 

 

Aspects __. Respgnses

Benefit of learning how to read and write 21
Amount of time spent in class and homework 16
Not having to spend money for transportation 1A
Convenient time for class 13
Facilitator-student relationship 7
Convenient place for class 5
The materials for the program are provided free A

TOTAL 80

 

The benefit of learning how to read and write was the
first on the list of positive aspects of the Citizens
Education Program. The respondents felt that such an
achievement was worthy of any effort on the government's
part. The women also realized that government commitmemf
alone would not warrant success. The women themselves had
to be committed to learning. Sometimes, this commitment
meant a lot of sacrifices, such as time away from their
families or jobs, but they were very aware of the importance
of their effort.

Time was mentioned by the women in two separate

categories. The first one was the amount of time they were

85

to spend in class and homework. All of the sixteen
respondents felt that the time spent on these activities was
not excessive in comparison to the benefit that they were
receiving. The other category where time was mentioned
refers to how convenient their class time was. It should be
pointed out that the facilitators and the students agreed on
a particular time and day(s) to meet for class, once the
literacy unit is formed.

Fourteen women were glad about the place where they
met. It was close to home, therefore, these women did not
have to pay for transportation. Five women mentioned the
convenience of having the literacy classes meet at their
home or near their home without making any reference to
money.

The facilitator-student relationship was mentioned as a
positive thing about the Citizens Education Program. The
personal ties between the facilitators and the women were
important not only for educational, but also for cultural
reasons. Learning took place in a non-threatening
environment and the people involved became part of. each
other’s world. This, besides enhancing the goal of the
Citizens Education Program had other social connotations as
well. This partnership of facilitators and students brought
two different social classes together. This gave the
facilitator and the student the opportunity to learn from

one another. Also, the facilitators, as future educators

86

put into practice what they had learned in school, and see
first hand the problems the students face in their daily
lives because of the student's inability to read and write.

The materials for the Citizens Education Program were
provided free of charge. Four women mentioned this category
as a positive aspect of the Citizens Education Program. All
of these women agreed that they could not have participated
in the Program if they would have had to pay for the
materials. These four women were raising children and could
not have spared the money to pay for school supplies.

When the women were asked their opinion of the
materials used in the Citizens Education Program, twenty
three women found them to be extremely interesting and
appropriate for adults. They also liked the discussions
that emerged from the pictures in their learning manuals.
Three of the women complemented their learning manuals with
another beginning book used by their children in elementary
school. These three women found the children’s book a lot
more simple, because it had a picture of an object and the
word underneath. The women could then associate the picture

with the written word.

d. Negative Feedback

About the Citizens Education Program

Only twenty five responses were obtained when the women

were aeked about the negative aspects of the Citizens

87

Education Program. The responses that were negative are
shown in the following table.
TABLE 7

NEGATIVE ASPECTS ABOUT THE CITIZENS EDUCATION PROGRAM

 

Aspect . Responses

The literacy units do not keep

 

a regular schedule of classes 7
Poor quality of the notebooks 7
Irresponsible facilitator 6
Poor lighting for classes
Lack of interest among other students 2

TOTAL 25

 

Seven women wanted to have a regular day and time for
their literacy units. In these cases, the day and time of
the class must be changed. in order' to fit the schedule
changes of the facilitators, such as work schedule or
changes in their school schedule of classes.

Seven women complained about the poor quality of the
notebooks. These women felt very frustrated by the fact
that the notebooks ripped easily when they are erased, so
these notebooks had in: be carefully’ handled. One ‘woman
agreed that "the notebooks are of very poor quality, but
after all they are provided free. We should not complain,
instead we should be thankful for the opportunity to learn."

Six women complained about having an irresponsible

88

facilitator. The women were very frank about the
facilitator's sporadic attendance. Some of these
facilitators even failed to inform the students, or send a
substitute in their place. The women stated that some
students had dropped out of the unit because of the
irresponsibility shown by their facilitator.

Three women mentioned poor lighting as a negative
aspect of the literacy classes. These women did not have
electricity in their home and the literacy units had to meet
at night. . Perhaps a lesson should be drawn from the
Literacy Campaign in Cuba, where the facilitators were not
only given the materials to teach, but also a lamp to go
into areas with no electricity.

Two women complained about the lack of interest shown
by some of the students in the literacy unit. This bothered
these women because they did not want to waste class time
with people who were not serious about learning.

It should be pointed out that the positive aspects of
the Citizens Education Program outnumbered the negative
aspects by more than three to one, according to the women’s
responses. This is a major accomplishment considering the
fact that the program has never run at full capacity because

of lack of funding.

89

Motivation

 

The main reason for studying the Citizens Education
Program in the Dominican Republic was to investigate what
motivated the women to participate in the program. There
was almost no literature found which dealt directly with the
motivation of Third World women to participate in
educational programs. This study could be useful to
educators involved in designing educational programs for
underdeveloped nations, especially those programs that are
interested in motivating the women to become involved in
education. Johnstone and Rivers, 1965; Burgess, 1971: John
Lowe, 19753 have studied the type of people who seek
education in developed countries. These reasearchers have
concluded that the adult who is less likely‘ to seek an
education is one of low socioeconomic status, and who has
low educational background. By choosing to study these
adults, this study answers some of the questions about what
motivated the women in the Dominican Republic to seek an
education. Other programs can capitalize on this
information in order to serve the adult population who are
still enslaved by ignorance, especially in the Third World
nations.

Burgess’ seven factors of adult participation in
educational activities were used to group the answers of the

women interviewed. The themes that emerged from these

90

women’s responses fit into the seven factors stated by
Burgess in his 1971 study. The women were not bound to give
a single reason for participating. The format used in this
study insured that the respondents had the freedom to give
as many reasons as possible. Some of the women gave more
than one response to the question of why she was attending
the literacy classes. In such cases, each of the responses
was placed under separate categories as valid reasons for
participating in education.

It must be pointed out that all the data were first
collected in Spanish, the women's native language. All
quotes used in this study have been translated into English
by the researcher. All the translations have been checked
by a second translator.

The following group of statements are a recapitulation
of the women's responses to the question of why they were
attending literacy classes. Following these statements,
Table 8 gives a clear picture of how these women were
grouped according to their answers.

1. The desire to know was defined by Burgess as a
desire to gain knowledge for the sake of knowing, to grow in
qualities and intellect, to derive pleasure from learning,
to enjoy mental exercises, and to remain in command of
learning skills. There were nine women whose responses were
categorized under this factor.

Gladys: "In order to know for my own benefit. I

91

am interested in learning, not to follow a career,

but for knowing.

 

Hilda: "To learn something in order to help
myself."

Margarita: "I like to learn. Now I am able to
read about other people and other places. It is

exciting, the more I know, the more I want to know."

Narcida: "I am interested in knowing many
different things. I can (k) that now. I really
enjoy learning."

Eggy: "I believe that people who know nothing are
worthless. That was how I felt before. It’s
important to acquire knowledge."

Carmen: "I realized it was time for me to learn,
.and to keep adding to my knowledge."

Antonia: "I decided to accumulate knowledge. I
figure some people accumulate money, I could not do
that, so I chose to accumulate knowledge instead."

Maria (D): "I like learning. It is like

 

discovering".

Patricia: "Knowlege, that is what is important to

 

me."
2. The desire to reach a personal goal was defined by
Burgess as the desire to gain knowledge in order to achieve
a personal goal which the knowledge will make possible.

Twenty women responded under this category.

92

Mireya: "People should learn how ‘h: read and
write in order to pursue a career. I would like to
learn ceramics as a trade."

Antonia: "After I got started, people kept
encouraging me so I decided to become a teacher, and
I have made it!"

5353 "I would like to be a beautician, so first I
had to learn how to read and write."

-££Ls: "I would like to learn to sew, that way I
lean earn a living. Before, I have tried to learn
how to sew, but I gave up because I could not read
the instructions. Now I can!"

Yolanda: "I want to become a nurse. Now, for the
first time, I think it is possible."

Amparo: "I want to be somebody. I want to become
a beautician and for that reason I needed to learn

how to read and write."

 

Natividad: "It is never too late to do what you’d
always wanted. I want to be a nurse. And I am
going to do it now!"

Consuelo: "I am interested because 12 want to

 

learn how to sew."

Maria (A): "I would like to continue my education

 

in order to study something related to home
economics."

Altagracia: "I want to be able to go to the

 

93

university» I am not sure about a career yet,
because there are a few careers that interest me."

Margarita: "My business is the force behind my

 

desire to learn how to read and write."

Alejandriae "I have never had the opportunity to

 

go to school. I have always wanted to learn how to
sew because I want to start my own business. I

would like to open a shop with my own designs."

Norma: "I work as a laundry washer. That is very
hard work. When my sisters told me about these

classes, I thought that I could study to become a
secretary. I would really like that."

Sandra} "I want to be a police woman. The only
way to do that is by Clearning how to‘ read and
write. The opportunity is here now."

Maria (C): "If I could, I would like to become an

 

accountant."

Dinorah: "I have a small business out of my
home. 11 have always needed help to keep track of
orders and credits. I can do that by myself now."

Dominga: "I have always wanted to be a nurse.
That keeps me here, learning."

Maria (D): "I have always wanted to be a

 

teacher. I thought it was a silly dream. Now, I
have learned how to read and write and it does not

seem so unreal anymore. I am going to do it!"

9A

Irma: "I have never been to school before, my
goal is to be a beautician."

Patricia: "I want to continue my studies to

 

become a beautician. They make good money."

3. The desire to reach a social goal is the need to
gain knowledge in order to achieve a goal which will improve
society. The desire to learn certain knowledge of skills
which will assist an individual to perform better the
necessary functions as a: contributing member: of society.
Five women answered under this category.

Sandra: "When I become a police woman, I can
serve others, may be I can even help to prevent
crimes or accidents."

Yolanda: "I want to help people, especially
around here. We have a lot of people who are sick,
and nobody to care for them. We need a nurse. I
feel it would be important for me to study to become
a nurse. Then, I could come back here and help."

Maria Elena: "I would like to be able to make a

 

good choice between the candidates when. the :next
elections come. My husband is always telling me
that I should not vote without being informed. I
want to be able to read about the candidates, and

maybe get involved in the campaign. As soon as I

learn how to read and write I will be able to

exercise my right to vote in a way that will make me

95

feel good because I will have done everything in my

power to be a good citizen."

Domingax "Helping people is very important to
me. That is why I am learning, I want to be a

nurse, and help people."

Consuelo: "I want to set an example for others to

 

follow. A lot of the people would not be ashamed if
they realized how many of us really don't know how
to read or write. These people need to understand
that they are not alone. That is how I felt until I
decided to come to the literacy classes. Once I was
here, I realized how many others did not know how to
read and write. Here is the opportunity, take
advantage of it. I tell everyone what I'm doing,
hoping that they would follow. I. certainly hope
that my children are watching too!"

4. The desire to reach a religious goal was defined by
Burgess as the desire to learn in order to meet felt
obligations to a church, to some religious faith, or to some
missionary effort. Three women were placed in this
category.

Eliodina: "I believe in God, and I want to be

 

able to read from His Word."
Carmen: "I like the fact that now I can read the
Bible and pray privately. It is of great comfort to

me."

96

Margarita: "I am a Christian. I would like to be
able to read the Bible."

5. The desire to escape was defined by Burgess as the
desire to escape from some other activity or situation which
is unpleasant or tedious. Two women answered in this
category.

Francisca: "When my children got married, I was
lonely. My house was empty. These classes gave me
an outlet, while I was learning something useful."

Antonia: "My life was a routine, it felt empty.
I decided to leave that feeling behind and learn."

6. The desire to take part in an activity was defined
by Burgess as the desire to participate in a social activity
because the activity itself is enjoyed for its own sake,
regardless of what is intended to be taught at the
activity. Three women answered under this category.

Rosita: "My daughters live in Puerto Rico. I
feel all alone. The classes give me a chance to
meet other people. I enjoy the fellowship."

Maria (B): "I live far away from my mother. I
miss her a lot. The classes are the only way for me
to get to know the other women in the neighborhood."

Isabel: "I felt left out, most of my friends are
always talking about the novels they have read. I
couldn’t say anything! Now I can start to be a part

of the group."

97

7. The desire to comply with formal requirements was
defined by Burgess as the desire to earn credit required by
ex: employer, to meet certain conditions required for
nmembership by certain groups, and to meet the requirements
of’ a judge, social welfare worker, or some other
euxthority. Three women answered under this category.

Maria (C): It bothered me when I could not become

 

a member of the neighborhood social club because I
could not sign by name. I decided then it was time

to learn."

Oliva: "My employer fired me because I didn’t
know how to read or write. Then, I found these

classes. Everywhere you go to get a job, they ask
if you know how to read and write. I do now!"
Marina: "My employer needed me to write her
messages.I had to tell her I didn't know how. She
encouraged me to learn, because at times I have no
choice, I have to be able to write things down."
The following table shows each of the women and how

they responded according to Burgess' seven categories.

98

TABLE 8

WOMEN RESPONSES ACCORDING TO BURGESS'

SEVEN CATEGORIES

 

urgess'
Categories

Desire to Know

Desire to Reach
Personal Coal

Desire to Reach
Social Coal

Desire to Reach
Religious Goal

Desire to Escape
Desire to Take
Part in Activity

Desire to Comply
with Requirements

 

._,j2
Mst
Mi reya
Ad.z1
Ir.i.s
Yo lands
Am paro
Na 1: ividad
Consuelo
Mar is (A)
Margarita (B)
Alt agracia
Ales jandria
Nozzrlna
Sandra
Mar is (C)

_D_in orah
Dom inga
Irwmlza
Mar :19. (D)
GIt ricia

EL4CI 3
mi
Margarita (A)
Néxr.c3;1da
Far::yr
lfllb (:meia
Carmen

ROS 1 ts
Mar- 18.

(B)
Isabel

F_ra_n Cisca

Ma:- 5—8- Elena
Mn.

TOTALS
\

flxxxxmxxx

xxxxxxxxflxxxxflxxxxm

2O

NNN

99

During the interviews, some of the women had to think
long and hard to come up with a motive why they were
participating in the Citizens Education Program. This
follows Grabowski’s idea that adults do not always know what
is prompting them. Nevertheless, the women were there
seeking an education.

It is worth noting that the women kept attending the
literacy classes even when there was pressure to quit. Two
of the women were asked to drop out by their husbands.
Th ese husbands were not happy about the women's
participation in the literacy classes because it meant that
the women had to leave the house at night. But these two
women continued to attend class regularly. The women who
worked as domestics said that their employers supported
their participation in the Citizens Education Program when
they first started attending the classes. But, as soon as
the employers realized that the literacy classes might mean
loosing their domestic help, that support was promptly
Withdrawn. The employers felt that these women could get
Other jobs as a result of the women's learning experience.
At times, the employers used many excuses to prevent the
wOther: from attending class. The employers gave extra work
to be done at the time of the literacy class. They left the
chLldren with the domestic during the time of the literacy
class. And finally, the employer denied the woman

PGPmission to go to the literacy class under penalty of

100

loosing her job. In the literacy units used in this study,
the facilitators reported five cases where domestics have
dropped out under their employer's pressure. The reasons
given by these five women were related to their job: the
women could not work as domestics and also attend the
literacy classes. The domestics interviewed also stated
that the possibility of loosing their job would be the only
reason why they would drop out of the literacy classes.
These women work to support themselves or to help support
their families. These women cannot afford to be unemployed
since unemployment benefits or welfare does not exist in the
Dominican Republic.

The common thread of the women’s responses to the
motivation question was that they are setting goals for
themselves. They feel the literacy classes have made them
look at the future in a different way. Now, they see a
Possibility of improving their lives. They see an
oPportunity to better meet their personal needs and those of

the ir families. They feel a sense of purpose and this is

hel ping them to continue to learn.

101

CHAPTER FIVE
Problem

This study consisted of an examination of the point of
view of women participants in a literacy program in the

Dalninican Republic. There were three major areas of

The first area of study was a description of the
The

at udy.
Ci‘tizens Education Program by the women participants.

second area of study was a description of the women’s prior

euiaicational experience. And the third area of study dealt

wi 1:h the motivation of the women to participate in the

Ci 1:izens Education Program.
This chapter begins with a review of the major findings
in each of the three major areas of study. Then, the

general conclusions and their implications in relation to

fu1blsre research are presented.
Review of the Majpr Findings

Study Area No. 1.
Description of the Citizens Education Program

by the Women Participants.

The description of the Literacy Program by the women

pa1'131.cipants was done in terms of four types of responses.

102

These four types of responses were the benefits of the
c:j.tizens Education Program in the opinion. of the women
ngizrticipants, the literacy follow-up classes, the positive
aspects of the program, and finally, the negative aspects of
the program.
Each of the women participants talked about the
Ci 1‘; ilens Education Program in terms of how it affected them
individually. Many of the daily tasks performed by these
women are related in some way to reading and writing. For
example, shopping alone, signing her name, and reading and
writing letters to family and friends, are a few of the
chores women do everyday. They spoke of ideas that
indi cated a change in their routines because of the learning
that had taken place. All these reasons mentioned by the
women are benefits from the program, but these reasons have
social implications.
The women are acquiring a sense of self-worth and
‘Ei:§:25i§;:;sufficiency that was not there before. For centuries,
women have been taught to submit themselves to men. The

a .
ocietal role of women was contextualized by men. For
eke-mple’

the

women have followed the men's lead in voting. But,
the family as the fundamental social unit, the role of

men is secondary to the women. Women are responsible
£0
1- the family's welfare. The women participants spoke of
i
<1 eas that indicated having to solve the immediate problems

of
food and shelter for themselves and their family.

103

Through the program, they have experience a measure of
success. This success has given the women confidence to set
future goals for themselves, such as continuing their
education.

Nineteen women participants expressed an interest in
expanding the knowledge they had acquired in the literacy
program. They have this opportunity through the follow-up
classes offered by the Secretariat of Education. The
und erlying purpose described by these women participants for
cont inuing their learning experience was focused on economic
concerns. By increasing their income potential, these women
expect to ameliorate their basic standard of living. This
is 8- beginning. The success rate of these women finding a
job is contingent upon the state of the Dominican economy.
At this point, the Dominican Republic is in the midst of an
economic crisis: the unemployment rate is 2A.4% for women,
there 13's high rate of inflation, and a substantial trade
deficit. The economy of the country is largely based on
a'gl‘filcultural products, the prices of which fluctuate on the
world market. The Dominican Republic must diversify its
e c o l'lomy through lesser dependency on agricultural
I)1“:><1\Jcts. As a result, more employment opportunities will
be
Created. Such economic development must take place in

or
der to ensure a proper job market for these newly-literate

W
Omen.

1014

The positive aspects of the program outnumbered the

gegtive aspects by more than three to one. This in itself
is an accomplishment of the Citizens Education Program,
because it had been running with only limited resources.
All women participants made comments concerning what it
meant for them to have the Literacy Program. The benefit of
1 earning how to read and write, the convenience of the time
and. place where the classes met, not. having to pay for
transportation, and having the materials provided free of
charge, were mentioned as positive aspects of the Citizens
Education Program.

The facilitator-student relationship is one of the most
imr‘tant aspects of the Citizens Education Program. This
relat :ionship, where members of two different social classes
can meet, is an enlightening socio-cultural experiment.
Acting as facilitator, the university student is from the
priviledged class, while the literacy student is from the
lower class of the Dominican Republic. From this
Pele-1: ionship between facilitator and student comes a new
a"Ma'l‘eness; they have first hand experience of each other’s

a
0018.1 perspective. The facilitators see the conditions
under

also

which the women participants live. The facilitators
experience the pressures these women have to face in
Order to attend the literacy classes. All of these
eJCDBI‘iences result in a better understanding between the

Pr
1 viledged and the lower classes.

105

Under the negative comments, the irregplar schedule of
:he literacy classes was mentioned first by the women
firticipants. These irregular schedule is kept because the
facilitators have other responsibilities: attending class
at the University and working.

The irresponsibility of some of the facilitators was
mentioned next by the women participants. Some of the
facilitators lacked the commitment needed to help adults
learn how to read and write. These facilitators did not see
the importance of their task. Instead, they saw this
opportunity as an arbitrary requirement set by the
University. This attitude threatened the relationship
between the facilitators and the students which, as stated
befOre, is so crucial in the Citizens Education Program of
the Dominican Republic. In these cases, the Universidad
Central del Este as well as the government have had an
opportunity to evaluate the facilitators' overall commitment
and performance in education. This is a great advantage
Since the government is responsible for hiring the
teachers. In a country with limited resources, it is
ex"'=II'-‘emely important to have educators who are committed to
the education of the whole population. In the Dominican

R ~
eI’ll‘blic, educators are well respected, and their prestige
is

be

Very high._ The example set by the educators is sure to

followed by the rest of society.

106

The poor quality of the notebooks was mentioned next by
the women participants. This problem could be solved by
improving the quality of the paper used to construct the
notebooks. The money needed to improve this was never

approved by the government. Therefore, the literacy program
was running with limited resources, and could not afford to
make the change to a better quality of paper.

The poor lighting for night classes was mentioned next
by the women. Most of the literacy units visited in this
study, met in houses where there was no electricity. This
created a problem since the units usually met at night. The
government could solve this by issuing a lantern to the
house where the literacy unit meets. This is another
PrObl em which is a matter of the resources available in the
<3<>L1111=ry for the Citizens Education Program. If the country

does not have the monetary resources, this problem will not

be Solved.

Finally, the lack of interest among some of the
W was mentioned by the women participants. There are
different reasons why an adult chooses to participate in a
literacy program. This aspect will be dealt with in the

a
e c t ion about motivation.

107

Study Area No. 2
Prior Educational Experience

of the Women Participants.

The number of women who had participated in school
p r 0 grams suggested a high level of commitment to
education. However, when probed, it became clear from the
women's comments that what might be construed as high
3.11‘I'c>lvement really was not. There was little commitment to
education. These women were not involved in schooling for
long periods of time because they were committed to their
family first. Family’s needs and problems are a high
Priority in Dominican culture. Also, education has been
alWE-ys considered the property of the upper class ever since
colonial times, (Burns, 1963). This attitude brought as a
consequence that it is not considered necessary or natural
for all men to be thought of as equal or to deserve to be
treated equally. The educational situation for women is
even worse. Because of the women's social position, they
are even farther away from the main stream of society.
whether or not women attend school depends on specific
3 Q Q 5— etal norms or legislation, family relationships,
domestic duties, and availability of educational facilities

a
hd teachers, (Reports on the World Fertility Survey, No. 5,

J
“he of 1982).

108

One of the most interesting findings in this area is
the fact that only one woman out of twelveL who had
Larticipated in education, finished the first grade in
3 011001. This woman participant was never able to go back to
s (311001 after the first grade. Ten of the women participants
were enrolled in different schools, but were never able to
finish the first grade. Only one woman participated in
another literacy program during the Trujillo era, but she
did not stay longer than three months.

The other women who had not- participated in any
educational programs gave a number of reasons for not doing
80 - The most common reason for not participating was family
re ileusibilities. The women mentioned having to care for
younger siblings and doing the household chores among these
responsibilities. Family's negative feeling about school
came next. In these cases, the family did not believe that
S(31'1<><)l was that important, especially for girls. The
parents of these women had not gone to school themselves, so
these parents felt that the use of schooling was limited if
at; all important. Having school far from home was another
re sDense of why the women had not gone to school. The women
aI)<>ke of the lack of money to pay for transportation, or the
fact that they did not have anyone to take them there when
they were younger. Next came working outside of the home,

1:
he lack of money for school supplies, and finally health

I) 1‘ Oblems.

109

Study Area No. 3.

Motivation

Burgess' seven factors of adult participation in
educational activities were used to group the responses
g1 ven by the women participants. The women were not bound
1;¢> give a single reason for participating. The format used
in the interviews served to gather the greatest amount of
data possible. Some of the women chose to give more than
c>r1<e~ responses. In those cases the multiple responses were
placed in the appropriate categories.

The desire to reach a personal goal was by far the key
answer given by the women, with twenty women answering under
this category. These women wanted to gain knowledge in
order to achieve a personal goal. The knowledge gained by
them in the Citizens Education Program was making it
I><>881ble for them to accomplish their personal goal. The
<><>lnulon thread of the responses was the desire to pursue a
career or a trade in order to help the family’s standard of
lL:1“’Iidng.

The desire to know was next with nine women responding
under this category. These nine women were interested in
1<r1°‘Mledge for its own sake. They shared a concern for
upgrading themselves personally, they derived pleasure from

‘1‘:
he act of learning.

110

The desire to reach a social goal included five women

repondents. This category is the need to gain knowledge in
order to achieve a goal which, in turn, will improve
society. The women who responded here spoke of ideas that
related to helping other people. The responses ranged from
being a nurse to help in the neighborhood, to being a
Policewoman. The common feeling of the women's responses
was their desire to help others in any way possible.

The desire to take part in an activity followed with
four women repondents under this category. This is the
interest to take part in an activity because it is enjoyed
for its own sake regardless of what is intended to be taught
at the activity. These women were interested in the
fellowship they found at the literacy classes, meeting new
people, and sharing with friends.

The desire to reach a religious goal was mentioned by
three women. This is the desire to learn in order to meet
felt obligations to a church, to some religious faith, or to
8 Ome religious missionary effort. All three women mentioned
J:.<3‘3-<3.:Lng the Bible as their motivation for learning.

The desire to escape was mentioned by two women. This
is the desire to get away from some activity or situation
which is unpleasant or tedious. The two women who responded
under this category mentioned an empty house, and a daily

r
t) “tine, from which they wanted to get away.

111

The desire to comply with formal requirements was tied
for last place in number of respondents. Two women wanted
to meet formal requirements in order to be employed. One of
the women was fired from her job because she did not know
how to read and write. The other woman wanted to be able to
write down messages for her employer.

There was a common denominator to all the responses.
The women felt that the Citizens Education Program had made
them set goals for their lives. All of them answered the
questions about motivation after carefully thinking about
the reasons why they were participating in the program. Two
of the women even mentioned the fact that they had to fight
the pressure from their husbands, who wanted the women to
drop out of the literacy classes. However, these two women
had decided that the Citizens Education Program was
important to their future as well as the future of their

families.

Conclusions

 

The illiteracy rate among Dominican women between the
ages of 15 and 49 is 24.5%. This comes from a long history
of failure by the educational system in the Dominican
Republic. During colonial times, the Spaniards believed
that only the elite minority had the right to an

education. This continues at the present time. The

112

educational system fails to provide equal opportunity and
access to all the citizens of the country. Many government
officials believe that it is more important to channel their
limited resources for education into the elementary
schools. These government officials believe that the future
of the country will be insured by concentrating these
resources (”1 the children. While the educationl of the
children is important, a wider scope to include adult
education must be integrated into the overall national
educational system. Adults must learn to have faith in the
value of an education for all the social classes. The older
generation is the one that encourages and sets the example
for the children to follow. Adults can not do that if they
are unsure of what an education can provide for themselves
and their children. Hence, a set of programs geared to the
adult population is not a luxury , but a necessity in the
Dominican Republic.

Women are taking the first step in education. They are
participating ix: the Citizens Education Program in greater
numbers than men. This makes sense, since men have been
brought up in the macho tradition, where they are not
allowed to show any sign of weakness. Ignorance is
considered a weakness, and seeking an education through the
literacy program sets it out in the open. This suggests
that the educational hope of the Dominican Republic lies

most immediately with its women. The women are the ones who

 

113

have chosen to participate and to set the example for the
children to follow. These women are not afraid of being
seen at the literacy classes. Sometimes they even defy the
power of the families. As one woman interviewed said, "My
family feels that because I am attending these classes I
have admitted my ignorance before our relatives and
friends,...the whole world. I finally told them that soon I
will know how to read and write, so it won’t matter, because
everyone will see what I have accomplished." But one must
be cautious. Only a fraction of the nation's women are
participating in educational programs. Therefore, the final
answer is still far away.

A major conclusion drawn from this study is that .332.
p_lace of women in the Dominican Republic has not changed
very much over the years. Because of economic reasons,
women are seeking employment outside the home. At the same
time, little progress has been made in accepting the working
woman. Generally, women are underemployed, and their
presence in the work force is considered temporary. Men are
regarded as the primary source of income for the family, but
in reality this is not so. Poor urban women are often the
only source of income in their families, (Brown, 1975).
These women are willing Ito work as domestics, laundry
washers, or do any number of unskill tasks. Men in the
lower class have a hard time finding a job. Therefore,

these men depend on their wives for support. In common law

11H

marriages, the men often leave the home, forcing the women
and children to fend for themselves.

The middle class uses this situation to their
advantage. Middle class women employ as many of the poor
women as it is economically possible. This frees the middle
class wife from the household chores while giving them the
social prestige they desire. The middle class is not
generally worried about the conditions under which the lower
class lives. Instead, the middle class tries to imitate the
upper class. Middle class women use everything at their
disposal to climb one step in the social ladder. Education
is one way of accomplishing this. These middle class women
become teachers, secretaries, and white collar workers. All
of these are careers considered acceptable for a woman in
Dominican society.

Social Justice is far from being considered a priority
in the lives of the womenj regardless of social class. The
lower class is too busy trying to survive by meeting the
basic needs of life, such as food and shelter. The middle
class is busy imitating the upper class. And the upper
class controls the land and the money, and does not want a
change in their social status. The upper class women are
brought up to respect and be faithful to their husbands,
even though they do not expect the same in return. The
marianismo syndrome keeps women under the domination of men
because women have been taught that they belong there. This

syndrome is present everywhere in Dominican society.

115

Women should look at themselves and evaluate where they

are and where they want to go. Women have an unlimited

 

amount of dedication and tenacity, which are usually used
within the confines of the family. Lower class women are a
sleeping giant. Ninety percent of the population belongs to
the lower class. Women in this class are used by the middle
and upper classes for their own ends and needs. The comfort
of the middle and upper classes rests on the women of the
lower class. All three social classes should be made aware
of each other’s social needs. All women -need to be
recognized as citizens of the Dominican Republic. Up to
now, women have been largely ignored and taught to accept
their destinies as second class citizens. A country cannot
succeed in development if it ignores half of the
population. In Third World nations, the total population
has to be viewed as their greatest resource, and should be
used in its fullest capacity.

All of these findings could help adult educators in the
design of educational programs that would encourage the
participation of women. When planning a program, adult
educators have to consider the fact that the family is the
most important social unit in the Dominican Republic,
especially for the women. The most common reason for not
participating in educational programs was family
responsibilities. By making the programs available at

convenient times and places, some of the barriers for

116

participation wouldn‘t exist any longer. The most common
response for motivation was to reach a personal goal. This
was the strongest insight into why the women were taking the

literacy classes. These women wanted to pursue a career or

 

a trade in order to better their lives and the lives of

their families. Opportunites should be readily available to

 

these women, in order to encourage their participation in
education. This sets an example for future generations, and
at the same time it helps to raise the standard of living of

the families.

Future Research

 

There are several directions which could be explored
that relate to the issues in this study. First, a study of
the changes in women’s role in Dominican society should be
conducted. The literacy program has brought some changes in
the traditional role of wmmenr a new found confidence in
their ability to take a more active role in the improvement
of the economic situation of the family. By being better
qualified to meet the basic needs of the family, women will,
for the first time, have the opportunity to explore other
roles in society.

Second, a study of the relationship between women of.
the three social classes should be conducted. How is

illiteracy related to class position? How does an

117

entrenched class society serve to perpetuate illiteracy?
The upper and middle classes are reluctant to accept
literacy as a positive change in Dominican society. With
the possibility of a changing role for the poor, the two
upper classes fear loosing the benefits of a cheap labor
force.

Third, a study of the adult’s view on the value of an
education for themselves and their children should be
conducted. What is the relationship between the adult’s'
view of the value of an education and the emphasis placed on
their children's education? The women mentioned economic
reasons for seeking an education as the number one
motivator. A value of an: education goes beyond economics.
It has further implications: individual growth resulting in
positive social changes, and establishing a precedent for
future generations.

Within the confines of this study, there are several
issues that could be explored. First, a study of the
relationship between the facilitators and the women should
be conducted. How does this relationship affect the
participation of the women in literacy programs? How does
this relationship affect the learning that takes place once
the woman is participating? The importance of the
relationship between the facilitators and the women has
profound social implications, creating friendships and
understanding between two different social groups.

A study of the relationship between family members

118

should be conducted. How does this relationship between
family members affect the participation of the women in the
literacy program? Participation in the program will bring a
certain amount of tension in the family, because of the role

that each family member is expected to play in that society.

Concludinngomments

The concern for literacy seems in: be vested with the
lower class. The benefit of :1 literate society' must be
understood in order to be supported by every social class.
The commitment to educate the illiterate must be the task of
not only the government but of the whole literate
population. Ihl its ideal, the Citizens Education Program
will have a positive impact if all Dominicans can realize

the benefit of a literate society.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

119

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aslanian, C. B., and H. M. Brickell. Americans in

 

Transition: iLife Changes :as Reasons for Adult
Learning. New York: College Board, 1980.

Bam, Brigalia.1L. and Sarkar, Lotikeu New Perspectives for

 

Third World Women. Madras: The Christian Literature
Society, 1979.

Benedict, Ruth. Patterns of Culture. Cambridge, Mass: The
Riverside Press, 2nd. edition, 1959.

Bennett, A. T. "Discourses of Power, the IDialectics of
Understanding, the Power of Literacy." Journal of

 

Education, 165:1 (1983), pp.53-74.

Bonilla-Garcia, L. La mu er a través de los siglos.
Madrid, Spain: Aguilar, S.A., 1959.

 

Borg, W.R., and Gall, M.D. Educational Research. An

 

Introduction. New York: Longman, 1979.

 

Bosch, Juana The Unfinished Experiment: Democracy in the
Dominican Republic. New York: Frederick A. Praeger,
1965.

 

Boshier, R.W. "Educational Participation and Dropout: A
Theoretical Model." Adult Education, 23: 4 (1973), pp.

 

 

Brown, Susan. "Lower Economic Sector Female Mating Patterns
in the Dominican Republic: A Comparative Analysis."
Women Cross-Culturally: Change and Challenge, Ruby
Rohrlich-Leavitt (ed.). The Hague: Mouton, 1975, pp.
1’49'1620

Brundage, Donald H. and Dorothy MacKearacher. Adult

Learning Principles and Their Application to Program
Planning. Ontario: Ministry of Education, 1980.

Burgess, Paul. "Reasons for Adult Participation in Group
Educational Activities." Adult Education, 22: 1 (1971)

pp. 3-29.

120

 

Burns, H. W. "Social Class and Education in Latin
America. "Comparative Education Review, 6 (1963), pp.
230-237.

Carp, A., R. Peterson, and P. Roelfs. "Adult Learning
Interests and Experiences." 131 K. P. Cross and J.

Valley and Associates (eds.), Planning Non-Tradional
Programs: An Analysis of the Issues for Postsecondary
Education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 197A.

 

 

Corredor, B, and Sergio Torres. Transformacion en el mundo
rural latinoamericano: Consecuenciee economicas y
gociales de las estgucturas agrarias. Bogota: Oficina
Internacional de Investigaciones Sociales de Feres,

 

1961.
Cross, K. P. "Adults Learners: Characteristics, Needs and
Interests." 131 R. E. Peterson and Associates (eds.).

Lifelong Learning in America: An Overview of Current
Practices, ,Available Resources, and Future Prospects.
San Francisco: Josey-Bass, 1979.

Curtin, Leslie B. Status of Women: A Comparative Analysis
2f Twenty Developing Countries. Reports on the World
Fertility Survey, No. ‘3. Washington D.C.: Population
Reference Bureau, June 1982.

 

Darkenwald, G. G., and G. A. Larson (eds.). "Reaching Hard-
to Reach Adults." New Directions for Continuing
Education. No. 8, 1980.

 

 

Dhanidina, L., and W. S. Griffith. "Costs and Benefits of
Delayed High School Completion." Adult Education, 25: A
(1975) pp. 217-230.

 

Fagg, J. E. Cuba, Haiti and the Dominican Re ublic.
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 19 5.

 

 

Flora, Cornelia. "The Passive Female: Her Comparative
Image by Class and Culture in Women’s Magazine
Fiction." Journal of Marriage and the Family. 33: 3
PP. 435-”44.

 

Freire, Paulo. "The Adult Literacy Process as a: Cultural

Action for Freedom." Harvard Educational Review. 40: 2
(1970) pp. 212.

 

 

 

-------------- "The Importance of the Act of Reading.
"Journal of Education 165: 1 (1983) pp 5-11.

-------------- The Politics g_of Educapion.
Massachussetts: Bergin and Garvey Publishers, Inc.,

1985.

121

Glaser, B. G., and A. L. Strauss. Awareness of Dying.
Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company, 1965.

 

 

 

--------------- Time for Dying. Chicago: Aldine Publishing
Company, 1966.

--------------- The Discover} of Ggounded Theory. Chicago:
Aldine Publishing Company, 1967.

Glaser, B. G. Theoretical Sensitivit . Mill Valley,
California: The Sociology Press, 197 .

Goody, J., and Ian Watt. "The Consequences of Literacy."
In Literacy in Traditional Societies, Jack Goody

 

(ed.). Cambridge: University Press, 1968.

Grabowski, S. M. (ed). Adult Learning and Instruction.

Syracuse, N.Y.: ERIC Clearinghouse on AdultEducation,
1970.

Guerrero, Manuel de Jesus. Consideraciones sobre el
machismo en Re fiblica Dominicana. Santo Domingo: Amigo
del Hogar, 1975.

Hahner, J. E. (ed.). Women in Latin American History. Los
Angeles: University of California Los Angeles, Latin
American Center Publications, 1980.

Hely, A. S. M. New Trgpds in Adult Education: From
Elsinore to Montreal. Paris, 1962.

Havighurst, R. J. "Dominant Concerns and the Life Cycle.

"In H. W. Burns (ed), Sociolo ical Back rounds of Adult
Education, Boston: CSLEA, 1967, pp. 25-3 .

------------- and B. Orr. Adult Education and Adult
Needs. Syracuse: Syracuse University Publications in
Continuing Education, 1959.

Houle, C. O. The Inguiring Mind. Wisconsin: University of
Wisconsin Press, 1963.

Hubermann, A. FL Some Models of Adult Learning and Adult
Change: Studies (a; Permanent Education. Strasbourg:
Council of Europe, Committee for Out-of—school Education
and Cultural Development, 197”.

Johnstone, J., and R. Rivera. Volunteers for Learning: A
study of the Educational Pursuits of American Adults.
Chicago: Aldine, 1965.

 

Kessler, Evelyn. Women: An Anthropological ‘View. New
York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1976.

122

Kidd, J. R. How Adults Learn. Chicago: Follett Publishing
Company, 1973-

 

Kinzer, N. S. "Priests, Machos and Babies: Or, Latin
American Women and the Manichaean Heresy." Journal of

 

Marriage and the Family. 35: 2 (1973) pp. 300-312.

 

Knaster, Meri. "Women in Latin America: The State of the

Research." Latin America Research Review, Standford
University, April/May 1976.

 

Knowles, PL. S. The Adult Education Movement in the United
States. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc,
1962.

 

Kozol, Jonathan. Prisoners of Silence: Breaking the Bonds

 

of Adult Illiteracy in the United States. New York:
Continuum Publishing Company, 1980.

 

Lasker, H. M. Ego Development and Motivation: A
Crosscultural Analysis of Achievement. Unpublished
doctoral dissertation, University of Chicago, 1978a.

 

------------- J. Moore and E. L. Simpson. Adult
Develgpment and Approaches to Learning. Washington
D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, September 1980.

 

 

 

Lavrin, A. (ed). Latin American Women: Historical
Perspectives. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press,
1978}

Levinson, D. J. The Seasons of a Man's Life. New York:
Alfred A. Knopf, 1978.

 

Lichtenstein, Grace. Machisma: Women and Daring. New
York: Doubleday and Company, Inc., 1981.

 

Logan, R. W. Haiti and the Dominican Republic. New York:
Oxford University Press, 1968.

 

Lowe, John. The Education of Adults: A World

 

 

Perspective. -Toronto: UNESCO and Ontario-Institute for
Studies in Education, 1975.

 

Maria, Julian. La mujer en el siglo XX. Madrid, Spain:
Alianza Editorial, 1980.

 

Maslow, A. H. Motivation and Personality. New York:
Harper and Brothers Publishers, 1954.

 

Mezirow, J., G. G. Darkenwald and A. Knos. Last Gamble on

 

Education: _p Dynamics _ of Adult Basic Edugation.
Washington D.C.: Adult Education Association, 19 5.

 

123

Miller, H. L. Participation of Adults in Education: A
Force Field Analysis. Boston: Center for the Study of
Liberal Education for Adults, 1967.

Mota, Vivian. "El feminismo y la politica en la Repfiblica
Dominicana." Boletin Documental Sobre las Mujeres. u:
A (197A) pp. 50-60.

Nash, June, and Helen Safa (eds.). Se; and Class in Latin
America. New York: Praeger, 1976.

 

Nieto-Gémez, A. "Heritage of La Hembra." In Female
Psycholggy : Thefi Emerging Self, edited by S. Cox.
Chicago: Science Research Associates, 1976, pp. 226-
23a.

O’Kelly, Charlotte. Women and Men in Society. New York:
D. Van Nostrand Company, 1980.

 

Paniagua Rodriguez, Alejandro. Los dominicanos_ (sexo y
otros ensayos). Santo Domingo: Editora El Médico

 

'Dominicano, 1971.

Peguero, V., and D. De los Santos. Visién general de la
historia. dominicana. Santiago: Universidad. Cat6lica
Madre y Maestra, 1981.

Proposals for the Collection of Adult Education
Statistics. Paris: UNESCO, Office of Statistics, July,

 

 

 

 

197A.

Rivera, J. Latin America: A Sociocultural
Interpretation. New York: Irvington Publishers, Inc.,
1978:

Rodman, Selden. Quisquejal A History of the Dominican
Re ublic. Seattle: University of Washington Press,
1964.

Rogers, Carl R. Freedom to Learnt Columbus: Charles E.
Merrill Publishing Company, 1969.

Rohrbaugh, .I. B. Women: Psychology's Puzzle. New York:
Basic Books, Inc., 1974.

Rubenson, K. Participation ix: Recurrent _Education.
Paris: Center for Educational Research and Innovation,
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development,
1977.

Ruddle, K., and H. Muktar, (eds.). Statistical Abstract of
Latin America, 1969. Los Angeles: University of
California, 1970.

 

124

Silvert, K. H. Egsays in Understanding Latin America.
Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Issues,
1977.

 

Smith, Donald E. Religion, Politics, and Social Change in
the Third World. New York: The Free Press, 1971.

Smith, Margo L. "The Female Domestic Servant and Social
Change: Lima, Peru." In Women-Cross-Culturallzg
Change and Challengg, Ruby Rohrlich-Leavitt (ed.5. The
Hague: Mouton, 1975, pp.163-180.

Smith, Robert. Learning How to Learn. Chicago: Follet
Publishing Company, 1982.

Smith, R. M., and K.K. Haverkamp. "Toward a Theory of
Learning Fun: to Learn." Adult Education, 28, 1977,pp.
3.21.

St. John Hunter, Carman, and David Hartman. Adult
Illitgracy in thgiUnited States. New York: McGraw-Hill
Book Company, 1979.

Tancer, S. B. "La quisqueyana: The Dominican Woman,19110-
1970." In Female and Male in Latin America, Ann
Pescatello (ed.5. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh
Press, 1973, pp.209-229.

Tiffany, S. W. (ed). Women and Society: An Anthropological
Reader. Montreal, Canada: Eden Press Women's
Publications, 1979.

 

Vitals, Luis. Historia y sociologia de la muaer
latinoamericana. Barcelona, Spain: Editorial

 

Fontamora, S. A., 1981.
Webster’s Seventh Collegiate Dictionary. 1965 ed.

Weil, T. E., and others. Area Handbook for the Dominican
Republic. 2nd. edition, 1973.

 

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

 

 

125

WHO DE CONCENTRACOON NACIONAL

 

Secretaria de EStado de Educ acidn.
Bel las Artes y Cultos.

Podemos

Lic. Mario .Suérez Marill
Prof. Tenaida Camilo do Morillo

Programs Especial de Educacion Ciudadana.

126

 

 

do de oli .olo

 

du
me me mi mo ' mu
no ne ni no no
‘co ce Ci .co cu
Moco
conuco coco ' cocino

comido comino monedo

 

127

 

 

 

\f ..

I
g,
i?

‘ DI."-
’

”fl?" 5"
‘ n
"u

 

128

 

 

 

o e i O U
yo ye yi YO YU
to te ti to 1U
vo ve vi vo VU
Ocoo
Moo
Tomoyo
foyoto Mayo meta

vocuno mocufo vofo

 

 

129

 

APPENDIX B

130

mm DE comma NACIONAL

Secretarial de Estado de Educacidn.
Bellas Artes y Cultos.

 

Podemos
IE

Prof. Tenaida Camilo de’ Morillo

Programa ESpecial .de, Educacio’n Ciudadana

131

 

Equipo Momey

 

 

Y
0y .ey oy . Cy

 

voy soy ley
co’rorey botey doy
buey esfoy muy

 

 

132

 

Pienso en'mi destino

133

 

'J

oiunfor

IO

V4

f -
r

-1 .

- 0".

134

 

 

 

Ion len lin Ion lun
10! Id lil lol lul
lor ler Mr [or lur
1 las les lis los lus
Pedernoles
Polenque

molesfio miércoles balance
Aguilos valor olquiler

 

APPENDIX C

135

5g;

mm DE CONCENTRACION MACON“

 

 

Secretaria de Estado de Educacién.
Bellas Artes y Cultos.

 

 

Podemos
Ill

Lic. Mario Suarez Marill
Prof. Tenaida Camilo de Morillo

Programs Especial de Educacidn Ciudadana.

136

Yo esiés en el tercer cuoderno.
iFelicitociones!

Hos ovonzodo muchisimo.
Hos conseguido uno viciorio
imporionie.

Y vencerés coda vez que lo
intentes.

Lo formula serc’: lo mismo:
esforzorte.

 

137

 

pra pre pri pro pru

pron pren prin pron prun
prar prer prir pror prur
pros pres pris pros prus

 

 

Provincia Juan Sc’Jnchez Ramirez

prefiada principal comprar
premio promesa precio

Senado aprueba pro yeCto

 

138

d'f' I I 861 v" ‘ b
(I U 6 mo I I C a a ey ...o
o
. 99
h Elm" “It miomo do mu inver- reglu do juuo mu exlrlnjcr- \b 6“ of
am Menu on cl pols y clot-u. crundo un con r‘ ‘ ..
“a Ida Lol- roin- morcaobdeculodo que do ‘0 Mia“
Um C u 0 I‘m. ”V. II! I lngreso : ‘
E1593.“ would“ loo invcf‘ dc nuevu invorlioneo -' g, "3 9’0“):
on "m": loctun uu “outrun. provocondo. a lo reinvoruibn d» V0 (P 1 .o" 0‘
""9‘“ ' on 9"" on conucuoucio. la londol dilponi' ‘1?” ‘.: dirt» 6’ v
"u“ '°' If: In“: ropurlocion do no: actividod or FOO f“): . “6:45“ «“o‘
' dvidondoo". yI horr' o o .
fa" " "V “L "5" macaw-mime»: s g,» ..fftto :5", an“ 1P" iv
"n...“ E‘"“""' do auburn an dilo- m" fay o‘ 6o“‘ ‘9‘.“ ‘9‘06
("Ml-M“ ronciu puramonto N. 50‘ 0 v‘ a,“ ,o' “ <‘ 4
la men legislation ol " - -. ‘ V o‘ o“, ‘ c" 9
. : mmoruydocumpll \\ 90 \o 9 ( 4
vuco-prooldoalo do In del 9'0"" \ :9 9° 6‘ o o y
- O o ' ‘
Conn-ion do Filo-us 0" room lav «“5: 9‘ i“ 3 o‘ a" 9““ 6".
del Son-do. ingonioro 3:033:11: ,4. °°¢v \o.\ ‘ a;‘¢\°:°§\;# \0 90¢.»
Vicente Cu . a mum ,- v“. ‘6 yr .0‘ 9.9,, 9. V3," 9‘
mtormo rocomoodoodo cocio' \ Qo‘\c“°\'\6,o“;i 0 9:5. «fiesta 6‘
1.1:: manual:I :or o? ' ‘ \% u?‘&°‘2§1: 93“)?" V $0,509...
Prelidento Salvado' . 6‘ o" o‘ i 6' , \0 ' A. .
u Elam. \ 6px“ $c‘4\“‘\6° 9:»: v». a, q no a ar
Loo orIk-uloo I‘ a“... 6:.9‘1» M“ “‘ ‘ o e
:2. ":2" \Q: a an
F A f m n
r . ' teS
$ .v': 1 1111113 w. .
co;oc‘;°\ o S mud!" y 1: d e S“
o- . en
”fixwpagpofi PreClo 9mm so 9:35;: “e \a “"0 9mg:
. \ . mil 1‘ , .. _
, 41.6.9“ ”:6"? _ 5‘ ”a?“ :1 Diwwcrd um damn“) 9“" “‘9“ que 1'
\° 5 \0 ‘ 1- :“ dsdvfi‘" declif‘c en“ ‘ - 1".le d 1: "9° m
‘ 3¢¢$¢o°3v$. \o'fiv PM “3‘“ e\.qis'cul”c“:mm 29"5 MMM‘onse :0 prendan “in“
. ”:3: :‘v="‘-:»«‘°;\°'1\:‘; E. ......r '.:“: “'.:: was“: “1. ~"'°':"“w m ail:- C...
, c . “o ‘9‘ ‘\ _ min-30°“ 6 na 1‘ v0 que“ \ P “313
\ o [3 rm 10 \u nco
.e‘it. '°“-'3‘»°..v..v\:‘.- i”.fitNESP‘:§‘.;i‘l§m= 22:12: Noreen-:12 .
:‘\‘\. 6:339» fi5°9 que e‘ ‘ggg‘grde rein-131:; ‘3' G“ v‘“: . uvo dd c525. 91': :nero :0“: f2:
' n . c) , out $513 5
v‘ 6‘ .\“‘ ”5"” |de1051°mhu a d: ovum“ ”‘ e1 :16 del - u. d"
0" 5‘ m cm 3 ‘°‘ m at ESPN; ““mq :1 dc “'5 "3“” ) ism 5““ M'-
#9239 9’ pagaybfldaenos “0323:: \3 9‘3“: ufla ‘aesuritc‘u-‘o cspcsg‘; par? ‘0 hombres “1
of“. ‘.: . ncol 9293‘.” 3 mm mm con el “urn carc . C;
‘5 as nduma , en m mas m0 \vfl dc ‘ ego que o:
I m“‘%13e\a|M“‘“§.°“es S calm” "runny“ d“ “wild“ “Mtge“: dc “5 V
\\‘ . .' vr‘ég‘mercnlumbfl Nutrient: dc . rend“; ‘0, represenfl 350030: [‘
produdOS Jose yuche 021‘“: orienting” so mzefigoducmrfiaixpxue
9‘ “15.9.“ ‘53:: \a renal? 6‘. msul-'-'-°- 63r$.;;.;‘..“‘ ‘1' ...... ms ““3?" Jam \3

   
 
 
  
 
  
  
 
 
 
 
 
   
  
 
   
 

..~
.,,

2:,— Cobertura
l'nr Josi- Rome-m

l-Zl rcpn-senmnu- drl
Nam-u l_uu-r.'um-rw:mu do
' rrnllo allrmo .nyrr que
. «I gum-mo dommicuno ha
‘ ‘pmgn-ms impor-
. . ' en HIJIHII '.: Ia
’; «Ix-nun: (11' mmpmmisos
:c rumrnpurndu para
-hr;n~' qu- u m-m-n un
.nunrmnnonlo
nlcl’nacmra:

El hu-m-n-du Lun~ flu:
:rmto duo .mmlsmn um- I:-
f.‘ mmupnrlldu local 41- In-

uuhu-rnus resulla um.
Iznuunance pan- Ia 0):“-
liu do Im’ pr ..m-los

7‘. En la provincia de Santiago .

hayma’sde27milquenunca;

han ido a escuela

N MIMI. P. WWII
h “V

moi.yonoltroo

     

3::
>32:

1'
loolmodoroo on
in model

3',’i'—f'. pork
5?
:5; '. _
I"; '

- aluminum-1d.

SANTIAGO.— Eu: provhdo tie-o loo- 1') all
m
Doonmdlinflmcormpoodelolom

mun boy I lull m.

blocs-m.

Iron on
odo- elloo urn Instr-loos por 8 all «s

crab-In u loo dlleroueo

U. coo-o goo «mm-o oomcihl
lroccuo rub“!

urn-Moo
do Blond“. road-yo

audio-no do dilemma alveloo in las coo-elo-
pulm- le lo

El dlroctor region! to Elle-cl“. Roloel
Allono Gil. “on“ one My "Ioreodo
‘lllIIIIIIIO" porn no cl pln oil-bound"

a..;;

m o oou cannula.
Y logo goo ol pots-Io Ian mm. trophy.
"eouo 0: In muoo do dock “Nico-cote".
Ex 21 ooobo ounclnplu or. at
pron-mo out labors-do "cohort-tom euc. 1o

to.
noon“ ol «horny Io cooper-cm.
... .- ",lo

ro-o EI'VCK'II‘ do
skun-

qoo per-Kc no see“.
Cool“ on (Io ol Pro.
Educatio- Chdodooo cocci-H

mono «prod-o.