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"f‘-"." k ’4‘; ' b - t— 5 ’ '0 V o l Ill III Hit 1'” WWII _3 1293 10692 4602 T1 LIBRARY Michigan State University This is to certify that the dissertation entitled AN ASSESSMENT OF THE INTERESTS, KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES, AND PERCEPTIONS TOWARD OTHER NATIONS AND OTHER PEOPLES OF SELECTED STUDENTS IN DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE SCHOOLS, OKINAWA, JAPAN presented by Katherine Jean Wagner has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. Teacher Education degree in Date January 3], 1986 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771 RETURNING MATERIALS: ‘EV1ESIej Place in book drop to LJBRARJES remove this checkout from “ your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. AN ASSESSMENT OF THE INTERESTS. KNQVLEDGE. ATTITUDES, AND PERCEPTIONS TOWARD OTHER NATIONS AND OTHER PEOPLES OF SELECTED SWUDENTS IN DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE SG-iOCLS. OKINAWA. JAPAN By Katherine Jean Wagner A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Teacher Education 1986 Copyright by KATHERINE JEAN WAGNER 1986 ABSTRACT AN ASSESSMENT OF THE INTERESTS. KNOWLEDGE. ATTITUDES. AND PERCEPTIONS TONARD OTHER NATIONS AND OTHER PEOPLES OF SELECTED STUDENTS IN DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE SCHOOLS. OKINANA. JAPAN By Katherine Jean Wagner The purpose of this study was to determine the interests. knowl- edge. and attitudes about other people and countries of selected fourth-. eighth-. and twelfth-grade students attending the Department of Defense Dependents Schools (00005). Okinawa. Japan. This study was an extension of a 1974 survey conducted by the Educational Testing Service for the U.S. Office of Education entitled W gaggle: ((NDP). A total of 2l3 DODDS students in three schools were tested in 1982 using the four original student instruments. On the Interests questionnaire. data were gathered on students' choices of countries to study and visit and were compared to the l974 data using t-scores. The resources students used to learn about for- eign countries were analyzed by z-scores and chi-square. The total Knowledge Test scores and item scores from the Knowledge Test were compared to the 1974 study. ‘T-scores were used to analyze the data with the level of significance set at p < .05 for all tests. Katherine Jean Wagner A sample of 1.600 U.S. students in 1981 scored almost the same as students in 1974; hence factors other than time appear to have affected results. As in the 1974 study. this survey also indicated that fourth- and twelfth-grade students were more interested in studying and visit- ing other countries than eighth graders. All three grades ranked Japan in the top three positions to both study and visit. Travel. rather than television. was ranked first by all grades as the resource that influenced their learning about other countries. Although there were some areas of weakness in the Knowledge Test for the overseas students. all three grade levels performed better on a majority of the«questions than the 1974 students. Although the 1974 males achieved higher scores on the Knowledge Test. the T982 DODDS females performed as well as or better than the DODDS males in most instances. Because these findings are limited to this population. replication on similar populations would be valuable to determine which factors contribute to improved global knowledge. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to express my appreciation to the many people who provided guidance. support. and encouragement throughout the course of my doctoral studies and during the completion of this dissertation. 'To Dr. Lois Bader. my advisor and committee chairperson. a special thanks for her guidance. direction. and encouragement. She always shared generously of her time. knowledge. and insights. which have contributed ‘hnmeasurably to my intellectual and personal growth. I look forward to our continued friendship. I was fortunate to have Drs. James Page. Eugene Pernell. Roy Wesselman. and Richard McLeod serve on my doctoral committee. To each I would like to express my sincere appreciation for their contributions during the research and writing of this disser- tation. I would also like to acknowledge the many unseen and often unrecognized contributions made by Dr. John Chapman of the Michigan Department of Education. It was his knowledge and advice that led me to select this study. and his expertise. interest. and encouragement contributed greatly to its completion. A heartfelt thanks to my husband. parents. sister. and brothers for their loving support and understanding during the lengthy process of study. research. and writing. A very special thanks must be offered to my husband. Chuck. for the many sacrifices he willingly made in order for me to complete this dissertation. Finally. to my many good friends. especially my co-workers in the Departmemt of Defense Dependents Schools. and those friends I met while at Michigan State University. I extend my warmest thanks for their interest. support. and encouragement. LIST OF LIST OF Chapter I. II. TABLE OF CONTENTS TMLES O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O FIGURES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 WE mml-EM O O O O O O O O O O O O O Intf‘OdUCtIOn............ Background and Rationale for This Study Purpose of the Study . . . . . . Research Questions . . . . . . . Generalizability of the Findings Limitations . . . . . . . . . . Definition of Terms . . . . . . Summary and Overview . . . . . . REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . The Historical Background of Global Education Global Education: Definitions. Goals. Definitions of Global Education . Goals of Global Education . . . . Curriculum Issues . . . . . . . . Rationale for Global Education . . . The Global Perspective . . . . . . Difficulties and Obstacles of Global A Review of Existing Research on the Developmen International Orientations During Early and and Issues Education Role of the Teacher in Global Education Selection and Development of Materials . . . . Signs of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t MIdd16 Chi‘dhOOd O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Problems of Research Into Global Education . . Basic Conclusions From Research Studies Review of Research Studies of Students Living in Overseas Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oooooooooo * C an Page viii 11 12 14 14 14 17 19 20 58 58 69 75 85 89 101 103 105 107 109 112 153 Page American Teachers in Foreign Countries . . . . . . . . 168 Global Education in an International Setting . . . . . 170 sumary O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O 172 III. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 Department of Defense Dependents Schools . . . . . . . 176 The Student Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 Fourth Graders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Eighth Graders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Twelfth Graders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 Description of Student Measures . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Background and Interest Questionnaire . . . . . . . 196 Perception Measures (8-1) (8-2) (8-3) . . . . . . . 198 Describing Other Nations (and Peoples) (C-1) (C-2) (C-3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Knowledge Test (0-1) (0-2) (0-3) . . . . . . . . . . 200 Data-Analysis Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Hypotheses Tested . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Smmmy .. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... flB IV.DATAANALYSIS..................... 204 Student Interest in Studying Foreign Countries . . . . 205 Task Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Fourth Graders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Eighth Graders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Twelfth Graders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Student Interest in Visiting Foreign Countries . . . . 207 Task Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Fourth Graders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Eighth Graders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Twelfth Graders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Descriptive Overview of Student Interest in Studying and Visiting Foreign Countries . . . . . 209 Conclusions on Countries Students Selected To Study and Visit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Resources Used by Students to Learn About Other Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 Task Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 Fourth Graders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Eighth Graders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Twelfth Graders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 The Status of Eighth- and Twelfth-Grade DODDS Students' Global Knowledge: Item Analysis . . 221 Task Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Eighth and Twelfth Graders' Knowledge About the United States . . . . . Task Description . . . . Eighth Graders O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O I Twelfth Graders . . . . World and Five Selected Nations . . . . . Task Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eighth Graders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Twelfth Graders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Status of Fourth-. Eighth-. and Twelfth-Grade Score DODDS Students' Global Knowledge: Total Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Analysis Description . . . . . . . . . Fourth Graders . . . . . . . . . . . . Eighth Graders . . . . . . . . . . . . Twelfth Graders . . . . . . . . . . . The Knowledge Test: Eighth and Twelfth Graders' Knowledge About the An Examination of the Areas Strengths and Weaknesses--Fourth-. Eighth-. and of Twelfth-Grade DODDS Students . . . . . . . . . . Task Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . Attitude Data of Fourth-Grade DODDS Students Task Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter summary 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O V. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS. IMPLICATICNS. AND REmMMENDATICNS smmary O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Maj or Res “Its O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Student Interest in Studying and Visiting Foreign muntri es 0 O O O O O O O O O I O O O O I O O 0 Resources Selected to Learn About Other Countries Knowledge Test Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fourth-Grade Students' Attitudes TOward Other Nations and Peoples . . . . . . . . . . . . Discussion and Implications of the Findings Student Interest in Other Nations and Other Peep] es 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Resources Students Used to Learn About Other Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . Knowledge Test Results . . . . . . . . Fourth-Grade DODDS Student Attitudes . Projected Outcomes of the Study . . . . Recommendations for Future Study . . . . vi Page 224 224 225 226 228 228 229 233 236 236 237 240 242 244 244 267 267 275 277 277 278 278 279 279 281 281 281 283 284 288 288 290 Page APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 A. PERSONAL CORRESPONDENCE . .‘. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29h B. RESEARCH APPROVAL LETTERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 C. STUDENT AND PARENT INFORMATION LETTERS . . . . . . . . . 300 D. APPROVAL TO USE TEST INSTRUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 BIBLIWRWY O I C OOOOOOOOOOOOO O O O O O O O O O O 307 vii 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. LIST OF TABLES 1982 W Sample Demographics . Student Background Information--Entire Population . . . Birthplaces of Fourth-Grade Students and Parents in the 1982 mDDS Popu1at‘on O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Foreign Languages Spoken by Parents and Students . . . . Class Standing of Students in Sample . . . . . . . . . . Length of Time Lived in the United States Length of Stay on Okinawa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Birthplaces of Eighth-Grade Students and Parents in the 1982 00005 Pbpulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Foreign Languages Studied by Eighth and Twelfth Graders Subjects Studied by Eighth and Twelfth Graders in the samp1e O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O Birthplace of Twelfth-Grade Students and Parents in the 1982 DODDS Popu‘ at‘ on O O O O O O O O C C O I O I O 0 Length of Time Lived in the United States Length of Stay on Okinawa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Results of Comparisons Between the 1982 and 1974 Samples in Terms of Students' Selection of Countries to Study Results of Comparisons Between the 1982 and 1974 Samples in Terms of Students' Selection of Countries to Visit 1982 DODDS Students' Selections of Countries to Study and to VIS‘It O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O I O O 0 viii Page 184 185 186 189 189 190 190 191 192 193 194 195 195 207 209 212 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. Page Nations Students Would Like to Study and/or Visit: Grades4’8'and12oooooooooooooooooo 214 Nations Students Would Like to Study and/or Visit: Grades49893l‘1d12.................. 215 Rank Ordering of Resources That Are Influential in Learning About Other Countries: Top Three Choices . . . 218 Items Greatly Influencing Attitudes and Opinions Toward Other Nations and Peoples: Grades 4. 8. and 12-- woos samp1e O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 220 Knowledge Levels by Nation: Grade 4 DODDS Students. 1982 I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 222 Knowledge Levels by Nation: Grade 8 DODDS Students. 1982 O O C O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O 222 Knowledge Levels by Nation: Grade 12 DODDS Students. 1982 O O O O I O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 23 Knowledge Levels by Nation: Grade 8. ONOP Study. 1974 . 223 Knowledge Levels by Nation: Grade 12. ONOP Study. 1974 . 224 Tbtal-Item Knowledge Test Results: Grades 4. 8. and 12 . 238 Percentage of DODDS Students Correctly Identifying Six Countries on a Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Results of Comparisons Between 1982 and 1974 Samples Regarding Questions About the United States: Grades 8 and ‘2 O O O O O O .0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 250 Attitude Data of 1982 DODDS Fourth-Grade Students . . . . 269 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Organizational Structure of the 00008 System . . . . . . 178 CHAPTER I THE PRmLEM Intmducflnn Much has been written on the events that have made citizens of many countries increasingly aware of the high level of interdependency among both the large and small nations of the world. Daily it has become more apparent that with the technological advances in communica- tions and transportation. peoples of the world who were previously isolated have been brought closer together. Newspapers and television are full of examples of our inter- relationships. Events such as the continuing uncertainty regarding the supply and cost of OPEC oil. the instability of the Middle East. stepped-up terrorist activities around the world. world-wide inflation. the lengthy imprisonment of the 50 American hostages in Iran. conflicts in such remote areas of the world as the Falkland Islands. and the plight of various refugee groups have made many more individuals real- ize not only the actuality of interdependence but the importance of this fact as well. John Donne's poetic metaphor. "No man is an island."ialthough written centuries ago. would appear to be a realistic view of the nature of humanity and our world today. Almost without people being aware of it. people and countries are being brought closer together. and most indications are that. barring the unexpected. this trend will continue to accelerate in the years ahead. The author of 2001. Sir Arthur Clark (1945). expressed the opinion that the two inventions that accounted for America's swift economic growth were the telegraph (later the telephone) and the railroads. Similarly. today the two inventions that are making our world McLuhan's (1968) "global village" are the Jet airplane and the communication satellite. Oceans that once were formidable are now crossed routinely--in Just a few hours by Jet planes and in seconds by direct-dial telephones. Many nations are contributing to the effort of making the world a smaller place. Americans are in the forefront of some of the moves that are shrinking the globe. American-style clothing. particularly blue Jeans. and American music have been adopted by many of the world's young people. Television shows made in the United States are dubbed and shown in countries around the world. Other countries are helping to make the world smaller also. Japanese and German cars have become standard transportation throughout the world. and investors from numerous countries are buying into busi- . nesses in the United States and around the globe. The speedup of communications and trade between nations has much to do with making the world a smaller place. Events in such places as London. Warsaw. and the Middle East become news on television everywhere. The growing exchange of students. tourists. scientists. entertainers. and artists and a vast increase in world trade both point to the growing economic dependence of nations upon each other. We are now a truly global economy because of instantaneously shared information. and the world appears to be in the process of a redistribution of labor and produc- tion. In short. there is an almost Urgent need for more international understanding and cooperation among the nations of the world. In 1963. Robert Heilbroner brought to our attention that a global revolution of rising human expectations--the hope for a better material. political. and spiritual life--was well underway and repre- sented a significant event in human history. ‘This revolution of rising expectations is without precedent and is global in scope. In the years following Heilbroner's predictions. events have confirmed his maJor thesis that the vision of a better life is one of the most powerful motivating global forces of this century. Previously. the United States government was concerned with domestic politics and internal growth. However. it has been forced to reevaluate policies and relationships with other countries. The post- World War II period witnessed dramatic growth in the interdependence of nations in such areas as economics. technology. ecology. and natural resources. These areas of rapid growth have brought about not merely American problems but problems that are shared by all nations and all peoples. Global problems are both immediate and extremely complex. Numerous writers have pointed out that the ever-increasing inter- dependence of nations is being confronted with a number of potentially disruptive global issues. These issues include shortages of food and energy. imbalance in trade. high population growth rates. disputes about ocean boundaries and resources. the escalating arms race. and conflicts in various parts of the globe. We are faced with the possi- bility that these problems will lead to world-shattering catastrophes. Several events on the international scene have brought about the realization that there are social. political. and economic rela- tionships and dependencies that bind the peoples of the world into a single system and truly make them interrelated. Ward's (1966) "space- ship earth" analogy is commonly used when attempting to describe today‘s global interdependencies. McLuhan (1981) also captured this sense of interdependence when he said. "There are no passengers on spaceship earth. We are all crew" (quoted in Naisbitt. 1981). Recognizing that radical social. political. and economic changes are taking place. the educational systems need to help students both understand the ramifications of those issues related to global interdependence and acquire the skills and attitudes necessary for responsible citizenship in a global age. The Club of Rome. a body concerned with the well-being of mankind as a whole. is future-oriented in its thinking and has sponsored a series of global research proJects designed to analyze global issues and furnish the political and economic decision makers in various parts of the world with comprehensive global planning tools that would enable them to act in anticipation of the many crises at our doorstep and of those that loom increasingly large in the near future. In their report issued in 1979. the authors. Botkin. EdmandJra. and Maliztza. called attention to the importance of education in deter- mining our global agendas: Inadequate contemporary learning contributes to the deteriorating human condition and a widening of the human gap.. . . Learning processes are lagging appallingly behind and are leaving both individuals and societies unprepared to meet the challenges posed by global issues. (p. 9) The need for an appropriate educational response to the accel- erating pace of global change was emphasized by Robert Leestma (1978). former Associate Commissioner for Institutional Development and Inter- national Education: Educators are the single most important group in helping generate a critical mass of citizens capable of recognizing the global age. its impact on their future life. and their responsibilities as American citizens in an interdependent world. (p. 13) The case for increased emphasis in the social studies on the theme of world interdependence has stimulated numerous efforts at local. state. and national levels to improve school global studies. One such effort. W W. served as the basis for this research study. W The world continues to change rapidly. and the nations and peoples of the world are becoming increasingly interdependent. In recent.years. our world has nearly been overwhelmed by a series of fundamental changes in technological. economic. and political reali- ties. Interdependence is clearly a fact of life. and the everyday real-life concerns facing United States citizens. such as inflation. loss of Jobs. uncertainty about the future. political crises in other parts of the world that involve us. and loss of national prestige in some areas. can only be addressed in light of global realities. Mesa- rovic and Pastel. writing in their report to the Club of Rome in 1974. stressed the fact that the world can no longer be viewed as a collec- tion of some»lSO-odd nations and an assortment of political and eco- nomic blocs. Instead. they argued. the world must be viewed as nations and regions that form a world system through an assortment of interde- pendencies. Daily events demonstrate vividly that all humans now live in a closely interconnected relationship with each other and with the biosphere. In the early 19705. there emerged from these global realities a number of problems and issues that began to have a profound effect (both good and bad) on the everyday lives of people throughout the United States. It would be possible to cite numerous events that brought home the reality of our interdependency. but the energy crisis is one of the most notable examples and probably was most pronounced in its effect on the daily lives of many Americans. The message of the oil crisis was clear: We had become highly dependent on resources and events that were beyond our direct control. Events surrounding other crises gave equally strong indications that the United States was part of a global and increasingly complex world system. The changing political climate also figured prominently among the new realities that highlighted the influence of the world on Americans. Former Secretary of State Cyrus Vance (1980) pointed out that the Iranian hostage situation brought home the realization that it was no longer possible to hold a purely geopolitical or a purely international economic view of the world and to conduct foreign policy based on such a single analysis. Since it would appear that all nations and peoples are new members of a global community and that this fact will remain a reality whether we like it or not and even whether we know it or not. numerous writers have urged educators to recognize the reality of our new age and begin to act accordingly. Because the world has unalterably changed. American education is faced with making changes also in order to better equip and train students to understand and rel ate to the complexities of today's world. Research by Lambert and Klineberg (1969) indicated that it is through the schools and the mass media. especially television. that an indi- vidual gains information about the rest of the world. Therefore. one of the great challenges facing educators is the cultivation in todayhs students ofian understanding of the motives and values of other nations and peoples as well as the historical. social. and psychological back- grounds that cause them to think and act as they do. Reischauer (1973) not only spoke to the need for understanding the Japanese culture. but he has also been a proponent of the need for global understanding at every level. He argued that the university problems we face today require an informed citizenry. educated in a new and radically different way. and it was his belief that a better under- standing of the outside world and changes in attitudes toward other people are crucial to human survival. He stressed the need to act immediately: ”In the field of education . . . the twenty-f1 rst century and its problems are already here” On 13). In light of the changing realities. schools must play a role in preparing students to understand the nature of the global society and to function within it. When the Carter administration assumed power in 1977 with its stronger emphasis on human rights and international dialogue. the administration set in motion several measures designed to evaluate the state of international education in the United States. On September 15. 1978. based on the recommendations of legislators within the House Committee on Education and Labor such as Representative Paul Simon (1977). and educational interest groups such as the American Council on Education (1975). President Carter appointed a President's Commission on Foreign Language and International Studies. This group of 25 distinguished educators. businessmen. Journalists. and legisla- tors issued their report a year later after extensive fact-finding and input from the field. This report of the Commission portrayed a dra- matic picture of decline in both the funding of and commitment to foreign languages and international studies in the 19705 (President's Commission on Foreign Language and International studies. 1979a. 1979b). In the introduction to the report. foreign language and interna- tional studies were linked to national interests in security and busi- ness: the authors suggested that the "situation cries out for a better comprehension of our place and our potential in a world that. though it expects much from America. no longer takes American supremacy for granted" (p. 2). The President's Commission quoted extensively from the Educa- tional Testing Service study. WWW. which sur- veyed a representative sample of publ ic-school students in grades 4. 8. and 12 in 27 states in 1974. The study examined some 600 students. and the results revealed some glaring inadequacies in students' interna- tional knowledge and awareness at all levels of education (Pike et a1.. 1979). The results of this study proved generally disconcerting to many individuals because a maJority of the students had a surpris- ingly limited knowledge of other countries. However. as Leestma (1979) pointed out in the foreword to the WW study: The educational results reflect a mixed bag. sometimes puzzling. often disturbing. on balance more discomforting than satisfying. But at least educators. policymakers. and other concerned citizens now have a more specific sense of some of the dimensions of the problem. the challenge. and the opportunity. and a reasonably firm factual basis upon which to plan for some of the educational improvement needed. (p. vi) As was expected. the,QtheL_Natign§._01hen_flegples study brought to light the extensive research needs and concerns of international education and pointed out the need for future research to gather addi- tional baseline data. In discussing the purpose of the study. Leestma stated: These efforts have been aimed at helping identify and focus attention on the problems. assess the needs. raise the level of professional and public awareness. contribute to the development of strategies. methods. and materials. and otherwise assist American 10 education in moving from where it is to where it ought to be in preparing students for the increasingly interdependent world of the present and the foreseeable future. (p. iii) Aside from the fact that students from the Department of Defense Dependent Schools were not included in the 1974 chen_uat19n§. .Qtnen_Eerles study. the fact that few studies undertaken by doctoral students have focused on worldmindedness attitudes or degrees of inter- national understanding of students who are living or have lived over- seas makes for some interesting speculation. For all practical purposes. the question of the nature of the influence of the overseas experience on students remains open. Since relatively little informa- tion on the actual status of global education within the Department of Defense Dependent Schools in their unusual setting exists. this study. by attempting to focus attention on this particular group of students. may add to the research on the interests. knowledge. attitudes. and perceptions of American school children toward other countries and other peoples. The value and need for conducting this study have been recog- nized by others interested in promoting global education. Philip Runkel. Superintendent of Public Instruction in Michigan during the time this study was being conducted. expressed his support for various types of research that would focus on contemporary global issues in the field of global education. In correspondence with this researcher. he stressed the need for educators to become involved in such research and expressed interest in having the population of this study. the Depart- ment of Defense Dependent School students. serve as a comparison group 11 for the studies that focused on Michigan students. (See Appendix A for a copy of this correspondenced In their suggestions for further research. the researchers for the original Educational Testing Service study recommended that the study be replicated with other student populations and at a later date in order to expand and improve international education in the United States. Indeed. if meaningful education is to be accomplished. research that will provide data concerning the basic knowledge and attitudes of students regarding other nations and peoples must be conducted in order to be able to design effective programs. W The purpose of conducting the W study on a selected number of fourth-. eighth-. and twelfth-grade students who attend the Department of Defense Dependent Schools on Okinawa. Japan. is. first. to provide somermuch-needed research on those students who. because of the geographical location of their schools. were not included in the original 1974 study that encompassed 27 states. Since it is commonly thought that the setting of the overseas school can provide the opportunity for the type of cross-cultural interaction that may be related to producing worldminded attitudes in both students and teachers. it would be useful to compare a group of overseas students with those students in various regions of the United States who were tested in the 1974.Q1heL_Na119n§._0thez_flegples study. 12 Also. by extending the study to a student population living overseas. it is possible that the data gathered from this particular group would be helpful in examining the relationship between the over- seas experience and increased knowledge about other nations and other peoples. Whether experience abroad. either visiting other countries or actually living outside the United States. leads to greater degrees of global understanding on the part of individuals who have such experi- ences is a question that has not yet been fully examined or conclu- sively answered. An additional purpose for this study is related to the increas- ingly difficult task of charting needs and priorities in curriculum planning. By analyzing the data gathered from a representative group of Department of Defense Dependent Schools students. those areas of weakness can be identified and given remedial attention. It would then be possible to use the data from this study as a basis for recommenda- tions for social studies curriculum improvements and staff development. We: The following research questions were formulated to guide the gathering of data for this study. 1. Is there a statistically significant difference between the selected fourth-. eighth-. and twelfth-grade Department of Defense Dependents Schools (DODDS) students' selections of countries to study and those of the students in the 1974 We: (ONOP) study? 13 2. Is there a statistically significant difference between the fourth-. eighth-. and twel fth-grade DODDS students' selections of countries to visit and those of the students in the 1974 ONOP study? 3. Is there a statistically significant difference between selected fourth-. eighth-. and twel fth-grade DODDS students' choices of resources to learn about foreign countries and the resources chosen by students in the 1974 ONOP study? 4. Is there a statistically significant difference between the total-item Knowledge Test results of selected fourth-. eighth-. and twelfth-grade DODDS students and the test results of students in the 1974 mOP study? 5. Is there a statistically significant difference between selected fourth-. eighth-. and twelfth-grade DODDS studentsfl knowledge of the United States and the knowledge of fourth-. eighth-. and twelfth-grade students in the 1974 ONOP study? 6. Is there a statistically significant difference between selected eighth- and twel fth-grade DODDS students' knowledge of the world and five selected nations and the knowledge of students in the 1974 (NOP study? 7. Is there a statistically significant relationship between the amount of time selected fourth-. eighth-. and twelfth-grade DODDS students have spent in foreign countries and students' scores on the knowledge test? 8. Is there a statistically significant difference between the perceptions of other countries of selected fourth-. eighth-. and 14 twel fth-grade DODDS students and the perceptions of other countries of fourth-. eighth-. and twel fth-grade students in the 1974 ONOP study? We: The results of this study must be considered within the popul a- tion and procedures used in the investigation. The findings may not be generalized to schools other than the ones examined in this study. Limitatipns The study sample was limited to groups of fourth-. eighth-. and twel fth-grade DODDS students in one overseas setting. specifically. Okinawa. Japan. No attempt was made to investigate the attitudes. interests. and knowledge of students in other grades or other settings overseas. This researcher did not explore in depth the specific reasons for students' attitudes toward or interest in other nations and peoples since the purpose of the study was to explore and identify. if pos- sible. areas of improvement in the curriculum. However. this study was not intended to recommend that specific measures or special programs be undertaken or to suggest that methods or materials be adopted. The findings are discussed in terms of factors that need strengthening and that possibly affect students' attitudes toward. interest in. and knowledge of people who are culturally different from themselves. mm For purposes of this study. the following terms are defined in the context in which they are used in this dissertation. 15 W. In this study: ”“5”" was defined as living in a country for a period of at least six months. WW). The United States Depariznent of Defense includes the Office of the Secretary of Defense and the Organi- zation of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the military departments of the Army. Navy. and Air Force. .Deaactment_9I_QeIense_Qapendent_Schpgls_(QQQQSL. The 271 schools under the direction. authority. and control of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Manpower. Reserve Affairs. and Logistics. .Glgnal_educatign. The Michigan Department of Education defines this term as the lifelong growth in understanding of the world commu- nity and the interdependence of its peoples and systems. W. The student's basic knowledge about selected countries and the world in general. which was the focus of the ONOP tests. 1flgst:gguntny_natigna1_fl£29, An individual who is a citizen of the nation in which the DODDS is located. W. The total number of years spent over- seas. plus the number of different countries lived in during the years overseas designates the degree of international mobility for students during their elementary and secondary school years. .1ntg:nat19nal_schogl. An American-sponsored independent school that meets the criteria for assistance from the Office of Overseas Schools of the United States Department of State. I6 .L111n9_nhLQadLQxeLseas. This term describes those individuals residing outside the 50 states. the District of Columbia. Puerto Rico. and the outlying areas of the United States' sovereignty or Jurisdic- tion. The population overseas includes members of the Armed Forces. federal civilian employees. other United States citizens living abroad. and dependents of these groups. These Americans temporarily abroad on vacations or business trips are excluded. W The survey of student interests. knowledge. attitudes. and perceptions that was conducted by the United States Office of Education in 1974. .denseas_dependent_yguth. Dependency denotes the status of the student in regard to his/her parents while living overseas. .Sponsgn_gn_sngnsgning_agency. The support organization that is responsible for the parents in the overseas area. .Student_attitudes. The choices students made between two diametrically opposite characteristics (i.e.. good-bad) in regard to selected countries and the people living in those countries. The peoples and countries were used separately because it was conceivable that students might view the people of a country differently than the government of that country. .Stndent_nackgngund. The information provided by the students about selected family characteristics (i.e.. nation of birth of stu- dents and parents. language spoken in the home. and occupational levels of parents). the sex of the student. his/her academic standing. foreign 17 language studied. and courses taken that might have influenced their understanding of world affairs. .Ihind_cu11une_k1ds_CEflgfl, A designation originating with Ruth Hill Useem of Michigan State University to denote the dependent minors of overseas nationals who represent somerlarger organization such as the Department of Defense. TCKs are those students who live out of their native culture for extended periods of time. Tourists' children are not included in this designation. Wages. For purposes of this study. the term is defined as that group of attitudes. perceptions. and assumptions on the part of overseas-experienced youths that reflect certain qualities of openmindedness concerning national identities and cultural values. W In this chapter. the background. problem. rationale. and pur— pose of the study were presented. Research questions. limitations of the study. and definitions of important terms were also discussed. Chapter II contains a review of literature related to the study and covers the following areas: (a) an overview of the history of global education; (b) the definitions. goals. and issues of global education; and (c) a review of research related to students' develop- mental readiness for global education. studies of American students living in an overseas environment. and the role of global education in an international setting. The study design and research methodology. data-collection procedures. and data-analysis techniques are explained in Chapter III. 18 In Chapter IV. the data gathered in the study are reported and analyzed. and the findings are discussed. The summary of the study. conclusions. and recommendations for further study are presented in Chapter V. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE To acquire the necessary background when beginning this study. an Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) computer search of the research in education was conducted using the wide variety of terms that apply to global education and that would enable the researcher to gain access to information and materials concerned with this area. When attempting to conduct a thorough search. one soon finds that numerous related terms are used to describe the different facets of global education. Some of these terms are: global awareness. inter- national education. world citizenship education. worldmindedness educa- tion. cross-cultural education. multicultural education. intercultural education. cultural pluralism. world affairs. world studies. global approach. and global issues. The literature reviewed for this study encompassed the follow- ing areas: First. the historical background of global education is discussed. Second. the definitions. goals. and issues of global educa- tion are examined. The third area to be reviewed is the literature related to research on the development of student attitudes. the readi— ness age for global education. studies of American students living in 19 20 an overseas environment. and the role of global education in an inter- national setting. WOW The purpose of this review of historical initiatives toward education for international understanding. cooperation. and peace is to consider the involvement of both individuals and organizations. as well as historical events that served to support and shape the field of global education as it exists today. The concept of a global society is not new. The terms "globalisnu" "shrinking world." and ”interdependence" have been used with increasing regularity in international affairs. and in the field of education the phrases "international education." "education for a global perspective." and "global education" have become well known. Other significant terminology related to the field of global education includes "comparative and development educationfl'"educationa1 and cultural exchange." "technical assistance." "foreign language and area studies." "global issues." ”multicultural and multiethnic education." "education for international understanding." and “outreach programs in international education.” Fraser (1965) pointed out that the term "international educa- tion" has long been used as an umbrella term to describe a variety of activities and programs designed to encourage the flow of ideas and people across cultural and geographic boundaries. Griffin and Spence (1970). as well as Spaulding and Singleton (1968) and Collins (1977). emphasized the fact that such activities have included student and 21 faculty exchanges: international. multicultural. multiethnic. and language studies in schools and institutions in the United States; technical cooperation to help other countries build their educational institutions and programs; programs to prepare professionals for international service; public affairs programs to inform and involve the American public in the discussion of world events and foreign policy issues; and information exchange activities designed to benefit both foreign and U.S. scholars. businessmen. government officials. and citizens. International education. if loosely defined as the purposeful movement of ideas and scholars across cultural and geographical bounda- ries. had roots in some of the earliest civilizations. Comparative educators such as Brickman (cited in Fraser. 1965) traced the first technical-assistance activities to biblical times when. in the tenth century Bil. King Solomon made a request of King Hiram of Tyre for skills and materials to construct the Holy Temple in Jerusalem. In centuries following this event. virtually every great civilization had examples of cultures adapting ideas from one another and of scholars and students mingling in various institutionalized forms of education. However. for purposes of this discussion. the focus will be primarily on the historical and legislative background and development of international education within the United States. As early as 1876. John Eaton. United States Commissioner of Education. presented a plan for a permanent organization that would be responsible for international meetings with comparative education as 22 their focus. Scanlon (1960). in a documentary history of international education. described the period from the close of the nineteenth cen- tury to the beginning of World War I as "the greatest effort in the history of civilization to build a realistic basis for world peace" (p. 7). It was during this period that Francis Kemeny. a Hungarian author. proposed the formation of an organization that would develop international education and reach throughout the world. Scanlon sug- gested that Kemeny was one of the first writers to tie improved rela- tions between races to efforts for international education. and it was his hope that his proposed organization would include representatives of governments and professional organizations interested in development of international agreements on the organization and structure of education; . . . the formulation of international statements on the rights of man; the revision of textbooks to eliminate hatred and emphasize mutual trust: and a concentrated effort to eradicate racial prejudice. (p. 7) Before World War I. other organizations that were established with similar aims included the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace and the American School Peace League. whose aim was "to promote through the schools and the educational public of America the interests of international Justice and fraternity" (Scanlon. 1960. p. 7). In 1912. the National Education Association passed a resolution praising the work of the School Peace League. and the report of the National Education Association Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education. issued in 1916. recommended the development of international world-mindedness and stressed the concept of interrela- tionships among nations. 23 World War I interrupted these early attempts at developing an effective international education program. Scanlon pointed out that the work of the Committee on Intellectual Cooperation. which was part of the League of Nations. set a model for later United Nations Educa- tional. Scientific. and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) national commis- sions. In fact. one of the lesser-known activities of the Committee. which is of interest. is the Recommendation of its Sub-Committee of Experts for the Instruction of Children and Youth in the Existence and Aims of the League of Nations. which was submitted by a committee of 14 experts in 1927. This document contained recommendations on methods to make the League of Nations known to young people. An American educator of that period. 0. Prescott (1930). assessed the influence of the League of Nations' actions on both elementary and secondary education and discussed the 1927 Recommendations designed to develop ”the spirit of international cooperation among young children. young people. and their teachers” (p. 14). He was particularly impressed by ”the lever- age" upon national education authorities for the introduction of inter- national material provided by the resolutions of the Assembly and the recommendations of the Sub-Committee of Experts. Prescott also explored two themes that are present in the international education of today. After a study tour that he made in 1926 to six European countries. he concluded that the "spirit of the school" was more important in the process of international education than specific curriculum or practices. He found that "the subJect matter in the courses of study appeared very internationally minded but 24 the instruction or atmosphere of the school influenced theichildren to very different sentiments" (p. 3). He also cited the conservative force of tradition that resists the introduction . . . of material . . . that would set children to thinking about present international relationships that would inform them about the various solutions that have been sug- gested or tried... . that would demonstrate the extreme interde- pendence of nations at the present time and the multiple causes of international friction. (p. 23) Carr (1928) argued that unceasing interdependence of nations was both an indispensable process and a historical necessity. It was his opinion that the practice of citizenship in the world community is an act one takes merely by being aware of the events and conditions of world society. and‘valuing and empathizing with humans everywhere (quoted in Remy et a1.. 1975). Other well-known educators had an interest in promoting inter- national understanding and peace in the United States during the 19305. During this period. task forces at the American Council of Learned Societies (ACLS) and the Social Science Research Council (with a great deal of support from various foundations) were laying the groundwork for international studies programs within the discipline of political science. Palmer (1980) reviewed the growth of international relations as a field and cited surveys showing that in the early 19305 fully 3.700 courses in international relations were offered by American colleges. In 1937. the yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. which was entitled WWW 25 .Eub11c_§§hogl_9unnlcn1um. addressed the role of education in promoting world peace and was one of the more important documents that served to focus attention on the issues involved in education for peace and world understanding at that time. Gumperz (1970). in tracing the development of foreign area studies as far back as 1870. noted that local circum- stances had a greater effect on the resultant curricula than did national trends. but at the same time. national efforts provided much of the impetus and Justification for introducing and expanding the study of the world in the curricula. Gumperz wrote that during the late 19205 and 19305. several factors combined to produce concerted efforts to get American campuses to teach about the world. Among those cited were a maJor international economic crisis. reaction to the Western civilization focus of earlier curricular efforts. and wide- spread support by intellectuals for international disarmament and for the League of Nations. Champions for the cause were found in the Social Science Research Council. the American Council of Learned Socie- ties (ACLS). and later the American Council on Education (ACE). The legacy of the 19305 provided the building blocks for the rapid expansion in international studies following World War II. Before World War II. there were relatively few "international studies" specialists irIlLS. universities and schools. McCaughey (1980) described the role that returned Journalists. missionaries. and foreign service officers and their children played in providing a type of network of international studies specialists. but the advent of World War II found the United States woefully lacking in specialists who 26 understood the languages and cultures where combat and occupation troops eventually operated. World War II interrupted the efforts of both governmental and nongovernmental agencies to establish an organization devoted to international education. Finally. after the conclusion of the war and with the establishment of the United Nations. a stronger commitment to and implementation of international education programs began to take shape. The end of World War II generated an explosion of interest in all facets of international education. and with the establishment of the United Nations and its specialized agencies. a new era of foreign relations for the United States began. Several new agencies and pro- grams were established in response to the international challenges of the postwar period. Some of these were UNESCO. the Food and Agricul- ture Organization (FAO). the World Health Organization (WHO). the World Bank. and a variety of smaller agencies. At the same time. many new federal agencies were established in response to the many new interna- tional challenges of the postwar period. Among these were the Interna- tional Cooperation Administration. which was established in 1955 to replace the Economic Cooperation Administration and which became the Agency for International Development (USAID) in 1961 ; the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA); the United States Information Agency (USIA). which became the International Communication Agency (USICA); the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs of the Department of State. which became part of the U.S. Advisory Commission on International 27 Communication. Cultural. and Educational Affairs (USICA): and the Bureau of International Organizations of the Department of State. Also during the postwar period. early legislation. such as the Marshall Plan. although primarily designed to assist in the reconstruc- tion of Europe. was later broadened to include technical and financial assistance and cooperation in the rapidly developing nations of the world. In 1946. the Fulbright Act authorized the use of surplus local currencies owned by the U.S. government abroad for programs of educa- tional exchange. ‘The Smith-Mundt Act of 1948. which authorized dollar appropriations. broadened the Fulbright legislation. and a generation of scholars with wartime foreign experience and language training received added support with the launching of the Fulbright-Hays Act of 1961. which provided support for strengthening language and area compe- tence in the United States by offering opportunities for research and training abroad. The establishment of UNESCO in 1945. with an entire sector devoted to education. is generally regarded as one of the most impor- tant events in the field of international education during the post- World War II era. Soon after its formation. conferences were held to explore how education could best contribute to international under- standing. Then in 1953. a network of UNESCO-Associated Schools was established with the explicit aim of increasing secondary school stu- dents' knowledge of world affairs and developing international under- standing. However. until the establishment of a Liaison Committee for 28 the Associated Schools ProJect in the United States in 1974. only a few schools in this country were members. Many educators who had been active in promoting international education through many publications and through the media felt that this program would be a way to achieve cross-fertilization of the UNESCO-Associated School experience in many nations with the American global. international. and intercultural education programs that had been established independently of UNESCO. The 1971 UNESCO summary of the Associated Schools programs. entitled InteLnat1Qnal_Unde£siand1ngLaI_§£hQQl. concluded that the maJority of proJects have been successful in achieving their general objectives of increasing knowledge of world affairs. giving pupils a sounder comprehension of other peoples and cultures. and developing attitudes favourable to international understanding. (p. 15) Once again the importance and effect of the programs were described by evaluators as depending to a large extent on the preconditions of education for international understanding. An especially important factor is the atmosphere of the school. . . . The principles of human rights should be reflected in the organiza— tion and conduct of school life. in classroom methods. and in relations among teachers and students and among teachers them- selves. (p. 23) One other serious attempt to internationalize education within the special needs and opportunities presented by an international school was recorded by Malinowski and Zorn (1973). Founded in 1947. the aim of a New York school for the children of United Nations employees was to give an international dimension toievery subJect area. However. this early attempt to focus on international education depended on the contributions of the students and the ability of the teacher to use those contributions to the fullest. 29 Governmental and nongovernmental efforts to encourage and support international education gradually became more apparent during the period from the late 19505 until the present. Becker (1979) stated that the period from 1950 until the present was made up of three dis- tinct periods in the area of international/intercultural education within the American educational system. which were influenced by national and international events. During the 19505. the emphasis was on military and diplomatic relations. As Tyrrefll (1954) stated in the 1954 Yearbook of the National Council for the Social Studies: The United States in the second half of the twentieth century has drifted into world commitments which require global thinking by its citizens. At the same time. these needs also demand highly trained personnel able to operate in other surroundings to carry out national aims and policies. (p. 383) One event that affected the direction of international educa- tion and the government's role in supporting it was the national response to the launching of Sputnik in 1957. The National Defense Education Act of 1958 was passed. and Title VI provided support for language and area studies in American universities and for language institutes to improve language teaching in the public schools. The original purpose of the legislation was to develop a cadre of special- ists who were knowledgeable about other countries and fluent in their languages. 'There was steady growth of international resources on American campuses. and this growth was augmented by the increasing international perspectives in such expanding disciplines as anthropol- ogy. sociology. and comparative religions. 30 In 1966. the Office of Education funded a proposal put forth by the Foreign Policy Association to prepare a series of papers from well- known scholars in several disciplines to reflect a set of convictions and assumptions about the need for and the process of change in the international education of American students. The report. An_ExamJna: 0| 0 00 5* : ‘::I .ll 0 : g l: I. 0]. a . 0] I MW. published in 1968 and frequently referred to as the Becker/Anderson report. is viewed as somewhat of a landmark in therfield of international education because it was concerned with the following questions: (1) What is international education? That is. how can interna- tional education be most fruitfully defined or conceptualized? (2) What should be the maJor obJectives of international education in the schools? That is. what contributions can and should the K-12 curriculum make to the international education of students? (3) Given answers to these questions. what needs to be done with respect to curriculum development. basic research. and teacher education in the field of international education? (4) What intel- lectual talents and resources exist for undertaking needed research and development work and how can these be effectively mobilized? It was not the purpose of the study to give these questions final and universally acceptable answers; rather. it was selectively to survey the thinking of American educators and social scientists with respect to these questions through interviews. conferences. and meet? ings. It was hoped. in so doing. to lay the foundation for a continu- ing and systematic examination of needs. obJectives. and priorities in international education. The report of the study group issued in 1969 called for a new definition of international education and emphasized the need to prepare students to live in an interdependent global 31 society. Commenting on the need for substantial curriculum development and teacher retraining. Becker and Anderson (1969) stated: When viewed from the perspective of what needs to be done to equip children and young people to live constructively in the anticipated world of the let century. there are few grounds for complacency. There is much that can and should be done to enhance the quality of international education in the nation's elementary and secondary schools. (p. 12) Although the literature reviewed for this section focused pri- marily on the historical development of international education in the United States. one report issued by the International Commission on Education should be noted because of its relationship and importance to American efforts in international education. At the same time that American scholars were contributing material to the Becker/Anderson report. a group of seven experts from UNESCO member states preparedia study entitled W The report. issued in 1972 and commonly known as the Faure report after the chairman of the committee. was general in nature but did address the assumptions underlying political education and education for peace: People confuse pol itica1 or ideological indoctrination with preparation for broad. free reflection on the nature of power and its components. on the forces working in and through institutions. . . . An individual comes to a full realization of his own social dimensions through an apprenticeship of active participation in the functioning of social structures and. where necessary. through a personal commitment in the struggle to reform them. . . . The development of democracy is required for peace. It encourages tolerance. friendship and cooperation between nations. These are platitudes. but in the complicated and complex play of politics and diplomacy. the attitudes of the people concerned weigh more than might appear. particularly when they have a realistic and unsenti- mental idea of peace. One mission of education is to help men see foreigners not as abstractions but as concrete beings. and to discern a common humanity among the various nations. (pp. 151. 155) 32 Besides the Faure report. the UNESCO Secretariat also conducted a series of surveys on the status of education for international under- standing during the 19605. Becker (1969) characterized the 19605 as a period when emphasis in international/intercultural education was on cultural or geographic- area studies. During this time. various foundations such as the Ford Foundation. the Rockefeller Foundation. and the Carnegie Corporation offered "institution-building" grants to colleges and universities to stimulate the internationalization of the curriculum and to encourage various kinds of international activities on campuses. The Ford Foundation. which in the 19605 had put a great deal of money into international education. largely departed this field along with other foundations. The country's involvement in the Vietnam War tended to reduce the appeal of international orientations. and the country tended to focus attention on domestic concerns. By the end of the decade. the boom in international studies had run its course. and both federal and foundation support had waned. In spite of the waning interest in international education. President Lyndon B. Johnson proposed the passage of the International Education Act of 1966 and proclaimed in a 1966 special message to Congress that "ideas. not armaments. will shape our lasting prospects for peace. The conduct of our foreign policy will advance no faster than the curriculum of our classroom" (p. 17). Although Congressman Adam Clayton Powell (1966). then Chairman of the House Committee on Education and Labor. stated that the act was 33 to support "international education--education to function effectively in a multicultural universe" through federal programs to "enable our schools and universities to carry forward the essential training and research in international studies" (p. xii). the mood of Congress during the Vietnam War and its aftermath appeared to be unfavorable to the gathering of several programs under one authority that would encourage an overall. integrated perspective. and the International Education Act of 1966 was never funded. Lyndon Johnson. who had hoped to be a great "education president." was dragged down by Vietnam. Other federal initiatives designed to solve some of education's most intractable problems also were never realized or were crippled for a variety of reasons such as conceptual inadequacy. underfunding. or bureaucratic inertia. In spite of the fact that Title VI of the National Defense Education Act appeared to be an effective program. its funding declined steadily. and it received only modest funding through the 19705. According to an analysis by Groennings (1981). the budget of the National Defense Education Act Title VI hovered around $20 million in most.year5. but it was soon eroded by inflation. and the number of NDEA fellowships fell by two-thirds in the decade between 1967 and 1977. As a result of the momentum generated by the 1966 federal effort. the Institute of International Studies was established in the United States Office of Education (USOE) in 1968. With the establish- ment of this Institute. the USOE took a national leadership role in international education. Robert Leestma (1969). the Associate 34 (anmissioner for Institutional Development and International Education. summarized the following aims of the Institute: communicate to an ever-widening audience the concept that the national interest in education includes an international dimension. increase our knowledge of the world and its peoples. infuse an appropriate international dimension throughout the domestic educational program. stimulate or support research and development projects designed to improve methods and materials for international education. educate more specialists for international studies and services. promote ideas and support programs that reduce the disadvantage most Americans incur because their education does not prepare them to cope with the international facts of life. interpret the meaning and importance of international education so that all programs necessary to serve priority national needs become well accepted parts of public policy and acquire suffi- cient status to ensure sustained support in good times and bad. and improve the national capability to cooperate with other countries in educational development for mutual benefit and increased international understanding. (p. 8) This philosophy that intercultural understanding had both domestic and international dimensions and that these were interrelated gained national attention as it was discussed in numerous professional publications and congressional appropriation hearings. International/ intercultural education was advocated at all levels of general education to help students develop a broader concept of citizenship more relevant to an increasingly interdependent world. The federal government's continued involvement in programs designed to further international understanding and cooperation was evidenced by the fact 35 that approximately 50 legislative enactments were mandated in this area. One could set forth the hypothesis that it was the maJor devel- opment of technical-assistance activities in the decades following World War II that stimulated interest within the United States in all aspects of international education. Several institutions established international programs designed to involve faculty members in overseas assistance activities and to use these individuals' expertise to create and staff area and/or international studies programs on campus. A number of scholars have written about the use of technical cooperation programs and the significance of such programs on the field of international education. Merrill (1960) discussed the relationship of the university and world affairs. Others such as Gardner (1963). Humphrey (1967). and Sutton (1979) wrote about the significance of the international liaison to the university. Coombs and Bigelow (1965) addressed the link between education and the various forms of foreign aid. Harbison and Meyers (T964) studied the role of education as a maJor force in world economic development. Case studies of six Ameri- can universities that represented different types of models of institu- tionalizing for effective higher education involvement in international education were done by Education and World Affairs (1966). the prede- cessor of the International Council for Educational Development. Several universities formed consortia or councils that were designed to encourage a broad range of cooperation among institutions involved in technical-assistance activities. 'Two of these. the Midwest Consortium 36 for International Activities and the Pennsylvania Council for Interna- tional Education. assisted higher education institutions interested in international education. Almost overnight the entire field of international studies was enlarged. and it appeared that the field would continue to grow almost indefinitely. However. by the end of the 19605. growth in inter- national studies slowed considerably. and the decline continued into the 19705. Given the events that led to the passage of the National Defense Education Act. it would appear that the impulse behind it was the need to strengthen the United States in its dealings with the rest of the world. and much of its emphasis was on ”defense"iand "nation." as well as on "education." In the early 19705. new social. economic. and political problems emerged to highlight even further the rapidly growing realities of an interdependent world. Oil shortages. fluctuating currencies. massive population movements. continued East-West rivalry. and increased terrorist activities were only a few of the new complexities that served to make the American public more conscious of the fact that the world. as they had known it through much of this century. was rapidly changing. At the same time. domestic concerns that were related to ethnic and cultural groups within the United States began to overshadow the concern for international relationships advocated in earlier years. Flint (1980) focused on the social and political activism on the part of ethnic and racial minorities. as well 37 as on the part of educators. with respect to theoretical. ideological. and conceptual views of cultural diversity that gave rise to multi- ethnic and multicultural education. For example. Title VII of the Emergency School Aid Act of 1972 addressed the need for curriculum materials and instructional strategies that would focus on the culture and language of American minority groups. There continued to be a diminishing interest of the major foundations in international studies. and the Ford Foundation insti- tutional grants of the 19605. which had been designed to assist higher educational institutions in their development of international pro- grams. ceased. Numerous private consulting firms were created and were in competition with universities for technical-assistance contracts under the gradually diminishing foreign aid programs of the Agency for International Development (AID). Even the Peace Corps. which had been established in 1961 to provide an opportunity for Americans of all ages to engage in dialogue with peoples of other cultures through interna- tional service. changed its focus to a goal of providing technical assistance. and there was a declinerin enthusiasm among many indi- viduals for such work. In the 19705. efforts in the field of international education. or global education as it now was known. appeared to be more realistic as evidenced in the setting of more concrete goals and by a clearer perception of the reality of globa1 interdependence and its relation- ship to the national interest. It was also during the 19705 that attempts to stimulate and coordinate international programs at the 38 state level were undertaken with increasing frequency. Weatherford (1977) and Collins (1977) discussed the states that had made special efforts in improving and expanding global or international studies in their schools. Some of those states were Delaware. Florida. Illinois. Indiana. Kentucky. Michigan. Minnesota. New Jersey. New York. North Carolina. Pennsylvania. and Utah. In December 1974 the National Commission on Coping With Interdependence was created to assess the capacity of Americans to cope with interdependence and to consider what could be done to enhance that capacity. The Commission sought to answer four questions: 1. In view of our growing interdependence with other nations.(of which the energy crisis is only one example). what adjustments in American life styles and workways seem tO>be indicated. and on what time scales? 2. What do recent public opinion polls tell us about the readiness of Americans for the proJected kinds of changes? Are "the people" ahead of their leaders in willingness to adJust their life and work for reasons of international interdependence? 3. To what extent do our existing institutions perceive the pre- dicament. analyze its implications for individual and group behavior. and act in accordance with that analysis? 4. What new attitudes and arrangements may be required to enhance the capacity of Americans to cope with interdependence? (p. 3) After working for a year. the Commission issued a number of papers and recommendations that attempted to answer the four maJ or questions. In the final report. they noted the many obstacles. struc- tural and psychological. to the spreading of global perspectives by various American institutions. They noted that the most important changes would have to be modifications in attitudes that. because of the nature of our pluralism. must first take place in the reasoning 39 consciences of millions of individuals. The Commission declared that the most important adjustment for Americans will be "to blur. then erase. the psychic frontier between 'domestic affai rs' and 'interna- tional affairs'" (p. 4). To achieve this goal. however. Americans would have to unlearn 200 years of history and an attitude toward the rest of the world that was shaped greatly by our immigrant heritage. The external and inter- nal changes that the Commission described would require some very fundamental changes in both the behavior and attitudes of not only the American people but in our government as well. In 1978 the National Science Foundation provided the Social Science Education Consortium with a grant to determine the current state of social studies in the nation's schools. to suggest desired states for the field. and to make recommendations for moving toward those desired states. While the immediate objective of this project was to suggest funding priorities for the National Science Foundation. the broad. long-range goal was to help provide some sense of clarity and direction for the field of social studies in the next decade. The project. Wm M. involved an intensive examination of existing research on social studies in the schools. considerable discussion and writing by staff members and core consultants. and nationwide efforts to obtain reactions fron the field to the results. It is interesting that many of the major problems cited in the report are the same problems that have plagued attempts to include 40 global education in the curriculum. Among them were lack of student learning. curriculum distant from the current and future social world. limited repertoires of teacher instruction. and little public under- standing and support. Although this project was not geared toward global education specifically. the suggestions and proposals could be incorporated into the global education curriculum. Since at the beginning of the 19705 there was a scarcity of data on the current state of global education in the schools and among students. the United States Office of Education's Institute of Inter- national Studies set about the task of trying to stimulate expansion and improvement of the international dimensions of elementary educa- tion. In 1973. the Educational Testing Service (ETS) of Princeton. New Jersey. surveyed high school seniors and found the students lacking a basic knowledge of the world. It was in connection with the increased activities initiated by the United States Office of Education (USOE) that the Q:hez_ua119ns. Wu WHOM W (MOP) was conducted in 1974 and published in 1979. USOE. in cooperation with ETS. developed four student survey instru- ments designed to collect data on the interests. knowledge. attitudes. and perceptions of fourth-. eighth-. and twelfth-grade students toward other countries and other people. The results proved generally discon- certing to educators and social observers alike. The data reflected some puzzling and disturbing weaknesses in several areas dealing with international matters. 41 As was expected. the ONOP study brought to light the extensive research needs and concerns of global education and highlighted the need for further research in order to gather additional baseline data. That study served as a basis for the present research. A later survey conducted by Peterson (1980) looked at attitudes of Junior and senior high school students in Kentucky. Peterson sug- gested that the students he surveyed werer"far from being unsophisti- cated parochials" on international matters. despite their relative isolation from world affairs. Their views. such as a rejection of isolationism. support for the United Nations. and the belief that conflict would continue to play an important role in world affairs. caused some authors to caution against taking any survey findings too seriously. Tonkin and Edwards (1981) suggested that the findings of the Peterson survey actually depicted a higher degree of thoughtfulness and realism about international relations than was evidenced in the findings of the Office of Education's ONOP study. After the publication of the ONOP study. the suspicion arose that if the precollegiate study found young Americans lacking in inter- national understanding. there was a strong possibility that American college students would not have an adequate grasp of world realities either. Several members of Congress called public attention to the glaring lack of global understanding in the United States. As a result. President Carter appointed the President's Commission on Foreign Language and International Studies on September 15. 1978. The Commis- sion comprised 25 distinguished educators. businessmen. Journalists. 42 and legislators. A year later. following extensive fact-finding. input from the field. and attendant publicity. the work of the'Commission was completed and published. The establishment of a President's Commission was a major event. since it focused public attention and solicited comments from a cross-section of the combined fields of foreign lan- guage and international studies. The report. WW .0 ' l .3'0 0 I: : 'il 0.” l3 3 i=1 0.1m 0| 0| W. gave the cause for global education high visibility. The report portrayed a dramatic picture of the decline in both the funding of and institutional commitment to foreign language and international studies in the 19705. The introduc- tion linked foreign language and international studies to national interests in security and business and suggested that the "situation cries out for a better comprehension of our pl ace and our potential in a world that. though it expects much from America. no longer takes American supremacy for granted" (p. 2). The Commission quoted extensively from the 1979 MOP report. which had presented dramatic evidence of the extent of student illit- eracy in world affairs. It also found that our nation's international expertise is inadequate and that the system for maintaining and strengthening it has been gravely Jeopardized by the erosion of finan- ci a1 support. While recognizing that "since World War II. the United States has acquired a very impressive array of advanced training and research programs in the international field" (p. 147). unpredictable 43 and decreased federal and other funding has already brought the demise of some programs and threatens the quality and survival of others. Because so many issues that formerly were primarily domestic are new global or transnational. Commission member Robert E. Ward (1979) saw a need for "transnational specialists." The advanced training of such specialists. he said. focuses on public or private interrelationships and interactions across national borders without primary reference to a particular foreign society or area. Examples would be post-graduate or post- doctoral training in international relations. international law or business. foreign trade. comparative politics. or maJor interna- tional problems such as economic development. food. population. energy or arms control. (p. 137) Paralleling the need for specialists was the need for greater international education for American citizens. The President's Commission presented recommendations on the need for much greater efforts in kindergarten through the twelfth grade. in undergraduate studies. in foreign language teaching at all levels. and in adult and community education. Burn and Perkins (1980) called attention to the need for greater public support and information sharing to increase American learning about other nations and global issues. However. they pointed out that the dispersion of citizen-education efforts in inter- national education would make itiextremely difficult to arrive at focused recommendations for action. The Commission also recommended a broad program of federal support for foreign language and international studies in schools. colleges and universities; support for college and university training and research programs: increased funding of international educational 44 exchange programs and for citizens' educational programs in interna- tional affairs; cooperative programs with business and industry: the strengthening of coordination and administration within the federal government for such programs; and a continuing private National Commis- sion on Foreign Language and International Studies to monitor and report on progress in the area. The recommendations and opportunities for action presented by the President's Commission were well received at the time and provided yet another rallying point for the various interested groups in pur- suing more consistent and integrated policies of international edu- cation. Throughout 1979-80. "global" programs multiplied at all levels. from local school districts to state departments of education. How- ever. international izing the curriculum meant different things in dif- ferent settings and had different outcomes. Many existing programs were reformed. and other new ones were introduced to increase the attention given to the international aspects of education. Starr (1979) discussed somerof the attempts that have been made to introduce new forms of international and global education in high schools throughout the country. One example was the High School for Interna- tional Service. started by the Center for International Service and headed by Harold Taylor of the College of Staten Island. in collabora- tion with a 2.000-pupil school near the college. Egerton (1980) dis- cussed the effort by area studies centers to link the expertise of university faculty in international studies with the needs of the local 45 community and schools by developing outreach programs. The impetus for outreach activities came largely from the requirement that National Defense Education Act Title VI centers devote the equivalent of at least 15% of the funds awarded to them to such university-community linkage activities. Outreach activities included inservice education programs for teachers. public lecture series. conferences. summer institutes. media productions. and film series with a view toward increasing citizen involvement in foreign policy making. Mehlinger and Ehman (1974) saw the benefits of the outreach program since such programs not only enriched the specific target audience. such as high school teachers. but would also enhance future undergraduate education. Following the release of the Commission's report. the Council on Learning attempted to further focus national concern on what the President's Commission had termed America's scandalous incompetence in foreign languages and the dangerously inadequate understanding of the world. There was the suspicion that American higher education. in light of changed world circumstances. does not sufficiently prepare students for their civic roles as they enter the next century. George Bonham (1980). executive director of the Council. described the condi- tion of student learning in this area: America's young face a set of new national and international circumstances about which they have only the faintest of notions. They are. globally speaking. blind. deaf. and dumb; and thus handicapped. they will soon determine the future directions of this nation. (p. 34) 46 The Council on Learning's Education and World View (E and WV) project was conceived in the face of these changed world circumstances that did not appear to be properly reflected in the American under- graduate curriculum. To remedy this condition. Bonham called for a major review of international experiences at colleges and universities across the country. Before any fundamental changes in the Nnerican undergraduate curriculum could be encouraged. it was necessary to assess the quality of campus programs and the degree to which college students understood world realities. Since the ETS had already broken new ground in this area with the earlier precollegiate MOP study. it was asked to design and conduct a national survey of college students' global understanding. The project. guided by a national task force of outstanding Americans representing a wide variety of academic institutions. federal and state government agencies. concerned leaders in the corporate community. and the media. was a carefully defined effort lasting two years. Funding was provided by the Office of International Education of the U.S. Department of Education with the support of the National Endowment for the Humanities and the Exxon Educational Foundation. Each student who participated was paid $6 to take the test. Based on a sample of approximately 3.000 undergraduates at 185 institutions. it was found that the performance of the two groups. freshmen and seniors. displayed a considerable lack of knowledge about topics the experts in various fields felt were important. The average score of seniors was 50.5 out of 101 questions: 47 for freshmen. 41.9; and for two-year students. 40.5. Scores ranged from 9 to 84. It is interesting that all three groups performed more strongly on therquestions having to do with social sciences than with the humanities. Also. students majoring in social sciences scored above the average (52.77) but were outperformed by engineering and mathe- matics majors. Foreign-language students were slightly below the aver- age (50.22). The lowest of all groups were education majors. whose scores averaged 39.83. Cogan (1980). citing these disturbing results and expressing concern over the poor performance of future teachers. felt that educators should take immediate steps to rectify the situation. There is a need for teacher trainers. curriculum specialists. and teachers to work together cooperatively to develop teacher training programs with a global perspective. An inherent problem in promoting global education is the matter of funding. Historically. the field of international education has been shaped by national and world events and the federal legislation that was passed to encourage international understanding and effec- tively deal with America's changing role in the world. Bonham (1980) discussed the reality that whatever success educators have had in internationalizing curricula in the past has depended. to a great extent. on the mood of the American public as well as on the interest and priorities of the administration in power. 48 Collective characteristics and attitudes of the American people have furnished the prime evidence for determining the effect of U.S. values and issues on the educational system and the decisions that are made concerning educational goals. One of the more reliable indica- tions of collective attitudes is the opinion polls that are based on scientific sampling by survey researchers such as George Gallup. The eleventh annual Gallup Poll (1979) of attitudes toward the public schools introduced the subject of global interdependence. When asked to rank the essential subjects for all high school students. 60% of those sampled ranked "interdependence of nations--foreign relations" behind only the most obvious "basics" as an area of importance. Aside from the fact that the Gallup survey introduced the subject of global interdependence at a time when the American people had begun to feel keenly the wide variety of stresses and strains within an ever-increasingly complicated world. this appeared to represent a turnaround by the public and was a positive sign in more than a decade of citizens finally realizing the interdependent position of the United States. In the 1980 poll. the question of international citizenship was addressed. When asked if students should spend more time than they now do learning about other nations of the world and the way people live there. 45% thought students should spend more time. 46% felt students spend enough time now. and 9% did not know. It is interesting that in the sixteenth annual Gallup Poll of Attitudes Toward Education (1984). the specific topic of global 49 interdependence was not used. but the survey attempted to obtain some evidence of how the public rated the various goals of education. When asked to rate the importance of possible goals of education.‘42% of the respondents felt the goal to develop the ability to get along with different kinds of people was a most important goal; 51% felt the development of the ability to live in a complex and changing world was most important: 39% of the respondents felt that it was a most impor- tant goal to develop respect for and understanding of other races. religions. nations. and cultures: and 42% of those asked felt that the goal to gain knowledge about the world today and yesterday (history. geography. civics) was the most important. In discussing the extent of the influence of the public mood on such educational matters as international education. Bonham (1980) cited a 1980 Potomac Associates public opinion poll. which indicated a substantial slide in the publicfls interest in international affairs since the mid-19605. The data showed a gradual decline in internation- alist sentiments between 1964 and 1972. followed by an even sharper decline between 1972 and 1974. which were the years of the ending of the war in Vietnam and the world oil crisis. Bonham also cited state and federal budgetary problems that have affected the funding of international education programs and stressed the importance of the need to challenge the national per- ception that international education does not merit the same consid- eration as military force in terms of our national survivaL. The 50 roller-coaster quality of funding has. at times. made for a very tenuous and sometimes dismal picture in the field of global education. From the early 19805 until the present. prospects for substan- tial federal funding of the programs suggested by the Presidentus Commission have appeared bleak. The Reagan Administration proposed and carried out extensive budget cuts in all legislation affecting inter- national education. Programs such as the Peace Corps were slashed to about 5.500 hundred volunteers in 1981 compared to over 15.000 in 1968. Mojdehi (1982). in an assessment of the Reagan Administration's first-year approach to foreign policy. especially toward the Third World countries. cited specific examples of the tendency of the United States to treat Third World nations as friends or foes in a U.S.-Soviet competition and to ignore neutral. nonstrategic countries. Economic and social aid programs under the Reagan Administration were earmarked for use in cases where the recipient country was clearly significant from a strategic viewpoint. Proposed cuts in economic assistance abroad would make it appear that the continued trend will be toward the United States further withdrawing from collaborative economic and social activities around the world. This continuous decline in development-assistance activities was highlighted by Robert McNamara (1982). former president of the World Bank: Today. Germany. Japan and the United States are particularly defi- cient in the level of their assistance. The case of the United States is illustrative. It enjoys the largest gross national product in the world. And yet it is currently one of the poorest performers in the matter of official development. Among the developed nations. Sweden. the Netherlands. Norway. Australia. 51 France. Belgium. Denmark. Canada. New Zealand. and even--with all its economic problems--the United Kingdom: all of these nations devote a greater percentage of their GNP to official development assistance than does the United States. In 1949. at the beginning of the Marshall Plan. U.S. official development assistance amounted to 2.79 percent of the GNP. Today. it is less than one-tenth of that. 0.22 percent of GNP. And this after a quarter century during which the income of the average American. adjusted for inflation. has more than doubled. (p. 38) One important event related to the Reagan Administration's attempt to apply arbitrary friend-foe distinctions in order to exert influence and change was the United States' disillusionment with UNESCO and its subsequent withdrawal from it. along with its SSO-million—a— year contribution. In the view of the Reagan Administration. UNESCO had been turned into a tool of the militant Third World and the Commu- nist bloc and used America's money to support UNESCO's anti-American activities. which. according to some reports. even included evading U.S. laws to send high-tech scientific and nuclear components to coun- tries such as Vietnam. It would appear that it was UNESCO's enthusiasm for a "new world information order" as much as the Director General Amoudou-Mahtar M'Bow's proclivity for spending large sums of money on personal projects and the increasing role played by the Soviet Union's KGB in UNESCO's pol icy decisions that led to American disenchantment with the organization. The furor over the new world information order could quite possibly overshadow UNESM's constructive accomplishments. chiefly those having to do with providing a forum for educators and scientists. Educators appear to be especially concerned about the United States' decision to leave because UNESCO allotted grants for 52 numerous studies. surveys. and seminars that have been useful in many areas. It should also be noted that UNESCO funds made possible a number of studies and conferences connected with international education. In 1974. a UNESCO Recommendation was drafted by representatives of the many countries whose cultural backgrounds. educational systems. and ideological perspectives exhibit the diversity that exists among the nations and peoples of our planet. This document was significant because the UNESCO member states were able to agree on a comprehensive set of principles and policies governing international education in spite of the variety of different educational philosophies and pedagogical methods involved in promoting global and human-rights education. Documents such as the 1974 UNESCO Recommendation are especially beneficial because of the intellectual cross-fertilization and trans- national cooperation they provide. American educators could gain valuable insights about attitudes and values that educators in other parts of the world wish to see reflected in international education programs. With the United 'States' withdrawal from UNESCO. the oppor- tunity for research. scholarship. and exchange of ideas will not exist. and it would appear highly unlikely that another comparable organiza- tion will be formed to fill the void. Secretary of Education T. H. Bell created the National Commis- sion on Excellence in Education on August 26. 1981. directing it to examine the quality of education in the United States and to make a 53 report to the nation and to him within 18 months of its first meeting. In April 1983. the National Commission submitted its report. entitled W. The report documented ways that the U.S. educational system has deteriorated in the past two decades. and the decline was summarized by the statement that "the average graduate of our schools and colleges today is not as well-educated as the average graduate of 25 to 35 years age" (p. 11). The report reflected the concern that stems from the real iza- tion that the world has changed dramatically and that American educa- tion is not preparing students to meet the challenges of being global citizens. It stated: The world is indeed one global village. We live among determined. well-educated. and strongly motivated competitors. We compete with them for international standing and markets. not only with products but also with the ideas of our laboratories and neighborhood work- shops. America's position in the world may once have been reason- ably secure with only a few exceptionally well-trained men and women. It is no longer. (p. 6) It is interesting that WEB referred to our world as a "global village." but it did not elaborate on the need for inter- national understanding. As Tanner (1984) pointed out: The report gives lip service to our world as a "global village" and the democratizing function of our schools. but fails to broach the need for international understanding. Instead. the schools are regarded narrowly as instruments for regaining our dominance over world markets. No mention is made of the fact that the largest and fastest growing sector in the world economy is in military produc- tion and trade. No mention is made of the cost of this global military-industrial commerce to the heal th of our nation's economy and the corresponding neglect of our social well-being. (p. 7) 54 Milton Goldberg (1984). executive director of the National Commission on Excellence in Education. discussed an important aspect that W did not address. He stated: W and many of the other reports that have come out recently have focused on the high school. But anybody who has ever worked with young children knows that if something good doesn't happen at the elementary level. there is not a heck of a lot you can do when they get to the high school. So my fourth point is that the first eight years of school must provide the base for whatever happens later. While there have been improvements in many school districts. particularly in the lower grades. we must do an even better Job in those K-8 years than we have in the past. (p. 16) Shortly after W appeared. the Task Force on Education for Economic Growth. sponsored by the Education Commission of the States. issued its report. W. The tone and content of this report were similar to that of W. and it also offered several prescriptions for regaining the United States' preeminent position in global industrial competition. However. it. too. focused on the need for the United States to regain its position of dominance over world industrial markets and ignored the need for world understanding. Another report. WWW .. . ,_ .. . ... . .. ...... z. . ... .,... . , ...: .. .1... . ... 9.... ... . .. .. , . . .... W5. was issued in September 1983 by the Commission on Precollege Education in Mathematics. Science. and Tech- nology. This Commission appointed by the National Science Board of the National Science Foundation warned that the nation was failing to 55 provide students with the intellectual tools needed for the twenty- first century and urged a return to basics. but the basics of the twenty-first century. "the thinking tools that allow us to understand the technological world around us" (p. 5). The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching studied conditions in selected schools throughout the nation. and Ernest Boyer. president of the Foundation. issued a report entitled High W. In his report: Boyer (1982) warned that high school courses must be connected to reveal how they relate to our independent. interconnected. complex world. Stressing the need for high schools to educate students about their world. he stated: Since Sputnik orbited into space. it has becomeidramatically apparent that we are all custodians of a single planet. When drought ravages the Sahara. when war in Indochina creates hundreds of thousands of refugees. neither our compassion nor our analytic intelligence can be bounded by a dotted line on a political map. We are beginning to understand that hunger and human rights affect alliances as decisively as weapons and treaties. These global changes must be understood by every student. Today's high school curriculum barely reflects the global view. The world has shrunk. yet American young people remain shockingly ignorant about our own heritage and about the heritage of other nations. Students cannot identify world leaders or the capitals of other countries at a time when all nations are interlocked. (p. 21) Apparently aware of the 1978 recommendations of the President's Commission on Foreign Language and International Studies. Boyer also proposed the requirement of two years of a second language for all students in high school. which would build on an earlier study of a second language in elementary school. 56 In the maze of reports and studies calling for the reform of American education. it is possible to find many conflicting and contradictory prescriptions for schobl improvement. The pol icy crisis confronting the schools is virtually without precedent. and there is a great deal of pressure for reform from the media. political candidates. parents. teachers. and the American public in general. However. a great deal of confusion exists over what policies are essential and over the best means for their accomplishment. In spite of administra- tion rhetoric about disestablishing the Department of Education to return money and authority to the states. it would appear that the public outcry to improve the quality of education may bring about a substantial effort to improve American schools. and this effort will emerge as a national priority. The majority of the recent reports assessing educational progress and quality connected the inability of American industry to compete successfully with other nations to educational weaknesses and characterized the decline of economic leadership as a national crisis. Just as our society was shaken by the competition implied by the Russian technology that produced Sputnik in the 19505. there is the possibility that education may benefit from the "threat" of being left behind in the high-tech industrial production race in the global arena. If indeed we are once again on the threshold of a Sputnik-like phenomenon that will produce a "renaissance" in American education. how will this affect the difficulties and obstacles facing the implementa- tion of global education into the curriculum? Most educators agree 57 that change is difficult for most individuals and particularly for institutions. Becker (1969) said that schools do not respond well to change. especially changes that may involve political issues. He said that the response of schools to change is a difficult organizational enterprise because the school is such a complex organization and changes are made in small. disjointed increments. Other writers such as Goodlad (1984) and Shane (1983) also described the rate of change in education as sluggish. with relevant basic changes being made at a glacial rate. Toffler (1970) described the traditional role of educational institutions as maintainers of a predictable society but pointed out that contemporary education must prepare students for a nonpredictable future. For this reason. schools are being called on to address new concerns and to take on added responsibilities to meet the needs of our rapidly changing world. Although the majority of the reports that were cited failed to mention the need for a commitment to and implementation of a global perspective in the school curriculum. there is real concern from both educators and government authorities that students at all levels are lacking international knowledge and awareness. As former Secretary of Education Bell (1984) told a global education conference. the United States' population remains one of “the most undereducated in global matters of any nation in the world" (quoted in Parker. 1984. p. 92). Based on the events of the past and predictions for the future. it would appear that. as a nation. we may be "at risk" because of our 58 continuing failure to emphasize a world view of interdependence in the curriculum. Winds—WWW .DeI1n1tions_o£_Globa1_Education As was pointed out at the beginning of this chapter. a wide variety of terminology has been used when attempting to describe the process of educating students for responsible participation in an interdependent global society. The term ”global education" is not easily defined since it is a broad term with a wide range of meanings and definitions that have been developed and redefined by the many writers involved with this aspect of education. As one reviews the definitions of global education. it is clear that. in most cases. the term "global education" is not easily distin- guished from such related terms as "global studies." "global issues." "global awareness." "world studies." "world affai rs." "worl d-centered education." "worldmindedness education." ”world citizenship education." and "i nternational education." Not only is there difficulty with the terminology used in the field. but when one attempts to define global education. it becomes apparent that although a great many writers have written on the subject. no single definition exists. A review of the literature dealing with global education and the related problem of defining it provides a wide range of terms and definitions. As Collins (1977) pointed out in his report to the Council of Chief State School Officers: 59 Attempts to describe the international dimension of American edu- cation. K-12. immediately are confronted with the problem of termi- nology. Over the years four terms have been used--often inter- changeably--to describe the field. i.e. "worl d." "cross-cultural." "international." and "global." All have legitimacy: all have advo- cates. In addition. recent.years have seen two new terms coming into fairly frequent use. i.e.. "global perspectives" and/or "glo- bal interdependence." (p. 1) King (1970) also expressed the opinion that the use of the term "international" was confusing. He felt that it reinforced the notion that the world is splintered into separate pieces of real estate and that the term "encompasses so much that it virtually means nothing at all" (p. 16). Because of the lack of precision regarding just exactly what term to use when describing it. "global education" has often been faced with the difficult problem that very few people have even the slightest idea what global education means. let alone what it is supposed to accomplish. Anderson (1968) addressed the problem of interpretation: International education. like the Constitution. is what the Judges say it is. In this case. the Judges are American educators and social scientists. Joined by countless school boards. parents and others who direct and shape the work of the schools. (p. 639) Barrows. Klein. and Clark (1981) also addressed the difficulty in dealing with a cl ear understanding of the term when the committee was constructing the global understanding test for the Council on Learning's Education and World View project. They stated: The notion of globa1_nndenstand1ng... . is a relatively modern one. Moreover it is not well understood; little has been done to define the concept. . . . One of the more difficult tasks the project staff grappled with in designing the survey instruments was to decide on an approach to take in constructing the knowledge test. Without a clear definition of global understanding. how does one decide what specific knowledge it consists of? Does global knowledge mean an understanding of the kind of content taught in 60 traditional college courses in international relations and area studies? Or does it mean a grasp of global issues. such as human rights or world government. that transcends particular nations and regions? (p. 7) Collins (1977) proposed the use of two terms. "globa1 educa- tion." which he preferred to describe the field in its broadest. most universal sense. and "global studies." which was used to describe those activities and programs normally associated with formal study in the schools. He pointed out that neither term implied a separation between domestic and foreign study. It should be noted that only one term. "international educa- tion."1appears to have lost its accuracy and utility. Although it was one of the most commonly used terms during the early initiatives toward education for international understanding. the trend toward greater realism as evidenced by a clearer perception of the reality of global interdependence has caused the term "international education” to lose its usefulness. Becker and Mehlinger (1968) felt that the use of this term to describe the relationships taking place in our world today was no longer appropriate. and its use tended to be confusing. They felt that the term exemplified the "conceptual lag" in global education between the traditional approach--that is. foreign affairs. world cultures. geographical area studies--and a more innovative approach to the study of our world community and its interrelationships. At one time when interactions of people were primarily at the international level. the term "international" was a meaningful concept. but new kinds of relationships have developed between groups and nations that require a 61 drastic change in our thinking about what is international. The authors argued for either a new word to describe the transactions between nations and cultures or a change in the meaning of the word "international" to accommodate a changing reality. The problem of using the term "international" was also addressed by Becker and Anderson (1969). Writing in their report. they stated: "International education" is a term of many usages and hence of multiple meanings. We sometimes use the phrase in referring to cross-cultural or comparative studies of educational systems and practices . . . educational assistance programs to developing nations. as well as in discussions of the educational activities of such agencies as UNESCO. We also think of the international exchange of students and teachers in international education. Obviously none of these usages point to what is meant by inter- national education in the context of elementary and secondary schools.. . . The lack of adequate conceptions of what interna- tional education is would be of only academic significance were the curriculum in our schools based upon operating. albeit unarticu- lated. images of international education congruent with the educa- tional needs of the time. . . . One suspects that this is not the case. (p. 11) Collins (1977) stated that the term "international education" rather than ”global education" has been more widely used in the past. partly to alleviate the potentially threatening effects of the newer term ”globa1 education" when dealing with the more conservative elements of the public. However. it would appear that. although this fear may have been well-founded with regard to some sections of our country. it no longer is a valid concern. Because of the widespread use of the term "globa1 education" by the media. government officials. and leaders in the education field. Collins felt that the term has gained general acceptance. 62 The debate over using the term "globa1 education” and the older.Inore widely used term "international education" has not been confined to the United States. While global education in the United States has lacked a precise terminology and definition. attempts by advocates in other countries to identify and define the term have not been successful either. Once again. one is struck by the wide range of terms employed to describe "global education)‘ The British use the term "world studies." and the Canadians prefer “development studies." while UNESCO has continued to recommend the use of the term "interna- tional education." Collins (1977) also referred to the use of "global perspec- tives" and/or "global interdependence" as terms that can cause compli- cations. The two terms are generally. but not exclusively. used by educators to refer to developing in students a particular attitude or mind-set. whereas terms such as "worl d." ”international." and ”global" tend to be associated with formal coursework or other structured learn- ing experiences. However. educators using the former two terms advo- cate crossing traditional scholarly disciplines and formal course structures. thus infusing the entire curriculum with a global dimension or perspective. It was Collins's view that all of the many terms used to describe "gl obal education" seem to suffer from a common problem. that being that each means virtually whatever anyone chooses. In the course of this paper. the term "global education" is used to refer to a broader interaction than is implied by the term "international." 63 If it is possible to sort through the various terms. the ques- tion arises: What is global education? In this area. no standard answer exists. and many writers have attempted to define globa1 educa- tion. The Michigan Department of Education (1978) used the term "glo- bal education" in its Gu1de11nes_£on_filghal_£ducatlgn and defined it as follows: Global education is the lifelong growth in understanding. through study and participation. of the world community and the inter- dependency of its people and systems--social. cultural. racial. economic. linguistic. technological. and ecological. Global edu- cation requires an understanding of the values and priorities of the many cultures of the world as well as the acquisition of basic concepts and principles related to the world community. Global education leads to implementation and application of the global perspective in striving for just and peaceful solutions to world problems. (p. 3) Cervantes (1979) saw this definition as all-encompassing. but at the same time he felt that it was formidable and. while receiving nods of approval. would not lead to actual involvement. He offered an alternative definition: Global education is the multi-disciplinary study of the interde- pendence of world communities. their peoples and systems. for the purpose of understanding and resolving world and national economic. political. technological. ecological. sociocultural and ethnolin- guistic issues. (p. 21) Anderson and Anderson (1977) defined global education or "world-centered education" as "education for responsible participation in an interdependent global society" (p. 44). Anderson (1968) viewed global education as based on three principles: that students should be educated about the world in ways that illustrate it as a world system. that they as individuals are 64 participants in this system. and that as participants they should be taught in ways that promote the development of competencies necessary to participate effectively and responsibly in the world system. Hickman and Price (1980) argued that global awareness could not be taught. In their opinion. the elements could be taught but it would be up to the individual to develop a global perspective. They stated. "We would be foolish to assume we could teach a global problem. or global awareness. or global perspective without references to at least a representative number of its parts or pieces" (p. 209). Swift (1980) saw global education as an attitude toward daily living. not a new course. a new program. or a new content. He offered this definition: Global education calls for a curriculum that will involve students in cultural. scientific. ecological and economic issues that affect everyone. It promotes an understanding of the values and priori- ties of the many cultures of the world. as well as the basic concepts and principles related to world communities. It can offer a vital combination of language. literature. and the arts of many cultures. It includes all the traditional values of "Eth ish." that literature and language are a reflection of people. their values and needs. their enemies and heroes. and that language itself is the living instrument of communication. Global education aims to increase student awareness of cultural. political. and economic interdependence in the world of the past. present. and future. (p. 46) Peters (1981) quoted a position statement on global education that was adopted by the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSSL Global education was defined as: the efforts to cultivate in young people a perspective of the world which emphasizes the interconnections among cultures. species. and the planet. The purpose of global education [as NCSS sees it] is to develop in youth the knowledge. skills and attitudes needed to 65 live effectively in a world possessing limited natural resources and characterized by ethnic diversity. cultural pluralism. and increasing interdependence. (p. 12) King (1970) defined globa1 education as "the social experience and the learning process through which individuals acquire and change their images of the world perceived as a totality and their orientation toward particular components of the world system" (p. 15). He described the implications for the schools: In education this means that schools must help children to develop international understanding but not in the traditional meaning of the word. a sort of strange lands and friendly people approach. Instead the implication is that students must be led toward an understanding of the world as a single uan Schools will then be transmitting to the next generation a rich image of the total earth. (p. 71) Kenworthy (1967). although not using the term "globa1 educa- tion." indicated what many educators believe international understand- ing to be--primarily a point of view rather than a subject. He felt that this understanding must be inculcated in young children while they are forming attitudes and points of view that will have an influence in their adult years. Marker (1977) described globa1 education as a way of thinking about the world. which is characterized by the notion of "Spaceship Earflnfi He stated. "We are all in this thing together. and the fate of some of us is quickly becoming the fate of all of us" (p. 13). Other writers have attempted to arrive at.a definition of "global education." However. it should be noted that many of the writers tended to use either "international education" or "global educationfl'depending on whatever term was in vogue at the time the 66 definition was formulated. In some cases. an individual's conception of global education depended in large measure on one's perspective of the world and the world conditions at the time. Becker (1969). in contrast to previous definitions that had stressed education about other nations. and in an attempt to emphasize the global nature of present world reality and the revolutionary changes that were taking place in the direction of interdependence. formulated the following definition in the Becker/Anderson report: International education consists of these social experiences and learning processes through which individuals acquire and change their orientations to international or world society and their conception of themselves as members of that society.. . . For the purpose of understanding human behavior. it has become useful to think of the human species as having reached a point on the scales of interdependence. common values. and shared problems where we can analytically view the planet's population as members of a single. albeit loosely integrated. society. It is fruitful to think of individuals as having orientations to international society and conceptions of themselves as members of that society. (pp. 30-31) Case (1979) differentiated between international and global education. He saw international education as a study of all that global education encompasses for the purpose of understanding the problems. Global education requires the development of a sense of world community and an interdependent perspective to the study. Griffin and Spence (1970) used the term "international educa- tion" in a broad sense to describe a curriculum that deals with other countries and societies. international relations among countries. exchange of students between countries. assistance to other countries for diplomatic and other international work. cultural-relations programs between nations. and international cooperation. 67 Senator William Fulbright (1975) attempted to capture the essence of international education when he wrote: The purpose of international education transcends the conventional aims of foreign policy. This purpose is nothing less than an effort to expand the scope of human. moral and intellectual capacity to the extent necessary to close the fateful gap between human needs and human capacity in the nuclear age. We must try. therefore. through education. to realize something new in the world. an aim that will inspire us and challenge us to use our talents and material wealth in a new way. by persuasion rather than force. cooperatively rather than competitively. not for the purpose of gaining dominance for a nation or ideology but for the purpose of allowing every society to develop its own concepts of public decency and individual fulfillment. Far. therefore. from being a means of gaining national advantage in the traditional game of power politics. international education should try to change the nature of the game. to civilize and humanize it in this nuclear age. (p. 43) Becker and Anderson (1980) defined global education as follows: Global education is an effort to create educational systems in which children. youth. and adults come to do two things. On one hand. students learn to perceive and understand the world as a single and complete global system; on the other. students learn to see themselves as participants in the world system and to under- stand the benefits and the costs. the rights and the responsibili- ties. inherent in such participation. (p. 83) Anderson (1979) has perhaps done one of the more thorough studies of the meaning and significance of global education. He defined global education as "efforts to bring about changes in the content. in the methods. and in the social context of education in order to better prepare students for citizenship in a global age" (p. 15). Anderson's definition implies that students who are currently enrolled in the nation's schools are becoming citizens within the context of a global era in human history: that citizens in a global age must develop competencies that have not been traditionally emphasized by 68 schools: and that certain changes must take place in the educational process if schools are to become more effective agents of citizen education in a global age. From the preceding discussion. it is apparent that no single view or definition of global education exists yet today. However. this is due. in part. to the complex nature of the interdisciplinary field. As Leestma (1978) pointed out: Given the intrinsic complexities of the main areas of concern and the relationships between and among them. no single summary of global education will please all. Differing schools of thought would make different elements or combinations than the central organizing theme. Regardless of the particular formula or design. all of the following themes or clusters that make up the mosaic of global education need to be attended to in some>fashion in every school in an effort to come to grips with the present and the foreseeable future. (p. 6) By using the more recent terminology for global education. educators appear to be attempting to cut across traditional disciplin- ary and professional interests embedded in some of the early terminol- ogy. Both citizens' associations. such as the United Nations Associa- tion. and traditional international-studies groups have articulated globa1 education goals and have issued publications and study documents dealing with interdependence and global issues. However. as with other disciplinary fields. it would appear that it will take some time to establish coherent theories. conceptual frameworks. and a body of systemic research. 69 WW When one considers the identification and development of goals and objectives for global education. the task is almost as difficult as attempting to arrive at a single definition of global education. Statements of possible goals can be found throughout the literature. and several writers have addressed the need to identify realistic and attainable goals for global education. It would appear that those who have recognized the need to implement a global education program must follow the process that usually guides educators planning a curriculum. In this process. it is important to identify goals and objectives early and then review them as the curriculum evolves. Remy et a1. (1975) suggested that program planners list goals and objectives in international education and also give consideration to goals others have developed. In going through such an exercise. it would be possible to note preferences and priori- ties. as well as to check the extent to which existing programs are geared to those preferences. When consideration is given to the development of goals. Collins (1977) spoke to the need for goals to promote affective learn- ings as well as cognitive learnings. He pointed out: Discussions of global education exclusively center on topics. issues. concerns or problems. That is. content in the cognitive domain. Yet we know if global education is to be effective. the affective domain is absolutely cruciaL. Setting aside a few individuals and an occasional publication that do mention the affective elements of global studies. the vast bulk of what anyone hears or reads in this field is devoted almost exclusively to a consideration of what content is more relevant and needs to be "coveredJ' This approach fails to place sufficient importance on values. motives and feelings associated with how people view the 70 global arena. It is the affective domain that motivates our actions and. therefore. must be given equal emphasis with the "content" of global studies. (p. 8) Morris (1979) stressed the need for global education at the elementary level to draw as heavily on a curriculum of affect as on a curriculum of cognition. Weinstein and Fantini (1970) also saw efforts to disregard or otherwise divorce the affective from the cognitive as both futile and potentially damaging to the individual child and to all of hunan society: The pervasive emphasis on cognition and its separation from affect poses a threat to our society in that our educational institutions may produce cold. detached individuals. uncommitted to humanitarian goals. Certainly. a modern society cannot function without ever increasing orders of cognitive knowledge. Yet knowledge per se does not necessarily lead to desirable behavior. Knowledge can generate feeling. but it is feeling that generates action. For example. we may know all about injustice to minorities in our society. but until we feel strongly about it we will take little action. A link to the affective. or emotional. world of the learner is therefore necessary. Unless knowledge is related to an affective state in the learner. the likelihood that it will influence behavior is limited. (pp. 27-28) King. Branson. and Condon (1976) saw global education goals as a set of competencies that would enable individuals to participate in the world system more responsibly. They identified four types of competencies: 1. Awareness of involvement in the world system. This involves helping individuals see how they are linked biologically. ecologically. socioculturally. historically. and psychologi- cally to the world as a whole. 2. Decision making. The participation of today's young people in the world system will be more effective and responsible if they are competent in (a) understanding their own sel f-interest as well as the interests of others: (b) identifying possible alternative choices; and (c) calculating and evaluating the consequences of different choices. 3. 71 Judgment making. This competency encompasses the ability to make accurate and informed Judgments about peoples. institu- tions and social processes relative to the world system. The exercise of influence. This competency entails recognizing the fact that any effort one makes toieffect change or make his/her opinions felt makes that person a more able and effec- tive world citizen. (pp. 10-12) Becker (1974) suggested that one of the goals of global educa- tion is to provide a knowledge base that would encompass isolation and integration. diversity and unity. aggression and cooperation. Instead of emphasizing the differences among people. educational materials need to emphasize the many commonalities among human beings. The similari- ties should not be ignored. nor should the differences be overlooked. As he pointed out: Students must be helped to form accurate perceptions of problems that transcend national boundaries. More importantly. they must be given a whole new map of the world--one that shows shared ethnic and cultural nationalism and cultural interests. ecological perspectives overlapping social and economic concerns. as well as geopolitical configurations. (p. 679) In its W120. the Michigan Department of Education (1978) listed several goals for global education in a school system. Such education should help students 1. Acquire a basic knowledge of various aspects of the world: geographic. cultural. racial. linguistic. economic. political. historical. artistic. scientific. and religious. Develop a personal value and behavior system based on a global perspective. . . . Understand problems and potential problems that have global implications. Explore solutions for global problems. Develop a practical way of life based on global perspectives. 6. 7. 72 Plan for alternative futures. Participate responsibly in an interdependent world. (pp. 6-7) Anderson and Anderson (1977) listed the following goals as ones that should permeate all global education programs: helpful 1. Competence in perceiving one's involvement in global society. Competence in making decisions. Competence in making judgments. Campetence in exercising influence. (pp. 34-37) According to Smart (1971). eight kinds of orientations are in developing an international education program: Introducing new ideas. Developing a synthesis of value systems related to an emerging world culture. Tracing national development. Studying and promoting national political power. Fostering mutual understanding and cooperation. Preparing students for life in a global context. Developing a creative attitude toward diversity. Furthering discovery of truth. (pp. 442-64) Kenworthy (1967) warned that a global education program must foster the discovery of concepts. generalizations. or “Big Ideas)‘ Since the field of knowledge about the world is so vast. the process of selection and clarity on the basis of selection of content must be approached carefully. Curriculum planners and teachers can be over- whelmed if they are not aware of this problem. 73 Morehouse (1978) discussed the need for students to be better informed on global matters than their parents. He wrote: The education of the nation's adolescents must be superior to that of their parents. Part of this superiority must be an enhanced sense of the globe as the human environment. and instruction to this end must reflect not only the ancient characteristics of the world. but emerging knowledge of biological and social unity. (p. 17) The group that drafted the Joint Recommendations to the Presi- dent's Commission for the National Council for the Social Studies and the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages.(l979) identi- fied "global literacy" as: 1. The awareness of global conditions and global problems; An understanding of the planet and the international social order: A respect for the concepts of multiethnic. polycultural. and multilingual education in pluralistic societies at home and abroad; and Communication and career competencies. At least three different views have existed about how interna- tional or global studies should be organized. One view holds that the main goal of such a program should be to help students become intelli- gent. loyal supporters of the national interest. Another view that is advocated by other supporters of international or global education holds that intercultural understanding should be the central focus of international education. The third view. which would appear to be the position held by the greater majority of writers in recent years. argues that although foreign policy issues and language and area studies are important. a global or world view-~that is. seeing oneself 74 and human beings generally as members of a single species on a small planetr-is the approach that is most needed in today's complex world. Beginning with the assumption that a world-centered program should provide experiences and settings that enable students to develop identities and competencies for participation in the complex world of today. Anderson and Anderson (1979) described five major goals of world-centered schools: 1. To develop students' understanding of themselves as indi- viduals. 2. To develop students' understanding of themselves as members of the human species. 3. To develop students' understanding of themselves as inhabitants and dependents of planet Earth. 4. To develop students' understanding of themselves as partici- pants in global society. 5. To develop within students the’competencies required to live intelligently and responsibly as individuals. human beings. earthlings. and members of global society. (p. 41) Because the idea of global perspectives in education is still relatively new. lists of program and learning objectives continue to be formulated and redefined. Becker (1979) suggested the following objectives for "world-centered schools": 1. To provide learning experiences that give students the ability to view the world as a planetwide society. 2. To teach skills and attitudes that will enable people to learn. in and out of school. throughout their lives. 3. To avoid ethnocentrism. or drawing sharp divisions between the United States and the rest of the world. 75 4. To integrate world studies with other disciplines and subject fields. 5. To teach the interrelationships of human beings rather than simply identifying uniqueness or differences. 6. To explore alternatives for the future. 7. To recognize. in providing experiences to students. the likelihood of continuing change. conflict. and ambiguity and of increasing interdependence. W Although there has been an increasing awareness toi"globalize“ the curricula. but because concern for global education is still an emerging and not a firmly established goal for many educational systems. attention should be given to the many issues to be considered when attempting to add a stronger global component to'theicurriculum. The issues are numerous and complex. and somerwould appear to be without easy solution. However. this does not mean that they can or should be ignored since they are closely intertwined with many of the difficulties educators face when addressing the global education question. It is important to clarify issues. consider alternatives. study change. and establish priorities if we are going to educate citizens to understand the reality of our global community. One of the issues of most concern to the educator is the problem of how to organize the curriculum. It is a problem because. as Klein and Tye (1979) pointed out. we do not know much about organizing curricula for global education. How should global education be 76 treated? Is global education the sole province of the social studies. or is it a part of the entire school curriculum? Is global education an add-on course. should it be infused or integrated into the curricu- lum. and how should the curriculum be organized? Should the problem approach be followed. or should the program be organized around broad concepts and skills? Where and how does this ”new need" fit into an already crowded curriculum? The literature reviewed for this study revealed a wide range of answers to these questions. Collins (1977) discussed the reality that global studies continue to be seen by most educators as solely the concern of the social studies. particularly the area studies. world history. and world geography. He stated: In spite of recent attempts by those advocating global studies to broaden the areas of concern to include language arts. elements of science and mathematics. the humanities. modern foreign language instruction as well as other subjects. the fact remains that with rare exceptions the persons who administer schools or work in state education departments automatically associate globa1 studies with what is happening in the social studies. (p. 13) Tucker (1979) warned that any decision to incorporate a global perspective into the social studies curriculum will lead to the issue of which particular perspective should be adopted since there is more than one. Choices will be made. Conceivably. social studies in the United States (qua globa1 education and social reconstruction) could follow one of at least two directions. One direction is consistent with the worldwide revolution of rising human expectations and supports the fundamental tenets of improved physical. psychologi- cal. and moral life for all of Earth's peoples and nations. Another direction. based upon the assumptions of finite resources. could conceivably take a hard line toward the poor nations and the poor within the industrialized nations. The pressure for social 77 studies to choose the latter may well become even more compelling as events in the world run counter to national interests as per- ceived by the majority of citizens. (pp. 99-100) Torney and Morris (1972) distussed the need for extensive changes in the curriculum as well as in the process of teaching for an international perspective. In contrast with its major competitor (a view of the world as a static collection of nation-states). this new perspective demands that even on an unconscious and nonverbalized level we shift our image of the world. from that of a map of neatly colored and demarked countries to a picture of the earth as the totality which the astronauts saw from outer space. From this vantage point. we are able to see the world as a system whose parts are dynamically interrelated by their very nature. demanding that we focus on process rather than structure. If the earth is not a static set of structures but rather a constantly interrelated dynamic system. the function of international education must go beyond the rote acqui- sition of the facts of political geography. (p. 7) The Task Force on Global Education of the U.S. Commissioner of Education (1979). while not stressing any single global or interna- tional course. believed that developing global perspectives requires intellectual contributions from the various disciplineSP-the natural sciences. the humanities. and the social sciences--and the Task Force concluded that it must also draw upon a fresh analysis of systems and other concepts. Education for global perspectives must depend on the study of foreign languages. other nations. and other cultures. geographic regions. the U.S. pluralistic society and ethnic awareness. and such transnational concerns as the environment and energy resources. It is likely to be interdisciplinary and cross- disciplinary. (p. 4) While taking the position that local. state. and regional educational bodies are capable of making decisions relative to what is 78 taught and how it is taught. the Task Force did list what it felt were the necessary component parts: increased language learning; - foreign area studies; - learning about the concepts of culture and how cultural percep- tions affect lives and choices: - knowledge about all forms of communication and ways in which psychological or cultural perceptions can influence communi- cation: - experience with a wide variety of interdependent relationships. such as those at home. in school. and in the community. nation. and world. thus leading to more familiarity with the potential benefits and costs of different forms of interdependence; - examination of critical global problems--ecologica1. scientific and socioeconomic--to understand the U.S. stake in interdependent relationships; and - learning how to project and weigh the broad future consequences of decisions made in the present. (p. 5) The Center for Global Perspectives in Education (formerly the Center for War/Peace Studies) worked with schools "on the problems that face us." The Global Perspectives in Education (GPE) program advocated that curriculum planners take the existing curriculum and add a global dimension to it. Focusing on four concepts--conflict. change. inter- dependence. and communication--the Center designed lessons in most subject areas to help students understand the forces behind the global- ization of the human condition. The key concern of the Center is to develop a conceptual framework for global studies that includes clearly articulated goals. grade—level competencies. and model lessons that can be "pl ugged in" to ongoing programs and present courses. 79 Redfield (1977) discussed the wise use of concepts: Concepts are like friends; you have to work with them for someitime before you have them at their best; and. like friends. concepts are best when you do not try to have too many. (Quoted in Collins. 1977. p. 21) Alger (1968) wrote in favor of organizing curriculum around problems and avoiding the usual approach of teaching institutions such as a community government. a national government. or the United Nations. By using this problem-solving approach. students would be aware of the institutions' inability to provide solutions as well as learning that problems may exist where there is no institution. Using this approach would enable students to recognize solutions that go beyond present institutional capacity. While the movement for adding a stronger global component to the curriculum has gained momentum. there has also been resistance. For example. Mecklenburger (1979) discussed the priority for global education and cited a survey by the National School Boards Association. which concluded that "there is general approval of and some interest in global education. but that. in most districts. other priorities are seen as far more pressing'} (p. l). The "Back to Basics” slogan continues to influence most discus- sions of American education. A global perspective in education. how- ever. should not be viewed as a rival to. or substitution for. the basics. Cleveland (1980) stressed the need for international compe- tence to be included in the list of basics: Schoolchildren should learn to read. write. count and cooperate-- and so should college students and graduate students if. as too often happens. they missed these skills earlier on. But the basics 80 can be learned in ways that encourage narrower or wider under- standing of the world about us. It is basic that students should learn to read and write what is relevant. to count what counts. and not grow up thinking that what cannot be counted does not count. Students need to learn not only the techniques but the purposes of cooperation. Reading. writing. and arithmetic. science. humani— ties. and social studies are all basics. but the content of the basicsihas to shift with the times. What is basic in our time is the need for international competence. Not "Back to Basics" but "Forward to Basics" should be printed on the placards of the next generation's reformers. (p. 41) The editors of Basic_£dugat19n (1979) argued that global educationists want not only to make an impact: they want to reform the entire system.... . Although proponents will probably argue that it would enhance basic education. we suspect it would enfeeble the disciplines of basic education. (p. 3) There is a danger in such a trend. Bullard (1980) noted the need to retard the growth of egocentric isolationism and national insularity in America's young by teaching the relevance of global concerns. She pointed out: As the schools focus their curricula more narrowly and as our nation turns more to its own resources and. concomitantly. to a more isolationist stance. we run the risk of becoming egocentric and insular in a palpably shrinking world. (p. 94) Commager (1975) also addressed the problems schools have encountered when attempting to bring about changes in society in regard to world affairs. He wrote: After 40 years of exposure to world cultures. world politics. world geography. we have turned restless and. on the world scene.lnore chauvinistic and militaristic than at any previous time in our history. (p. 56) Bailey (1975) warned that the growing emphasis on the basic elements of our educational system should not override the need for continued efforts to make global education a vital part of the educa- tional process. He noted: 81 American schools . . . are caught up in curricular and degree requirements that do not reflect the urgencies of modern inter- national coping. Furthermore. a heightened vocationalism in a mass educational market may well be exacerbating the parochialism of the American educational system. Unless something is done toicompensate for these educational anachronisms. the United States will lack the expert human resources needed to steer American public and private enterprises through the dangerous and uncharted international waters that lie ahead. Eoually serious is that this nation will lack the wide- spread popular understanding needed for the political acceptance of difficult trade-offs urged by informed leadership or emerging as the necessary logic of our living in a perpetual state of inter- national interdependency. (p. 4) ' Concerned about the focus on basic technical skill competence in schools. more than 20 professional associations drew up and endorsed collectively a statement entitled QLgan1zat19ns_£gn_the_fissentjals_gf mm in late 1979. The major purpose of this statement was to resist easy formulas or pressures for back-to—the—basics. minimal- competency testing. and simplistic emphasis on survival skills. Arguing that society must reaffirm the value of a balanced education resting on the interdependence of skills and subJect-matter content of all the essential studies in the school curriculum. they stated: Educators agree that the overarching goal of education is to develop informed. thinking citizens capable of participating in both domestic and world affairs. The development of such citizens depends not only upon education for citizenship. but also upon other essentials of education shared by all subjects. . . . As they [students] learn about their world and its heri- tage. they necessarily deepen their skills in language and reason- ing and acquire the basis for emotional. aesthetic. and social growth. They also become aware of the world around them and develop an understanding and appreciation of the interdependence of the many facets of that world. (Quoted in Bullard. 1980. p. 101) 82 As Butts (1980) pointed out. "international crises and events in our national backyard are directly influencing our concept of citizenship and our educational priorities" (p. 6). King (1980) suggested that a potentially long struggle between those favoring a "global" approach and those who advocate other forms of curriculum improvement can be avoided if educators can successfully: a. explain the nature of .intemationaLstudies. globaleummn. and W19: b. indicate where and how each fits into the curriculum; and c. suggest how the competition for scarce curriculum space might be solved. (p. 1) Obviously. educators will need to clarify issues. study the changes taking place on both the national and international levels. consider alternatives. and establish priorities to educate citizens to understand the reality of our global community. .Bfl119n119_£9£_5lthl.EfiflQiIlQn It is apparent that any school system attempting to implement curriculum will be faced by a difficult task. Developing curricula is a difficult task. and establishing a well-thought-out total program for global education requires careful planning. Klein and Tye (1979) suggested that educators set the educational priorities and develop a rationale to guide curriculum development. They stressed the impor- tance of considering all possibilities in relationship to needs-- students. local or community. national. and global. Also. the writers pointed out that it is important to examine what the existing situation is in order to make adjustments and modifications. These authors also 83 pointed out that curriculum planners often overlook theicritical step of the formulation of an explicit statement of a rationale for their decisions and actions. "If curriculum planning is viewed as a forma- tive process. never ending. always open to new information. new needs. and new priorities. then we can see the usefulness of explicit state- ments about why decisions are made or why actions are taken" (p. 210). Joyce and Nicholson (1979) defined a set of imperatives for global education that could serve as a guide for educators attempting to construct a rationale for a school curriculum. They suggested five imperatives that compare a philosophical basis for the generation of new curricula to promote international citizenship and a global society. Although we are unable to see into the future. two charac- teristics are certain: order with progress and cultural pluralism. Along with these two characteristics must be promoted global citizen- ship. political action. and cross-cultural involvement. An individual must view him/herself four dimensionally--an individual. a member of the human race. an inhabitant of the planet Earth. and a citizen of a global society. ‘To achieve this understanding. one must know and understand the extremely complex globa1 scene. Since the need to promote pluralism is inherent in the global education process. it. in turn. will lead to the development of moral empathy with those of different cultures and form an international citizenry. The result of the process. according to these writers. is the belief that one's own efforts can contribute to world improvement. 84 One example of the kind of statement that could serve as a guide to those attempting to develop an explicit statement of rationale is a statement issued by the Task Force on Global Education of the United States Commissioner of Education (1979): The Task Force submits that education for global perspectives (or global education) contributes significantly to fundamental competence in a world context. to educational excellence. and to the nation's vital interests. It helps advance the formation of responsible leadership and an informed citizenry. In our contempo- rary world. global perspectives are essential to good citizenship and quality education. New perspectives on our own lives and our environment are necessary to assist us to identify alternative actions and to extend more control over matters that directly affect our daily lives. Education for global perspectives in one sense is an outgrowth of the basic American philosophy that useful and practical educa- tion should be provided within the framework of U.S. democratic traditions in order to develop intelligent. effective. and respon- sible participation by citizens. Thus. education for global perspectives is an effort to equip all citizens with the variety of skills and the range of knowledge needed to cope with worldwide economic. scientific. political. and intercultural realities and opportunities. Decisions related to each of these factors affect economic growth. individual employment and careers. standard of living. and domestic and international stability. Global perspectives can contribute to the development of mutual respect for the human dignity inherent in all peoples. cultures. and civilizations. at homerand abroad. ‘They also can lead to the survival of a planet on which humans can flourish. In Section 603. Title VI. of the National Defense Education Act of 1958. the Congress recognized the importance of having a citi- zenry well-informed concerning other countries and their actions. The preamble to Section 603 states:... . the well-being of the United States and its citizens is affected by policies adopted and actions taken by. or with respect to. other nations and areas. . . . . . . The United States must afford its citizens adequate access to the information which will enable them to make informed Judgments with respect to the international policies and actions of the United States. . . . A global perspective contemplates those policies and actions that. whether local or global. are worldwide in impact. reaching across and beyond regions and continents. (pp. 3-4) 85 Rationale for a global education curriculum can be found in other books and reports. Reischauer's (1974) book. W215; Gallium. Becker's (1979) W. and Anderson's (1979) WM all can serve as source materials for global curriculum planners. Writing in Education a or. cl 0 [3 ° '1 . I : o :z 001 o c :13 0, Becker (1978) said: Global education seeks to help people. wherever they live and whatever they do for a living. understand how their lives are shaped and affected by world links and ties including how actions they take may affect the lives of others. . . . Interdependence is a reality--bad or good--helpfu1 to some. harmful to others though it be. We need to help our students to develop knowledge. under- standing. and skills needed for responsible participation in an interdependent world. (p. 4) Finally. the rationale for global education is apparent in the media daily. Werare an interdependent world. and students must become aware of that interdependence. W A somewhat different concepts-a global perspective--began to gain currency in the mid-19705. It incorporated both international studies and global educatiOn. but added new elements. The overall learning goal was to develop the ability to cope with global interdependence. This meant developing knowledge. skills. and attitudes that sometimes seemed remote from traditional notions of "global." The idea of a global perspective can also becomeran integral part of many programs that began as international or global education. 86 However. the perspective can emerge only if all the various subject areas make contributions. The idea of building a global perspective into existing courses is quite consistent with other educational improvement efforts. The Council on Basic Education. for example. is opposed to maJor reforms for the sake of "global education.” But. as the editors of W (1979) stated. "No one in his right mind could deny the pathetic and potentially tragic implications of the cultural isolation in which Americans grow up. Most of us come to voting age. middle age. and old age ignorant of many of the simplest facts of international real ity" (p. 3). The solution proposed by the Council is close to that suggested by organizations like Global Perspectives in Education. ”Might not . . . education be further advanced.” the Council asked. "1 f the energy. time. and money . . . were devoted to the preservice and inservice preparation of teachers in language. history and geography. the arts. science and mathematics in ways that would overcome these 'tragic impl ications'?" (W. 1979. p. 3). The Task Force of the U.S. Commissioner of Education on Global Education (1979) stated that: In our contemporary world. global perspectives are essential to good citizenship and quality education. New perspectives on our own lives and our environment are necessary to assist us to identify alternative actions and to extend more control over matters that directly affect our daily lives. (p. 3) Hanvey (1979) saw a global perspective as a variable trait possessed in some form and degree by a population. He attempted to describe the modes of thought. sensitivities. intellectual skills. and 87 explanatory capacities that contribute to the formation of a global perspective. He defined it operationally as consisting partly of modes of thought and skills that provide the individual with (a) perspective consciousness. (b) "state of the planet" awareness. (c) cross-cultural awareness. and (d) awareness of human choices. However. Hanvey did not feel that every individual had to be brought to the same level of intellectual and moral development.for a population to be moving in the direction of a more global perspective. Schmieder and Crum (1977) believed that a global perspective would also help students better understand cultural differences. They argued: A strong international perspective would add much to what we need to know and understand about our own internal cultural character. and our diverse cultural character provides an ideal for improving our knowledge and understanding of the rest of the world. (p. 78) The Task Force on Global Education of the U.S. Commissioner of Education (1979) did not offer a definition of a global perspective but discussed it in their report. Both formal and informal learning expe- riences contribute to the formation of a global perspective. “Global education" is not a single subject. To acquire a global perspective. the formal study of nations. cultures. and peoples is needed. but with a focus on understanding how these are interconnected. how they change. and what the individual's responsibility is in the process. The Task Force stressed that the opportunity must be provided to develop realis- tic perspectives on world issues. problems. and prospects; an awareness of the relationships between enlightened self—interest and theiconcerns 88 of people throughout the world; and the basic knowledge and skills essential for life in a global age. Olson (1981) documented the historical development of global education in Michigan and studied some curricular analyses of that program. He pointed out that the Michigan program to develop a global perspective is in the infusion stage. and. as such. "an ideal relation might have infusion as the central purpose running through the curricu- lum model. After the model is completely implemented. infusion would have occurred" (p. 107). Anderson and Rivlin (1980) held a view of a curriculum that would embody a global perspective that would treat individual nations and regions as parts of a larger whole but a curriculum that would highlight the interconnections between nations and among world regions. According to these writers. a global perspective treats all mankind as the main unit of analysis--not a group--and encourages students to tolerate and appreciate cultural differences. The world is portrayed as an arena in which the individual participates through personal. social. and political action. By dealing with information. such a global perspective emphasizes not the passive memorization of facts but rather the active use of factual information in conceptual. ethical. and policy analysis of global problems. The global-perspective outlook was summed up by Cleveland (1980): We simply must find ways to equip American citizens with the knowledge. skills. and attitudes they will need to function effectively as human beings and policy makers in an increasingly interdependent world. 89 The requirement is clear enough. What seems so strangely unclear is that this citizen competence is not only. or even mostly. a matter of learning about international affairs. It's learning to relate what goes on "abroad" to one's own life and work--and. just as important. vice versa. Ox 2) Education for a global perspective stresses the commonalities rather than the differences of peoples around the globe--all of whom have the same basic needs and face the same complex problems. The basic fact of global education at present is that there is a great diversity of opinion from which it is almost impossible to elicit consensus. This wide diversity of opinion as to definition. goals. and rationale of global education is only part of the problem. Several other difficulties and obstacles need to be examined when attempting to understand and explain the lack of interest in and resistance to global education. WWW Educators. especially those involved in social studies education. have expressed concern that social studies in general and global education in particular are in danger of being forgotten or overlooked in the wake of the commotion surrounding the lack of achievement in the areas of math. science. and reading. Since the preparation of informed. responsible citizens has long been a major goal of education and is critical to a free society. and because social studies is the main discipline with this result as its central aim. alarm has been expressed at the eroding of a thorough social studies curriculum that is taught every day and in every grade. Many years ago. Horace Mann observed: 90 In order that men may be prepared for sel f-government. their apprenticeship must commence in childhood. The great moral attribute of self-government cannot be born and matured in a day: and if school children are not trained to it. we only prepare ourselves for disappointment. (Quoted in Massialas. 1969. p. 2) The National Council for the Social Studies and its state affiliates have taken various steps to promote this critical role of social studies. Parker and Jarolimek (1984) urged social studies educators to "rise to the occasion . . . to become articulate advocates of social studies to students. parents. colleagues. building and central administrators. school boards. and legislators" (p. 1). It would appear that in the primary grades (K-3) the social studies curriculum has been given decreased attention. In a study by Weiss (1978). two-thirds of the K-3 teachers indicated that inadequate time to teach social studies was a significant problem. The primary teachers in that study reported they averaged only 20 minutes per day of social studies instruction compared with 40 minutes for math and 95 minutes for reading. Unfortunately. in someidistricts. science and social studies compete with physical education. art. and music for a daily period: and Stake and Easley (1978) found that in some schools the two subjects were not even taught in the primary grades. Given these circumstances. it is not surprising that global education has not had a place in the primary curriculum. As one examines the social studies in the intermediate grades (4-6). several important differences can be noted between the two levels. Although social studies does not receive the same amount of attention that reading and math do. the disparity is less. Weiss 91 (1978) found that the average for social studies was 34 minutes per day compared with 51 minutes for math and 66 for reading. It is also in these grades that history and geography receive a much stronger empha- sis. and both teachers and administrators appear to view social studies as a stable part of the elementary curriculum. Since most social studies courses in the intermediate grades extend the "expanding envi- ronments" sequence begun in the primary grades to state. nation. and the world. it would appear that global studies could be integrated into the elementary school curriculum quite easily. Students' readiness for global education and the research that has been conducted in this area are discussed later in this chapter. However. more could be done to foster international attitudes in children in these grades since research by Torney (1979) and Carnie (1972) indicated that middle childhood. before the onset of puberty. may be the critical period for developing a global perspective. before predudice and stereotyping create barriers and negative attitudes. A discussion of the secondary social studies curriculum must include some background on the development of the sequence that is followed in many schools today. According to Lengel and Superka (1982) and Hertzberg (1981). much of the social studies curriculum today is based on a pattern of topics and subjects that was established almost 70 years ago. In 1916. the Committee on Social Studies of the Commis- si on on the Reorganization of Secondary Education recommended a pattern of organization that might be characterized as two cycles of 92 "contracting environments." The major Justification of this pattern of organization can be found in the report by Dunn (1916): The course of social studies proposed for the years 7-9 constitutes a cycle to be followed by a similar cycle in the years 10-12. and presumably preceded by another similar cycle in the six elementary grades. This grouping . . . is based chiefly upon the fact that large numbers of children complete their schooling with the sixth grade and another large contingent with the eighth and ninth grades. (p. 12) This pattern is believed to have been fairly common already in 1916. and Hertzberg (1981) pointed out that it soon became the dominant pattern for secondary social studies curriculum organization in the United States. Recent data from the National Science Foundation study by Wiley (1977) indicated that although some changes in this curriculum pattern have occurred in the last 69 years. and despite the many changes in society. the dominant structure of the secondary social studies is quite similar to the 1916 pattern. As Overly (1976) pointed out: To date. the dramatic changes in society since 1900 have had little impact in the curricula of our schools or in our colleges and universities. Despite the rhetoric and the demands for reform. the changelessness of the content of schooling is striking. American children today receive largely the same education their grandpar- ents did. The expanding communities approach to social studies remains the mid-twentieth century orthodoxy while changes within the group experience of our young such as instantaneous telecommu- nications. international films. and extensive travel frequently equip them to move more rapidly and with greater sophistication into the reality of the late twentieth century. (p. 5) Commager (1975) also addressed the shortcomings of the schools in the preparation of informed citizenry for our global society when he concluded: 93 After 40 years of exposure to world cultures. world politics. world geography. we have turned restless and. on the world scene.lnore chauvinistic and militaristic than at any previous time in our history. (p. 56) As the effort to ensure an adequate amount of social studies throughout the 13 grades continues to build. so. too. has the effort to increase its global content since the world has become. in the words of the Carnegie report. a "more crowded. more interconnected. more vol a- tile place"; and citizenship education in the schools today cannot ignore the inescapable fact that there are elements of citizenship behavior in the global sense as well as in the'domestic sense. Remy (1980) expressed the belief that citizenship curriculums must be broad. realistic. and practical. reflecting globa1 interdepend- ence as well as the diversity of American society. He pointed out the interconnectedness of citizenship education and global education: It may involve. for the first time in human history. not only an awareness of physically proximate neighbors but also a capacity on the part of all citizens to perceive and understand local/globa1 linkages. Unfortunately. in large measure citizenship education and "global. international. world-order. foreign affairs" education in the schools have been mutually isolated from one anothen. In the past. this state of affairs may have been both natural and tolerable. Today it is neither. If the expanding scope and scale of global interdependence is eradicating the boundaries that once separated foreign and domestic affairs. the same forces are eroding the boundaries that once separated education about U.S. society from education about the rest of the world. Hence. an important part of the challenge of citizenship education today is to recog- nize that global education and citizenship education are not mutu- ally exclusive but instead uniquely compatible. (p. 67) The absence of global education in American schools was noted by Goodlad (1975) and his researchers when they studied the process of curriculum change in the schools. They reported: 94 Nor did we find much inclusion of global or international content. Over half of all the students in our sample believed that foreign countries and their ideas are dangerous to American government. The emphasis on this nation and the relative lack of understanding of the rest of the globe showed up as well in answers to other questions we asked these students. Our findings are in line with those of another study in which it was found that the United States was the only country (among eight) where there was substantially less interest among fourteen-year-olds in discussion of foreign affairs with friends and parents than in the discussion of national affairs. (p. 212) Anderson and Rivlin (1980) also spoke to the need for citizen- ship education to include the development of a global perspective since each individual exercises citizenship within the context of a global age--a fact that has far-reaching implications for citizenship educa- tion. They discussed the fact that an increasing number of educators have recognized the need for more appropriate educational responses to the increase in global interrelatedness if schools are to become more effective agents of citizen education in a global age. Although there has been an increasing awareness toi"globalize" the curriculum in recent years. many educators have not come to the realization that it will be necessary for them to be open to each other's views and perspectives as they work to define the goals and purposes of global education. thus making the developing or revising of curricula an educational process. According to Goodlad (1975). Many of the teachers in our sample appeared not to have sorted out the curricular and instructional ingredients of a social studies program designed to assure understanding and appreciation of the United States as a nation among nations and its relationship to the social. political. and economic systems of other countries. No doubt. their dilemma.merely reflects ambiguity in the surrounding society regarding our nation's role in a world of growing inter- dependence--the world in which our’young people live and will live as adults. (p. 213) 95 Collins (1979) expressed the belief that one of the major problems impeding the implementation of global education into the curriculum is the fact that there is a need in the schools for students to gain knowledge about subjects that. for the great majority of present-day teachers. were not part of the teacher's college or postgraduate curriculum. He wrote: Most educators attempting to deal with global studies are handi- capped by their lack of formal training. their unfamiliarity with the teaching techniques and materials being advocated and their lack of personal. cross-cultural experience. (p. 11) Tenkin and Edwards (1981) also expressed the opinion that teachers themselves often lack a sophisticated awareness of the outside world. due in part to the fact that many of them passed through college in the late 19605 and early 19705. when Americans had focused their attention on domestic issues rather than on international ones. Because teachers were trained in an atmosphere that paid little atten- tion to international affairs (except for those specializing in lan- guages and social studies). they do not naturally come to see international matters as important; and although teachers can retrain themselves and update their knowledge. they are inclined to reflect the values of their society unless efforts are made to stress the impor- tance of moving beyond those values. These authors stressed that "unless and until a knowledge of the world is given prominence in the curricula of teacher training programs and in state certification requirements. teachers' parochial attitudes may prove one of the largest stumbling blocks to broadening pupils' attitudes” (pp. 36-37). 96 This raises the question. however. of who will teach the teachers? Obviously. a greater level of global awareness among teach- ers is necessary if we. as a nation. are ever going to rise above the current restricted view of the nature of our role in global affairs. One difficulty to overcomeris the apparent lack of motivation on the part of college and university faculties to review and reevaluate the overall curriculum in light of today's changed global circumstances. Bonham (1980) described the attempt to infuse the existing curriculum with international studies. foreign languages. and multicultural non- Western exposures as "educationally the most difficult approach of all" “L 3). Therefore. American colleges and universities constitute a key part of the challenge to prepare individuals to live in a world whose people and institutions are increasingly interdependent. Ideally. those who are designing programs should be able to draw upon a vast body of scholarship dealing with world affairs. All school districts. state education departments. and preservice teacher education programs should have easy access to information clearing- houses and resource centers on global perspectives in education. How- ever. it would appear that the possibility for making such expertise readily available to schools and teachers of all levels is limited. Indeed. the realities of global education are not very encour- aging. As Bailey (1975) noted: American schools . . . are caught up in curricular and degree requirements that do not reflect the urgencies of modern inter- national coping. Furthermore. a heightened vocational ism in a mass educational market may well be exacerbating the parochialism of the American educational system. 97 Unless something is done to compensate for these educational anachronisms. the United States will lack the expert human resources needed to steer American public and private enterprises through the dangerous and uncharted international waters that lie ahead. Equally serious is that this nation will lack the wide- spread popular understanding needed for the political acceptance of difficult trade-offs urged by informed leadership of emerging as the necessary logic of our living in a perpetual state of interna- tional interdependency. (p. 4) While Burn and Perkins (1980) admitted that global education presently is a major responsibility of social studies teachers. they maintained that teaching about other countries must be part of the teaching of all subjects and must deal with attitudes. They wrote: Moreover. both the curriculum and extracurricular programs should work together to strengthen international studies. In all this it is essential and overdue that we abandon traditional attitudes which have tended to categorize the international community into Western. like us. and non-Western. unlike us. strange and exotic. . . . Americans will require a far greater empathetic understanding of the needs and values of these nations. if we are to reach an accommodation on the many issues where our views diverge. and together survive on the planet. Global education in American schools must address and bridge the profound socioeconomic differences in the circumstances and values between the United States and other nations. In this task it must neither paper over the very real differences that exist nor reinforce them through exaggerated attention to the quaint and different aspects of other cultures. (p. 26) Bullard (1980) pointed out that global education is neither the product of an isolated course nor of one or two significant events. She wrote: An international education is the product of a careful. planned. varied. and sustained set of learning experiences. commencing with the day the students enter school and continually building through- out their school 1ife. The total curriculum need not be interna- tional in its intent--indeed that is not even desirable--but each grade level should be permeated by opportunities. both fonmal and informal. to expand the students' views of the worl d--opportuni ti es that are sustained or that build additional ideas and that are cumulative in total learning. (p. 92) 98 Wood (1974) also believed that the idea of interdependence should be included in all courses. She discussed the need for schools to begin stressing the realities of an interdependent world instead of attempting to inculcate in pupils a general outlook in which the United States forms the hub of the world. However. overcoming the narrow interpretation of events requires a major change in the basic reference system commonly found in American schools. She stated: This outlook leads to an interpretation of events and situations in other parts of the world that centers primarily on how those parts of the world influence the position of our own country. Rarely do we ponder how the actions of Americans affect other countries. This narrow outlook tends to overvalue our own culture and inter- ests as it simultaneously undervalues the cultures and interests of other peoples. It is also one of the basic obstacles to world peace. (p. 664) The President's Commission on Foreign Language and Interna- tional Studies recognized the need to rectify America's provinci ally circumscribed education by redesigning the curriculum to make it more responsive to global issues. They wrote: If the 47 million children in our schools are to function effectively in the next century. they must grow up with more knowledge about our interdependent world. keener awareness of other peoples. and greater sensitivity to those peoples'iattitudes and customs. The task starts in kindergarten. and it must be given special emphasis throughout the elementary grades because it is in early childhood that basic attitudes are formed . . . the begin- nings of language comprehension are put into place.4curiosity is at its peak. and the foundations are laid for future learning. (pp. 7ff) As was previously noted. both the curriculum and extracurricu- lar programs should work together to strengthen the international or global knowledge and understanding of students. but globa1 education in the schools is usually a maJor responsibility of the social studies 99 teachers. Unfortunately. this perception tends to limit the variety of activities and opportunities students are offered. However. it appears that change is occurring. albeit slowly. For example. traditionally a science teacher was not concerned or involved with the social and political worl d; but more and more scientists have come to realize that in order to understand the complex issues within science they must understand the interrelationships within other disciplines and the implications these have for their discipline and for their students. As Posvar (1980) pointed out: Teday "hard" disciplines such as physics. chemistry. and mathematr ics interact and function on an international scale: not to be in touch with the world is possibly for them to miss the leading elements of change. In the disciplines of the social sciences. relationships within or among economics. politics. sociology. his- tory. and anthropology are now meaningless unless made relevant to and understood in a transnational or international framework. In the humanities. we remain concerned with an interested in the fundamentals. the sources. the roots of any given culture. but we are inexorably brought to deal as well with the cultural founda- tions of political and economic institutions. (p. 24) It would appear that it is essential to study global phenomena from the standpoint of disciplines. as in international economics. international politics. international communications. international sociology. and history in an international framework. It would be possible to supplement these by the issues studies mentioned in the report of the President's Commission. such as "energy." "hunger.” and "peace studies." If global education is as fundamental and imperative as many in both education and government maintain. it would appear that a concen- trated effort will need to be directed toward both widening the scope 100 and quality of global education. as well as accelerating the pace at which changes in curriculum will take place. For this to happen. several writers have stressed that clear. strong policies must be formulated by those in leadership roles at all levels throughout society. Given the scope and significance of the challenge to which the implementation and expansion of global education is a response. nationwide commitment by all segments of the population must occur. If significant changes are to be made. it would appear that this challenge must be met not only by teachers and administrators. but by curriculum specialists. educational policymakers. teachers' organizations. those connected with teacher education. and publishers or producers of instructional materials. as well as by community. business. and labor leaders. the communications media. and state and federal governments. The objective that schools should provide a global studies focus in their programs is based on certain premises. Moyer (1970) offered these two premises in her book: a. that education for international understanding and cooperation is an imperative and legitimate concern of schools today. and b. that this education must begin with children at an early age. To ensure there will be a significant effect on present social studies programs. both curriculum and instruction will need to undergo change. Curriculum reform may bring about a more pervasive integration of global studies into the existing curriculum of the schools. but it would appear that the key element in the process is the teacher. who plays such a vital role in the implementation of global studies. 101 Research has confirmed what many people involved in education have known for a long time: The teacher is the key to what happens (or does not happen) in social studies. as well as in other subjects. .BQl9_QI_Ih2_I9a§h§£_1n_filnhnl_finu£n119n In 1976. the National Science Foundation's (NSF) Education Directorate commissioned three coordinated studies aimed at identifying the current state of science.lnathematics. and social studies education in the United States. ‘These studies. using three different methodolo- gies. provided a wealth of information about the status of precollege education in natural science. mathematics. and social studies/social science education. One study. Case_S1udies_1n_§gience_fidugatlon. is a collection of field observations of science teaching and learning in American public schools during the school year 1976-77 and was conducted by a team of education researchers at the University of Illinois. The Illinois case studies. as theyiwere known. contained a fairly definitive statement of the importance of the teacher in science education. which included math and social studies. In their descrip- tions of the case studies. Stake and Easley (1978) concluded that: What science education will be for any one child for any one year is most dependent on what the child's teacher believes. knows. and does-~and doesn't believe. doesn't know. and doesn't do. For essentially all of the science learned in school. the teacher is the enabler. the inspiration. and the constraint. (p. 19:22) In their report on three NSF-funded studies related to the status of precollege social studies education. Shaver. Davis. and Helburn (1979) validated the prevalent belief that the teacher is the key to what social studies will be for any student. What a teacher believes 102 about schooling. his/her knowledge of the subject area and of available materials and techniques. and how the teacher decides to combine these for the classroom--out of that process comes the«classroom experience for students. Although other factors exist. it has been shown that the classroom teacher plays the primary structuring role. The three studies confirmed the view that individual teachers have more freedom than either they or others wish to admit in deciding what social studies will be. In their position as arbiters. teachers can effectively veto curricular changes of which they do not approve. Curricular mandates and a change in the focus of proposed curricular changes have implications not only for teacher education but for staff development. Both areas contain problems that are not easily or quickly adjusted or remedied. It is a well-documented fact that teachers tend to teach best those subjects in which they are interested and feel reasonably competent in teaching. It is the classroom teacher who determines the success or failure of a global education program. As Collins (1979) stated: In the final analysis. it is the teacher who determines whether or not the whole system is in a "Go" or "No Go" mode. Furthermore. teachers teach what teachers know! Stated differently. teachers will teach about that which they are interested in and feel reasonably competent in handling. This reality is one reason why many programs. proJects. curriculum revision ideas. and other innovations intended to upgrade the global dimension of education have fallen short of the mark. (p. 1) Burn (1980) voiced concern that global studies often are not given legitimate priority by administrators. This. in turn. has 103 hampered attempts to develop a global perspective among teachers. She noted that: An impressive amount of work has been done on the development of curricula for teaching about other countries in our schools. A major gap is the lack of programs through which teachers can learn about these efforts and collaboratively work with each other and with international studies experts to translate these studies into classroom programs. This requires a recognition of the priority needed for international studies from the authorities who make these determinations. a recognition converted into such practical concerns as our reward system for teachers. released time. funding for teachers to participate in special programs on international- izing curricula. and significantly widened exchange programs with other nations.(p.52) Faculties must be persuaded to concentrate on ther"basics of global interdependence." As Leestma (1979) advised: Every teacher. journalist. and broadcaster. every leader in community. business or governmentr-indeed every student and adult citizen--is a prospective founding father for the future. Among other competencies and sensitivities. each needs to develop: 1. some basic cross-cultural understanding. empathy. and ability to communicate with people from different cultures; 2. a sense of why and how mankind shares a common future-- global issues and dynamics and the calculus of interdependence: 3. a sense of stewardship in use of the earth and acceptance of the ethic of intergenerational responsibility for the well- being or fair chance of those who will come after us. (p. 6) WWW: If teachers are to be able to develop a relevant program of global education. they must have access to adequate resources. As was pointed out previously in this chapter. few teachers have the depth of preparation and background that will permit them to build a comprehen- sive global studies curriculum. It would appear that the most direct resource for teachers is the library. which for most educators is 104 readily accessible. If a teacher is fortunate enough to have access to a major university library. it would be possible to obtain publications related to global problems. Many of the regional. national. and inter- national organizations that focus on global issues at all levels offer resources and services that can be useful to educators. Available materials range from actual student activities and readings to back- ground information that can be used by teachers to enhance their own knowledge or to construct their own units of study. Some of the services offered include resource collections. teacher training workshops. and consulting services to schools and school districts. Ideally. teachers in every state should have access to inservice- education programs for global education. at least at the awareness level. It should be noted that there appear to be more materials available as resources for the teacher than materials designed for direct use with students in the classroom. Unfortunately. it cannot be assumed that all of the materials used in both elementary and secondary schools are designed to develop globa1 perspectives. Although there are increasingly many more curriculum guides that mention international understanding and global perspectives. the task of finding high-quality global education materials is not an easy one. and educators must guard against the belief that they must make do with what is available. As Pellowski (1972) warned: The popular adage "Every little bit helps" simply cannot apply when one is concerned about introducing children to other cultures. If the material is derogatory instead of objective. or vivid but 105 totally inaccurate. chances are it will hinder rather than help. It would be better not to attempt an introduction to another people if it cannot be done with sensitivity and care. (p. 757) In conclusion. it should once again be emphasized that while materials play an important role in the development of global perspec- tives in students. the most significant factor would appear to be the ability of the teacher to develop. adapt. and coordinate the setting. teaching strategies. and materials appropriate to the studentsfl'level of development and ability to benefit from the instruction. Simmonds Unfortunately. it would appear that the self-imposed isolation- ism that has dominated the majority of the nation's schools in the past is still much in evidence. However. several prominent educators have recently becomeimore optimistic that changes are beginning to take place across the United States. Hayden (1984) reported that the Coun- cil of Chief State School Officers indicated that all 50 states are now assessing their resources and needs in the areas of foreign language and international studies. Groennings (1983). one of the organizers of the President's Commission. observed that "beachheads in international education" are being established by organizations and departments of education at the national and regional levels. These widespread efforts focus chiefly on linking pragmatic knowledge of foreign lan- guages with appreciation of the cultural histories that produced them. according to King (1985). He described the work of national and state groups. whether governmental or private. as proceeding primarily along three paths: continued advocacy for foreign studies as described in 106 the Commission's report. production of improved guidelines and mate- rials. and cross-disciplinary c00peration between foreign language and international studies organizations. Expansion and improvement in global education depends on a great many factors: the insight and commitment of those making the changes. the clarity and appropriateness of the objectives and goals that guide efforts in the field. the extent and quality of the research and development work. and the degree to which the needed intellectual and material resources are identified and mobilized to assist schools and scholars in their efforts to improve global education. The program or curriculum in a school often reflects the assumptions. preferences. priorities. and understandings of those who make the decisions. It is important that educators remain open to each other's views and perspectives as they work to define the goals and purposes of global education. Although there are differing opinions about the goals of global education. there is considerable agreement among educators that school curricula should help students develop capacities to lead productive. meaningful lives. Guiding those who make decisions in the global education field are assumptions about the nature of the problems today's students will deal with as adults. the types of experiences most likely to enable them to develop the capacities to cope with these problems. and the most effective and appropriate ways to provide these experiences. 107 WW1 WWW andJideflhfldhood In this section. current social science research about chil- dren's international political learning is reviewed. If global educa- tion is to continue to improve. it would appear necessary for social studies educators to have an understanding of the process by which children learn about the world outside the United States. During the past few years. there have been attempts by some researchers to assess the current levels of global literacy of students at varying ages. as well as research directed toward learning the process by which children acquire their political values. beliefs. attitudes. and knowledge. Although there has been some concern with measuring the ability of students to understand global issues. most studies have been directed toward examining the ability of students to understand national rather than international issues. Much of the research has concentrated mainly on what children know about their nation and domestic politics and has not addressed the question of how. what. when. and where chil- dren learn about international matters or other countries and cultures. Related to the question of the relationship existing between students' attitudes toward other nations and peoples and their corresponding attitudes toward their own communities and nation is the problem of collecting convincing data to verify not only the need to teach globa1 studies but also the method to use. By examining developmental theory and research. educators can be better equipped to design and evaluate globa1 education programs and 108 materials. Theory and research can help to identify those specific areas and levels of concern appropriate for the different grade levels. These different levels or aspects have been identified by various child development experts as follows: 1. Factual: What do children know about other nations and peoples? What information do children possess. and what information do they need to know? 2. Conceptual: Can children understand how the various his- torical. geographical. and economic conditions affect the way people adapt to their environments? 3. Attitudinal: Do children have positive or negative views of particular ethnic or minority groups. and how does information affect these views? 4. Behavioral: How do children of different cultural and/or racial groups interact within classrooms? 5. Emotional or affective: Does a child have a positive self- concept? Does the child value his or her own cultural background? Torney and Morris (1972) reviewed the attitude research on children as well as the descriptive studies of their international attitudes in light of Piaget and his cognitive developmental view and Kohl berg's theories of the development of moral Judgment. Their basic conclusionSTwere: (a) that one effective and infrequently used way to improve programs of internationalized education requires researchers to determine existing attitudes in children as well as the factors impor- tant to maintain or change those attitudes and (b) that the period of 109 middle childhood is especially important in the formation of these attitudes. MW GlobaLEducatlQD The process of developing a global perspective in students requires knowledge of the psychology of socialization and attitude formation. Political scientists began to study political socialization and to measure civic attitudes and knowledge in depth during the 19605. Two types of barriers to world-centered orientations exist--one set having its source within the individual student and the other set of barriers originating outside the individual students in the society or socializing agents. Kelman (1968) cited "the cognitive and affective dominance of the national system in the minds of national populations" (p. 662) as being one of the major barriers to a global society. If educators are going to be committed to the goal of fostering inter- nationalist values and preparing students for a global society. it is important to evaluate the research studies that have been done and recognize the problems associated with the traditional research strate- gies. It may be that. to achieve useful results that have not pre- viously occurred in the types of research already done. different planning and approaches will be required. There have been some problems in the field of political socialization research. the main one being the problem of uncovering the independent variable (i.e. knowing the source of the attitude). Chapter Four of the 1968 Becker/Anderson Report outlined many dependent 110 variables that were found in the survey research studies reviewed. These early studies. which were mainly concerned with dependent variables. are useful but make it somewhat difficult to explain how national or global citizenship roles are shaped and established. Also. there is the problem of distinguishing attitude surveys of children from political socialization studies. Research can identify patterns of citizenship orientations among children and not necessarily explain the processes that produced these orientations. In studying global education. it is important to select the appropriate type of research rather than collecting a large number of attitude surveys that will not necessarily generate theories of world citizenship formation. One other problem associated with political socialization research is the selection of a research site. The rationale for using the classroom as a research site has some validity. but there is some question as to.just how important the classroom is as an agency of political socialization. Kelman (1968) pointed out that it is tempting for the researcher to select research sites that are easily accessible: and in most cases this has meant a great number of studies of students in the classroom. In his opinion. what is needed is a research strat- egy that explores political socialization in a variety of previously "inaccessible sites." If the critical stereotypes and political categories are being learned on the streets or in front of the TV. then the programmatic consequences of studying the curriculum and revising it to produce different citizen orientations will be for naught. What is needed is research which specifies what facets of the political self are learned in which situations. (p. 410) 111 Ideally. what is needed would be that type of research strategy that would explore the aspect of political socialization in a variety of sites other than the classroom. Finally. some thought must be given to the usual practice of using the child as the common unit of analysis rather than extending the investigation to include the family. the peer group. the community. media contacts. or any other influences that may play a role in devel- oping global understanding in an individual. If a global perspective is developed within groups. it is quite possible that the groups should be studied. As Collins (1979) pointed out. there is a great deal of truth in the old adage. "What's caught. not what's taught. is what's important" (p. 4). Tonkin and Edwards (1981) issued a warning about taking the findings of student attitude surveys too seriously without taking into consideration the pluralistic nature of the American educational system. Many countries possess standardized public examinations. or prescribed curricula. or even prescribed textbooks. This country does not. There are good schools and bad schools. knowledgeable teachers and deplorably ignorant teachers. The system's pluralism tends to bring out the extremes: the good teachers are uncon- strained by uncongeni a1 textbooks. the bad teachers are unredeemed by the crutch of a standard curriculum. Then again. so much depends on the way in which surveys are carried out and. particu- larly. on the way in which questions are asked. Taking survey findings out of context is a doubtful undertaking at the best of ti mes. and quoting answers without quoting questions verbatim may also be misleading. (p. 36) 112 WWW After calling attention to the lack of research on young people's international learning. and while cautioning against drawing too detailed a set of conclusions from the studies that have been conducted thus far. Remy. Nathan. Becker. and Torney (1975) enumerated five basic ideas/concl usions from the major research studies that they felt "can help sensitize us to the international learning processes of our students" (p. 39). Their conclusions are outlined as follows: 1. International learning begins early in life. 2. International learning is cumulative . . . what children learn at one age builds upon and is influenced by what they have previously learned. 3. The time of middle childhood (grades three through eight) is an important period in international learning. 4. The beliefs. attitudes. values. and knowledge individuals develop about the world differ-“each individual student brings his or her own particular configuration of orientations toward the world. 5. The mass media. especially television and newspapers. play an important role in children's international learning. (pp. 39- 40) W. Challenges to the call for global education have come from several fronts. However. there are some who claim that elementary school children are too young to be able to learn about and comprehend the world as a global society. Morris (1979). writing in W. cited a number of research studies that have supported the view that children are more aware of global problems than educators have believed. and. as a 113 result. there continues to be a debate as to the proper time to introduce a global perspective into the curriculun. Designing globa1 education programs to meet the needs of students can be facilitated by a knowledge of their existing attitudes and beliefs. As a member of the President's Commission on Foreign Language and International Studies. Edwin D. Reischauer. although professionally involved in higher education as a Harvard faculty member. urged elementary schools to pl ace international education high on their list of priorities. In the final report. the Commission stated: It is in early childhood that basic attitudes are formed. It is also the time when the beginnings of language comprehension are put into place. curiosity is at its peak and the foundations are laid for further learning. (p. 48) Piaget and Weil (1951) dealt longitudinally with Swiss chil- dren's developing notions of the nation-state and suggested that until age five or six there is "a total lack of awareness of environment in a societal sense" (p. 565) for a young child. However. they concluded that . . . the main problem is not to determine what must or must not be inculcated in the child: it is to discover how to develop the reciprocity in thought and action which is vital to the attainment of impartiality and affective understanding. (p. 578) Johoda (1963) refined Piaget's developmental theories and. in a study of 144 Scotti sh children ages 6 to 11. attempted to determine their sophistication with respect to geographic awareness. spacial concepts. and nationality considerations. He concluded. as Piaget did. that "a child's intellectual grasp of his environment begins in his 114 immediate vicinity and only gradually extends outward" (p. 48). He also found that while the children he studied were prone to.Judge countries similar to the home country favorably and to be "patronizing. if not hostilefl (p. 98) to nations seen as strange. these judgments were not based on political/economic considerations. Children in the early elementary grades are concrete and ego- centric (Piaget. 1960). They interpret events from their own point of view. Although the child knows about others' points of view. he or she does not consistently take the role of the other. particularly when the child and the other person have significantly different perspectives (Shantz. 1975). Selman (1976) explained that between ages six and eight. children realize that differences in how people feel or think can be caused by their differing situations and information. They can infer what others feel as long as the situation is not very different from their own. However. they cannot Judge their own actions from the others' viewpoint and often assume others know what they are thinking without being told. Young children are unable to coordinate the per- spectives of more than one other person at one time (Miller et a1.. 1970). Until age eight. children perceive social norms (common patterns of speech. dress. behavior) as rules. According to Turiel (1977). violation of a rule is judged as bad. even though the child agrees that. without the rule. the act would be permitted. The child sees moral. conventional. and game rules as inflexible: They are not subject to or responsive to ci rcumstance; they cannot be altered by 115 social agreement: nor are they part of a unified system of mutual regulation. In other words. any deviation from what is common prac- tice. or. from the child's point of view. from a rule. is perceived as bad. Obviously and unfortunately. this type of thinking works against the development of an appreciation for other cultures and has major implications for global education programming in the early elementary grades. A major implication of this particular aspect of young chil- dren's thought is that educators and curricular materials must stress similarities between cultures rather than differences. For example. a teacher could point out that French crepes are like pancakes or tortil- las. Goodman (1970) stressed that focusing on differences is likely to result in attribution of unfavorable qualities to others. Moreover. any attempts to communicate that cultural differences are a result of the interplay of social. economic. and political forces is sure to be unsuccessful since it is incomprehensible to a young child. Also. by highlighting what is unique or colorful about other cultures. educators may fail to present a realistic picture of another culture to the child. As Elkind (1978) pointed out. Children. and even adults. often assume that something foreign is automatically not only different but also more primitive Perhaps these assumptions are made because children are usually presented with the quaint. peasant aspects of foreign children and not with the life of city children. It often comes as a surprise to chil- dren and adults to find that people from other cultures have wash- ing machines. cars and elevators. (p. 134) Gradually. however. the child's early impressions do become the basis for more complete attitudes and belief patterns as the child becomes capable of integrating beliefs. feelings. and behavioral 116 tendencies in the middle elementary school years. Children during these years increasingly accept or reject individuals on cultural grounds (Glidewell et a1.. 1966; Harding et a1.. 1969; Proshansky. 1966; Schofield. 1978). Goodlad. Klein. Novotney. and Tye (1974) described their attempt to determine the extent to which a small group of 9- to 12- year-ol ds tended to think beyond their own sel f-interest and exhibited an understanding of the interdependence of the world. It was their opinion that taking an open-ended approach to collecting data from children led to more openness and a wider variety of ideas than using forced-choice. multiple-response questions. After testing a repre- sentative sampling of fourth. fifth. and sixth graders around the United States. they felt that the students were more aware of global problems than previously thought. Torney (1976) also felt that it is the elementary and secondary school years that make a difference in imparting those learning expe- riences needed to acquire a world view. She reported that research concerning students' orientations to their own and other nations . . . shows that positive retained identity is established very early and forms part of the child's perspective for viewing the activity of other nations and of his own. as well as the future of international society. The period before the age of fourteen is especially important because the child's openness to diversity in this period is more likely to foster positive international atti- tudes. Exaggerated support for his own national government in some cases may curtail the child's positive orientations toward other nations. In the United States. negative stereotypes still exist among children particularly with respect to Asian and African countries. where wars have recently taken place. In the United States. students tend to possess less knowledge about international than national matters and to be less inspired to participate in discussion of international affairs outside the classroom than are the students of other countries. (p. 122) 117 Since early childhood educators have demonstrated the sensitiv- ity and awareness of young children to their social scene. King (1973) also emphasized the importance of introducing young children to a global perspective early in the child's educational career. We need to begin early in the education of the child to prepare him to live in a multicultural society and a world culture Worl dmind- edness means a sense of global responsibility. . . . We are calling for beginning the teaching of world perspectives in early childhood education and not holding back until the later years of elementary school. (p. 127) Hess and Torney (1967). in one of the early studies of sociali- zation. surveyed approximately 12.000 American students in elementary grades two through eight and found that children pass through three stages in the process of developing a sense of national loyalty and identity. In the first stage before grade two. children develop a strong. positive attachment to the country that remains stable through- out the elementary school years. In the second stage. children's concepts of their nation "acquire cognitive substance. including abstract qualities and ideological content” (p. 30). In the third phase. children see the country "as part of a larger. organized system of countries" (p. 30). thus gaining a perspective that includes many other nations and our relationship to them. Research by Bloom (1964) and others into the development of attitudes indicated that a predisposition to learning in general and to many of the specifics to be learned is well established before the onset of formal education. 118 Based on the research findings about the development of the young child. it would appear that the most appropriate goals for a global education program would be those that.focus on attitudes and behavioral changes. These programs aimed at promoting positive impres- sions and friendly intergroup contact are likely to be successful. whereas those designed to teach factual or conceptual material will not have a high success rate. Facts and concepts are not likely to have an effect on the young child and will not generalize to attitude formation or behavior. W. What knowledge children learn about the countries and peoples of the world at one age builds upon and is influenced by what they have previously learned. Piaget and Weil (1951) studies Swiss children ages 4 to 15 in an attempt to learn how and when children come to identify with their own nation. These researchers concluded that until they are five or six. children see themselves as the center of the social world and are relatively unaware of their broader environment. Piaget (in Torney a Morris. 1972) theorized that most children. by seven or eight years of age. achieve a new and different type of cognitive functioning that allows them to take into account perspectives other than their own. This ability may be necessary before children can accept different or unfamiliar characteristics of others. According to Piaget. as children develop cognitively. they take on qualitatively different ways of looking at the world. ‘The older child. Just by reason of age. has more 119 information and different ways of looking at. processing. and testing information he or she is given. From a Piagetian perspective. then. one might say that a child is egocentric when attempting to explain human behavior. In explaining human behavior. a child tends to attribute personal dispositions to actions rather than environmental dispositions. Because a child lacks the "background" information. the child focuses on an action. It is difficult for a child to visualize what has not been previously per- ceived. As children get older. they tend to make more use of environ- mental factors when attributing motives and intentions to others. Apart from this observed deveTOpmental tendency for styles of attribu- tion processing to change with age. little is known of the origin or modifiability of these orientations. Accurately perceiving and predicting human behavior are necessary skills if a person is trying to understand the motives and intentions of another person. According to Shaver (1975). attribution is an area of social psychology that describes the processes by which inferences about human behavior are made. Shaver listed three stages of attribution processing as follows: "(1) observation of the action; (2) judgment of intention; and (3) making a dispositional attribution" (p. 35). Wheeler and Clifford (1979) expanded this theory to the realm of global education since how accurately a child perceives other people is based on the attributional judgments he or she makes. Our beliefs about others are based on the attributions we make: and our beliefs. 120 once formed. are highly resistant to change. The importance of accurately attributing the motives and intentions of others is evident in most individuals' daily lives and can be applied on a global scale. These authors felt that attribution theory has significant implications for global education because. as Bruner (1966) wrote. "it sets forth rules concerning the most effective way of achieving knowledge or skill" (p. 96). While a relationship between attribution theory and global education would appear to be logical. an empirical link between them has not yet been established. It would seem that children need early experiences in attribution processing so they become aware of their own biases. As Morris (1974) pointed out. a stated goal of social studies programs in general. and global education in particular. is to help the child "see him/herself in relation to all other people round the globe and in relation to the earth itself" (p. 673). It is interesting that Tbrney and Morris (1972) warned that. in considering Piaget's theories. it is important to keep in mind the order in which children progress as well as their age. Children can learn effectively if the material being used is designed for their current level of understanding. which is related to their cognitive development. Gilliam and Remy (1978). in calling for a new approach to global education. stressed that international learning is cumulative. They reported: "What children learn about the world at one age builds upon and is influenced by what they have learned previously. Through a 121 continuous process of cumulative learning. a political self develops" (p. 499). MWWWWQILQJQW WW. Most educators agree that children should be introduced to global perspectives as early as pos- sible in the lower grades. when students are more receptive to learning about other peoples. and before the onset of puberty. when ethnocen- trism and stereotypical thinking have a tendency to increase dramati- cally. In reviewing the literature related to political socialization. it would appear that two of the most prominent features cited by a majority of the researchers are (a) the rapidity with which attitudes change during the elementary school years and (b) the extent to which basic orientations have been acquired by children by the end of the eighth grade. Early studies conducted by Hess and Easton (1960). Greenstein (1965). and Hess and Torney (1967) indicated that changes in political attitudes occur as age increases. and the character of adult participa- tion and the images of government and citizenship prevalent in the adult population are among the most influential forces guiding these changes. Stated another way. society takes hold of the child and imbues that child with its way of thinking and feeling. Research findings have indicated that from an early age. students are much more aware of many of the political realities of life in our complex society than educators previously thought. According to Remy (1980). this awareness comes from exposure to television; overheard adult 122 conversations about such matters as inflation. corruption. and political candidates; explicit instruction by adults ("Politicians are crooks)”; and first-hand encounters with political figures such as police and bureaucrats. He pointed out that students readily learn about the existence of class and conflict. the failures and successes of public policies. inequalities in the distribution of power. and the like. from such experiences. Easton and Hess (1966) conducted research into this process. which results in different political and social values. depending on the culture and the specific group of people who surround a person as he or she matures. As a child matures. he or she absorbs the perspec- tives. including the values and attitudes. of the social milieu within which he or she is raised. According to Remy et a1. (1975). political socialization. then. refers to the induction of individuals into the prevailing political culture. Research has shown that the process of acquiring concepts and attitudes about the world begins early in life and that what is learned at the more advanced levels must build on previously acquired knowl- edge. Therefore. it would appear to be a reasonable assumption to expect that the foundations for global understanding must be laid in the elementary and secondary school levels. As has been noted earlier. numerous writers contend that the American educational system does not sufficiently prepare students for the roles they will be expected to play as they enter the twenty-first century. According to Morehouse (1976). there has been very little 123 concern with measuring the ability of young people to understand global issues of population growth. famine. environmental pollution. cross- cultural conflict and communication. or depletion of natural resources. Remy et a1. (1975) discussed the fact that the knowledge and attitudes about social systems that children acquire during elementary school influence what they will learn and believe during later school years. ‘They described the way in which international learning takes place in elementary students: By the ti me elementary school students reach the intermediate grades. they have developed a sense of national identity. a set of attitudes. beliefs and values about their own and other nations as international actors and about such international processes as war and peace. Children's international learning is cumulative. What children learn about the world at one age builds upon and is influ- enced by what they have previously learned. (pp. 39-40) Goodman (1970). in discussing the relationship between culture and the child. pointed out that what children know about culture depends on such things as age. sex. intelligence. curiosity. insight. ‘and amount of formal and informal education. Other aspects such as social class and ethnic position of their parents and of other people in their social world also affect a child's cultural learning. Accord- ing to Goodman. "a child's culturaT learnings will be limited only by his inherent intellectual capacities and his cultural exposures" (p. 12). More important. however. is the fact that educators have a responsibility to ensure the information children are taught is accu- rate. comprehensible. and has a positive association for them since. as Goodman stated. "the culture of childhood is learned. shared and 124 transmitted. It is to some degree learned by children from one another. Mainly. however. it is learned from adults" on 7). Connell (1971) conducted an interview study of Australian children and described the influence that cognitive factors play in the development of political attitudes: Children do not simply reproduce the communications that reach them from the adult world. They work them over. detach them from their original contexts and assimilate them to a general conception of what the government is about.. . . The development through these stages. the construction of more and more elaborate interpretations of politics. and the gradual approach to political action is basically due to the activity of the children themselves. The children selectively appropriate the material provided by schools. by mass media. by parents. and build of them individual structures. (p. 27) Kenworthy (1970) suggested that the dimensions of the curricu- lum need to have a broader scope in light of the fact that the experi- ences of today's children in many parts of the world have been greatly enlarged. It was his belief that many children could and should be able to learn about the peoples of the world before they are 10. 11. or 12 years of age. This would mean that the foundations for global perspectives could easily begin in our school systems in the third and fourth grades. Through the investigation of family life. occupations. and habitat of people in other cultures and nations. learning about the world could easily be accomplished in the early and middle grades by relating this material to their lives. building on the interdependence that is present in all family units. and by providing similar examples of this relationship in other cultures. 125 Berg (1972) summarized the need for action at the elementary level in terms of international images. He counterposed research findings which showed that a preponderance of students of all ages held pacifistic views and supported peace as a terminal value to findings that showed the same students held negative views of persons who are different. While Berg's study was concerned with only one aspect of the curriculum. that is. social studies. his conclusion that the ele- mentary curriculum "should provide orderly structures for viewing the human community which emphasize cooperation and interdependence and explain diversity" (p. 5) is worthy of broader application. Researchers have indicated that student attitudes tend to focus on the bizarre and the backward. reflected in comments such as those obtained from interviews with young children. For example. when asked how people in other countries were different from themselves. such exotic answers as "people in Africa eat dogs and ants" or "in Japan they shape the children's feet" were mentioned. Since it has been shown that both television programming and school curricula tend to emphasize the unusual or exotic elements of other countries and cultures. educators should focus on similarities rather than on differences. Research has shown that children's thought patterns undergo dramatic changes during the middle elementary school years. This phase of the child's development is termed the concrete-operations period and includes a vast number of newly learned skills and abilities. The child can now understand that he or she is a member of multiple groups 126 and that he or she can be thought of as similar to people in some ways. like sharing a religion. but different in others. like being of a different sex or race. During the middle elementary grades. a child can better comprehend time. space..and distance in a relational and relative sense. The child can propose various causes or hypotheses to explain events. although he or she cannot yet engage in true experimen- tal thought (Asher. 1977: Elkind. 1976; Piaget. 1960). A major achievement of children in the middle grades of elemen- tary school is their understanding of rules. This understanding of rules is also reflected in the child's thoughts about the moral and social world. Kohlberg (1963) characterized the child's moral thinking at this period as a "good boy-good girl" orientation. A respect for peers and a concern for justice and for the feelings of others influ- ence the child's moral decisions. The child's new orientation to rules is also reflected in his or her understanding of social conventions (Turiel. 1977). Middle-grade elementary school children's descriptions are less egocentric. less concrete. and contain more frequent refer- ences to traits or dispositions (Flapan. 1968; Liversby & Bromley. 1973). .As children begin to understand the views of others and compre- hend mutuality. their peers become more important to them. and it is at this age that the peer group determines the child's ideals and stand- ards. In addition. because of the child's new perception of and sensitivity to the responses of others. others' views now become incor- porated into the child's sel f-concept (Hartup. 1970). Therefore. chil- dren become concerned with having friends and being part of a group. 127 Broml ey (1978) reported that at this age children's sel f-descriptions begin to reflect a concern with what other people think and feel about them and a concern with the effect they have on other people. This also is the age at which children are likely to have the strongest negative reactions to ethnic and racial group members. and minority children at this time are likely to incorporate these negative peer reactions into their feelings about themselves. In summary. the thinking of the child from approximately 8 to 11 becomes vastly more sophisticated than it was earlier. Clearly. these changes have important implications for global education programs and are essential to consider when planning global studies activities. Of particular importance is the discrepancy between the child's cognitive capability and affective reality. This means that those programs that focus on factual and conceptual levels are not likely to change either children's attitudes or patterns of group interaction. On the factual and conceptual level. it is important to recognize that the chilcPs cognitive skills. while developing rapidly. are still related to and depend on actions and experience. Educators should use the studentsfl own experiences as reference points. thus capitalizing on the child's developing cognitive inherent concreteness to encourage the beginnings of historical and cross-cultural perspective taking (Cowan. 1978). In addition to working from the child's experiences and cognitive capabilities. global education should be based on the chilcfls interests to be effective. Children of eight and nine are eager to 128 know about people and places and begin to be receptive to learning about children in foreign lands. Since children of this age like reality-based stories in settings unlike their own. books about children in foreign countries are ideal. By age ten. the child is strongly peer oriented and likes to avoid the more complex learning material. As Elkind (1978) explained. At ten. the young person is more interested in learning facts and memorizing names than he is in finding causes and explanations. . . . Within the school setting. then. the ten-year-old prefers to soak up information rather than to integrate or to digest it. (p. 144) Because of this orientation. this is an optimum time to teach children the capitals of foreign countries. words and phrases in a foreign language. or names and accomplishments of foreign or minority American heroes and heroines. Although these efforts can exert a considerable influence on children's knowledge about other nations and peoples. educators must also go beyond the curriculum toiaccomplish their goals. According to Bossert (1979). programs must work to alter patterns of peer interac- tion and counteract the tendency of children of various groups to become more rejecting of each other during the later elementary school years--a tendency that may be exacerbated by the nature of schooling itself. ‘This author felt that. to date. four methods seemed to be successful in improving peer acceptance and improving attitudes: coop- erative learning. peer tutoring. social-skills learning. and altered teacher behavior. 129 In the cooperative learning situation. children experience success and gain support for their success. Studies by Johnson and Johnson (1974) and Slavin (1977) have shown the rate of learning and retention of information learned to be as great or greater in coopera- tive groups as in competitive ones. In addition. research by Aronson et aL.(1978) and Blaney et aL.(1977) showed that cooperative learning enhanced students' self-esteem. improved their academic performance. increased liking for their classmates. and improved some of their interethnic and intraethnic perceptions. Peer tutoring. another cooperative learning method. was also shown to have beneficial gains. especially for the tutor. Devin- Sheehan et a1. (1976) found an increase in interracial interaction and acceptance by tutors and tutees. Tutors also appeared to increase their level of career aspirations--tutors from lower socioeconomic groups began to aspire to occupations associated with upward social mobility. Slavin (1977) found that tutors had significantly more positive attitudes toward reading. teaching. school. and self than did nontutoring controls. The third method found to be effective for improving student interaction is to teach isolated students social skills. This method is based on the assumption that isolated children might not have learned the social skills appropriate to the school setting--perhaps due to wide cultural gaps. Asher (1977) conducted sociometric tests after group activities designed to increase individual participation and promote cooperative interaction within a class were initiated. ‘The 130 tests indicated that only 17% of the isolated target children remained isolated after the activities. According to Schmuck (1978) and Zimbardo (1970). small groups in the classroom can be made most attractive to children by increasing the child's perception of the group's cohesiveness. solidarity. satisfaction. attractiveness. and affiliation--all factors that have been shown to increase a group's desirability. A fourth powerful force to improve intercultural interaction is the teacher's influence Since the importance of the teacher's role in global education was addressed earlier in this chapter. it will only be necessary to reiterate that. although peers become increasingly impor- tant to children as they grow older. the teacher remains the most important figure in the classroom. Glidewell et a1. (1966) showed that teacher acceptance of pupils in the classroom stimulated pupil-to—pupil interaction; reduced interpersonal conflicts and anxieties: and increased mutual esteem. rapport. and self-esteem. Finally. it should be noted that the teacher can act as a model for the kind of cultural behavior he or she wishes to have in the classroom. Children are most likely to emulate models they perceive as powerful. similar to them- selves. comprehensible. and consistent. For many of the citizens of the United States. elementary schooling may provide the most important opportunity for acquiring basic knowledge and attitudes for global understanding in later years. As a global society. we cannot afford a generation that fails to see or 131 care about our relationship with one another and with our common home. Earth. WWW .deye1gp_gngut_the_ngrld_djjj}u; As was mentioned in the discussion of problems related to research in the field of global education. four main types of barriers or obstacles to the attainment of a global perspective exist. They are cognitive and attitudinal barriers. which arerfound within the individual student. and personal and communication barriers. which are found outside the individual student in society or the socializing agents. Terney (1979). writing in Scnggljnnggn_g .Glgba1_Age. discussed these barriers at length and emphasized the importance of recognizing the interplay of the cognitive and affective dimensions of human growth. Cognitive skills and abilities such as comprehension of other peoples and cultures. knowledge about their environments. and an understanding of global problems are not. by themselves. enough to develop the kinds of desired outcomes. Children cope with new information and attitudes according to the cognitive processes available to them. As Torney pointed out. children have particular cognitive (and also affective) prisms through which they view the world. and the limitations of these prisms can hinder the achievement of global awareness. One set of potential attitudinal obstacles is a very strong sense of national community as an in-group. Connell (1971) pointed out that young children's ideas about potential external enemies that pose a threat to their country are related to primitive and diffuse fears that the safe places of their own lives 132 will be disturbed. This often causes an intensification of support for one's own national system and the status quo. He found that as a result of these basic fears. the threat schema and nationalism are very strong and resistant to change from early childhood on in Australia. and other researchers have expressed the opinion that it is quite probable that these same processes are operating in the United States. There appear to be some attitudinal characteristics of indi- viduals that are not modified by a child's development but are stable from the child's early years. Each individual student brings his or her own particular configuration of orientations toward the world. and educators should keep this in mind when attempting to design global education programs for both elementary and secondary students. Stereotypes are seen by educators as major barriers to a world perspective. but it may be that stereotypes are a kind of concept that children use to organize masses of information. As long as educational efforts are based on teaching students quantities of information about the unique characteristics of a collection of nation-states rather than teaching them to look at dynamic interrelationships in the world commu- nity. stereotypes may be the best device students have to organize this information. Allport (1954) developed a three-stage theory of prejudice. which can serve as an example of the relationship between cognitive and affective processes in childhood. Briefly. his theory comprises three stages and leads to the prediction of the maximum intensity of negative attitudes in early adolescence (around age 14) with more positive 133 attitudes in middle childhood (between approximately 8 and 12 years of age) and later adolescence. Allport's theory was tested on a group of Dutch students in a study by the four European psychologists. Jaspars. Van de Geer. Tajfel. and Johnson (1966). Some of the measures they used in their study showed the kind of relationship between age and positive or negative attitudes that Allport's theory had predicted. The students showed a clear preference for the Netherlands when asked to compare pairs of countries and show which they liked best. The researchers noted that the intensity of this preference increased between the second and the sixth grade. and the total amount of differentiation between prefer- ences for these countries also increased. In regard to the cognitive judgment of similarity between one's own country and other countries. there was a change from second grade (where one's own country was seen as different from others but other countries were seen as relatively similar) to the structure at fifth grade (where differences among all countries were commonly perceived). The authors' final conclusion illustrated once again that middle childhood is a time of relatively low rejection of groups and relatively high attitudinal flexibility: The child's own country is preferred to other countries. and the more a country is perceived as similar to one's own country. the more it is liked. . . . People who are perceived as one's country- men are liked more than people who are perceived as foreigners. There is a significant relationship between the attitude toward other countries and the attitude toward foreigners. Some of the results are in apparent contradiction to our expectations. The discrepancy could be explained by making the assumption . . . that equivalent stages in the developmental process are reached at ages which differ according to the complexity of the task. Thus the 134 peak of ethnocentricity displayed by the younger children in the photography study would be equivalent to that found in children of intermediate age for the more complex cognitive tasks. (p. 368) The inability to think about things in relation to other things has obvious implications for global education. During the early elementary years. although children apply ethnic. racial. and religious labels to themselves and others. they are not likely to understand multiple identity; they cannot see themselves and others as being members of each of these groups simultaneously. The labels used are accompanied by a collection of associations or beliefs. which. not surprisingly. are rigid and stereotyped. Attention to these beliefs is essential because they hold positive and negative connotations for the child and serve as the basis for early attitudes toward one's own and other groups (Goodman. 1970: Katz. 1976; Proshansky. 1966; Zeligs. 1954). Another source of data on children's and young people's percep- tions of other nations is the 1968 study of American seventh- and twel fth-grade students by Hicks and Beyer (1970). These researchers sought to assess 845 seventh graders' and 794 twelfth graders' stereo- types and knowledge about major areas of the world. They found that in some items of a multiple-choice test of factual knowledge. 45% or more of the seventh-grade students selected a single wrong alternative. They also found that stereotypic concepts associated with Africa (natives. tribes. cannibals) and with Russia (enemy. dictatorship) increased from the seventh to the twelfth grade. 135 These authors criticized both the mass media and school curricula for not helping students form a more realistic picture. They noted that much of the study of Africa in secondary schools comprises "twenty-one-day travelogues of a continent." They also noted that there is a noticeable lack of balance in the elementary grades when information about Africa is presented. Unfortunately. the instruction tends to focus on the strange and the bizarre. and students do not gain a balanced image of a country or region and often their stereotypes are reinforced. It was Meyer's (1970) belief that attitudes toward racial groups are formed before the age of six.ias are political attitudes and values. Goodman (1964) also found that children by age four were aware of racial differences. Kenworthy'(l9560 noted that the ability to live in a world community must be developed in children at an early age and in a variety of subJect areas because prejudices are also learned early. Lambert and Klinesberg (1967) pointed out that since young children lack the ability to logically organize their sociopolitical environment. they use stereotypic thinking to first identify the salient characteristics of their own group and then. subsequently. to understand foreign peoples. In discussing the role of stereotyping. these authors wrote: The first signs of stereotyped thinking turned up in the descrip- tions children gave of their own group rather than of foreign people; even at the six-year-age level. many different national groups of children made over-generalized statements about the per- sonality traits of their own group at the same time as they described foreign people in more factual objective terms. . . . From ten years of age . . . children start stereotyping foreign people. (pp. 223-24) 136 Eicher (1976). using an open-ended tape questionnaire for various grade levels. surveyed approximately 300 children's perceptions of the world. The investigators found that children did appear to increase in objective understanding of others as they moved into the intermediate grades. However. the students exhibited stereotyped images throughout every grade level. Unfortunately. children and adolescents appear to view other nations and peoples "negatively." especially if the other nations and peoples are Communist or Communist-affiliated. Targ (1970) argued that. based on a study of fourth-. fifth-. and sixth-grade Midwestern children. their attitudes and beliefs toward countries such as China and Russia were a result of their socialization in an adult "cold war dialogue. transmitted through home. school. and media" (p. 90). Hess and Torney (1967) found that the majority of children in their study agreed with "the commonly presented image of Russia (lack of freedom particularly in voting choice. less wealth. and government control)" (p. 157). However. most children at all grade levels in the study (four to eight) also agreed, that "It is not the Russian people who are our enemies: rather it is the men who rule Russia" (p. 160). A study by Glenn in 1969 suggested that children's attitudes toward Communism had not changed much from those reported between the late 19505 and early 19605. Glenn (1970) concluded that "most children felt the United States could trust other countries and. more than any other nation. the United States was worthy of being trusted." 137 Furthermore. most of the children believed that "communist countries could not be trusted" (p. 3). Judging from the available studies on this topic. it would appear that American children of the late 19505 and the 19605 were socialized into hostile and suspicious attitudes toward those peoples and nations considered to be America's "cold war enemies." It has been hypothesized that this pattern of young Americans' attitudes toward such nations and their allies will change as relations between the United States and countries such as China and the Soviet Union continue to improve. It may be possible that verification of this hypothesis could be accomplished by conducting studies on younger students who were not subjected to the negative stereotyping of earlier years. In a study conducted in 1959 under the auspices of UNESCO. Lambert and Klineberg (1967) interviewed 3.000 children ages 6. 10. and 14 from 11 different countries around the world. They found that American children around the age of 10 were particularly receptive to learning about foreign people; they were interested in individuals seen as dissimilar to themselves. as well as in those seen as similar. However. by the age of 14. there appeared to be a loss of attitudinal plasticity. and the young people seemed less open to positive views about foreign nations. Since neither cognitive nor affective factors operate in isolation. the opinions of the older children seem to become a way of expressing peer group solidarity and excluding those who are different. The researchers also found that all children in the six- to nine-year age group emphasized aggressiveness or badness in 138 their judgments about other national groups. Also. the descriptions the children gave of those from other countries were concrete and focused on physical features. clothing. language. and habits. In contrast. the descriptions by older children were richer in content and in abstractions. and they reflected a preoccupation with personality traits. habits. religion. and material possessions. That children. internationally. are attuned to the same aspects as others possibly would suggest that there is little the educator can do to change the child's focus. What can be done. however. would be to make certain that whatever concrete information is presented is accurate and comprehensible to the child and that this information has positive associations for the student. Somerstudies have attempted to assess elementary and secondary school students! knowledge and attitudes with regard to global educa- tion. Richards (1979) developed a Worldmindedness Scale. which was designed to evaluate three types of schools in Michigan. They were: (a) those funded for global education and claiming a high emphasis on this topic in the curriculum. (b) schools not funded by claiming an emphasis on global education. and (c) those neither funded nor claiming an emphasis on global education. The conclusions of the study indi- cated that there was no significant difference among students in the three types of schools in terms of the worldmindedness they exhibited. In 1971. the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Attainment (IEA) surveyed 3.000 American students ages 10. 14. and 17. This was part of a cross-national study that explored the 139 knowledge acquired by 30.000 students from nine countries about the international political system. Terney (1977) found that children in countries like the Netherlands. with a high level of international contact. were more internationally minded than children in countries like the United States. The questionnaire used in this survey included United Nations related items to measure both cognitive and affective outcomes. The cognitive portion of the IEA questionnaire dealt with knowledge of domestic and international matters. Students in the United States scored relatively higher on cognitive items concerning domestic politics than on those concerning international politics. The American l4-year-olds and seniors in high school perceived the maJor activities of the United Nations relatively accurately. but it is not an institution about which they had extensive knowledge. a clearly developed image. or strong positive feelings. Smith (1977) studied the effect of experimental social studies materials on student attitudes toward other nations. Contrary to the hypothesis that students using the experimental materials would show a change in international attitudes. whereas students in the control group. which did not use the materials. would show no attitude change. students in the experimental groups did not show a change of attitude. The results suggested that children's international attitudes are formed before the Junior high years. One of the important recommenda- tions from this study was that the elementary curriculum be changed to incorporate more global studies into the earlier grades. This study seemed to indicate that relatively firm attitudes toward other nations 140 were formed by the student respondents in the early elementary school years. more than likely using sources other than the formal curriculum of the school. In the rejection of the hypothesis. this study contained evidence that student attitudes toward other nations may be firmly set before grade seven. This would apparently indicate that the attitudes of students toward other nations may be well established before they reach the seventh grade. Smith stressed the fact that close attention should be given to grades four. five. and six in future studies on international attitudes. Pike and Barrows (1979) reported no important changes in the structure of student attitudes between grades eight and twelve. whereas changes were observed between grades four and eight. The period of greatest change has not been pinpointed more definitely than this. The possibility that student attitudes toward other nations are well established before grade seven carries someiinteresting implica- tions for the social studies curriculum. The study of other nations is often reserved for the Junior- and senior-level high school years since it is often assumed by curriculum decision makers that world topics and events are beyond the concerns of elementary students. Kelman (1968) stressed the role that the school curriculum can play in the develop- ment of worldminded students when he wrote: The failure to educate children for a global society strengthens the barriers against the development of such a society: the bar- riers against the development of a global society. in turn help to account for the failure of the educational system to provide ade- quate preparation. The school curriculum can. thus. be a major force in breaking into this vicious circle. q. 662) 141 There apparently is a need for longitudinal studies on the development of student attitudes toward other nations throughout the elementary years. This would be an important next step in pinpointing the age of greatest change. A survey by Peterson (1980) looked at attitudes of Junior and senior high school students in Kentucky. The views of these students--a rejection of isolationism. support for the United Nations. and belief that conflict will continue to play an important role in world affairs--led Peterson to speculate that the students in his study were more thoughtful and realistic about inter- national relations than many of the students participating in the 1974 Office of Education ONOP survey. In 1981. Wyniemko (1983) administered the Educational Testing Service's instrument. Other Nations. Other Peoples: A Survey of Student Interests. Knowledge. Attitudes and Perceptions (ONOP). to approximately 1.600 students and 53 teachers in four school districts in the Ingham Intermediate School District. .She then compared the results to the data collected in fall 1974 by the U.S. Office of Education. The overall results of the study showed that. despite curricular changes. revised social studies programs. and the promotion of global and multicultural education in the schools. the Ingham Intermediate students did not perform as well as expected or desired. Many of the results were similar to the 1974 findings. An examination of the data revealed that the 1981 fourth-. eighth-. and twelfth-grade students' Knowledge Test scores were slightly higher than those of students in the 1974 study. However. the only statistically significant difference 142 occurred between the two fourth-grade groups on total Knowledge Test scores. The 1981 students performed significantly better than the 1974 students. No statistically significant differences were noted between eighth- and twelfth-grade students in the two studies. Males achieved significantly higher scores on the Knowledge Test than did females. as was the case in the 1974 study. The data provided evidence that the global knowledge of the Ingham Intermediate students was inadequate since major gaps occurred at all grade levels in the areas of map location. the Middle East. Western Europe. and American government. Similar areas of weakness had appeared in the 1974 study. In comparing the travel experiences of teachers in the 1981 and 1974 studies. a statistically significant difference was found in the number of countries to which teachers had traveled. Ingham Interme- diate teachers had traveled to a significantly greater number of coun- tries than had teachers in the 1974 sample. Feurth-grade Ingham Intermediate teachers had traveled more extensively than eighth- or twel fth-grade teachers in the same sample. Differences in teacher travel experience did not appear to affect student interest in studying or visiting foreign countries. In the area of personal and motivational obstacles to a global orientation in children. three aspects of personal individual differ- ences must be taken into account when designing global education pro- grams. These basic characteristics are sel f-esteem (as well as group or national esteem). preference for similarity or difference. and an active or passive approach to life. 143 Although there has been some limited research by Omwake (1954) as to the assumed connection between a high level of self-esteem within individuals and their willingness to accept other nations and cultures. this relationship has not yet been empirically tested and proven. The second aspect of individual differences in motivation is the need for stimulus variation by some individuals while others prefer an environ- ment of sameness and predictability. The relationship of preference for similarity to personal attraction was studied by Byrne (1971). He demonstrated that when individuals were asked to rate the attractive- ness of a stranger described in terms of attitudes and opinions. the raters were more attracted to someone described as holding attitudes similar to theirs than to a stranger described as different from them. The third personal characteristic. the basic activity or passivity of an individual. may also serve as a facilitator or an obstacle to education in general and global education in particular. According to Hess and Terney (1967). it has been shown in a number of research studies that individuals who were active in nonpolitical school organizations were also more likely to be active in political matters. Since active participation is an important component of global education activities. it would appear that the individual who is active rather than passive in his or her approach may be easier to involve in global education activities. The fourth obstacle to effective international socialization is in the area of communication. Although the influence of language on children's attitudes has not been fully explored. some studies have 144 attempted to determine how language can act as a barrier to effective global education programs. Since both verbal and nonverbal styles of communication may act as an impediment to global awareness or under- standing. the language factor has been studied by a number of research- ers. Examples of language ethnocentrism were shown in interview studies of a group of American children ages 6 through 12 by Terney and Morris (1972). When asked how other countries differed from their own country. speaking a different language was mentioned spontaneously by There than 70% of the young people. Lambert (1972) found that language is not only a communication mode but also a socialization mode. He reported that preference for English over French was a characteristic of English-Canadians of all ages. but only of older French-Canadians; among French-speaking subjects. important shifts were occurring at about age 12 toward "feelings of ethno-linguistic inferiorityJ' Riestra and Johnson (1964) reported that the study of another language appeared to increase positive attitudes toward speakers of that lan- guage and the culture it served. Cheyne (1970) studied the reaction of individuals to speakers of different languages by using a technique called matched guise. Tape recordings of bilingual speakers were rated by subjects who had been instructed to look for personality traits reflected in the voices. He found that some of the attitudes and stereotypes differed considerably from those brought out by standard attitude-rating forms. Finally. it should be noted that obstacles to effective inter- national socialization may exist within those persons and institutions 145 responsible for socializing children. such as parents. the school system. the media. and the government. Levine (1973) discussed the role of such agents and noted: Every adult individual . . . notices to someidegree the evaluative and distributive operations of the socio-cultural system. From observations of individual instances of conformity and nonconform- ity .. . success and failure. social reward and punishment-~in a process equivalent to the vicarious trial-and-error or observa- tional learning of reinforcement theorists--he draws conclusions about which behavioral dispositions are favored and which dis- favored. These inductive conclusions become part of his cognitive structure. Joining attitudes. beliefs. and values already there. and become consistent with them to some degree. From this cogni- tive structure... . comes his definition of the situation in which he sees his children growing up and his prescriptions and prescrip- tions for their adaptive performance. (p. 105) He continued by describing the sources of “slippage" in the socializing process that confront the agent with unplanned and often undesired processes and outcomes: The explicit goals of socializing agents are frequently not recog- nized in the behavior of those they train. First. the socializers are at best imperfect psychological engineers (they do not command the necessary but as yet ill-known laws of behavior acquisition); second. they must operate within the limits set by their trainees' pre—existing behavioral dispositions acquired genetically and through "accidental" events of early experience. Recognition of this slippage .. . brings to our attention two major sets of variables related to socialization: the conscious aims. concepts. and knowledge of the socializers and the relationship between unplanned and deliberate influences in the child's behavior devel- opment.. . . The most urgent objective for empirical research on socialization is to understand the relation between the planned and unplanned aspects of social learning. UL 106) The unanticipated influences and outcomes of practices are important in the socialization process toward a global orientation since most of the barriers to learning about other nations or acquiring a planetary level of awareness are often the unplanned and even 146 unrecognized consequence of various educational practices. Hanvey (1975). while recognizing the importance of "agencies of socialization" other than the school. stressed the important role of the school in making a meaningful contribution to socialization and learning about global perspectives. The schools must select a niche that complements the other educative agencies of the society. To the extent that those other agencies and influences work against a global perspective. the schools can perform a corrective function; to the extent that the other agencies are glib and superficial. the schools can seek to be more thorough; to the extent that the other agencies have blind spots the schools can work to supply the missing detail; to the extent that the other agencies direct attention to the short-term extraordinary event. the schools can assert the value of examining the long-term situation or trend (which is sometimes extraordinary in its own right). (p. 2) Many of the kinds of handicaps to global education have. in some sense. a developmental aspect and an individual-difference aspect since in each there is some change with age»(not necessarily in the direction of surmounting the obstacles). and the obstacles existing within any given individual will be somewhat different from those in other individuals. It is probably not possible to construct a single school program that is adequate to deal with all the obstacles existing in every student. but the school nevertheless has the role of educating young citizens for their future roles in relation to international and global concerns by assisting the learner in processing and organizing the information received from the whole range of sources in society-- formal. nonformal. and informal. WWW. Today's students are informed. entertained. educated. and affected by the mass media. 147 From early childhood. children are exposed to television. radio. newspapers. magazines. books. films. and advertisements. Although the research concerning the role that the>mass media play in the formation of American children's international orientations is limited. many of those studies that have been conducted have indicated that the mass media. especially television and newspapers. are the main source of young people's ideas and information about the rest of the world. Obviously. there is no single source of children's and young people's international political learning since various agents such as parents. school. friends. the mass media. and world events themselves interact in complex ways that have yet to be studied and understood. However. after reviewing the literature on the effect of the mass media. especially television. on students! international learning. it would appear that children's picture of the world is formed in great part from television. Sometimes that picture is a fairly accurate reflection of the real world; sometimes it is not. Either way. many individuals accept it as real and act upon it as if it were reality itself. A generation of American students have grown up so dependent on television that its images appear as real to them as life itself. Becker (1974) noted the importance of television in children's international learning. "Many. if not most. young people look to the media as their major source of information and ideas about both national and international events" (p. 679). He also emphasized one of the problems growing out of this fact. that being that the media often give national events priority over international affairs in terms of 148 time and space. The international news events that are covered are usually concerned with violence and misfortune. "International society is all too frequently portrayed in the media as a society of hostility. explosion. and catastrophe. while domestic society is characterized by a range of activities from harmony to disruption" (p. 679). According to a survey conducted by UNESCO in 1973. only from 1 to 2% of the average television week on commercial and public tele- vision in the United States is devoted to international programs--lower than in any of the other 100 countries surveyed (cited in the American Council on Education's 1975 Report). The 1971 IEA Civic Education Survey also contained data that gave the impression that U.S. students have relatively minimal exposure to international matters from televi- sion programs dealing with international topics. In their study of children from 11 countries. Lambert and Klineberg (1967) determined that television. movies. and. to a lesser extent. parents are major sources of information about foreign peoples for six-year-old American children. By age ten. television and movies remained important and school sources such as courses and textbooks also became important. It is interesting that parents became "negl i- gible" as sources of information. Coldevin (1973). in a study of television. newspapers. news- casts. and documentary films. demonstrated that all four influenced the views and attitudes of students. Resell (1968). Alvik (1968). and Tolley (1973) all found the mass media to be the most important source of information about war for children. Tolley. who conducted his study 149 in 1971 while the United States was still involved in Vietnam. noted that half of the children he questioned "said they watch news regu- larly. a large proportion feel they learn 'a lot' about Vietnam from TV. and 80 percent indicate they have seen pictures of combat.on news programs" (p. 106). He also found that. in the case of the Vietnani war. “children have learned basic attitudes about the conflict from mother and father at home" (p. 106L Television. which children tend to believe is a realistic portrayal of life (Leifer. Gordon. 8 Graves. 1974). underrepresents minorities. women. and lower economic groups and displays these groups in demeaning or ridiculous situations (Clark. 1969; Maccoby. 1964; Stein 8 Freidrick. 1975; Sternglanz a Serbin. 1974). Unfortunately. these tendencies are most pronounced in children's programs and are. no doubt. a cause for the mounting evidence that television increases children's stereotypic attitudes (DeFleur 8. DeFleur. 1967; Greenberg. 1972; Seigel. 1958; Sternglanz 8 Serbin. 1974). Connell (1971) described television's role in breaking down parochial traditions and how political awareness no longer expands outwards. from local community to region to country and to interna- tional relationships. He pointed out that: Children under the influence of television are introduced to the full range at once. Thus. they come early to know about. and react emotionally to. those events which are most distant from them and least susceptible to influence exerted by the people around them. (pp. 128-29) Nathan (1972) also discussed the role that television plays in the attitude formation of students. 150 Other research findings indicate that children of ten also reflect the impact of their exposure to television when over 62 percent report that most of their global understanding comes from the mass media (not the formal educational program of the schools). (p. 199) According to Hanvey (1975). a closer partnership between tele- vision and schools might allow awareness of other cultures! diversity in ideas and practices to be coupled with respect for that diversity. thus helping to overcome the obstacle of ethnocentric nationalisnh He pointed to the potential that television has for being a very potent source for presenting cultural similarities and differences so as to increase two important abilities he identified as "perspective con- sciousness." which is the ability to understand that one's own view is not universal and that others view things differently. and "cross- cultural awareness." which is an awareness of the diversity in ideas and practices. Boyer (1982) called for an examination of the influence of mass communication on students. In the United States. children watch television 6.000 hours before they spend a single hour in the classroom. Students urgently need what might be called "tube literacy." to help them see how visual and auditory signals reinforce each other. how ideas can be dis- torted. how thoughts and feelings can be subliminally conveyed. and how the accuracy and reliability of messages can be tested. (p. 583) Postman (1981) maintained since television is intelligible to children at about age 36 months and continuously exerts influence from this early age. it can be described as the ”first curriculum" because of the large amount of attention children give to it. According to him. "between the ages of 6 and 18. the average child spends roughly 15.000 toil6.000 hours in front of a television set. whereas school 151 probably consumes no more than 13.000 hours" (p. 43). It was also his opinion that television programming creates the impression that all problems can be solved easily: The essential message is that the problems that beset people-- whether it is a lack of self-confidence or boredom or even money problems—-are entirely solvable if only we will allow ourselves to be ministered to by a technology. (p. 44) Hanvey (1975) also called attention to a major assumption that the schools and television programming share--a belief in the natural- ness and goodness of both economic growth and technological innovation. Unfortunately. young people lack sensitivity to the global consequences of technological decisions made by individuals. corporations. and nations; the human rights issues that are raised by technological development are seldom presented to students. He wrote: "The Western model of economic growth is strongly oriented by the values of effi- ciency and by the goal of maximum production. It does not attend. typically. to the problem of equitable distribution" (p. 18). Although somertelevision programs have attempted to help students understand and value the perspective of people who live in nontechnological societies. students may need additional help from parents and teachers to overcome their unconscious assumptions that technological innovations and diffusion are positive and folkways negative. Not only does television help to perpetuate the idea that those nations and cultures that do not place a high value on technology and industrialization are somehow inferior. but textbooks also show the same 152 bias toward technology and industrialization. thus creating an obstacle to appreciation of cultures that do not value technology. Goldstein (1972) reviewed elementary social studies texts and curriculum guides and commented on their content: Many of the texts and guides . . . stress that all people on the earth have the same basic needs. are interdependent. and need to cooperate.. . . Yet when individual countries are discussed. it is clear that an implicit. and sometimes explicit. standard of indus- trialization and democracy is used.. . . Indiscriminate westerni- zation is the standard used to measure the underdeveloped coun- tries. (pp. 26-27) The bias toward technology and industrialization has resulted in English-speaking and northwestern European countries. as well as highly industrialized democracies like Japan and Israel. being praised in the texts Gol dstein reviewed. These countries were described as "energetic." "skillful.” and "freedom loving." while the less indus- trialized nations of southern Europe and all less developed countries were presented as using inferior substitutes for modern technology. as being uneducated. and as suffering from the many problems associated with poverty. It is not surprising that children tend to dislike people of certain countries because they are perceived as backward. Terney (1980) addressed the problem of overcoming such perceptions: What is it that allows some students toimake different kinds of Judgments of what is equitable in the world? .. . We'do know that there is a phenomenon called "judgment of the Just world" which says that people get what they deserve. How do we go about chang- ing that attitude so that if people are poor. or living in a culture where they are deficient in certain resources. we do not believe that they must also be deficient in culture or deserve that living standard? (p. 47) Education and schooling are not synonymous since much learning takes place outside of the classroom. It would be possible to 153 hypothesize that students may derive more about other lands and peoples and global events from the media than they do from the school day. Because the effect of the media is so strong. Bullard (19w) emphasized that it is the responsibility of the school to provide the foundation for the development of attitudes. understanding. and competencies necessary for responsible participation in the global community. To address and bridge the profound socioeconomic differences in the cir- cumstances and values between the United States and other nations. the schools must neither ignore the very real differences that exist nor reinforce them through exaggerated attention to the quaint and differ- ent aspects of other cultures. She pointed out that "students acquire through formal schooling a sense of coherence in their knowledge. connections. and transfers that results in a grasp of the 'big picture' rather than in a mass of isolated facts and feelings" (p. 92). With mass media apparently serving as a major source of infor- mation about the world for most citizens. it seems essential that educators address not only the problems arising from media presenta- tions of other nations and peoples. but also support the inclusion of a mass media education component in both elementary and secondary school curricula. WW Wampum: The movement of both elementary- and secondary-school-age dependents across broad areas of the globe has become a common occur- rence since World War II. Before that time. there were some Americans 154 living outside the boundaries of the United States as dependents. but after the end of the war. the presence of Americans abroad increased dramatically as they participated in various technical. economic. and military assistance programs. as well as multinational enterprises. Rubin (1966) focused on the movement of Americans overseas and predicted that the exodus of great numbers of Americans to foreign countries would continue to increase. Figures from the U.S. Census have shown that the resident United States population abroad has grown substantially. and it has been conjectured that this trend will continue as our nation's business. trade. and education expand beyond domestic frontiers. Toffler (1970). in his book Eu:uze_§hggk. devoted Chapter Five to a discussion of what he described as "The New Nomads." In this chapter. he attempted to describe the mobility that he predicted will be a common part of our future and which for many is already a way of life. He wrote that "we are breeding a new race of nomads and few suspect quite how massive. widespread and significant their migrations are" (p. 75). Not only have the numbers of Americans living outside the United States changed. but the types of relationships that these individuals developed with other peoples of the world also underwent change. Their lifestyles and the behavior patterns they came to develop have been termed "third cultures" Since the population of this study had. as dependents. participated in these postwar third cultures of which many Americans are a part. a brief explanation of the 155 origin of the term will possibly assist the reader in gaining a greater understanding of "Third Culture Kids" (TCKs). The term "third culture" was defined by Useem. Useem. and Donaghue (1963) as: . . . the behavior patterns created. shared and learned by men of different societies who are in the process of relating their societies. or sections thereof. to each other. Put on the widest social scale. one can refer to a world-encompassing third culture and. taken as a whole. one can view it as the common social heritage of mankind. (pp. 169-70) Third-culture people are not tourists or immigrants or expat- riates. but diplomats. military personnel. educators. technical-aid persons. missionaries. business people. reporters. and representatives of various foundations. According to Ruth Hill Useem (1973) of Michi- gan State University. the third culture can be thought of as a pattern relationship by individuals and groups who focus their activities about a role or various roles in an international setting. There are approx- imately one-quarter of a million young Americans who experience life overseas each year. and their experience and the meaning it has for them could possibly have an effect on the future of our own society. In an attempt to explain their uniqueness. Useem designated the term "Third Culture Kids" or "FCK5“'to denote the dependent minors of over- seas nationals who represent some'larger organization such as the Department of Defense or the diplomatic corps. TCKs are those depend- ents who live out of their native culture for extended periods of time. She proposed that the continued absence from their native environment alienates them from their basic culture. while temporary residence in 156 the foreign country does not allow them to adopt or adapt to the cultures in which they reside. The result is a group that exists in what Toffler referred to as a condition of "high transience“—-"a condition in which the duration of relationships is cut short. the through-put of relationships extremely rapid" (p. 46). Since the decade of the 19605. the number of minor dependent Americans residing abroad with their parents has risen sharply. Census data have indicated that in any given year approximately 250.000 school-age Americans reside abroad with their parents. Luebke (1976) stated that during the 19705 approximately eight out of every 1.000 United States citizens lived outside the boundaries of the country. This group included missionaries. academics. business people. diplo- mats. employees of international organizations. and military personnel. Department of Defense and American community schools have been estab- lished and supported to provide education for those Americans whose employment required then to live outside the United States. During the late 19605 and the early 19705. interest in the overseas schools and their populations increased. and more research was undertaken. Although military mobility has decreased somewhat since the late 19605. military personnel still move across the~continent to widely disparate regions of the world. According to Strickland (1970). it has been estimated that the average military dependent will attend nine schools before graduating from college. Despite speculation as to the overall effect of mobility on children. many military parents feel that moving to various parts of the world provides educational and 157 social advantages to their children that outweigh the possible disad- vantages associated with moving (Gabower. 1959L. This belief was supported by Stiles (1968). who suggested that military children are "better off" because of their mobility. However. Sorokin (1959) noted that although geographic mobility is associated with broadening the mind and making life more interesting. it also seemed to cause emo- tional and interpersonal problems. According to Mannino (1971). if the one-quarter of a million American pupils attending elementary or secondary schools overseas were grouped into a single administrative unit. the school system so formed would number among the four or five largest systems in the United States. Scattered throughout the world. these schools would appear to provide these unique opportunities needed to foster a global perspec- tive in their students. Beimer (1972) believed that the preparation of worldminded citizens can be one of the major contributions of Ameri- can schools in the overseas setting and can provide a laboratory for studying the process which results in the education of worldminded citizens. With so many minor Americans living in societies and cul- tures other than their own. issues are raised concerning the effect that eXperience may have on various aspects of their personalities and later lives. Determining what attitudes and perceptions of other nations and peoples these internationally mobile students have gained has presented a major problem in the area of social science research. Relatively little research has been conducted on student populations who have 158 lived and studied abroad. Although several of the early studies dealt with college students who were participants in overseas study programs in the late 19605. some of the findings have implications for current research in the area of formation of students' worl dmindedness atti- tudes. Study abroad. under the right conditions. can be immensely rewarding for the student ready to undertake it. Kelman (1968) cited some of the variables that determine the probability that favorable attitudes will develop. He wrote: An important variable. for example. is the opportunity the visitor has for genuine contact with nationals of the host country and for involvement in various aspects of its life. Another important and obvious factor is what happens in the course of the contact--what treatment the visitor receives at the hands of the host. (p. 73) Sanders and Ward (1970) also saw the value of the overseas experience as giving one a certain distance with respect to American society and providing what the President's Commission called a "life- long impact on val ues." These writers observed that being obliged to defend one's country's record in foreign lands may also help one estab- lish what is valuable about the United States and its tradition. Study abroad brings tolerance and an awareness that there are other ways of doing things and. as these authors pointed out. that this country has no monopoly on common sense or sanity. Relatively little research has been conducted on the effect of study abroad. Burn (1980) pointed out. however. that the research done "suggests that it may be most important in terms of the personal 159 experience of living in another culture and interacting with the nationals of another country" (p. 133). Rather than taking advantage of the opportunity to educate students to be global citizens. however. do overseas schools and par- ents tend to emphasize the negative aspects of foreign living and to stress nationality? Contrary to popular opinion. are children attend- ing overseas schools more ethnocentric than their counterparts in the United States? The commonly held opinion is that their association in a multicultural environment will create a global consciousness in students. Some researchers have investigated the potential of the overseas schools to promote international understanding. Many of the following works focused on cross-cultural interactions in the»overseas schools and examined the forces that promote or inhibit those inter- actions. Beans (1968) studied the history and development of the Ameri- can School in sao Paulo. Brazil. and evaluated the effectiveness of the school in contributing to world understanding. Wenner (1970) studied the cross-cultural interaction patterns of Department of Defense School members in the host culture. Wright (1979) participated in the daily school activities in selected schools in the Far East and studied the interactions of American. host-country. and third-country youths. Hager (1978) conducted a case study of the American School of the Hague and explored the values. attitudes. and norms of the individuals there. In contrast to the belief that students share the culture and customs of the host nation. Hager noted that even though the school had a 160 multinational population. "throughout the school day. the child had been almost completely insulated and isolated from the Dutch culture." and that with only a few exceptions. "students did not integrate into activities involving Dutch students" (p. 231). He concluded that ”very little interaction takes place between students of the American school and students of the host culture" (p. 234). Wolf (1968) had also noted in her study of a military base in Turkey that "keeping the children American presented no problems in these schools or in the community. since their exposure to the country in which they lived was so minimal as to have little positive effect" (p. 220). Social adjustment patterns and manifestations of worl dminded- ness of overseas-experienced youths were studied by Gleason (1969). Data were compiled on overseas-experienced college undergraduates by the use of a questionnaire. Items from the questionnaire were selected for describing social adjustment and for developing an index of world- mindedness. The index of worl dmindedness was derived from items exploring such areas as desire for future location. for pursuing an occupation. place for establishing a home. places where they felt at home. and associations with foreign students. The students were placed into four categories. which were determined by the overseas employer of their parents: Department of Defense. federal-civilian. business. and missionary. Gleason found that missionary dependents ranked first on the Index of Worl dmindedness. with Department of Defense. business. and federal-civilian dependents following in that order. Indications of positive worl dmindedness seemed to be associated with the sponsorship 161 of parents. the number of years abroad. and the length of stay in a foreign country. Using data from the same questionnaires as Gleason. Krajewski (1969) analyzed those items related to academic adjustment in college of overseas-experienced American youths. Krajewski concluded that the federal-civilian dependents demonstrated the highest level of academic adjustment because of the closeness of their reported self-perceptions to actual performance. while the dependents of missionary parents were seen to fare the worst. It is worthwhile noting that one of the major findings of both Gleason's and Krajewski's studies was that the most important variable in defining their population was the sponsorship of their parents while abroad. Limited research has been conducted in the area of frequent geographic mobility of military families and the effect on children. According to Hunter and Nice (1975). children in the military community experience the same general developmental and maturational processes as other children. but they also experience certain stresses that are present in and unique to the military environment. They stated: ”The commonly accepted stresses associated with the military way of life are geographic mobility. transcultural experiences. transient father absence. and early military retirement" (p. 3). The adjustment experiences of military personnel and their dependents have been studied by a few researchers. Darnauer (1970). after conducting interviews with 60 adolescents 16 to 18 years of age. 162 found that the majority of them believed the most negative effect of military life was the mobility of the family. Khleif (1970) investigated the mobility. academic achievement. social adjustment. and sel f-concept of sixth-grade military dependents. He found that mobile military dependents tended to achieve at a higher level than other children in the same schools; tended to name more friends outside the immediate school and classroom; and although the study did not examine the nature of the building of their sel f- concepts. the higher-mobility students appeared to show a higher proportion of sel f-commendati on than others. Ratcliff (1969) studied the relationship between academic achievement and pupil mobility and found that the effects of mobility appeared to be greatest "when moves are between areas of different habits and values. and adjustments to these new habits and values may be more difficult to achieve" (p. 22). Ratcliff also noted that a major factor in the adjustment experiences of the students may be the parental attitudes toward mobility. O'Connell (1981) attempted to analyze the relationship between mobility and personality characteristics of ninth— and twel fth-grade military dependents in Germany and Fort Riley. Kansas. After using the California Psychological Inventory to assess l7 personality character- istics. O'Connell concluded that "there was no significant relationship between mobility measured over a child's entire lifetime and his per- sonality characteristics with the exception of the trait dominance (p < .05)" (p. 87). This led him to state that "claims that mobility 163 impacts negatively on the adolescent personality may be exaggerated" (p. 92). Since sel f-esteem and self-concept have been suggested as related to an individual's willingness to accept other people of different cultures. it is worthwhile noting that some studies have been done on both military and civilian students in grades five through seven to determine the effects of mobility on a child's sel f-concept and social adjustment. The overwhelming majority of these studies supported the conclusion that regardless of age. mobility does not have a negative effect on a child's self-concept and social adjustment (Coopersmith. 1967; Hatmaker. 1977; Purkey. 1970; Smith. 1975; Vincent. 1977). O'Shea (1984) surveyed military parents stationed overseas and analyzed their attitudes toward the relocation process. self and interpersonal relations. and the Department of Defense Dependents Schools during their tour of duty in Okinawa. Japan. The researcher found that (a) the longer the family service in their tour of duty. the greater would be their satisfaction with that tour; (b) the length of time in military service was not a factor in the family's satisfaction with the tour of duty; (c) the higher the rank of the enlisted member was not a significant factor in the family's level of satisfaction; and (d) higher-ranked officer personnel were more satisfied with the tour of duty than lower-ranked officers and all enlisted personnel. Two conclusions were drawn from this study: (a) there was less disagree- ment with statements related to the Department of Defense Schools than 164 with relocation and self and others. and (b) insufficient information before and during the tour is a critical factor in a lower level of satisfaction. Hess (1971) attempted to determine the effect of the overseas experience on selected images and attitudes of American youths abroad. Students in grades seven through twelve were surveyed in one location at a suburban stateside school and in one overseas American school. Of interest in this particular study was the finding that those with the overseas experience expressed a broader world view and a diminished ”ideal" image of the United States. However. this finding was not significantly associated with any other factor such as age. sex. time abroad. amount of personal interaction with foreigners. or socioeco- nomic status. The researcher did not use the sponsorship of the stu- dent's parent as a factor in the study. Duffey (1976) studied the international understanding of Ameri- can students in two American-sponsored overseas schools to determine whether those students possessed a higher degree of international understanding than students without overseas experience. He used atti- tude surveys. which were administered to students in the two overseas schools and in one United States school. He found that students who had lived overseas a year or more scored significantly higher on the Worl dmindedness Scale than the control group of students. who had had no international experience. These findings confirmed those of Gleason (1969). 165 Downie (1976) explored the reentry experiences and identity formation of third-culture-experienced dependent American youths who had graduated from overseas American schools and returned to the United States to attend college. The study produced a number of significant findings: They were: 1. These TCKs (students) "set aside their third-culture expe- rience" because their peers could not relate to it. 2. These youths became socially marginal; that is. they became "a part of and apart from" the mainstreams of their peer groups at college. Although the students desired and pursued friendships. they felt the relationships would be short-lived. 3. The students demonstrated an ability to cope with and adapt to entering their overseas environment but had ambivalent feelings toward their own country. 4. They experienced difficulty in finding an identifiable group to which they could relate upon return to the United States. 5. The long-range plans of these students included life styles and career goals that would involve them in international life. Hensley and others (l9780 attempted to determine the effect of a semester-abroad political science program on the attitudes and behav- i or of 52 students in a 1977 Kent State University-Geneva semester program. The researchers' hypothesis was that positive attitude changes on worl dmindedness would (a) occur among students participating in the studybabroad program. (b) relate positively to the enjoyment of the students' overall experience. and (c) relate positively to the 166 closeness of contact with non-Americans. The responses to the ques- tionnaires were compared with responses of 17 students in a class on campus. The conclusion of this study was that a relatively brief experience in another culture has a limited effect on attitudes such as worldmindedness and ethnocentrism. A major implication of the study was that claims about the potential of overseas-study programs to produce attitude and behavioral changes among student participants should be given careful scrutiny. Some studies undertaken by doctoral students have focused on cross-cultural interaction in the overseas school setting. Beimer (l972) studied the relationship of cross-cultural interactions to attitudes of "concerned worldmindedness" held by multinational student groups at the American High School in Mexico City and found that length of stay abroad and personal interaction were associated with scale values of worldmindedness. She made the following recommendations for future study and program development: Overseas school personnel need to define their role in promoting positive cross-cultural experiences. They need to build into their stated goals and purposes a new and stronger commitment to i nterna- tional education and to positive cross-cultural experiences. iihen they have accepted this renewed commitment. they can look at their programs in both the studied and the unstudied curricula to see what tasks they face. . . . As a first step. they may want to evaluate the quality and quantity of the cross-cultural interaction that is occurring in their schools. . . . Next they may want to develop programs of action and interaction. (p. 83) Stoddart (1980) explored the idea that the overseas American schools are ideal environments in which to develop international and intercultural understanding. After observing groups in an American overseas school for six months. she noted that groups that maintained 167 positive relationships were those required to work together to achieve a common purpose. She concluded that although the prevalent opinion is that dependents will benefit from the overseas setting of a school. it does not necessarily follow that such an association in a multicultural environment will create a global consciousness in students. Demps (l983) compared the global knowledge. backgrounds. interests. and attitudes of two eighth-grade populations in an overseas setting. One group comprised students in a Department of Defense School. and the other group attended an international school. Both schools were in Japan. The study was a replication of the (MOP study conducted by the Educational Testing Service in l974 in the United States. The maJor results of the study were: 1. Students in the Department of Defense School selected a significantly higher number of countries to study and visit than did students in the international school. indicating that these students viewed other nations and people significantly more positively than did the international school students. 2. The general level of global information was the same for both groups. but this level of performance was significantly higher than that of students participating in the 1974 study. with males performing higher than females on the knowledge test. 3. In spite of these students' involvement in a foreign setting. they proved to be not much better informed about their world than were students who had never left the United States. 168 WWW Many authors have stressed that the teacher is a vital compo- nent in any successful program to develop world perspectives in stu- dents. However. few studies have attempted to assess the global knowledge and attitudes of teachers. Many facts could have contributed to the lack of research in this area. but one of the most frequently cited reasons in the literature pertains to the change process within teachers. Change in teacher behavior to foster global perspectives in students is one of the most difficult educational alterations to bring into effect. It would appear that since global education programs will require teachers to change. it is important that teachers understand those factors that have made classrooms change-resistant. Hansen (1980) outlined nine reasons why classrooms remain change-resistant sociopolitical units: the majority of the reasons dealt with how both the teacher and society view the teacher as a professional. Arends et al. (1978) pointed out that the procedures for assessing needs are inadequate and raise some'moral questions. They cited the following difficulties relative to needs assessment: l. Most often. when asked to self-diagnose. the teacher does not know how. It is difficult for any person to self-diagnose. 2. Very often. the responses teachers give tend to be repre- sentative of the group rather than the individual self. rationalizing that teachers at large need such and such. 3. There is sometimes a time lag in the needs assessment. and in that time frame. new and more important needs erupt. 169 4. At times. certain predominant issues in education that are in vogue at the time become the W need rather than the felt need. The change factor has implications for those teachers who work in the unique environment of an overseas school as well. Some authors have expressed the opinion that the overseas school cannot achieve its goals when the teachers and administrators are not adequately prepared to work in an overseas environment. An initial input experienced by the individual who arrives in any foreign country is culture shock. This phenomenon was described by Oberg (reported in McNeil. l971): Culture shock is precipitated by anxiety that results from scram- bling our family signs and symbols of social intercourse. The signs or cues include the thousand and one ways in which we orient ourselves to the situation of daily life: when to shake hands and what to say when we meet people. when to give tips. how to make purchases. when to accept and when to refuse invitations. when to take statements seriously . . . these cues which may be words. gestures or facial expressions . . . which we do not carry in the level of conscious awareness. (p. 452) Although Oberg implied that culture shock is transitory. the initial effect of culture shock must be overcome before an individual can expect to begin the process of adjusting to the overseas area. Other factors such as the temporary suspension of a customary American lifestyle and a distortion of the distance from the United States may add to an individual's feeling of insecurity and isolation in a foreign country. A few researchers have attempted to analyze the personality characteristics of overseas educators. Vest (197l) analyzed selected personality traits of overseas school 5' administrators. while Schackow 170 (l97l) concentrated on the personality characteristics of the American teachers in overseas schools. King (1968liattempted to define the methods of selecting and recruiting educators to teach in overseas schools. He recommended that new faculty members of overseas schools receive a comprehensive orientation to offset their lack of knowledge about the country and community to which they are assigned. Wieber (T982) conducted an assessment of the global knowledge of the teaching staff of the American International School in Vienna. Austria. Biographical material from the K-12 staff of 65 were col- lected and compared to their knowledge of global issues. Major results of the study were: l. Math and science teachers scored higher on the knowledge test of global issues than teachers of elementary K-S grades. foreign language. or humanities. with the K-5 teachers scoring lowest. 2. Education majors scored lowest on the global knowledge test when compared to teachers with majors in mathematics. science. social science. or foreign language. 3. There was a significant correlation between both the number of countries teachers visited or lived in. the length of time spent in such places. and their performance on the test of global knowledge. 4. No relationship existed between the performance of those teachers who spoke a foreign language and those who did not. Wing Several writers have addressed the subject of the discrepancy between the assumed potential for the overseas schools to attain goals 171 of intercultural communication and the reality of such attainment. For all practical purposes. however. the question of the nature of the effect of the overseas experience on students remains open. and little or no attention has been given beyond the studies noted. Since relatively little information exists on the actual status of global education within the Department of Defense Overseas Schools in their unusual setting. the present study. by attempting to focus attention on this particular group of students. may add to the research on the interests. knowledge. attitudes. and perceptions of American school children toward other countries and other peoples. Whether experience abroad. either visiting other countries or actually living outside the United States. leads to global understand- ing is a question that has not yet been conclusively answered. Although overseas experiences would appear to be related to increasing knowledge about other nations and other peoples. the exact extent of the relationship has not been determined. It would seem to be a reasonable assumption that the Department of Defense Overseas Schools could be considered an excellent medium for the promotion of worldminded attitudes because there are opportunities for students to interact with individuals from the host countryu The American overseas school would appear to be an important resource for the promotion of intercultural interaction in the overseas environment. However. the potential for students in the overseas schools to serve in the role of cultural mediators has not been sufficiently recognized. As Downie (l976) reminded us: 172 It seems trite to say again that our increasingly interdependent world needs those individuals who can relate to the many cross- cultural and trans-national demands of today and of the future. We have come to recognize the value of programs such as study abroad and the Peace Corps in developing interests in international work. These are some of the important resources for internationally experienced and globally oriented people. Equally important as a resource are these youth who experience foreign societies and cultures through their dependent status on parents who are already involved in relating societies to each other. (pp. 242-43) Sumarx This chapter reviewed the literature on the historical back- ground of global education; the definitions. goals. and issues of global education; the research studies related to students' developmen- tal readiness: and research on students living in an overseas environ- ment. Global education. or education for international understanding. is not a recent idea but has its roots in ancient history. However. based on the increasing interdependence of today‘s world. the need for programs designed to educate»American young people today and in the 'hnmediate future to be responsible and effective citizens in the world of tomorrow has gained new. importance. Although "i nterdependence" is not a new phenomenon. the heightened perception and awareness of it in relation to the present world situation has generated interest in assessing current levels of global-civic literacy and devisinglnethods to prepare youths to live in an interdependent global society. Perhaps the biggest impetus for global education came from the establishment of the President's Commission on Foreign Language and International Studies in 1978 by President Carter. The final report presented a 173 dismal picture of the decline of foreign languages and international studies in the l9705. The Commission recommended that increased efforts to foster global awareness be undertaken at all levels of the American educational system. These recommendations were directed to the federal and state governments: to schools. colleges. and universi- ties; and to the public at large. Despite this attempt to focus atten- tion on global education. the early l9805 found little support for the Commission's recommendations. It is quite possible that eventually there will be more interest in promoting global education as there is an increased need for the nation to prepare internationally sophisti- cated citizens who can more effectively serve the political. economic. and social needs of the country and the world. There is a wide diversity of opinion as to the definition. goals. and rationale of global education. but as with any interdisci- plinary field. it takes some time to establish coherent theories. conceptual frameworks. and solid baseline data. There is now a growing awareness of the concept of global education. and more individuals are calling for the inclusion of a global component into all aspects of elementary and secondary curricula. Attempting to carry out the broad goals of global education within the standard curriculum has a number of problems. and a great many authors and educators have addressed these problems. Developing an international perspective means differ- ent things to different people. and the concept has undergone contin- uous evolution. 174 Research on the development of children's attitudes toward other nations and peoples has shown that middle childhood (grades three through eight) is an important period for educators to provide activi- ties and opportunities for students to develop global perspectives. Since the period from approximately 8 to T4 years of age seems to be most crucial in the development of attitudes toward people of other cultures and nations. the primary and middle schools have a vital role to play in fostering a greater awareness. understanding. and apprecia- tion of other cultures. Since much learning takes place outside the formal school system. "agencies of socialization" other than the school must be recognized as playing important roles in a student's education. Although there is not a great deal of data available. it has been hypothesized that young people's knowledge and attitudes about other lands and people. about global events. and the whole range of "inter- dependence" issues are influenced by the mass media--possibly to a greater extent than by the school curriculunu Since the end of World War II. large numbers of American students have been living in overseas environments. Researchers have indicated that studies conducted on these students could contribute greatly to the body of knowledge that will be used to design effective global education programs. However. research assessing these students' knowledge and attitudes toward other nations and peoples. as well as research that examines the role and influence of their intercultural experiences. has been minimal. 175 Education for a global perspective cannot be entered into lightly in a nation where. historically. attitudes toward the rest of the world have often been negative and isolationist. That American students understand their own nation--its history and its political and economic institutions--is cruciaJ. but at the same time. Americans need to recognize and appreciate the many variations in human cultures that exist worldwide. As mentioned previously. global education concepts can be incorporated or integrated into the entire curriculum. regard- less of where the school is located. What is important is the teaching of ecological. sociological. psychological. and anthropological con- cepts regarding the interrelatedness and interdependency of the human species. CHAPTER III RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY This chapter contains an explanation of the methodology used in conducting this study. The purpose of this section is to describe the basic elements of the sampling plan and to outline the procedures used in the data collection. The first section contains a brief description of the Department of Defense School System from which the participating subjects of the study were selected and a discussion of the general population from which they were drawn. Section two includes a discus- sion of the procedures used in the data collection and a description of the test instrument. In the last section. data-analysis procedures are explained and the null hypotheses are stated. W The Department of Defense Dependents Schools (DODDS) is a worldwide system of public education that has been established for the children of the military and civilian personnel assigned to the United States military bases located outside the boundaries of the United States. Although the DODDS system is one of the United States' largest school systems (it was ranked eleventh in l981). it is not as well- known as other large school districts because of its unique aspect of I76 177 being spread around the entire globe. This particular segment of American public education comprises approximately 270 elementary. mid- dle. junior high. and high schools. and a community college. The schools are located in 20 countries around the world. with an enroll- ment of about l36.000 students. and are staffed with approximately ll.OOO employees (Department of Defense Dependents Schools. 1983). It is unlikely that any other nation has as many of its children in grades K-lZ in schools outside its own boundaries. The overseas schools vary in size and receive support from the Department of Defense (DOD). Established in 1946. the system expanded quickly from the first schools. which were located in Germany in a few makeshift buildings. to become'one of the largest American public school systems. The present organizational arrangement for the admin- istration of the Department of Defense Schools has evolved from a somewhat fragmented system with close ties to the three military departments into a reorganized system under the Secretary of Defense. The overseas component of the administrative organization of the schools comprises five regions. which correspond to specific command structures of U.S. military forces. These regions are the Atlantic Region. which includes schools in Belgium. Bermuda. Canada (Newfound- land). Cuba (Guantanamo Bay). England. Iceland. the Netherlands. Nor- way. Scotland. and the British West Indies CAntigua); the Germany Region; the Mediterranean Region. which includes the Azores. Bahrain. Greece. Italy. Spain. and Turkey: the Pacific Region. including Japan. 178 Korea. Okinawa (Japan). and the Philippines; and the Panama Region. (See Figure l.) DOD DEPENDENTS SCHOOL (ALEXANDRIA VIRGINIA) TOTAL: 135.624 STUDENTS 273 SCHOOLS poops - PACIFIC (OKINAWA. JAPAN) 21.741 STUDENTS 4O SCHOOLS 1 00005 . PANAMA i (ALBROOK AIR FORCE BASE) 7.968 STUDENTS 16 SCHOOLS DODDS - ATTANTIC (LONDON. UNITED KINGDOM) 14.856 STUDENTS 4O SCHOOLS DODDS - NORTH GERMANY (WIESBADEN) DODDS - MEDITERRANEAN (MADRID. SPAIN) 13.805 STUDENTS 34 SCHOOLS 43.640 STUDENTS 76 SCHOOLS DODDS - GERMANY SOUTH (KARLSRUHE) 33.614 STUDENTS 67 SCHOOLS Figure l.--Organizational structure of the DODDS system. (From Depart- ment of Defense Dependents Schools. [Washington. D.C.: Department of Defense. l982]. p. 64.) 179 In attempting to meet the needs of a student population that varies in background and heritage as widely as the regions within the United States from which they come. the courses of study parallel those of stateside public schools. and standard textbooks are used. The North Central Association (NCA) is the accrediting agency for DODDS. and therefore certain standards must be met in an effort to provide quality educational programs for dependents of United States military and civilian personnel living overseas. DODDS provides a booklet entitled DOOM mm. which compares DODDS schools with other member schools of the NCA. This publication can provide the interested reader with comparative statistics of therDODDS and NCA schools. Since the DODDS are a vital element in preserving the continuity of education for children in overseas areas. their task is to offer a quality education that is equal to or better than a compar- able system in the United States. A number of features of the DODDS set it apart and give it a uniqueness not found in the many thousand public school systems in existence in the United States. One feature that possibly has important implications for the implementation of a global perspective into the curriculum is the distinction of having widely diverse faculties in all of the schools. The teachers and administrators in the DODDS are variegated groups and quite possibly represent nearly every state in the Union and certainly every major geographical region of the United States. In addition. the DODDS system has a unique host nation or intercultural program that uses the schools! locations in 180 foreign countries to give students the opportunity to become aware of and learn first-hand about other cultures. The teachers of this intercultural education program are host-nation teachers (people native to the country in which the school is located). Thus. students in the Defense Department schools are exposed daily to a great cross- section of the American population. as well as to representatives of their host nation. It may be worthwhile noting that. considering its obviously important place in the history of American public education--literally hundreds of thousands of American students have received at least a portion of their elementary and/or secondary education in the Depart- ment of Defense schools and thus have been exposed. at least. to vari- ous cultures that most American students only read or hear about through the media--it is remarkable that there are so few studies on this unique organization to date. The few studies that have been undertaken are either quite dated (i.e.. conducted in l965 or earlier) or have tended to have a very narrow focus (Delaney. T983). Win The three schools from which the randomly selected student population was drawn serve all three branches of the military services-- Air Force. Army. and Navy including Marines-as well as the civilian population. which comprises those Americans who are employed by the DOD or by the DODDS. (The term "civilian" should not be confused with the 181 term "local national." which is used to describe the non-Amemican population of Okinawa.) The intermediate-level school. comprising grades four. five. and six. from which the fourth-grade population was drawn. is termed a "feeder school" because of the process by which students are absorbed into the eight DOD schools located on Okinawa. After arriving on Okinawa. new students in the fourth. fifth. or sixth grades are enrolled in this school until such time as the family is located in permanent quarters. The students may or may not remain at this school permanently. depending on which housing area the family is assigned permanent living quarters. This particular intermediate school was a relatively new facility. having opened in August l980. Enrollment figures fluctuated between 760 and 800 students. with 248 fourth graders distributed in nine classrooms at the time of the testing. The two other schools are both made up of grades seven through twelve and also have a representation of students from the three branches of the services as well as dependents of the nonmilitary or civilian population. The larger of the schools had an enrollment of approximately 900 students. whereas the other's enrollment fluctuated around 850 students. All three schools provided cultural and social opportunities for students to have positive experiences with the Okinawan and Japanese people. Japanese/Okinawan-culture classes were part of the school curriculum at the elementary level. and Japanese-language 182 classes were offered at the secondary schools. Field trips to cultural and historical places on the island were customary. In the l974 ONOP study. students in participating schools were invited to take part in the study and were informed that their partici- pation would be entirely voluntary. Parents or guardians of each selected student were informed of the study and given the opportunity to ask that their child not be included in the study if they had any objection to his or her participation. When selecting students for the study conducted in the DOD schools on Okinawa. the following procedures were followed. It should be noted that the differences in selection procedures followed in conducting the testing occurred because of the conditions imposed on the research study by the University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects (UCRIHS) and the Deputy Director for the DODDS in the Pacific Region. (See Appendix B.) UCRIHS set certain conditions that had to be met before the test could be administered to the student population overseas. Each student was to be given a letter inviting him or her to participate in the study but assuring each of them that nothing would happen to them if they chose not to participate. In addition to the student letter. a parental letter detailing the nature of the test and requesting a signed consent form from each parent or guardian giving permission for their child to take the test was sent home» Students were encouraged to participate but were free not to participate without recrimination. (See Appendix C.) 183 The Deputy Director of the DODDS in the Pacific Region gave approval for the research contingent on advanced approval from principals. teachers. parents. and students and their understanding that their participation would be entirely voluntary. Therefore. to increase the efficiency of data collection and to reduce the potential effect of the testing on teachers and students. letters inviting pupils to participate in the study were distributed in three of the nine fourth-grade classes. in five eighth-grade social studies classes. and in three twelfth-grade social studies classes. It would appear worthwhile to mention the numerous conditions that had to be met in order to be able to proceed with this research. to emphasize that even attempting to conduct an extension of a study that already had been done on a particular population did not neces- sarily mean that the study would not undergo certain changes when conducting it on a similar population. As is the case with many stud- ies. the possibility of changes in procedures is always present when a researcher is dealing with various bureaucratic and administrative organizations. Since this study was an extension of a portion of the study conducted by the United States Office of Education and the Educational Testing Service (ETS) in l974. the same instruments were used as in the ONOP survey. The ETS granted permission to use the test instruments and provided a set of test booklets that could be reproduced. The test instruments had been validated and national norms established in the 1974 survey. (See Appendix D.) 184 All student measures were designed for pencil-and-paper admin- istration. The researcher conducted all of the testing sessions in an attempt to standardize the data collection and remove the possibility of bias resulting from nonstandard instructions. the coaching of some of the students involved in the study. or variations in degrees of assistance given pupils during the testing. Four student survey instruments were used at each grade level. They were parallel in content and format and included a background and interests questionnaire. a knowledge test. and separate measures of attitudes toward and perceptions of other nations and peoples. The full set required a maximum time for completion of 60 minutes for fourth graders and 80 minutes for eighth and twelfth graders. In most instances. the measures for the two higher grades were identical. while the measures for the fourth graders were adapted as necessary to ensure that they were age and grade appropriate. 'The data were collected over a three-month period in l982. Table l.--l982.91neL_Na119ns._chen_Eerles sample demographics. Grade 4 Grade 8 Grade 12 43 females 44 females 27 females ZLmales éLmales 3.0.ma1es 64 total 92 total 57 total 185 Table 2.--Student background information--entire population (in percent) (N = 213). 4th 8th 12th Student Background Grade Grade Grade Students born in the United States 59.4% 70.7% 50.9% Students able to read or speak a foreign language 40.6 51.1 57.7 Fathers born in the United States 84.4 92.3 89.1 Mothers born in the United States 56.3 55.4 58.9 Mothers born in Japan 9.4 9.8 19.6 Mothers born on Okinawa 4.7 12.0 10.7 Parents regularly speaking English Not at home Avail. 81.5 86.0 Students living on Okinawa five years or more N/A 14.1 43.9 W The fourth-grade sample was drawn from nine fourth-grade classrooms. A total of 64 students. 43 females and 21 males. were selected and received the required permission to take the test from their sponsors. While over half (59.4%) of the fourth graders in this study had been born in the United States. a number had been born outside the United States. Some of the countries listed as student birthplaces were Japan/Okinawa. the Philippines. Taiwan. Vietnam. Thailand. South Korea. Spain. England. Scotland. and West Germany (Table 3). Given the fact that the military has or until recently did 186 have bases in these countries. this is not unusual with military dependents. However. when compared to the relatively small percentage of students in the 1974 study who had been born outside of the United States. the number becomes more significant. Whether or not this will be a factor in influencing attitudes and perceptions of other countries remains to be seen. Table 3.--Birthplaces of fourth-grade students and parents in the 1982 00005 population (in percent). 4th Grade Country Students Fathers Mothers (n = 64) United States 59.4% 84.4% 56.3% West Germany -- 4.7 1.6 Philippines 7.8 6.3 15.6 Japan 9.4 -- 9.4 Okinawa 3.1 -- 4.7 Mexico -- 1.6 1.6 Taiwan 3.1 -- 3.1 South Korea 3.1 -- 3.1 Thailand 1.6 -- 3.1 Hungary -- 1.6 -- Malaysia -- -- 1.6 Puerto Rico 1.6 -- -- Scotland 1.6 -— -- Spain 3.1 -- -- England 1.6 -- -- Vietnam 1.6 -- -- Bermuda 1.6 -- -- Guam 1.6 -- -- Not available -- 1.6 -- 187 These students were all American citizens of Caucasian. Black. Japanese-American. and mixed parentage. Their parents were military members of the Air Force. Army. Navy. and Marines; DOD civilians; or employees of other U.S. government agencies. A greater majority of the fathers of the fourth graders (84.4%) had been born in the United States. whereas only a little over half (56.3%) of the mothers had been born in the United States. Although cross-cultural marriage is a steadily increasing phenomenon in the modern world. the number of military members choosing spouses from other countries has been rel a- tively high. Ruth Hill Useem of Michigan State University estimated that about one-third of the children in the Pacific DODDS area are the children of cross-cultural marriages. Therefore. since the population of this study was drawn from a section of the DODDS Pacific Region. it was reasonable to expect a fairly high number of foreign birthplaces for parents. especially mothers. Some of the different countries listed were Japan/Okinawa. the Philippines. Taiwan. Thailand. South Korea. Vietnam. West Germany. Mexico. Malaysia. and Hungary. Out of a total of 64 students. approximately 27 mothers and S fathers had been born outside the United States (Table 3). Some of the fourth graders could speak a foreign language. Not surprisingly. Japanese was the language spoken most often (14.1%). followed by Tagalog (7.8%)lFilipino (6.3%). which are the same language but called by two different names by students. As with the fourth-grade students. besides English. the major language spoken by the parents was Japanese (21.9%). followed by Spanish (17.2%) and 188 Tagalog (10.9%)/Filipino (7.8%). The languages listed corresponded to the countries listed as parents' birthplaces. Some of the others listed were Chinese. Thai. Korean. Malaysian. German. Italian. and Hungarian (Table 4). It is worthwhile noting that not as many fourth- grade students admitted to speaking another language as there were parents who spoke a foreign language. After having observed a signifi- cant number of students who enter school with English as a Second Language (ESL). it would appear that the mother had been speaking her native language in the home. and in many cases this became the child's first language. It should be noted. however. that by the time a child reaches the intermediate grades. he or she may not admit to being able to speak the mother's language for fear of being "different" from his or her peers. A little more than one-third of the fourth graders rated them- selves as "A/B" students. whereas 18.8% described themselves as "mostly A" and 18.8% were "BIC" students (Table 5). flamers The eighth-grade sample was drawn from five eighth-grade social studies classes. A total of 92 students. 44 females and 48 males. were selected and returned the signed parental consent forms. A large number (70.7%) of the eighth graders had been born in the United States. but other countries listed as birthpl aces were Japan/Okinawa. the Philippines. Thailand. Korea. England. Guam. Australia. and Ber- muda. These countries also correspond to those countries where the United States military has or had military bases. A majority of the 189 Table 4.--Foreign languages spoken by parents and students (in percent). 4th Grade 8th Grade 12th Grade Language Spoken Parent Student Parent Student Parent Student None other 34.4% -- 44.6% -- 45.6% -- Japanese 21.9 14.1 25.0 30.4 33.3 42.1 Chinese 3.1 3.1 1.1 1.1 -- -- Korean 3.1 3.1 3.3 2.2 3.5 3.5 Vietnamese -- -- -- -- 1.8 -- Tagalog 10.9 7.8 2.2 2.2 -- -- Filipinoa 7.8 6.3 4.3 2.2 1.8 -- Thai 3.1 1.6 2.2 2.2 -- -- German 3.1 1.6 7.6 4.3 3.5 3.5 Italian 4.7 -- 1.1 2.2 1.8 1.8 Spanish 17.2 6.3 9.8 19.6 -- 5.3 French 1.6 -- 5.4 4.3 5.3 5.3 Hungarian 1.6 -- -- -- -- -- Malaysian 1.6 -- -- -- -- -- Taiwanese 1.6 -- -- -- -- -- Indian -- -- .1 1.1 -- -- Hogan (Okinawan) -- -- 1.1 1.1 -- -- Greek -- -- -- 2.2 -- -- Gaelic -- -- 1.1 -- -- -- aSome students used this term instead of the term "Tagalog." Table 5.--Class standing of students in sample (in percent). School Grades 4th Grade 8th Grade 12th Grade Mostly A's 18.8% 7.6% 14.0% Half A's. half B's 39.1 21.7 28.1 Mostly B's 12.5 10.9 29.8 Half B's. half C's 18.8 30.4 15.8 Mbstly C's 7.8 13.0 5.3 lialf C's. half D's 1.6 12.0 5.3 Mostly D's 0.0 1.1 0.0 Mostly below D's 0.0 2.2 0.0 Ungraded system 1.6 -- -- ‘_ 190 eighth graders (22.8% of the males and 22.8% of the females) had lived Inore than ten years in the United States (Table 6). An almost equal number of them (21.7% of the males and 19.6% of the females) had lived from one to two years on Okinawa. while 6.5% of the males and 6.5% of the females had lived five years or more on Okinawa (Table 7). Table 6.--Length of time lived in the United States (in percent). Grade Length of Time Male Female 8 Less than 5 years 12.0% 5.4% (n = 92) Between 5 and 10 years 16.3 19.6 More than 10 years 22.8 22.8 Table 7.--Length of stay on Okinawa (in percent). Grade Length of Stay Male Female 8 Less than 1 year 14.1% 15.2% (n = 92) 1-2 years 21.7 19.6 3-4 years 9.8 6.5 5 years or more 6.5 6.5 The students in the sample were all American citizens of Caucasian. Black. Oriental. Hispanic. and mixed parentage. Their parents were either members of one of the four military services or employees of the DOD or other United States government agencies. A great majority of the fathers of the eighth graders (92.4%) had been 191 born in the United States. whereas only 55.4% of the mothers had been born in the United States. Some of the foreign bi rthplaces for mothers were Okinawa (12.0%). Japan (9.8%). West Germany (5.4%). the Philip- pines (4.3%). and other countries such as England. Thailand. Guam. Korea. Bermuda. India. Morocco. Ireland. and Brazil (Table 8% Table 8.--Birthp1aces of eighth-grade students and parents in the 1982 DODDS population (in percent). 8th Grade Country Students Fathers Mothers (n = 92) United States 70.7% 92.4% 55.4% England 1.1 -- 2.2 Philippines 3.3 1.1 4.3 Thailand 2.2 1.1 2.2 Guam 1.1 1.1 1.1 Okinawa 7.6 -- 12.0 Korea 2.2 -- 2.2 Australia 1.1 -- -- Japan 9.8 -- 9.8 Bermuda 1.1 -- 1.1 India -- 1.1 1.1 Panama -- 1.1 -- Morocco -- -- 1.1 Ireland -- . -- 1.1 West Germany -- 1.1 5.4 China -- 1.1 5.4 Brazil -- -- 1.1 A number of the eighth graders spoke a foreign language. with almost one-third (30.4%) listing that they spoke Japanese. Spanish was the second language spoken for 19.6%. Other languages spoken were German. French. Greek. Italian. Korean. Tagalog or Filipino. Thai. 192 Indian. and the Okinawan dialect (Hogan). Over half of their parents spoke foreign languages. with 25% speaking Japanese. 9.8% speaking Spanish. and others speaking German (7.6%). French (5.4%). Tagalog (2.2%)lFilipino (4.3%). and Korean (3.3%). Other languages listed were Chinese. Thai. Italian. Indian. Gaelic. and the Okinawan dialect (Table 4). Some of the eighth graders had studied a foreign language. the most popular being Japanese (48.9%). followed by Spanish (29.3%). French (5.4%). and German (5.4%) (Table 9). Table 9.--Foreign languages studied by eighth and twelfth graders (in percent). Foreign Language 8th Grade 12th Grade Spanish 29.3% 29.8% French 5.4 26.3 German 5.4 5.3 Russian 0.0 0.0 Latin 1.1 5.3 Japanese 48.9 54.4 Filipinoa 2.2 0.0 Tagalog 1.1 0.0 Chinese 0.0 3.5 Italian 0.0 1.8 Greek 1.1 0.0 Hebrew 1.1 0.0 Korean 1.1 0.0 None 25.0 8.8 aSome students used this term instead of the term "Tagalog." 193 About one-third of the eighth graders (30.4%) described them- selves as "B/C" students (Table 5). Only 7.6% rated themselves as "mostly A" students. while 21.7% described themselves as "A/B" stu- dents. The majority of the eighth graders (94.6%) had taken U.S. history. whereas 47.8% had studied geography. 44.6% had studied world problems. and 42.4% had studied world history (Table 10). Table lO.--Subjects studied by eighth and twelfth graders in the sample (in percent). Subjects Studied 8th Grade 12th Grade U.S. history European history Asian history African history World history Geography Sociology Anthropology Economics Government Political systems World problems 0 4h 0 O a bh #UD‘INWWCD O dwqumbowwm§ O O O O‘Nowwwmhwwq #NN-l #NU'IO‘ o o Wan: The twel fth-grade sample was drawn from three senior social studies classes. A total of 57 students. 27 females and 30 males. were selected and returned the required consent forms. Twelfth-grade participation might have been higher had not several of the students "forgotten" to return the signed parental consent forms by the time the 194 test was scheduled to be given. Only one-half (50.9%) of the twelfth graders in the sample had been born in the United States. Other countries listed as birthplaces were Japan (14.0%). Okinawa (10.5%). West Germany (8.8%). Korea (7.0%). the Philippines (3.5%). Taiwan (3.5%). and Vietnam (1.8%). The United States military has or at one time had bases in these countries (Table 11). Table 11.--Birthplace of twelfth-grade students and parents in the 1982 DODDS population (in percent). 12th Grade Country Students Fathers Mothers (n = 64) United States 50.9% 89.1% 58.9% Philippines 3.5 1.8 1.8 West Germany 8.0 -- 1.8 Taiwan 3.5 -- -- Japan 14.0 -- l9.6 Okinawa 10.5 -- 10.7 Vietnam 1.8 -- 1.8 Korea 7.0 1.8 3.6 Austria -- 1.8 -- Canada -- 1.8 -- Columbia -- 1.8 -- Italy -- 1.8 1.8 Only 19.3% of the males and 17.5% of the females had spent more than ten years in the United States. whereas 21.1% of the males and TL5% of the females had spent less than five years living in the United States (Table 12). 195 Table 12.--Length of time lived in the United States (in percent). Grade Length of time Male Female 12 Less than 5 years 21.1% 17.5% (n=57) Between 5 and 10 years 12.3 12.3 More than 10 years 19.3 17.5 About one—fourth (24.6%) of the males and 19.3% of the females had spent five years or more on Okinawa. while both 15.8% of the males and 15.8% of the females had spent from one to two years living on Okinawa (Table 13 ) . Table 13.--Length of stay on Okinawa (in percent). Grade Length of Stay Male Female 12 Less than 1 year 7.0% 3.5% (n=57) 1-2 years 15.8 15.8 3-4 years 5.3 8.8 5 years or more 24.6 19.3 The students in the sample were American citizens of Caucasian. Black. Oriental. Hispanic. and mixed parentage. Their parents were either members of one of the four military services or employees of the 000 or other United States government agencies. A majority (89.1%) of the fathers of the twelfth graders had been born in the United States. whereas 58.9% of the mothers had been born in the United States. Some of the foreign birthplaces for the mothers were Japan (19.6%). Okinawa 196 (10.7%). Korea (3.6%). and other countries such as Italy. Vietnam. West Germany. and the Philippines (Table 11). Japanese was the language spoken by 42.1%. followed by Spanish (5.3%). French (5.3%). German (3.5%). Korean (3.5%). and Italian (1.8%). Japanese was also spoken by 33.3% of the parents. Other languages listed were French (5.3%). Korean (3.5%). German (3.5%). Italian. Filipino. and Vietnamese (Table 4). Over half of the twelfth graders (54.4%) had studied Japanese. followed by Spanish (29.8%). French (26.3%). German (5.3%). Latin (5.3%). Chinese (3.5%). and Italian (1.8%). Only 8.8% of the seniors had not studied a foreign language (Table 9). Almost one—third (29.8%) of the twelfth graders described themselves as "mostly B" students. whereas 28.1% rated themselves as "A/B" students (Table 5). A majority (98.2%) of the twelfth graders had taken U.S. history. while 86% had studied world history. 61.4% had studied geography. and only 21.1% of the seniors had studied world problems (Table 10). Wanna: Widow The booklets entitled W W (A-l). (A-2). (A-3) were filled out by the students under the supervision of the researcher. Certain student-independent variables are likely to be related to student interests. attitudes. knowledge and 197 perceptions of other countries and other peoples. They are those characteristics over which the student has no control (i.e.. the sex of the student and certain characteristics of the student's family). These are the variables that are covered in the student background questionnaires along with the student-infl uenced variable. which dealt with academic standing (i.e.. grades received). The first part of the questionnaire dealt with birth date. sex. and academic standing in school. Because intellectual ability is consistently associated with most academic achievement. a sel f-report type of question attempted to provide information about the student's scholastic achievement. In the fourth-grade booklet for the original 1974 study. the descriptions of the student's grades in school were grouped into the following percentages: Highest 25%. Second 25%. Third 25%. and Lowest 25%. Since the fOurth-grade students in the 000 schools were more familiar with letter grades. this question was modified in the fourth-grade booklets to conform to the same format that was used in the eighth- and twel fth-grade booklets and consisted of the letter grades A. B. C. D. and below as well as the numerical equivalents. The rest of the items in the booklet dealt with the student's country of birth. amount of time spent in the United States. amount of time spent overseas. and languages used. It also asked for the country of birth. languages spoken. and occupational level of the student's parents or guardian. This booklet was supplemented by another one entitled 1.9.111: Willis-i. which was completed by the students. 198 They were asked to circle the names of the countries they would most like to visit and the ways other than regular school work that helped them to learn most about other countries (i.e.. television. books. travel. and relativesL The same questions were asked in the booklets for all three grade levels. In addition. the booklets for the eighth and twelfth graders asked about foreign languages and social studies courses taken. nations studied. and the kinds of reading done outside schooL. This information was designed to provide a description of the studentfls interests and background that might have been related to what he/she thought about other nations and other peoples. The students were informed that. as had been stated in the letters to them and their parents. all responses would be kept confidential and that they could leave any questions unanswered if they wished. Identification numbers were also assigned to the booklets to insure anonymity. The completion of this section took approximately 10 to 15 minutes. W The booklet Ware (B-l) for the fourth grade listed 48 paired combinations of ten countries and asked students to mark how similar or different they thought the'countries were from one another. Only five levels of judgment. each labeled with a descriptive term (i.e.. "a little bit different." "different." "very much differ- ent"). were used. This format differed from the eighth— and twel fth- grade booklets. which had seven levels of judgments with only the endpoints and midpoint of the scale labeled. This booklet (B—l) took 15 minutes to complete. 199 The other two perception measures. (B-2) for the eighth grade and (B-3) for the twelfth grade. had identical contents. They pre— sented the students with 72 paired-comparison items among 12 countries and had seven labels of judgments (i.e.. "hardly different." “moder- ately different." "extremely different"). Each of these booklets took about 12 minutes to complete. W W The booklet. W5 (C-l). asked how the student would describe each of the ten countries (how large or small it was. how peaceful or warlike. how rich or poor. and so on). The fourth- grade student was instructed to draw a circle around the words that he/she would use to describe the ten different countries. This booklet took about 20 minutes to complete. and students were encouraged to make their choices quickly. In the booklets. WWW (C-2). (C-3). the 12 countries that appeared in booklets B-2 and B—3 were to be rated by students on scales such as "poor-rich." "democratic-undemocratic." "smal l-large." and so on. Since it has been hypothesized that the people of a country may be viewed quite differently from the country itself. the second half of the booklet contained scales under the headings "The People of the Soviet Union." "The People of Egypt." etc.. for each of the 12 countries. Students were encouraged to decide quickly on their choices. The completion of booklets C-2 and C-3 each took 25 minutes as the contents of the two booklets were identical. 200 Kngfl]fidgfi lest (03]) (0:22 (9:32 The fourth-grade Knowledge Test (D-l) assessed the student's attainment of basic information about six selected nations and the world. The emphasis in the test was on basic information felt to be needed by students in order to have at least a rudimentary knowledge and understanding of current events. Students marked directly in the test booklets. and each of the items was read aloud to the students by the researcher. ‘There were 26 items on the test. and the questions in each academic discipline were classified as follows: 12 geographic items. 3 cultural items. 4 political items. and 7 economic items. ‘This test required 15 minutes to complete. The eighth-grade Knowledge Test (D-2) had a total of 52 items that focused on six of the countries that appeared in earlier sections: the United States. Mexico. the Soviet Union. China. France. and Egypt. Another block of items focused on international or world knowledge. The questions were more difficult than those in the fourth-grade test and covered the following areas: 16 geographic items. 12 cultural. 11 political. and 13 economic items. ‘This test required 32 minutes of total instruction and test time. The twelfth-grade Knowledge Test (D-3) included 50 of the 52 items from booklet D-2 (the two easiest items were dropped) pl us four items too difficult for most eighth graders. for a total of 54 items. The classification was 16 geographic items. 11 cultural. 12 political. and 15 economic items. Individual items on the Knowledge Test.(D-l). (D-3) were identical at more than one grade level whenever possible. 201 One question on the eighth- and twelfth-grade knowledge measures had to be modified. Question 41 in the eighth-grade booklet and Question 43 in the twelfth-grade booklet had to be rewritten because some of the choices were no longer living. The question originally read: "The president of Egypt is." and the choices were Anwar el-Sadat. Hassan Hussein. Gamal Abdul Nasser. and Golda Meir. Therefore. the choices were changed to Hosin Mubarak. Hassan Hussein. Gamal Abdul Nasser. and Ayatollah Khomeini. The students wrote their answers directly in the booklets. and the test required 32 minutes of total instruction and test time. MW Since the students had written directly in the test booklets. the answers were transferred to answer sheets that could be keypunched and then analyzed by means of a computer. Many of the same procedures used by the researchers in the original 1974 ONOP survey were appli- cable to this study. and these measures were used where appropriate. In the Student Interests Questionnaires (A-l). (A-Z). (A—3) the percentage of countries students selected to study and visit was exam- ined. Data were listed in percentages and ranked as to respondents' choices of particular countries to study and visit. These were also compared to the data in the 1974 study. 'T—scores were used to analyze these data. The resources students reported helped them learn about foreign countries were analyzed by Z-scores and chi-square to determine statistically significant differences. Since it was reasonable to 202 assume that the majority of the fourth graders had not spent a signifi- cant amount of time overseas. only the eighth and twelfth graders' length of time overseas was compared to their total knowledge test scores using Pearson's correlation coefficient. Also. the total knowl- edge scores of the three grades were compared. Item scores from the knowledge test were grouped by nations and included a mean and a stand- ard deviation. Tescores were used to analyze the data. The level of significance was set at .05 for all tests. The results of the data analyses are presented in Chapter IV. .flxnnthssss_lested The following null hypotheses were formulated to analyze the data on the selected fourth-. eighth-. and twelfth-grade students in the DODDS. Okinawa. Japan. Data on DODDS students' interest in study- ing and visiting foreign countries. the resources students employed to learn about other countries. and students' global knowledge were ana- lyzed and compared to those students in the 1974 ONOP study. In Chap- ter IV. subhypotheses of each major hypothesis are stated to reflect these comparisons. H0]: There is no significant difference between fourth-. eighth-. and twel fth-grade DODDS students' selections of countries to study and those of the students in the 1975 ONOP study. Hoz: There is no significant difference between fourth-. eighth-. and twel fth-grade DODDS students' selections of countries to visit and those of the students in the 1974 ONOP study. H03: There is no significant difference between selected fourth-. eighth-. and twel fth-grade DODDS students' choices of resources to learn about foreign countries and the resources chosen by students in the 1974 mOP study. 203 H04: There is no significant difference between selected eighth- and twel fth-grade DODDS students' knowledge of the United States and the knowledge of eighth- and twelfth-grade students in the 1974 study. H05: There is no significant difference between selected eighth- and twelfth-grade DODDS students' knowledge of the world and five selected nations--Mexico. France. USSR. China. and Egypt--and the knowledge of students in the 1974 ONOP study. H05: There is no significant difference between the total-item Knowledge Test results of selected fourth-. eighth-. and twelfth-grade DODDS students and the test results of students in the 1974 ONOP study. Sumac): This chapter contained an explanation of the>methodology used in conducting this study. Since the study sample was drawn from the DODDS located on Okinawa. Japan. a brief description of the system was given. Also discussed in this chapter were the procedures followed in the data collection and a description of the test instruments. ‘The last section described the procedures used to analyze the data and listed the null hypotheses formulated for the study. Chapter IV con- tains an analysis of the data gathered in this investigation. CHAPTER IV DATA ANALYSIS The purpose of this research project was to collect. analyze. and compare data related to the degree or extent of global interests. knowledge. and attitudes toward other nations and people among selected fourth-. eighth-. and twelfth-grade students in Department of Defense Dependents Schools (DODDS) located in the overseas setting of Okinawa. Japan. Since the students in the DODDS were not included in the 1974 survey. it would appear reasonable. in light of the commonly held belief (whether real or perceived) that the overseas experience pro- motes international understanding. to extend the study to include a group of DODDS students. Therefore. in 1982 a group of 213 students were surveyed using the test instruments from the 1974 (MOP study. The data were obtained from DODDS students' responses to an instrument developed by the Educational Testing Service entitled Other Nations. Other Peoples: A Survey of Student Interests. Knowledge. Attitudes and Perceptions (ONOP). This instrument was used by the Office of Educa- tion in 1974 to survey a total of 1.728 students randomly selected from 55 to 60 schools for each of the three grade levels in 27 different states in the United States. 20“ 205 The Department of Defense students' global knowledge. their interest in studying and visiting certain foreign countries. and the resources they used to learn about other countries were analyzed and compared with the results of the 1974 national sample to determine if there were statistically significant differences between the two groups. The previous chapter described the procedures for collecting and analyzing the data. This chapter presents the results of the hypotheses by means of an established criterion of statistical signifi- cance (p < .05) and the decision to reject or accept the hypotheses. WW9: The first major hypothesis stated that: H01: There is no significant difference between fourth-. eighth-. and twel fth-grade DODDS students' selections of countries to study and those of the students in the 1974 ONOP study. IaskJIessrinflon Given a list of 17 countries. students were asked to select all of those they wished to study. The data are listed in terms of the percentage of the total number of countries students selected to study. Subhypotheses are presented individually. followed by a presentation and an interpretation of the results for that hypothesis. mundane H01a: There is no significant difference between the selected DODDS fourth-grade students' selections of countries to study and those of the students in the 1974 ONOP study. 206 .Besultsz For the scores of the 1982 fourth-grade sample and the 1974 sample on the question of the number of countries students selected to study. the t-score of -5.04 was not statistically signifi- cant. The data supported the null hypothesis of no significant differ- ence between the two groups (p > .05). EightLGLadsfi H01b: There is no significant difference between the selected DODDS eighth-grade students' selections of countries to study and those of the students in the 1974 ONOP study. .Besuljs: For the scores of the 1982 eighth-grade sample and the 1974 sample on the question of the number of countries students selected to study. the t-score of -4.T4 was not statistically signifi- cant. The data supported the null hypothesis of no significant differ- ence between the two groups (p > .05). W H01c: There is no significant difference between the selected 00005 twelfth-grade students' selections of countries to study and those of the students in the 1974 ONOP study. .Besulzs: For the scores of the 1982 twelfth-grade sample and the 1974 sample on the question of the number of countries students selected to study. the t-score of-¥L12 was not statistically signifi- cant. The data supported the null hypothesis of no significant differ- ence between the two groups (p > .05). The mean. standard deviation. variance. and t-score for each group are presented in Table 14. The mean refers to the percentage of the total number of countries students selected to study. ' roll: .-. .... Lord 207 Table l4.--Resu1ts of comparisons between the 1982 and 1974 samples in terms of students' selection of countries to study. Study Grade Mean S.D. Variance t-Score 1982 (n=64) 4 31.6 19.8 3.9 -5.04 1974 (n=586) 4 40.3 12.2 148.5 1982 (n=92) 8 17.1 ' 12.4 154.3 -4.14 1974 (n=596) 8 20.1 4.8 23.4 1982 (n=57) 12 23.8 15.8 249.3 1.12 1974 (n=545) 12 22.5 7.0 49.4 The second major hypothesis stated that: H02: There is no significant difference between fourth-. eighth-. and twel fth-grade DODDS students' selections of countries to visit and those of the students in the 1974 ONOP study. I!§K.D§§§£12112n Given a list of 17 countries. students were asked to select all of those they wished to visit. The data are listed in terms of the percentage of the total number of countries students selected to visit. Subhypotheses are presented individually. followed by a presentation and an interpretation of the results for that hypothesis. Wen: H92a= There is no significant difference between the selected DODDS fourth-grade students' selections of countries to visit and those of the students in the 1974 ONOP study. .Besults: For the scores of the 1982 fourth-grade sample and the 1974 sample on the question of the number of countries students 208 selected to visit. the t-score of 7.23 was significant. The data did not support the null hypothesis of no significant difference between the two groups (p > .05). W H°2b= There is no significant difference between the selected DODDS eighth-grade students' selections of countries to visit and those of the students in the 1974 ONOP study. .Bgsyjja: For the scores of the 1982 eighth-grade sample and the 1974 sample on the question of the number of countries students selected to visit. the t-score or’3.86 was statistically significant. The data did not support the null hypothesis of no significant differ- ence between the two groups (p > .05). W "02¢: There is no significant difference between the selected DODDS twelfth-grade students' selections of countries to visit and those of the students in the 1974 ONOP study. .Besnlts: For the scores of the 1982 twelfth-grade sample and the 1974 sample on the question of the number of countries students selected to visit. the t-score or'l.89 was statistically significant. Therefore. the data did not support the null hypothesis of no signifi- cant difference between the two groups (p > .05). The mean. standard deviation. variance. and t-score for each group are presented in Table 15. The mean refers to the percentage of the total number of countries students selected to visit. 209 Table 15.--Results of comparisons between the 1982 and 1974 samples in terms of students' selection of countries to visit. Study Grade Mean S.D. Variance t-Score 1982 (n=64) 4 26.6 15.7 246.5 7.23 1974 (n=586) 4 39.1 13.3 175.6 1982 (n=92) 8 23.3 15.5 226.6 3.86 1974 (n=596) 8 18.7 10.6 112.8 1982 (n=57) 12 24.0 18.3 336.2 1.89 1974 (n=545) 12 20.5 12.7 161.0 DsscL1ntlxe_QxeLxlsw_o£_Studsnt Interest_1n_51udxlng_and 11siting_fionelgn_09untniss In this section of the test. DODDS students were asked to circle the names of all the countries they would most like to study. Seventeen countries were listed. and students were asked to choose as many as they wished. Students were also asked to circle which coun- tries they would like to visit. EnuLth_GLadsLs In the study/visit section of the student interests booklet. fourth graders most wanted to study Japan (59.4%). Spain (50.0%). Egypt (45.3%). and Mexico (45.3%). Liberia (7.8%). India (14.1%). the USSR (14.1%). and Canada (18.8%) were chosen least often as countries students wanted to study. Japan (48.4%). Taiwan (45.3%). Spain (45.3%). and England (43.8%) were selected most frequently as the countries the fourth-grade DODDS students wanted to visit. The 210 least-often-selected nations to visit were Liberia (4.7%). Israel (14.1%). Greece (15.6%). and East Germany (15.6%). The first two choices of countries to visit and study were the same as the fourth-grade level. However. Egypt and Mexico (tied) were the third choice of countries to study. while Taiwan and England were tied as the third choice of countries to visit. Although there were generally no great differences in the rank ordering of countries chosen in the study and visit categories. more students (20.3%) wanted to visit India than to study it (14.1%). Eigbtbjnadm The eighth graders' selections of countries to study were Greece (35.9%). France (33.7%). and Japan (29.3%). The least selected countries to study were Liberia (2.2%). India (4.3%). East Germany (7.6%). and Israel (7.6%). These students most wanted to visit France (53.3%). Japan (52.2%). and England (46.7%). The least selected coun- tries to visit were Liberia (2.2%). Israel (4.3%). the USSR (5.4%). and East Germany (5.4%). When comparing eighth graders' selections of countries to study and visit. some differences could be seen in the following combina- tions: The USSR was ranked fifth to study but fourteenth to visit; Canada was thirteenth to study but ninth to visit: and West Germany was ranked twelfth to study but seventh to visit. 211 W Twelfth graders preferred to study the USSR (50.9%). Japan (42.1%). and France (40.4%) and Greece (40.4%). These students listed Japan (61.4%) as their first choice to visit. followed by France (54.3%) and England (47.3%). At the twel fth-grade level there were more changes in rank order. Although the USSR was the first choice of a country to study. it was ranked thirteenth in the visit section. Other noted differences between the study/visit categories were: China ranked fifth in the "like to study" category and thirteenth in "like to visit." while Canada was the fifteenth choice to study but was fifth choice to visit. Interestingly. China. East Germany. and the USSR all were ranked thirteenth as "countries to visitJ' Wm Wm Differentiated results appeared at all grade levels since. in many cases. students chose different countries to study and to visit. As the grade level increased. so did the tendency to distinguish between countries to study and to visit become more pronounced. As shown in Table 16. fourth-. eighth-. and twelfth-grade DODDS students all ranked Japan in the top three positions to both study and visit. France was also ranked in the top three positions by the eighth and twelfth graders as a country they wished to study and visit. while the fourth graders ranked it sixth and seventh. respectively. Fourth graders! responses to the question regarding nations they would like to study ranged from 59.4% for Japan to 7.8% for Table l6.--1982 DODDS to visit. 212 students' selections of countries to study and Fourth Graders Eighth Graders Twelfth Graders Three Most Frequently Selected Countries to Study Japan Greece USSR Spain France Japan tie {Egypt Japan tie {France {Mexico {Greece Three Least Frequently Selected Countries to Study Liberia Liberia Liberia tie {India India Taiwan {USSR tie (E. Germany Canada Canada {Israel Three Most Frequently Selected Countries to Visit Japan France Japan tie {Spain Japan France {Taiwan England England England Three Least Frequently Selected Countries to Visit tie {Liberia {USSR tie {Greece {Israel E. Germany Liberia Israel tie (E. Germany {USSR Liberia India Israel 213 Liberia. Their responses regarding nations they would like to visit with their families varied a little from their "like to study" responses. ranging from 48.4% for Japan to 4.7% for Liberia. Average percentages for the two questions were. in order. 31.7% and 26.3%. (See Table 17.) Eighth graders' responses to the "like to study in depth" question ranged from 35.9% for Greece to 2.2% for Liberia. Their responses regarding countries they would like to visit ranged from 53.3% for France to 2.2% for Liberia. Average percentages for the two questions were. in order. 22.4% and 16.9%. Twelfth graders' responses to the ”like to study in depth" question ranged from 50.9% for the USSR to 1.8% for Liberia. Their responses regarding countries they would like to visit ranged from 61.4% for Japan to 1.8% for Liberia. Average percentages for the two questions were. in order. 22.5% and 23.8%. Since differences by grade level in phrasing the "like to study" question (i.e.. "like to study most" and "like to study in depth") make direct comparisons of responses by percentage impractical. rank orders can be directly compared. Shifts of at least four places in rank order from grade four to grade eight were the USSR from 15.5th to fifth. Greece from ninth to first rank. France from sixth to second. Italy from 10.5th to sixth. West Germany from seventh to twelfth. Taiwan from fifth to eleventh. Mexico from 3.5th to eighth. and Egypt fran 3.5th to ninth. (See Table 18.) 214 Table l7.--Nations students would like to study and/or visit: Grades 4. 8. and 12 (in percent). Grade 4 Grade 8 Grade 12 Study Visit Study Visit Study Visit Greece 31.3 15.6 35.9 31.5 40.4 31.6 Mexico 45.3 32.8 17.4 23.9 14.0 10.5 Canada 18.8 18.8 9.8 20.7 12.3 33.3 England 32.8 43.8 13.0 46.7 26.3 47.3 France 37.5 29.7 33.7 53.3 40.4 54.3 Spain 50.0 45.3 25.0 37.0 15.8 22.8 Italy 29.7 25.0 21.7 32.6 24.6 42.1 W. Germany 34.4 26.6 10.9 23.9 14.0 29.8 E. Germany 21.9 15.6 7.6 5.4 22.8 7.0 USSR 14.1 4.7 23.9 5.4 50.9 7.0 Taiwan 42.2 45.3 12.0 18.5 10.5 8.8 China 29.7 21.9 19.6 9.8 31.6 7.0 Japan 59.4 48.4 29.3 52.2 42.1 61.4 India 14.1 20.3 4.3 6.5 15.8 3.5 Israel 25.0 14.1 7.6 4.3 17.5 5.3 Egypt 45.3 34.4 14.1 16.3 24.6 8.8 Liberia 7.8 4.7 2.2 2.2 1.8 1.8 215 Table lB.--Nations students would like to study and/or visit: Grades 4. 8. and 12 (by ranks). Grade 4 Grade 8 Grade 12 Study Visit Study Visit Study Visit Greece 9 13.5 1 6 3.5 6 Mexico 3.5 6 8 7.5 13.5 Canada 14 12 13 9 15 5 England 8 4 10 3 6 3 France 6 7 2 l 3.5 2 Spain 2 2.5 4 4 11.5 8 Italy 10.5 9 6 5 7.5 4 W. Germany 7 8 12 7.5 13.5 7 E. Germany 13 13.5 14.5 14.5 9 13 USSR 15.5 16.5 5 14.5 1 13 Taiwan 5 2.5 11 10 16 10.5 China 10.5 10 7 12 5 13 Japan 1 l 3 2 2 1 India 15.5 ll 16 13 11.5 16 Israel 12 15 14.5 16 10 15 Egypt 3.5 5 9 11 7.5 10.5 Liberia 17 16.5 l7 l7 l7 l7 216 Between eighth and twelfth graders' responses on the "like to study" question. shifts in rank order can be found. The USSR moved up from fifth to first rank and Israel from 14.5th to tenth. England went from tenth to sixth. East Germany 14.5th to ninth. and India from sixteenth to 11.5th. However. Spain dropped from fourth to 11.5th. and Mexico went from eighth to 13.5th. "Like to visit" responses were also differentiated after the three most frequently selected countries. Shifts of at least four places in rank order from grade four to grade eight were France from seventh to first rank. Greece from 13.5th to sixth. Italy from ninth to fifth. and Egypt from fifth to eleventh. Between eighth and twelfth grade. responses to the "like to visit” question shifts in rank order were fewer. with Canada moving from ninth to fifth but Spain dropping from fourth to eighth rank. W W The third major hypothesis stated that: H03: There is no significant difference between the selected fourth-. eighth-. and twel fth-grade DODDS students' choices of resources to learn about foreign countries and the resources chosen by students in the 1974 ONOP study. IasLQesctntion Given a list of resources. students selected the ones that provided them with the most information about other countries. Z-scores and chi-square tests were used to determine whether statis- tically significant differences existed between groups. In the 217 following section. each subhypothesis is presented. followed by a discussion and interpretation of the results for that subhypothesis. EouLtbjLadsns H°3a3 There is no significant difference between the selected fourth-grade DODDS students' selections of resources for learning about other countries and those resources chosen by students in the 1974 ONOP study. .Bgsults: For the choices of the fourth-grade 1982 sample and the 1974 sample. significant differences were found for the resources of reading. friends/relatives. and church groups. Therefore. the data failed to support the hypothesis (p >'.05). There were no significant differences for the remaining five resources. Eighthfiradecs H93b: There is no significant difference between the selected eighth-grade DODDS students' selections of resources for learning about other countries and those resources chosen by students in the 1974 ONOP study. .Besults: The chi-square analyses for the resources of travel. foreign shops/restaurants. and local events indicated that there was a statistically significant difference between the choices of the T982 DODDS students and the 1974 ONOP eighth graders. Therefore. the data failed to support the hypothesis (p >’.OS). There were no significant differences from the chi-square analyses of the other 15 resources. Inelithjnadsrs H03c: There is no significant difference between the selected twel fth-grade DODDS students' selections of resources for learning about other countries and those resources chosen by students in the 1974 ONOP study. 218 ,Besults: The chi-square analyses for six resources--travel. museums. collections. foreign shops/restaurants. friends/relatives. and local events-~indicated that there was a statistically significant difference between the two twel fth-grade groups' choices of resources. Therefore. the data failed to support the hypothesis (p >1.05). There were no significant differences from chi-square analyses of the other 12 resources. A rank ordering of the top three resources chosen by all three grade levels of both the 1982 00005 sample and the 1974 ONOP group is given in Table 19. Table l9.--Rank ordering of resources that are influential in learning about other countries: top three choices. Grade Level 1974 Sample 1982 DODDS Sample Fourth Television Travel Books Television Travel Movies Eighth Television Travel Books Television Magazines. (Books. movies. (Movies teachers Twelfth Television Travel Magazines Magazines/newspapers Books Television Sumanx Fourth-. eighth-. and twelfth-grade students' responses to the question about how they learn about other countries are reported in 219 Table 20. The percentages and rankings are given for the resources in the six areas--audio-visual. reading. activities. people. events. and organizations. The percentages of fourth graders' responses about how they learn about other countries ranged from a high of 73.4% for travel to a low of 9.4% for religious or church groups. It is possible that the high percentage of fourth graders indicating "travel to other countries" might be due to a misreading of the instructions. as though they had in fact said. "Circle the ones that wgyld help you most" instead of "Circle the ones that help you most." but given the fact that military dependents are fairly well traveled. this may not be the case. All three grades ranked travel first as a resource to learn about other countries. Audio-visual resources were prominent on the fourth-grade list. with 67.2% citing television and 50% choosing movies. Eighth-grade DODDS students' responses to the checklist of items having "a great deal of influence" on their attitudes toward other nations and peoples ranged from 58.7% for travel to 13% for collections. Television was again prominent (46.7%). with movies and books tied (44.6%) for third rank. There was a close correspondence between the rank orders observed among the first four items for both the fourth and eighth graders. The twelfth-grade DODDS students! responses to the "items influencing" paralleled those for the eighth graders. Their percentages ranged from a high of 74% for "travel to other countries" to a low of 11% for both "out-of-school clubs" and collections)‘ 220 .080 m.n. o... m.m. m.o. .mn:.o .oocomsmo-u:o m. o.N. m.m. m.@. .666 .ma:.u .o0zom m. o.:. N. ..c. m :.m maaotm mso.m..om mco.umu.cmmco :. o.m. :. N.0N .6004 m o.om m.m N.NN .mco.umctouc_ N. mN N. o.m~ .eco_umz muco>m m.s 0.:5 m e.Nm m.m ..mm mace... ..e>_8m_e¢ m o.o: m.m N.NN mcocomoh m o.mm m m..: mucogmm 0.600; m.n. o... m. o.m. mco.uoo..ou N. o.mN N o.wm .6uo .mucmcamumom o_ o.e~ __ ..e~ m.m ..mm .838 .m._ea . 0.:N . N.wm . :.mn .o>mch mo.u.>.uo< N o.mm m m.me m.mu_eo_aoe m.s o... m.m e... s m.m. .xoom ec_eeem w mm m.m a... m o.om me_>oz N. mN m. N..N N :.:m c.6mx m o._m N N... N ~.Ao co_m_>e_e» .msm_>-o_es< xcmm ucootoa xcmm ucootoe xcmx ucootom movau.uu< mc.oco:..c_ .mmncv .Nmucv .qoncv >.umocu mama. N. ovmcu m oumto : ovmau .o.aEmm moooounN. ucm .m .: mocmcm "mo.aooa 6cm mco.umc Locuo vLm30u mco.c.ao vcm mouzu.uum mc.uco:..:. >.umocm mEou_nu.oN o.nmh 221 Shifts of 10% or more included increases in the effect of periodicals. foreign restaurants. and teachers on attitudes. and a decrease in the effect of movies on attitudes. Television was rated as the most influential resource for all three grades in the 1974 ONOP study. and although it was one of the top three choices for all three grades in the DODDS group. it was not listed as the first choice for any of the three grades. The Knowledge Test (0-2. D-3) assessed the eighth- and twelfth- grade students' attainment of basic information about the world and five selected countries. There were from three to nine questions per country. depending on the studentfls grade level. In the eighth-grade test there were 52 items. and 54 items in the twelfth-grade test. Item scores. which are based on the percentage of correct responses. are grouped by nations and include a mean and a standard deviation. Thtests were performed to determine whether statistically significant differences existed between students in the 1982 DODDS sample and the 1974 sample and between males and females in the DODDS study. Tables 21 through 25 list the results for the individual grade levels in both the 1982 and 1974 studies. 222 Table 21.--Know1edge levels by nation: Grade 4 DODDS students. 1982. Items Grouped by Nation: Male Female Group Number Subscore of Items Mean 8.0. Mean 8.0. Mean 8.0. USA 4 59.5 26.8 58.7 23.8 59.0 24.5 Mexico 3 74.6 31.3 65.9 33.0 68.8 32.5 France 2 52.4 40.0 45.3 37.5 47.7 38.2 USSR 3 49.2 37.3 37.2 23.3 41.1 31.3 China 5 41.0 24.8 39.1 24.2 39.7 24.3 Egypt 4 39.3 21.8 49.4 24.8 46.1 24.1 World 5 51.4 23.2 58.6 20.2 56.3 21.3 Total 51.3 30.7 50.5 31.0 51.0 30.9 (N) 26 21 43 64 Table 22.--Knowledge levels by nation: Grade 8 DODDS students. 1982. Items Grouped by Nation: Male Female Group Number Subscore of Items Mean S.D. Mean 8.0. Mean 5.0. USA 8 5.60 1.80 6.20 1.50 5.90 1.70 Mexico 7 4.15 1.21 4.16 1.15 4.15 1.18 France 5 2.60 1.26 2.52 1.13 2.57 1.20 USSR 9 5.79 1.94 5.55 1.82 5.67 1.87 China 7 4.15 1.48 4.20 1.47 4.17 1.47 Egypt 7 2.81 1.49 2.95 1.57 2.88 1.52 World 9 4.79 1.41 4.75 1.36 4.77 1.38 (N) 52 48 44 92 223 Table 23.--Knowledge levels by nation: Grade 12 00005 students. 1982. Items Grouped by Nation: Male Female Group Number Subscore of Items Mean 5.0. Mean 5.0. Mean 8.0. USA 8 6.20 1.20 6.40 1.20 6.30 1.20 Mexico 7 5.63 1.33 5.15 1.18 5.40 1.25 France 6 3.53 1.53 3.37 1.21 3.46 1.38 USSR 9 6.17 1.27 5.89 1.73 6.04 1.49 China 7 4.33 1.64 4.26 1.51 4.30 1.56 Egypt 8 4.50 2.09 3.78 1.83 4.16 1.95 World 9 5.80 1.93 5.04 1.54 5.44 1.74 (N) 54 30 27 57 Table 24.--Knowledge levels by nation: Grade 8. ONOP study. 1974. Items Grouped by Nation: Male Female Number Subscore of Items Mean S.D. Mean 8.0. USA 8 5.2 1.7 4.9 1.6 Mexico 7 4.1 1.4 3.9 1.3 France 5 2.2 1.1 2.2 1.1 USSR 9 4.5 1.8 4.2 1.6 China 7 3.5 1.4 3.3 1.4 Egypt 7 2.8 1.5 2.4 1.3 World 9 4.1 1.5 3.8 1.5 Note: No group score was listed in Table 41 of the ONOP book. 224 Table 25.--Knowledge levels by nation: Grade 12. ONOP study. 1974. Items Grouped by Nation: Male Female Number Subscore of Items Mean 8.0. Mean 8.0. USA 8 5.8 1.5 5.3 1.5 Mexico 7 5.1 1.3 4.7 1.4 France 6 3.5 1.3 3.1 1.3 USSR 9 5.8 1.7 5.0 1.7 China 7 3.8 1.3 3.4 1.4 Egypt 8 3.9 2.0 3.2 1.5 World 9 5.2 1.4 4.7 1.5 Note: No group score was listed in Table 43 of the ONOP book. WWW Mate: The fourth major hypothesis stated that: H04: There is no significant difference between selected eighth- and twelfth-grade DODDS students! knowledge of the United States and the knowledge of eighth- and twelfth-grade students in the 1974 study. W The Knowledge Test included approximately eight questions on various aspects of the United States. T-tests were used to analyze the data. The following subhypotheses delineate the secondary questions related to the major hypothesis regarding eighth- and twelfth-grade students' knowledge about the United States. Subhypotheses are stated according to grade level and sex. The results are presented after each subhypothesis. A summary is given at the end of each grade-level grouping of subhypotheses. 225 W “043: There is no significant difference between eighth- rade males in the l 82 DODDS sample and those in the 19 4 sample regarding their knowledge about the United States. .Besyljsz The Knowledge Test scores of eighth-grade males in the 1982 and 1974 samples were analyzed to determine if statistically significant differences existed between them regarding their knowledge of the United States. A t-score of L50 was attained. There was no statistically significant difference between the eighth-grade male samples. Thus the data did support the null hypothesis of no signifi- cant difference (p > .05). H04b: There is no significant difference between eighth-grade females in the 1982 DODDS sample and those in the 1974 sample regarding their knowledge about the United States. .Besults: The Knowledge Test scores of eighth-grade females in the 1982 and 1974 samples were analyzed to determine if statistically significant differences existed between them regarding their knowledge of the United States. A t-score of 5.08 was attained. A statistically significant difference existed between the two groups of eighth-grade females. The 1982 females performed significantly differently than did their 1974 counterparts. The data did not support the null hypothesis (p > .05). The 1982 females achieved higher scores. Ho4c: There is no significant difference between eighth-grade DODDS students' total knowledge of the United States and that of students in the 1974 study. .Bgsults: The Knowledge Test scores of the eighth-grade DODDS students were analyzed and compared to the eighth-grade students in the 1974 study to determine whether statistically significant differences 226 existed between the two groups. A t-score of 4.92 was obtained and was statistically significant. The 1982 eighth-grade DODDS students performed significantly differently than did the 1974 sample on questions relating to the United States. Therefore. the data did not support the null hypothesis of no significant difference (p > .05). .5ummaLy_gj_ejgn:n;ggade_nesnlts: A comparison of the results on the Knowledge Test for eighth-grade males in the 1982 and 1974 studies indicated that no statistically significant differences existed between the two groups. A comparison of the results of eighth-grade females in the 1982 and 1974 samples indicated statistically significant differences between the two groups. The 1982 femaTes performed significantly differently on questions concerning the United States than did the 1974 females. The DODDS females achieved higher scores. A comparison of the 1982 DODDS students' scores on questions relating to the United States indicated statistically significant . differences between the 00005 sample and the 1974 eighth-grade sample. stlflhjnadsns H04d: There is no significant difference between twelfth-grade males in the 1982 00008 sample and those in the 1974 sample regarding their knowledge about the United States. .Besults: The Knowledge Test scores of twelfth-grade males in the 1982 and 1974 samples were analyzed to determine if statistically significant differences existed between them regarding their knowledge of the United States. A t-score of 3.68 was statistically significant. 227 A significant difference existed between the two samples of twelfth- grade males. The 1982 sample performed significantly differently than did the 1974 sample on questions concerning the United States. There- fore. the data did not support the null hypothesis of no significant difference (p > .05). The 1982 males achieved higher scores. H°4e3 There is no significant difference between twelfth-grade females in the 1982 DODDS sample and those in the 1974 sample regarding their knowledge about the United States. .Besults: The Knowledge Test scores of twelfth-grade females in the 1982 and 1974 samples were analyzed to determine if statistically significant differences existed between them regarding their knowledge of the United States. A t-score of 3.68 was obtained. A statistically significant difference existed between the two groups of twelfth-grade females. The 1982 00008 females performed significantly differently on questions about the United States than did their 1974 counterparts. The data did not support the null hypothesis (p >'.05). The 1982 00005 females achieved higher scores. H04f: There is no significant difference between twelfth-grade DODDS students' total knowledge of the United States and that of students in the 1974 study. Besflts. The Knowledge Test scores of the twel fth-grade DODDS students were analyzed and compared to the twelfth-grade students in the 1974 study to determine whether statistically significant differ- ences existed between the two groups. A t-score of 3.41 was obtained and was statistically significant. The 1982 twelfth-grade DODDS stu- dents performed significantly differently than did the 1974 sample on 228 questions relating to the United States. Therefore. the data did not support the null hypothesis of no significant difference (p > .05). MW A comparison of twelfth- grade males in the 1982 and 1974 samples regarding questions relating to the United States indicated that 1982 males performed significantly differently than did the males in the 1974 study. 'The 1982 males achieved higher scores. A statistically significant difference existed between twelfth- grade females in the 1982 and 1974 samples relating to their knowledge about the United States. The 1982 00005 females performed signifi- cantly differently on questions concerning the United States than did their counterparts in the 1974 study. The 1982 DODDS females achieved higher scores. The 1982 twelfth-grade DODDS students performed significantly differently on questions concerning the United States than did the twelfth-grade students in the 1974 study. WW WW5 The fifth major hypothesis stated that: H05: There is no significant difference between selected eighth- and twel fth-grade DODDS students' knowledge of the world and five selected nations--Mexico. France. the USSR. China. and Egypt--and the knowledge of students in the 1974 ONOP study. Wm The Knowledge Test contained approximately five to nine ques- tions per nation. Tetests were used to analyze the data. The scores 229 on the world and five selected nations were examined to determine whether statistically significant differences existed between the 1982 DODDS group and the 1974 group and between males and females in the DODDS study. The following subhypotheses delineate the secondary questions related to the major hypothesis regarding the eighth- and twel fth-grade students' knowledge about the world and five selected nations. W H05a: There is no significant difference between eighth-grade males in the 1982 DODDS and 1974 samples in terms of their knowledge about the world and five selected nations-~Mexico. France. the USSR. China. and Egypt. .Besults. 'The Knowledge Test scores of eighth-grade males in the 1982 DODDS study and the 1974 study. concerning the world and five selected nations. were analyzed to determine if statistically signifi- cant differences existed between the two groups. T-scores were obtained. and the results were mixed. An analysis of the Knowledge Test scores on France revealed a t-score of 2.T7. which indicated a statistically significant difference between the two groups. Eighth-grade males in the'l982 DODDS sample performed significantly differently on questions concerning France than did the males in the 1974 sample. Therefore. the data did not support the null hypothesis (p > .05). The 1982 males achieved higher scores. An analysis of the Knowledge Test scores on China revealed a t-score of 2.95. which indicated a statistically significant difference between the two groups. Eighth-grade males in the 1982 DODDS sample 230 performed significantly differently on questions relating to China than did the males in the 1974 sample. Hence the data did not support the null hypothesis (p > .05). The 1982 males achieved higher scores. The final area in which the eighth-grade males in the 1982 00008 sample performed significantly differently than did the males in the 1974 sample was on the nine questions about the world. An analysis of the scores revealed a t-score of 2.99. which indicated a statisti- cally significant difference between the two groups. Ejghth-grade males in the 1982 DODDS sample performed significantly differently on questions relating to the world than did the males in the 1974 sample. Therefore. the data did not support the null hypothesis (p >'.O5). The 1982 males achieved higher scores. An analysis of the Knowledge Test scores of the countries of Mexico. the USSR. and Egypt indicated no statistically significant differences between the two samples of eighth-grade males. ‘Therefore. the data did not support the null hypothesis in these areas (p > .05). H°5b3 There is no significant difference between eighth-grade females in the 1982 00005 and 1974 samples in terms of their knowledge about the world and five selected nations--Mexico. France. the USSR. China. and Egypt. .Besults. The Knowledge Test scores of eighth-grade females in the 1982 DODDS study and the 1974 study related to the world and five selected nations were analyzed to determine if statistically signifi- cant differences existed between the two groups. T-scores were obtained. and the results were mixed. An analysis of the Knowledge Test scores on the countries of Mexico and France indicated that there were no statistically 231 significant differences between the two eighth-grade groups. The data did support the null hypothesis (p > .05). An analysis of the Knowledge Test scores on the USSR revealed a t—score of 5.15. which indicated a statistically significant difference between the two groups. T-scores indicated that there were also sta- tistically significant differences between the two groups on questions concerning China (3.83). Egypt (2.56). and the world (3.97). The 1982 DODDS females performed significantly differently in these areas than did the females of the 1974 study. Therefore. the data did not support the null hypothesis (p > .05). For questions about China. Egypt. the USSR. and the world. 1982 females achieved higher scores. "05¢: There is no significant difference between eighth-grade DODDS students' total knowledge about the world and five selected nations--Mexico. France. the USSR. China. and Egypt-~and that of students in the 1974 study. Results. The Knowledge Test scores of the eighth-grade DODDS students were analyzed and compared to those of the eighth-grade stu- dents in the 1974 study to determine whether statistically significant differences existed between the two groups. Results were mixed. The results of the analysis of Knowledge Test scores on Mexico exhibited no statistically significant difference between eighth-grade DODDS stu- dents and those in the 1974 study. An analysis of the Knowledge Test scores on the other four countries and the world indicated that statistically significant differences existed between the two groups. T-scores indicated that there were statistically significant differences between the two groups 232 on questions concerning France (2.96). the USSR (6.58). China (4.87). Egypt (4.84). and the world (4.61). The 1982 DODDS eighth-grade students performed significantly differently in these areas than did the eighth-grade students of the 1974 study. Therefore. the data did not support the null hypothesis (p > .05). W. A comparison of eighth-grade males in the 1982 and 1974 samples indicated that there were no statis- tically significant differences between the two groups on Knowledge Test scores for Mexico. the USSR. and Egypt. However. in comparing the scores for France. China. and the world. statistically significant differences were found between the two groups. That is. 1982 DODDS males performed significantly differently on questions relating to France. China. and the world than did the males in the 1974 sample. The 1982 males achieved higher scores on these questions. In comparing eighth-grade females in the 1982 and 1974 samples. no statistically significant differences were found between the two groups' scores on the countries of Mexico and France. An analysis of the scores for the USSR. China. Egypt. and the world indicated statis- tically significant differences between the 1982 DODDS females and the eighth-grade females in the 1974 study. For questions on the USSR. China. Egypt. and the world. 1982 fanales achieved higher scores. A comparison of the eighth-grade DODDS students' scores on the Knowledge Test and the eighth-grade students in the 1974 ONOP study produced mixed results. There was no significant difference between the groups in their knowledge about Mexico. However. the 1982 DODDS 233 eighth graders' scores for the countries of France. the USSR. China. and Egypt. and the scores for their knowledge of the world. indicated statistically significant differences between the two groups. W HOSd‘ There is no significant difference between the twelfth-grade males in the 1982 00005 and 1974 samples in terms of their knowledge about the world and five selected nations-~Mexico. France. the USSR. China. and Egypt. .Bssults. The Knowledge Test scores of the twelfth-grade males in the 1982 00005 study and the 1974 study. concerning the world and five selected nations. were analyzed to determine if statistically significant differences existed between the two groups. T-scores were obtained. and the results were mixed. An analysis of the Knowledge Test scores on the countries of France. the USSR. and Egypt indicated no statistically significant differences between the two samples of twel fth—grade males. Hence. the data did support the null hypothesis in these areas (p > .05). An analysis of the Knowledge Test scores on the other two countries and the world indicated that statistically significant differences existed between the two groups of twelfth-grade males. Tescores indicated statistically significant differences for the countries of Mexico (2.11). China (2.06). and the world (2.14). The 1982 00008 twelfth-grade males performed significantly differently in these areas than did the males of the 1974 study. Therefore. the data did not support the null hypothesis (p > .05). The 1982 males achieved higher scores. 234 H059: There is no significant difference between twel fth-grade females in the 1982 DODDS and 1974 samples in terms of their knowledge about the world and five selected nations--Mexico. France. the USSR. China. and Egypt. Results. The Knowledge Test scores of twelfth-grade females in the 1982 00005 study and the 1974 study. concerning the world and five selected nations. were analyzed to determine if statistically signifi- cant differences existed between the two groups. T-scores were obtained. and the results were mixed. An analysis of the Knowledge Test scores on the countries of Mexico and France. as well as this group's knowledge about the world. indicated no statistically significant differences between the two samples of twelfth-grade females. Therefore. the data did support the null hypothesis in these areas (p > .05). An analysis of the Knowledge Test scores on the other countries indicated that statistically significant differences existed between the two groups of twel fth-grade females. T-scores indicated statisti- cally significant differences for the countries of the USSR (2.58). China (3.02). and Egypt (1.87). The 1982 DODDS twel fth-grade females performed significantly differently in these areas than did the females of the 1974 study. Therefore. the data did not support the null hypothesis (p > .05). The 1982 females achieved higher scores. HOSf‘ There is no significant difference between twel fth-grade DODDS students' total knowledge about the world and five selected nations--Mexico. France. the USSR. China. and Egypt--and that of students in the 1974 study. Results. The Knowledge Test scores of the twelfth-grade DODDS students were analyzed and compared to the twel fth-grade students in 235 the 1974 study to determine whether statistically significant differ- ences existed between the two groups. Results were mixed. The results of the analysis of Knowledge Test scores on France exhibited no statis- tically significant difference between twelfth-grade DODDS students and those in the 1974 study. An analysis of the Knowledge Test scores on the other four countries and the world indicated that statistically significant differences existed between the two groups. Tkscores indicated that there were statistically significant differences between the two groups on questions concerning Mexico (2.60). the USSR (2.74). China (3.86). Egypt (2.22). and the world (2.08). The 1982 DODDS twelfth-grade students performed significantly differently in these areas than did the twelfth-grade students of the 1974 study. Therefore. the data did not support the null hypothesis (p >'.05). The 1982 students achieved higher scores in these areas. W. A comparison of twel fth- grade males in the 1982 and 1974 samples indicated that there were no statistically significant differences between the two groups on Knowledge Test scores for France. the USSR. and Egypt. However. in comparing the scores for Mexico. China. and the world. statistically significant differences were found between the two groups. That is. 1982 DODDS males performed significantly differently on questions relating to Mexico. China. and the world than did the males in the 1974 sample. The 1982 DODDS males achieved higher scores in these areas. 236 In comparing the twelfth-grade DODDS females and females in the 1974 sample. no statistically significant differences were found between the two groups' scores on the countries of Mexico and France. as well as knowledge about the world. An analysis of the scores for the USSR. China. and Egypt indicated statistically significant differ- ences between the'1982 DODDS females and the twelfth-grade females in the 1974 study. On these questions the 1982 00003 females achieved higher scores. A comparison of the twel fth-grade DODDS students' scores on the Knowledge Test with those of the twelfth-grade students in the 1974 ONOP study produced mixed results. ‘There was no significant difference between the groups in their knowledge about France. However. the 1982 DODDS twelfth graders' scores for the countries of Mexico. the USSR. China. and Egypt and the scores for their knowledge of the world indicated statistically significant differences between the two groups. .Ihe_Status_oI_E9unth:1_E1ohtb:1_and_Iwelith:GLadsLDQDQ§ W The sixth major hypothesis stated that: H05: There is no significant difference between the total-item Knowledge Test results of selected fourth-. eighth-. and twelfth-grade DODDS students and the test results of students in the 1974 ONOP study. .Anal¥§1§_D9§§£12IIQn The results of the Knowledge Test can be examined by an item analysis. as in the previous section. or by a total-score analysis of all test items. as will be done in this section. ‘The number of items 237 in the Knowledge Test varied according to the students' grade level. There were 26 items in the fourth-grade test. 52 items in the eighth- grade test. and 54 items in the twelfth-grade test. The total score was based on the percentage of students responding correctly to the questions. Table 26 lists the results by individual grade levels. T—tests were used to determine whether statistically significant differences existed between groups in terms of their total scores on the Knowledge Test. The 1982 students' responses were compared to those of the 1974 students. Internal comparisons based on sex and grade level were made to determine if statistically significant differences existed between groups. The following subhypotheses delineate the secondary questions related to the major research hypothesis relating to the global knowledge of fourth-. eighth-. and twelfth-grade DODDS students. EouLtLGLadeLs H°6a= There is no significant difference between fourth-grade males in the 1982 00005 sample and those in the 1974 sample in terms of their total Knowledge Test results. Results. The 26-item Knowledge Test scores of 1982 00008 males were compared with those of 1974 ONOP study males to determine if a significant difference existed between the two groups. A t-score of 2.h4 was obtained. indicating that a significant difference existed between the two fourth-grade—male groups. The data did not support the null hypothesis of no significant difference (p >1.05). The fourth- grade males achieved higher total knowledge scores on most questions. 238 Table 26.--Total-item Knowledge Test results: Grades 4. 8. and 12. n Mean S.D. t-Score Grade 4 (n = 64) ——i 1982 DODDS males 21 13.3 4.2 2.14 1974 ONOP males 291 11.5 3.7 1982 DODDS females 43 13.2 3.2 5.70 1974 ONOP females 295 10.3 3.1 Total DODDS 64 13.3 3.5 3.12 Total ONOP 586 11.9 3.4 Grade 8 (n = 92) 1982 DODDS males 48 29.9 4.1 3.44 1974 ONOP males 292 26.3 7.1 1982 DODDS females 44 30.4 3.8 5.95 1974 ONOP females 304 24.6 6.3 Tetal 00005 92 30.1 3.9 6.54 Total ONOP 596 25.4 6.7 Grade 12 (n = 57) 1982 DODDS males 30 36.1 4.2 2.09 1974 ONOP males 273 33.2 7.5 1982 00008 females 27 33.9 3.9 3.22 1974 ONOP females 272 29.3 7.3 Total DODDS 57 35.1 3.82 4.1 Total ONOP 545 31.3 7.4 239 H05b: There is no significant difference between fourth-grade females in the 1982 DODDS sample and those in the 1974 sample in terms of their total Knowledge Test results. .Results. The total Knowledge Test scores of 1982 DODDS females were compared with those of 1974 ONOP study females to determine if a significant difference existed between the two groups. .A t-score of 5.70 was attained. indicating that a significant difference existed between the two fourth-grade-female groups. The data did not support the null hypothesis of no significant difference (p >'.05). The fourth-grade females achieved higher total knowledge scores on most questions. H05c: There is no significant difference between selected fourth- grade DODDS students' total-item Knowledge Test scores and the scores of fourth-grade students in the 1974 ONOP study. .ResuLns The total Knowledge Test scores of 1982 DODDS students were compared with those of the 1974 fourth-grade ONOP study students to determine if a significant difference existed between the two groups. A t—score of 3.12 indicated that a significant difference existed between the two fourth-grade groups. The data did not support the null hypothesis of no significant difference (p >1.05). The 1982 DODDS group achieved higher total knowledge scores on most questions. W W. A comparison of the total Knowledge Test scores of 1982 DODDS fourth-grade males and the 1974 ONOP study fourth-grade males indicated that DODDS males performed significantly differently on the total-item Knowledge Test than did those fourth-grade males in the 1974 study. The 00008 group achieved higher scores on most questions. 240 A comparison of the total Knowledge Test scores of the 1982 00008 females and 1974 ONOP study fourth-grade females indicated that DODDS females performed significantly differently on the total-item Knowledge Test than did those fourth-grade females in the 1974 study. The DODDS females achieved higher scores on most questions. An analysis of the scores of 1982 00005 fourth-grade students and 1974 ONOP study fourth-grade students indicated statistically sig- nificant differences existed between the two groups. T-scores illus- trated that 1982 DODDS students performed significantly differently than their 1974 (NOP study counterparts. Their scores on most ques- tions were higher than the 1974 group. 51mm H°6d3 There is no significant difference between eighth-grade males in the 1982 DODDS sample and those in the 1974 sample in terms of their total Knowledge Test results. Results. The 52-item total Knowledge Test scores of 1982 ei ghth-grade DODDS males were compared with those of 1974 ONOP study males to determine if a significant difference existed between the two groups. A t-score of 3.44 was obtained. indicating that a significant difference existed between the two eighth-grade—male groups. The data did not support the null hypothesis of no significant difference (p > .05). The DODDS males achieved higher scores on most questions. H059: There is no significant difference between eighth-grade females in the 1982 DODDS sample and those in the 1974 sample in terms of their total Knowledge Test results. Results. The total Knowledge Test scores of 1982 eighth-grade DODDS females were compared with those of 1974 ONOP study females to 241 determine if a significant difference existed between the two groups. A t-score of 5.95 was obtained. indicating that a significant differ- ence existed between the two eighth-grade-female groups. ‘The data did not support the null hypothesis of no significant difference (p > .05). The 00005 females achieved higher scores on most questions. H06f‘ There is no significant difference between selected eighth- grade DODDS students' total-item Knowledge Test scores and the scores of eighth-grade students in the 1974 ONOP study. .Results. The total Knowledge Test scores of 1982 00008 students were compared with those of the 1974 eighth-grade ONOP study students to determine if a significant difference existed between the two groups. A t-score of 6.54 indicated that a significant difference existed between the two eighth-grade groups. ‘Dhe data did not support the null hypothesis of no significant difference (p > .05). Semmef ejghthzgmdelesults. A comparison of the total Knowledge Test scores of 1982 DODDS eighth-grade males and the 1974 eighth-grade ONOP study males indicated that DODDS males performed significantly differently on the total-item Knowledge Test than did those eighth-grade males in the 1974 study. DODDS males achieved higher scores on most questions. A comparison of the total Knowledge Test scores of the 1982 00008 females and the 1974 ONOP study eighth-grade females indicated that DODDS females performed significantly differently on the total- item Knowledge'Test than did those eighth-grade females in the 1974 study. DODDS females achieved higher scores on most questions. 242 An analysis of the scores of 1982 DODDS eighth-grade students and the 1974 ONOP study eighth-grade students indicated statistically significant differences existed between the two groups. 'T-scores illustrated that 1982 eighth-grade DODDS students performed signifi- cantly differently than their 1974 ONOP study counterparts. In most instances. DODDS students achieved higher scores. W H059: There is no significant difference between twelfth-grade males in the 1982 DODDS sample and those in the 1974 sample in terms of their total Knowledge Test results. .Resulns The S4-item total Knowledge Test scores of 1982 twelfth-grade DODDS males were compared with those of 1974 ONOP study males to determine if a significant difference existed between the two groups. A t-score of 2.09 was obtained. indicating that a significant difference existed between the two tweTfth-grade—male groups. The data did not support the null hypothesis of no significant difference (p > .05). DODDS males achieved higher scores on a majority of questions. H°6h3 There is no significant difference between twelfth-grade females in the 1982 DODDS sample and those in the 1974 sample in terms of their total Knowledge Test results. .BesuLts The total Knowledge Test scores of 1982 DODDS twelfth-grade females were compared with those of 1974 ONOP study females to determine if a significant difference existed between the two groups. A t-score of 3.22 was obtained. indicating that a significant difference existed between the two twel fth-grade—female groups. The data did not support the null hypothesis of no significant 243 difference (p > .05). DODDS females achieved higher scores on a majority of the questions. H051: There is no significant difference between selected twel fth- grade DODDS students' total-item Knowledge Test scores and the scores of twelfth-grade students in the 1974 ONOP study. Results. The total Knowledge Test scores of 1982 00003 students were compared with those of the 1974 twel fth-grade MOP study students to determine if a significant difference existed between the two groups. A t-score of 3.82 indicated that a significant difference existed between the two twel fth-grade groups. The data did not support the null hypothesis of no significant difference (p > .05). W A comparison of the total Knowledge Test scores of the 1982 DODDS twel fth-grade males and the 1974 twel fth-grade MOP study males indicated that DODDS males per- formed significantly differently on the total-item Knowledge Test than did those twel fth-grade males in the 1974 study. DODDS males achieved higher scores on a majority of the questions. A comparison of the total Knowledge Test scores of the 1982 DODDS females and the 1974 MOP study twel fth-grade females indicated that DODDS females performed significantly differently on the total- item Knowledge Test than did those twel fth-grade females in the 1974 study. DODDS females achieved higher scores on a meiority of the questions. An analysis of the scores of 1982 DODDS twel fth-grade students and the 1974 MOP study twel fth-grade students indicated statistically significant differences existed between the two groups. T-scores 244 indicated that 1982 twelfth-grade DODDS students performed signifi- cantly differently than their 1974 ONOP study counterparts. On a majority of the questions. DODDS students achieved higher scores. Weiemmmmgim Aneas .Qf Ilsliihzfinnda.QQQD§.§Iud£nI§ .In§K_Q§§§£121190 The Knowledge Test (D-l. D-2. 0-3) assessed the students' attainment of basic information concerning the world and six selected nations--the United States. Mexico. France. the USSR. China. and Egypt. Each area of the Knowledge Test--map location. the world. and the six selected nations--was examined for strengths and weaknesses as deter- mined by correct responses by the fourth-. eighth-..and twelfth-grade DODDS students. Tetests were used to analyze the data. Percentages of students who answered the multiple-choice questions correctly are listed for each of the individual items at each of the three grade levels. The 1982 DODDS results were compared with the 1974 ONOP group results to discover whether there were statisti- cally significant differences between the two groups. Results. .M§R_lQQiIIQn--Students were asked to locate six countries on a world map. The six countries and their item percentages are presented in Table 27. The results are presented in the following paragraphs by individual grade levels. 245 Table 27.--Percentage of 00005 students correctly identifying six countries on a map. Country Fourth Graders Eighth Graders Twelfth Graders United States 80% 88% 91% Mexico 72 91 93 France 33 71 88 Russia/USSR 42 86 89 China 39 77 88 Egypt 39 49 77 EQU£1h_9£§d§£§: 'The United States was correctly located on a world map by 80% of the DODDS fourth graders. Mexico was correctly identified by 72% of the students. Fewer than half of the fourth-grade students located the remaining countries correctly. as follows: France (33%). Russia/USSR (42%). China (39%). and Egypt (39%). .Eightn_gzedens: The eighth-grade students scored higher on the map-location section of the Knowledge Test than did fourth graders. About 88% of the DODDS eighth graders correctly identified the United States on a world map. More than half of the eighth-grade DODDS students correctly located the countries of Mexico (91%). France (71%). the USSR (86%). and China (77%). Less than half (49%) identified Egypt correctly on a world map. .Ixfiliih.9£§d§£§= The United States was correctly located by 91% of the 00005 twelfth graders. These students also scored rela- tively higher on the remaining country identifications. Mexico was located correctly by 93% of the twelfth graders. France by 88%. the USSR by 89%. China by 88%. and Egypt by 77%. 2A6 W: The results on the map-location section of the Knowledge Test indicated that students'.ability to locate particular nations on a map increased as the students progressed through the grades. In both the 1982 and the 1974 studies. the range of correct responses for identifying foreign countries was lower at the fourth- grade level than at the eighth- and twelfth-grade levels. A consistency was apparent in the types of errors across the three grade levels. The most frequently selected distractor for the United States was Canada; for Mexico it was Columbia; and for France. Sweden. and the USSR it was China. There were two exceptions to this pattern. China was placed in the USSR by fourth and twelfth graders but in Japan by the eighth graders; and Egypt was placed in Somalia by fourth and twelfth graders but in India by 30% of the eighth graders. The scores of the 1982 00005 fourth. eighth. and twelfth graders. in comparison with those of students in the 1974 study. did exhibit differences in percentage points for all the countries. Overall. map-location skills of the 00005 fourth-. eighth-. and twelfth-grade students were better than those of students in the 1974 ONOP study. .1tems_Le1eted_te_the_fln1ted_§tetes--The Knowledge Test included three questions on the United States for fourth graders. seven for eighth graders. and seven questions for twelfth graders. The results are listed in the following paragraphs in terms of the percentage of students at each grade level who answered the questions correctly. 2A7 Eeunth_g£edens: Of the three questions on the United States. two were answered correctly by a large percentage of the 1982 00008 fourth graders. More than half of them (66%) knew that the people in the United States speak the same language as the people in England. Only 57% of the 1974 fourth graders responded correctly to this ques- tion. A fairly large percentage (72%) of the 1982 DODDS fourth graders answered correctly that the United States government raises most of its money by collecting taxes. while 71% of the 1974 ONOP fourth graders answered this question correctly. However. a very small percentage (17%) knew that Congress. not the President (52%). makes the laws. More students (24%) in the 1974 MOP study answered this question correctly. ‘Ejghth_gnedens: More than half of the 1982 DODDS eighth graders responded correctly to the seven questions concerning the United States. Significantly more 1982 DODDS eighth graders (76%) recognized defense as the major source of United States expenditures than the 1974 ONOP eighth graders (30%). A large percentage of the 1982 00005 eighth graders as well as 1974 eighth graders (82%) knew that the United States collects most of its money through taxes. Although 84% of the 1982 DODDS eighth graders knew that people in the United States speak the same language as the people'in England. it was semewhat surprising that 14% of them selected the people of France as speaking the same language as the people of England. In the 1974 study. 57% of the eighth graders answered this question correctly and 2’48 26% of the 1974 MOP eighth-grade students also selected France. There was an improvement in the answer to the question "Who makes the laws of the United States?" from a chance-level 17% of the fourth-grade DODDS students (24% in the 1974 MOP study) to 73% of the 1982 DODDS eighth graders (59% of the 1974 MOP eighth graders). More than half (57%) of the 1982 00005 eighth graders had only a 49% correct response. On the question concerning European settlements in the United States. the 1982 DODDS eighth graders appeared to be fairly well informed. with 79% answering correctly as opposed to 67% of the 1974 MOP eighth graders who correctly answered this question. Only half of the 1982 DODDS eighth graders (50%) selected the correct response to describe the Great Plains. while 51% of the 1974 MOP eighth graders answered this question correctly. WES: Both the 1982 00008 twelfth graders and the 1974 MOP twelfth graders had the same percentages of correct answers for the question on the Great Plains (both 63%). The rather low percentage (37%) of seniors correctly answering Question 12 relating to levels of self-government corresponded closely to those in the 1974 MOP study (34%). In responding to the other five questions about the United States. the 1982 00005 twelfth graders had a higher percentage of correct answers. Seniors in the 1982 00008 study were well informed about European settlements in the United States (95%). as were the 1974 MOP twelfth graders (87%). The 1982 00008 seniors also knew that the Congress makes the laws (89%). which was slightly better than the 21.9 1974 seniors (82%). Substantial progress in recognizing the basic intent of the Bill of Rights was suggested by the increase in correct responses toiQuestion 11. with 82% of the 1982 00005 twelfth graders as opposed to 70% of the 1974 ONOP twelfth graders. The 1982 DODDS twelfth graders generally seemed to be aware that most federal revenue comes from taxes since 93% of them answered this question correctly (85% of 1974 ONOP seniors responded correctly). More of the 00005 seniors (74%) recognized that defense is a major source of United States expenditures. while only 46% of the 1974 ONOP twelfth graders recognized this fact. jfiunmeny: Responses of students in both the 1982 DODDS study and the 1974 ONOP study indicated limited knowledge of the United States. especially at the fourth-grade level and in the areas of governmental functioning. Not surprisingly. the DODDS students were more aware of how the government obtains money and where much of that money is spent. Since data from the 1974 MOP fourth-grade students were not available to compare the two groups' knowledge of the United States by using the tvtest. only the eighth- and twelfth-grade groups were compared. Those results are shown in Table 28. Eighth and twelfth graders in the 1982 DODDS study answered significantly more questions correctly than did their counterparts in the 1974 MOP study. 250 Table 28.--Resu1ts of comparisons between 1982 and 1974 samples regarding questions about the United States: Grades 8 and 12. Study Grade Mean S.D. Variance t-Score 1982 males (n=48) 8 5.6 1.8 3.4 1.50 1974 males (n=292) 8 5.2 1.7 2.9 1982 females (n=44) 8 6.2 1.5 2.3 5.08 1974 females (n=304) 8 4.9 1.6 2.6 1982 total (n=92) 8 5.9 1.7 2.8 4.92 1974 total (n=596) 8 5.0 1.6 2.6 1982 males (n=30) 12 6.2 1.2 1.5 1.41 1974 males (n=273) 12 5.8 1.5 2.3 1982 females (n=27) 12 6.4 1.2 1.5 3.68 1974 females (n=272) 12 5.3 1.5 2.3 1982 total (n=57) 12 6.3 1.2 1.4 3.41 1974 total (n=545) 12 5.6 1.5 2.3 .II2m§_L££§££10g_IQ_M331§9--Th6 fourth-grade form of the Knowledge Test contained two questions on Mexico: the eighth- and twelfth-grade forms each contained six questions. 'The results are listed in the following paragraphs in terms of the percentage of students at each grade level who answered the questions correctly. .Eeunth_gnedens: A large percentage of the 1982 DODDS fourth graders (70%) knew the peso is Mexican money. and 66% knew that Mexico has a warmer climate than Canada. England. and China. This was similar to the 1974 ONOP fourth graders' responses. which were 62% for the money question and 70% for the question about climate. 251 HOMO—912m: A large percentage of 00003 eighth graders (88%) knew that Mexico has a warmer climate than Canada. England. and China. This compared to 89% for the 1974 MOP study. A number of the 00005 students (90%) correctly responded that the peso is the term for Mexican money. and 64% knew that Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion of Mexico. This compared to 1974 MOP eighth-grade students. of whom 87% knew the currency of Mexico and 39% were familiar with the religion question. The 1982 DODDS eighth graders were less informed on the other three questions. Only 40% of them knew that descendants of the Spanish and the Indian make up Mexico's population. This compared to 49% of the 1974 MOP students who answered this question correctly. While 40% of the 00005 students knew that Mexico has an elected presi- dent. there appeared to be a lack of knowledge about Mexican politics in general. with only 12% of the DODDS students realizing that Mexico had the same political party in power since 1939. These results were similar to the 1974 MOP results. with 39% of the eighth graders cor- rectly answering that Mexico has an elected president and only 15% being aware of Mexican politics. The 1982 00008 eighth graders appeared to be weak in many of the same areas as the 1974 MOP students were. W: The 1982 DODDS twelfth graders showed improvement in their knowledge of Mexico as compared to the 1982 DODDS eighth graders. All of the DODDS twelfth graders (100%) knew that the peso is Mexican currency. This compared to 95% of the MOP twelfth graders. Generally. the DODDS twelfth graders showed more awareness in 252 the areas of climate (91% correct). religion (81%). population (60%). and government (79%). However. the twelfth graders indicated a lack of. awareness about Mexican politics. with only 33% answering Question 19 correctly. In comparison with the 1974 MOP twelfth graders. the 1982 DODDS students exhibited higher percentages. The 1974 MOP twel fth- grade scores were as follows: cl imate (90%). religion (64%). popula- tion (59%). government (61%). politics (30%). and currency (95%). 1mm: Although the 1982 DODDS students showed some improve- ment in their knowledge of Mexico when compared to the 1974 MOP stu- dents. they appeared to exhibit weaknesses in many of the same areas as the 1974 group. It is interesting that because the 1982 DODDS students were living in a prefecture of Japan. not one of them chose "yen" as the answer for the money used in Mexico. W—The fourth-grade form of the Knowledge Test contained one question on France. the eighth-grade form had four questions. and the twel fth-grade test included five questions. The results are listed in the following paragraphs in terms of the percentages of correct responses at each level. W: A much higher percentages of the DODDS fourth graders selected the correct response regarding the major product of France. with 61% of them choosing the correct answer. perfume. compared to 22% of the 1974 MOP fourth graders. Eighth—um (90%) knew that perfume is a major product of France. A greater A high percentage of 1982 00005 eighth graders percentage of the 1974 MOP students (37%) were aware of the climatic 253 characteristics of France than were the 1982 DODDS eighth graders (33%). while a higher percentage of 00005 students.(41%) were familiar with France's eastern boundary location with Germany than were the 1974 ONOP eighth graders (32%). Only 22% of the 1982 DODDS eighth graders knew that the head of government in France is the president. as com- pared to 20% of the 1974 ONOP eighth graders. .Ieeljtn_gtedens: Although there was an increased awareness shown in the response patterns from the 1982 00005 twelfth graders. the overall difference between this group and the 1974 ONOP twelfth graders was slight. A higher percentage of 1974 ONOP students.(53%) indicated knowledge of France's climate than did 1972 DODDS twelfth graders (49%). In the area of location. 51% of DODDS students responded cor- rectly compared to 45% of the 1974 ONOP students. On the two items relating to government. both groups of students indicated a lack of knowledge. with DODDS twelfth graders scoring 21% and 54% and 1974 ONOP students scoring 18% and 45% on the two questions. A lower percentage of 1982 DODDS twelfth graders (84%) responded correctly to the productr of-France question than did the 1974 MOP students (85%). Interest- ingly. the percentage was less for the 00003 twelfth graders than for the DODDS eighth graders (90%). innumety: Generally. the percentages of correct responses to the questions about France closely paralleled the 1974 ONOP percent- ages. The results seemed to indicate limited knowledge about France at all three grade levels in the DODDS study. 2511 Wume fourth-grade form of the Knowledge Test contained two questions on the USSR/Soviet Union; the eighth- and twelfth-grade forms both had eight items. The results are listed in the following paragraphs according to the percentages of correct responses by students at each grade level. .EeuLthJLadeLs: Only 30% of the 1982 DODDS fourth graders knew that the Soviet Union is located in the continents of both Europe and Asia. This was less than the 1974 MOP fourth graders' percentage (31%). Fourth-grade 1982 DODDS responses to Question 29. with 55% indicating that Russia/the Soviet Union is a communist government. were higher than the percentage for the 1974 MOP fourth graders (20%). Two points could be made concerning fourth graders' responses to this particular question. The fact that 41% of the DODDS fourth graders indicated that the United States is a communist country would suggest that the term "communist government" has very little. if any. meaning to many fourth graders. Second. it would suggest that fourth graders really do tend to have a strongly United-States—centered view of the world. with a tendency to select the United States when in doubt and when it is one of several national alternatives. W: The 1982 DODDS eighth graders' responses to the geographical questions about the USSR indicated some weakness in knowing the continental location of Russia. Only 52% were aware that it is located in both Europe and Asia. This compared to 58% of correct responses in the 1974 MOP study. However. a higher percentage of DODDS eighth graders (77%) knew that the Soviet Union has poor access 255 to oceans. as compared to only 41% of the 1974 MOP eighth graders who answered this question correctly. There was little difference in the percentages of the two groups in answering the question about the basis of the formation of the republics of the Soviet Union. with the DODDS group scoring 23% and the 1974 MOP eighth graders scoring 24%. A higher percentage (92%) of the DODDS-eighth graders correctly i denti- fied the USSR as a country with a communist government. but. interest- ingly. 5% of them selected the United States as having a communist government. In the 1974 MOP study. 83% of the eighth graders responded correctly to this question. and 8% indicated that the United States has a communist government. The 1985 DODDS eighth graders were more aware that Russia has a soci alistic government. with 65% respond- ing correctly as compared to only 36% of the 1974 M()3 eighth graders. Sixty percent of the DODDS students were aware that the Soviet Union uses production quotas. while only 17% of the 1974 MOP eighth graders answered this item correctly. Only modest differences appeared between the two groups in the last two questions. with 76% of DODDS students correctly answering the question regarding state ownership and opera- tion of industries. compared to 66% of 1974 ONOP eighth graders. Less than half (46%) of 00005 eighth graders chose the correct answer for the question concerning the Soviet Union's foreign trade. as opposed to 36% of the 1974 MOP group. helitLgLedeLs: Overall. there were only slight differences in the percentages of correct responses of the 1982 00008 twelfth graders and the 1974 Mi)3 twelfth graders. Seventy-four percent of the 256 DODDS students knew that Russia is located in both Europe and Asia. as compared to 54% of the 1974 MOP group. The percentage of those who knew that the Soviet Union has a short. ice-free coastline and poor access to oceans was over half (61%) and more than the 1974 MOP group (53%) but less than the 00005 eighth-grade group (77%). Both groups had a low percentage of correct responses regarding the formation of the republic of the Soviet Union. with the 1982 00005 group scoring 26% and the 1974 MOP group scoring 23%. A fairly high percentage (32%) incorrectly answered that natural geographic boundaries form the basis of the USSR's republics. Some 98% of the DODDS twelfth graders answered correctly that Russia has a communist government. while 97% of the MOP group correctly identified this item. Two percent of the 00005 seniors selected the Uni ted States as having a communist govern- ment. which was the same percentage in the 1974 MOP study. Seventy- seven percent of the DODDS twelfth graders were aware that the 1917 Revolution in Russia instituted a soci alistic government. as opposed to 67% of the MOP seniors who answered this question correctly. Both groups exhibited a lack of knowledge about the use of production quotas in the USSR. with only 33% of the 00005 seniors correctly responding and 32% of the 1974 MOP twelfth graders answering correctly. Only slight differences appeared between the two groups on the last two questions. with 91% of the DODDS twelfth graders aware that the govern- ment owns and operates most industries in the Soviet Union and 87% of the 1974 MOP seniors correctly responding. As in the case of the eighth graders. less than half (47%) of the 1982 DODDS twelfth graders 257 chose the correct answer regarding the Soviet Union's foreign trade. while only 41% of the 1974 MOP twelfth graders responded correctly to this question. gunmen: Responses at all three levels indicated a weakness in basic geographical information about the Soviet Union. However. in most of the areas. the DODDS students exhibited a higher percentage of correct responses than did the students in the 1974 MOP study. WW-Jhe fourth-grade form of the Knowl- edge Test contained four questions on China: the eighth- and twel fth- grade tests each contained six items on China. The results are reported in the following paragraphs in terms of percentages of correct responses by students in each grade level. mm: The 1982 00005 fourth graders had higher per- centages of correct responses on all four questions. However. the USA— centeredness of fourth graders was again apparent by the large percent- age (73%) sel acting the United States as having the most people (when compared to Russia. 6%: Canada. 3%; and China. 17%). The DODDS per~ centage of 17% was higher than that of the 1974 MCP fourth graders. which was only 9%. Only 45% were aware that the United States is becoming more friendly with China. as compared with the 43% who responded correctly to this question in the 1974 MOP study. It should be noted that approximately ten years had elapsed since the conspicuous attention that was given to the improvement of United States and Main- land China relations with President Nixon's "Journey for Peace." Therefore. the 1982 00005 fourth graders may not have been aware that 258 the United States and China had not always been friends. Sixty-four percent of the DODDS fourth graders were aware that most of the'Chinese people are farmers. while less than half (47%) of the 1974 ONOP fourth graders answered this question correctly. Forty-one percent of the DODDS students chose the correct answer of the bicycle as the primary means of transportation in China. which was higher than the percentage of the 1974 group (31%). Among the erroneous choices. "automobile" was chosen by 28% and "bus" was selected by 22% of the DODDS fourth graders. Waders DODDS eighth graders knew that China has the largest population. there Although more than half (55%) of the 1982 was still a tendency to choose the United States when in doubt--25% chose the United States as the most populous country. In the 1974 group of eighth graders. only 37% knew that China has more people than the United States. which was chosen by'32% of the students. Less than half (49%) of the DODDS eighth graders as compared to 31% of the 1974 ONOP students recognized that the Chinese language has many dialects. Over half (66%) of the 1982 eighth graders were aware that China does not have a caste system. whereas only 28% of the 1974 eighth graders knew this information. The 1982 DODDS eighth-grade students fared much better than the 1982 fourth graders on the question of improved relations with China. scoring a 72% correct response result. but this was a lower percentage than the 1974 ONOP eighth graders achieved (79%). Over half'(55%) of the DODDS eighth graders knew that the Chinese are mainly farmers. but this was a lower percentage than the 259 DODDS fourth graders' 64% score. Sixty-seven percent of the 1982 DODDS eighth graders chose the correct answer of the bicycle as the main means of transportation in China. which was a higher percentage than the 1975 MOP eighth graders' score of 48%. Among the erroneous choices. 20% chose the "bus" and 12% selected "automobile" in the 1982 00005 study. Ineljtmdens: On two questions about China the 1982 00003 twelfth graders scored lower than did the 1974 MOP twelfth graders. Only 42% of the DODDS seniors were aware that China does not have a caste system. as compared to 43% of the 1974 MOP seniors. A lower percentage of the 00005 seniors (12%) were knowledgeable about the establishment of "workers' colleges" in China than were the 1974 MOP seniors. who scored 13% on this question. The DODDS seniors scored higher than the 1974 MOP seniors on the other four questions about China. A high percentage (95%) knew that China has the largest popula- tion. whereas only 66% of the 1974 MOP seniors correctly answered this question. Only 51% of the DODDS seniors were informed about the Chinese language. but this was higher than the 39% score of the 1974 MG” seniors. Only 51% of the DODDS twelfth graders knew that most of the Chinese people work as farmers. This was similar to the 1974 MOP seniors' awareness level of 50%. A high percentage (86%) of the DODDS twelfth graders were aware that bicycles are the main form of transpor- tation in China. while only 74% of the 1974 MOP twelfth graders selected the correct answer. 260 gunnery: Although the percentages of 1982 DODDS students' responses were generally higher than those of the 1974 MOP students. there were indications of weaknesses in a number of areas across all three grade levels. Despite their physical proximity to China (Okinawa is 450 miles from Shanghai. China). DODDS students' responses indicated that they were not as well informed as one might expect. Wnlhe fourth-grade Knowledge Test contained three questions on Egypt. the eighth-grade form contained six items. and the twel fth-grade test contained seven questions. The results are reported in the following paragraphs in terms of percent- ages of correct responses by grade level. mm: A higher percentage of 1982 00005 fourth graders (78%) than their 1974 MOP counterparts (52%) knew that Egypt is made up primarily of deserts. However. only 30% of the DODDS students were aware that Egypt is an Arab country. which was a lower percentage than the 38% scored by the 1974 MOP fourth graders. A sizable percentage (39%) of the DODDS fourth graders incorrectly identified Israel as being an Arab country. Only 27% of the DODDS fourth graders knew that cotton is an important product of Egypt. The 1974 MOP fourth graders also had a low percentage (24%) of correct responses on this question. W: The 1982 DODDS eighth graders had lower scores than the 1974 MOP eighth graders on three of the six questions. Only 39% of the DODDS students knew that Egypt is an Arab country. which was lower than the 43% scored by the 1974 MOP students. Among the 261 erroneous choices. "Israel" was chosen by 49% of the 00005 students and "India" by 11% of them. The DODDS eighth graders had a low percentage (16%) of correct responses for the question relating to the identity of the president of Egypt. while the 1974 ONOP eighth graders registered a 27% correct response score. Another low percentage (15%) was recorded by the DODDS eighth graders on the question about an important product of Egypt. The 1974 ONOP group fared better on this question. with a 29% correct response score. The 1982 DODDS eighth graders scored higher than the 1974 ONOP eighth graders on three of the questions about Egypt. Eighty-nine percent of the 1982 00003 students knew that Egypt is made up of deserts as compared to 64% of the 1974 ONOP eighth graders. More than half’(57%) of the 1982 DODDS eighth graders were aware of some of the facts about Arab culture and society. while only 34% of the 1974 ONOP group correctly responded to Question 44. Responses to Question 43 showed very little awareness of the role of the Aswan Dam on the part of both the 1974 ONOP and the 1982 DODDS stu- dents. with only 22% of the 00003 students and 15% of the ONOP students responding correctly. Unfortunately. 36% of the DODDS eighth graders indicated that the Nile Delta was "constructed" to provide increased irrigation. ,Inelftn_gnedens: The 1982 DODDS twelfth graders had a lower percentage than the 1974 ONOP twelfth graders on only one of the seven questions about Egypt. Only 28% of the 1982 00003 twelfth-grade stu- dents knew the identity of the president of Egypt as compared to 42% of the 1974 ONOP twelfth graders. Twelfth graders' responses indicated 262 that 96% of the 00008 group knew that Egypt is made up of deserts as compared to 77% of the 1974 ONOP group who responded correctly to this question. Only a little over half’(56%) of the DODDS seniors were aware that Egypt is an Arab country. which was only a slightly higher percentage than the 1974 ONOP seniors achieved. This lack of knowledge was further heightened by the fact that 42% of the DODDS seniors selected Israel as being an Arab nation. Sixty-five percent of the DODDS twelfth graders were aware of somenof the facts about Arab cul- ture and society as compared to 52% of the 1974 ONOP twelfth graders. The DODDS students' lack of knowledge about Egypt was also apparent in the modest percentages of students who knew that cotton is a product of Egypt.(35%) and 28% who were aware that Egypt produces the least amount of crude oil of the nations listed (Saudi Arabia. Iran. and Kuwait). Surprisingly. over half (54%) of the 00005 seniors selected Kuwait as relatively "oil-poorJ' The 1974 ONOP seniors had similar responses. with 26% correctly responding that cotton is a major prod- uct of Egypt and only 18% identifying Egypt as an "oil-poor" country. The 1974 ONOP seniors also had a large percentage (55%) of those who chose Kuwait as being "oil-poorJ' The DODDS seniors also had a lack of knowledge about the role of the Aswan Dam. with less than half (42%) of them correctly responding to the final question regarding Egypt. This compared to 29% of the 1974 ONOP seniors who answered this question correctly. These students' lack of understanding of the meaning of the term "delta" was exhibited by the fact that over one-third of each group chose the Nile Delta as being "constructed" to provide irrigated 263 land in Egypt. A smaller percentage (14% of DODDS and 36% of ONOP) indicated that the Suez Canal was constructed to provide increased irrigation. Mm: Despite the Middle East's increased exposure in the media in recent years. there still are many students almost totally uninformed about Egypt. Undoubtedly this lack of knowledge encompasses the majority of the Middle East nations and exists at all three grade levels. As the Educational Testing Service researchers noted. the Middle East seems to be "a relatively unknown. undifferentiated area for most students." Magnum-Jive questions on the world were included in the fourth-grade Knowledge Test. and nine questions in the eighth- and twelfth-grade tests. The results are discussed in the following paragraphs in terms of the percentage of correct responses by grade level. .EQH£1h_Q£§fi§£§= The 1982 00005 fourth graders had higher percentages of correct responses than the 1975 ONOP fourth graders on three of the five questions about the world. Eighty-nine percent of the DODDS students knew that most of the world is made up of oceans. as compared to 69% of the 1974 ONOP group. The percentages indicating that the United States and Russia have sent rockets to the moon were 84% for the DODDS students and 70% for the 1974 students. Over half (52%) of both groups knew that all groups of people in the world have a language. It is interesting that over one-third (34%) of the DODDS fourth graders chose the answer ”religion" instead of "language" as 2614 what all groups of people in the world have. Thirty-nine percent of the 00005 students were aware that most countries belong to the United Nations. as compared to 35% of the 1974 MOP fourth graders. When asked for the world's population. only 19% of the DODDS fourth graders answered correctly as compared to the 20% of the 1974 MOP fourth graders who correctly answered this question. Alternatives presented to the fourth graders ranged from 350.000 to 35 billion. and since 66% of them chose 35 billion it seems likely that most fourth graders had no idea of the correct number and tended to choose the largest number given. Waders: The 1982 DODDS eighth graders had higher percentages of correct responses on seven of the nine questions about the world. The question calling for the knowledge that most of the earth's surface is made up of oceans was answered by 92% of the DODDS eighth graders as compared to 79% of the 1974 MG” eighth graders. The pattern for answering the question about the world's population seemed to follow that of the fourth graders. Eighth-grade alternatives ranged from 600 million (chosen by only 9%) to 5.2 billion (chosen by 42%). with only 36% of the DODDS students selecting the correct answer of 3.8 billion. In the 1974 study only 23% chose the correct number. Forty percent of the 00005 eighth graders recognized the universality of a structured spoken language. while only 27% of the MOP eighth graders correctly responded to Question 48. A high percentage (74%) of the DODDS students recognized the purpose of the United Nations. while 66% of their counterparts in the 1974 M03 study were aware of its purpose. 265 Surprisingly. all (100%) of the 00008 eighth graders and 99% of the 1974 MOP eighth graders knew that the United States and Russia had sent rockets to the moon. However. only 29% of the DODDS students were aware that England and France are members of the Common Market. This fact was recognized by only 22% of the 1974 MOP students. Judging from the.percentages of students choosing non-European countries as Common Market members. it would appear that for most students. the Common Market has no specifically European connotations. About half (52%) of the DODDS eighth graders were aware of the relationship between extremes of temperature and limited economic activity. while only about one-third (33%) of the 1974 MOP eighth graders recognized this relationship. A low percentage (15%) of DODDS students realized that "a decreasing death rate" rather than "an increasing birth rate" (76%) was most responsible for the increase in the world's population during the last 50 years. Sixteen percent of the 1974 MOP eighth graders correctly answered this question. When asked which of several continents was most densely populated. only 26% of the DODDS eighth graders correctly selected Europe. while over half (51%) selected Asia. This fact may reflect the commonly portrayed images of the "teeming masses" of China and India without students taking into account the large. very sparsely inhabited parts of Asia's interior as well as recognizing the fact that there are no such large areas in Europe. A higher percentage of 1974 MOP eighth graders (41%) chose the correct answer (Europe). but 30% chose Asia. 266 W: The 1982 DODDS twelfth graders had a higher percentage of correct responses on eight of the nine questions about the world. Nearly all (98%) of the twelfth graders knew that oceans make up most of the earth's surface as compared to 88% of the 1974 MOP twelfth graders. Apparently the seniors also used the same method as the fourth and eighth graders to answer the population question. with less than half (43%) choosing correctly. Nearly one-third (31%) chose the largest number as their response. In the 1974 study only 37% of the twelfth graders selected the correct response. with 35% choosing the largest number. Fifty-two percent of the seniors recognized the universality of a structured spoken language. while 42% of the 1974 MOP seniors were able to select the correct response. Many of the DODDS twelfth graders also did not perceive that theidecreasing death rate was responsible for the increase in the world's population. with only 39% of them responding correctly. This was compared to a 26% correct response rate of the 1974 ONOP seniors. Over half (52%) of the 00008 seniors thought that it was the increasing birth rate that was most responsible for the increase in the world's population in the last 50 years. A large percentage (91%) of the DODDS seniors and of the MOP seniors (89%) recognized the purpose of the United Nations. Nearly all of the 1982 twelfth graders (98%) and 1974 twelfth graders (97%) were aware that the United States and Russia had sent rockets to the moon. Over half (51%) of the DODDS seniors were aware that England and France are members of the Common Market. while only 39% of the MOP seniors correctly answered this question. Fi fty-seven percent of the 267 DODDS twel fth-grade students were aware that extremes of temperature affect the level of economic activity in areas of the world. whereas only 37% of the MOP twelfth-grade students recognized this fact. Only one-fourth (25%) of the 1982 DODDS twelfth graders knew which continent is most densely populated. while 37% of the 1974 MOP group correctly answered this question. As in the case of the DODDS eighth graders. a high percentage of 1982 DODDS twelfth graders (60%) incorrectly selected Asia as the most densely populated continent. Summ: The 1982 DODDS students' responses on the items about the world indicated several areas of weakness across all three grade levels. Students' percentages were highest on the questions about the make-up of the earth's surface and which countries have sent rockets to the moon. However. the majority of their responses indicated that they were not well informed about the world's population. where the largest concentrations of people are located. what has caused the large increase in the world's population in the last 50 years. and which countries are members of the Canmon Market. WWW W0 For grade four. the instrument for measuring attitudes toward other countries was a booklet entitled Deseflflngjetiens. Each page of the booklet had the name of a nation at the top. beneath which 22 descriptive terms were scattered randomly over the page. The country of Canada was used on an example page. which was completed under the supervision of the researcher. The following ten countries were then 268 presented. each on a separate page: China. Egypt. England. France. Israel. Japan. Mexico. Russia. Spain. and the United States. The descriptors were: many factories-many farms. unfriendly-friendly. poor-rich. are like us-are not like us. peaceful-warlike. unhappy- happy. strong-weak. near-far. small-large. warm weather-cold weather. and many people-few people. The fourth-grade student was instructed to draw a circle around the words that he/she would use to describe the country listed at the top of the page. Fourth graders' views of the ten countries are shown in Table 29. Each country is shown with the descriptors ranked according to the percentage of cases used to describe the particular country. Only the top half or 11 of the 22 descriptors will be discussed. Unltedjtetes. The United States was described as rich (95.3%). peaceful (89.1%). strong (87.5%). warm weather (85.9%). large (84.4%). many people (84.4%). friendly (81.3%). happy (79.7%). many factories (78.1%). cold weather (62.5%). and many farms (48.4%). .Russle. Fourth-grade students used several negative descrip- tors for the USSR. It was described as warlike (68.8%). are not like us (56.3%). rich (54.7%). many people (51.6%). far (46.9%). large (42.2%). warm weather (42.2%). poor (42.2%). unfriendly (37.5%). cold weather (28.1%). and unhappy (28.1%). China. China was seen as having many people (68.8%). rich (59.4%). happy (51.6%). warm weather (60%). friendly (50%). large (46.9%). peaceful (40.6%). many farms (39.1%). are not like us (34.4%). many factories (34.4%). and are like us (32.8%). 269 Table 29.--Attitude data of 1982 DODDS fourth-grade students. UNITED STATESa RUSSIA Descriptor % of Cases Descriptor % of Cases Rich 95.3 Warlike 68.8 Peaceful 89.1 Are not like us 56.3 Strong 87.5 Rich 54.7 Warm weather 85.9 Many people 51.6 Large 84.4 Far 46.9 Many people 84.4 Large 42.2 Friendly 81.3 Warm weather 42.2 Happy 79.7 Poor 42.2 Many factories 78.1 Unfriendly 37.5 Cold weather 62.5 Cold weather 28.1 Many farms 48.4 Unhappy 28.1 Warlike 15.6 Many farms 28.1 Poor 7.8 Strong 28.1 Unfriendly 6.3 Many factories 25.0 Weak 4.7 Happy 23.4 Few people 3.1 Small 20.3 Small 3.1 Friendly 18.8 Unhappy 1.6 Weak 15.6 Few people 12.5 Peaceful 10.9 Near 9.4 Are like us 7.8 Table 29.--Continued. CHINA JAPAN Descriptor % of Cases Descriptor % of Cases Many people 68.8 Many people 81.3 Rich 59.4 Rich 79.7 Happy 51.6 Friendly 75.0 Warm weather 50.0 Warm weather 71.9 Friendly 50.0 Happy 68.8 Large 46.9 Peaceful 60.9 Peaceful 40.6 Many factories 50.0 Many farms 39.1 Strong 46.9 Are not like us 34.4 Large 43.8 Many factories 34.4 Are like us 35.9 Are like us 32.8 Many farms 35.9 Near 32.8 Are not like us 34.4 Strong 31.3 Cold weather 32.8 Poor 28.1 Poor 29.7 Far 23.4 Near 28.1 Warlike 20.3 Small 23.4 Weak 17.2 Warlike 23.4 Cold weather 14.1 Far 14.1 Small 7.8 Weak 10.9 Unfriendly 4.7 Few people 10.9 Few people 4.7 Unhappy 9.4 Unhappy 3.1 Unfriendly 6.3 271 Table 29.--Continued. FRANCE SPAIN Descriptor % of Cases Descriptor % of Cases Rich 82.8 Warm weather 71.9 Peaceful 67.2 Rich 70.3 Warm weather 64.1 Peaceful 65.6 Friendly 62.5 Happy 62.5 Happy 59.4 Friendly 56.3 Many people 51.6 Many people 50.0 Are like us 50.0 Far 45.3 Many factories 46.9 Large 39.1 Far 40.6 Are not like us 39.1 Large 37.5 Are like us 35.9 Strong 35.9 Many factories 32.8 Are not like us 31.3 Strong 26.6 Many farms 23.4 Poor 20.3 Cold weather 20.3 Small 18.8 Warlike 15.6 Many farms 15.6 Poor 15.6 Cold weather 14.1 Small 15.6 Few people 12.5 Few people 14.1 Weak 12.5 Unhappy 9.4 Near 10.9 Near 9.4 Unhappy 9.4 Unfriendly 9.4 Warlike 7.8 Weak 7.8 Unfriendly 6.3 272 Table 29.-~Continued. ENGLAND ISRAEL Descriptor % of Cases Descriptor % of Cases Rich 76.6 Warm weather 56.3 Many people 59.4 Are not like us 48.4 Friendly 57.8 Many people 45.3 Peaceful 56.3 Rich 42.2 Are like us 54.7 Poor 42.2 Warm weather 54.7 Far 37.5 Happy 48.4 Peaceful 32.8 Large 42.2 Friendly 32.8 Far 42.2 Warlike 31.3 Strong 42.2 Happy 31.3 Many factories 34.4 Weak 29.7 Are not like us 28.1 Small 29.7 Cold weather 21.9 Many farms 26.6 Many farms 20.3 Unhappy 23.4 Small 18.8 Large 21.9 Warlike 17.2 Strong 20.3 Weak 15.6 Few people 20.3 Poor 10.9 Cold weather 14.1 Near 4.7 Many factories 12.5 Unfriendly 4.7 Near 12.5 Few people 4.7 Unfriendly 12.5 Unhappy 3.1 Are like us 10.9 273 Table 29.--Continued. EGYPT MEXICO Descriptor % of Cases Descriptor % of Cases Warm weather 64.1 Warm weather 68.8 Are not like us 57.8 Many people 62.5 Far 48.4 Peaceful 51.6 Peaceful 46.9 Rich 48.4 Poor 45.3 Friendly 43.8 Many people 43.8 Poor 43.8 Rich 40.6 Large 42.2 Large 37.5 Far 39.1 Happy 35.9 Happy 39.1 Strong 29.7 Many farms 37.5 Friendly 28.1 Many factories 34.4 Weak 26.6 Are not like us 34.4 Few people 26.6 Are like us 29.7 Many farms 23.4 Strong 28.1 Warlike 21.9 Weak 21.9 Small 20.3 Unhappy 17.2 Are like us 18.8 Warlike 17.2 Many factories 18.8 Few people 15.6 Unhappy 12.5 Cold weather 15.6 Unfriendly 12.5 Small 15.6 Cold weather 10.9 Near 14.1 Near 6.3 Unfriendly 12.5 aThe descriptors Near. Far. Like Us. and Not Like Us were omitted from the United States inventory as not applicable. 2711 laean. Positive descriptors were used to describe Japan. It was described as having many people (81.3%). rich (79.7%). friendly (75%). warm weather (71.9%). happy (68.8%). peaceful (60.9%). many factories (50%). strong (46.9%). large (43.8%). are like us (35.9%). and many farms (35.9%). finance. France was described quite positively as rich (82.8%). peaceful (67.2%). warm weather (64.1%). friendly (62.5%). happy (59.4%). many people (51.6%). are like us (50%). many factories (46.9%). far (40.6%). large (37.5%). and strong (35.9%). 5.11.11.0- Spain was seen as having warm weather (71.9%). rich (70.3%). peaceful (65.6%). happy (62.5%). friendly (56.3%). many people (50%). far (45.3%). large (39.1%). are not like us (39.1%). are like us (35.9%). and many factories (32.8%). England. Fourth graders also used positive descriptors for England. which was described as rich (76.6%). many people (59.4%). friendly (57.8%). peaceful (56.3%). are like us (54.7%). warm weather (54.7%). happy (48.4%). large (42.2%). far (42.2%). strong (42.2%). and many factories (34.4%). Israel. Israel was described as having warm weather (56.3%). are not like us (48.4%). many people (45.3%). rich (42.2%). poor (42.2%). far (37.5%). peaceful (32.8%). friendly (32.8%). warlike (31.3%). happy (31.3%). and weak (29.7). Egyet. Egypt was described fairly positively as having warm weather (64.1%). are not like us (57.8%). far (48.4%). peaceful 275 (46.9%). poor (45.3%).1nany people (43.8%). rich (40.6%). large (37.5%). happy (35.9%). strong (29.7%). and friendly (28.1%). fluefige. Fourth graders used positive descriptors for Mexico. They saw it as having warm weather (68.8%). many people (62.5%). peace (51.6%). rich (48.4%).'friendly'(43.8%). poor (43.8%). large (42.2%). far (39.1%). happy (39.1%). many farms (37.5%). and many factories (34.4%). W Many of the hypotheses constructed to compare the results of the 1982 DODDS study and the 1974 ONOP study revealed statistically significant differences. However. there were some areas in which no significant differences existed between the two studies. For example. while no significant differences existed between the two groups in terms of the countries students were interested in studying. there were statistically significant differences in those countries the 1982 DODDS fourth-. eighth-. and twelfth-grade students were interested in visiting. The hypothesis constructed to compare those resources the T982 and 1974 students used to learn about foreign countries indicated statistically significant differences among certain items at each of the three grade levels. Travel ranked as the most influential resource for the fourth-. eighth-. and twelfth-grade DODDS students. while tele- vision was the most frequently selected resource in the 1974 ONOP study. Books. movies. and magazines were the other most frequently selected items in all grades in both studies. 276 When the 1974 and 1982 groups were compared in terms of their global-knowledge scores. some statistically significant differences were noted. Eighth-grade females and both twelfth-grade males and females performed significantly differently on questions about the United States than did their 1974 counterparts. Eighth-grade males in the 1982 study performed significantly differently on questions about France. China. and the world than did l974 males. while there were significant differences between the 182 eighth-grade females and the 1974 females on those questions about the USSR. China. Egypt. and the world. For the twelfth-grade males. there were statistically signifi- cant differences on questions about Mexico. China. and the world. while differences on questions about the USSR. China. and Egypt were noted for the twelfth-grade females. An analysis of the total scores on the Knowledge Test indicated statistically significant differences between the fourth-. eighth-. and twelfth-grade students in the 1982 study and their counterparts in the 1974 study. In most instances. DODDS students achieved higher scores on a majority of the questions. Chapter V contains a summary of the purpose of the study. the major research findings and conclusions based on the data gathered in the study. as well as recommendations for future research. CHAPTER V SUMMARY OF FINDINGS. IMPLICATIONS. AND RECOMMENDATIONS Sumac): The purpose of this study was to collect. analyze. and compare data related to the degree of global knowledge. interests in and atti- tudes toward other nations and people among selected fourth-. eighth-. and twelfth-grade students in Department of Defense Dependents Schools (DODDS) on Okinawa. Japan. The results of this study may be useful in aiding DODDS educators and curriculum planners in the evaluation of their current educational programs as related to the achievement of stated goals for intercultural understanding and acceptance of cultural differences. This study was also intended to contribute to the data that have been amassed by the Michigan State Department of Education for the design and implementation of global education programs. The study sample of fourth-. eighth-. and twelfth-grade stu- dents was drawn from three schools serving all three branches of the military services--Air Force. Army. and Navy including Marines--as well as the civilian population. which consisted of Americans who are employed by the Department of Defense or by the DODDS. A total sample of 213 students participated in the study. The previous chapters described the background of the study. related research. the setting. population. data-collection instruments. 277 278 methodology. and statistical analyses of the hypotheses. This chapter presents the major findings of the study. a discussion of the implica- tions of the results. and recommendations for future research. .M319L_B§§nlifi In this section the major results of the study are discussed within the limitations of the setting. population. and methodology. StudenumLesLLLStudnng W The results of this section of the interest questionnaire were diverse. Differentiated results were apparent at all levels since students in all grade levels chose different countries to study and to visit. and as the grade level increased. the tendency to distinguish between those countries students wanted to study and those they preferred to visit became more pronounced. This result was also found in the 1974 ONOP study. Also. as in the 1974 study. the fourth graders appeared to have a positive interest in learning about other countries. Interest declined in the eighth grade and increased in the twelfth grade. as was shown in the 1974 study. Fourth-. eighth-. and twelfth-grade DODDS students all ranked Japan in the top three positions to both study and visit. The other countries chosen as being the most desirable ones to visit were England. France. and Spain--a11 countries having cultures similar to that of the United States. Israel and Liberia were the least fre- quently selected countries to visit by all three grade levels. 279 We: MW All three grades ranked travel first as a resource to learn about other countries. Given the fact that military dependents are fairly well traveled. this would be a logical choice for DODDS students. Audio-visual resources were prominent choices at each of the grade levels. While the students in the 1974 ONOP study rated televi- sion as their most influential resource for all three grades. it was not listed as a first choice for the students in the 1982 00008 study. This may be related to the fact that the military community on Okinawa has access to only one English-language television station. which does not have the variety of programs found in the United States. Movies. books. and magazines also were important sources of information at all three grade levels in the 1982 DODDS study. These resources were also chosen by students in the 1974 study. 15W An examination of the data for the Knowledge Test indicated that there were statistically significant differences between all three grades of the 1982 group and the 1974 group on total Knowledge Test scores. The 1982 DODDS students performed significantly differently than the 1974 groups. A greater number of 00008 students in each grade level correctly located each of the five countries and the United States than did students in the 1974 study. 280 The twelfth-grade DODDS students consistently scored higher than either the fourth- or eighth-grade students. This finding was similar to the findings of the 1974 study. Eighth-grade females as well as twelfth-grade males and females performed significantly differently than the 1974 groups on the section of the Knowledge Test dealing with the United States. The percentage of eighth- and twelfth-grade DODDS students correctly responding to the eight questions about the United States was higher than that of the 1974 groups on all except the question that called for a description of the Great Plains. The results of the Knowledge Test section on the world and the five nations indicated some significant differences between the per- formance of the 1982 00008 students and that of the 1974 ONOP students. There were statistically significant differences between the perform- ances of 1982 00005 eighth-grade males and the eighth-grade males in the 1974 ONOP study on items relating to France. China. and the world. Significant differences were found between the performances of the eighth-grade females in the two studies on the questions about the USSR. China. Egypt. and the world. For the twelfth-grade males. sig- nificant differences were found between the 1982 and 1974 groups on those items about Mexico. China. and the world. ‘Twelfth-grade females in the 1982 DODDS study performed significantly differently on the items about the USSR. China. and Egypt. 281 W W At grade four. perceptions of the ten countries showed a pronounced "we-they"*view. with the United States set far apart from all the other countries. The United States was the richest. strongest. largest. friendliest. and most peaceful country. and had many people. factories. and farms. China and Japan received very positive evaluations. with almost identical descriptors used for both nations. Both were described as having large populations and being rich. France. Spain. and England were also described positively. The student evaluations for Mexico. Egypt. and Israel were mainly positive except for Egypt being described as "not like us" (57.8%) and Israel being judged as "not like us" (48.4%) and "warlike" (31.3%). Russia was judged negatively as "warlike" (68.8%) and "not like us" (56%). W W W As in the 1974 ONOP study and in the partial replication of that study conducted by Wyniemko (1981). this study also indicated that fourth-. eighth-. and twelfth-grade students were interested in study- ing and visiting other countries. This interest was highest among the fourth graders. with a decline in interest for the eighth graders and then an increased level of interest again for the twelfth graders. Numerous researchers have confirmed that the period from approximately 282 8 to 14 years of age seems to be ideal for developing positive atti- tudes toward people of other cultures and nations. Since the children in the middle grades are very receptive to learning about foreign countries and people. it would appear beneficial for primary and middle schools to make a concerted effort to capitalize on this interest. Fourth-. eighth-. and twelfth-grade DODDS students all ranked Japan in the top three positions to both study and visit. Although these students were already living in Japan (Okinawa is a prefecture of Japan. located 900 miles south of Tokyo). their choice of Japan as the country they would most like to visit may have been influenced by the fact that students were expressing a desire to visit mainland Japan. which is somewhat different culturally from Okinawa. However. their choice of Japan as the country they would most like to study and visit may have been related to positive experiences students had while living and interacting with citizens of a country that is culturally different from their own country. Researchers such as Kelman (1968). Gleason (1969). and Hensley (1978) have provided evidence that the length of time spent in a foreign culture and the kinds of experiences a person has while living in that culture determine the formation of positive attitudes toward that culture. Although DODDS students live overseas in a foreign environment. they have the opportunity to remain connected to their own culture and avoid feeling culturally isolated by making use of the base facilities and activities. which. in most cases. resemble those of a typical town in the United States. In addition to having opportunities 283 to retain ties to their own culture. there are numerous opportunities to explore the country and interact with citizens of the host culture through participation in tours and programs offered by the military community. It is likely that these factors play a large role in the development of positive attitudes toward the host country. Besides Japan. the countries most frequently selected by the 1982 DODDS fourth-grade students to study were Spain. Egypt. and Mexico. They were interested in visiting Spain. Taiwan. and England. Eighth-grade students were most interested in studying Greece and France in addition to Japan. while France. Japan. and England were the choices to visit. Twelfth-grade students were interested in studying the USSR. Japan. Greece. and France. Their choices of countries to visit were Japan. France. and England. Twelfth-grade students were interested in studying the USSR but not in visiting it. while the fourth- and eighth-grade DODDS students showed little interest in either studying or visiting the USSR. Israel and Liberia were the least frequently selected countries to visit by all three groups. Attempting to determine which common characteristics countries possessed is difficult because no clear pattern can be shown. and students chose different countries to study and visit in many C3585. BeseumesitudentLUseLtLLeam Wattles Students at all three grade levels were asked to indicate which of several kinds of things influenced their thinking about other 284 nations. The dominance of travel for all three grade levels of DODDS students was not surprising. In the 1974 ONOP study. researchers suggested that the high percentage of fourth-grade students indicating travel as the way that helped most to learn about other countries was a result of students misreading the instructions as though the directions had in fact said. "Circle the ones that ueuld help you the mostJ' In the 1982 DODDS study all three grades ranked travel first. and it would seem unlikely that all of the grades misread the directions. Also. military dependents are..as a group. well traveled. especially when compared to those students in the general population. Unlike the 1974 study. in which television was ranked first by all three grade levels as the way that helped most to learn about other countries. television was ranked second by fourth- and eighth-grade DODDS students and third by the twelfth-grade students. who ranked periodicals second. This difference could possibly be related to the lack of quality television programming available to military personnel and their dependents on Okinawa. Given the concerns that are often expressed about reading being on the wane in today's audio-visual electronic society. it was somewhat reassuring to see that reading held a relatively high position for the DODDS students. 15W Just as in the 1974 ONOP study. major gaps were revealed in the 1982 00005 students' knowledge of the United States and the world. 285 Many of these gaps were discussed in Chapter IV under the heading of "Areas of Strengths and Weaknesses." There is still a considerable lack of basic knowledge about the countries and people of the Middle East. despite increased exposure in the media over the last few years. 'The fact that not even a third (28%) of the DODDS high school seniors knew who the president of Egypt is was somewhat disconcerting. ‘The Educational Testing Service narra- tive noted in 1979 at the time of the publication of the 1974 Other RatlensL_QtneL_Reeeles results that the Middle East seems to be "a relatively unknown. undifferentiated area for most students" (p. 43). It would appear that this is still very much the case today. in spite of the region's increased prominence in our national life. Students had limited knowledge about the USSR and China. which also play an important role in the news most days. Current events. items relating to American government. and making use of geographical concepts were also areas in which the 1982 DODDS students exhibited limited knowledge. Although there were some'areas of weakness in the Knowledge Test section for the 1982 DODDS students. all three grade levels performed better on a majority of the questions than the 1974 ONOP students. It is possible that the improvement pattern can be partially explained by the eight years that elapsed between the two studies. However. the time factor may not be as significant as one might think. given the results of the Wyniemko study. which took place seven years after the original study. In the Wyniemko study no statistically 286 significant differences were noted on the Knowledge Test between the eighth- and twelfth-grade students in the two studies. Only the fourth-grade group performed better than the 1974 students. It should also be noted that the eighth-grade overseas students in the Demps study scored better on the same test which was also given in 1982. the same year that the present study was conducted. Thus. in two studies the DODDS students scored higher in global knowledge than students in the United States. A variable that possibly played a role in the improved performance of the 1982 00008 students could be the continuing process of social studies curriculum reforms at all grade levels. ‘The 1980 report entitled WWW jthe_QQQQ§_ELegLam_Eyaluatjen contained several goals that are relevant to global education. and several of the new textbook series that reflected some of these goals were in use at the time this study was conducted. Further attention should be given to textbook coverage of those countries and areas. such as the Middle East. on which students exhibited a lack of knowledge. Also. since the DODDS curriculum is fairly standardized for schools all over the world. it would appear to be worthwhile to determine if students in other areas exhibit a lack of knowledge on the same questions as the DODDS-Okinawa students. Because many authors have stressed that the teacher plays a vital role in the development of world perspectives in students. another variable that may have accounted for the improved performance on the Knowledge Test of the 1982 DODDS students may have been their 287 exposure to more globally minded teachers. The 1982 Wieber study showed a significant correlation between both the number of countries teachers visited or lived in. the length of time spent in such places. and their performance on the test of global knowledge. .All of the teachers of the students tested in the 1982 DODDS study had worked for the DODDS system for ten years or more and had resided on Okinawa for approximately the same period of time or longer. Also. all of these teachers had traveled extensively and therefore had a wealth of experiences which possible enhanced their teaching. In both the Wyniemko study and the Demps study. males achieved higher scores on the Knowledge Test than the females. However. in the 1982 DODDS study this was not the case. In many instances the females performed as well as or better than the males. It is difficult to say with any certainty what factors would be related to this aspect of the study. The types of role models female students have in the DODDS system may have influenced their performance. As a long-time colleague of many of these teachers. the writer has observed that the majority of them are single females dedicated to a career in teaching overseas. and they have a high degree of commitment to their profession. Their expectations for their students are high. and this factor. too. could have influenced female students to perform well. However. it remains difficult to prove whether or not exposure to the types of teachers found in the 00005 system plays a role in the development of females' increased knowledge of other nations. 288 - DO The fact that the 1982 DODDS fourth-grade students viewed China and Japan positively could indicate that living in close proximity to the people of these two countries resulted in acceptance of people who are culturally different. Also. the high percentage of students with Japanese and Chinese mothers would also be a factor in the positive manner in which the two countries were viewed. The high percentage of students who viewed the USSR as warlike could be an indication of the pattern of negative stereotyping. which was discussed in Chapter 11. Given the emphasis that the media and the military place on the negative aspects of the relationship between the USSR and the United States. and the fact that the majority of the students were dependents of military personnel. it would seem logical that they would view the USSR as warlike. W The results of this study will be shared with the DODDS regional office on Okinawa and with John Chapman. Social Studies Spe- ci alist with the Michigan state Department of Education. It is hoped that by sharing the results of this study with the DODDS. curriculum planners will be able to further evaluate the current DODDS curriculum and determine what steps can be taken to include a global component in all aspects of the DODDS elementary and secondary curricula. The Five-Year Curriculum Development Plan was started in 1975 to provide a systematic review of the curricular and instructional support programs at all levels of the DODDS system. and it is hoped that the findings of 289 this study will be given consideration as a possible contribution to future evaluation projects. Overseas school personnel need to be aware of the'quality and quantity of programs that provide for the development of global educa- tion concerns. Since the period from approximately 8 to 14 years of age seems to be most crucial in the development of attitudes toward people of other cultures and nations. the primary and middle schools should be tasked with fostering a greater awareness. understanding. and appreciation of other people and their cultures. The curriculum may have to be expanded to include more opportunities to make use of the host country. By sharing the results of this study with John Chapman of the Michigan State Department of Education. it is hoped that this research will serve as a basis for comparison and aid curriculum planners in the evaluation process of the global education programs already being imple- mented in Michigan. Finally. in spite of the somewhat dismal picture of the current state of global education that was presented in this paper. it is hoped that. along with announcements of increasing national and state requirements for all levels of American education. there will continue to be an awareness of the need for global education. Although the back-to-basics movement has seemingly diverted public attention from the need for a curriculum that is more responsive to global issues. one would like to believe that studies such as this one will add to the already ample evidence which indicates that American students at all 290 levels are not as literate as they will need to be to survive in our interconnected world. W The following recommendations are presented for future studies: 1. This study should be replicated in various DODDS schools in other overseas settings or countries to identify and compare possible common factors that contribute to the formation of positive attitudes. Since the same DODDS curriculum is used worldwide. would giving the test to 00005 students in Germany or in the Philippines produce same of the same results found in this study? Would the level of global knowl- edge be the same? 2. Since it has been established that middle'childhood (grades three through eight) is an important period in the development of children's attitudes toward other nations and people. more research should be conducted in an attempt to pinpoint more exactly the optimum time»for students to develop a global perspective. This study could be given to grades five. six. and seven to further enhance educators' understanding of the process of attitude formation in American stu- dents. 3. Research has shown that much learning takes place outside the formal school system. Therefore. various types of studies should be conducted to establish the role "agencies of socialization" other than the school play in influencing young people's knowledge and attitudes about other lands and people. as well as about global issues 291 and events. Particular emphasis should be given to determining the role of the mass media. especially television. and its influence on children's attitude formation. 4. Although there has been a slight increase in the research conducted on students living in overseas environments. the total number of studies is not proportional to the large numbers of American stu- dents residing abroad. While this lack of such studies may be related to the logistical problems and the high cost involved in conducting such research. it would appear to be beneficial to obtain adequate funding in order to take advantage of a population that could provide valuable baseline data. 5. Few studies have been concerned with one of the vital elements in the process of developing global perspectives in students-- the teacher. The potential benefits that could be derived from doing comparison studies on teachers from both stateside and overseas schools would make such an undertaking well worthwhile. By surveying teachers in various types of settings and geographical locations. researchers could possibly determine what significant factors contribute to the development of a global perspective in teachers. 6. More research is needed to determine what types of programs can effectively bring about changes in teachers! knowledge of and attitudes toward globa1 education programs. 7. There is a need for a comprehensive historical study that would trace the development of global education. Much of the existing ‘Titerature on global education is in the form of position papers and 292 evaluative reports. A definitive study. which would include the various stages and component parts of global education. would help to promote its inclusion in the school curriculum. 8. Since the concern for global education is not unique to the United States. research should be conducted to determine the level of foreign interest in global education. Studies involving non-American student populations could determine what they are being taught about the world and how well they are learning. Also. studies of ethnocen- trism and the manner in which national stereotypes develop in other countries would be helpful. 9. The QtneL_NatlensL_cher.Eeeeles testing instrument should be revised and updated and possibly expanded to include other segments of the American population. With the curriculum reform movement influ- encing the majority of state education department programs. it would be helpful to determine if there has been an improvement in American studentsfl global knowledge as compared to that of students in the 1974 study. APPENDICES 293 APPENDIX A PERSONAL CORRESPONDENCE 2911 295 STATE OF MICHIGAN DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION "‘"WWWW DAR-ARA IOIEITS IASON head's: W09. Michigan 48909 woauaw orro nocxwtvts. sa. Va‘rr Prudent '7 “ ma. GUNECINDO SALAS "111.1." E. IUNKEL July 9 198]. Jeans!) We: ' sauna/I ouwoucwtux M Ma: m Y's-um MN WATANEN. IR. NASIE Delegate ULMENIA O KANOYTON ANNETTA MILLER ". EDNUND F. VANDETTE Ms. Katherine Wagner a” M P.O. 3” 5828 WILLIAM G wILLIxtw F.P.O. Seattle, Washington 98773 mom... Dear Ms. Wagner: It was good of you and your professional colleagues to share with me your plans for doctoral research. I was particularly pleased to learn of your intention to replicate the Other Nations Other Peoples Study and share your findings and recommendations with me. There is a pressing need for experienced teachers such as yourself to be- come involved in social studies education research which focuses on contem- porary global issues. Your survey research and recommendations in regard to: 1) what children know and feel about other nations and other people. and 2) how existing teaching practices and social studies curriculum can be modified to reflect an interdependent world will be useful in many respects. In particular, the results of studies similar to what you are proposing: 1) can assist us in charting needs and priorities in curriculum planning and staff development activities. and 2) the population which you are studying, Department of Defense School students, can serve as a comparison group for studies which focus on Michigan students. I am confident the results of your work can be useful to the Michigan De- partment of Education in its efforts to enhance social studies education in Michigan. Please contact Dr. John Chapman, Department Social Studies Specialist, if you have questions or wish to discuss details as you pro- ceed to develop your proposal and conduct your study. Sincerely. / 1%“ Phil ip B. nkeI APPENDIX 8 RESEARCH APPROVAL LETTERS 296 297 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY umxnsm comma ox ammo: im-ou'mo usr mums - mcmcas - asm Hum sumac-rs (ucsIHsi I” ADSIIVISTRATIO\ IL'IlDIVC «missus, December 8, l98l Hs. Katherine J. Wagner P.O. Box #828 FPO Seattle. Washington 98773 Dear Ms. Wagner: Subject: Proposal Entitled, "An Assessment of the interests. Knowledge. Attitudes and Perceptions Towards Other Nations and Other Peoples of Selected Students in the Department of Defense Schools, Okinawa, Japan“ The above referenced project was recently submitted for review to the UCRIflS. We are pleased to advise that the rights and welfare of the human subjects appear to be adequately protected and the Committee. therefore. approved this project at its meeting on December 7, l98l. This approval is conditional. however. upon receipt in this office of a revised consent form for the parents and students. The consent forms should be modified to include a statement asking if the parents and students will participate and that they are free not to participate without recrimination. Projects involving the use of human subjects must be reviewed at least annually. If you plan to continue this project beyond one year, please make provisions for obtaining appropriate UCRIHS approval prior to the anniversary date noted above. Thank you for bringing this project to our attention. if we can be of any future help, please do not hesitate to let us know. Sincerely, (:;P§E§731Lacq1224L/c. Henry E. Bredeck Chairman, UCRIHS HEB/jms cc: Dr. Lois Bader 298 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY mun-res (IN RESEARCH INTOH'ING [m m . W . .34 uuuassusmcnsnxanui as summaries BUILDING am mam February 9. l982 Ms. Katherine J. Wagner P.O. Box 828 FPO Seattle. Washington 98773 Dear Ms. Wagner: I have received the modified consent form for students which I requested in my letter to you of January l8. ‘ The modifications you have made are in keeping with the conditional approval and i am pleased to advise you at this time that you have UCRIHS approval to proceed with your research. Thank you for your cooperation in complying with the Committee's reQuests. If we can be of any future help. please do not hesitate to let us know. Sincerely. Menry E. Bredeck Chairman. UCRIHS MEB/jms cc: Dader 299 DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE oer: uoswrs scwooLs rurcwus sox no no scat-n: urn-sou May 0, I982 PACIFIC MEMORANDUM FOR Ms. Katherine J. Wagner SUBJECT: Research Project Collection Your request to collect data from DODDS-Pacific students at Okinawa schools is approved. This approval for you to accomplish the "Other Nations, Other People” data collection is contingent upon your following the program and guidelines you have outlined in your April 26, I982 letter to this office. Please remember, as you progress with your data collection, that you need the advance approval from principals, teachers, parents. and students; and all concerned must under- stand their participation is voluntary. Your project appears to be a most interesting one and I hope you are able to collect the data you need. As you stated in your letter to us, this study may be a beneficial one to DODDS, and we hope that this proves true. We will be most interested in the findings of your research so please share with us a copy of your final results. A RLYN G. SWEENEY Deputy Director Good luck on your project. APPENDIX C STUDENT AND PARENT INFORMATION LETTERS 300 30] Dear Student: You have been chosen to help out in a study called “Other Nations, Other Peeples.” Other students will be doing the same thing in your school, and in other schools on Okinawa. I want to find out what countries you are most interested in and what you think about coun- tries and people outside the United States. I also want to find out what you know about certain countries. Students in the United States have also answered these questions, but you are the first students living overseas to be given these booklets. You will be asked to complete four booklets. This will take a little longer than one hour. Your answers will help teachers understand better what students think and know about other countries and the people who live there. It would be helpful if everyone who is invited to participate would do so, but nothing will happen to you if you choose not to participate. This study will have nothing to do with your grades on your report card. A code will be used so no names will be known and no teacher can identify your booklet. I am sending a letter to your parents or guardians which tells them about this study. Your teacher will tell you when you are to complete the booklets for the study. Thank you for helping me. i think you will enjoy it. Yours truly, Katherine J. Wagner 302 Dear Parents or Guardians: Your child is being invited to participate in a study called ”Other Nations, Other Peoples.“ This study was conducted in the United States with the support of the Division of International Education of the United States Office of Education. The purpose of the study is to get a better understanding of students' attitudes and interests regarding other nations and peoples, and of the knowledge and experiences that influence these attitudes and interests. Your child will be asked to complete four short booklets which have been developed by the Educational Testing Service in Princeton, New Jersey. The first booklet asks what countries he or she would like to study about; what countries he or she would like to visit; and what ways he or she has learned about other countries (television, books, travel, relatives, etc.). The second booklet lists pairs of countries and asks how similar or different he or she thinks they are. In the third book- let, the student is asked to circle words that he or she would use to describe certain countries (friendly, unfriendly, near, far, etc.). The last booklet is a very short test of knowledge about several countries. The total test time for answering these booklets is about 70 minutes. All of the information given by your child will be kept strictly confi- dential. A student identifying number will be used so there will be no information identifying the persons giving the answers. Students are encouraged to participate but will be free not to participate without recrimination. I believe that the information provided by the "Other Nations, Other Peoples" study will give educators a better understanding of students' knowledge and experiences, and their attitudes and interests, regarding countries and peoples outside the United States. This information can then be used to help insure that instruction about other countries and peoples is as interesting and meaningful as possible. I feel that it is important that you know about the "Other Nations, Other PeOples” study and that your child has been invited to take part in it. Please indicate on the form if you would like your child to participate or not and return the consent form. it is necessary to have the consent forms on file at the time of the testing, so the return of this form is important. If you have any questions about the study, feel free to contact me at Amelia Earhart Intermediate School. The phone number is: hl380. I look forward to your child's participation in what I believe is an important and interesting undertaking. Sincerely, Katherine J. Wagner 303 STUDENT'S NAME I would like my child to participate in the study called “Other Nations, Other Peoples.” Parents' Signatures APPENDIX D APPROVAL TO USE TEST INSTRUMENTS 30h 305 EDUCATIONAL TESTING SERVICE flf‘ PRINCETON. x”. 08541 \v dog-ozaooooo cuu-mucnsrsvc July 2. 1982 Dr. Lois Dader Dr. John M. Chapman State of Michigan Department of Education Lansing, Michigan 48909 Dear Dr. Dader and Dr. Chapman: Educational Testing Service is pleased to grant your request to use the test materials listed below for purposes of research studies described in your letter of May 21, 1982. The materials you wish to use are as follows: Parts of the instruments from Measures of Global Under- standing, and parts of the Other Nations, Other Peoples survey instruments. Your use of these materials and any relevant documentation ETS may supply is subject to the following conditions: I. 4. Use of the materials is restricted to the research purpose described in your request to ETS, end you will not provide or otherwise‘meke them available to others without lTS's express written permission. Where publi- cation of your research findings requires reproduction of ITS authored items, acknowledgments similar to those below should be given. Please let us know when any such publication is planned. You will assume responsibility for the analyses and conclusions of your study and, other than acknowledg- ment that ITS supplied the test materials, you will not use ETS's or a test sponsor's name in such a way as to imply participation in or responsibility for your study, nor may you use the materials for any commercial purposes. Unless otherwise specified by ITS, the results of your study will be shared with ETS. Please send a copy of your findings directly to Dr. Thomas Barrows. This permission is nonexclusive and royalty-free. 306 Dr. Bader and Dr. Chapman July 2, 1982 5. Each reproduced copy of the Global Understanding:instnument.ahall carry the following copyright notice: Copyright 9 1980 by Educational Testing Service. All rights reserved. Reproduced by permission. The instrument containing Other Nations portions should carry appropriate acknowledgment of ETS as the developer of the study and instruments, and of Office of Education (MED) funding. If these arrangements are satisfactory, please sign both copies of this letter and return one copy to us. Sincerely, [lake 6’ . wax—«elk lelen C. Heidenmiller lights and Permissions Administrator cc: Dr. Barrows ACCEPTED AND AGREED TO: mg l' ‘ ‘ ‘ . I f . ”‘7 K v‘ ‘I W 41‘." ". v l’.‘ " Dr. Lois Dader T %‘ [7 aZ/[v/m 5;] .Dr. John.M. CKapman BIBLIOGRAPHY 307 BIBLIOGRAPHY Abramowitz. Norman; Leighton. Andrew J}; and Viederman. Stephen. WMWWAWWEW .Bealities. 1978 Yearbook of the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Washington. D.C.: Association for Super- vision and Development. 1978. Alger. Chadwick F. ”Some Problems in Improving International Educa- tion." 5:52.111 Education 32 (November 1968): 657-60. Allen. Michael G.. and Lee. Raymond 8. "Mass Media Education: A Time for Review." Ihe 599131 Studies 72 (March/April 1980): 52-55. Allport. Gordon. Ihe Nature QI.E£§1nfl1£§. Cambridge. Mass.: Addison-Wesley. 1954. Alvik. Trond. "The Development of Views on Conflict. 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