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This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

Effects of Discrimination Training on
Teaching Counselor Responses

presented by

Nancy J. Martin

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Doctoral degree in Education

new “We?

Major professor

 

Date February 20L 1978

 

0-7 639

 

9 Copyright by
Nancy Jean Martin

1978

EFFECTS OF DISCRIMINATION TRAINING ON

TEACHING COUNSELOR RESPONSES

By

Nancy Jean Martin

A DISSERTATION
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fhlfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Counseling, Personnel Services, and
Educational Psychology

1978

t} f1}

43

ABSTRACT

EFFECTS OF DISCRIMINATION TRAINING ON
TEACHING COUNSELOR RESPONSES

By

Nancy Jean Martin

The purpose of the study was to determine whether counselor
trainees who receive training designed to teach them when to use
different counselor response types during the counseling process will
use those responses more effectively than counselor trainees who do
not receive training which emphasizes this integration of counselor
response types and counseling process. Specifically, the investigation
sought to answer the following questions:

1. Will adding the dimension of discrimination training to
training in counselor response types increase counselor trainees'
ability to (a) identify the most appropriate response in a particular
counseling situation, (b) make more appropriate responses at different
stages of the counseling process, and (c) evaluate what types of
responses impede counseling progress at different stages of the
counseling process?

2. Will levels of performance on these three dimensions of

identification, production, and evaluation be maintained over time?

To answer these questions, a treatment program was developed

to compare a group of counselor trainees who received discrimination

Nancy Jean Martin

training to two groups of counselor trainees who received an unrelated
type of training. Training for the treatment and control groups was
comparable in format, duration, and cognitive material presented
regarding counselor response types except for emphasis in the treatment
group on integrating response types with counseling process. In lieu ‘
of this emphasis, the control groups received training in writing
learning objectives for difficult-to-define client problems, and
practice in roleplaying and self-evaluation of the initial counseling
interview.

The experimental design employed to test for treatment effects
was a pretest-posttest design. Thirty-two master's level counselor
trainees at Michigan State University enrolled in a course on the
counseling process were randomly assigned to the treatment (QT = 16)

and control groups n = 8 = 8). All subjects participated in

I ’ BCII
a three session workshop. Pretest measures were administered at the
end of the first session after all subjects had received training in
counselor response types. Posttest measures were administered at the
end of the third session.

.To assess whether treatment effects were maintained over time,
the dependent measures were administered six weeks after the end of
training to subjects who agreed to participate in the followup testing.
The design used to test for maintenance effects was a 2 X 3 repeated
measures design in which the effect of time (from posttest to followup)
was examined across the three treatment groups. Twenty-three of the

original 32 subjects participated in the followup testing and were

dispr0portionately distributed across the treatment groups creating

Nancy Jean Martin

unequal cell sizes (QT = 13, 2C1 = 4,11“I = 6).

Three instruments were developed as dependent measures to test
counselor trainees' ability to identify (Response Exercise), produce
(Free Response Exercise), and evaluate (Rating Exercise) apprOpriate
counselor response types. Three forms of each instrument were developed
fbr use as the pretest, posttest, and followup measures.

Data collected immediately following treatment were analyzed
using a one-way multivariate analysis of variance procedure. Data from
the posttests and followup tests were compared using a repeated measures
multivariate analysis of variance procedure.

Analysis of the posttest data only using Helmert contrasts
indicated a statistically significant treatment effect (p_<;.0001) but
no statistically significant difference between the two control groups
(p< .748). Thus, the hypotheses related to immediate treatment effects
were supported.

Analysis of the data collected at the followup testing offered
further evidence of a treatment effect (p3( .0001). Comparison of the
posttest and followup data indicated that treatment effects had been
maintained over time (pg<..079). There was no treatment by time of

testing interaction (p_ < .211).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The work and effort that went into producing this dissertation
were not mine alone. I would like to express my appreciation to all
those who helped at every stage of development from the initial
inception of a researchable idea to the production of the final manu-
script. Thank you to:

Norman R. Stewart, chairman of my doctoral committee, who
provided valuable input and support throughout my four years of
graduate study. Your high expectations gave me the encouragement and
courage to learn and grow professionally.

Richard G. Johnson, committee member and teacher, whose
interest, helpfulness, and sense of humor greatly enhanced my years
of graduate study.

William H. Schmidt, committee member, teacher, and friend,
whose excellent instruction and high standards for educational research
added a valuable dimension to my counselor training and guided me in
this research investigation.

John H. Schweitzer, committee member, whose friendliness,
gentleness, and, above all, willingness to step in and help enabled me
to complete my degree.

A Judith Taylor, fellow researcher and friend, whose joint
effort on this research project helped produce a higher-quality

training and research experience.

ii

Barry Greenburg, friend, whose help and support in preparing
for and running the training workshop kept me going when the work
seemed overwhelming.

The doctoral students in counseling at Michigan State University
who served as trainers, raters, and sources of positive reinforcement
during the workshop sessions.

Leonard Bianchi, friend, whose long-distance help and under-
standing of the computer enabled me to complete my work from Louisville,
Kentucky.

Linda C00per and Esther Ruscoe, typists, whose skill and
cooperation enabled me to meet what seemed to be impossible deadlines.

George Cunningham, friend, whose presence and support during
a time of pain kept me healthy enough to finish.

And lastly, to Pamela and Amy whose unquestioning love and

affection were always there when I needed them.

iii

DEDICATION

To my family, especially my mother and
father. I couldn't have accomplished this

without you.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Introduction .
Purpose

Importance . .
Review of Literature .

Categorization of Counselor Response Types .
Use of counselor responses .
Classification systems .

Effect of Training on Use of Counselor Responses .

Integration of Counselor Response Types and
Counseling Process .

Summary
II. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN AND PROCEDURES .

Overview .

Hypotheses . .

Definition of Terms

Research Design . . . . . . . . . .

Design over Variables
Design over Time .

Sample . . . .
Sample Selection . .
Sample Characteristics .
Subject Assignment .

Treatment . .

General Overview of Training .
Treatment Package . .

Response training . . . .
Format for response training .
Discrimination training .

Page

MMNl—I

N001

16
24
3O
31
31
33
34
37

37
40

40
42
42
42
43

43
44

44
45
46

Chapter Page

I. Establishment of the counseling
relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
11. Problem identification . . . . . . . . . . . 49
III. Problem solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Format for discrimination training . . . . . . . . . 52
Control Package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Response training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Control training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

Followup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Trainers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

Instrumentation and Data Collection and Analysis . . . . 64

Response Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Free Response Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Rating Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

III. RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Immediate Posttesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Followup Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Supplementary Analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

Trainer Reliability . . . . . 103
Interrater Agreement for the Free Response Exercise . 105
Reliability of the Dependent Measures . . . . . . . . 107

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
IV. SUMMARY, DISCUSSION, AND IMPLICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . 110

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a . 110
Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

Reactive Effect of Experimental Setting . . . . . . . 114
Testing by Treatment Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Selection-by-Treatment Interaction‘. . . . . . . . . . 116
Time Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

Dependent Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Reliability of the Response Exercise and Free

Response Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Validity Data for the Dependent Measures . . . . . . . 121
Use of Raters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Inter- Trainer Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

vi

Chapter Page

Discussion and Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Subject Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Dependent Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Treatment Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

Response Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Free Response Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Measures Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Implications for Counselor Training . . . . . . . . . 138
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
APPENDICES
Appendix
A. DEFINITIONS OF RESPONSE TYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
B. VIDEOTAPE RESPONSE EXERCISES: RESPONSE TRAINING . . . . . 144
C. RESPONSE TRAINING EXAMPLES FOR TRAINERS . . . . . . . . . 147
D. EVALUATION FORM: FIRST WORKSHOP SESSION . . . . . . . . . 150
E. SUMMARY REVIEW OF DISCRIMINATION TRAINING . . . . . . . . 151
F. VIDEOTAPE RESPONSE EXERCISES: DISCRIMINATION TRAINING . . 156
G. EXERCISE I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
H. EXERCISE 1: INSTRUCTIONS AND GUIDELINES FOR TRAINERS . . 165
I. EXERCISE II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
J. EXERCISE II FEEDBACK FORM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
K. EXERCISE II: INSTRUCTIONS AND GUIDELINES FOR TRAINERS . . 181
L. EVALUATION FORM: SECOND WORKSHOP SESSION . . . . . . . . 186
M. SUMMARY REVIEW WORKSHEET FOR DISCRIMINATION TRAINING . . . 187
N. EVALUATION FORM: THIRD WORKSHOP SESSION . . . . . . . . . 191
0. RESEARCH RELEASE FORM: WORKSHOP DATA . . . . . . . . . . 192
P. VIDEOTAPE EXERCISES: LEARNING OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . 193
Q. LEARNING OBJECTIVES LAB EXERCISES . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

vii

 

Appendix , Page

R. LEARNING OBJECTIVES LAB EXERCISES: INSTRUCTIONS AND

GUIDELINES FOR TRAINERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
S. INSTRUCTIONS FOR ROLEPLAYERS: SECOND WORKSHOP SESSION . . . 210
T. GUIDELINES FOR FEEDBACK . . . . . . . . . L . . . . . . . . 212
U. SELF-EVALUATION FORMS: COUNSELOR RESPONSE PROFILE AND

SELF-EVALUATION PACKAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
V. INSTRUCTIONS FOR ROLEPLAYERS: THIRD WORKSHOP SESSION . . . 223
W. RESEARCH RELEASE FORM: FOLLOWUP DATA . . . . . . . . . . . 226

X. DISCRIMINATION TRAINING: GENERAL INFORMATION AND

INSTRUCTIONS FOR TRAINERS . . 227
Y. RESPONSE EXERCISE: PRETEST, POSTTEST, AND FOLLOWUP

FORMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

2. FREE RESPONSE EXERCISE: PRETEST, POSTTEST, AND
FOLLOWUP FORMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
AA. FREE RESPONSE EXERCISE: INSTRUCTIONS FOR RATERS . . . . . . 270

BB. RATING EXERCISE: PRETEST FORM AND POSTTEST AND
FOLLOWUP FORM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .h. . . . . . . . . . 275

viii

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Cell Means and Standard Deviations for the Treatment
and Control Groups on the Pretest Response Exercise,
Free Response Exercise, and Positive and Negative
Deviation Scales of the Rating Exercise . . . . . . . . 75

2. Cell Means and Standard Deviations for the Treatment
and Control Groups on the Posttest Response Exercise,
Free Response Exercise, and Positive and Negative
Deviation Scales of the Rating Exercise . . . . . . . . 76

3. Intercorrelations for the Dependent Measures . . . . . . . 77

4. Multivariate and Univariate Analysis of Variance F
and Stepdown §_Statistics for Posttest Response—
Exercise, Free Response Exercise, and Positive and
Negative Deviation Scales of the Rating Exercise . . . . 80

5. Least Square Estimates, Standard Error of Least Square
Estimates, 95 Percent Confidence Intervals for the
Least Square Estimates, Standard Deviations of the
Posttest Measures, and 95 Percent Confidence
Intervals for the Least Square Estimates in Standard
Deviation Units for the Response Exercise, Free
Response Exercise, and Positive and Negative
Deviation Scales of the Rating Exercise . . . . . . . . 82

6. Multivariate and Univariate Analysis of Variance E_
and Stepdown E_Statistics for Posttest Response
Exercise, Free Response Exercise, and Positive and
Negative Deviation Scales of the Rating Exercise . . . . 84

7. Cell Means and Standard Deviations for the Treatment
and Control Groups on the Pretest Response Exercise,
Free Response Exercise, and Positive and Negative
Deviation Scales of the Rating Exercise . . . . . . . . 86

8. Cell Means and Standard Deviations for the Treatment
and Control Groups on the Posttest Response Exercise,
Free Response Exercise, and Positive and Negative
Deviation Scales of the Rating Exercise . . . . . . . . 87

ix

Table

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

Cell Means and Standard Deviations for the Treatment
and Control Groups on the Followup Response Exercise,
Free Response Exercise, and Positive and Negative
Deviation Scales of the Rating Exercise . . . . .

Cell Means for the Treatment and Control Groups on the
Sum Scores for the Response Exercise, Free Response
Exercise, and Positive and Negative Deviation Scales
of the Rating Exercise across Post and Followup
Testing . . . . . . . . . . . .

Cell Means for the Treatment and Control Groups on the
Difference Scores for the Response Exercise, Free
Response Exercise, and Positive and Negative Deviation
Scales of the Rating Exercise across Post and Follow-
up Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Multivariate and Univariate Analysis Of Variance F and
Stepdown F Statistics for the Response Exercise, Free
Response Exercise, and Positive and Negative Deviation
Scales of the Rating Exercise across Post and Follow-
up Testing .

Multivariate and Univariate Analysis of Variance F and
Stepdown F Statistics for the Response Exercise, Free
Response Exercise, and Positive and Negative Deviation
Scales of the Rating Exercise across Post and Follow-
up Testing .

Multivariate and Univariate Analysis of Variance F and
Stepdown F Statistics for the Response Exercise, Free
Response Exercise, and Positive and Negative Deviation
Scales of the Rating Exercise across Treatment Groups

Posttest Means and Standard Deviations for the Treatment
and Control Groups across the Response Exercise, Free
Response Exercise, and Positive and Negative Deviation
Scales of the Rating Exercise . . . . . . . . . .

Multivariate and Univariate Analysis of Variance F and
Stepdown F Statistics for the Response Exercise, Free
Response Exercise, and Positive and Negative Deviation
Scales of the Rating Exercise across Treatment Groups

Reliability of Trainer Ratings for the Ten Counselor
Response Types . . . . .

Page

88

89

9O

92

94

96

98

104

. 106

Table Page

18. Internal Consistency Reliability Coefficients for the
Pretest, Posttest, and Followup Forms of the Response
Exercise, Free Response Exercise, and Rating
Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

19. ‘Frequency and Percent of Response Type Choices for the
Treatment and Combined Control Groups on the
Posttest Response Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

20. Frequency and Percent of Response Type Choices for the
Treatment and Combined Control Groups on the
Followup Test Response Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

21. Frequency and Percent of Response Type Choices for the
Treatment and Combined Control Groups on the
Posttest Free Response Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

22. Frequency and Percent of Response Type Choices for the

Treatment and Combined Control Groups on the
Followup Test Free Response Exercise . . . . . . . . . . 135

xi

Figure

LIST OF FIGURES

l. Pretest-posttest control group experimental
design over time . .

2. One-way design .

3. One-way repeated measures design .

4. Comparison

of mean scores on the Response Exercise

between post and followup tests . . . . . . .

5. Comparison
Exercise

6. Comparison
Scale of
fOllowup

7. Comparison
Scale of
followup

of mean scores on the Free Response
between post and followup tests .

of mean scores on the Positive Deviation
the Rating Exercise between post and
tests 0 O O O O O I O O O O O O O O

of mean scores on the Negative Deviation

the Rating Exercise between post and
tests .

xii

Page

38
39

41

99

. 100

. 101

102

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF LITERATURE

5

Introduction

 

The core curriculum of counselor training programs typically
stresses counselor skills training in two main areas of concern: (a)

instilling a knowledge of and a facility for using different types of

\-.__‘_

 

counselor responses, and (b) teaching the general counseling process

or stages through which the counselor moves during the course of working
with a client. Integration Of these two primary counseling functions,
however, is rarely stressed in training before the student has had
actual counseling experience in practicum. Little or no emphasis is
placed upon trainees learning to determine which counselor response
types are most facilitative or apprOpriate at different stages Of the
counseling process. As a consequence, practicum supervisors are Often
required to spend a great deal of supervisory time analyzing trainees'
responses to clients and helping trainees become more aware of the
effect their verbal statements are having on the counselor-client inter-
action at that point in the counseling process.

Research in counselor skills training has followed a similar
pattern. Studies published in counseling journals report results from
training programs aimed at teaching one specific counselor response or
analyzing the use Of different response types by counselor trainees but

ignore the aspect of counseling process. The question of when it is

appropriate to use such responses is not addressed. It is assumed that
if trainees learn how to make a particular type of response, they will

automatically know when to use it. This assumption results in a gap in
trainee knowledge and experience which needs to be bridged by training

that integrates counselor response types with counseling process.

The premise of this research study is that the discrimination
skill of learning what to say and when to say it should be taught prior
to practicum. Trainees can then approach actual counseling situations
with a clearer understanding of different types of counselor-client
interactions at different stages of the counseling process and a better
understanding of what effect their verbal statements are having on the

client at that stage of the relationship.

Purpose

Counselor trainees enrolled in the master's level counseling
program at Michigan State University participated in a research and
training program which focused on teaching them when to use different
counselor response types. The purpose of the study was to assess
whether counselor trainees who received training in identifying and
producing ten response types as well as training which emphasized when
to use the response types would be more effective in using those response
types in their counseling interviews than trainees who received only
training in identifying and producing response types. More succinctly,
the study sought to determine whether trainees who received both response
training and discrimination training responded more appropriately to
clients in a counseling interview than trainees who received only

response training.

Specifically, the study had two purposes:

1) To assess the impact of discrimination training on counselor
trainees' ability to (a) identify the most appropriate counselor
response in a particular counseling situation, (b) make more appropriate
responses at different stages of the‘counseling process, and (c) evaluate
what types of counselor responses facilitate and what types of counselor
responses impede counseling progress at different stages of the counseling
process.

2) To assess whether levels of performance on the dimensions
of identification, production, and evaluation were maintained over time.
Six weeks after treatment, subjects who agreed to participate in the
fellowup study were reexamined to assess the maintenance of treatment

effects over time.

Importance

 

Although counselor response types and counseling process are
two basic and interrelated concepts in the area of counselor training,
a survey of the counseling literature revealed little research effort
aimed at understanding the relationship which exists between the two.
While many studies have been undertaken to examine one particular
response type or to survey the range of responses made by both counselor
trainees and practicing counselors,a1most no attention has been given
to counseling process.

Studies dealing with the use of counselor response types
typically examine only the initial counseling interview or do not specify

which counseling session is being examined. Consequently, it is

difficult to put findings into any meaningful perspective with regard
to the counseling process. Because the studies are descriptive in
nature, general conclusions are made concerning the response types
which are frequently used by counselor trainees and/or experienced
counselors. Howéver, implications drawn from those findings seldom
specify whether the responses were facilitative in furthering the
development of the counseling relationship or appropriate in the con-
text of the stage of the counseling process being covered.

By drawing together findings from these studies and integrating
those findings with general readings on counselor response types and
counseling process, it was possible to formulate a model which integrates
counselor response types with the counseling process. Response types
used to perform a fUnction which is consistent with the goal of a
particular stage Of the counseling process were defined as facilitative
or appropriate at that stage. Response types used to perfOrm a fUnction
which is inconsistent with the goal Of a particular stage of the counseling
process were defined as nonfacilitative or inappropriate at that stage.
In this manner, guidelines for appropriate and inappropriate response
types at three stages of the counseling process were delineated.

By applying these general guidelines to a training program for
counselor trainees, the investigation added a new dimension to research
on counselor response types. Counselor trainees were given standard
instruction in response types and, in addition, were given fUrther
training concerning when to use those response types. The study, there-
fOre, attempted to expand the perspective of most research studies on

counselor response types with the purpose of increasing effectiveness

in using those response types.

In addition, by measuring long-term treatment effects six weeks
after the conclusion Of treatment, the study overcame a weakness commonly
found in counseling research-~lack of followup data showing maintenance

of training gains over time.

Review of Literature

 

Counseling literature directly related to the topic of interest
in this investigation was almost nonexistent. Little research has been
done relating counselor response types to counseling process. Conse-
quently, research dealing broadly with counselor response types and
counseling process was surveyed, and an effort was made to tie those
studies to the research questions investigated in this study. The
synthesis of the related literature resulted in three major topics of
interest: categorization of counselor response types, effect of training
on uSe Of counselor response types, and integration of counselor response

types and counseling process.

Categorization of Counselor Response Types

The foundation fer the training program completed by counselor
trainees in this investigation was a firm knowledge of the fUnction of
basic counselor response types and the ability to identify and produce
each response type in a counseling situation. In order to provide such
training, a classification system of counselor response types needed to
be developed which would allow for the categorization of any verbal
statement made by a counselor during the course of a counseling interview.
In addition, definitions for each response type needed to be formulated

which would clearly explain the fUnction of each response type in a

counseling situation. The development and use of such a classification
system for counselor response types and the definition and use of
particular counselor response types are two topics which have been
dealt with at some length in the counseling literature.

Because the primary mode of communication in individual counseling
andxtherapy is verbal interaction, there is a long history of research I
and theoretical speculation into the nature of counselor verbal state-
ments and the impact Of those verbal statements on the client. These
investigations have generally taken two forms. The first approach-
has been to analyze the types of responses that counselors use in the
counseling interview in order to answer particular questions about
counselor-client interaction. The second approach has been to develop
classification systems of counselor response types. These classification
systems have subsequently been used as the basis for developing interview
analysis instruments to aid in counselor training and research. Selected
research related to each approach will be eXamined with a focus on how

each approach contributed to an understanding of effective counselor

verbal behavior.

Use of counselor responses. The first group of research studies

 

investigated the use Of different types Of counselor responses in order
to assess the impact Of different response types on client verbal
behavior and counseling outcome. The categorization and analysis Of
response types in these studies were part Of the research investigation
itself, not part of an actual counselor training program. The intent

of these investigations was not to provide systematic counselor training

in response types in order to assess the effects Of such training, but

to provide a description of counselor verbal behavior without a priori
experimental manipulation (training). Information from these studies
sheds light on the question of what impact particular response types
have on client verbal behavior and counseling outcome, but does not
relate those findings to previous systematic counselor training experi-
ences.

Pallone and Grande (1965), for example, analyzed the first
counseling interview by studying the variables of primary counselor
communication mode and client problem type. Counselors were classified
into one of four communication types based upon the primary response
mode utilized while counseling. The types were identified as reflection,
interrogation, interpretation, and confrontation. Counselors of these
fOur types were paired with clients experiencing educational, vocational,
personal, and social problems to determine whether particular counselor
response modes were more effective in dealing with particular client
problems. Counseling effectiveness was measured by assessing the amount
of problem-relevant communication and the client's report of experience
of rapport.

Pallone and Grande found that counselor verbal behavior differ-
entially affected problem-relevant client communication depending upon
the area of client concern. When client focus was on educational or
vocational problems, the interpretive mode of communication was most
effective in eliciting problem-relevant content. For personal problems,
counselors using the reflective mode were most effective.‘ NO difference
was feund between the interpretive, reflective, or confrontive modes

when dealing with social problems. Questioning, however, was fOund to

be least effective. The reflective mode was the least effective in
working with vocational concerns. On the measure of client experience
of rapport, there was no difference between counselor types.

The study indicates that different types of counselor responses
are effective in dealing with different types of client problems.
Generally, it appears that a passive-feeling approach is effective in
approaching problems which are personal in nature, whereas action-
oriented responses are effective in approaching problems which involve
cognitive decision-making. The investigators, however, did not tie the
type of counselor approach to the variable of training. Information
was not provided concerning how counselors developed their particular
response mode and whether the development of that particular mode was
related to previous counselor training.

An unexpected finding was that there was no difference among
counselor types in client experience of rapport. It would seem that
more directive approaches such as confrontation and interpretation
would not facilitate the development of rapport in a counseling relation-
ship during the initial interview. A possible explanation is the fact
that the mean level of experience for counselors in the study was 5.5
years. This would indicate that the counselors had a great deal of
prior experience in establishing good working relationships with clients
which would account for the high level Of rapport established across all
counselor response modes.

In addition, although the counselors used a primary response
mode during much of the interview, that mode was not the only response

type used. It is possible that passive-responsive statements were used

 

in initially establishing rapport with the client and more action-
oriented responses were made later in the interview when the counselor
and client moved to more problem-relevant material.

From the findings, it would seem that using a majority of action-
oriented responses was effective in dealing with cognitive problems such
as educational and vocational concerns but not as effective in dealing
with affective personal concerns. Pallone and Grande concluded, "... the
counselor needs to adopt a flexible repertoire of verbal behaviors from
which to select that mode of communication most appropriate to the
elicitation of problem relevant content as problem focus varies" (p. 363).
Counselor trainees need to learn when to use different response types
since each response type serves a particular purpose in dealing with
client concerns.

In a similar study, Pallone and DiBennardO (1967) looked at
sequential interviews condUcted by counseling practicum students who
were working with high school students having educational-vocational
problems. The researchers classified counselor responses into five
response categories (interpretive, interrogative, reflective, confronta-
tive, other) to determine whether the use of response types changed over
the course of five counseling interviews and whether counselor verbal
behavior effected either client problem-relevant communication or client
experience of rapport.

The sample of cases used in the study appears to be biased in
favor of good counselor performance since cases were discarded in which
clients terminated prematurely. Despite this and despite the fact that

high levels of rapport and exploration Of problem-related content were

 

10

reported across the five interviews, Pallone and DiBennardo found that
there was little significant movement toward problem resolution over
the span of the five interviews. They concluded that, "Apparently, so
long as client communication either elucidates problems or inspects
alternative solutions, and so long as the client experiences ease in
the relationship, no adequate reasons emerge for counselors to alter
their initial patterns of verbal interaction" (p. 524).

According to the analysis in the study, this pattern of verbal
interaction appears to be the utilization of small numbers of inter-
pretive, reflective, and confrontative responses and a large number of
interrogative responses. This dependence upon the use of questions
seems to be typical of beginning counselor trainees (Campbell, 1962;
Gormally, 1975; Ornston, Cicchetti, Levine 8 Fierman, 1968; Palisi 6
Ruzicka, 1974; Roark, 1969) and incompatible with progress toward
resolution of client problems in counseling.

This conclusion regarding the use Of questioning responses was
also an important finding in a study done by Palisi and Ruzicka (1974)
who examined the effect of active and passive client types on the verbal
behavior of counselor trainees in a simulated initial counseling inter-
view with coached clients. Although there were significant differences
in the number of counselor responses to active and passive clients, the
verbal behavior of the counselors in dealing with both client groups
was composed primarily of asking questions, giving information, and
criticizing or justifying authority. Specifically, Palisi and Ruzicka
fOund that both counselor criticism and questioning appeared to decrease

clients' initiation of talk during the interviews, these verbalizations

11
were responses to counselor questions and did not appear to stimulate
client-initiated problem exploration.

In discussing the implications of this reliance on the use of
questions, Palisi and Ruzicka state:

What is not known is whether this counselor behavior (questioning)

is expedient and productive in both situations (dealing with

active and passive clients). A paucity of tallies in certain
categories suggests that trainees demonstrated a restricted
range of verbal behavior. Future research may shed light on
the implications of a broader range of counselor strategy in

the face of certain client behaviors (p. 91).

Palisi and Ruzicka advocate further investigations in which counselor
trainees are encouraged to use a greater range of counselor response
types in order to assess whether the use of a wider repertoire of
verbal behavior produces more favorable counseling outcomes.

These three studies illustrate the impact of various counselor
response types on subsequent client verbal behavior and counseling out-
come. As such, they have clear implications for counselor training in
the use of counselor reSponses. Results from these studies illustrate
that particular response types can have differential effects on counseling
progress depending on when and how often they are used. These investi-
gations provide a base of information from which guidelines for the use
Of counselor response types can be partially delineated for counselor
training programs. Findings from these studies relating to the effect
of particular response types on client verbalizations were used in the
present study to help determine what types of responses were most appro-

priate or inappropriate at three stages of the Counseling process. These

response types are outlined in Chapter II.

12

Classification systems. The outstanding feature of this second

 

group of writings (Alterkruse 5 Brown, 1969; Bellucci, 1972; Benjamin,
1974; Hoffman, 1959; Roark, 1969; Robinson, 1950; Wittmer, 1971) was the
development or use of a classification system which allowed for the
categorization of counselor responses depending upon their function in
the counseling interview. Several of the investigators advocate the
use of classification systems as a tool in counselor training to help
trainees become more aware of the types of responses they are using.
These studies, unlike those examined in the previous section, focused
directly on counselor training and how counselor trainees can be taught
to examine their own interview responses rather than addressing the
question of the impact or effect Of particular counselor responses on
client behavior.

Hoffman (1959), for example, analyzed counselor verbalizations
in 30 counseling interviews and identified a set Of subroles which
represent typical counselor verbal behavior. He defined subrole as:

That adjudged general purpose or intent which a counselor has

for a particular period in an interview in order to produce

certain relationships with the client which he hopes will serve
to facilitate the client's solving his problem. This general
purpose affects the nature of the counselor's speeches and
when this general purpose changes, his remarks similarly are

altered in pattern (p. 61).

In his analysis, Hoffman fOund l3 sUbrole classifications which he
categorized as friendly discussion, infermation gathering, diagnosing,
information giving, supporting, listening, asking for elaboration,
reflecting, participating, structuring, advising, rejecting, and tutoring.

Hoffman contends that the concept of counselor subroles is

valuable for two reasons: (a) Research on subroles can be done to

13

determine both the factors which influence counselor subrole patterns
and the relationship of range and type of subroles used to optimal
interview outcome, and (b) In counselor training programs, subrole
analysis can be used to determine the variety of subroles a trainee
uses so that training efforts can be directed toward developing subroles
which are absent in the trainee's repertoire of behavior.

In a similar investigation, Roark (1969) categorized counselor
trainee responses according to the system of interaction process
analysis developed by Bales (1950). Roark chose this system of analysis
because of its demonstrated userlness in other research studies and
because of its capacity to adequately categorize the responses of
untrained counselors. The 12 Bales categories are reassurance, tension
release, agrees, gives suggestion, interpretation, reflection, factual
questioning, exploration of feeling, asks for suggestions, disagrees,
shows tension, and shows antagonism.

Roark believes that the analysis of counselor responses according
to systems similar to the Bales interaction process analysis can provide
useful infermation for counselor training programs. Examination of
these instruments to assess how trainees change in their use of response
types can provide feedback regarding the effectiveness of training
experiences and techniques such as classroom teaching, roleplaying,
and supervised practice in counseling (practicum).

Although Hoffman and Roark acknowledge the value of classifying
counselor responses, they do not illustrate how a classification system
of subroles or response types can be used in counselor training.

Alterkruse and Brown (1969) and Wittmer (1971), on the other hand,

14

provide more concrete examples of how the categorization of response
types can be used in training programs. In these two investigations,
classification-type instruments were used by counselor trainees to
examine their responses in an interview situation.

Alterkruse and Brown developed an interview analysis form
similar to that used by Roark (1969). The Counselor Self-Interaction
Analysis (CSIA) is a modification of the interaction analysis instruments
developed by Amidon (1965), Bales (1950), and Noble (1958) and was
designed to categorize both counselor and client responses. The instru-
ment can be used by counselor trainees to analyze their interview behavior.
Trainees listen to their taped interviews and categorize all counselor
and client responses into one of ten response type categories. Counselor
categories of verbal behavior are specific and include reflection,
clarification, supportive statements, suggestions or information, counselor
initiation (questioning, probing), and directing behavior. Client
categories are more general and include cOunselee response and counselee
initiation. Miscellaneous categories are silence and small talk.

Alterkruse and Brown believe that the CSIA can be a valuable
instrument in providing feedback to counselor trainees regarding their.
interview behavior. They found that counseling practicum students who
analyzed their taped interviews by tabulating their counselor responses
and categorizing them by response type changed more in their use of
response types than students who did not perform this analysis. Tabu-
lation of responses appeared to influence trainees to give more indirect
responses which has been shown to be characteristic of the behavior of

more highly trained counselors (Campbell, 1962; Gormally, 1975;

15

Ornston, Cicchetti, Levine G Fierman, 1968; Roark, 1969). The researchers
speculate that this feedback can lead to change which will increase
counseling effectiveness, but state that these speculations can only be
supported by further research.

Finally, Wittmer.(197l) developed the Counselor Activity
Profile (CAP) as a practicum tool to help counselor trainees evaluate
their interview behavior. Use of the profile enables trainees to focus
on responses made during the interview by tallying those responses
according to 16 categories which describe "all of the counselor communi-
cation acts that could possibly occur in a given counseling situation"
(p. 285).

Wittmer is not specific about how he arrived at these 16 cate-
gories, but it appears that the classification system resulted from his
exploration of related counseling research and his own experience in
counseling. The 16 categories are rapport/structure, informative,
content reflection, feeling reflection, reassurance/reinforcement,
silence, rejection, termination, miscellaneous, and listening.

Through his exploratory work with the instrument, Wittmer
believes that the CAP can be a useful instrument in both counseling
practice and research. Counselor trainees, for example, can use the
CAP in practicum to analyze their counseling perfOrmance and obtain
feedback on behaviors that need to be improved or changed. In research,
the CAP can be employed to compare different groups (such as experienced
and inexperienced counselors) on the use of counselor response types
and, as a consequenCe, lead to more objective and scientific conclusions

regarding the components of counseling effectiveness.

 

 

16

Although the work of these researchers indicates that the
examination and classification of counselor responses can be a valuable
direction for both counselor training and research, this systematic
approach to dealing with counselor verbal behavior has not been pursued
in either training or research, at least as indicated by the published
literature.

In summary, although researchers have labeled individual response
types differently, there seems to be a basic set of counselor response
types (regardless of label) which describe any type of verbalization a
counselor might make in an interview situation. The above investigators
have noted that the process of labeling responses according to such a
classification system can itself be useful in counselor training programs.
For purposes of this investigation, the work of these researchers was
compared and synthesized to arrive at a single classification system of
response types which allows for the categorization of all possible
counselor responses. This classification system formed the basis for
the response training in this investigation and provided trainees with
a means of labeling their counseling statements and analyzing the
fUnction of their responses in the interview situation. The classifi-

cation system used in this study is outlined in Chapter II.

,Effect Of Training;on Use of Counselor Responses

As noted above, although classificatiOn systems for counselor
reSpouses have been identified as being potentially useful in counselor
training programs, there is little evidence that counselors have been

adequately trained to identify response types and use them appropriately.

 

 

17

Hackney (1971) claims that prepracticum training experiences typically
offer little opportunity for trainees to learn to label their verbal
responses and assess the impact Of their statements on client verbaliza-
tions. Consequently, they enter practicum with learning deficiencies
which must be corrected by the practicum supervisor before actual
counseling can occur. Hackney contends that an essential ingredient in
prepracticum training is response training. This contention is one Of
the main premises of this research study. The development of the
treatment package for this investigation was based on the assumption
that counselor trainees' verbal behavior can be significantly altered
through systematic training in analyzing and labeling counselor responses
according to a classification system of counselor response types.

Research has shown that counselor verbal behavior can be
influenced by such training. Unfortunately, research studies which
illustrate this change focus on the differential use of response types
by counselors with different levels of training and not on why the
change in verbal behavior occurred. The studies assume that experience
in both training and counseling practice has provided useful feedback to
counselors regarding effective response types and has altered interview
behavior accordingly. Although this assumption should be regarded with
caution, responses made by experienced counselors in these studies were
generally more consistent with response types which have been related to
cOunseling effectiveness than those of their less experienced counter-
Parts (Benjamin, 1974; Carkhuff, 1969).

Such being the case, an emphasis in skills and techniques courses

can be placed on teaching counselor trainees to use responses in much

 

 

18

the same manner as more highly trained counselors. The guidelines for
response appropriateness delineated for this study were based upon a
synthesis of the results from studieson levels of training as well as
from studies previously cited regarding use of response types. The
following investigations found that counselor training appears to
influence the use of response types.

Campbell (1962), for example, compared a group of inexperienced
counselor trainees to Hoffman's group of experienced counselor trainees
(1959) to see how they differed in their use of counselor subrole
behavior. The inexperienced trainees engaged more frequently in asking
fer elaboration, focusing, infOrmation gathering, and listening, and
less frequently in information giving and participating. From Campbell's
comparison, it appears that experienced counselor trainees were more
likely to actively participate in the counseling interview than
inexperienced counselor trainees who were more intent on eliciting
information from the client.

Roark (1969) also found that counselor training appears to
change the nature of counselor interview responses. Using the Bales
system of interaction process analysis (1950), he compared counselor
trainees at four levels of training which included trainees enrolled
in their first counseling course, trainees enrolled in a techniques
Course, and trainees at the beginning and end of supervised practice
(Practicum). With increased training, counselor trainees made more
Statements which showed passive acceptance and reflection of feelings.
Mare experienced counselors gave fewer suggestions, did less factual

QUEStioning, and decreased in exploration of feeling. Training also

 

 

 

19

tended to increase the conciseness of counselor responses. Trainees
with less experience gave longer, more heterogeneous responses (incor-
porating more than one response type) than more experienced trainees
who gave shorter, simpler responses.

Ornston, Cicchetti, Levine, and Fierman (1968) arrived at similar
conclusions regarding level of training. They examined typescripts of
the counseling interviews of both experienced (two to 20 years of
psychotherapy experience) and novice (first year psychiatry residents
with little or no training in psychotherapy) psychotherapists and
computed the average number of words, statements, and total responses
for both groups. Dividing statements into question vs. nonquestion
categories, they found that experienced therapists made more nonquestion
statements than novice therapists, and that novice therapists made more
than twice as many questioning statements as nonquestioning statements.
The researchers Observed:

The distinguishing verbal behavior that separates the experienced

from the novice therapist is the tendency to "say something"

rather than "ask something.". . . When the novices spoke they
almost invariably asked a question. Rather than saying something
to the patient that would communicate a feeling, thought, or
idea, the novice's questions insistently demanded that the
patient respond with appropriate information whereas the
experienced therapist made statements to which the patient might

or might not reply (p. 242).

Ornston et.a1. concluded that this difference was a fUnction of
level of training rather than experience. This conclusion was drawn by
examining data from a group of subjects who had a great deal of experience
working with the same client population but no formal training in psycho-

therapy. The analysis revealed that the experienced but untrained

subJ't-‘scts performed similarly to the novice psychotherapists. Implications

 

 

 

20

from this analysis are twofold: (a) Experience cannot be viewed as a
substitute for training in shaping appropriate counselor verbal behavior,
and (b) Attention in training should be directed toward developing a
wide repertoire of counselor response types to decrease overreliance

on questioning.

In an experimental study, Gormally (1975) analyzed the pro-
duction of different types of counselor responses by examining the
variables of level of counselor training experience and type of
training. Subjects were counselor trainees who were either at the
beginning of their training program (beginning level) or who had 35
hours of structured training in counseling skills (advanced level). The
subjects received either structured training modeled after Carkhuff (1972)
or a relatively unstructured encounter group experience.

A pre-treatment analysis revealed definite differences between
the two groups in their manner of responding in a counseling interview
Situation. Beginning-level students used more self-disclosure statements
and questions and less reflective empathy and additive empathy statements
than advanced-level students.

Introduction of training influenced production of responses for
both groups. Regardless of training level, subjects who received
Structured training increased in levels of reflective and additive
empathy and decreased in levels of self-disclosure and questioning.
The'Opposite was true of subjects in the encounter groups. Regardless
of training level, trainees decreased in levels of reflective and additive
empathy and increased in levels of self-disclosure and questioning after

Participating in the encounter group sessions.

 

 

 

 

21

From this study, it appears that encounter group experience is
not conducive to the develOpment of appropriate counselor verbal behavior
in counselor trainees. Structured training, on the other hand, seemed
to increase effective counselor verbal behaviors and, as a consequence,
decreased the use of nonfacilitative types of responses which impede
counseling progress.

A study by Lee, Zingle, Patterson, Ivey, and Haase (1976)
examined the question of whether subjects with training in counseling
skills are better able to discriminate between effective and ineffective
counselor responses than subjects with no training in counseling skills.
Four skill levels were identified and represented by (a) faculty members
in counseling, (b) graduate students in counseling, (c) undergraduate
students, and (d) high school students.

All subjects read typescripts and viewed videotaped counseling
segments showing a counselor interacting with a client. In the segments
the counselor responded to the client in a manner which either reflected
feeling or paraphrased the content of what the client had said. Subjects
rated each counselor response along a seven-point continuum from most
negative to most positive.

The researchers found that, regardless of level of training,
subjects were able to distinguish effective from ineffective counselor
r88ponses on both the typescripts and videotaped segments. There was a
difference, however, in the manner in which subjects rated the counselor
reSponses. Trained groups of faculty and graduate students were more
apt to rate responses more negatively or more positively than untrained

grtnqps of undergraduate and high school students who stayed closer to

22

the center of the rating continuum.

Trained raters, therefore, showed greater discrimination in
evaluating responses than untrained raters. The researchers caution,
however, that they made no attempt to identify the variables associated
with this discriminating ability or to determine whether this discrimi-
nating ability is correlated with the ability to demonstrate skills in
an actual counseling interview. In light of the findings from the
studies cited previously, it appears that it is easier to judge the
appropriateness of a response than to identify or produce one in either
a roleplay or actual counseling situation.

Finally, Palisi and Ruzicka (1976) explored counselor trainees'
use of response types in a simulated counseling situation. Subjects in
the study were at three levels of training defined as (a) beginning
(enrolled in an introductory counseling course), (b) middle (enrolled
in a mid-training counseling course), and (c) ending (enrolled in the
.final practicum). Subjects were instructed to assume the role of
counselor with a dependent, hostile, and typical client. At ten points
on each tape, the interview was stopped and trainees chose what they
judged was the most appropriate of four multiple-choice responses. The
responses were categorized as either direct (reassurance, persuasion,
direct questioning, fercing the tOpic) or nondirect (simple acceptance,
restatement of content, clarification of feeling, nondirective leads).

Palisi and Ruzicka found that, regardless of client type,
beginning trainees primarily chose reassurance responses, middle trainees
I"allied upon simple acceptance responses, and ending trainees used a

variety of responses equally. The researchers concluded that the level

 

 

 

23

of training is probably more influential in determining how a trainee
responds to a client than the client type itself. They state that

" . . . as experience in the program grows, reliance on a few responses
wanes" (p. 58).

It is interesting that in this study, where the task was to
choose an appropriate counselor response rather than to produce one,
there was less reliance on questioning as a principal mode of interacting
with the client. The implication is that counselor trainees produce a
preponderance of questions from a lack of experience and/or training in
producing other response types rather than because they believe questions
are most appropriate.

In summary, these six studies illustrate how counselor trainees
change in their choice and use of appropriate response types as level of
training increases. Advanced trainees appear to use a wider variety of
response types and Show less reliance on questioning and evaluative-
type responses and a greater reliance on non-questioning response types
which encourage the client to share feelings and explore problem areas.
These relatively consistent findings regarding the interview behavior of
advanced trainees has particular relevance for counselor training programs.
It appears that if classroom and lab time can be spent teaching both the
classification of counselor responses and the identification of effective
response types, counselor trainees will be able to produce more effective
responses and to fUnction more effectively when they enter practicum.
Guidelines for such training can be partially developed from looking at
IKNN more highly trained counselors respond, as was illustrated in the

abOve cited studies. Guidelines for training in this investigation were

 

 

24

delineated using information from these analyses and are outlined in
detail in chapter II.

Integration of Counselor Response Types

and Counseling Process

In his study, Roark (1969) points out that since research has
illustrated that educators have the power to change counselor trainees'
behavior, they should be certain that the changes they are inducing lead
to increased counselor effectiveness. Teaching trainees different types
of responses and having them practice those responses is not a guarantee
Of counselor effectiveness. Trainees must become aware of the context
in which they use such responses. Van Hoose (1970), while purporting
that most counselor education programs lack a systematic approach to
training, claims that trainees generally lack a "deeper understanding of
behavioral dynamics" which can help them understand what is going on in
the counseling interaction.

When viewing Van Hoose's "behavioral dynamics" in the context of
counselor training, it is necessary to consider not only training in
making types of responses, but training in discriminating when to use
different types of responses. Robinson (1950) addresses this issue of
interaction between counselor and client in terms of what he refers to
as the "counseling ladder." Robinson explains:

Leading in counseling, then means a teamlike working together

in which the counselor's remarks seem to the client to state

the next point he is ready to accept. The concept of a

"counseling ladder" can be used here; the counselor's next

remark represents a next rung in thinking which he feels the

client is heading toward and is ready to accept (p. 66).

The essence of Robinson's idea is that counseling is a process in which

eaffll counselor and client response is built upon those which preceded

 

25

them. Verbal statements by the counselor are determined by the status
of the relationship at that point and can only be fully understood in
that context.

This view of counseling relates directly to the critical variable
in this research study. Counselor responSes cannot be viewed individually
and in isolation but must be judged within the context of the counseling
process. The appropriateness of a particular counselor response must
be judged by considering both the present status of the counseling
relationship and that which has previously occurred between the counselor
and the client.

Although the concept of counseling process is both logical and
basic to counseling practice, research directly related to counseling
process is almost nonexistent. The formulation of explicit models of
counseling process, however, has received some attention in the counseling
literature.

In their book, The Counseling Process, Eisenberg and Delaney

 

(1977) formulate a six-stage model of the counseling process. The
stages are broadly defined as (a) the initial session, (b) exploration
of the client‘s concern and the development of a facilitative relation—
ship, (c) goal specification, identification, and assessment, (d)
development and implementation of an approach to goal achievement,

(e) evaluation of results, and (f) termination and followup. The
authors specify counseling variables which must be present at each
stage of the counseling process in order to satisfactorily accomplish
the goal of each stage (e.g., understanding, patience). To some degree,

they translate these variables into specific counselor response types

26

which are facilitative at each stage of the counseling process (e.g.,
counselor reflective response leads, counselor tacting response leads).
However, response types are not dealt with in depth, and there is no
specification of response types which might be nonfacilitative or
inappropriate at each stage.

In How to Do Psychotherapy and How to Evaluate It, Gottman and

 

Leiblum (1974) postulate a flow chart model of the counseling process.
Gottman and Leiblum‘s model is a specific behaviorally-oriented formu-
lation which emphasizes steps or tasks that the counselor performs at
each stage of the process in order to accomplish the goal of each stage.
Because of this emphasis, little attention is given to interview dynamics
and counselor-client verbal interaction. No specification is made
regarding types of verbal behaviors which are helpful to the counselor
in accomplishing the tasks at each stage of the process.

The most detailed and well-developed model of counseling process

was formulated at Michigan State University. Systematic Counseling_

 

(Stewart, Winborn, Johnson, Burks 8 Engelkes, 1978) conceptualizes
counseling as a system composed of twelve sequential subsystems. Within
each subsystem, specific behavioral tasks are defined for the counselor
and client whidh must be accomplished before moving further in the
counseling process. The counselor is required to function in a variety
of ways in order to accomplish such tasks as structuring the counseling
relationship, identifying a model of the client's concern, setting a
behavioral goal for counseling, developing a strategy to reach that
goal, and evaluating the effectiveness of counseling. Accomplishing

this series of tasks requires a wide repertoire of verbal behavior on

27

the part of the counselor. However, these verbal behaviors are not
dealt with in the systematic counseling model. No particular counselor
response types are specified as being compatible or incompatible with
accomplishing the tasks of each subsystem.

Although his model of counseling process is not as fully develOped
as the three models of counseling process examined above, Carkhuff (1969b)
has formulated a broad model which encompasses both counseling process
and general types of counseling responses which facilitate counseling
throughout the process. Carkhuff postulates two phases of the helping
relationship and within each notes the counselor response types and
attitudes which are most apprOpriate to accomplishing the goals of that
particular stage.

Phase 1 involves the establishment of a counseling relationship
and exploration of areas of concern. Carkhuff believes that "passive-
responsive" counselor statements such as empathy, respect, and
genuineness are mOst appropriate at this point when the counselor is
attempting to establish a good working relationship with the client and
gain a complete understanding of the client's problem. During Phase 2,
when emphasis is placed on searching out and implementing courses of
action, "action-initiative" responses such as concreteness, confrontation,
and interpretation come to the forefront in working with clients.

Together the passive-responsive and action-oriented dimensions enable
the counselor to help the client move effectively through the counseling
process and attain client goals.

Although Carkhuff and his colleagues have produced extensive

research on individual dimensions such as empathy, respect, confrontation,

28

and interpretation (Anderson, 1968; Berenson 8 Mitchell, 1968;
Berenson, Mitchell 6 Laney, 1968; Berenson, Mitchell 8 Moravec, 1968;
Carkhuff, 19693; Carkhuff, 1969b; Carkhuff G Berenson, 1967; Carkhuff,
Friel G Kratochvil, 1970), there has been little research which
relates these dimensions to the concept of counseling process. This
seems to be the general trend in counseling research.

Studies dealing with the training of counselor responses are
Often designed to teach one or two particular responses, but include
nothing which places those responses into the perspective of the
counseling process (Canada 8 Lynch, 1975; Dowd G Blocher, 1974;
Saltmarsh 8 Hubele, 1974; Stone, 1975). Saltmarsh and Hubele (1974),
for example, used a microcounseling approach to teach "entry-level
social skills that support effective counseling interaction" (p. 246).
These social skills were giving behaviors (self-disclosure, self-
assertion, self-expression), taking behaviors (uncluttered listening,
enabling, appreciating, nonverbal awareness), and seeking behaviors
(checking for mutuality, open-ended verbalizations, summarizing). Dowd
and Blocher (1974) studied the effects of immediate reinforcement and/or
awareness of response class on the acquisition of confrontive counselor
statements. They found that using both the variables of trainee know-
ledge of type of response to be produced and reinforcement of that type
of response was more effective in increasing the use of confrontive
statements than either variable alone. No emphasis in either study,
however, was placed on teaching trainees when to use the particular
response types acquired in training.

Although research on counselor response types does not deal

29

with the counseling process and how counselor behavior changes or
should change across interviews, Hoffman's analysis of counselor sub-
roles (1959) points out the need for exploration in this area. Hoffman
analyzed 165 counseling interviews to determine what patterns of
responses were frequently used and how those patterns changed over the
course of the counseling process. He found that once a pattern of
subroles was established early in the counseling relationship, the
counselor was likely to stay with that repertoire of subroles regard—
less of the client or the nature of new problems presented. In other
words, counselors used a restricted range Of subroles which did not
appear to change as the counseling relationship developed.

Hoffman recommends that emphasis in counseling programs be
placed on developing a wider repertoire of subrole behaviors in
counselor trainees. He explains, "The repertoire of subroles used by
counselors can be usefu1 in working with counselors-in-training who
might be playing a minimum of subroles or who may have no idea of the
subroles they should play or the subroles that may be most effective at
a certain point in the counseling process" (PP. 65766).

Hoffman's statement aptly summarizes the main intent of this
study and pinpoints an area which has been neglected in codnseling
research. Counselor trainees should be taught to increase their repertoire
of verbal behaviors. In addition, an emphasis in this training should
be placed on teaching trainees when to use specific verbal behaviors.
The basic assumption in providing this training is that it is not
sufficient for counseling effectiveness to teach counselor trainees how

to make a variety of responses. The crucial variable is an added

30

emphasis on learning when to make those responses. The training
program in this investigation was based on this premise. Information
from research on the use and categorization of response types was
integrated with the models of counseling process developed by Carkhuff
(1969b) and Stewart et.al. (1978) to develop a training package aimed
at teaching counselor trainees to respond more effectively in their
counseling interviews. Information contained in the training package

is presented in chapter II.

Summary

This research investigation is based upon the need in both
counselor training practice and counselor training research for an
approach which relates training in the use of basic counselor response
types to training in the counseling process. Little research effort
or theoretical speculation in the counseling field has dealt specifically
with differential response effectiveness based upon stages of the
counseling process. Studies have illustrated that counselor response
types can be taught and that counselor verbal response patterns change
over the course of training, but implications from these findings have
not been applied systematically to counselor training. Little effort
has been given to developing an approach which emphasizes the influence
of response type on the client depending upon the status of the counseling
relationship. The crucial variable of differential effectiveness of
response types based upon the timing of their use is explored in this
study to investigate whether such an emphasis will increase counselor

trainee effectiveness in using counselor response types.

CHAPTER II
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN AND PROCEDURES

Overview

The primary purpose of the study was to determine whether
discrimination training is an effective method for increasing counselor
trainees' use of appropriate counselor response types in their counseling
interviews. In order to assess the effectiveness of training, appro-
priate response types were defined for three stages of the counseling
process and three criterion measures were developed to measure counselor
trainees' knowledge and use of these appropriate response types.

Subjects in the investigation were 32 students in the master's
program in counseling at Michigan State University who were enrolled in
a core curriculum course on the counseling process during the 1977
winter quarter. Subjects were randomly assigned to the treatment and
control groups. _Treatment was administered as a three-session worksh0p
with comparable instructional methods (videotape presentations, written
exercises, roleplay, trainer feedback) and time durations for all groups.

The initial phase of training was identical for all groups.

Both the treatment and control groups received training in identifying

and producing ten counselor response types. The treatment group then
received discrimination training while the control groups received

training in writing learning objectives for difficult-to-define client
problems fbllowed by roleplay and self-evaluation of the initial counseling

interview.
31

32

The three criterion measures used as pre- and post-measures
were presented to the subjects as counseling skills-development exercises
during the workshop. To complete the Response Exercise,subjects responded
to a series of 25 counseling situations and client statements by choosing
the most appropriate of four multiple choice counselor responses. To
complete the Free Response Exercise, subjects listened to a series of
25 audiotaped counseling situations and client statements and recorded
an appropriate counselor response to each situation on a blank audio-
tape. Finally, to complete the Rating Exercise, subjects listened to
a lS-minute audiotaped counseling interview and rated the counselor's
performance along various dimensions of counseling effectiveness. The
three measures took approximately 90 minutes to complete.
Six weeks after treatment subjects who agreed to participate
were retested with followup forms of the three criterion measures.
After completion of the fOllowup testing, all pre-, post-, and followup
measures were scored. Trained raters listened to the audiotaped
responses to the Free Response Exercise and categorized the responses
according to a classification system of counselor response types.
Reliability coefficients were computed for the three forms of
the three criterion measures as well as for the consistency with which
the trainers categorized responses on a trainer response test and the
raters categorized responses for the Free Response Exercise. A one-
way multivariate analysis of variance with Helmert contrasts was
computed to test for treatment effects immediately fOllowing posttesting.
A repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance was computed using

data from those subjects who participated in the followup testing to

33

check for maintenance of treatment effects over time.

Hypotheses

The two general questions of interest in the study were (a)
whether counselor trainees enrolled in a training program designed to
teach them when to use different counselor response types would use
more appropriate response types than counselor trainees who did not
receive this emphasis in training, and (b) whether treatment effects
would be maintained over time.

To answer these general questions, the following six specific
hypotheses were developed. Hypotheses 1 and 2 relate to the immediate

effects of treatment. Hypotheses 3, 4, 5, and 6 deal with the retention

of treatment effects over time.

Hypothesis 1:

 

Counselor trainees in the treatment group who receive discrimi-
nation training will score significantly better on the Response
Exercise, Free Response Exercise, and Rating Exercise at the
end of the training period than counselor trainees in the
control treatments who do not receive discrimination training.

Hypothesis 2:

 

There will be no significant differences in level of performance
between the two control groups on the Response Exercise, Free
Response Exercise, and Rating Exercise at the end of the
training period.

Hypothesis 3:

 

Counselor trainees in the treatment group who receive discrimi-
nation training will score significantly better on the Response
Exercise, Free Response Exercise, and Rating Exercise at the
time of the followup than counselor trainees in the control
treatments who do not receive discrimination training.

34

Hypothesis 4:

 

There will be no significant differences in level of performance
between the two control groups on the Response Exercise, Free
Response Exercise, and Rating Exercise at the time of the follow-

up.

Hypothesis 5:

 

There will be no significant decrease in level of performance
on the Response Exercise, Free Response Exercise, and Rating
Exercise for all counselor trainees from the time of the
administration of the posttest measures to the time of the
administration of the followup measures.

Hypothesis 6:

 

There will be no significant interaction between treatment
group (treatment, control I, control 11) and time of
.administration of the criterion measures (post, followup).

Definition of Terms

 

The following are definitions of 14 terms used extensively
throughout the investigation. The definitions provide a basis for
understanding key concepts in the research study.

1. counselor responses--verbal statements a counselor makes

 

when responding to a client in a counseling interview. Previous
counseling research has categorized these responses into types with
each type performing a particular function in the interview.

2. response trainingf-the first phase of the training package

 

dealing with teaching counselor trainees ten types of counselor responses.
All subjects in the study received response training.

3. discrimination trainingf-the second phaSe of the training

 

package for subjects in the treatment group which emphasized when to

use responses acquired during response training. Discrimination

35
training was considered to be the critical variable in the treatment
program and, as such, was administered only to the treatment group.

4. control training--training administered to the control groups

 

following response training. It consisted of two phases: (a) training

in formulating learning objectives for difficult-to-define client

problems, and (b) roleplaying and self-evaluation.

 

5. treatment groupg-the group of counselor trainees (n = 16)
who received both response training and discrimination training.
6. controlAgroup I--the group Of counselor trainees (n = 8)

 

who received training in response types, training in formulating learning
objectives, and roleplaying and self-evaluation of the initial counseling
interview. Self-evaluation focused on both (a) tallying response types
used during roleplaying, and (b) evaluation of performance along ten
dimensions of counseling behavior. This last activity (evaluation)
differentiated control group I from control group II.

7. control group II--the group of counselor trainees (n = 8)

 

who received training in response types, training in formulating learning
objectives, and roleplaying and self-evaluation of the initial counseling
interview. Self-evaluation focused on tallying response types used
during roleplaying. Subjects in control group 11 did not evaluate

their roleplay performance along the ten dimensions of counseling

behavior.

8. Response Exercise--a multiple choice instrument consisting

 

of a series of 25 counseling situations and client statements. Four
possible counselor responses were provided for each situation, and
subjects were required to choose the most appropriate response for

each situation. Three forms of the instrument were developed and

36

administered as pre-, post-, and followup measures.

9. Free Respgnse Exercise--an audiotaped instrument consisting

 

of a series of 25 counseling situations and client statements presented

by a narrator, and a male and female roleplayer. Subjects were required
to tape a counselor response to each client statement on a blank audio-

tape. Three forms of the instrument were developed and administered

as pre-, post-, and followup measures.

10. Rating Exercise--a lS-minute roleplayed counseling session

 

between a male client and a female counselor with an accompanying rating
form. Subjects used the form to rate the counselor's performance along
various dimensions of counseling effectiveness. Three interview sessions
were roleplayed for use during pre-, post-, and followup testing. The
rating form remained essentially the same for the three administrations.
ll. intensive skills integgation workshop--the title given to
the three-session training program for all counselor trainees consisting
of both treatment and control packages.

12. pretest administration--administration of the pretest forms

 

of the Response Exercise, Free Response Exercise, and Rating Exercise
to all subjects following response training on the first day of the
training workshop.

13. posttest administration--administration of the posttest

 

forms of the Response Exercise, Free Response Exercise, and Rating
Exercise to all subjects following completion of all training on the
third day of the workshop.

14. followup_test administration--administration of the followup

 

ferms of the Response Exercise, Free Response Exercise, and Rating

37

Exercise to those subjects who agreed to participate in the followup

testing six weeks after the end of training.

Research Design

 

The overall design for this investigation was a pretest-posttest
control group experimental design with one independent variable as
shown in Figure 1. The independent variable is type of treatment with
three levels (treatment and two control groups). Followup testing was
administered to those subjects who agreed to participate. Subjects

were randomly assigned to the three groups.

Desigp over Variables

 

Data relating to the primary question of interest regarding
treatment effects were analyzed using only the posttest data. The
design for this analysis controlled for all sources of internal
invalidity described by Campbell and Stanley (1963). The data matrix
is presented in Figure 2. It is a one-way design with type of treatment
as the independent variable with three levels (treatment and two control
groups). .There are 16 subjects in the treatment group and eight subjects
in each of the control groups.

The dependent variables were the posttest forms of the Response
Exercise, Free Response Exercise, and Rating Exercise. Pretest scores
on the three measures were not sufficiently related to posttest scores
to warrant using multivariate analysis of covariance. Consequently, a
one-way multivariate analysis of variance procedure was used to analyze

the data with an overall alpha level of .05.

Figure l.

38

R 01 X1 01, 01,,
R 02 X2 02, 02,,
R 03 X3 03, 03,,

Pretest-posttest control group experimental design over
time. Legend: R = random assignment, X = treatment,

X1 = treatment group, X2 = control group 1, X3 = control

group II. 01, 02, 03, = pretesting, 01,, 02,, 03. =

posttesting, 01,,, 02,,, 03,, = followup testing.

39

TYPE OF TREATMENT

 

TREATMENT ‘ CONTROL I CONTROL II

 

16 24 32

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 2. One-way design. PrOportional pfs per cell.

40

Design over Time

 

The second question of interest concerning maintenance of
treatment effects over time was answered using data for those subjects
who participated in the followup testing. The comparison of posttest
and followup test scores necessitated the use of a repeated measures
design. All sources of internal invalidity were controlled by the use
of this design (Campbell 6 Stanley, 1963).

The repeated measures data matrix for this analysis is presented
in Figure 3. Again, the design variable was type of treatment with
three levels (treatment and two control groups). There were 13 sub-
jects in the treatment group, four in control group I, and six in
control group II. The repeated measures factor consisted of two levels--
posttesting and followup testing.

Dependent variables were the sum and difference variables formed
by using subjects' scores on the post- and followup measures. Pretest
scores were not sufficiently related to the dependent variables to
warrant using multivariate analysis of covariance. Consequently, a
repeated-measures multivariate analysis of variance procedures was used

to analyze the data with an overall alpha level of .05.

Sample

A three-session intensive skills integration workshop was
developed and presented to 52 students enrolled in the master's program
in counseling at Michigan State University. Within this workshop frame—
work, 34 counselor trainees were involved in the training related to this
research study. Thirty-two of these students gave permission for the

researcher to use their data in this investigation. More specific

41

TIME OF TESTING

 

POSTTESTING FOLLOWUP
TESTING

 

TREATMENT

13

 

14

CONTROL I

17

 

18
CONTROL II

23

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 3. One-way repeated measures design. Unequal p's per cell.

42

information regarding sample selection, sample characteristics, and
subject assignment is presented below in order to allow readers to
judge whether logical generalizations can be made from this study to

other populations (Cornfield & Tukey, 1956).

Sample Selection

 

The 32 subjects in the study were counselor trainees enrolled
in the master's program in school, rehabilitation, and urban counseling
in the College of Education, Michigan State University. They were
randomly selected from the enrollment list of a core curriculum course
on the counseling process offered in two class sections during winter
quarter, 1977. The rationale for offering the workshop in conjunction
with this course developed from the conviction that both the treatment
and control packages were valuable learning experiences for beginning
counseling students and that the content of the material presented in

the worksh0p was relevant to a course in the counseling process.

Sample Characteristics

 

Subjects were enrolled in the second quarter of a five-quarter
master's program in counseling at Michigan State University. Of the
32 subjects, 16 were enrolled in the school counseling program, 5 in the
rehabilitation counseling program, and 11 in the urban counseling pro-

gram. This included 13 males and 19 females.

Subject Assignment

 

Subjects were randomly selected from the enrollment list for the
counseling process course and randomly assigned to the treatment and

control groups. Half of the subjects (QT = 16) were assigned to the

43

treatment group and the other half were divided equally between the
two control groups (2C1 = 8, BCII = 8), thus creating proport1onal cell
sizes.
Treatment

All subjects received one of three training packages depending
upon group assignment. Although the cognitive material presented to
each group varied according to treatment, the training format and type
of instructional materials were parallel across the three groups.
Videotape instruction, written exercises with trainer feedback, and

roleplay situations were common to all three training packages.

General Overview of Training_

The treatment and control packages were presented as a three—
session workshop during the sixth and seventh week Of winter quarter,
1977, in lieu of the regular class sessions for Ed 819D, The Counseling
Process. The 90-minute response training unit was presented to all
subjects on February 15 along with the three pretest measures which
took 90 minutes to complete.

After this initial phase of training, subjects received either
discrimination training or control training. The second phase of
training was divided into two sessions of four hours on February 19
and three hours on February 22. The last session included 90 minutes
for responding to the posttest measures.

.The agenda for the first session of the worksh0p included a
videotape presentation on response training, lab exercises related to

response training, and administration of the pretest measures. The

44

second-session agenda for both treatment and control groups included a
videotape presentation plus lab exercises with trainer feedback. The
schedule for the third day included additional lab exercises related to
the material presented at the second session plus administration of
the posttest measures. At that time, subjects were requested to Sign
a release form granting permission to the researcher to use the workshop
materials in the research study.

Six weeks after the completion of treatment, subjects who
agreed to participate in the followup testing responded to the fOllowup
measures and signed a second release form allowing the followup data to

be used in the research study.

Treatment Package

 

The purpose of the treatment package was to teach counselor
trainees how to respond in a manner which would facilitate further
counselor-client communication and contribute to the attainment of
client goals. This involved not only teaching trainees the ten
counselor response types, but also teaching them whep_to use those
response types. The treatment condition consisted of three training
phases, one On each day of the workshop, and included response train-

ing, discrimination training, and review.

Response training;_ To ensure that the counselor trainees

 

possessed an adequate background knowledge of counselor response types,
all subjects were given response training. Ten types of counselor
responses were identified through an examination of the literature

related to classifying responses commonly used by counselors during

4S

counseling interviews (Alterkruse 8 Brown, 1969; Bellucci, 1972;
Benjamin, 1974; Hoffman, 1959; Roark, 1969; Robinson, 1950; Wittmer,
1971).

These classification systems were synthesized to form one
comprehensive list of ten response types which allows for the cate-
gorization of any verbalization made by a counselor during an interview.
The schema provided a framework for examining counselor verbal behavior
in this investigation. The ten response types, ranging from simple to
complex, are restatement, questioning, informative statements,suggestions,
reinforcement, evaluative statements, confrontation, clarification,
reflection, and interpretation. Definitions of the ten response types

are provided in Appendix A.

Format for response training, Response training took place

 

during the first 90 minutes of the first workshop session. All subjects
viewed a 60-minute videotape presentation in which information on the

ten response types was presented didactically. A narrator gave defini-
tions and expkumtions of the ten response types. Each definition was
fOllowed by a short roleplay example in which a counselor responded to a
client statement with the type of response being examined. The narrator
then commented on the counselor's response and introduced a practice
example.

In the practice example, a videotaped segment of a roleplay
client making a statement was presented. The videotape machine was
turned off for two minutes while subjects wrote down an appropriate
counselor statement.on worksheets provided for this purpose (see

Appendix B). The worksheets listed the client statement for each of

46

the ten response types and provided ample space after each statement
for the subject's response. The purpose of the written exercise was
to maintain subject interest in the videotape presentation.

Discussion and questions were discouraged during this phase
of training in order to maintain independence between subjects. Sub-
jects were informed that they would receive individual attention from
a lab instructor who would answer questions and provide feedback on
written responses immediately following the videotape presentation.

During the last 30 minutes of response training, subjects
received feedback on an individual basis from trainers who reviewed
the responses made during the videotape presentation and judged whether
or not they were correct. If a subject appeared to have difficulty
identifying or formulating any of the response types, the trainer gave
the subject an additional client statement so that the subject could
practice that type of response. Trainers were given a list of client
statements and counselor responses for each of the ten response types
to use as examples (see Appendix C). This provided uniformity of
practice examples across trainers and treatments and eliminated the
need for trainers to formulate examples quickly.

During the last 90 minutes Of the first workshOp sessiOn,
subjects responded to the three pretest measures and filled out an

evaluation form pertaining to the first session (see Appendix D).

Discrimination training;_ During this portion of training,

 

emphasis was placed on teaching trainees the types of counselor responses
which are most appropriate at different stages of the counseling process.

The purpose of the treatment was to integrate knowledge of the counselor

47

responses learned during response training with knowledge of the
counseling process as taught in the course on the counseling process.

Training focused on three specific phases of the counseling
process which were identified by integrating Carkhuff's model of the
counseling process (1969b) with that of the Systematic Counseling
model developed at Michigan State University by Stewart et.al. (1978).
These two formulations deal specifically with the concept of counseling
process and are based on the premise that the counselor, through verbal
interaction with the client, accomplishes specific tasks or functions
in an orderly sequence during the course of the counseling relation-
ship. The three stages identified for inclusion in the training
package were: (a) establishment of the counseling relationship, (b)
problem identification, and (c) problem solving. Response types
considered appropriate and inappropriate at each stage are outlined
below. A detailed summary of discrimination training used by subjects
in the treatment groups is provided in Appendix E.

1. Establishment of the counseling relationship. Carkhuff
states that a successful outcome in counseling can only be achieved
when counseling begins with the establishment of a positive and pro-
ductive relationship between the client and the counselor. The
establishment of such a relationship is accomplished through the
counselor's use of "facilitative" or "passive-responsive" statements
which convey counselor acceptance and concern to the client.

During establishment of the counseling relationship, the

Systematic Counseling model emphasizes the counselor's duty to provide

information and structure concerning the nature of the counseling

48

relationship. Although this involves imparting a set of cognitive
expectations to the client, one of the purposes of structuring is to
increase the client's feeling of comfort in the counseling relationship
and thereby increase the likelihood 'that the client will share feelings
and concerns with the counselor.

The training program in this study did not deal with informative
structuring responses during establishment of the counseling relation—
ship, but focused on Carkhuff's "passive-responsive" counselor statements.
From the ten categories Of counselor responses included in response
training, response types identified as facilitative during relationship
building were restatement, reflection, clarification, and reinforcement.
These response types were included because they are generally passive
and nonthreatening, and indicate that the counselor is both attempting
to understand what the client is saying and encouraging the client to
talk about the conCern.

. Response types identified as nonfacilitative during relationship
building were confrontation, interpretation, and evaluative statements.
These response types were included because they can be erroneous or
threatening to the client when offered prematurely. Confrontation and
interpretation are responses which require background infOrmation about
the client before they can be used effectively. Such information is
generally not available to the counselor early in the counseling pro-
cess. Evaluative statements are nonfacilitative because they focus on
what the counselor, rather than the client, thinks and feels.

In summary, the purpose of discrimination training during

Stage I was to encourage counselor trainees to use responses which

49

enhance the building of a productive counseling relationship and to
discourage trainees from using more action-oriented responses which can
have a potentially harmful effect upon the establishment of such a
relationship.

II. Problem identification. After establishing a good working

 

relationship with the client, the counselor moves to problem identifi-
cation. Carkhuff states that the counselor's task during problem
identification is to encourage the client to explore all possible areas
of concern. During problem identification, as in relationship building,
Carkhuff specifies "passive-responsive" statements as being particularly
userl in eliciting problem-relevant content from the client.

During problem identification in the Systematic Counseling
model, the counselor constructs a model of the client's concern. The
counselor explores the client's main areas of concern and identifies
that area which the client specifies as being most important. From an
in-depth exploration of this area, the counselor develops a "model of
the client's concern" which incorporates all aspects of the problem
the counselor must know in order to thoroughly understand the problem.
Without this accurate understanding, the counselor is not able to move
to the next stage of counseling and help the client develop an effective
strategy fer problem solving.

. Response types identified as helpful during problem identifi-
cation were similar to those used in relationship building, since the
purpose is similar. The counselor's objective is to encourage the
client to talk freely about an area of concern in order to gather

sufficient information to understand the problem fully. Counselor

50

response types Specified as being particularly useful during problem
identification were restatement, reflection, and clarification for the
reasons citedtnder'establishment of the counseling relationship.
Questioning was added under the supposition that when different types
of questions are employed effectively and in moderation, questioning
responses are a usefu1 tool in eliciting information about the client's
concern.

Response types that trainees were cautioned about using during
problem identification included confrontation, interpretation, and
evaluative statements fer the reasons cited under establishment of the
counseling relationship. Suggestion was added because suggestions
about courses of action to follow in solving a problem should not be
offered until the counselor has a fu11 understanding of the problem
area. Premature suggestions may be similar to courses of action the
client has unsuccessfully pursued, inappropriate for that particular
client and/or appear too difficult to the client. Suggestions offered
prematurely may be threatening to the client and cause premature
termination of the counseling relationship.

In summary, the purpose Of discrimination training during
Stage II was to encourage counselor trainees to focus on response types
which elicit information about the client's area of concern and to
discourage the use of response types which assume a knowledge and
understanding of the problem which the counselor has not yet achieved.

III. Problem solving. After identifying all aspects of the

 

client's concern, the counselor and client move to problem solving.

Carkhuff states that the counselor's task during problem solving is

51

to help the client search out and implement appropriate courses of
action in order to resolve the concern. Unlike the two previous stages,
Carkhuff designates directive response types as being facilitative
during problem solving. He labels the usefu1 response types at this
stage as "action initiative" statements which encourage the client to
try new ways of solving the problem, reinforce the client for positive
change, and help the client overcome obstacles which stand in the way
of positive change.

Using the Systematic Counseling model, the counselor helps the
client set a goal for counseling and then develOp and carry out a
strategy for positive behavior change. The underlying assumption during
this stage is that the counselor has an adequate understanding of the
client's problem. This understanding ensures that help offered by the
counselor is usefu1 and nonthreatening to the client.

Response types defined as helprl during this stage of the
counseling process were divided into two subgroups--those usefu1 during
strategy development and those useful during strategy implementation.
Clarification, infOrmative statements, and suggestions were specified
as being potentially usefu1 to the counselor during strategy develOpment.
These directive response types provide the client with understanding,
information, and ideas needed to begin taking steps toward resolving
the concern.

Confrontation, interpretation, and reinforcement were specified
as being potentially useful to the counselor during strategy implementa-
tion. Confrontation and interpretation, when used at appropriate points,

can help the client face and overcome obstacles which block positive

52

change and gain insight and understanding into the problem behavior.
ReinfOrcement can be used to reward the client for positive change and
to encourage further growth.

Response types that counselors were cautioned about using
during problem solving were reflection, restatement, and evaluative
statements. Although reflection and restatement were regarded as help—
ful response types during the first two stages of the counseling process,
they are less useful during this more action-oriented phase where
emphasis is placed upon moving forward to resolve the concern. Although
it is important for the counselor to maintain a good relationship with
the client throughout the counseling process, emphasis on passive
response types during problem solving can prevent the client from
working on the problem.

In summary, the purpose of discrimination training during
Stage III was to teach counselor trainees to focus on action-oriented
responses which encourage the client to explore solutions and try out
courses of action leading to positive change and to be wary of overusing
passive response types which may not provide enough motivation fer the

client to work on problem solving.

Format fer discrimination training. Discrimination training took

 

place during the second fOur—hour workshop session. During the first 90
minutes of the session, subjects viewed a videotape presentation in
which information on response types was presented didactically. A
narrator reviewed the ten response types covered in response training,
introduced the concept of counseling process, defined the three stages
.of the counseling process, and explained the purpose of discrimination

training.

53

The counselor response types defined as facilitative and non-
facilitative at the three stages of the counseling process were then
explained by the narrator. Each explanatiOn was followed by a short
roleplay example in which a counselor re5ponded to a client statement
with the type of response being examined. The narrator provided
feedback on the counselor's response by explaining why it was or was
not facilitative at that stage Of the counseling process.

After each group of facilitative and nonfacilitative responses
was presented, the narrator introduced a practice example. Subjects
were instructed to formulate an appropriate and inappropriate response
for each stage of the counseling process based upon information
presented on the videotape. A roleplay client made a statement to the
camera, and the videotape was turned off for three minutes while
subjects responded on the worksheets provided for this purpose (see
Appendix F) .

The worksheets listed the two client statements for each stage
of the counseling process and provided ample space for the subjects'
appropriate and inappropriate responses. The purpose of the written
exercise was to maintain subject interest in the videotape presentation.
Subjects were given the Summary Review of discrimination training to
follow during the videotape and refer to during the written exercise
(see Appendix B).

As in response training, discussion and questions were discouraged
in order to maintain independence between subjects. Subjects were told
that they would receive individual attention from a lab instructor who

would answer questions and provide feedback on written responses immediately

54

following the videotape presentation.

During the next 30 minutes, subjects worked individually in
small lab rooms. They were instructed to read the Summary Review,
Instructions for Exercise 1, and then begin Exercise I (see Appendix G).
Exercise I is a series of 15 counseling situations dealing with the
three stages of the counseling process (five situations for each
stage). Each situation includes (a) information regarding the back—
ground of the client, (b) an explanation of the current status of the
counseling relationship, (c) a client statement, and (d) four possible
counselor responses to the client statement.

For each counseling situation, subjects were required to label
the four counselor statements according to the ten response type cate-
gories, choose the response which was most appropriate for that parti-
cular situation, and write a reason for choosing or not choosing each
of the four alternative responses. The purpose of Exercise 1 was to
give subjects an opportunity to practice what they had learned from
the videotape presentation. Difficulty was kept at a low level by
providing multiple—choice counselor responses rather than requiring
subjects to formulate their own responses.

After working for 30 minutes, subjects received intermittent
feedback from a trainer who alternated between two counselor trainees
and provided feedback on both the written exercises from the videotape
session and Exercise 1. Trainers were given model responses to the 15
counseling situations in Exercise 1 (see Appendix H). This ensured
unifbrmity of feedback across trainers so that all subjects received

essentially the same cognitive material. After 60 minutes of instructor

SS

feedback, subjects were instructed to begin Exercise 11 whether or not
they had completed the first exercise.

For the last 60 minutes of the workshOp session, subjects
worked individually with a second trainer on Exercise II (see Appendix
1). Exercise II is a series of ten counseling situations dealing with
the three stages of the counseling process.r For each situation the
trainer provided background information about the client and the status
of the counseling relationship. The trainer then roleplayed a client
statement to the trainee and the trainee responded verbally with an
appropriate counselor response. The purpose of Exercise II was to give
the subjects an opportunity to formulate appropriate counselor
responses in a situation which more closely simulated an actual
counseling situation than the written exercise format of Exercise 1.

The trainer wrote down the subject's verbal response so that
the subject and trainer could examine the response according to questions
listed on the Exercise II Feedback Form (see Appendix J). Subjects were
required to (a) identify the stage of the counseling process in which
the interaction had taken place, (b) label the type of response that had
been chosen, (c) give an explanation of why the response type had been
chosen, and (d) decide how the response could be improved. After the
subject revised the response, the subject and the trainer roleplayed
the new response. They then moved to the next counseling situation.

As in Exercise 1, trainers were given model guidelines for the
ten counseling situations in Exercise 11 (see Appendix K). The guide-
lines included identification of the stage of the counseling process,

a list of the most appropriate response types for that stage, and one

possible counselor response to the client statement. This provided

56

uniformity of feedback across trainers to ensure that all subjects
received essentially the same cognitive material.

After finishing as many of the situations as could be completed
in an hour, the trainer summarized the main points of discrimination
training and answered questions about the two exercises and the training
in general. All written materials were returned so that information on
discrimination training would not be available to subjects in the control
groups. Trainees then filled out an evaluation form pertaining to the
second workshop session (see Appendix L).

The first 90 minutes of the last workshop session was devoted
to a general review of discrimination training. Working individually,
trainees listened to a programmed-learning audiotape which included
both a review and a quiz on the cognitive material presented in discrimi-
nation training. At various points on the tape, trainees turned off
the recorder and gave written responses to questions related to cognitive
material. The tape concluded with a series of ten client statements.
Trainees responded to each statement with an appropriate counselor
response, and then identified both the stage of the counseling process
in which the interaction had taken place and the counSelor response
type. Subjects were instructed to turn the recorder on after-completing
each response to receive immediate feedback. Trainee responses were
recorded on the Summary Review Worksheet, which was turned in with the
audiotape after the review session (see Appendix M).

During the last 90 minutes of the third workshop session, trainees
responded to the three posttest measures and filled out an evaluation

fOrm pertaining to the third workshop session and the workshop in general

57

(see Appendix N). They were also requested to sign a release form
granting permission to the researcher to use the workshop materials in

the research study (see Appendix 0).

Control Package

 

I

The format for control group training was identical to that of
the treatment group and consisted of three training phases, one on each
day of the workshop. The purpose of the control package was to teach
a counseling skill which would be useful to the subjects and relevant
to the content of the counseling process course but which did not
incorporate the principles of discrimination training.

Two control groups were formed to accommodate another research
study being run using the same control group (Taylor, 1978) and had no
practical consideration in this study. The difference between the two
groups occurred in the last phase of training and will be explained

later in this section.

Response training. Since the variable considered crucial in the

 

treatment package was the teaching of discrimination skills in the
second phase of training, the control groups received exactly the same
' training as the treatment group at the first session of the workshop.
Providing the same learning experience for all trainees at the first
session had the added benefit of lessening the "research" aspect of
the workshop by giving all trainees an identical initial training
experience. I

As in the treatment group, trainees in the control groups spent
the last 90 minutes of the first session responding to the three pretest

measures and filling out an evaluation form pertaining to the activities

of the first session.

58

Control training, Training in formulating learning objectives

 

took place during the second workshop session. Since the Systematic
Counseling model stresses the importance of translating client goals
into well-defined learning objectives, the trainees in the two control
groups were given instruction and exercises in developing learning
objectives for client concerns which are not easily Operationalized

in such form.

During the first 90 minutes of the session, trainees in the
control groups viewed a videotape presentation in which cognitive
material related to the structure of learning Objectives and written
exercises related to formulating such objectives were presented
(Mager, 1962; Stewart et.a1.,1978). A narrator defined the three
structural components of a learning objective and then introduced
written exercises related to the three components. The videotape was
turned off for the three minutes while the counselor trainees responded
on worksheets provided for this purpose (see Appendix P).

The narrator then introduced a second exercise in which three
short roleplay situations were presented. In each roleplay situation
a counselor worked with a client in setting an appropriate learning
objective. Trainees were required to listen to the objective formulated
in the roleplay and improve one of the structural components Of the
objective. The worksheets listed each poorly constructed objective and
provided ample space for trainee responses.

The intent of the written exercises was to maintain subject
interest in the videotape presentation and to provide a parallel experience

to the subjects in the treatment group. As in the treatment condition,

59

discussion and questions during the videotape presentation were dis-
couraged in order to maintain independence between subjects. Trainees
were infOrmed that they would receive individual attention from a lab
instructor who would answer questions and provide feedback on their
written responses immediately following the videotape presentation.

During the next 90 minutes, trainees in the control group
worked individually on written exercises related to formulating
learning objectives (see Appendix Q). Trainees were given background
information about five counseling cases and instructed to formulate
an appropriate learning objective for each client problem. After
working for 30 minutes, subjects received intermittent feedback from
a trainer who alternated between two counselor trainees and provided
feedback on both the written exercises from the videotape session and
the exercises on formulating learning objectives. Trainers were given
answers to the videotape exercises and model learning objectives for
the five counseling situations (see Appendix R). This ensured uniform
and accurate feedback across trainees.

For the final 60 minutes of the second workshop session, the con-
trol subjects were involved in a roleplay and self-evaluation exercise
devised specifically as a control measure fer the research study run
simultaneously with this investigation (Taylor, 1978). All control sub—
ijects functioned as counselors in a ten-minute roleplay of the initial
counseling interview. The roleplay was audiotaped. Trainers served
as clients and were given a standard role to follow during the role-

play (see Appendix S). After the roleplay, trainers gave the subjects

60

feedback on their reactions as clients based on specific guidelines
provided beforehand (see Appendix T).

Each trainer worked with two trainees, one in each of the
control conditions. The difference in procedure between the two
control groups occurred after the roleplay. At that point, all
control subjects were instructed to listen to the tape of the role-
play interview and evaluate their perfOrmance using ferms provided
fer this purpose.. The forms used by the two control groups for this
procedure, however, were different.

Control group I performed a two-step process which involved
(a) tallying types of responses made during the interview on a form
provided for this purpose, and (b) rating their counseling skills
along ten dimensions of counselor performance and selecting steps to
improve their counseling performance (see Appendix U). Control group
11 performed only the first of the two steps, the tallying of response
types on the same tally form used by control group 1. After the role-
play and self-evaluation process was completed, all control subjects
returned the written materials and filled out an evaluation form
pertaining to the second workshop session.

Cognitive material presented to the control groups during the
second workshop session did not overlap the cognitive material presented
to the treatment group. The format for the first two phases of
training was almost identical to that of’the treatment group (videotape
presentation with written exercises and written exercises with feedback
by one trainer to two subjects). During the last phase of roleplaying,

however, trainers fer the control groups provided feedback to two

61

trainees while trainers for the treatment group provided feedback to
one trainee. Subjects in the treatment group, therefore, received
slightly more individual trainer time than subjects in the control
groups.

During the first 90 minutes of the third workshop session,
subjects in the control groups again participated in the roleplay and
self-evaluation process using the same evaluation forms that they had
used during the second session. The roleplayers for this session,
however, were undergraduate students hired to play standard roles (see
Appendix V). As in the second session, the roleplayers provided feed-
back on their reactions as clients based on guidelines provided
befOrehand (see Appendix T). The roleplay and self-evaluation process
was repeated twice.

During the last 90 minutes of the workshop session, trainees
in the control groups responded to the three posttest measures and
filled out an evaluation form pertaining to the third workshop session
and the workshop in general. They were also requested to sign a
release form granting permission to the researcher to use the workshop
materials in the research study (see Appendix 0).

In summary, the training fOrmat during the first part of the
third session was different fer the treatment and control groups.
Subjects in the treatment group worked on a programmed learning-type
exercise with no individual attention, while subjects in the control
groups worked partly on their own and partly with a roleplayer. For
both treatment and control groups, however, no new cognitive material
was introduced and the session fUnctioned as a review session for material

that had been previously presented.

62

Followup

During the eighth week of winter quarter, the counselor trainees
were given a form asking for their agreement to participate in a follow-
up study at the beginning of spring quarter, 1977. Because many of the
trainees did not respond (either positively or negatively), all the
counselor trainees were contacted during the first two weeks of spring
quarter through either their practicum course or by telephone. Students
agreeing to participate signed up for 90—minute time segments during
the next two weeks in order to take the three followup measures. At
the time of the followup testing, subjects signed a research release
form giving the researcher permission to use the followup data (see

Appendix W).

Trainers

The 24 trainers used in the lab sessions to provide feedback to
subjects and to engage in roleplay situations had earned at least a
master's degree in the field of counseling and had practical experience
in counseling. Twenty-one of the trainers were graduate students
enrolled in the doctoral program in counselor education, urban counseling,
or rehabilitation counseling at Michigan State University. Trainers
included nine females and 13 males.

Trainers were randomly assigned to subjects, and each trainer
trained at lease one subject in each of the treatment and control
conditions. This ensured that systematic differences did not occur
between the treatment and control groups because of individual differences

between trainers.

63

Trainers received four hours of training provided in two two-
hour sessions prior to the first day of the workshop. Training
centered on providing full explanations of the duties required of the
trainers including acquainting them with the logistics of running the
workshop and teaching and reviewing the cognitive material they were
required to teach the subjects. Trainers were provided with a seven-
page summary of discrimination training which included an explanation
of the purpose of the training, the cognitive material included in the
training, an outline of the workshop format, and descriptions of the
written exercises (see Appendix X).

A test of counselor response types was included in the training
to ensure that all trainers had a parallel knowledge and understanding
of the basic information involved in response training. Consistent
information provided by the trainers ensured that all subjects were
exposed to the same common core of cognitive material. Results from
the trainer test are reported in chapter III.

Trainers were given an agenda for each workshop session which
included a time schedule, training room locations, and trainee names.
Printed materials were provided covering all the cognitive material
trainers were required to teach including sample answers to all lab
exercises. In this manner, it was ensured that all subjects received
parallel and accurate feedback regardless of trainer. Adequate time
was provided so that trainers could review materials prior to working
with the trainees. The researcher was available to trainers during the
workshop sessions to answer questions regarding the administration of

the treatment and control packages.

64

Instrumentation and Data Collection and Analysis

The purpose of the treatment was to increase counselor trainees'
effectiveness in using counselor responses. The dependent measures,
therefore, were develOped to measure this effectiveness along the three
dimensions of (a) identification, (b) performance, and (c) evaluation.
Three instruments were developed and administered to the subjects at
three points in time (pretest, posttest, followup test). Three forms of
each instrument were developed in order to minimize memory effects of
previous testing. The three instruments were individually administered
to all subjects and included the Response Exercise, Free Response Exercise,
and Rating Exercise. Reliability coefficients for the three forms of

each instrument are reported in chapter 111.

Response Exercise

 

The Response Exercise is a 25-item mUltiple-choice instrument.
Each item consists of a description of the current status of a counseling
relationship, a client statement, and four possible counselor responses
(see Appendix Y). Trainees were required to choose the most appropriate
response for each client statement. The purpose of the instrument was
to assess whether a trainee could determine which response was most
appropriate in a particular counseling situation.

A large pool of items was develOped covering the three stages
of the counseling process included in discrimination training. The
items were pilot-tested to identify items on which (a) expert judges
agreed as to the most appropriate counselor response (high expert agree-
ment) and (b) a naive group of counselor trainees who had not received
discrimination training disagreed as to the most appropriate response

(low trainee agreement).

65

The expert judges were ten doctoral students in counselor
education, rehabilitation counseling, and urban counseling at Michigan
State University who were experienced in the field of counseling. They
had read a summary of discrimination training and had attended one
training session related to discrimination training. The group of
naive counselor trainees were 16 master's students enrolled in the
same counseling program as the subjects in the study. However, they
were Off-campus students in Grand Rapids, Michigan, and in the fifth
quarter of their counseling program.

From the results of the pilot testing, 25 items were chosen
for the pretest and 25 items for the posttest. Since the purpose of
the pretest was to serve as a check on whether the treatment and control
groups were initially equivalent, the less difficult and least discrimi-
nating items were chosen for the pretest measure, i.e., those on which
there was high expert agreement and high trainee agreement. Since the
naive subjects were more highly trained than the subjects in the study
(they had completed the counseling process course and their first
practicum), these items might have been easier for them than they
would be for the subjects in the study.

Items on which there was high expert agreement and low trainee
agreement were used to develop the 25-item posttest. These 25 items
were modified to form 25 parallel items for the followup test. Slight
changes were made in the details of the counseling situations and
response alternatives so that the items appeared different. The general
counseling situation, the stage of the counseling relationship, and

the most appropriate response type, however, remained the same.

66

Items on the three tests were scored in a manner consistent
with the cognitive material presented in discrimination training. Three
points were given for choosing a response type identified as facilitative
during the stage of the counseling process represented in the item,
zero points were given for choosing a response type identified as
nonfacilitative during that stage of the counseling process, and one
point was given for choosing a neutral response (one not discussed as

having particular significance at the stage of the counseling process).

Free Response Exercise

 

The Free Response Exercise is a 25-item audiotaped instrument.
Each item consists of a description of the status of the counseling
relationship and a client statement (see Appendix Z). Counselor
trainees were required to tape a counselor response to each of the 25
situations on a blank audiotape. The purpose of the instrument was to
assess whether a trainee could produce an apprOpriate counselor response
in a particular counseling situation.

Twenty-five basic counseling situations and client statements
were develOped covering the three stages of the counseling process
included in discrimination training. Two sets of parallel items were
developed to form three equivalent forms for the pretest, posttest, and
followup measures. Each set of items was recorded on an audiotape.
Three roleplayers served as a narrator to introduce the counseling
situations and a male and a female client.

Items on the three forms of the test were scored in the same

manner as items on the Response Exercise. Three points were given for

67

a response type identified as facilitative during the stage of the
counseling process represented in the item, zero points were given for
a response type identified as nonfacilitative during that stage of the
counseling process, and one point was given for a neutral response type
(one not diScussed as having particular significance at that stage of
the counseling process).

Three raters were employed to listen to the pretest, posttest,
and followup test audiotapes and categorize the counselor trainees
responses into the ten response type categories. The three raters were
first-year doctoral students in the counselor education program at
Michigan State University. Two held master's degrees and the third
held a specialist degree in the counseling field. All had practical
experience as counselors.

The raters received two hours of training in identifying
response types and specific guidelines for rating the tapes (see
Appendix AA). A sample tape was rated and discussed to ensure that
the three raters were rating consistently, i.e., that they were using
the same criteria for categorizing a response into a particular response
category. Results from the sample tape indicated that there was a
high level of agreement among raters as to the categorization of
responses. Interrater agreement is reported in chapter 111.

For purpose of scoring the instrument, a response was labeled
as a particular response type if at least two of the three raters had
placed it in the same response category. Items on which no two raters
agreed were judged by a fourth rater. In all cases, the response

category assigned by the fOurth rater was consistent with that of one

68

of the original raters, and the response was placed in that category.
The percent of items on which a fourth rater was necessary was very
small (3.25 percent of the items on the pretest, 4.13 percent of the
items on the posttest, and 2.78 percent of the items on the followup
test).

When a counselor trainee response to an item included more
than one response type, it was scored in one of two ways. If the
correct response to the item was a passive response-type and the trainee's
response included a passive and an active response-type, the item was
scored as incorrect. If the correct response to the item was an
active response-type and the trainee's response included a passive plus

an active response-type, the item was scored as correct.

Rating_Exercise

 

The Rating Exercise is a ten-minute audiotaped counseling
interview between a male client and a female counselor with an
accompanying rating form (see Appendix BB). Counselor trainees listened
to the interview and rated the counselor's skills along various dimen-
sions of counselor performance listed on the rating form. The purpose
of the instrument was to assess whether, in a simulation Of an actual
counseling situation, the trainee could judge what types of counselor
responses facilitated and what types of counselor responses impeded
the progress of the interview.

Dimensions of cOunselor performance were divided into three
general areas of competence related to: (a) general counseling

behaviors (seven items), (b) counselor responses (eleven items), and

69

(c) implementation of the counseling process (ten items). For all
three areas, counselor trainees rated how well the counselor had
performed each particular skill along a six-point continuum ranging
from zero (no attempt) to five (exceptionally well). For the area
related to counselor responses, trainees also rated how often the
counselor had performed each particular skill on a five-point continuum
ranging from one (seldom or never) to five (excessively). The area
related to counseling process was omitted on the pretest measure
because of time constraints and because the pretest measures were used
as a check on equivalence between the treatment and control groups and
not as a measure of learning.

The Rating Exercise was scored by comparing trainees' ratings
on each item to the ratings of a panel of experts. The seven expert
raters were doctoral students in the counselor education and
rehabilitation counseling program at Michigan State University. They
held at least a master's degree in counseling and had practical
experience as counselors. The experts rated the pre-, post-, and
followup Rating Exercise interviews using the same instructions and
rating forms as the counselor trainees.

All items were rated on a five or six point scale. Items on
which expert ratings showed a discrepancy of three or more points
(e.g., an item receiving both a "one" and a "four" rating) were
discarded. The seven expert ratings on the remaining items were
averaged and rounded off to the nearest whole number. Averages that
fell at the midpoint between two ratings were rounded toward the

middle rank of three. These scores were used as expert ratings.

70

Trainee ratings were compared to the expert ratings to get a
measure of agreement between expert and trainee. The expert ratings
were subtracted from the subjects' ratings to get a score for each
item which measured the amount of deviation from the expert rating.
Deviations were summed to get a positive and negative deviation score.
As such, the scores reflect the subjects' tendency to rate either
above or below the expert ratings. The larger the absolute value of
either score, the greater the subjects' discrepancy from the expert

ratings.

Data Collection

 

During the first workshop session, all subjects responded to
the three pretest measures. After two sessions of training related
to their particular treatment group, subjects responded to the three
posttest measures. Those subjects who agreed to participate responded
to the three followup measures six weeks after the completion of

treatment .

Data Analysis

 

Statistical analyses were computed on a Control Data 6500
computer available at Michigan State University. The multivariate
analysis of variance computer program developed by Finn and adapted
for use at Michigan State University by Scheifley and Schmidt (1973)
was used to compute the primary analyses.

A multivariate analysis of variance was computed to assess
immediate treatment effects. Helmert contrasts were utilized to detect

differences between the treatment and control groups and between the

71

two control groups. Pretest scores were not sufficiently related to
the posttest scores to warrant being used as covariates in the analysis.
The three posttest scores were employed as the multiple dependent
measures.

To assess the maintenance of treatment effects'over time, a
repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance using Helmert
contrasts was conducted. Again, pretest scores were not sufficiently
related to the dependent measures to warrant being used as covariates
in the analysis. The sum and difference scores formed by combining
the posttest and followup scores were used as the multiple dependent
measures.

The alpha level for the multivariate tests relating to the six
hypotheses of interest was set at .05. The ordering of the dependent
variables was based upon logical sequencing according to how specifically
the instruments appeared to measure the skills which the treatment
package had been designed to teach. The Response Exercise and Free
Response Exercise were placed before the Rating Exercise in the ordering
since these two instruments appeared to measure the skills taught
during the treatment program more specifically than the rating task.

The Rating Exercise was developed primarily as a measure for the
research study run simultaneously with this investigation and, as such,
focused only generally on the skills addressed by the hypotheses of
this investigation (Taylor, 1978).

The Response EXercise was placed befOre the Free Response
Exercise in the ordering since it appears to measure a lower level

skill than the Free Response Exercise, and therefOre one which might

72

have been more easily acquired in a three-session workshop. The Free
Response Exercise requires that counselor trainees produce an appro-
priate response, whereas the Response Exercise requires only that
counselor trainees be able to choose an appropriate response from a
given list of four. It seems logical that subjects will learn the
discrimination task first and the more difficult production task
second. Thus, the greatest differentiation between the treatment and
control groups was expected on the Response Exercise.

Reliability coefficients were computed to assess the internal
consistency of the dependent measures and the degree of trainer
consistency in identifying response types. Interrater agreement was
computed for the Free Response Exercise.

The results from these analyses are reported in chapter 111.

CHAPTER III
RESULTS

Primary analyses related to the research hypotheses plus
supplementary analyses dictated by the nature of the investigation are
reported in this chapter. The primary analyses, being Of greatest
interest, are reported first. I

The results of the primary analyses are based upon measures of
the subjects' ability to identify, produce, and evaluate counselor
responses which are judged to be appropriate in a particular counseling
situation. The measures were a multiple choice paper-and-pencil test
in which subjects chose the most appropriate response from among four
possible counselor responses to a client statement (Response Exercise),
an audiotaped test in which subjects recorded their responses to audio-
taped client statements (Free Response Exercise), and a paper-and-
pencil instrument in which subjects listened to a short audiotaped
counseling interview and then rated the counselor along various dimen-
sions related to counselor perfOrmance (Rating Exercise). Three forms
of each of the measures were developed and administered during the
pretest, posttest, and followup periods. Total scores were computed
for the Response Exercise and Free Response Exercise. Two subscale
scores were computed for the Rating Exercise which were measures of the
subjects' positive and negative deviations from the expert ratings.

In order to test for the main effect Of treatment immediately

73

74

following the conclusion of training, a one-way multivariate analysis
of variance with Helmert contrasts was computed. A one-way multivariate
analysis of variance with repeated measures involving only those subjects
who had participated in the followup study was then computed to test
for the maintenance of treatment effects over time. Again, Helmert
contrasts were utilized to assess treatment effects.

The results of the supplementary analyses are reported after
the examination of the main hypotheses. These include trainer reliability,
interrater reliability for the Free Response Exercise, and internal con-
sistency reliability estimates for the three forms of the Response

Exercise, Free Response Exercise, and Rating Exercise.

Immediate Posttesting

 

The first statistical analysis was performed using the 32
subjects who completed the pretest and posttest measures. The means
and standard deviations for the treatment and control groups on the
pretest and posttest measures are reported in Tables 1 and 2. As
mentioned previously, two subscores are given for the Rating Exercise
which reflect the magnitude of positive and negative deviations from
the expert ratings.

Intercorrelations for the posttest forms of the Response
Exercise, Free Response Exercise, and Positive and Negative Deviation
Scales of the Rating Exercise are reported in Table 3. The highest
correlation was a negative relationship between the Positive and Nega-
tive Deviation Scales of the Rating Exercise (-.60). This correlation
suggests that trainees who had a tendency to overrate certain aspects

of the counselor's performance on the Rating Exercise had a corresponding

75

 

 

 

 

 

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Table 3
Intercorrelations for the Dependent Measures
Posttest Correlation Matrix for the Response Exercise,

Free Response Exercise, and Positive and Negative
Deviation Scales of the Rating Exercise

 

 

Rating Exercise

 

Response Free Response Positive
Exercise Exercise Deviation Scale
Free Response
Exercise .31
Rating Exercise
Positive Deviation
Scale -.11 .25

Negative Deviation
Scale .03 -.29 -.60

 

78

tendency not to underrate other aspects of the counselor's performance,
and vice versa.

All other cOrrelations between the measures were relatively low
suggesting that the three instruments used as dependent measures were
measuring different, albeit moderately related, counseling skills.
Examination of the correlation matrix reveals that being able to identify
an appropriate counselor response (Response Exercise), produce an
appropriate counselor response (Free Response Exercise), and evaluate
a counselor's performance (Positive and Negative Deviation Scales of
the Rating Exercise) are only moderately related and appear to be
essentially different skills.

As an initial step in the first analysis, a test was performed
to determine whether the pretest measures were useful covariates in
the analysis. Campbell and Stanley (1963) state that even when random
assignment has occurred, covariates may be useful in increasing pre-
cision in an experimental study. The test for association between the
pretest measures and posttest measures was not significant at the .05
level, F_(l6, 67.85) = 1.00, p_< .466, and indicated that the pretest
measures should not be used as covariates. Therefore, a multivariate
analysis of variance (MANOVA) was computed on the posttest scores in

order to test Hypotheses l and 2 with an alpha level of .05.

Hypothesis 1:

 

Counselor trainees in the treatment group who receive discrimina-
tion training will score significantly better on the Response
Exercise, Free Response Exercise, and Rating Exercise at the

end of the training period than counselor trainees in the
control treatments who do not receive discrimination training.

79

This hypothesis was supported. The multivariate test of the
first Helmert contrast comparing the treatment group against the two
control groups was significant at the .05 level, f_(4, 26) = 18.01,
24 .0001.

In examining the univariate F_tests for each of the dependent
measures, the .05 alpha level was partitioned to control for the overall
Type I error. Thus, each dependent measure was tested at the .0125
level.

The univariate F_tests for the Response Exercise and Free
Response Exercise indicated that there was a significant difference
between the treatment and control groups on each of these measures
when tested independently. There was no significant difference
between the treatment and control groups on either the positive or the
negative deviation score of the Rating Exercise.

Examination of the stepdown §_probabilities to assess the
contribution of each dependent measure to the overall treatment effect
suggests that the Response Exercise was the most important variable
contributing to differences between the treatment and control groups.
Although the Free Response Exercise was significant at the .0001 level
when tested independently, the significance level dropped to .083
when it was tested conditionally and placed second in the ordering to
the Response Exercise. This suggests that whatever contribution the
Free Response Exercise made to differentiating between the treatment
and control groups was largely redundant to that of the Response
Exercise. The Rating Exercise appears to have contributed very little

to overall treatment differences. These results are reported in Table 4.

80

Table 4
Multivariate and Univariate Analysis of Variance F_and Stepdown 5

Statistics for Posttest Response Exercise, Free Response

Exercise, and Positive and Negative Deviation Scales

Treatment (n = 16) vs. Control I (n

of the Rating Exercise

= 3)

and ConErol II (p = 8) CompariEon

 

Multivariate.F

18.01 with 4, 2611“, p_< .001

 

 

Dependent
Measure Mean Univariate F. Stepdown
Square 1, 29 df p< _I: p<
Between
Response
Exercise 1300.50 55.10 .0001 55.10 .0001
Free Response
Exercise 1023.78 27.72 .0001 3.23 .083
Rating Exercise
Poétive Deviation
Scale 820.13 4.84 .036 1.35 .256
Negative Deviation
Scale 30.03 0.43 .519 2.87 .102

 

81

The mean scores on the posttest measures reported in Table 2
indicate that the treatment group scored significantly higher on the
Response Exercise and Free Response Exercise. Results on the Rating
Exercise indicate that subjects in thetreatment group were more
inclined to differ in a positive direction from the expert ratings than
subjects in the control groups.

To assess the strength of the treatment effect and to determine
whether the statistical significance of Hypothesis 1 was meaningful in
terms of the actual amount of difference between the treatment and
control groups, the least square estimates of the treatment effects
were examined. A 95 percent confidence interval using the least
square estimates and corresponding standard errors was constructed for
each dependent variable. The values for each confidence interval
were then divided by the standard deviation of each dependent measure
in order to translate the estimates of treatment effect into standard
deviation units. These results are reported in Table 5;

The least square estimates provide estimates of the population
differences between the treatment and control groups on the dependent
measures based on the sample data. With infinite replications of
this research investigation, it is expected that the generated con-
fidence intervals will cover the true (population) value of the
difference between the treatment and control groups 95 percent of the
time. The confidence intervals for the Response Exercise, Free
Response Exercise, and Positive Deviation Scale of the Rating Exercise
do not span zero which indicates that there was a significant difference

between the treatment and control groups on these three measures at

82

 

 

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m OHQMH

83

the .05 level. These results are consistent with those from the
univariate F_tests reported in Table 4. The confidence intervals in
standard deviation units for the Response Exercise and Free Response
Exercise indicate a strong and meaninngl treatment effect. Subjects
in the treatment group scored approximately two to three standard
deviations higher on the Response Exercise and one to two-and—a—half
standard deviations higher on the Free Response Exercise than subjects

in the control groups.

Hypothesis 2

 

There will be no significant difference in level of performance
between the two control groups on the Response Exercise, Free
Response Exercise, and Rating Exercise at the end of the training
period.

This hypothesis was supported. The multivariate test Of the
second Helmert contrast comparing the two control groups was not
significant, F_(4, 26) = .484, pg< .748. In addition, none of the
univariate F_tests for the dependent measures was significant at the
.0125 level. Examination of the Stepdown F_statistics indicated that
none of the measures were significant when tested conditionally.

These results are reported in Table 6.
The mean scores on the posttest measures reported in Table 2

indicate that the two control groups exhibited minimal differences in

level of perfOrmance after the treatment period.

Followup Testipg_

 

A second and separate analysis was performed using the 23

subjects who participated in the followup portion of the study in

84

 

 

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0 O a I C

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c oHan

85

order to test for maintenance of treatment effects from the time of
the posttesting to the time of the followup testing. The means and
standard deviations on the pretest, posttest, and followup measures
for the treatment and control groups are reported in Tables 7, 8, and
9. For the Rating Exercise, two subscale scores are again given to
reflect the magnitude of positive and negative deviations from the
expert ratings.

In order to test for the maintenance of treatment effects over
time, a repeated measures design was used which required that sum and
difference variables (over time) be calculated for each of the dependent
measures. The means for the treatment and control groups on these
variables are reported in Tables 10 and 11. The sum variables were
used to test for treatment effects, and the difference variables were
used to test for the maintenance of treatment effects over time
(measures effect) and the treatment by measures interaction.

As an initial step in the analysis of treatment effects, a
test was performed to determine whether the pretest scores were useful
covariates in testing for the main effect of treatment. The test for
association between the pretest measures and sum variables was not
significant at the .05 level, _I: (16, 40.35) = 1.59, p 4 .117, and
indicated that the pretest measures should not be used as covariates
when testing for the main effect of treatment. Therefore, a multi-
variate analysis Of variance was computed on the dependent measures

in order to test Hypotheses 3 and 4.

86

 

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88

 

 

 

 

 

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89

 

 

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90

 

 

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HH oHLMH

91

Hypothesis 3:

 

Counselor trainees in the treatment group who receive

discrimination training will score significantly better

on the Response Exercise, Free Response Exercise, and

Rating Exercise at the time of the followup than counselor

trainees in the control treatments who do not receive

discrimination training.

This hypothesis was supported. The multivariate test of the
first Helmert contrast comparing the treatment group against the two
control groups was significant at the .05 level, F_(4, 17) = 13.87,
p< .0001).

The univariate §_tests for the Response Exercise and Free
Response Exercise indicated that there was a significant difference
between the treatment and control groups on these two measures when
tested at the .0125 level. There was no significant difference
between the treatment and control groups on either the positive or
negative deviation score of the Rating Exercise. Examination of the
stepdown F_probabilities suggests that the Response Exercise was the
most significant variable contributing to differences between the
treatment and control groups. The other three measures appeared to
be largely redundant and did not contribute greatly to overall treat-
ment differences. These results are reported in Table 12.

The means of the sum scores for the dependent measures
reported in Table 10 indicate that the treatment group scored
significantly higher on the Response Exercise and Free Response

Exercise than the control groups. Performance on the Rating Exercise

was approximately equal.

92

 

 

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NH oHan

93

Hypothesis 4:

 

There will be no significant difference in level of performance
between the two control groups on the Response Exercise, Free
Response Exercise, and Rating Exercise at the time of the
followup.

This hypothesis was supported. The multivariate test of the
second Helmert contrast comparing the two control groups was not
significant at the .05 level, _F_ (4, 17) = .469, p_< .758. In addition,
none of the univariate F_tests for the dependent measures was signi-
ficant at the .0125 level. Examination of the stepdown F_statistics
indicated that none of the measures were significant when tested
conditionally. The results are reported in Table 13.

The sum score means reported in Table 10 indicate that the
two control groups performed similarly on the Response Exercise, Free
Response Exercise, and positive and negative deviation scores of the
Rating Exercise.

As an initial step in the analysis of the repeated measures
effect and the treatment by measures interaction, a test was computed
to determine whether the pretest measures were useful as covariates.
The test for association between the pretest measures and difference
scores was not significant at the .05 level, f_(l6, 40.35) = 870,

p < .605, and indicated that the pretest measures should not be used
as covariates when testing the repeated measures factor and interaction

factor. Therefore, a multivariate analysis of variance was computed

on the dependent measures in order to test Hypotheses 5 and 6.

94

 

 

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0H oHan

95

Hypothesis 5:

 

There will be no significant decrease in level of performance
on the Response Exercise, Free Response Exercise, and Rating
Exercise for all counselor trainees from the time of the
administration of the followup measures.

This hypothesis was supported. The multivariate test of
repeated measures comparing the posttest period to followup period was
not significant at the .05 level, f_(l4, 17) = 2.53, Bf‘ '079-

In addition, none of the univariate §_tests for the dependent
measures was significant at the .0125 level indicating that there was
no significant change in level of performance between the posttest and
fellowup period. The univariate test for change in level of performance
on the Free Response Exercise, however, bordered on significance (E_=
7.31, p_<f.014). Examination of the stepdown F_statistics indicated
that none of the measures produced significant results when tested
conditionally. The Free Response Exercise, however, would have
bordered on significance if it had been placed first in the ordering.
These results are reported in Table 14.

Because all subjects in the original posttest group did not
participate in the followup testing, small and unequal cell sizes were
used in the repeated measures analysis. The decrease in power due to
this decrease in sample size might have been responsible for the
failure to detect a measures effect. To explore this possibility
posttest means and standard deviations on the dependent measures for
all subjects who participated in the posttesting were compared to the

posttest means and standard deviations on the dependent measures fer

that subset of subjects who participated in the fOllowup testing.

96

 

 

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vH oHan

97

These results are reported in Table 15.

Visual inspection of the means and standard deviations indicated
that the two groups were essentially equivalent at the time of the post-
testing. It was concluded, therefore, that the subset of subjects who
participated in the followup testing were representative of the total
group of subjects.

To get a clearer idea of the amount of change on the dependent
variables from the posttesting to followup testing, means for each
group on each dependent measure at both points in time were plotted
graphically. These results are represented in Figures 4, 5, 6, and 7.
The figures are included to show change in perfOrmance level on the
dependent measures over time and not to suggest the presence of
significant interactions.

On the Response Exercise (Figure 4), the level of performance
of the treatment group showed the greatest tendency to decrease while
the perfOrmance level of the two cOntrol groups remained about the same.
The treatment group and control group 11 showed some tendency to
decrease in level of performance on the Free Response Exercise while
the perfOrmance level of control group I remained about the same
(Figure 5).

On the Positive Deviation Scale of the Rating Exercise (Figure
6), the level of perfOrmance of the treatment group remained approximately
the same while the performance level of both control groups showed a
tendency to decrease. Finally, the performance level of the treatment

~group and control group II showed a tendency to decrease on the Negative

98

Table 15
Posttest Means and Standard Deviations for the Treatment
and Control Groups across the Response Exercise,
Free Response Exercise, and Positive and
Negative Deviation Scales of the

Rating Exercise

 

 

 

 

Total Group Followup Group
Dependent Variable (!-= 32) (E-= 23)
I1 _82 E s_0
Response Exercise
Treatment 51.38 2.99 51.38 2.90
Control I 37.38 7.19 38.25 4.35
Control 11 39.88 5.19 38.50 5.01
Free Response Exercise
Treatment 64.75 4.71 64.00 4.62
Control I 52.38 7.25 52.50 8.35
Control 11 54.50 7.27 55.00 5.73
Rating Exercise
Positive Deviation Scale
Treatment 29.94 13.48 30.00 14.82
Control I 20.63 13.61 22.00 17.72
Control 11 19.00 11.29 18.50 7.40
Negative Deviation Scale
Treatment 6.31 11.26 7.08 12.45
Control I 2.75 3.11 3.75 4.19
Control 11 6.00 3.12 4.83 1.47

 

99

 

 

 

 

 

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55 ’”
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m -II-
'3 50
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a:
g 30 I
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2 15 I
10 "
_# -—-—-—~= Treatment
5 '--- -d -= Control I
__ ""“'“”= Control 11'
0
l L
Posttest Followup test

Figure 4. Comparison of mean scores on the Response Exercise

between post and followup tests.

70
65
8
«4 60
U
23
x 55
LL}
3’. 50
c
8.
w 45
o
a:
o 40
o
8
c 35
o
g 30
8
U: 25
a
w
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2
0

Figure 5. Comparison of mean scores on the Free Response Exercise

between post and followup tests.

 

100

 

 

L

iiFTreatment
..;Control I

....._. - _FCOTltI‘OI II

 

Posttest

I

Followup test

 

101

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Posttest Followup test

Figure 6. Comparison of mean scores on the Positive Deviation Scale

of the Rating Exercise between post and followup tests

102

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

=Treatment
" " “=Control I
—'—’_"'=Control II

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8 A-
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Posttest Followup test

Figure 7. Comparison of mean scores on the Negative Deviaion Scale

of the Rating Exercise between post and followup tests.

103

Deviation Scale of the Rating Exercise while the performance level of

control group I showed a tendency to increase (Figure 7).

Hypothesis 6:

 

There will be no significant interaction between trainee group

(treatment, control I, control 11) and time of administration

of the dependent measures (post, followup).

This hypothesis was supported. The multivariate test of inter-
action was not significant at the .05 level, §_(8, 34) = 1.45, p_<:.211.
In addition, none of the univariate §_tests for the dependent measures

was significant at the .0125 level. These results are reported in

Table 16.

Supplementary Analyses

 

The following supplementary analyses were performed in order
to obtain reliability estimates for the consistency with which trainers
categorized response types and the internal consistency of the pretest,
posttest, and followup forms of the Response Exercise, Free Response
Exercise,and Rating Exercise. Interrater agreement was computed for

the Free Response Exercise.

Trainer Reliability

 

In order to assess the trainers' understanding of the ten
counselor response types and therefore, their ability to impart a
common body of information regarding the meaning of the response types
to the counselor trainees, the trainers were tested on their ability
to identify the ten response types. After the first training session
covering definitions and examples of the response types, trainers were

given a lS-item test which consisted of 15 audiotaped client statements

104

 

 

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105

and counselor responses. Trainers were required to label the counselor
responses according to the ten response type categories.

A reliability coefficient was calculated for each of the ten
response types in order to measure the degree of consistency with which
the group of trainers judged the 15 counselor responses as belonging
in each particular response category. The reliability coefficients
for the ten response types were averaged, and a mean reliability rating
of .69 was found across the ten response types. The individual
reliability estimates for the ten response types are reported in

Table 17.

Interrater Agpeement for the Free Response Exercise

Three raters (A, B, and C) listened to and labeled all counselor
trainee responses to the Free Response Exercise pretest, posttest, and
followup test according to the ten counselor response type categories.
Ten sets of sample ratings (ten tests each having 25 items or a total
of 250 items) were randomly selected from the entire group of ratings
in order to determine the percentage of agreement between raters in
categorizing responses. Raters A and B agreed on 205 or 82 percent of
’ the items; raters A and C agreed on 214 or 85.6 percent of the items;
raters B and C agreed on 218 or 87.2 percent of the items. All three

raters agreed on 185 or 74 percent of the items.

106

Table 17
Reliability of Trainer Ratings for the

Ten Counselor Response Types

 

 

 

 

Counselor Response Type_ Reliabilipy_
Restatement .74
Questioning .86
Informative statements 1.00
Suggestion .86
Reinforcement .43
Evaluative statements .58
Confrontation .73
Reflection .63
Clarification .23
Interpretation .43

Average Reliability Rating
across Response Types .69

 

107

Reliability of the Dependent Measures

 

In order to assess the reliability of the dependent measures,
a measure of internal consistency, Cronbach's alpha, was computed for
each of the pretest, posttest, and followup measures. Reliability
coefficients for the Response Exercise were .60 for the pretest, .55
for the posttest, and .63 for the followup test. Reliability coefficients
for the Free Response Exercise were .75 for the pretest, .81 for the
posttest, and .73 for the followup teSt. Reliability coefficients for
the Rating Exercise were .88 for the pretest, .96 for the posttest,
and .95 for the followup test. These results are summarized in Table

18.

Summary

The primary analysis in this investigation, a comparison of
the treatment and control conditions immediately following treatment,
yielded significant results at the .0001 level which indicated that
subjects in the treatment group scored significantly better on the set
of dependent variables than subjects in the control group. A one-way
multivariate analysis of variance indicated that counselor trainees
who received discrimination training scored significantly higher on
the Response Exercise, Free Response Exercise, and Rating Exercise
than counselor trainees who received an unrelated type of training.

In addition, as hypothesized, there was no significant difference
between the two control groups who had received only slight variations
in their training programs (p3< .748). The main hypotheses of interest,

therefore, were supported.

108

Table 18
Internal Consistency Reliability Coefficients for the
Pretest, Posttest, and Followup Forms of the
Response Exercise, Free Response

Exercise, and Rating Exercise

 

 

 

Dependent Measure Reliability

Pretest Posttest Followup
Response Exercise .60 .55 .63
Free Response Exercise .75 .81 .73

Rating Exercise .88 .96 .95

 

109

A second analysis utilizing a repeated measures design with
those subjects who participated in a followup study indicated that
differences between the treatment and control groups persisted over
itime. After a six—week period, trainees in the treatment group scored
significantly higher than their counterparts in the control groups
(p_<:.0001). There was still no difference in level of performance
between the two control groups (p <(.758).

Results from this analysis also indicated that, on the whole,
there was no significant decrease in level of performance from the
time of the posttesting to the time of the followup testing (p <f.079).
There was also no treatment by measures interaction (p_<:.211). All
hypotheses of interest, therefore, were supported.

Supplementary analyses dealing with the questions of reliability
in this study were also performed. Reliability coefficients were computed
for the consistency with which trainers categorized response types and
the internal consistency of the pretest, posttest, and followup forms
of the Response Exercise, Free Response Exercise, and Rating Exercise.

Interrater agreement was computed for the Free Response Exercise.

CHAPTER IV

SUMMARY, DISCUSSION, AND IMPLICATIONS

Summary

The purpose of the study was to determine whether counselor
trainees who receive training designed to teach them when to use
different counselor response types during the counseling process will
use those response types more effectively than counselor trainees who
do not receive training which emphasizes this integration of counselor
response types and counseling process. Specifically, the investigation
sought to answer the following questions:

1. Will adding the dimension of discrimination training to
training in counselor response types increase counselor trainees' ability
to (a) identify the most appropriate counselor reSponse in a particular
counseling situation, (b) make more appropriate responses at different
stages of the counseling process, and (c) evaluate what types of counselor
responses facilitate and what types of counselor responses impede coun-
seling progress at different stages of the counseling process?

2. Will levels of performance on the dimensions of identification,
production, and evaluation be maintained over time?

To answer these questions, a treatment program was developed
to compare a group of counselor trainees who received discrimination
training to two groups Of counselor trainees who received unrelated

types of training. Training fer the treatment and control groups was

110

lll

comparable in format, duration, and cognitive material presented
regarding counselor response types except for emphasis in the treatment
group on integrating response types with counseling process. In lieu
of this emphasis, the control groups received training in writing
learning objectives for difficult-tO-define client problems followed
by roleplaying and self-evaluation of the initial counseling interview.

The experimental design employed to test for treatment effects
was the pretest-posttest design described and recommended by Campbell
and Stanley (1963). Masters level counselor trainees enrolled in a
core curriculum course on the counseling process were randomly assigned
to the treatment (3 = 16) and control groups (2C1 = 8’-ECII = 8). All
subjects participated in the three-session workshop. The three pretest
measures were administered at the end of the first session after all
subjects had received training in the ten counselor response types.
The posttest measures were administered at the end of the third session.

To assess whether treatment effects were maintained over time,
the dependent measures were administered six weeks after the end of
training to subjects who agreed to participate in the followup testing.
The design used to test for maintenance effects was a 2 X. 3 repeated
measures design in which the effect of time (from posttest to followup)
was examined across the three treatment groups. Twenty-three of the
original 32 subjects participated in the followup testing and were
disprOportionately distributed across treatment groups.creating unequal
cell sizes (gr = 13’-DCI = 4’-DCII = 6).

Three instruments were developed as dependent measures to test
counselor trainees' ability to identify, produce, and evaluate appro-

priate counselor response types. Three forms of each instrument were

112

developed for use as the pretest, posttest, and followup measures.
The instruments were pilot-tested and refined before being used in the
investigation. 7

The Response Exercise is a multiple-choice paper-and-pencil
instrument developed to assess whether counselor trainees were able to
determine which of four counselor responses was most appropriate in a
particular counseling situation. Each multiple choice response was
assigned a point value depending upon how appropriate the response was
to the client statement. The instrument was scored by summing the
points across items to get a total score. Internal consistency
estimates for the three forms of the Response Exercise were pretest =
.60, posttest = .55, and followup test = .63.

The Free Response Exercise is a series of 25 audiotaped
counseling situations developed to measure whether counselor trainees
were able to produce an appropriate counselor response to a client
statement based upon information presented in each situation. Counselor
trainees' responses were audiotaped and evaluated by three raters who
categorized them according to counselor response type. Responses were
assigned differing point values depending upon appropriateness of .
response type. Points were summed across items to get a total score.
Internal consistency reliability estimates for the three forms of the
Free Response Exercise were pretest = .75, posttest = .81, and .
followup test = .73.

The Rating Exercise is a short audiotaped counseling interview
and corresponding rating form developed to assess how accurately

counselor trainees could evaluate a counselor's performance by rating

113

general dimensions of counseling behavior along a continuum of performance.
The instrument was scored by comparing trainee ratings to expert ratings
and computing the degree to which trainees had over- or underestimated
the counselor's perfOrmance. Two subscores, a positive and negative
deviation score, were calculated tOIeflect the degree of deviation

from the expert ratings. Internal consistency reliability estimates

for the three forms of the Rating Exercise were pretest = .88, posttest
= .96, and followup test = .95.

For the immediate effects of treatment, it was hypothesized
that the treatment group would perform better on the Response Exercise,
Free Response Exercise, and Rating Exercise than the control groups.

It was fUrther hypothesized that there would be no difference in level
of performance for the two control groups on these three measures.

With regard to the followup investigation, the same two hypo-
theses regarding treatment effects were fOrmulated. In addition, it
was hypothesized that treatment effects would be maintained at the
time of followup, and, furthermore, that there would be no interaction
between treatment and time of testing.

Data collected immediately following treatment was analyzed
using a one-way multivariate analysis of variance procedure. A pre-
liminary analysis indicated that pretest scores were not sufficiently
related to the dependent variables to warrant using multivariate
analysis of covariance. Data from the posttests and followup tests
was compared using a repeated measures multivariate analysis of
variance procedure. Again, a preliminary analysis indicated that pre-

test scores were not sufficiently related to the dependent measures to

114

warrant using multivariate analysis of covariance.

Analysis of posttest data only using Helmert contrasts
indicated a statistically significant treatment effect but no statisti-
cally significant difference between the two control groups. .Thus
the hypotheses related to immediate treatment effects were supported.

Analysis of the data collected at the followup testing offered
further evidence of a treatment effect. Comparison of the posttest
and followup data indicated that treatment effects had been maintained

over time. There was no treatment by time-of-testing interaction.

Limitations

 

Limitations of the investigation will be discussed prior to
considering conclusions that can be drawn from the findings and
implications for counselor training. A thorough discussion of the
limitations will place conclusions in proper perspective and, in
addition, suggest directions for future research.

As employed in this study, the pretest-posttest-followup
design with random assignment of subjects to the treatment groups is
generally a sound design which controls for all threats to internal
validity (Campbell 8 Stanley, 1963). Questions dealing with external
validity are not as clearcut, however, and will be dealt with .

individually.

Reactive Effect of Experimental Setting_

 

The workshop format of the study was planned and run with
great consideration given to producing a tightly controlled research

design. Counselor trainees who participated in the workshop were

115

informed that they were involved in a research study and were aware,
to a certain extent, that the exercises they parficipated in were being
used as a measure of learning. Despite these conditions, however, the
cognitive content of the material had relevance for and was integrated
into the counseling process course in which they were enrolled. Since
the workshop was offered in lieu of two sessions of that course and
since the physical setting and fellow participants were identical to
what they would have experienced in the class, it can be argued that
the experimental conditions were not dissimilar to those of a traditional
counseling course with a component involving skills practice and role-
play.

Instructional methods used to convey information and develop
counseling skills (videotape presentations, written exercises, lab
exercises, and programmed instruction) are methods commonly used in
counselor training programs. From students' comments, it was clear
that at least part of their impetus tO learn was based on feelings
that their performance would influence their course grade. It seems
apparent, therefore, that the learning which took place in this study

would be replicated in a regular classroom situation.

Testing_by Treatment Interaction

Campbell and Stanley (1963) point out that the administration
of dependent measures in the course of a research study can be artificial
since the testing component of a research study is often not transferred
to the in yiyp_setting. If the testing itself is a critical component
of the research package, the effectiveness of the treatment could be

diminished without it.

116

This argument does not apply to the testing in this study for
two reasons: (a) pre- and post-assessment of knowledge and ability
to perform counseling skills is an integral part of counselor training
and therefore, the pre-, post-, and followup assessments in this study
would remain a component of the training package when itIis transferred
to an actual counselor training program, and(fiD the dependent measures
were purposerlly constructed to appear as "un-test-like" as possible
and offered the counselor trainees a variety of tasks to perform which
they could find inherently interesting. It can be argued, then, that
the tests are an integral part of the training program and do not

become a source of external invalidity.

Selection-by-Treatment Interaction

The subjects in the study were not randomly selected from a
larger population Of counselor trainees, and, therefore, it cannot be
argued that the results from this study can be statistically generalized
beyond the subjects themselves. Because no type of statistical control
was exercised in selecting the subjects, it is possible that an
unidentified selection factor or factors may have been operating in
this particular group which interacted with the treatment in such a way
as to produce results peculiar to this particular group. It is not
known whether such a factor was influential. Care, therefore, must be

exercised in logically generalizing the results beyond this particular

group.

117

Time Factor

 

Although the training program proved effective enough to produce
significant treatment effects, comments made by subjects during the
course of the study indicated that they were often rushed in completing
written and roleplay exercises and, in particular, the dependent
measures. It is unclear how this factor might have influenced treatment
results or whether allowing more time for the completion Of the
dependent measures would have differentially effected the treatment or

control groups.

Dependent Measures

 

The three exercises used in this study as dependent measures
had specific limitations which are common to research in counseling
training. The greatest limitation was the lack of a measure of per-
formance in an actual counseling situation to determine whether skills
'learned during treatment had an effect on counselor behavior and, as
a consequence, on client change.

The measures used did not assess actual performance for two
reasons: (a) Although presenting counseling situations through written
and audiotaped means was artificial, it offered a means of providing a
uniform experience across subjects,thus controlling for extraneous
factors such as type of client, type of problem, and type of affect
displayed. With actual clients or even roleplay clients, this unifOrm
control could not have been achieved,thus introducing the possibility
of confounding variables offering alternative explanations for treatment

differences, and (b) Although an actual perfOrmance measure would have

118

been useful in addition to the standardized measures, the most practical
vehicle for obtaining this measure was to collect data on actual
counseling performance soon after the subjects enrolled in their first
practicum. This, however, was not possible since many of the subjects
did not enroll in practicum the quarter following training. In addition,
the time span between the end of training and the practicum experience
offered a substantial amount of time for other learning experiences to
mask the effect of treatment. This failure to show transfer of
learning from the classroom to the actual counseling situation is
probably the greatest weakness in this study.

A limitation specific to the Free Response Exercise was the
emphasis on type of response rather than quality of response. Subjects
received full point value for a response which was correct according
to the information outlined in the treatment package. NO additional
judgment was made as to the quality of the response, however, and;a
subject could receive full credit for a response which was poorly
phrased or where the content was inaccurate. Because the treatment did
not focus on quality of response, however, that criteria was not
considered in scoring.

The Rating Exercise appeared to be too global an instrument to
measure the specific counseling skills taught in the treatment package.
Individual items were general and did not fOcus on specific responses
made by the counselor in the interview situation so that trainees could
evaluate the responses according to the guidelines learned during
training. In addition, all three Rating Exercise interviews dealt

narrowly with the initial counseling situation,whereas the training

119

package focused on three different phases of the counseling process.
For purposes of the study, it would have been more relevant for
trainees to rateexcerpts from interviews representing different stages
of the coUnseling process along more specifically defined dimensions
having more relevance to the training package, Results of the analysis
on the Rating Exercise bear this out. No significant differences were
found between the treatment and control groups on this measure.

Reliabilipy_of the Resppnse Exercise and
Free Response Exercise

 

 

Internal consistency reliability coefficients for the three
-forms of the three dependent measures were reported in Chapter 111.
Although the reliability coefficients for the three forms of the
Rating Exercise were high (pretest = .88, posttest = .96, followup =
.95), the same was not true of the Response Exercise (pretest = .60,
postteSt = .55, followup = .63) and Free Response Exercise (pretest =
.75, posttest = .81, followup = .73). The reliability coefficients for
these two instruments were probably adversely affected by the small
number of items on the instruments, the small range of possible response
choices, and the pOor discriminating ability of some of the items
(Nunnally, 1967).

The Rating Exercise was the easiest instrument to construct
and dealt very globally with general counseling behaviors. The
instrument probably measures a general ability to evaluate counseling
skills in a nOnspecific manner not highly related to the particular
skills of interest in this study. Also, the reliability coefficients

are probably inflated because of a response set, i.e., the tendency for

120

individuals to rate (in this particular case, assign ratings to a
counselor) in a consistent pattern of high, low, or somewhere in
between (Mehrens 8 Lehman, 1973).

The Response Exercise and Free Response Exercise were more
difficult to construct since the items were aimed at assessing the
specific abilities to identify and produce an appropriate response.
Although some items on the instruments performed this function well,
others did not. Examination of the item analyses for these scales
sheds light on the question of which items did not discriminate
between treatment groups and, therefore, lowered the reliability of
the instruments.

Most of the nondiscriminating items were counseling situations
illustrating the problem identification stage of the counseling process.
It appears that either these items were too easy and/or most subjects,
regardless of treatment group, possessed the knowledge to identify and
produce an appropriate response when dealing with problEm identification.
Since identifying a model of the client's concern had been stressed in
the counseling process course in which these counselor trainees were
enrolled, this second alternative seems highly probable. In addition,
questioning was considered to be an appropriate response type during
problem identification. Since questioning is the most common response
type used by beginning counselor trainees, it is logical that most
subjects would answer items correctly for which questioning was an

appropriate response type.

121

Validity Data for the Dependent Measures

 

Although reliability coefficients were calculated for the
dependent measures, the lack of evidence regarding the validity of
the instrumentation is a serious limitation Of this study. The
instruments were reviewed by experienced coUnselors and judged to
have content validity. The counseling situations portrayed in the
instruments and the responses which counselor trainees were required
to make appeared to measure the skills that trainees were expected to
learn in the treatment program. However, when the purpose of training
is to produce skills which will transfer to the actual counseling
situation, it is a serious drawback to lack data indicating that such
skills are positively correlated with the ability to produce positive
client change in an actual counseling situation. This lack of criterion-

related validity is a major weakness of the study.

Use of Raters

 

The use of human raters in an experimental study has inherent
weaknesses. Human raters are subject to a number of errors which have
been extensively documented in the literature (Guilford, 1954). Although
rating errors can never be fully eliminated in a research study, they
can be controlled to a great extent through the careful selection and
training of raters.

Raters were employed in this study to categorize counselor
trainee responses on the Free Response Exercise. An attempt was made
to eliminate as much rater bias as possible by choosing experienced
counselors as raters and by providing training fer the raters and

specific guidelines for categorization of response types.

122

In addition, the rating task in this study was simpler than
the rating task in many studies since it involved placing a counselor
response into a discrete response category rather than the more typical
task of rating along some qualitative dimension. Because placing a
response into a discrete category is a more definitive type of task
involving less subjective judgment on the part of the raters, it can
be argued that the raters were prone to less error in placing responses
into categories than they would have been if the task had been to rate

along a qualitative continuum.

Inter-Trainer Reliability

 

As reported in chapter III, a reliability coefficient was computed
to assess the consistency with which the group of trainers categorized
counselor responses into the ten response type categories. The overall
reliability estimate across the ten response categories was.69 which
indicates that the trainers were having difficulty in agreeing On
response categorization.

From discussion during the training sessions and from the
reliability coefficients for the individual response types reported in
Table 17 in chapter 111, it appears that the low overall reliability is
indicative of problems in categorizing only certain types of responses.
For example, trainers often had difficulty in deciding whether a response
was a clarification by the counselor or whether the counselor had moved
a step further into interpretation. Trainers also had difficulty in
deciding whether a counselor response contained enough affective content
to be classified as reflection or whether it remained a restatement of

cognitive content.

123

The nature of these errors seems to indicate that the overall
effect of this difference in categorization by the trainers was not as
negative as the low reliabilities would suggest. The basic import Of
the treatment was that counselor trainees should focus on making more
"passive-responsive" statements (Carkhuff, 1969b) during the relation-
ship building and problem identification stages of the counseling process
and more "action-oriented" statements during the problem-solving stage
of the counseling process. When viewed along this dimension of passive-
responsive vs. action-oriented statements, the trainers were much more
likely to agree among themselves. Disagreement, as explained above,
was more likely to occur between two passive-responsive or two action-
oriented response types than between a passive-responsive vs. an action-
oriented response type.

Additional and stronger evidence that the trainer disagreement
can be minimized is the fact that treatment differences did occur.
Counselor trainees in the treatment group were able to diStinguish
between response types well enough to categorize them and then use them
accurately on the dependent measures. Since the design specified that
trainers be completely crossed with treatment groups, a concentration
of trainers with high agreement in the treatment group cannot be
advanced as a possible explanation for the treatment difference. In
summary, it appears that even though trainers did not attain a high level
of reliability in their categorization of response types on the trainer

test, the low reliability did not have a negative impact on treatment.

124

Discussion and Implications

 

The discussion and implications for counselor training derived
from this investigation must be interpreted with due consideration to
the limitations and weaknesses delineated above. In addition, the
degree to which generalizations are made to other pOpulations, settings,
procedures, and instrumentation is defined by the description of
population, setting, procedures, and instrumentation described in this

research study.

Subject Variable

 

Subjects were chosen for inclusion in the study on the basis
of availability. They were master's students in counseling currently
enrolled in a counseling process course through which the training
program was offered. Because participation in the training program
was a course requirement, subjects were not volunteers. The sample
involved the entire range of students enrolled in the course which
included both male and female, and black and white counselor trainees
enrolled in programs in school counseling, rehabilitation counseling,
and urban counseling at Michigan State University. Subjective impressions
of the investigator and. pretest scores indicate that the subjects
were a diverse group who differed widely in level of entry counseling
skills into the training program. Random assignment to treatment groups
should have distributed these differences equally across the treatment
groups.

In fUture investigations, subjects could be placed into groups

based upon the pretest assessment of skill level in order to determine

125

whether different lengths of training and/or different emphasis on
cognitive content and training format are more appropriate for trainees
with different pre-training skill levels. Other factors such as past
counseling experience or past coursework in counseling might also be
investigated. It seems probable that these variables have an influence
on how much time is needed for training and what types of learning
experiences are effective in increasing skill level. For example,
beginning-level students may benefit more from videotape presentations
of cognitive content and simple modeling of responses than advanced-
level students who have basic knowledge but need roleplay practice of
appropriate responses.

Demographic variables such as sex of counselor trainee, race
of counselor trainee, and type of counseling program in which the
trainee is enrolled do not appear to be variables which have a signifi-
cant influence on success in the training program,althOugh these

questions could be investigated.

Dependent Measures

 

As explained previously, the dependent measures assessed the
degree to which counselor trainees were able to identify the most
appropriate counselor response on a multiple-choice instrument, produce
an apprOpriate response to an audiotaped client, and evaluate the
performance of a counselor in a simulated audiotaped interview.
Although these instruments measure the trainees' ability to perform
these three skills, it is not known whether the ability to perform on
these simulation tasks will transfer in a meaningful way to the actual

counseling situation.

126

Performance level on the three skills was assessed based on
the assumption that each measure contributed relevant information about
the ability to respond appropriately to a client in an actual counseling
interview. The predictive validity of these three instruments, however,
has not been demonstrated Since level of performance on the dependent
measures has not been linked to actual counseling performance. Future
research, therefore, might focus on the development of an instrument
which would assess trainees' level of effectiveness in an actual
counseling situation, thereby providing evidence of the predictive
validity of the instrumentation used in this study.

Another issue related to the dependent measures in this study
is their degree of interrelatedness. Intercorrelations between the
Response Exercise, Free Response Exercise, and Positive and Negative
Deviation Scales of the Rating Exercise indicate that nonecf the
measures is highly related to any of the others. Since the Response
Exercise and Free Response Exercise are the two instruments which
differentiated consistently between the treatment and control groups,
their moderate degree of intercorrelation is of primary interest.

The correlations of .31 between the posttest Response Exercise
and Free Response Exercise for all subjects and of .11 between the
followup Response Exercise and Free Response Exercise for subjects who
participated in the followup indicate that there is very little common
variance between the two instruments, and, therefore, very little
redundancy or overlap in what they measure.

It appears, therefore, that these two instruments are assessing

two essentially different skills which contribute to the trainees'

127

overall ability to produce appropriate responses. The Response Exercise
is a recognition-type task in which the subject is required to identify
an appropriate counselor reSponse from among four possible choices.

The Free Response Exercise, on the other hand, is an open-ended task

in which the subject is required to produce an appropriate response.

It appears, therefore, that the Free Response Exercise measures a
higher-level skill than the Response Exercise.

As mentioned previously, the Rating Exercise did not contribute
significantly to the difference found between the treatment and control
conditions. Logically, the skill involved in accurately evaluating a
counseling interview should be related to the skills involved in
assessing appropriate counselor responses. This, however, was not
demonstrated in the investigation. A plausible explanation advanced
earlier was that the items on the Rating Exercise were too general to
assess the specific skill of evaluating appropriate response types.

If the Rating Scale is used as a dependent measure in future investiga-
tions, the items should be revised to specifically reflect evaluation
of the counselor's use of different response types at different phases
of the counseling process.

The counseling situations presented in the Response Exercise
and Free Response Exercise dealt with a single client-counselor inter-
action. Although each situation presented background information on
the state of the counseling relationship so that the sitUations did not
appear to be isolated and unmeaningful interactions, it might be userl
in fUture investigations to deal with entire sections of counseling

interviews. In this way, a counselor response could be viewed in

128

relation to other responses in the interview in order to assess how

particular re5ponses or groups of responses influence the flow of the
interview. Dealing with an entire section of an interview would also
provide a more realistic simulation Of the counseling process than a

single client statement-counselor response.

Treatment Effects

 

The results from the primary question of interest in this study
indicated that master's level counselor trainees enrolled in the
counseling process course at Michigan State University can be trained,
through a program emphasizing the use of particular counselor response
types at different stages of the counseling process, to both identify
and produce appropriate counselor responses in a low-level simulation
of the counseling situatiOn. Effective training was instituted through
a combination of videotape presentations, written exercises, roleplay
situations, and programmed-instruction review.

Although this treatment package was shown to be effective both
immediately and six weeks following training, it is not known whether
certain components or combination of components of the treatment
package were more instrumental than others in producing the treatment
effect. The components will have to be assessed singly and in different
combinations to determine the most effective and economical way in
which to present the training program. Alternative media modes of
presenting the components might also be explored. For example, it might
be found that inexpensive printed materials or audiotapes can be as

effective as videotape presentations in presenting cognitive material.

129

Immediate and followup results also indicated that there was
no difference in level of performance between the two control groups.
As explained in chapter 11, the division of the control subjects into
two groups was done to accommodate another research study being run
simultaneously (Taylor, 1978) and had no practical consideration for
this investigation. Therefore, replication of the study need only
include one control group.

Systematic differences between the treatment and control groups
at both the post- and followup testing occurred on both the Response
Exercise and Free Response Exercise, the two measures which related
most directly to the material presented in the treatment program.
Examining responses to the items on these exercises gives a clearer
idea of why differences between the treatment and control groups were
found. Because no statistically significant differences in perfOrmance
were fOund between the two control groups, they will be combined fer

purposes of simplicity when looking at the individual test items.

Response Exercise. For the Response Exercise, subjects chose

 

the multiple-choice counselor response they judged as most appropriate
in a particular counseling situation. Tables 19 and 20 give the
frequency and percent each response type was chosen summed across post-
test and followup test items for both the treatment and combined
control groups.

On the posttest, subjects in the treatment group chose fewer
evaluative statements, reflections, and clarifications and more

questions and interpretations than subjects in the control groups. On

130

the followup test, subjects in the treatment group chose fewer
reflections and clarifications and more questions, confrontations,

and interpretations. Generally, it appears that the treatment affected
the degree to which counselor trainees were likely to choose action-
oriented over passive-responsive counselor Statements.

A cross-tabulation of types of responses chosen by treatment
group for each item on the post- and followup Response Exercises
indicated that the treatment and control groups were most likely to
differ in choice of responses on items involving the strategy implementa-
tion substage of the counseling process. For these items, subjects in
the treatment group chose more confrontive and interpretive responses
than subjects in the control groups,who chose more reflections and
clarifications. This difference in response choice is consistent with
material presented in the treatment package. Subjects in the treatment
group were encouraged to use confrontations and interpretations during
the problem-solving stage of the counseling process.

There were also differences in how the treatment and control
groups responded to items dealing with the problem identification stage
of the counseling process. For these items, subjects in the treatment
group chose more questioning responses than subjects in the control groups
whose choices were split between questions and clarifications. Subjects
in the treatment group had learned that questioning was a particularly
useful response during problem identification so the more frequent
choice of a questioning response was consistent with what they had

learned during training.

131

 

 

 

 

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132

 

 

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133

Free Response Exercise. Since subjects formulated their own

 

counselor responses to the items on the Free Response Exercise, it is
interesting to look at how the treatment and control groups compared
on both the types of responses produced and the extent to which each
response type was utilized. Tables 21 and 22 give the frequency and
percent of utilization of each response type summed across posttest
and fOllowup test items for the treatment and combined control groups.

On the posttest, subjects in the treatment group used fewer
informative and evaluative statements and more confrontations and
interpretations than subjects in the control groups. On the followup
test, subjects in the treatment group used fewer questions and
evaluative statements and more confrontations, clarifications, and
interpretations. Generally, it appears that the treatment decreased
the extent to which counselor trainees were apt to question the client
and to express their own personal opinions and values in their
counSeling interviews and increased the extent to which trainees were
apt to use action-oriented statements aimed at encouraging the client
to actively work on problem solving.

A cross—tabulation of types of responses produced by treatment
group for each item on the post- and followup Free Response Exercise
indicated that the treatment and control groups were more likely to
differ in their responses on items involving the strategy implementation
stage of the counseling process. Subjects in the treatment group had
learned that action-oriented problem-solving response types such as
confrontation and interpretation are appropriate response types to

use during this stage of the counseling process. The cross-tabulation

134

 

 

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136

shows that subjects in the treatment group were more likely to try out
confrontive and interpretive responses in a systematic manner than
subjects in the control groups who showed no consistent type of response
pattern in the strategy-implementation situations.

Treatment‘and control group responses were similar on items
related to other stages of the counseling process. It appears,_there-
fore, that what subjects in the treatment group learned was a more
systematic and effective manner of using difficult counselor response
types which are typically not dealt with as extensively in counselor
training programs as the more basic response types such as restatement

and reflection.

Measures Effect

 

The second general question of interest in this investigation
related to the maintenance of treatment effects over time. The hypo-
thesis was not significant at the .05 leveL indicating that treatment
effects had not decreased over time. The specific probability level
of the test, however, was .0790,indicating that the hypothesis bordered
on significance and that the measures effect should be examined.
.Inspection of both the univariate F_statistics reported in Table 14
and Figures 4 and 5 in Chapter III illustrating the change in group
means on the Response Exercise and Free Response Exercise over time
indicates that there was a general decrease in level of performance for
the treatment group on both measures. Since it is logical that subjects
would perfOrm best immediately following treatment, this decrease in

general level of performance at the time of the followup testing was

137

expected. Although performance level on the two instruments decreased,
it remained higher than the performance level of the two control groups.

Figure 5 also indicates a decrease in level of performance for
control group II on the Free Response Exercise while the performance
level of control group I remained approXimately the same. It is unclear
what factor or factors caused this differential decrease in level of
performance over time. Control group level of performance would be
expected to remain about the same unless the control group subjects
were exposed to the treatment material sometime following the administra-
tion of the posttest measures but prior to the administration of the
followup measures. In that case, control group means would be expected
to increase. This did not occur.

Examination of posttest and followup test scores for the six

subjects in control group 11 indicated that two subjects showed a
decrease of l8amd.23 points on the Free Response Exercise. Because of
the small number of subjects in the group, the decrease in level of
performance for these two subjects deflated the group mean. It is not
known why the performance of these subjects changed so drastically.
One of the two also decreased in level of performance on the Response
Exercise- However, the other subject's level of performance increased.
Therefore, the low scores do not seem to reflect a deliberate attempt
to perfOrm poorly, but rather the effect of some unknown variable or

variables unrelated to treatment.

138

Implications for Counselor Training_

 

The basic purpose of the treatment was to encourage counselor
trainees to integrate knowledge and use of counselor response types
with knowledge and use of the counseling process. It was believed
that such an integration would enable trainees to deal more effectively
with clients at all stages of the counseling process. The treatment
program had implications for counselor training with reference to both
the cognitive material presented and the instructional modes used for
training.

The study indicated that counselor trainees can be taught to
use a wider repertoire of counselor response types and to do so in a
systematic fashion. Since such counseling behavior has been identified
as characteristic of more highly trained counselors (Campbell, 1962;
Gormally, 1975; Ornston, Cicchetti, Levine 8 Fierman, 1968; Roark, 1969),
it appears that the training program served to raise the respOnse-skill
level of the subjects above that of the typical counselor trainee about
to enter practicum. Such being the case, counselor training programs
can focus on providing more systematic training in both response types
and counseling process to beginning trainees in order to better prepare
them for actual practicum experience.

The training appeared to have greatest impact during later
stages of counseling when the focus is on problem solving. Trainees
showed a tendency to try out more complex response types such as
confrontation and interpretation and to use them more frequently. This
finding indicates that perhaps counseling programs need to focus more

directly on developing counselor skills relevant to later stages of

139

the counseling process. Training programs and research in counselor
training seem to deal predominantly with relationship-building Skills
and learning responses compatible with relationship building. Although
these are important skills whose value should not be minimized, skills
related to problem solving, particularly verbal techniques which aid

in problem solving, should receive more emphasis.

Response identification and discrimination were learned in the
study through the implementation of a systematic well-delineated training
program. Cognitive material related to counselor response types and
counseling process was defined and presented through both audio-visual
and written modes. Training experiences were graduated to advance
systematically from simple written exercises to more difficult roleplay
situations. The presentation of training experiences in a clear,
concise fashion enabled trainees to identify the behaviors they were
.required to learn and then produce those behaviors.

Unfortunately, counselor training programs do not always offer
such clearcut training experiences. Palisi and Ruzicka (1976) state,

" . . . the trainee is (often) confronted by a boggling array of stimuli
with little or no time to consider a rationale for how to respond. One
implication is that occasionally trainees might benefit from situations
in which interview dynamics are more controlled. Trainees then would
be afforded time to make considered judgments about what to say and
why" (pp. 50-51).

(The training program in this study offered such a learning
experience. Single client-counselor interactions were examined and

roleplayed so that counselor trainees could analyze their responses and

140

consider the reasons for responding as they did. Counselor training
programs need to concentrate on developing such systematic training
experiences which offer trainees an opportunity to examine, evaluate,
and improve their counseling skills.

With greater numbers of counselors being trained at both the
master's and undergraduate levels, learning experiences need to be
developed which will provide valuable training experiences economically
in terms of manpower, time, and financial considerations. This study
illustrated that such experiences are feasible. Although the develOpment
of instructional materials required a large initial investment in terms
of instructor time, the treatment package offered a means of training
a large number of counselor trainees efficiently and effectively.
Without the limitations placed upon the training program to produce a
statistically sound research design, trainees themselves can function
as roleplayers and provide feedback to their peers,thereby minimizing
the role of lab instructors. The use of videotape presentations,
written and performance exercises, and roleplay offers a myriad of
opportunities to develop effective and stimulating training programs

for would-be counselors.

Conclusion

 

Results from examination of the questions‘pf interest in this
investigation and implications from those results with regard to
research and counselor training were discussed. The value of systematic
learning experiences for counselor trainees was emphasized.

Although literature in the counseling field has focused on

141

both counseling process and counselor response types, practical
research integrating these two basic counseling functions for use in
counselor training programs is almost nonexistent. This investigation
attempted to help fill this void. Counselor trainees at Michigan State
University participated in a training experience designed to increase
effectiveness in using counselor response types by emphasizing the use
of these response types in terms of stages of the counseling process.
Results suggest that the training program was effective in achieving
this objective. Future research would be aimed at increasing the
potency of the training program and assessing the validity of the
criterion instruments in predicting counseling effectiveness.

This research study has attempted to demonstrate that a
systematic counselor training program can be developed and implemented
which will provide counselor trainees with an effective and valuable
learning experience. Further, the study sought to demonstrate that
such a program could be offered within the context of a sound research
design. Only by designing systematic training experiences and by
assessing the effectiveness of such experiences through valid criterion
measures can counselor training programs produce counselors who are

capable of helping the clients they are trained to serve.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

DEFINITIONS OF RESPONSE TYPES

APPENDIX A
DEFINITIONS OF RESPONSE TYPES

l. RESTATEMENT: A statement which repeats or restates all or selected
portions of the cognitive content of the client's previous communication.
There is no attempt to reflect feelings, to clarify, or interpret.

 

2. QUESTIONING: A statement in the form of a question which serves two
general purposes: (1) to get the client talking, and (2) to elicit
general information about feelings and content.

 

3. INFORMATIVE: A statement which introduces information useful or
necessary to counseling (e.g., counseling procedural matters, educational-
occupational information, testing information). It may be used when
responding to client questioning by explaining or stating different
courses of action. It is descriptive in character and neutral in tone.

 

4. SUGGESTION: A statement designed to give the client alternative
courses of action and to give the client help in making a choice. They
are the counselor's considered opinions and give the client leeway to
accept, refuse, or propose new ideas. They are open rather than closed,
and provisional rather than final.

 

5. REINFORCEMENT: A statement which praises or encourages the client's
verbalizations or actions.

 

6. EVALUATIVE: A statement which expresses the counselor's own morals,
values, or standards.

 

7. CONFRONTATION: A statement which emphasizes a discrepancy in the
client's communication and/or behavior. There are three types of
discrepancy: Between (1) what client says at one time and another, (2)
what client says and what others say, and (3) what the client says and
what the client does. The purpose is to help the client face the
reality of a situation.

 

8. REFLECTION: A statement which expresses a feeling or emotion present
in the client's previous communication. This can be a reflection of
overtly or covertly expressed feelings. The purpose is to communicate
understanding of the client's feelings. Reflection primarily addresses
the affective content of the client's communication.

 

9. CLARIFICATION: A statement which is used to clarify what the client
has said. It can be used for two purposes: (1) to clarify for the client

 

142

143

that which he has had difficulty expressing clearly, and (2) to clarify
for the counselor so that he has an accurate understanding of what the
client means.

10. INTERPRETATION: A statement in which the counselor states something
which can be inferred from what the client has said or done, but which
the client has not specifically discussed. The purpose is to provide

the client with a new frame of reference from which to view his problem.

 

APPENDIX B

VIDEOTAPE RESPONSE EXERCISES: RESPONSE TRAINING

APPENDIX B

VIDEOTAPE RESPONSE EXERCISES: RESPONSE TRAINING

1. RESTATEMENT

 

Client: People can say whatever they want, but as far as I'm concerned,
my wife's place as a woman is in the home and my attitude on
that is never going to change.

Your response:

 

 

2. QUESTIONINC

 

Client: I really don't know how to tell my roommate about the things
he does that annoy me.

Your response:

 

 

3. INFORMATIVE

 

Client: It doesn't seem fair to lay me off after all these years working
with this company. Seems like I should be entitled to some
sort of compensation.

Your response:

 

 

4. SUGGESTION

 

Client: I know I should give up smoking. 1 have chronic bronchitis .
but every time I've tried to stop it just doesn't work. I
heard that you had some good suggestions that might help me out
with this. Can you give me some ideas.

Your response:

 

 

144

145

5. REINFORCEMENT

 

Client: After all that work I got my test back—-and there it was—-an A!

Your response:

 

 

6. EVALUATION

 

Client: My father just gets really angry when I don't do well in school.
I don't know . . . he's just so set on me going to college.

Your response:

 

 

7. CONFRONTATION

 

Client: I guess I just didn't have time to go to check on these job
possibilities we talked about last week.

Your response:

 

 

8. REFLECTION

 

Client: My husband goes off in the morning without saying good-bye .
it really makes me mad. I get up every morning, I make his
breakfast. I pack his lunch for him. I do these things every
day and he leaves and it seems that he doesn't notice me any
more than the furniture.

Your response:

 

 

9. CLARIFICATION

 

Client: They've just moved me to another department and I can't figure
out whether it's because I wasn't working well, or whether they
thought I'd do better in the new place, or whether I wasn't
getting along with my supervisor. I really don't know why they
created all this commotion.

Your response:

 

 

146

10. INTERPRETATION

 

Client: I'm sorry I was late again, but I was having lunch with an
old friend and we just got to talking and I just missed the
bus.

Your response:

 

 

APPENDIX C

RESPONSE TRAINING EXAMPLES FOR TRAINERS

APPENDIX C
RESPONSE TRAINING EXAMPLES FOR TRAINERS

RESTATEMENT

 

Client: I just don't know what to do. I try very hard in school,
but nothing seems to sink in.

Counselor: You work really hard in school, but you don't seem to
learn.

QUESTIONING

 

Client: My parents sent me to live with my relatives, they didn't
want me around.

Counselor: Why didn't they want you around?

INFORMATIVE

 

Client: I wanted to get into one of these assertiveness training
groups. Do you know where I can go?

Counselor: Yes - one of the counselors here at the center leads
those assertive training groups. You can check with
our secretary for the details.

SUGGESTION

Client: I'd really like to keep track of my smoking but I think
I would forget.

Counselor: One thing you could possibly try, is to keep a card

inside the cellophane on the cigarette pack, and each
time you took out a cigarette you would mark the card.

REINFORCEMENT

 

Client: I'm so excited - I got the part in the school play, just
like you thought I could.

Counselor: Great!

147

148

EVALUATIVE

 

Client: I skipped all my classes on Friday so I could go to
Detroit with some friends . . . I just hope my parents
don't find out.

Counselor: I think you should try to go to all your classes,
especially since you might be flunking some of them.

CONFRONTATION

 

Client: I know I was supposed to work on getting along with my
parents, but they told me I could not go out with Tom and
that so annoyed me that I just went anyway.

Counselor: You say you want to improve your relationship with your
parents, but you keep doing things that you know will
irritate them.

Client: I left my kids with my mother again last week so that I
could go out with some friends. It really was a relief
to get away from them for a couple of days.

Counselor: We've been discussing in here how you'd like to be a
better mother, but it's hard for you to do that if you
keep handing them over to your mother.

REFLECTION

 

Client: I'm really worried about my little sister . . . I think
she's been taking drugs . . . sometimes I think it's my
fault, my influence.

Counselor: You're feeling really upset about the idea you're sister
may be on drugs . . . and worried that it's your fault.

Client: Ron asked me to marry him! I was so surpised! I don't
think I've ever been this happy before!

Counselor: You're really thrilled about Ron's proposal.

CLARIFICATION

 

Client: You know . . . I never seem to agree with the things you
say . . . Sometimes I think you're the crazy one that needs
help! Or else just plain stupid!

Counselor: I hadn't realized we were disagreeing on so many things.

Client: I tried the things we discussed last week to help me study.
But when I sit down to study, I can't get my mind off all

10.

149
the fighting and arguing my parents are doing. I'm afraid
they'll break up. '

Counselor: It sounds like you're really upset about your parents
and that it's what is effecting your studies.

INTERPRETATION

 

Client: Sure, I do need to stop drinking and I plan to. But I
think I'd make more progress with a different counselor.
I've been here to see you eight times, and drink as much
as ever.

Counselor: It seems like you're using me as a way out of dealing
with your alcohol problem.

Client: I'm just so scared that he'll leave me . . .(crying)
I'd be so lost.

Counselor: It sound as if you've been hurt before by somebody
leaving you.

APPENDIX D

EVALUATION FORM: FIRST WORKSHOP SESSION

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APPENDIX E

SUMMARY REVIEW OF DISCRIMINATION TRAINING

APPENDIX E

SUMMARY REVIEW OF DISCRIMINATION TRAINING

Following is a summary of what was covered on the Discrimination
Training videotape. Please read this short review and then begin
Exercise I (the yellow sheets included in your folder).

You may refer to the summary when you are working on the Exercise.

In the videotape we covered two basic concepts: (1) Counselor
Responses and (2) the Counseling Process, and looked at how the two can
be integrated together. We examined how the different types of responses
assume different degrees of importance at different points in the coun-
seling process and pointed out how certain types of responses could be
nonfacilitative or even harmel at certain points in the process.

The purpose of this training is to get you to look closely at
the types of responses you make when working with a client and decide
whether the way you are responding is helpful in reaching the goal of
that particular stage of the counseling process.

Counselor Responses

 

The ten types of counselor responses which we examined are:

l. Restatement 6. Evaluative
2. Questioning 7. Confrontation
3. Informative 8. Reflection
4. Suggestion 9. Clarification
5. Reinforcement 10. Interpretation

The responses were covered at length in the first training
session. A list of definitions has been included in your folder fer
use when you are working on the exercises.

CounselingfiProcess

 

The three stages of the counseling process and the goals to be'
accomplished at each stage were identified as:

I. Establishment of the Counseling Relationshipg-to build a
solid trusting relationship with the client.

 

151

II.

III.

152

Problem Identification—-identifying the client's concern

 

and gaining a full understanding of that concern.

Problem Solving:-

 

A. Strategy Identification--identifying and planning
courses of action aimed at resolving the client's
problem.

B. Strategy Implementation--trying out courses of action
aimed at resolving the client's problem.

 

 

Stege I--Establishment of the Counseling Relationship

For

this stage, we identified four types of responses which are

especially helpful to the counselor in building a trusting relationship
with the client. They are:

1.

The
about using

1.

ReStatement-—which lets the client know that the counselor
is really listening to what he/She is saying.

 

Reflection--which lets the client know that the counselor

 

is not only listening, but can understand and empathize
with what he/she is feeling.

ReinfOrcement--of the client's words indicates that the
counselor is listening attentively and wants the client to
continue with what he/she is saying.

 

Clarification--by the counselor regarding something he/she

 

is not clear about indicates to the client that the counselor
wants to accurately understand what the client is saying.

three types of responses that the counselor must be careful
during relationship building are:

Confrontation--of the client on discrepancies in his/her
communications at the beginning of a relationship can be
inaccurate and/or threatening to the client and may cause
premature termination of the counseling relationship.

 

Interpretation--can have the same effect as confrontation.
At the beginning of the counseling relationship, the coun-
selor does not have enough information to formulate inter-
pretations.

 

Evaluative Statements-—are rarely appropriate in counseling.
They are counselor-centered and put forth the counselor's
beliefs, values, and opinions. Attention in counseling
should be focused on what the client thinks and believes--
not the counselor.

 

153

Stage Il—-Problem Identification

 

For this second stage, we identified fOur types of responses
which are especially helprl to the counselor in identifying and
exploring the client's concern. They are:

l. Clarification--by the counselor allows the counselor to
' accurately understand the client's problem and to make
clear that which is causing the client's concern.

 

2. Questioningf-allows the counselor to more fully understand
the concrete aspects of the problem. Questions elicit
information which the counselor needs in order to understand
the client's problem.

 

3. Restatement-of information accurately enables the counselor
to help the client focus on that which is causing the concern.

 

4. Reflection--of feeling accurately enables the counselor to
help the client focus in on that which is causing the concern.

 

The four types of responses that the counselor should be wary of
using during the second stage, Problem Identification, are:

l. Confrontation--based on incomplete information and without
a full understanding of the problem can be inaccurate and
threatening to the client.

 

2. Interpretation-~same as Confrontation.

 

3. Suggestion-—is premature at the Problem Identification stage.
In suggesting a course of action to a client in dealing with
a problem, the counselor must have established a good relation-
ship with the client and obtained an adequate understanding
of the problem so that he knows whether the client has tried
what is being suggested before and/or whether the suggestion
is appropriate fer this particular client.

4. Evalpative Statements--same as under Establishment of the
CounselingfiRelationship.

 

 

Stege III--Problem Solving_

 

For this third and last stage, we identified six types of responses
which are expecially helprl to the counselor in helping the client
resolve his or her concern. They are:

During Strategy Development:

 

l. Clarification-~used by the counselor to clarify points to
the client, can clear up the client's thinking on issues
related to the client's problem.

 

154

Informative Statements-~can be useful at this stage when
the client requests or needs concrete information which the
counselor has available (e.g., vocational—occupational
information, referral services, etc.). It is usefu1 at
early stages of strategy development where the client may
need information.

 

Suggestion--in a mild form at this stage may be helprl to
the client in working toward resolution of the problem,
although the counselor must be wary of using this type of
response which is counselor-centered rather than client-
centered. At this point, the counselor is aware of all
aspects of the client's concern and, therfore, can make

some valid and helpful suggestions without being overbearing.

 

During Strategy Implementation:

 

4.

Confrontation--points out discrepancies between what the
client says and does. At this point in the counseling
process, when the client is ready for forward growth, con-
frontation serves more as an impetus to the client to
examine his or her behavior and change, rather than as a
threat. Confrontation can serve to stimulate or jolt the
client into action when the counselor perceives that
progress toward resolving the concern has come to a halt.

 

Interpretatio --at this stage of counseling where the client

 

is willing to work on his or her problems, can serve to give
the client new insights into his or her problem and perhaps
a new frame of reference from which to view his or her
problem. This insight may stimulate client change. '

Reinforcement--from the counselor in the form of encourage-

 

ment and praise can reinfOrce client growth and encourage
behaviors which contribute toward resolution of the client's
concern.

The three types of responses that the counselor should be care-
ful using during the third stage, Problem Solving, are:

1.

 

Reflection-—although generally an effective type of response,

 

can impede client growth if relied upon too heavily. To
keep reflecting the same feelings over and over reinforces
those feelings and gets in the way of moving forward and
doing something about those feelings. In this phase of the
counseling process, reflection should be interspersed with
more active-oriented responses which encourage the client

to examine the feelings. General reflection of all feelings
tends to open new issues rather than continuing the fecus

on existing ones.

155

2. Restatement--same as Reflection above. Repetition of the
same content does not facilitate problem-solving.

 

3. Evaluative Statements--same as under Establishment of the
CounselingRelationship.

 

 

Summarized, then, the facilitative and nonfacilitative types of
counselor responses at each stage of the counseling process are:

Stage I--Establishment of the Counseling Relationship

 

 

Facilitative Nonfacilitative
1. Restatement 1. Confrontation
2. Reflection 2. Interpretation
3. Reinforcement 3. Evaluative Statements
4. Clarification

Stege II--Problem Identification

 

 

 

Facilitative Nonfacilitative
l. Clarification l. Confrontation
2. Questioning 2. Interpretation
3. Restatement 3. Suggestion
4. Reflection 4. Evaluative Statements

Stage III--Problem Solving

 

 

 

Facilitative Nonfacilitative
l. Clarification l. Restatement
2. Informative Statements 2. Reflection
3. Suggestion 3. Evaluative Statements
4. Confrontation
5. Interpretation
6. Reinforcement

APPENDIX F

VIDEOTAPE RESPONSE EXERCISES: DISCRIMINATION TRAINING

APPENDIX F
VIDEOTAPE RESPONSE EXERCISES: DISCRIMINATION TRAINING

Stege I--Establishment of the Counseling Relationship

Client: Look, Mrs. Jenkins sent me down here to see you. I really
don't understand what I did that was so wrong.

Appropriate response:

 

 

Inappropriate response:

 

 

Stage II--Problem Identification

Client: My parents are just really driving me crazy. I just moved out
to my own apartment. The first time out on my own and they're
just always checking on me.

Appropriate response:

 

 

Inappropriate response:

 

 

Stage III--Problem Solving

Client: Look, I . . . as you remember I . . . I was supposed to try
cutting down last week. But, uh, it was a pretty bad week.
Things went really badly at work and I thought maybe it'd be
a good idea to just set it aside for awhile . . . maybe a
couple of weeks.

Appropriate response:

 

 

Inappropriate response:

 

 

156

APPENDIX G'

EXERCISE I

APPENDIX G

EXERCISE I

Following are fifteen counseling situations which deal with
the three stages of the counseling process:

I.

II.

III.

For

H
0

$503

For

You
as you work.

Establishment of the Counseling Relationship-—5 Situations
Problem Identification--S Situations

Problem Solving——5 Situations

each Situation, the fOllowing infOrmation is provided:

Background infbrmation about the client.

A brief statement about the present status of the
counseling process.

A client statement.

Four possible counselor responses to the client's statement.

each client statement:

a) Label each of the four possible counselor statements
according to the ten types.

b) Circle the number of the response which you think is
most appropriate for that particular situation.

c) In the space provided after each of the four alternative
responses, write an explanation of why you chose/did not
choose that response.

will receive feedback on your answers from a lab instructor

157

158

Stage I--Establishment of the Counseling Relationship

Situation:

Client:

a)

b)

C)

d)

Situation:

Client:

The client is a 21 year-old female who has gone to the
college counseling center to talk to a counselor about
some things that are troubling her. It is the first
interview.

I guess I don't really feel safe . . . you know, comfortable
. talking to you about the things on my mind . . . what
do I know about you?

You're really feeling apprehensive about telling me .
a total stranger . . . about your problems.

Type of response:

 

Reason for choosing/not choosing:

 

 

I'm wondering if you've had trouble trusting people in the
past . . . so now you're wary of me.

Type of response:

 

Reason for choosing/not choosing:

 

 

You did come in here which means you'd like some help . . .
but now you're reluctant to tell me about your problem.

Type of re5ponse:

 

Reason for choosing/not choosing:

 

 

Why don't you tell me what you're so uncomfortable about .

Type of response:

 

Reason for choosing/not choosing:

 

 

The client is a 19 year-old college student who is having
some problems adjusting to a large university. It is the
first interview.

It's really a relief to come in here to talk about this .
to finally be able to just tell someone what's bothering
me . . . Should I just go ahead?

What has been bothering you?

Situation:
Client:

a)

'b)

C)

d)

Situation:
Client:

a)

, b)

C)

d)

Situation:

159

b) Mm-hm.
c) Why did you wait so long . . . before coming here?

d) I think it's good that you came in then . . . I hope
I can help you.

The client is a 15 year-old female high school student
talking to her school counselor. This is her second inter-
view and she seems very nervous and upset. At the first
interview she talked very little and only hinted at family
problems.

I've been thinking . . . maybe it's not such a great idea
that I come to see you. I really have a hard time talking
. . . saying how I feel . . . maybe I just don't have
anything to talk about . . . I think I should go back to
class.

Mm-hm.

Maybe it would help if we talked about some of the things
you brought up last week.

You're really having a hard time putting your thoughts and
feelings into words.

I'm wondering if you're afraid to talk to me because you're
upset about things being so bad at home.

The client is a 40 year-old female who has gone to a private
clinic to talk to a counselor about some things that have
been upsetting her. It is the first interview.

It seem like all of a sudden I'm just totally miserable .

so a friend suggested I try coming in here. She was worried
about me being depressed all the time . . . I think she

was afraid I'd kill myself.

Had your friend come in her herself?

Maybe just talking about it in here will help you .

You've been feeling really upset and depressed . . . so much
so that your friend was worried about you.

Your friend was really feeling worried about you.

A client has come into a mental health agency for the first
time. He appears nervous and starts talking immediately.

Client:.
a)
b)
C)
d)
Situation:
Client:
a)
b)
C)
d)
Situation:
Client:
a)

160

I don't know about coming in here. I saw a counselor once
before for a couple months. It didn't help . . . sometimes
I think it made things worse . . . It might be worth a try.

You say the last time you saw a counselor it was pretty
much of a failure . . . yet you've come in to talk to me.
That seems inconsistent.

Why don't I tell you something about counseling here and
then you can decide whether you want to continue.

Your last counseling experience left you more consted than
when you started . . . so you're wondering whether the same
thing will happen here?

Why did you see a counselor before?

Stage II--Problem Identification

A 17 year-old high school senior is talking to her school
counselor about family problems. It is the second inter-
view and the client appears anxious and upset.

My parents are splitting up . . . or at least that's what
they're saying for the hundredth time. They make me sick--
the way they're always fighting-~and they drag my sister
and me into it--I hate them!

You're really angry at your parents for putting you and
yourasister through this. '

I wonder if you're so intent on blaming your parents because
you're really afraid you and your sister might be the reason
for the split up .

You're parents probably don't mean to involve you in their
problems . . . They're having a hard time.

Do you have any idea why they're considering a divorce?

The client is a 32 year-old male who is talking to a
community agency counselor about his problem in getting
along with his job supervisor. This is the third interview.

Well, it's kind of hard to explain how I get into these
arguments with Mr. Davis unless you know a little about how
the office runs .

You don't think I'll be able to understand your problem
with Mr. Davis because I don't know how your office runs.

b)

d)

Situation:

Client:

a)

b)

d).

Situation:

Client:

161

Can you explain a little, then, about how the office operates?

Your're having a difficult time explaining just why you
argue with your supervisor because I don't know how your
office operates.

You say you want me to understand your problem with your
supervisor, but you don't give me enough infOrmation so
that I can.

The client is a 47 year-old male who is seeing a counselor
at a community mental health agency about an alcoholism
problem. This is the third interview.

I guess I'm not really clear about what you're asking about
why I drink .

Well, I was wondering if there was any particular way you
felt when you start drinking . . . you know, like being
upset about something or maybe depressed .

You don't really understand what I'm trying to get at .
about your drinking.

I wonder if the reason you don't understand the question is
that maybe you're scared about facing the reasons why you
drink.

What are the reasons that you drink?

The client is a 15 year-old high school sophomore who has
been seeing the school counselor about academic problems.
This is the third interview and he's brought in some charts
he has been keeping concerning his problem.

Here's those charts you asked me to keep . . . (looking at
charts) . . . See now . . . here's the class that's causing
all the trouble.

I thought it was probably ony'one class that was behind the
problem.

What class is that, Brian?

Sounds like you're blaming the class for the trouble instead
of how you're acting in there.

Charts like these are used fairly often in counseling to
find out things like you just feund out.

Situation:
Client:

a)

b)

C)

d)
Situation:
Client:

a)

b)

C)

d)
Situation:
Client:

a)

162

The client is a 37 year-old woman who is seeing a counselor
at a private clinic. It is the third interview and she is
talking about the hardships of being an unmarried middle-
aged woman.

It's really hard to be a 37 year-old single woman . . .
People act like you're really strange . . . Sometimes I
think I'd marry anyone just so people would leave me alone!!

It sounds like maybe you'd like to get married . . . and
feel like maybe you are strainge because you're not:

But I guess marriage isn't necessarily right fer everyone.

You're fed up with the way people treat you because you're
not married.

You're feeling really upset about not being married.

Stage III--Problem Solving

The client is a college freshman who is working with a
community college counselor on improving her study habits.
This is the fifth interview.

It seems.like a little thing ... . but I actually stuck to
that study schedule everyday but Wednesday . . . and I
finally went to an exam feeling like I knew what was going
on!!

What happened on Wednesday, Kathy?

Good work, Kathy!

You're feeling really good about getting your studying done.
That is a switch!

The client is an 18 year-old high school senior who is
talking to the school counselor about plans after graduation.
It is the sixth interview.

Remember . . . we talked last week about me writing to some
trade schools in this area for information . . . Well, I
came up with this list and wondered if you knew the contact
person at each place . . . so I could write . . . (shows
the list).

You want me to give you the names of the people you should
contact at the trade schools?

b)

d)

Situation:

Client:

a)
b)

C)

d)

Situation:

Client:

13)

163

You've come up with a list of trade schools and want me to
give you some contact names.

I think you should probably get the names yourself . . . you
know, if you're really interested.

Well . . . I only know this one . . . it's a Mr. Herb Brown
. but one of the counselors here, George Marsh, should
be able to give you the rest.
The client is a 45 year-old female who has been seeing a
counselor about plans for going back to work or school. At
the beginning of this session, the client informed the
counselor that she had not had time to go to several job
interviews that she had scheduled for that week. It is now
halfway through the interview.

You know, I told you how I once tried working before . .

while the kids were still in school . . . It was a total
disaster . . . I couldn't keep house and work too. Jack

tried to help but it was too much for me to handle.

Do you think that things have changed since then?

I wonder if that bad experience is kind of scaring you out
of really trying to find a job now.

You really feel disappointed about how your first job
experience turned out.

That doesn't mean that the same kind of thing is going to
happen again.

The client is a 23 year—old college student who has been
working with a counseling center counselor about career
plans. He has consistently avoided taking responsibility
for the problem. It is the sixth interview.

I think the world's really messed up . . . Everything's
always going wrong. . . People don't care about anyone but
themselves. . . I'm tired of it . . . tired of being a part
of it. What's the sense of me trying to work out my
problems when the rest of the world is crazy?

Things in general are getting you down so much that it seems
like a waste of energy to even try to work on your own
problems.

Jeff, you talk a lot about what other people are dOing
wrong . . . what they're responsible for . . . but you
avoid doing that for yourself . . . you know . . . taking
part of the blame and responsibility.

C)

d)

Situation:
Client:
a)
b)
C)
d)

164

I think . . . well, it's kind of the coward's way out to
blame other peOple for your problems so you don't have to
take responsibility for them yourself.

You're really upset about the world in general and it
doesn't seem worth it to try to solve your own problems.

The client is a 16 year-old female who is seeing a community
agency counselor about problems in getting along with her
mother. They have discussed several things that she could
do at home to try to improve the situation. This is the
seventh interview.

I was thinking about what we talked about last week . .
about how you said maybe I was trying to get back at my
mother for not wanting me when I was little. . . I know I
sort of agreed . . . but I decided that it was silly .

I love my mother.

I think you can love your mother and still want to hurt her.

You've decided we were on the wrong track last week--when
we were talking about your mom.

I'm wondering if admitting those things about your mom kind
of scared you so now you're back where it's safe . . . where
you don't have to think about those years when you were little.

What made youcmange your mind like that?

APPENDIX H

EXERCISE I: INSTRUCTIONS AND GUIDELINES FOR TRAINERS

APPENDIX H

DISCRIMINATION TRAINING

EXERCISE I
Instructions for Trainers

 

During this one hour you will be providing feedback pp_two trainers.

 

The trainers will have responses they made during the videotape
presentation and may want you to give them feedback on them. They will
have made one appropriate and one inappropriate counselor response fer
each of the three stages of the counseling process (6 in total). Use the
information in the Summary Review of Discrimination Training provided in
your folder (green sheets) for giving feedback.

Most of the hour they will be working on 15 written exercises
where they are required to:

STEP 1: Read a counseling situation and client statement.

STEP 2: Label each of the fOur possible counselor responses
to the ten types.

STEP 3: Choose the most appropriate of the four possible
counselor responses.

STEP 4: Give a written explanation of why they chose/did not
choose each response.

Your job will be to move back and forth between your two
trainees and give them feedback on how they are doing.

THIS INCLUDES HELPING THEM WITH STEPS 2, 3, AND 4 LISTED ABOVE.
In your folder you will find the following materials to help you.

1. Trainee Instructions for Exercise I (Yellow Sheet).

 

2. Copies of the 15 exercises (Yellow Sheets).

3. GUIDELINES FOR PROVIDING FEEDBACK ON EACH OF THE 15 EXERCISES (Blue
Sheets) INCLUDING:

a) Labeling of the fOur responses by types.

165

4.

5.

166

b) The appropriate response.
c) Reasons why each response is appropriate/not apprOpriate.

LOOK THESE OVER VERY CAREFULLY BEFORE YOU BEGIN.

 

A Summapnyeview of Discrimination Training_(Green Sheets) - the
trainees also have a copy of this and can use it when working on
the exercise. '

 

A list of definitions of the 10 response types (White Sheet).

REMEMBER: Your feedback should be consistent with the cognitive material

presented in the Summary Reyiew of Discrimination Training_
and in the Guidelines for Trainers.

 

EXERCISE I

GUIDELINES FOR TRAINERS
SITUATION 1
Reflection.

This is the appropriate response. The client is feeling very un-
comfortable about telling her problems to someone she doesn't know.
The counselor's reflective response indicates that he/she under-
stands that feeling.

Interpretation.

This is not appropriate since the counselor has just met the client
and has no background on which to base this interpretation. The
client statement in no way indicates that the client has problems
in general trusting people--but just that she is anxious about this
particular situation.

Confrontation.

This is not appropriate. It is harsh and detrimental in establishing
trust in the counseling relationship, and does not recognize the
client's feelings of uneasiness being in an unknown situation. It
does nothing to encourage the client to talk about her problem.

Suggestion.
Although this response is not as inappropriate as b and c, it does

nothing to indicate to the client that the counselor understands
her feelings other than by use of the word "uncomertable."

167

EXERCISE 1
GUIDELINES FOR TRAINERS
SITUATION 2
Question.

This response is inappropriate. The counselor is asking an unneces-
sary question since the client is quite ready to continue without

this great of a prompt by the counselor. Also, the counselor is not
responding to the client's inquiry as to whether he should continue.

Reinforcement of the client's verbalization.

This is the appropriate response. The client is talking freely and
willing to begin exploring his concern with the counselor if the
counselor gives the signal that that is appropriate. A simple
"Mm-hm" by the counselor is a sufficient signal and does not
interrupt the client's train of thought.

Question.

This response is inappropriate. It addresses an issue which is
irrelevant at this point and gets the client off the track of
explaining his concern to the counselor. It could also sound
confrontive and judgmental indicating that the client should have
come in sooner.

Evaluative.

This response is inappropriate. It expresses the counselor's
Opinion and focuses on the feelings of the counselor instead of the
client. It also interferes with the client's willingness to con-
tinue talking about what's bothering him.

SITUATION 3
Reinforcement.

This response is inappropriate. Reinforcement at this point with a
"Mm-hm" may indicate to the client that the counselor thinks that
she should return to her class. She is not at a point where this
simple reinfOrcement by the counselor will encourage her to continue
to talk.

Suggestion.
This response is inappropriate. Although this response may help

to get the client talking, it does nothing to convey that the
counselor recognizes the client's feelings of uneasiness at being

168

there. Starting off by jumping into the client's problem area,
something which she has been reluctant to discuss, might also
seem threatening to her.

Restatement.

This is the appropriate response. With this response, the counselor
conveys to the client that he/she understands what she is saying--
that she is having a difficult time knowing what to say. It leaves
it Open to the client to fUrther explore these feelings of uneasiness
or perhaps to start exploring the problem area.

Interpretation.

This response is inappropriate. The counselor is linking two
things together here in a cause and effect relationship without
evidence to make such a connection. The client's uneasiness may
simply be due to the newness of the counseling situation and
nothing to do with the situation at home. OR even if the inter-
pretation is correct, approaching the client's problem in such a
direct manner may be very frightening and threatening to this meek
client.

SITUATION 4
Question.

This response is inappropriate. This question is irrelevant at
this point and leads the client Off the track. It does nothing to
show the client that the counselor recognizes that she has a pro-
blem that she would like to talk about.

Evaluative.

This response is inappropriate. It expresses the counselor's
Opinion and does nothing to Show that the counselor understands what
the client is feeling--and strong feelings have been expressed here.

Reflection.

This response is appropriate. It reflects the feelings that the
client was expressing to the counselor-—which was the main message
that she was trying to put across--that she is so miserable that
her friends are worried about her.

Restatement.

This response is inappropriate. lAlthough restatement in general is
not an inapprOpriate response at this point, this one is. It is a
selective restatement, and the content that the counselor has chosen

169

to restate does not convey the main message that the client was
trying to put across-that she is miserable. This restatement
focuses on the client's friend rather than the client.

SITUATION 5
Confrontation.

This response is inappropriate. This confrontation can be
threatening to the client who is merely expressing some doubts and
confusions about whether counseling is able to help him since he

had a negative experience with counseling in the past. The counselor
does nothing to indicate to the client that he understands those
feelings.

Suggestion.

This response is inappropriate. Although this response is not a bad
one, it is not the best one. It does not indicate to the client that
the counselor understands the constion and reluctance he is feeling
because of the previous bad experience. It will, however, possibly
lead into giving the client some userl information about whether
counseling may be helpful to him.

Clarification.

This is the appropriate response. It ties together what the client
was saying and indicates that the counselor is attempting to under-
stand what the client is saying. By phrasing the clarification in
the form of a question, the counselor indicates to the client that
it is important fer the counselor to be sure he/she understands
what the client means.

Question.

This response is inappropriate. It is an irrelevant question at
this point because it does nothing to indicate that the counselor
is concerned with how the client is feeling and instead, focuses
on an issue which is not important at this point. It sidetracks
the exploration of the client's feelings about being in counseling
at this particular time.

SITUATION 6
Reflection.

This is the appropirate response. It reflects the main feelings
that the client is expressing toward her parents--anger.

170

Interpretation.

This response is inappropriate. The counselor has no background
information about the client to support this interpretation--therefore,
it may be incorrect. In addition, an interpretation like this at the
second interview can be very threatening to the client if the
counselor is hitting on something which she has a difficult time
dealing with.

Evaluative.

This response is inappropriate. This statement expresses the counselor's
opinion--one for which the counselor has no base. It also carries

the message that the client is wrong to be angry at her parents.

The client's feelings have been disregarded.

Question.
This response is inappropriate. It ignores the affective content of

the client's message and focuses attention on a point that is of
very little importance at this time.

SITUATION 7

Clarification.

This response is inappropriate. This statement need not be made
unless the counselor is confused about what the client said--and the
client's statement is so simple that such confusion would not take
place. It sounds rather stupid to the client for the counselor to
clarify such a simple point.

Question.

This response is appropriate. It gets right to the point-~if the
counselor is going to understand the client's problem with the boss
then he/she better find out how the office runs.

Restatement.

This response is inappropriate. The same explanation applies as
under Clarification above.

Confrontation.
This response is inappropriate. The client has not said that he

will not give the infOrmation to the counselor, but only that he
hasn't up to this point.

171

SITUATION 8
Clarification.

This is the appropriate response. The client has asked a question
about something the counselor had said to him--something he would
like the counselor to make clear. The counselor clarifies what had
previously been asked with this statement.

Restatement.

This response is inappropriate. It is clear from what the client
has said that he does not understand what the counselor wants. By
restating, the counselor has merely forced the client to ask again.

Interpretation.

This response is inappropriate. The counselor, at this stage, does
not have enough information to formulate such an interpretation.
This interpretation may also be threatening to the client since

it may be something that he is not yet ready to acknowledge.

Question.

This response is inappropriate. It is probably similar to the
question that the counselor asked previously which had caused the
client's confusion. By repeating the question, the counselor is
fOrcing the client to say again that he does not understand what
the counselor wants from him.

SITUATION 9
Evaluative.
This response is inappropriate. It expresses the Opinion of the

counselor and seems to be saying, "I knew I was right!" It does
nothing to continue the movement of the counseling interview.

Question.

This response is appropriate. It gets right to the point of examining
the information that the client has brought with him and focuses on
the problem class.

Interpretation.
This response is inappropriate. The counselor has seemingly misinter-

preted the client's words--he is not blaming the class, but merely
pointing out what his data collection had indicated to him.

172

Informative.

This response is inapprOpriate. The client is well aware of this
fact already since he has gone through the data collection procedure
and come up with some information that is usefu1 to him.

SITUATION 10
Interpretation.

This response is inappropriate. The counselor does not have enough
information to formulate this interpretation about the client and

the client's statement certainly does not indicate that the statement
is correct. An interpretation like this at this point would serve

to alienate the client, rather than lead to fUrther exploration of
the problem area.

Evaluative.

This response is inappropriate. It focuses on the counselor's
personal beliefs rather than on the beliefs and feelings of the
client.

Clarification.

This is the appropriate response. It summarizes succinctly what
the client has said and shows that the counselor is trying to
understand what the client is saying.

Reflection.

This response is inappropriate. Although reflection could be a good
type of response at this time, this one is not. It is inaccurate
since the client is not saying that she is upset about not being

married—~she is upset about how others treat her because she is not
married.

SITUATION 11

Question.

This response is inappropriate. It focuses on what the client did
not do rather than what she did do--which is a lot more significant
at this point.

Reinforcement.

This response is appropriate. The client followed the study schedule
almost 100% and deserves some reinfOrcement. ReinfOrcement from

173

the counselor can encourage her to keep on trying and perhaps even
improve.

Reflection.

This response is inappropriate. Although this is not a bad
response, it is perhaps a too obvious one. It is actually serving
the same purpose as a reinforcement since the feelings expressed
here by the client are not ones which need to be explored in
depth--which is one of the purposes of reflection.

Evaluative.

This response is inappropriate. It expresses the opinion of the
counselor--and not a very positive one, at that. It seems to imply
that the counselor didn't think that the client would actually be
able to carry through with the study schedule.

SITUATION 12
Clarification.

This response is inappropriate. It serves no useful function

unless the counselor was not listening--since the content of the
client's message is easy enough to understand. The response would
probably indicate to the client that the counselor was not listening
to what he was saying.

Restatement.

This response is inappropriate. It's effect would be the same as
the Clarification above.

Evaluative.

This response is inappropriate. It expresses the Opinion of the
counselor and conveys the message that the client has not been
showing sufficient interest in solving the problem, when actually
he has done quite a bit of work on his own and would now merely
like some simple assistance from the counselor.

Informative.

This response is appropriate. It gives the client exactly what he
wanted--the necessary information so he can take the next step
toward finding himself a trade school.

174

SITUATION 13

Question.

This response is inappropriate. The counselor should already have
this information about the client if they are into problem solving.
The counselor should be trying to get at why the client is not
going to the job interviews. '

Interpretation.

This response is apprOpriate. The counselor is tying in some
relevant information from the past and making a connection that will
hopefully help the client understand why she is having such a
difficult time getting herself out to the job interviews.

Clarification.

This response is inappropriate. Although the counselor is indeed
clarifying something that the client said, the clarification does
not make clear the main message of what the client is saying--that
maybe this is what's going to happen again . . . maybe she won't
be able to handle another job.

Evaluative.

This response is inappropriate. This expresses the opinion of the
counselor instead of focusing on whether the client thinks the same
thing is going to happen--what's important is what the client thinks!

SITUATION 14

Clarification.

This response is inappropriate. Although this is not a bad response,
it just repeats the message of what the client said rather than
address a main issue at this point--that the client has repeatedly
refused to take any responsibility for solving his own problems and
is inclined to blame others for what goes wrong.

Confrontation.

This response is appropriate. It addresses the main issue of what
has been going on in counseling for the last few sessions. The
counselor has perceived that the client is not making much progress
in dealing with his concern because of his tendency to blame and
put off responsibility on others--the purpose of the counselor's
confrontation is to get the client to take a look at that issue.

175

Evaluative.

This response is inappropriate. The counselor is expressing his own
opinion that the client is a coward-~this is bound to alienate the
client.

Reflection.

This response is inappropriate. The counselor.and client have been
through this before-~the counselor has undoubtedly reflected these

same feelings in the past. To do so again now will only perpetuate
the client's tendency to put responsibility Off on others and blame
others for his problems.

SITUATION 15
Evaluative.

This response is inappropriate. This statement expresses the value
judgment of the counselor and seems to indicate to the client that
this is what she too should feel.

Clarification.

This response is inappropriate. Although this is not a bad response,
it does not really address the main thrust of what the counselor
should be attempting to find out at this point--why the client changed
her mind. The client can give a "yes" response here and close the
Issue.

Interpretation.

This response is appropriate. The counselor has pulled together
pertinent background information about the client's problem, put it
together with the way the client has responded to the threatening
material they had covered the week before which the client is now
denying, and come up with a plausible explanation of why the client
is now changing her mind--the counselor has also phrased the inter-
pretation in a nonthreatening way so that the client is apt to
consider the interpretation rather than automatically reject it.

Question.

This response is inappropriate. It is phrased in a rather blunt
fashion and does not have enough content to stimulate the client

to really look at why she changed her mind--it's apt to elicit the
reasons the client had formulated in her mind during the week at
home rather than stimulate her to look at the reasons she is denying
the conclusion about her mother.

APPENDIX I

EXERCISE II

APPENDIX I

EXERCISE 11

During this exercise, you will be roleplaying several single-
response counseling situations with a lab instructor.

For each counseling situation, the lab instructor will give
you information about the status of the counseling relationship and
then roleplay a client statement.

You will respond as you would in a real counseling situation.
The lab instructor will write down your response.

After each counseling situation, you and the lab instructor
will analyze your response to determine how appropriate it was for
that particular counseling situation.

Feedback forms for this analysis will be provided by the lab

instructor.

176

Situation:

Client:

177

APPENDIX I

EXERCISE II

Counseling_Situation

 

The client is at a community mental health agency talking
to the counselor about marital problems. It is the second
interview and the client is crying.

I just find it hard to believe that my husband (wife) really
left me! I mean . . . he (she) really didn't have any
reason to .

Counselor Response:

 

 

 

Situation:

Client:

Counselor Response:

The client is a 17 year-old male (female) who is seeing a
family counselor fer the first time. His (Her) parents
have been seeing the same counselor.

My parents insisted that I come in here. . . The only reason
I came was it seemed so important to my mother . . . as far
as my dad is concerned . . . he can go to hell.

 

 

 

Situation:

Client:

Counselor Response:

The client is a 35 year-old male (female) who is seeing a
community mental health counselor for the first time.
The client seems generally depressed.

Basically, I'm a person who can take care of him(her)self
but lately some things have been on my mind so much

I've been so worried and upset that I feel like I can't
handle things alone. . . For 35 years I've been taking care
of myself and now all of a sudden--I desperately need some-
one's help.

 

 

 

Situation:

Client:

178

The client is a 29 year-old male (female) who has been
seeing a counselor about marital concerns. He (She) and
his (her) wife (husband) have worked on some things to try
to improve the marriage. It is the eighth interview.

Barbara (Bill) has really been trying hard to get along
better. All of the Old complaints I had about her (him)
well . . . I really can't complain anymore. But something
is gone . . . changed about the relationship . . . I wonder
if it's worth the trouble.

Counselor Response:

 

 

 

Situation:

Client:

The client is a 40 year-old male (female) who has problems
relating to other people. He (She) and the counselor have
been trying to work on ways to improve his (her) interpersonal
skills. The client has been waivering back and forth about
whether he (she) actually wants to change. This is the eighth
interview.

I said to myself this week . . . "Is this really so important?"
. you know what I mean . . . is it worth all the effort
. and I decided that it wasn't . . . that I'm really
pretty happy the way I am.

Counselor Response:

 

 

 

Situation:

Client:

The client is a high school senior who has been seeing the
school counselor about choosing a college. It is the fourth
interview.

After we talked last week, I went and looked through those
college catalogs . . . they were really interesting .

and I picked out three places that sounded pretty good.

The catalogs were old though . . . and I wondered if you knew
how I could get more recent mailing addresses . . . you know,
so I could write them?

Counselor Response:

 

 

 

Situation:

The client is a 30 year—old male (female) who is seeing a
community agency counselor about a smoking problem that is
having a bad effect on his (her) health. The client is
describing his (her) smoking habits to the counselor at the
second interview.

Situation:

Client:

Counselor Response:

179

The client is a 32 year-old male (female) who had begun
seeing a counselor at a private clinic to discuss problems
he (she) was having in dealing with the relationship
between his (her) parents and his (her) wife (husband).
The client and counselor have been working on ways to
help improve their relationship. It is the seventh
interview.

All my life my mother's watched over me like I'm a child.
I keep telling myself "You can't hate your own mother."
but I'm actually beginning to believe that I do.

 

 

 

Situation:

Client:

Counselor Response:

A 16 year—old high school dropout is talking to a community
agency counselor about his (her) problems since dropping
out of school. It is the fifth interview.

OK . . . we sort of decided I should find at least a part-
time job . . . and it's a good idea . . . but I never had
a job before and wondered if you could give me some ideas
about how to get started.

 

 

 

Situation:

Client:

Counselor Response:

The client is a 46 year-old male (female) who has requested
counseling at a community agency. 'He (She) is very dis-
satisfied with his (her) present job situation but is
apprehensive about changing so late in life. This is the
first interview and he (she) is talking freely.

I've been at this same job for ten years. At first, I was
happy just to get a steady paycheck . . . now I'm wondering
whether the money is worth it.

 

 

 

APPENDIX J

EXERCISE II FEEDBACK FORM

APPENDIX J
EXERCISE II FEEDBACK FORM

What stage of the counseling process is it?

 

 

What type of response did you make?

 

 

How did you decide what type of response was appropriate?

 

Was your response appropriate? Why?

 

 

How would you change your response to make it better?

 

 

Roleplay your revised response.

180

APPENDIX K

EXERCISE II: INSTRUCTIONS AND GUIDELINES FOR TRAINERS

APPENDIX K

EXERCISE II: INSTRUCTIONS AND GUIDELINES FOR TRAINERS

During this one hour you will be providing feedback to one

 

trainee.

Your job is to:

Give the trainee a copy of the Instructions for Exercise 11 (White
Sheet in your folder).

Roleplay a short counseling segment with the trainee by:
a) Reading him/her a counseling situation.
b) Roleplaying the client statement as thoughgyou were the client.

c) Writing down the trainee's counselor response that he/she
roleplays back to you.

For each example, go through the Feedback Form with the trainee to
determine:

 

a) What stage of the counseling process it is.

b) What type of response the trainer made.

c) How the trainee decided what type of response was appropriate.
d) How the trainee would change the response to make it better.
e) Then roleplay the revised response.

There are ten examples in your folder. Do as many as you and the

trainee feel comfortable doing in an hour.

4.

Summarize the main points of discrimination training for the
trainee and answer any questions he/she might have about this
exercise Or the training in general.

In your folder you will find the following materials to help you:

1. Two copies of Trainee Instructions fer Exercise II (White Sheets).

181

182

2. Copies of the 10 counseling situations (White Sheets).

3. Model answers for the 10 counseling situations (Yellow Sheets).
4. Feedback Forms for each situation (Goldenrod Sheets).

5. A Summary Review of Discrimination Training (Green Sheets).

6. A list of definitions of the ten types of counselor responses
(White Sheet).

REMEMBER: Your feedback should be consistent with the cognitive material
presented in the Summary Review of Discrimination Training;
and in the Guidelines for Trainers.

GUIDELINES FOR TRAINERS

These guidelines provide you with:

1. Identification of the Stage of the Counseling Process for
each of the 10 counseling situations.

2. A list of the most appropriate types of responses for each
of the 10 counseling situations. Your trainee should have responded
to the 10 situations with one of the types of responses listed.

3. One POSSIBLE model response for each of the 10 situations.
THIS RESPONSE IS NOT THE ONLY RIGHT ANSWER.

FEEL FREE TO MAKE UP YOUR OWN EXAMPLES OF MODEL RESPONSES AS LONG AS

THEY CONFORM TO THE TYPES OF RESPONSES LISTED AS APPROPRIATE FOR EACH

PARTICULAR SITUATION.

183

SITUATION 1

 

Stage II--Problem Identification

A good response by the counselor coUld be any-of-the-facilitative
responses under Problem Solving. Because of the affect involved
(crying), a REFLECTION would probably be the most appropriate.

 

MODEL COUNSELOR RESPONSE: You're really upset and confused about
him (her) leaving you. . . REFLECTION

SITUATION 2

 

Stage I-—Estab1ishment of the Counseling Relationship

A good response by the counselor could be a RESTATEMENT, REFLECTION
or CLARIFICATION. Because of the affect involved a REFLECTION would
probably be the most appropriate.

 

MODEL COUNSELOR RESPONSE: You're really feeling irritated about having
to come in here . . . especially since you see no reason for it.
REFLECTION

SITUATION 3

 

Stage I--Establishment of the Counseling Relationship

A good response by the counselor could include a RESTATEMENT, REFLECTION,
or CLARIFICATION. '

 

MODEL COUNSELOR RESPONSE: You're usually able to take care of yourself
pretty well . . . but lately things have been so bad you really
feel like you'd like someone's help . . . CLARIFICATION

SITUATION 4

 

Stage III--Problem Solving - Strategy Implementation

A good response by the trainee could be an INTERPRETATION or CLARIFI—
CATION.

MODEL COUNSELOR RESPONSE: You're feeling that your marriage has been
hurt by things that happened before . . . things you blame Barbara
(Bill) for . . . that whatever you two try really isn't going to
make any difference. CLARIFICATION

184

SITUATION 5

 

Stage III-~Problem Solving - Strategy Implementation

A good response by the counselor could be a CONFRONTATION or an
INTERPRETATION since the client is a point where little progress is
being made in counseling and something needs to be done to stimulate
client change. '

 

MODEL COUNSELOR RESPONSE: You're telling me this week that you're
happy the way you are and you're acting like you don't care, but
last week you said you were miserable and really wanted to do
something about your problems getting along with people.
CONFRONTATION

SITUATION 6
Stage III--Problem Solving - Strategy Implementation

A good response by the counselor could be an INFORMATIVE RESPONSE
giving the client the information he needs or a SUGGESTION telling the
client where he might get the information.

MODEL COUNSELOR RESPONSE: The secretary out at the desk . . . you

know Judy, who makes the appointments . . . can give you a
recent listing for those schools. INFORMATIVE STATEMENT

SITUATION 7

 

Stage II--Problem Identification

A good response by the counselor could be a QUESTION or a CLARIFICATION
to get more specific information about the client's smoking habit.

MODEL COUNSELOR RESPONSE: Could you be more specific about how much

you do smoke . . . you know, about how many cigarettes a day.
QUESTION

SITUATION 8

 

Stage II-Problem Identification

A good counselor response at this point could be a CLARIFICATION, a
QUESTION 3 RESTATEMENT, or a REFLECTION.

MODEL COUNSELOR RESPONSE: You wonder whether the money you earn is
worth what you have to go through to get it. RESTATEMENT

185

SITUATION 9

 

Stage III--Problem Solving - Strategy Implementation

A good response by the counselor could be a CONFRONTATION or an
INTERPRETATION, since this is a point where the client needs to look
at his/her relationship with his/her mother closer.

 

MODEL COUNSELOR RESPONSE: I wonder if the reason you think you hate
your mother is that you feel that she took SUCH good care of you
when you were growing up, that now it's hard for you to take care

of yourself . . . you know, be independent . . . and your resent-
ment toward her is covering the disappointment you feel for
yourself. . . INTERPRETATION

SITUATION 10
Stage III--Problem Solving - Strategy Development

A good response by the counselor could be an INFORMATIVE STATEMENT
which would give the client some information about how to go about
finding a job, or a SUGGESTION of where he might start.

 

MODEL COUNSELOR RESPONSE: Yeah . . . well, maybe a good place to
start would be to talk to someone at the Youth Development Corps
since they have pretty good success finding jobs for people in
your position. SUGGESTION

APPENDIX L

EVALUATION FORM: SECOND WORKSHOP SESSION

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APPENDIX M

SUMMARY REVIEW WORKSHEET FOR DISCRIMINATION TRAINING

APPENDIX M
SUMMARY REVIEW WORKSHEET FOR DISCRIMINATION TRAINING

This audiotape and worksheet are a general review of what you
learned at the workshop on Tuesday and Saturday, and Offer you an oppor-
tunity to quiz yourself on what you learned and receive immediate feed-
back on your answers.

At various points on the tape, you will be asked to make
written responses to questions or client statements. Your answers should

be written on the Summary Review Worksheet which is stapled to these

 

instructions.

Turn the tape recorder off before making each written response.
After you have completed your answer, turn the recorder back on and you
will receive immediate feedback so you can determine whether your
answers are correct.

This exercise is NOT a test. It is merely a device designed
to help you review the material you learned at the first two sessions--
and to give you feedback on how well you understand the basic Concepts
of Discrimination Training.

Please do not read the review material (in the envelopes) until
you are asked to do so.

If you wish, you may take a short break (5-10 minutes) at any
one point during the tape.

You should complete the exercise by

 

187

188

SUMMARY REVIEW WORKSHEET

 

1. Identification of Types of Counselor Responses

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

UlvwaI—i
OOWVO‘

 

 

II. Stages of the CounselingyProcess

 

 

 

 

I.
II.
III.
A.
B.

 

III. Goal of Stage I

 

 

IV. Stage I: Facilitative Types of Responses

1. 3.

 

 

2. 4.

 

 

V. Stage I: Nonfacilitative Types of Responses

1. 3.

 

 

2.

 

VI. Goal of Stage II

 

 

VII. Stage II: Facilitative Types of Responses

1. O N 3.

 

 

2. 4.

 

 

VIII. Stage II: Nonfacilitative Types of Responses

1.

 

 

3.
2. 4.

 

 

IX. Goals of Stage III

 

Substage A:

 

Substage B:

 

X. Stage III:

A.

XI. Stage III:

1.
2.
3.

EXERCISE 1

189

Facilitative Types of Responses

 

 

 

 

 

MNHMNH

 

 

 

A.
B.
C

EXERCISE 2

 

A.
B.
C

EXERCISE 3

 

A.
B.
C

EXERCISE 4

 

A.
B.
C

EXERCISE 5

 

A.
B.
C

EXERCISE 6

 

A.
B.
C

Nonfacilitative Types of Responses

 

 

EXERCISE WORKSHEET

Your Response:

 

Stage of the Counseling Process:
Type of Response:

 

 

Your Response:

 

Stage of the Counseling Process:
Type of Response:

 

 

Your Response:

 

Stage of the Counseling Process:
Type of Response:

 

 

Your Response:

 

Stage of the Counseling Process:
Type of Response:

 

 

Your Response:

 

Stage of the Counseling Process:
Type of Response:

 

 

Your Response:

 

Stage of the Counseling Process:
Type of Response:

 

 

EXERCISE 7

 

A.
B.
C

EXERCISE 8

 

A.
B.
C

EXERCISE 9

 

A.
B.
C

EXERCISE 10

 

A.
B.
C

190

Your Response:

 

Stage of the Counseling Process:

 

 

Type of Response:

Your Response:

 

Stage of the Counseling Process:
Type of Response:

 

 

Your Response:

 

Stage of the Counseling Process:
Type of Response:

 

 

Your Response:

 

Stage of the Counseling Process:
Type of Response:

 

 

APPENDIX N

EVALUATION FORM: THIRD WORKSHOP SESSION

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APPENDIX O

RESEARCH RELEASE FORM: WORKSHOP DATA

APPENDIX 0
RESEARCH RELEASE FORM: WORKSHOP DATA

I understand that by my signature below, I give my permission for
Norman R. Stewart and his two doctoral candidates, Nancy Martin and
Judith Taylor to keep and to use as data for preparing research reports
and articles, the audiotape recordings made during the activities in
which I participated and the written exercises I completed during the

course of the workshop.

Dr. Stewart, Nancy Martin, and Judith Taylor have offered me the

assurance that in no way will my name or other personally identifying
information be linked with the audiotaped material. I recognize that
insomuch as my voice will be part of the recording, there is a possibility
that I may be recognized by those to whom the recorded material is played.
However, I am assured that no one will have access to this information
other than the three people mentioned and others under their direction

who will assist in the task of data analysis. My performance will in

no way influence my course grade in ED 8190.

SIGNATURE:

 

DATE:

 

192

APPENDIX P

VIDEOTAPE EXERCISES: LEARNING OBJECTIVES

VIDEOTAPE EXERCISES

g§3MINAL BEHAVIOR

APPENDIX P

SKILL INTEGRATION”WORKSHOP ED 819D
Saturday February 19, 1977

Determine which of the following examples of the behavioral component
of a learning objective are stated in behavioral or performance terms.
Circle the numbers of acceptable terminal behaviors.

1.
2.
3.

4.’

So
6.
7.
8.

Tb use my anger more appropriately.

To understand my feelings better.

To change my self-concept.

Turn in homework assignments.

To be more self-confident.

Decrease the number of time I am late for school.

To reduce my anxiety. _

To increase the number of times that I speak to a girl.

Following are examples of learning objectives where the temminal behavior

is missing .

terms 0

1.

3.

Conditions

Behavior

Criteria

Conditions

Behavior

Erisssia

Conditions

Behavior

Criteria

Fill in a suitable behavior, making sure that it is in performance

By the and Of 5 weeks. . .

 

 

. . . to five cigarettes per day.

By the end of three weeks. . .

 

 

. . . at least three job interviews.

When you are out on the playground at recess times and
someone does something that makes you mad. . .

 

 

. . .without calling them names, yelling at them, or
hitting them. You'll do this for two weeks.

193

194

4. Conditions Given a list of colleges where you meet the entrance
requirements. . .

£22113.

 

 

Criteria . . . to at least five colleges.

5. Conditions when the boss approaches you with extra work for the weekend. . .

Behavior

 

 

Criteria . . .‘witbout your voice shaking.

0NDITIONS .
Determine which of the following examples of the conditions component of
a learning objective are appropriate conditions.

1. Given a list of colleges.

2.- Given the chance.

3. “hen you have the time. '
4. By the end of counseling. .

5. By the end of two months.

6. When asked a question.

Following are examples of learning objectives where the conditions component
is missing. Fill in a suitable condition under which the terminal behavior is
to be demonstrated.

1. Egggitions

 

 

gghavior . ... will raise your GPA.

Criteria . . . to 2.5.

 

2. Conditions

 

Behavior . . . you‘will raise your hand to volunteer to answer. . .
Criteria . . . at least three times per day ior three consecutive

weeks.

195

3. Conditions

 

 

Behavior . . . you will approach and talk to . .' .

Criteria . . . at least two people for at least three minutes each.

4. Conditions

 

 

Behavior I . . . you will read your school textbooks or complete
your written assignments. . .

Criteria . . . for at least 1 1; hours Monday through Thursday.

5. Conditions

 

w

'Behavior . . . you will have sexual intercourse with your husband.

Criteria . . . at least twice a week for two months. '

CRITERIA

 

Determine which of the following examples of the criteria component of a
learning objective are suitable for counseling objectives.

1. At least once.

2.- Until I feel calm.

3. Get an A on seven homework assigtlments.

1:. Occasionally.

5. For 30 times.

6. Overcome his anxiety.

7. Objective will be- attained when the client terminates counseling.

8. Objective will be attained when client reports to the counselor
that he was successful for ten consecutive days.

Following are examples of learning objectives where the criteria component
is missing. Fill in a criteria that you consider would be an appropriate
minim acceptable performance for the stated terminal behavior.

1. Conditions By the end of two-months. . .

MEOVIbr a a 0’0“ V111 h.ve 1°.to s a

(kiteria

 

 

196

2. Conditions When you feel yourself getting angry at Timmy. . .
Behavior' . . . you will explain to him why you are angry, . .

Criteria

 

 

3. Conditions Within three weeks. . .

Behavior . . .you will make a decision about staying here with your
boyfriend or going to drama school in New York. . .

 

eaters

 

4. Conditions In the evening after the children have gone to bed. . .

Behavior . . . you will'talk with your wife about what the two
of you did that day. . . ‘ .

. giteria

 

 

J
‘.

5. Conditions When your'rooxmnate refuses to do his assigned chores.

 

Behavior . . . you will tell him that you are not going to do them
for him, and you will not do them.

Criteria

 

 

MCISE ON MOVING LEARNING OBJECTIVES

m1.

In'thia first example we want you to focus on only the conditions and see
if you can improve on what the counselor comes up with.

3

Objective: You will no longer be depressed.

moved Cond it ions :

 

 

 

be.

197

EXAMPLEZ

In this second example look closely at the terminal behavior identified
by the counselor. Write down how you might improve on it, keeping in mind that

the client's depressed behavior should be replaced by a behavior that the client
finds possible.

Objective: When you feel so depressed that you can't carry on your
normal routine. . .'

. . .you will think of something that makes you happy.
_Ir_nproved Behavior:

 

 

 

MEL;

f”

In this third example focus on the criteria component and write down how
you think the stated criteria of minimum performance could be improved.

(bjective: When you feel so depressed that you can't carry out your
. normal routine. . . '

. . . you will engage in one of the behaviors selected
from your list of enjoyable activities. . .

. . .you will do this until you feel better.

Improved Criteria:

 

 

 

APPENDIX Q

LEARNING OBJECTIVES LAB EXERCISES

APPENDIX Q

SKILL INTEGRATION WORKSHOP ED 819D
Saturday, February 19, 1977

LAB EXERCISES

Overview

The purpose of this phase of today's activities is to give you further
practice in formulating learning objectives. As was mentioned in the video-
tape, clarification of the client's concern is the necessary groundwork for
setting a goal and specifying an apprOpriate learning objective. Only if
you, the counselor, have a good understanding of the client's concern, can
you together with the client formulate an appropriate objective.

This involves being able to clearly specify the problem behavior in
performance terms. Once the response or behavioral component of the concern
- has been identified and specified, it is much easier to come up with an
appropriate terminal behavior (also to be specified in performance or
measurable terms) .

Thus,-in each exercise you will start from a general model of the concern
and work toward formulating an appropriate learning objective.

Instructions

For each of the following exercises:

\

(1) Read the information-given about the client's concern.
(2) Clarify the model in your m mind and identify the main problem.

(3) Specify clearly, in behavioral terms, the response component of the
problem. That is, write down a statement of the problem behavior
in observable performance terms.

(4)_ Read the statement of the client's goal.

(5) Formulate an appropriate learning objective incorporating all three
components: a) conditions
b) terminal behavior
c) criteria

For this step use the statement of the problem response component
to help you fommulate an appropriate terminal behavior. Then use
the information about the client that has been provided, and your
own creativity to formulate appropriate conditions and criteria.

A trainer will be available to provide you with feedback on both your
statement of the response component and also your learning objective.

198

199

EXERCISE 1

The client-is an '8 year-old boy with a severe facial tic. He has been sent to
see the school counselor by his teacher because other children make fun of him.

.The counselor has gathered the following information about Jim.

Eon his teacher:

1. Jim is immature and babyish in the classroom.

2. Be cries readily when other children tease him, when he can't do his work,
when he gets hurt, etc.

3. lie is intelligent but does not do well unless given slot of attention.

From his mother:

1. The facial tic started when Jim began going to school, but seems to have
gotten much worse in the last school year.

2. Jim always seemed to be a nervous child.

3. He was' afraid of going to school so she let him stay home alot until
the school got after her.

4. He does not have any friends.

From Jim:

1. The other kids don't like him, pick on him, and call him names.

2. He doesn't like school but his mother forces him to go.

3. His parents are always arguing about him. His dad says his mother treats
him like a baby and is making a sissy out of him.

Jim's_goal in counseling: "To get the other kids to like me."

200

WORKSHEET

1. Identify the main concern:

 

 

 

2. State the problem behavior:

 

 

 

 

 

3. State an appropriate learning objective:

A. Conditions:

 

 

 

 

B. Terminal Behavior:

 

 

 

 

s. Criteria:

 

 

 

 

201

EXERCISE 2

The client is a 24 year-old female who has gone to see a counselor at a community
mental health agency about her problem of establishing relationships with men.~

The counselor has gathered the following information about Mary:

1. Mary has never had a steady boyfriend. She has dated but usually only
goes out with one person for a couple of times.

2. She has avoided getting involved with a male in the past because she
is afraid of what that type of relationship may involve.

.3. She gets very anxious when she is touched by a male, turns red, gets
embarrassed, and backs off. She has done some hugging and kissing with
the men she has dated but nothing more. She says she enjoyed it, but
was afraid to go further. '

6. Her parents never talked about sex around her or to her, and her mother
acted like it was something to keep hidden.

5. She was very embarrassed during her teenage years both by information
gleaned in classes and from friends and by physical changes in her body.

6. She is embarrassed when her friends talk to her about their sexual
relationships with their friends and husbands, but she sometimes wishes '
she had something to share with them/

Hary' a goal in counseling: "I' d like to have a long-term relationship with
' a man. . .and feel comfortable with the sexual part of that kind of
relationship. "

202

must 3

' The client is a 20 year-old male college student who has gone to see a counselor
at the college counseling center because of general feelings of unhappiness and
, dissatisfaction with himself.

m.

The counselor has gathered the following information about Fred:

1.

5.

7.

Fred explained that whatever he does, he is not pleased with himself. He
thinks there is always someone who'can do it better than he can, especially
his older brother, Brad.

Fred said that he has settled into doing things in a half-hearted way
since he thinks that he .can't succeed.

Be is always putting himself down in front of other people and this
irritates his friends who are tired of telling him that. he's OK.

Bis manner is generally shy and retiring since be generally feels that
he has nothing worthwhile to contribute. .

Be tends to rehearse the things he wants to say before he says them
because he's afraid he is going to make a fool of himself. This usually
winds up with him saying nothing since the thinking causes him to miss
the opportunity to say what he wants to say. He responds with alot of
"I don't knows." when people talk to him rather than take the risk of

saying something .

His parents always treatedhim as the "baby" of the family, making
decisions for him, answering for him, and comparing him unfavorably to
his older brother.

Bred expressed that he was doomed to be a failure in life since he didn't
have the brains or nerve to do anything useful.

Fred's goal in counseling: "I wish I could feel good about myself. . .

like I was a person someone would'like to get to know. . ."

203

EXERCISE 4

The client is a 14 year-old girl who was referred to the school counselor by
her homeroom teacher because her grades have been dropping in the past few
months. '

The counselor has gathered the following information about Karen:

1.

2.

3.9

fire has been feeling generally. unhappy and depressed. She doesn't
care much about school anymore since it doesn't seem very important.

Ber parents are finally getting a divorce after talking about it for two
years. They have been arguing constantly for the past two months and
have been trying to drag Karen and her sister in to choose sides. They
have been told to decide who they want to live with.

Karen tries to stay out of her parents' arguments by hiding in her
bedroom and watching television or listening to her stereo. She has
tried to study but can't concentrate because she's so worried about
her parents. -

Ber older sister spends alot of time with her boyfriend so Karen is
home alone a great deal of the time. She is avoiding being with her
friends because they are always asking her what's wrong and she's
darrassed to tell them about her parents.

She thinks alot about how nice things were when she was younger and

‘how things will never be the same again.

Karen's goal in counseling: "I know my parents are going to get the

divorce. . .I just wish I didn't feel so bad about it."

204

EXERCISE 5

The client is a 48 year-old who has gone to see a counselor at a private
clinic because of the grief she feels over the death of her 16 year-old
son in an automobile accident two. months before. .

The counselor has gathered the following information about Janet:

l.

2.

7.

She has found it impossible to deal with the pain and grief she feels
over the loss of her son.

She has very strong feelings of guilt about the accident since she let
her son take the car after her husband had said no. She feels that
her husband and her 14 year-old daughter both blame her.

There has been constant tension and arguing in the family since the time
of the accident -- the death did not serve to draw the family closer
together.

Ber relationship with her husband has deteriorated. There is no intimacy
between them, no affection expressed, and no sexual relationship.

Her husband does not come home directly after work, and has sometimes
come in drunk at a very late hour. She now‘worries alot about him driving
home in that condition. _

She, herself, is very nervous when driving a car or riding with anyone

‘ else.

She sometimes imagines that she hears her son somewhere in the house or
waits for him to come home, and then realises that he is not going to.

She spends a great deal of her time home alone thinking about her son
and finds it very difficult to get any work done.

She finds it hard to be with her friends because she has no desire to
be sociable. Her friends have tried to console her, but it hasn't
helped. . .

Janet's goal in counseling: "I'd like to try to get my life back together

again. . .try to cope with Ron's death. . .and see if I can work things
out with my husband."

APPENDIX R

LEARNING OBJECTIVES LAB EXERCISES:

INSTRUCTIONS AND GUIDELINES FOR TRAINERS

APPENDIX R

damn. ms'mucrmus FOR LAB TRAINERS -: LEARNING OBJECTIVES

You will be working with two trainees (names and rooms specified on your
schedule) providing feedback on:

1.9 Exercises from the videotape. .

2. Lab exercises.

In.your folder you‘will find the following materials:

1. Copies of the videotape exercise.

2. Answers and explanation for the videotape exercises.

3. Copies of the lab exercises. . '

&. ‘Mbdel answers for the five lab exercises — that is,‘model le arming

_objectives for the concerns stated.

‘Your role is to provide feedback on the trainees' answers and help them
develop learning objectives when.they are having difficulty. Float back and
forth between the two trainees that you have been assigned to.

205

206

INFORMATION FOR LAB EXERCISES TRAINERS
' ANSWERS T0 VIDEOTAPE EXERCISES ON LEARNING OBJECTIVES

On the videotape the trainees were asked to first identify inappropriate
or inaccurate components, and then to fill in a missing component. Here are
answers and explanations to help you provide them with feedback.

TERMINAL BEHAVIOR
Circle numbers of acceptable terminal behaviors.

Acceptable ones: .4, 6, and 8.
.Not Acceptable : l, 2, 3, 5, and 7.

These are not appropriate since they do not specify an activity which is
observable and which can be measured, or they are vague. For example:

1. To use my anger more appropriately - this is vague and not fully
operational.
2. To understand my feelings better - "understand" is not a behavioral

term.
3. To change my self-concept - does not specify what the client will be doing.

5. To be more self-confidentf same as 3.
7. To reduce my anxiety - same as 3.

ass ING BEHAVIORAL COMPONENT

Possible answers for behavioral component:

.you will cut down smoking. . .

1. O I
° 2. . . .you will get appointments for. and go to. . .
3. . . .you will walk away from the boy(s) or girl(s). . . .
4. . . .you will fill out and send in completed applications. . .
5. . . .you will turn him down by (saying "No, I don't want to spend the

weekend working" . . .
CONDITIONS

Acceptable conditions: '1, 4, 5, and‘6. .
Not acceptable: 2, 3

These are not appropriate conditions since they do not clearly specify
a situation or state within the person. For example:

2.’ Given the chance. . .
3.- When you have the time. . .

Under these sort of conditions the behavior might never occur.

MISSING CONDITIONS COMPONENT

 

Possible answers:

1. By the end of spring quarter. . ..

fi

207

When the teacher asks a question in class and you know the answer. . .

2.
3. When you are on your coffee or lunch break at work. . .
4. After dinner, at your desk, in your bedroom*with the stereo and
radio turned off. . .
5. Given that your husband is in the mood. . .
CRITERIA

Acceptable criteria: 3, 5, and 8
Not acceptable: 1, 2, 4, 6, and 7

These are not appropriate because they are not specific enough and do not
state a clearly defined level of minimum acceptable performance. For example:

1..

At least once - this is inappropriate if the behavior is something

which should be demonstrated on more than one occasion, such as being
on time for class.

Until I feel calm.again - this level may never be reached and it is
not clearly defined as to when this level of performance is achieved.
Occasionally - this is not specific enough and would not ensure
demonstration of the behavior at any consistent level.

Overcome his anxiety - like 2.

Objective will be attained when the client terminates counseling -
means the client could stop whenever they wished regardless of the
level of behavior than being demonstrated.

MISSING CRITERIA COMPONENT

Possible answers:

1.
.2.
3.

fie
Se

. . .10 pounds.

. . awithout raising your voice or using physical punishment.

. . .this will be accomplished when you report to me that you have
told your boyfriend about your decision.

. . .for at least 30 minutes for one month.

. . .without feeling guilty.

208

MODEL ANSWERS FOR THE LAB EXERCISES
EXERCISE 1--JIM
Before school and during recess periods, Jim will establish
a friendship with a classmate so well that he eats lunch and walks
home from school with a classmate on three or more occasions during
a single week within the next month.
CONDITIONS: Before school and during recess period...
TERMINAL BEHAVIOR: Jim will establish a friendship with a classmate...
CRITERIA: So well that he eats lunch and walks home from school with
a classmate on three or more occasions during a single week
within the next month.
EXERCISE 2--MARY
With two or more friends and without embarrassment, Mary will
discuss sexual fantasies, experiences, and/or fears once per week for
20 minutes or more on each occasion for at least three consecutive weeks.
CONDITIONS: With two or more friends and without embarrassment...
TERMINAL BEHAVIOR: Discuss sexual fantasies, experiences, and/or fears...
CRITERIA: Once per week for 20 minutes or more on each occasion for
at least three consecutive weeks.
EXERCISE 3--FRED
For 30 minutes or more three or more times per week fer four
consecutive weeks, Fred will talk with one friend about thoughts,

feelings, and ideas without making negative self-statements.

.CONDITIONS: About thoughts, feelings, and ideas without making negative
self-statements...

TERMINAL BEHAVIOR: Talk with one friend...
CRITERIA: For 30 minutes or more, three or more times per week for
four consecutive weeks...
EXERCISE 4--Karen

Karen will talk with friends concerning her thoughts and
feelings so well that she can share her thoughts and feelings with

209
three or more friends for five or more minutes each day for two
consecutive weeks.
CONDITIONS: Concerning her thoughts and feelings...
TERMINAL BEHAVIOR: Talk with friends...
CRITERIA: So well that she can share her thoughts and feelings with

three or more friends for five or more minutes each day for
two consecutive weeks.

EXERCISE S--JANET
Within the next 30 days, Janet will communicate with her husband
concerning the blaming and guilt feelings associated with her son's
death for at least one~ha1f hour each day after dinner so well that
she has eliminated two of the six avoidance behaviors listed.

CONDITIONS: Within the next 30 days... (1)

Concerning the blaming and guilt feelings associated with
her son's death... (2)

TERMINAL BEHAVIOR: Janet will communicate with her husband...

CRITERIA: For at least one-half hour each day after dinner so well
that she has eliminated two of the six avoidance behaviors

listed.

APPENDIX S

INSTRUCTIONS FOR ROLEPLAYERS:

SECOND WORKSHOP SESSION

APPENDIX S
INSTRUCTIONS FOR ROLEPLAYERS: SECOND WORKSHOP SESSION

You will be working with two trainees back to back (names,
rooms, and times specified on your schedule).

(a) You will roleplay a client at the beginning stages of counseling,
that is, establishing relationship and tentative exploration
of concerns. This will be audiotaped and should last about
10-15 minutes--guidelines for roleplay are attached.

(b) You will pnndde feedback to the trainee on how you felt as a
client--dimensions for feedback are attached.

(c) You will instruct the trainee to listen to the audiotape and
fill in the form that has been given to them. Then you
leave before they start listening.

(d) You will repeat (a), (b), and (c) with a second trainee. Use the
same role.

**PLEASE NOTE: The two trainees will be using different forms
when they are listening back to their performance.
PLEASE do not make any comment on this--just tell
them to fill it in while listening to the tape,
and then leave.

210

211

INSTRUCTIONS FOR ROLEPLAY

 

The stages of the counseling process that are to be addressed
in the roleplay are essentially those at the beginning of counseling,
that is, establishing a trusting, accepting relationship, exploration
of concerns and tentative identification of the main concern.

The roleplay is to be audiotaped on the cassette tape provided
which will have the trainees name on it. PLEASE check that the
recorder records OK.

ROLE

You are a graduate student, somewhat anxious and ill at ease.
You are not quite fully prepared to come straight out with your
problem, thus, you start by talking about easier topics such as coping
with school in general, and wondering if you are cut out for grad
school. You are having some problems with your studies, parttime job,
and strained relations between you and your girl/boy friend or wife/
husband (whichever you feel most comfortable roleplaying).

The relationship is your main concern as it has emotionally
disturbed you, is taking a lot of your energy, is interfering with
your studies. The nature of the concern is that your "partner" is
having difficulty realizing that you need to study, and expects you
to be able to do the things you used to do before you went back to
grad school. You're beginning to wonder if it is worth the effort to
continue with grad school since it is causing such problems.

APPENDIX T

GUIDELINES FOR FEEDBACK

APPENDIX T

GUIDELINES FOR FEEDBACK

Dimensions for Feedback as a Client

 

l.‘ Did
2. Did
3. Did
4. Did
5. Did
6. Did
7. Did
8. Did

the

the

the

the

the

the

the

the

counselor

counselor

counselor

counselor

counselor

counselor

counselor

counselor'

make you feel comfortable?

move too fast or slow through the process?
identify the correct concern?

understand and reflect client's feelings?
understand the client's problem?

show interest in you?

interrupt or use inappropriate responses?

5 nonverbal behavior indicate that he was

listening and concerned?

212

APPENDIX U

SELF-EVALUATION FORMS:

COUNSELOR RESPONSE PROFILE AND SELF-EVALUATION PACKAGE

APPENDIX u _

SKILL INTEGRATION WORKSHOP
ED 819D

Instructions In The Use Of The Self-Evaluation Package

Read these Instructions and theniook briefly through the self-feedback
package. '

'lhen you will roleplay a counselor. The roleplay will address the
initial stages of counseling, with primary emphasis on establishing a trust-
ing counseling relationship, exploration of concerns, and tentative problem
identification. This roleplay will be audiotaped and should last for about
10-15 minutes.

Listen to your performance and use the self-evaluation package to analyse
and evaluate your own performance. Your trainer, who will roleplay the client,
will also provide you with feedback on your performance.

213

.214

SELF-EVALUATION PACKAGE

 

GENERAL INSTRUCTION

This self-evaluation feedback form is to be used to evaluate
your own counseling performance that you have audiotape recorded.
The procedures to be used are as follows:

1. While listening to an audiotape of a counseling
session, record the frequencies of eleven counselor
responses on the Counselor Response Profile. This
will provide a detailed analysis of counselor activity
during the counseling session.

2. Using the response profile and personal recall of the
session, rate counselor performance on 10 behavioral
'dimensions and select appropriate action steps to
modify behavior within that dimension.

CHARTING COUNSELOR RESPONSES

Definitions

The counselor responses that will predominate during the
beginning stages of the counselor relations, ie the stage of
the process that we are concerned about today, are:

l. Informative: A statement which introduces information or -
data useful for the client and to counseling. It may be used

in response to a client question by explaining or stating
alternatives.

'2. Reflection: A statement that expresses a feeling present in
the client's previous communication.

Additive: Responses add deeper feeling and meaning to
the expression of the client.

Interchangeable: Responses express essentially the same
affect and meaning.

~

Subtractive: Responses subtract noticeable affect from
the client's communication.

3. Questioning: A statement in the form of a question that gets
the client talking generally or elicits specific information
about feelings and content.

Qpcn-cnded/Probo: A question that requires more than a
minimal one-word answer by the client.

Binary: A question that can be answered yes/no.

Multiple: Asking a string of questions.

215

A. Restatement of content: A statement that repeats or restates
all or selected portions of,the cognitive content of the client's
communications. It deals with content involving people, events
and things. .

5. Reinforcement-Sgpportivc: A statement that conveys the counselor’s
support and reinforces the client's words or actions.

6. Direction: A statement that could involve suggesting, leading,
' or interpreting.

7. Other: A statement that cannot be placed clearly in any of the
above categories.

m

.Hhile listening to an audiotape of a counseling session, the .
counselor will identify and record each counselor response. To
aid the record-keeping. counselor responses have been grouped
in columns of five responses. Raving identified the type of
response made, the counselor will place a hash mark against that
category in an approximate position in the appropriate column to
indicate which numbered response it was. Thus, each column will
only contain five hash marks. . A

On the next page, you will find an example of the Counselor
Response Profile in which the first 20 counselor responses have been
recorded. The first five counselor responses, in order, were:
Supportive, informative..informative, open-ended question. and
interchangeable reflection. At the right hand side, there is a

column to give the total frequencies of each response.

The response profile can be used to provide information
on how the counselor used the counseling time and what response
types were used, and the balance of response modes. It thus
provides a detailed analysis of the counselor' a behavior in a
counseling session. , ..., .... - - ..a 2.. >

.‘.
.“ 7.4

216

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217

SPECIFIC RATINGS

Introduction

The purpose of this section of the selfeevaluation package

is to provide you with feedback on specific counseling behaviors

'and

to determine alternative ways to improve these behaviors. The 10

behavioral dimensions to be used involve counselor behaviors that

are

particularly important during the first few counseling

sessions.

II.

10. How well did

_The dimensions fall into two clusters:
Communicate core conditions for counseling.

1. How well did I establish rapport and put the client at
ease?

2.’ How well did I communicate my desire to help. my interest.
and respect for the client?

3. How well did I maintain focus on the client and time the
interview pace and direction? ~

4. How well did I use my voice and language?

5. How well did I use verbal reinforcement?

Help the client explore problems, concerns, and feeling_.
b. How well did I use open-ended'questions?

7. How well did I encourage the client to talk about
feelings?

-8. How well did I help client explore concerns?

9. how well did I identify cognitive content of the interview?
I obtain specific details of the client's
concern? .

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE SPECIFIC RATINGS

(1)
(1)

Each behavioral dimension is to be addressed in two ways:
Rating and (2) Action Steps.

Rating Each dimension will be rated using a three-point
scale: Exceptional - Adequate — Inadequate.

Assessments are to be made using the response profile and
personal recall of the counseling session.

A rating of "Exceptional" indicates that most of the
criteria behaviors considered exceptional were demonstrated.

A rating of "Adequate" indicates that not all of the
behaviors considered exceptional were demonstrated and that none
of the behaviors considered inadequate were demonstrated.

A rating of "Inadequate" indicates that at least one of
the criteria behaviors listed as inadequate was demonstrated.

218

(2) Action Steps After rating the behavioral dimension, action
steps are to be selected that are appropriate for the counselor

;needs and level of performance,

dimension. n A
EXAMPLE
6. How well did I use open-ended

Rating: a. Exceptional:

\/b. Adequate ':

c. Inadequate :

to modify behavior within that

questions?

Asked well-formulated questions
that focused on the client and
required a process type answer.

Used questions effectively to get
the client talking.

Used some bpen-ended questions,
but they were not always clearly
expressed.

Asked binary or multiple questions.
Questions did not focus on client.
Asked poorly-formulated questions.
Got into a question-answer format.

Action Steps: V/’ I need to ask more open-ended questions.
.I need to increase the clarity and precision
of my questions.
I need to ask questions that are simpler
and briefer.
I need to avoid binary/multiple questions.
I need to ask questions that focus more-on

the client.
I need to avoid a question-answer format.

219

SKILL INTEGRATION WORKSHOP ED 819D

INSTRUCTIONS IN THE USE OF THE COUNSELOR RESPONSE PROFILE

C

.Read these instructions on how 'to chart your counseling responses
while listening to an audiotape of a counseling session.

Then you will roleplay a counselor. The roleplay will address the

initial stages of counseling with primary emphasis on establishing '
a counseling relationship and exploration of concerns. This role- ’
play will be audiotaped and should last for about 10-15 minutes.

Listen to the audiotape and chart your responses on the Counselor
Response Profile. This will provide you with feedback on the
response types you used during the roleplay. Your trainer, who
will roleplay the client, will also provide you with feedback on
your performance. . . . _

' 220

QENERAL INSTRUCTIONS

This response profile is to be used to help you identify the types of

counselor responses that you have used during a counseling interview that
you have audiotape recorded.

The procedure to be used is as follows:

. While listening to an audiotape of a counseling roleplay interview,
record the frequencies of certain counselor responses on the Counselor
Response Profile. -

DEFINITIONS

Here are the definitions of the counselor responses that will be charted

on the profile.

1.

2.

3.

6.
7.

Informative: A statement which introduces information or data useful
for the client and to counseling. It may be used in response to a client
question by explaining or stating alternatives.

Reflection: A statement that expresses a feeling present in the client's
previous communication.

Additive: Responses add deeper feeling and meaning to the expression
of the client. . ‘ ’

Interchaggeable: Responses express essentially the same affect and
meaning.

Subtractive: Responses subtract noticeable affect from the client's
communication.

Qgestionigg: A statement in the form of a question that gets the client
talking generally or elicits specific information about feelings and content.

Qpen-ended/Probe: A question that requires more than a minflmal one-word
answer by the client.

Binagy: A question that can be answered yes/no.

Multiple: Asking a string of questions.v
Restatement of content: A statement that repeats or restates all or selected
portions of the cognitive content of the client's communications. It deals

‘with'content involving people, events, and things.

Reinforcement-Supportive: A statement that conveys the counselor's support
.and reinforces the client's words or actions.

Direction: A statement that could involve suggesting, leading, or interpreting.

Other: A statement that cannot be placed clearly in any of the above categories.

221

SPEC IF IC INSTR UCTIONS

While listening to an audiotape of the counseling roleplay that you have
recorded, you are to identify and record each counselor response. To aid
the record-keeping, counselor reaponses have been grouped in columns of five
reaponses. Having identified the type of response made, the counselor will
place a hash mark against that category in an approximate position in the
appropriate column to indicate which number response it was. Thus, each column
will only contain five hash marks. ' ‘ '

On the next page, you will find an example of the Counselor Response Profile
in which the first 20 counselor.responses have been recorded. The first
five counselor responses, in order, were: Supportive, Informative, Informative,
Open-ended Question, and Interchangeable Reflection. At the right-hand side,
there is a column to give the total frequencies of each response.

222

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APPENDIX V

INSTRUCTIONS FOR ROLEPLAYERS:

THIRD WORKSHOP SESSION

APPENDIX V
INSTRUCTIONS FOR ROLEPLAYERS: THIRD WORKSHOP SESSION

You will be working with various counselor trainees individually.
You will be provided with a schedule of names of trainees, rooms, and
times when you first arrive at Erickson Hall.

Please report to me, Judith Taylor, at Erickson Hall, Room
at the following time . You will then be handed your exact

schedule.

You will be roleplaying a client in counseling. The roleplay
covers the beginning stages of counseling, that is, establishing
relationship, exploration of concerns, and tentative identification of
the main problem. This roleplay will be audiotaped and should last
about ten minutes.

You will make certain that the trainee has checked whether the
recorder records properly before you start the roleplay.

At the end of the roleplay, you will spend a couple of minutes
providing feedback to the trainee on how you felt as a client. Dimen-
sions for feedback are attached. '

You will then leave that trainee and move on to your next
assignment. There may be a short break between assignments, or you
may have to move immediately to your next roleplay.

223

224

ROLE A

You are an undergraduate student who is having problems coping
with school. You don't like the major you are in and are considering
dropping out. You are falling behind in work and not doing well. You
don't like the school, the people, or the classes. M.S.U. seems large
and unfriendly since you came from a small town in Michigan. You are
under pressure from your parents and they would be very disappointed
and angry if you do poorly. You are worried about facing parents and
friends back home and you are rather disappointed in yourself for not
being as successful at school as you had h0ped to be.

Generally, you just can't decide what is the best thing to do
and, therefbre, want to talk about it with somebody. There should be
some underlying feelings of depression, loneliness, anxiety, and worry
about your situation.

In your role, you should be talking fairly easily about your
problems, but try not to dominate the conversation so that the counselor
can't do anything.

ROLE B
(Male Client)

You are about 21 years old-—share a house with a group of
friends. You work as a car mechanic but have a tendency to lose your
job.

You are somewhat anxious and ill-at-ease. You are not quite
fully prepared to come straight out with your main problem, thus, you
start by talking about easier topics, such as having just lost a job
working a repair shop, so you are somewhat concerned about financial
matters. But the main concern deals with your relationship with your
girlfriend, whom you have been going out with for about three years.

Recently things have become strained between you and your
girlfriend. She does things that irritate you and you are getting
into fights with her. Essentially, you are worried because she is
putting pressure on you to get married, thus, she wants you to get a
secure job and settle down. You are not certain if you are ready for
this--you are nervous at the prospect of marriage. Thus, the under-
lying feelings are of anxiety about settling down and marrying this
girl, general insecurity, and uncertainty, feeling somewhat trapped
because the relationship has been a long one.

225

ROLE B
(Female Client)

You are about 21 years old—-share a house with a group of
friends. You work as a secretary.

You are somewhat anxious and ill-at-ease. You are not quite
fully prepared to come straight out with your main problem, thus, you
start by talking about easier topics, such as briefly talking about
the difficulty you are having working with your supervisor and afraid
you may lose your job. And if you lost your job then that jeopardizes
the possibility of getting married to the guy you have been going with
for about three years. The main concern deals with this relationship.

Recently, things have become strained between you two, he does
things that annoy you, he doesn't seem as attentive or concerned and
you've been getting into more and more fights. You are worried that
you may be pushing him into marriage. You are concerned, therefore,
about maintaining the relationship but are afraid that it may be
heading for a break-up and you are not certain if you can handle
breaking up, especially since you've been going together for so long.
You couldn't handle telling friends and parents. The underlying
feelings are of anxiety, insecurity, and fear of losing him because
of putting pressure on him to get married.

APPENDIX W

RESEARCH RELEASE FORM: FOLLOWUP DATA

APPENDIX W

RESEARCH RELEASE FORM: FOLLOWUP DATA

Intensive Skill Integration Workshop

I understand that by my signature below, I give my permission for
Norman R. Stewart and his two doctoral candidates, Nancy Martin and
Judith Taylor, to keep and to use as data for preparing research
reports and articles, the audiotape recordings and the written
exercises I completed during the workshop followup.

Dr. Stewart, Nancy Martin, and Judith Taylor have offered me the
assurance that in no way will my name or other personally identifying
information be linked with the audiotaped material. I recognize that
insomuch as my voice will be part of the recording, there is a
possibility that I may be recognized by those to whom the recorded
material is played. However, I am assured that no one will have access
to this information other than the three people mentioned and others
under their direction who will assist in the task of data analysis.

SIGNATURE:

 

DATE:

 

226

APPENDIX X

DISCRIMINATION TRAINING:

GENERAL INFORMATION AND INSTRUCTIONS FOR TRAINERS

APPENDIX X

DISCRIMINATION TRAINING:

GENERAL INFORMATION AND INSTRUCTIONS FOR TRAINERS

Purpose of the Training

 

The purpose of the discrimination training is to get the coun—
selor trainees to look at the responses they make to clients in light
of where they are in the counseling process.

The premise of the study is that certain types of responses
are more appropriate or assume greater importance at certain points
in the counseling process. And conversely, certain types of responses
are of lesser importance, nonfacilitative, or even detrimental at
certain points in the counseling relationship.

Stages of the Counseling_Process

 

Three stages of the counseling process have been delineated by
Carkhuff and are being used in the training. They are:

1. Establishment of the Counseling Relationship--referring to
the initial phase of counseling where emphasis is placed
on building a solid, trusting, accepting relationship with
the client. In this phase, the counselor gets to know the
client.

2. Problem Identification--refers to the phase of the counseling

process where emphasis is placed on,identifying the client's
concerns and problems, and achieving a full understanding
of those concerns.

3. Problem Solving--refers to that phase of the counseling
process where emphasis is placed on searching out and
implementing courses of action or strategies to resolve
the client's problem. Therefore, this stage can be
divided into two substages: 1) Strategy Development,
and 2) Strategy Implementation.

227

228

Types of Counselor Responses

The types of counselor responses used in the training are the
same ten types which were defined in response training. They are:

 

l. restatement 6. evaluative

2. questioning 7. confrontation

3. informative 8. reflection

4. suggestion 9. clarification

5. reinforcement 10. interpretation

Training Format
ACTIVITY TIME YOUR ROLE

l. Videotape 1 1/2 - 2 hours None

2. Exercise I 1 hour Provide feedback to
2 trainees

3. Exercise II 1 hour Roleplay and provide

feedback to l trainee

The didactic portion of training (videotape) will present the
idea of integrating counselor responses with counseling process.

After the videotape, the trainees will work individually with
a lab instructor (YOU) on exercises which illustrate the concepts
taught on the tape.

You will be required to give the trainees feedback on how they
respond to these exercises.

Training Exercises

 

The exercises will be of two types:

1. Exercise I--written exercises where the trainee will read
' a counseling situation and client statement, and then choose the most
appropriate of four multiple choice responses. The trainee will also
be required to label each response according to the ten types and then
write an explanation of why he/she chose that particular response.

Five exercises will be provided for each of the three stages
of the counseling process (15 in total).

After each set of five exercises, YOU will give the trainee
feedback on his/her responses. You will be provided with appropriate
responses and reasons why those responses are appropriate.

During this phase of training, you will work with two trainees--
moving back and fOrth between them to provide feedback.

229

2. Exercise II--roleplay exercises where you will read a
counseling situation and client statement aloud to the trainee who will
respond as he/she would in an actual counseling interview.

You will write down the trainee's response and then analyze
the response with the trainee considering the following:

1. What stage of the counseling relationship is it?

2. What type of response did the trainee make (categorized
by the ten types)? .

3. What cued the trainee into what type of response was
appropriate?

4. Does the trainee still think his response is appropriate?

5 How would the trainee change the response to make it
better?

After you have gone through this process with the trainee, you
should roleplay the same situation using the revised response.

There will be several roleplay situations. You will be provided
with possible model answers and reasons why the model answers are
appropriate.

After the exercises are completed, you will review with the
trainee what he learned in the training and summarize the main points.
You will be provided with a written summary to help you with this.

During this phase of the training, you will be working with_
only one trainee.

Instructional Material

 

Following is the information which will be presented to the
trainees on the videotape and which you will need to know in order to
provide feedback to the trainees during the exercises.

I. Establishment of the Counseling Relationship

Important/Facilitative Nonfacilitative/Detrimental
l. restatement l. confrontation

2. reflection 2. interpretation

3. reinforcement 3. suggestion

4. clarification 4. evaluative

11. Problem Identification

 

Important/Facilitative Nonfacilitative/Detrimental
l. clarification l. confrontation

2. questioning 2. interpretation

3. reflection 31:0 a lesser 3. suggestion

4. restatement degree 4. evaluative

230

III. Problem Solvigg_

 

Important/Facilitative Nonfacilitative/Detrimental
l. clarification‘ l. reflection

2. confrontation 2. restatement

3. interpretation '3. evaluative

4. informative .

S. suggestion

Following is the rationale for considering certain types of
responses either important or facilitative OR nonfacilitative or
detrimental at certain stages of the counseling process:

1. Establishment of the Counseling Relationship

Responses which are considered important or facilitative:

l. restatement--lets the client know that the counselor is really
listening to what he/she is saying.

 

2. reflection--lets the client know that the counselor is not only
listening but can understand and empathize with what he/she
is feeling.

 

3. reinforcement--for the client to continue with what he/she is
saying indicates that the counselor is listening attentively
and wants the client to continue with what he/she is saying.
This can include verbal assurance or merely an mm-hm, often
accompanied by approving gestures and visual cues that the
counselor is fOllowing.

 

4. clarification--by the counselor regarding something he is not clear
about indicates to the client that the counselor wants to
accurately understand what the client is saying.

 

Responses which are considered nonfacilitative or possibly detrimental:

 

l. confrontation--confronting the client on discrepancies in his/her
communications at the beginning of a relationship--before trust
has been established and before the counselor has an adequate
knowledge of the client's problems--can be:

 

l. Inaccurate.

2. Perceived as inaccurate by the client because he/she
is not ready to accept it. He/She may not yet
trust the counselor enough to be confronted. The
confrontation may be threatening.

3. Perceived as accurate by the client but threatening
because he/she is not ready to accept it.

231

Confrontation can be a step backward in developing the counseling
relationship and may cause the client to terminate prematurely.

2. interpretation--can have the same effect as confrontation. Inter-
pretations are based upon knowledge about the client and the
counselor's ability to put that information together in a way
which is useful to the client. At the beginning of the coun-
seling relationship, the counselor does not have enough
information to formulate such interpretations.

 

3. suggestion--in suggesting a course of action to a client in dealing
with a problem, the counselor must have established a good
relationship with the client and obtained an adequate under-
standing of the problem so that he knows: (1) whether the
client has tried what is being suggested befOre, and (2) whether
the suggestion is appropriate fOr this particular client.
Suggestion is premature at the relationship-building stage.
Suggesting possible problem solutions prematurely is a common
shortcoming of beginning counselors. At this point the counselor
should be more intent on listening to the client and getting a
full understanding of the problem--not formulating solutions.

 

Clients are inclined to disregard suggestions, even if valid,
if they have not yet established a good relationship with the
counselor. Dependent clients may accept suggestions, even if
inappropriate.

4. evaluative--rarely is an evaluative—type response appropriate in
counseling. It is counselor—centered ("1" rather than "You")
and puts forth the counselor's beliefs, values, and opinions.

 

At the first stage of the counseling process, attention should
be focused on what the client thinks and believes--not the
counselor.

II. Problem Identification

 

Responses which are considered important or facilitative:

 

l. clarification--by the counselor allows the counselor to accurately
understand the client's problem and to make clear thatlwhich is
causing the client's concern.

 

2. questionin --allows the counselor to more fully understand the
concrete aspects of the problem. Questions elicit infbrmation
which the counselor needs in order to understand the client's
problem.

 

The counselor must be careful not to use too many questions

as it will make the client feel he/she is being interrogated.
Questions should be developed from the content of what the client
says, rather than from a preset agenda of questions.

232

3. reflection--of feelings accurately enables the counselor to help
the client focus in on that which is causing the concern.

 

4. restatement--of information accurately enables the counselor to
help the client focus in on that which is causing the concern.

 

Responses which are considered nonfacilitative or possibly detrimental:

 

 

l. confrontation--the counselor must identify and understand the
client's problem before confrontation is useful. Confrontation
based on incomplete information and without a full understanding
of the problem can be inaccurate and threatening to the client
if premature.

 

2. integpretation--same as confrontation.

 

3. suggestion--same as under Establishment of the Counseling Relation-
ship. Too many suggestions establishes the counselor as the
"expert" whose job it is to tell the client what to do.

 

4. evaluative--same as under Establishment of the Counseling Relation-
ship.

 

III. Problem Solving_

 

Responses which are considered important or facilitative:

 

A. Development of Strategy_

 

l. clarification--used by the counselor to clarify points to the
client can clear up the client's thinking on issues related to
the client's problem.

 

2. informative-—statements can be useful at this stage when the client
requests or needs concrete infbrmation which the counselor has
available to him/her (e.g., vocational-occupational information,
referral services, etc.). It is useful at early stages of
strategy develOpment where the client may need information.

 

3. suggestion-—although the counselor must be wary of using this type
of response which is counselor-centered rather than client-
centered, mild counselor suggestions at this point may be
helpful to the client in working toward resolution of the
problem. At this point, the counselor is aware of all aspects
of the client's concern and, therefore, can make some valid
and helpful suggestions without being overbearing.

B. Strategy Implementation

 

l. confrontation--points out discrepancies between what the client
says and does. At this point in the counseling process, when

 

233

the client is ready for forward growth, confrontation serves
more as an impetus to the client to examine his/her behavior
and change rather than as a threat.

Confrontation can serve to stimulate or jolt the client into
action when the counselor perceives that progress toward
resolving the concern has come to a halt.

2. interpretation—-at this stage of counseling where the client is ‘
willing to work on his/her problems, interpretation by the
counselor can serve to give the client new insights into
his/her problems and perhaps a new frame of reference from
which to view his/her problems. This insight may stimulate
client change.

 

Responses which are considered nonfacilitative or possibly detrimental:

 

1. reflection--although generally an effective type of response, over-
reliance on reflection can impede client growth. To keep
reflecting the same feelings over and over reinforces those
feelings and gets in the way of moving forward and doing some-
thing about those feelings.

 

In this phase of the counseling process, reflection should be
interspersed with more active-oriented responses which
encourage the client to examine the feelings.

General reflection of all feelings tends to open new issues
rather than continuing the fbcus on existing ones.

2. restatement--same as reflection above. Repetition of the same
content does not facilitate problem-solving.

 

3. evaluative--same as under Establishment of the Counseling Relation-
ship.

 

APPENDIX Y

RESPONSE EXERCISE:

PRETEST, POSTTEST, AND FOLLOWUP FORMS

APPENDIX Y

PRETEST

SKILL INTEGRATION WORKSHOP

ED 819D FEBRUARY 15, 1977

RESPONSE EXERCISE

Instructions: Please read each counseling situation and
client statement.

For each client statement circle the

counselor response which you consider to
be most appropriate.

234

1.

235

Situation: High school principal has referred a 16 year-old male student
to the school Counselor. He's a habitual truant and has been in trouble

'with the police on numerous occasions.

Client: There's nothing you can say to me that I wanna hear. Being here
is better than math class but I'd rather be out in the street.
(a) You don't want to be here or even in school at all.
(b) You obviously don't want to be here but it seems you don't realize
the seriousness of the situation.
(c) Maybe this is a good point for me to tell you what counseling is all about.
(d) You don't seem to care what happens to you.

Situation: An 18 year-old female who has recently graduated from‘high
school and moved away from her family. First interview at a community
mental health clinic. '

-Client: 'I told my parents that I'd need some money while I was looking for

a job, but they haven't answered my letters. . .and I'm afraid to call them,
They told me not to come to Chicago. They really wanted me to live at home
for the next couple of years, you know, until I got older.

(a) But how much longer can you stay in Chicago without money from home?

(b) You feel that if you call your parents for money they'll say "I told
you so."

(c) It must be pretty frightening to be in a big city without any money.

(d) You're feeling frightened and apprehensive now that you're here. . .
Not sure you can make it and not sure you can count on your parents
for support.

Situation: A female college freshman is talking to her dorm counselor about
problems adjusting to college.

glignt: I've always gotten along really well with my sister but since we've
been roommates in the dorm, I can't stand her. She's always with John. She
doesn't seem to mind that I'm home alone. . .you know, since I broke up with Bill.

(a) I wonder if you're upset about seeing Karen having a good time with John
when you're down in the dumps about breaking up with Bill.
(b) Living-in those close quarters with your sister must cause you to get
on each other's nerves. ’ .
(c) It's surprising to you that Karen doesn't realize you don't like being alone.
(d) You're still very upset about breaking up with Bill.

Situation: This is the sixth session between a high school boy and the

school counselor. They have been discussing his dating problems.

Client: v.11. . .1 did it. 1 finally called Jenny up and asked her for a
date. . .she even accepted. . .and we had a really good time.

(a) where did you go?

(b) I told you you could do it.

(c) Great!

(d) It must feel good to be successful after we worked on it for so long.

7.

236

Situation: This is the third interview between a male community college
student and a male counselor. The counselor has begun to question him about
the concern they were exploring during the last session.

Client: Sure is a madhouse out there. . .everybody trying to register for
classes. . .rushing around like crazy. . . hey, did you see the game last night?

(a) Yes - it was a great game, especially the last quarter.

(b) You avoided my question about what we were talking about last week.
(c) Why don't you tell me how things have been going for the last week.
(d) I think we should talk about your concern now.

Situation: It is the beginning of the first interview between a 19 year-old
male college student and a male community college counselor.

gligntz- Before I say anything, I want you to know that I saw a counselor about
a year ago and he was more messed up then I was. Do you have it together?

(a) Sounds like you don't have such faith in counselors.

(b) You saw a counselor before but he wasn't able to help you.
(c) that made you seek help again?

(d) why don't you give me a try.

Situation: This is the fifth interview between a male college student and
his dorm counselor. They have explored his relationship with his roomate
and determined several things that he could do to handle the situation.

Client: I really need to do something about my roommate situation, but I just-

naver seem to find the time. Whenever I‘ set some time aside to tackle him on
it, sanething else comes up.

(a) Maybe you should pick a time to talk to him and definitely do it then
regardless of what comes up.

(b) I think the reason you can't do "it, is that you're afraid to approach him.

(c) You say you want to do something about it, but you never do.

(:1) Time connitments havekept you from talking about the problem with your
roommate.

Situation: High school girl talking to counselor at a neighborhood drop-in

center . Fourth interview.

Client: I'm not going back with my parents. Why do you think I keep running

away”! I told you before - I hate them!

.(a) Do you think you have some good reasons for hating them so such?

(b) You think there's no way you can go back with your parents right now
because of the way you feel about them.

(c) You feel there's nothing your parents can do now to make you want to come
home.

(d) You're feeling so angry and upset with your parents right now that you
feel there' s no way you can live in the same house with them.

9.

10.

ll.

12.

237

Situation: The client is a 30 year-old female at a women's counseling center.
She has been explaining her problem with her male boss at work. It is the
sixth session.

Client: I know I need to do something about. my relationship with my boss.
Things keep getting worse. What do you think I should do?

(a) I think it would be helpful for you to just talk to him about it.

(b) Maybe we could roleplay how you could talk to him about your relationship.

(c) What have you thought about doing?

(d) You are really beginning to feel very uncomfortable about the way things
are going between you and Mr. Evans.

Situation: A teenage girl has gone to a family counselihg center. It is
the first session.

C__l__ient: I wouldn't be here except my parents made me come. They think I'm
really messed up, but I think this is a waste of time.

(a) It sounds like you don't think you have any reason for coming.

(b) Sounds like you're really mad at your parents for thinking you need
to see a counselor.

(c) Why don't we talk for awhile, then you can decide whether you want
to continue.

(d) I'm sorry that you feel that you were forced to come and see me.

Situation: It is the first interview between a male high school student and
his school counselor. ,The student was sent to the counselor by his homeroom
teacher because he was being disruptive in class.

Client: I don't know why she sent me to‘see you - she's the one that should

be seeing a shrink.

(a) Let me tell you about .what I do as a counselor. . .

(b) You seem to be really angry at Mrs. Green for sending you to see me.

(e) You don't know why Mrs. Green sent you down here.

(d) You shouldn' t really be annoyed with Mrs. Green. She's just trying to
do what's best for you.

Situation: A 22 year-old female is talking to a marriage and family counselor.

It is the seventh interview.

Client: I can't see why you can't tell me whether I should get a divorce or

not. . .I've explained the whole situation clearly enough to you.

(a) Sounds like you need more time before making that decision.

(b) Do you have a lawyer who could explain your options?

(c) It seems like you want me to make the decision for you.

(d) It sounds like you're really bothered about making that decision.

l3.

14.

15.

16.

2138

Situation: A young, unmarried teenage mother is receiving counseling from a
social service agency on how to cope with her child. It is the third session.

Client: I was so angry with that child I could have strangled her. I thought
I would explode, I was so mad. -

(a) What did Margaret do to make you so angry?

(b) It sounds like you were so angry with Margaret you thought you'd go
completely out of control.

(c) You were about as angry as you could possibly be.

(d) Margaret mat have done something terrible to make you so angry.

Situation: A high school senior has come in to see the career counselor.
This is the first interview.

Client: 'I've looked everywhere for a job. What good does it do to graduate
from high school when you can't find work?

(a) You are fed up with everything at the moment:
(b) You can't find work and are wondering why you bothered finishing high school.
(c) my don't you tell me what you have been doing to find a job.
(d) III-hm.

Situation: This is at the beginning of the fifth interview between a 7 year-
old boy and a school counselor. Last time as a reinforcement for working on
his problem, the boy was allowed to play in the counseling unit playroom.

Client: I had fun here last: time. Can we go and play with the games now?

(a) Let's see how well you did this week and then maybe we can go next door.
(b) Tiny, remember we're here to work on your problem about fighting.
(c) I'm glad you have a good time coming to see me.

-(d) Did you get along with the other boys on the playground this week?

Situation: The client is a 20 year-old male at a counseling center. This

is the sixth interview. The client has not always done what was decided upon
in the previous sessions. . '

Client: must do you mean by avoiding? I mean exactly what do you think I'm

avoiding - I don't understand. I mean, I'm a very straight forward person.

(a) By not doing what we decided upon, I meant you may be avoiding really
dealing with your problem.

(b) You say you are a straight forward person, but you have not been straight
forward here.

(c) Sounds like you don't think you're avoiding anything.

(d) You are confused by my use of the word "avoiding." -

17.

18.

19.

20.

239

Situation: A female college student is talking to her dorm counselor. It is
midway through an impromptu conversation.

Client: On weekends I could stay here. . .I could probably get dates, but I
don't stay here. : I go home, or I go to my friends, 'cause I hate staying. . .
just staying right here.

(a) I think it would be a good idea to stick it out for a couple of weekends
and just give it a try.
(b) Dorm life is really getting to you.
(c) Have you tried staying for a weekend? .
(d) You don't think you'll ever fit in at the dorm, so you don't want to be here.

Situation: Female college freshman at the college counseling center. They
have been discussing how unhappy she is with college. Fourth interview.

Client: I'm really beginning to think the only way out is to kill myself. . .
I just can't try anymore. . .

(a) School and college life has‘you so overwhelmed that you can't face it
anymore.

(b) Is that something you really think you could do?

(c) You think suicide is the only solution to your problem.

(d) There are a lot of people who would be very upset if you did that.

Situation: The client is a 35 year-old male who has come in to see the
factory personnel officer. It is midway through the first interview.

Client: I'm not sure exactly what is bothering me - sometimes I think
it's my job, other times I think it's my relationship with my wife. Sometimes
I just don't know what it is.

-(a) may don't you tell me about your problems at work?

(b) You are feeling really down about all your problems.
(c) Perhaps I can help you figure out what exactly is bothering you.
(d) You're mixed up about what's bothering you.

Situation: A middle-age man has been seeing a counselor at a rehabilitation
agency. It is the fourth interview. The client who is usually quite
talkative, is quiet and depressed.

Client: Ha. . .well. . .I don't seem to feel like talking today. . .

(a) You don't feel like talking right now.

(1:) Maybe you'd like to sit here for awhile and get your thoughts together.
(c) Things really seem to have upset you this week.

(d) Iiow have you been feeling this week?

21.

22..

24.

24()

Situation: The client is a 19 year-old male seeing a vocational counselor

about getting a better job than the one he has. It is the middle of the

first interview.

Client: . . .and now my‘wife's pregnant and we hadn't planned to start a

famin yet, so it really is vital that I get a good paying job.

(a) There seems to be a lot of financial pressures on you right now.

(b) You need a good job to pay for all the extra expenses.

(c) You are feeling overwhelmed with all these financial pressures,
particularly now you are expecting a baby.

(d) What sort of jobs are you considering that would pay you enough to
meet your expenses?

Situation: The client is a high school freshman talking with her counselor.
She has'been referred by her history teacher who thinks she is not doing as
well in class as she could. It is the middle of the first session.

Client: we all like her class, but we seem to do the same thing everyday.
Class “would be more interesting if she would do something besides lecturing.

(a) You don't find history class interesting since all Mrs. Thomas does
in lecture.

(b) So it's the way Mrs. Thomas teaches and not history that's causing
the problem.

(c) Have you talked with Mrs. Thomas about that?

(d) You're not doing well in class because you think it's boring.

Situation: A mdddle-aged housewife is receiving counseling about her
marriage at a private clinic. It is the seventh session. She blames her
husband for their problems.

Client: I know‘we've mentioned this before, but don't you think that if
Jack wouldn't tune me out so such I wouldn't complain as much as I do?

(a) You feel that your.complaining is a result of Jack ignoring you so much.
(b) It sounds like you want me to tell you that Jack's at fault.
(c) I thought thatm talked about this before and concluded that neither
of you alone was at fault.
(d) we seem to deal with the same issue over and over but get nowhere with it.

Situation: The client is a high school student working with a counselor on

improving his study habits and raising his grades. It is the end of the second
interview.

Client: I understand how to keep this log about when I study and where I
study. . .but what are we going to use it for when it's finished?

(a) It seems like you don't think the log is a very good idea.

(b) we'll look at what you've written down and see if we can figure out,
‘ways to improve your study habits.

(c) ‘You're wondering exactly what the purpose of the log is.

(d) You think the log is a lot of work for the good it will do you.

241

25. Situation: A‘ college junior honors student majoring in psychology. At
the college counseling center. He's expressed some vague concerns about
his social life. Fifth interview.

Client: I think that perhaps my lack of an adequate social -life is simply
a temporary reaction to an overload of acadmic work. When things return to
normal, I should be engaging in more social activities.

(a) You've been coming in here to see me for five weeks, but you still
are not being very clear about what your concern is.

(b) I'm wondering if you're using your school work to avoid dealing with

. your problems with your social life.

(c) You think if you weren't so busy with school work your social life
would be better.

(d) Maybe you shouldn't worry so such about your school work since your
grades are so good - and concentrate more on having fun.

242

POSTTEST

SKILL INTEGRATION WORKSHOP

ED 819D FEBRUARY 22, 1977

aESPONSE EXERCISE

Instructions: Please read each counseling situation
'and client statement.

For each client statement circle the
counselor response which you consider
to be most appropriate.

1.

2..

243

Situation: A 14 year-old boy is talking to his school counselor. This is
the third interview. The client has yet to say what is really on his mind.

Client: (Hesitatingly). . . uh . . . my friends are always talking about
girls. . . and things they do with them. . . I don't know what they are
talking about. . .

(a) You' re feeling really confused about girls and sex.

(b) Your friends are always talking about girls and you feel left out.
(c) How can I help you exactly?

(d) It sounds like you wish you had a girlfriend too.

Situation: Young mother of three is seeing a counselor at a women's counseling
center. It is her fifth interview and she is discussing her problems with
her children.-

Client: I know we've talked about this many times before and I tried some
of the things we talked about, but I really don' t understand why my kids can 't
keep quiet while I'm studying!

(a) Your difficulty understanding seems to indicate that you don't really go
along with the explanation we've come up with several times before.

(b) .Your kids have really been bothering you again this week?

(c) You're having difficulty in understanding why your kids behave that way.

(d) Perhaps we can work out a way to keep them from bothering you.

Situation: The client is a housewife who is frustrated with raising her

four children. This is the seventh interview. She and the counselor have

.been discussing ways to cope with her frustration.

Client: I'd really like you to tell me if I'm crazy or not.

(a) It sounds like you are concerned about how I see you.

(b) You want me to tell you if I think you are crazy.

(c) You are worried that I think you are crazy.

(d) You are asking me what I think, but.maybe what you are telling me is
that you think you may be crazy.

Situation: A 16 year-old girl talking to her high school counselor - fourth

interview.

Client: I finally found a way to quit smdking - I'm just going to go "cold
° turkey." ‘

(a) That's a good idea. ‘

(b) You think you could do it?

(c) I wonder if you realize how difficult it is to stop "cold turkey."
(d) would you like to talk about how to go ahead doing that?

244

5. Situation: The client is a muddle-aged businessman at a private clinic.
It is the middle of the fourth interview.

Client: I think the reason I'm not getting along with my wife right now
is that I'm so wrapped up in things at the office. If I wasn't so busy at
work there wouldn't be any problems.

(a) ‘Maybe you should take some time off the job, to work on things at home.

(b) How does your wife feel about it?

(c) You seem to be concerned enough about the problems to come here for help,
but you avoid talking about the feelings involved.

(d) You're really upset about having to work so hard at the office.

6. Situation: The client is a teenage high school dropout whose parents are
putting pressure on him to go back to school. This is the sixth session.
He and the counselor have been discussing job possibilities.

Client: I don't know what I want to do. . . and anyway, I can't do anything
about it. . . my parents are always on my back,-and I'm sick of it.

(a) You feel that there's nothing that you can do to get your parents off
your back.

(b) You're saying you don't know what to do, but last week you wanted to
be a car mechanic but thought your parents would never approve.

(c) -Let's run through the alternatives we've discussed before and see why
you're discarding them.

(d) But last week you were so excited about being a mechanic - what happened?

\

7. Situation: A 22 year-old male student seeing a college counselor about his
social life - this is the third interview.

glien : Everybody else seems to be having fun and going out - I don't seem
to get out at all - all I do is sit in my room and listen to my stereo.

(a) Did you go out at all this week?

(b) What have you tried to do before to meet new people?

(c) You don't seem to get out at all and have fun like other people.
(d) Why don't you try getting out of your room more.

8. Situation: The client is a middle-aged woman at a community mental health
agency. This is her eighth interview with the counselor.

Client: We've talked about this problem over and over and I've tried all
the things we've come up with in here, and none of them have really worked. . .
'I don't know what to do next. I've run out of energy.

(a) You feel discouraged and unsatisfied because you've really tried hard
to solve this problem and nothing seems to help.

(b) Well, let's see if we can come up with something new for you to try
this week.

(c) I wonder if the reason you're having so much trouble with this is you
really don't want to cha e. :

(d) What did you try this wee that didn't work?

245

9. Situation: A 32 year-old male at a community mental health agency. It is

10.

11.

12.

the second interview and the client is noticeably upset.

Client: I find it hard to believe that my wife has really left me. I mean,
she really didn't have any reason to. . .

(a) You're still having a hard time accepting the fact that she really walked
out on you. ‘ .

(b) You are still really hurt that she'd leave like that.

(c) She gave you no reasons for leaving?

(d) You're really unprepared to make it on your own.

Situation: A college female junior is talking to her dorm adviser for the
first time.

Qfljgmgg- Maybe I'm just not cut out for college. Sometimes, I think it might
just be better to be a salesperson or something like that and not worry about

making something out of myself. .

(a) You are having difficulty with school and are thinking of dropping out.
(b) Have you been having problems in your classes?

(c) You're having doubts about the value of a college education.

(d) You're really wondering about whether you can make it in college.

Situation: A high school dropout has come in to see a vocational placement
counselor for the first time.-

 

Client: I heard about some tests you can take to help you decide what job
you'll like. Can I take them here? Are they any good?_ Some of my friends
said they don't help, but I need to try something.

(a) Let me tell you something about the vocational services we have here.

(b) You are wondering whether the test information will help you decide
about a job. ’

(c) Have you taken any of these sort of tests before?

(d) Tell me, what you have done to try and get a job.

Situation: A 20 year-old girl talking with a counselor at a mental health
agency. It is the third interview and they have been discussing her fear
of flying in a general fashion.

Client: I really want to do something about my problem about flying as I
would like to go to my sister's wedding in California in the sunner.

'(a) In order to work on this we need to find out more details about the

problem. . . when did it start?

(b) Have you thought of other’ways to get out to California?

(c) Yen are really motivated to do something about your problem.

(d) It would be nice if we could help you enough so you could fly out there
then.

13.

14.

16.

246

Situation: A 12 year-old girl has been referred to the counselor for biting

her nails. This is the second interview.

_C___lient: I don't know. . . I guess I just do it when nothing much is going
on. . . I' m not sure.

(a) You're not certain exactly when you bite your nails.

(b) What else do you do when you're bored?

(c) Well, maybe you can keep track of when it happens - then we'll know
more about your problem.

(d) When people are bored or nothing such is happening, they quite often
fiddle with things and bite their nails.

Situation: Third interview between a female college junior and her counselor.
In the previous interview, they were just beginning to explore her relationship
with her parents. This is about fifteen minutes into the interview.

Client: I had a good weekend. I saw a play - I'm an English major, you

know - I really like Tennessee Williams - his characters are always so
intense and interesting.

(a) Shall we return to what we were discussing last week.

(b) Have you thought anymore about what we discussed last time?

(c) It sounds like you had a good, weekend.

(d) I wonder if talking about the weekend is a way to keep from discussing
the problem of your parents.

Situation: First interview-between a middle-aged woman and a comnity'agency'

counselor .

nt: I'm not sure if you can help me -maybe I've come to the wrong place
and I should talk with my doctor instead. Can you tell me what you do here?

(a) my don't you try telling me what is bothering you?

(b) You are wondering if I can help you or whether your doctor would be the
right person to see.

(c) Well, we offer free counseling services to people in the community who
want to talk about things that are bothering them.

(d) You are feeling rather uncomfortable about being here.

Situation: A 17 year-old girl is having difficulty deciding which colleges

to apply to. This is the fourth interview.

Client: I know we decided last week that I needed to find out about five

colleges to help me decide, but I don't have any idea about how to go about
getting that stuff. Do you have any suggestions?

(a) You are uncertain about what to do next.

(b) We have a list of colleges here and the addresses to write to for the
catalogs. . . you could look at those.

(c) What ideas do you have about how to get the information?

(d) You were not able to get the information yet.

17.

18.

19.

20.

247

Situation: A 16 year-old girl is talking to her caseworker at the court
about family-related problems. This is the fourth interview.

Client: I'm thinking about running away from home. Things have gotten
worse. What do you think about that? ‘

(a) Things must be pretty bad at home right now for you to be considering
getting out. '

(b) You're thinking of running away since things at home are impossible.

(c) You're upset with things at home and just want to get out.

(d) Wat's been happening that has made things so much worse that you

- want to run away. '

Situation: The client is a young married woman who is seeing a connmity
college. counselor about a concern unrelated to her pregnancy. It is the fifth
interview.

Client: The prospect of being a‘mother still amazes. me. I don't feel
ready for it. . I hoped I'd be better prepared for everything. Could you
tell me a good place to get information on prenatal care?

(a) We have some brochures here from local agencies that offer that
type of service.

(b) It must be very exciting to be having your first child.

(c) You're worried about the prospect of having a baby when you hadn't
planned on one so 'soon.

(d) I'm wondering if you'd like to talk about your pregnancy rather than
the concern we've beendiscussing.

Situation: A factory worker is talking to a personnel officer at his plant
about work-related problems. The counselor is trying to get a full under-
standing of the problem.

. Client: I was late for work three times again this week. The boss doesn't

mind us being a little late, but not as late as I'm getting to be.

(a) How late have you been coming this week?

(b) You think your boss is pretty reasonable about workers coming late.

(c) The factory rules state that if you're late more than five minutes, you
get docked 15 minutes pay.

(d) I'd probably be more upset if I were your boss.

Situation: The client is a newly-married female talking to her counselor at a
'coamunity mental health agency and it is the fifth interview.

Client: ' I just don't know why I can't get along with my mother-in-law. She's
impossible. You're married. . . do you have the same problem?

(a) It's funny how many jokes are made about mother-in-laws. They really
are a problem sometimes.

(b) You're wondering if others experience the same problems you're having.

(c) I get along pretty well with my ,mother-in-law.

(d) In what way is she impossible?

21.

22.

23.

24 .

248

Situation: A 27 year-old mother of three who has family problems is seeing
a community counselor. They have been discussing different ways she can
handle her children. This is the seventh interview.

Client: I'm just so tired all of the time - I don't know what's wrong with
me. Maybe I should go and see a doctor.

(a) I'm wondering if you are using the fact that you're tired as an excuse
for not trying to handle the situation at home.
(b) You're run down and think there may be something physically wrong with you.
(c) You are disturbed by being so tired and are concerned that you may
have something wrong with you.
(d) mast exactly do you mean by being tired all of the time?

Situation: A 28 year-old male has come in to see the company counselor.

Client: I reallylfeel like I need to talk to somebody. . . but I'd hate
for something to get back to the boss. . . working here is pretty important
to me.

(a) You are concerned about your boss finding out some of the things you
might say to me.

0») It is the company's and my policy that whatever you say here is confidential.

(c) You are bothered by something that is happening here at the company.

(d) This job is important to you.

Situation: The client is a college sephomore. It is the sixth interview.
lie and the counselor have been working on ways to improve his social life.

Client: I know now why things don't work out for me - I'm too stupid.
I'm no good socially. I'm no genius at school. . . I'm not that good at

anything. . , .

(a) Putting yourself down like that could be your way of not taking
responsibility for dealing with your problem.

(b) It sounds like you are feeling really inferior.

(c) I'm beginning to think you may be getting something out of putting
yourself down. '

(d) You are feeling unhappy and disillusioned with yourself.

Situation: A 16 year-old boy is flunking English and social studies. nm
is the second interview with the, school counselor.

Client: . I really don't want to flunk those classes - what can I do about it?

(a) You want to work on passing these classes.

(b) Why don't you tell me exactly what you are doing in these classes. Let's
start with English. ’ .

(c) how are your grades in those classes at the moment?

(d) One thing that might really help is setting up a study schedule.

25.

249

Situation: The client is a male college junior talking to one of the school
counselors. It is the seventh interview. -

Client: You really make me mad! We do all this talking in here and you

suggest all. these things for me to do, but you don't realize how hard it
is for me to do them!

(a) You're really angry at me for not understanding.

(b) You think I don't understand how difficult it is for you to do these
assignments. '

(c) Maybe we should take things a little slower.

(d) You're really upset about how difficult it's been to do anything about
solving your problem.

250

FOLLOWUP TEST
SKILL INTEGRATION WORKSHOP

APRIL FOLLOWUP

RESPONSE EXERCISE

 

Instructions: Please read each counseling situation and
client statement.

For each client statement circle the counselor
response which you consider to be most appro-
priate.

(a)
(b)
(C)

(d)

(a)

(b)
(e)

(d)
3.

(a)
(b)
(C)

(d)

4.

251

Situation: The client is a teenage high school dropout whose
parents are encouraging her to go back to school although she
doesn't want to. She is discussing job possibilities with the
counselor at the sixth interview.

Client: What can I do about anything anyway? I don't know what I
want to do . . . my parents pressure me all the time . . . I'm
tired of it! -

But last week you were so excited about being a beautician--what
happened?

You feel there's nothing you can do to get your parents off your
back.

You're saying you don't know what to do, but last week you said
you'd really like to be a beautician but your parents would
never approve.

Let's run through the alternatives we talked about a couple of
weeks ago and see why they don't appeal to you any more.

Situation: A 16 year-old boy has been referred to a private clinic

because he has a habit for several years of pulling out his
hair and his parents have been unable to stOp him. It is the
second interview.

Client: I don't know . . . I guess I just do it when nothing much

is going on . . . I'm not sure.

Well, maybe you can try to keep track of when it happens so we'll
know more about it.

You're not certain exactly when you start pulling on your hair.

When people are bored or nothing much is happening, they'll often
do something like that . . . pull at their hair.

What else do you do when you're bored?

Situation: The client is a 40 year-old woman at a private clinic.

It is the seventh interview.

Client: You really get me angry! We talk, talk, talk in here .

then you tell me what to do . . . you don't know how hard it is
to do these things. '

Maybe we should take things a little slower.

You're really mad at me for not understanding.

You don't think I understand how difficult it is for you to do
these things.

You're really upset about how difficult it's been to do anything
about solving your problem.

Situation: A college freshman is talking to his dorm advisor for
the first time.

(a)
(b)
(C)
(d)

(a)
(b)
(C)

(d)

(a)

(b) '

(C)
(d)

(a)
(b)

(C)

(d) g

252

Client: I just don't think I'm cut out for college. . . Sometimes

I think I should just be a mechanic or something like that .
and stop worrying about making something out of myself.

Have you been having problems in your classes?

You're having doubts about the value of a college education.

You're really wondering about whether you can make it in college.

YOu're having difficulty with school and are thinking of dropping
out .

Situation: A high school senior is having difficulty deciding

what college to attend. This is the fourth interview.

Client: Remember last week . . . how we decided that I would find

out about five colleges so I could start deciding . . . but I
don't have any idea how to get that information. Do you have
any suggestions?

You weren't able to get the information yet.

What ideas do you have about getting the information?

We have a list of colleges here and addresses to write to for
catalogs. . . You could start with those.

You seem to be unsure about what to do next.

Situation: A young married man is talking to a counselor at a

private agency about problems getting along with his children.
It is the fifth interview.

Client: I know we've talked about this several times before and

I've tried some of the things we talked about, but I really

don't understand why my kids can't keep quiet when I get home
from work and I'm so worn out!

This trouble you have understanding seems to show that you don't
really go along with the explanation we've come up with several
times before.

You're having difficulty understanding why your kids behave that way.

Your kids have really been bothering you again this week?

Perhaps we can work out a way to keep them from bothering you.

Situation: The client is a young married woman at a private clinic.

It is the middle of the fourth interview.

Client: I think the reason I'm not getting along with my husband

right now is that I'm so wrapped up in things at work. If things
weren't so busy there I don't think we'd have problems.

You're really upset about having to work so hard at your job.

You seem to be concerned enough to come here for help, but you
avoid talking about the feelings involved.

How does your husband feel about it?

Maybe you should take some time off the job, to work on things
at home.

253

8. Situation: A college freshman is flunking French and physics. This
is the second interview with a counselor.

Client: I really want to pass those c1asses--what can I do?

(a) How are your grades in French and physics right now?

(b) You want to work on passing these classes.

(c) Tell me what you're doing in thaggClaSSCS. Let's start with French.

(d) One thing that might really help is to set up a regular study
schedule.

9. Situation: The client is a 30 year-old male at a private clinic.
This is his eighth interview with the counselor.

Client: We've talked about this problem over and over . . . and you
know I've tried all the things we've come up with in here and
none of them have really worked . . . I don't know what to do
next. I'm really discouraged.

(a) What did you try this week that didn't work?

(b) I wonder if the reason you're having so much trouble is that you
really don't want to change.

(c) Well, let's see if we can come up with something new for you to
try this week.

(d) You're really feeling discouraged about trying so hard when nothing
seems to help.

10. Situation: A teenage girl is talking to the school counselor about
problems getting along with her mother. It is the fourth

interview.
Client: There's nothing left for me to do but leave home . . . run
away . . . things just keep getting worse. . . What do you think?

(a) You're upset with things at home and just want to get out.

(b) What's been happening that has made things so much worse with your
mother?

(c) You're thinking of running away because things at home are unbearable.

(d) Things must be pretty bad at home right now for you to be thinking
of getting out.

11. Situation: A 45 year-old married man is talking to a counselor
about family-related problems. They have been discussing
several ways he can handle these concerns. This is the seventh
interview.

Client: I'm just tired all the time--I don't know what's wrong
with me. Maybe I should go and see a doctor.

(a) I'm wondering if you're using the fact that you're tired as an
excuse for not trying to handle the situation at home.

(b) You're run down and think there may be something physically wrong
with you.

(C)
(d)
12.

(a)
(b)

(C)
(d)

13.

(a)
(b)
. (C)
(d)

14.

(a)
(b)

(C)
(d)

15.

254

You're disturbed at being so tired and worried that you might have
something wrong with you.
What exactly do you mean by being tired all the time?

Situation: A 30 year-old woman is talking to a counselor about her

fear of large social gatherings. It is the third interview.

Client: I'd really like to do something about this. My husband

has a job where he has to go to a lot of big parties.H
always asks me to go but he's getting tired 0 all my excuses .
or me demanding that we leave early.

In order to work on this we need to find out more details about
the problem . . . like when did it start?

Have you thought of ways to handle the problem?

You're really motivated to do something about your problem.

It would be nice if I could help you enough so you'd feel comfortable
at parties.

Situation: A young woman is talking to the personnel officer in her

company about job-related problems. The counselor is trying to
get a full understanding of the problem.

Client: I was late for work again three times this week. The boss

doesn't mind us being a little late, but not as late as I'm
getting to be.

How late were you this week?

According to office rules, you lose pay when you're late.

I'd probably be more upset if I were your boss.

You think your boss is pretty reasonable about workers being late.

Situation: A man is talking to a community counselor during the
fourth interview.

 

Client: I finally decided the only way to quit smoking was just
stop . . . no more cigarettes!

That's a good idea.

I wonder if you realize how hard it is to just totally stop like
that.

Would you like to talk about how to go ahead doing that?

Do you think you could do it?

Situation: The client is a woman who has expressed extreme frustra—

tion over her job situation and her relationship with her husband.
It is the seventh interview. She and the counselor have been
discussing ways to cope with her frustration.

Client: I really wish you'd tell me . . . do you think I'm out of

my mind?

(a)
(b)
(C)
(d)

16.

(a)
(b)
(C)
(d)

17.

(a)

(b)
(C)

(d)
18.

(a)
(b)

(C)
(d)

19.

255

You want me to tell you if I think you're out of your mind?

You're worried that I think you're out of your mind.

It sounds like you're concerned about how I see you.

You're asking me what I think, but maybe you're really telling
me you think you're out of your mind.

Situation: A junior high school girl is talking to her school
counselor. It is the third interview, but the client has not
said what.is really bothering her.

Client: (Hesitatingly). . .well. . .all of a sudden my friends.
all they do is talk about guys. . .older guys too. . .about things
they do with them. I don't know what they mean most of the time.

How can I help you exactly?

You're really confused about boys and sex.

It sounds like you wish you had a boyfriend too.

Your friends are always talking about guys and you feel left out.

Situation: The client is a young married male talking to a
counselor at a community mental health agency. It is the
fifth interview.

Client: I don't know why but I just can't get along with my
mother-in-law. She's unbearable. You're married. . .do you
have the same problem?

You're wondering if others experience the same problems you're
having.

I get along pretty well with my mother-in-law.

It's funny how many jokes are made about mother-in-laws. They
really are aproblem sometimes.

In what way is she impossible?

Situation: The client is a high school senior who is talking to

the school counselor about ways to improve her social life.
It is the sixth interview.

Client: I'm really a nothing. . .Nothing ever turns out right

for me. . . I'm dumb. . .I can't make friends. . .What's the use?

You're really feeling unhappy and disillusioned with yourself.

I'm beginning to think you may be getting something out of putting
yourself down.

It sounds like you're feeling really down today.

Putting yourSelf down like that could be a way of not taking
responsibility for dealing with your problem.

Situation: It is the third interview between a college freshman

and his counselor. In the previous interview, they were just
beginning to explore his relationship with his older brother.
It is about 15 minutes into the interview.

(a)
(b)
(C)
(d)

20.

(a)

(b)
(C)

(d)
21.

(a)
(b)
(C)

(d)
22.

(a)
(b)
(C)
(d)

256

Client: I had a great weekend. Went to the football game and
then to a great party . . . I think we'll win the Big 10 this
year.

Let's get back to what we were discussing last week.

It sounds like you had a good weekend.

Have you thought any more about what we discussed last time?

I wonder if talking about the weekend is a way to keep from
discussing the problem with your brother.

Situation: The client is a young woman who is seeing a community
college counselor about choosing a major. It is the fifth
interview.

Client: The idea of getting married still amazes me. Sometimes

I don't feel ready for it. I hOped I'd be better prepared for

everything. What can I do to calm down about it?

We have some pre—marriage type groups here that you might like to
join.

It must be very exciting to be getting married.

I wonder if you'd rather talk about your marriage than choosing
a major.

You're worried about the prospect of being married.

Situation: The client is a 20 year-old female college student

talking to a counselor at the counseling center. It is the
second interview and the client is noticeably upset.

Client: I find it hard to believe that Jim really left me. I

mean, he really didn't have any reason to.

You're really not ready to get along on your own.

Didn't he give you any reasons for leaving?

You're still having a hard time accepting the fact that he really
walked out on you.

You're still really hurt that he'd leave you like that.

Situation: A 19 year-old college student is seeing a counselor
about problems with her social life. It is the third interview.

Client: Everyone I know in the dorm seems to have such a great

time all the time. . .and there I am. . .sitting in my room
alone listening to the stereo.

Did you go out at all this week?

What have you tried to do to make friends.?

You don't seem to get out and have fun like other people.
Why don't you try getting out of your room more.

APPENDIX Z

FREE RESPONSE EXERCISE:

PRETEST, POSTTEST, AND FOLLOWUP FORMS

’1' 0

APPENDIX Z

FREE RESPONSE EXERCISE PRETEST

Situation: The client is a 29-year old male who has made an
appointment at a private clinic. This is his first counseling
interview.

Client: Is this really confidential - can I trust you - I don't
want anything to get back to my wife or where I work. ..it would
be very awkward.

Situation: A 35—year old woman is talking to a marriage counselor
about her fears about divorcing husband. 8th session

Client: I really don' t know about this divorce...I know last

week I said my mind was made up...but I feel different about it
today.

Situation: A high school senior who has been doing very poorly
most of his classes. -He is talking to the school counselor.
6th interview

Client: I promised to bring you those progress reports from my
English and math teachers, didn' t I? I guess I forgot again...

Situation: 9 sophomoro at c011ega counseling center to

Celleg
-2'—""——— . - - . o o 0
01801188 a. prwuoi m. 4.5:. uuei V1.6"

Client: My roommate said I couldn' t come here to talk to someone
unless I'm a full- time student--which I' m not. Is that right?

Situation: l7-year old male talking to high school counselor

-about his poor study habits. 6th interview

Client: I know I should study now...but. you know, I get to
watching TV...hey, did you see "Charlie' 3 Angels" last night?

Situation: A young mother is talking to a community agency
counselor about problems with her children. It is the lst
interview.

Client: I try to be a good mother...but I get so impatient
__fi_..
I Just lose my temper and scream at them.

Situation: l9-year old college student talking to a counselor
about her parents. 3rd interview ,

Client: Why ca n 't they accept the fact that I' m not a baby
anymore. I' m 19 and I act responsible...I can take care of
myself.

257

10.

11.

12.

13.

258

Situation: 35-year old male talking to a counselor at a private
c11n1c about severe depression. It's the 4th interview.

Client: Things are as bad as ever...I've tried to explain to
you how I feel but no one could ever understand how bad it really
a. ., .

Situation: lO-year old girl talking to school counselor about
her problem of wandering in the hallway when she should be in
class. 2nd interview

'Client: After recess, I guess...I have to go to the bathroom

and then I just don't go back to Mrs. Monroe's room.

Situation: A 22-year old female. recently divorced with a
-year old son, is seeing a mental health agency counselor.
This is the nth interview.

Client: I'm sick of all this running around and all these phone
calls trying to get my ADC check. ‘Who's in charge of it--who
should I be contacting?

Situation: lh-year old boy talking to his caseworker at the
court. For the “act ‘ interviews, he's been talkir" °bc"+ how

much he despises his father because of the way his father has
been treating the family. '

Client: You really believed all that stuff about hating my
ad--he's not such a bad guy: it's just sometimes we don't

get along. . -

Situation: l9-year old college student has been seeing a counselor
about her problem of test anxiety.

Client: I did it: I stayed calm-—well, pretty calm—-during my
math test and got a 3+:

Situation: lS-year old boy talking with his school counselor.
This is the 5th interview. In previous interviews they've been
talking about how he could get along better with his parents
and family.

. Client: You know...I had a great time Friday night--my parents

went out to a party. so I took my Mom's care-my parents would
kill me if they knew, since I don't have a license. But what
they don't know won't hurt them.

1h.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

259

Situation: The client is a 29-year old female who has been
seeing a mental health counselor for several weeks about her
loneliness and depression. ‘

Client: I just don't think I could handle this without you--I

guess I feel kind of responsible to you for how well I'm doing,

3nd.gh§t you'll get angry with me if I haven't done what we
ec1 e . ~

Situation: 16-year old male student has been sent to the school
counselor by the homeroom teacher for being a general problem and
disturbance in school.

Client: Look, man, I don't want to be here—-you can't do any-
thing for me: I just don't want to be in school and that's it.
I can't wait to get out of here and out of this small town.

Situation: lS-year old girl has gone to the counselor because
she has been failing two of her classes. At the last session
they set up a study schedule for her to try for a week.

Client:' I really do want to do better in school--really I do,
but.I just don't seem to be able to study in the way we decided--
I.keep being interrupted--things just seem to come up.

Situation: The client is a 33-year old housewife who has a weight
problem. Her doctor referred her to a behavior counselor. This

is the 2nd interview.

Client: Being a housewife with h kids to feed means I seem to
be around food all day--so I guess I nibble a lot and eat up the

'leftovers. so I really am not sure exactly what I eat.

Situation: Male college freshman who is at the college counseling
center for his lst interview.

Client: I guess I don't know what it'is...I've never been so
unhappy before and it's all the time. I don't know anyone here:
I'm alone all the time. But I.can't quit and go home...

Situation: 40-year old female at community counseling agency.

' 2nd interview

Client: You know...I have to work so closely with him and it's
driving me crazy. He's so inconsiderate. I just wish I could

tell him how I feel.

20.

21.

22.

23.

21:.

250

260

Situation: 35-year old male at community mental health agency.
2nd interview

Client: Being an engineer is really hard work. Some of it's
rewarding though...seeing what.you've accomplished...it's a lot
of hassles getting there though...sometimes I wonder if it's all
worth it. Seems like I spend 75% of my life working.

Situation: Newly-married woman talking to a counselor about her
problems with her husband. 2nd interview

'Client: I get so frustrated with him when he doesn't pay atten-

tion to me...I know he's not used to having someone around all
the time...but it's really getting me angry.

Situation: hS-year old male talking to counselor at private
clinic. 7th interview. Client had cried at previous interview
and been embarrassed about some things he'd revealed about
himself.

Client: I'm in a hurry today...I' d like to beat the traffic...
I always get stuck on Wednesdays when I come in here--takes me
45 minutes to get home...that car is so undependable too...a1ways
getting something fixed.

Situation: High school student talking to school counselor about
academic problems. 3rd interview

Client: What' 8 really bothering me? I'm not sure...it's school--
I just don' t do well...then my parents get on my back. They act
like they hate me. Sometimes things are so bad at home...like

.the place is ready to explode...but what about that English

class...I wonder if I should drop it??

Situation: College student talking about his desire to quit
smoking. 2nd interview

Client: I do smoke alot...especially when I'm in class or
watching TV...

Situation: 35- -year old male talking to marriage counselor.
th interview

Client: I just keep arguing with her no matter how hard I try
not to...I' ve tried all those things we talked about in here...
we still fight' It's hopeless.

2.

3.

5.

261

FREE RESPONSE EXERCISE POSTTEST

Situation: The client is a 20 year-old male community college student.
Ht made an appointment to see the counselor and this is the first inter-
view. He seems to be on edge and sounds apolegetic.

Client: I feel like I'm taking up your time and that someone may be
waiting that really could use your help. This thing of mine seems
silly - even to me. '

Situation: A 20 year-old female college student has been discussing
her fears about staying in school. She'd made up her mind to continue
but now is waivering. It is the seventh interview.

Client: I know I said I was going to stay in school but I changed my
lind. s sit's Jn.t too “Ch work. a s

Situation: A 28 year-old male who is out of work is talking to a
community agency counselor about needing to find a job. It is the
eighth interview.

Client: No - I didn't go for those job interviews. I guess that's the
third time I messed up. . .

Situation: A 50 year-old male is talking to a counselor at a private
clinic during the first interview.

° Client: Because of my job I have a really hard time getting here during

the day. Do you have evening hours?

Situation: Sixteen year-old female client talking to a family counselor
about problems getting along with her mother. In past weeks she has
avoided talking with her mother about things she find the counselor decided
she would discuss with her mother. It is the eighth interview.

Client: Yeah. . .I talked'to'my mother about it. Boy it's really cold

‘in here. Is the heat on? Boy, isn't this weather awful!

7.

Situation: Female high school girl talking to school counselor about
problems getting along with her peers. This is the first interview.

Client: I don't understand why the other kids don't like me. . .why
they think I'm so different. I don't even have one good friend.

Situation: Thirty year-old female talking to a community agency
counselor. She is describing her relationship with her mother. This
is the second interview.

Client: I really loathe my mother. She disgusts me. . .always prying
into my life. But I can't leave her on her own. . .anyway, I don't
have anywhere to go myself.

10.

.11.

12.

~ l3;~

lb.

262

Situation: Forty-five year-old male client at community agency talking
about his marriage. He has been having trouble acknowledging his
feelings about his wife's intention to divorce him. It is the fifth
interview. '

Client: I don't really know what's wrong. I just feel depressed and
anxious all the time. I don't know. . .maybe it's just been a bad week.

Situation: Twelve year-old boy talking to the school counselor about
being late for school in the morning. It is the second interview.

Client: I'm not late all the time - just sometimes. . .something
happens at home and I'm late.

Situation: Female college sophomore talking with her academic advisor -
it is the third interview.

Client: You know. . .I've been thinking over what we talked about last
week and I'd really like to find out more about horticulture - but do
they offer that on this campus?

Situation: Fourteen year-old girl is talking to a caseworker at the
court. It's the sixth interview. In previous interviews she had been
talking about how unbearable things have been at home.

- Client: I've been putting you on. I really don't want to run away

from home, I like it most of the time.

Situation: The client is a 13 year-old girl who has a tardiness problem.
She has been seeing the junior high counselor for three weeks - this
is the fourth interview. , ~ -

Client: Remember how we said I should try to get to school on time
at least three times this week? Well, I made it all five days!

Situation: Sixteen year-old male high school student talking with
his school counselor in the fourth interview. In previous interviews
they have been talking about his home situation and how to get along
better with his mother.

Client: I had a great weekend - stayed out all night. ‘That really
upset my Mom, but it was worth it. '

Situation: The client is a 24 year-old mother of four young children.
She has been seeing a mental health counselor about her depression and
general inability to cope with things at home. This is the eighth
interview. The client comes regularly to her counseling appointments,
but things don't seem to be changing at home.

Client: I was thinking. . .maybe I should come in_and see you more
often. I really like talking with you and it makes me feel good and I
leave her feeling great, but after a few days everything's back to its
usual messed up state and I can't seem to cope with things.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

21.

2(i3

Situation: Thirteen year-old boy has been sent down to see the junior
high counselor by his math teacher for being a general nuisance in his
classes - first interview.

Client: I'm confused - what am I doing here. why have you asked to
see me, I didn't do nothing wrong. 9

Situation: Thirteen year-old girl has been seeing the counselor
about her tardiness problem.

Client: I'm sorry. . .I forgot to bring those sheets of paper
again. You know, those ones where I'm supposed to keep track of how
late I am for classes each day. I'm sorry. . .know it's the third
time I've forgotten. '

Situation: High school sophomore has come to see a counselor about
his problem studying for school and his general slow reading - this
is the second interview.

Client: How much I studied last week? - Well, I'm not sure. . .I
do it in bits and pieces and it also seems to depend on my classes
and the assignments.

Situation: The client's a male college freshman who came voluntarily
to the counseling center. This is the first interview.

Client: I really feel I lonely - nobody cares about me or shows any
interest in me - I could disappear and nobody would notice.

Situation: Newly employed male talking to company counselor. First
interview. ' .

Client: These people who do they think they are? I just can't stand
mixing with them anymore. Just a bunch of phonics - I just wish I could
be honest with them and tell them all to go to hell.

Situation: Thirty-two year old female at community mental health agency.
Second interview.

Client: I love my children and my husband and doing things around the
house - I guess they get boring at times but I really don't mind, I
don't miss working - going to the office everyday was a bore. A lot of
women complain of just being a housewife. . .but, well, I wonder if
there is more for me than this stuff.

Situatigg: Young mother talking to a counselor about her problems
with her child. Second interview.

Clicgg: I get so frustrated with my son - I just don't know what to
do with him - I feel myself getting more and more angry. He just won't
do what I tell him to do.

22.

23.

24.

25.

264

Situation: Fifty-two year-old male talking to a counselor about family-related
problems. Seventh interview. The client had left the last interview upset
over some things he'd revealed.

Client: I guess I'm not really in the mood to talk today. . .I'm kind

of tired. Did you see the game last night? Our TV went out so I had to
listen to it on the radio. My wife was glad - she's tired of football. . .
Boy - that woman can really complain!

Situation: Nineteen year-old woman at community counseling agency.
Third interview.

Client: I just seem to be depressed all the time - most of the time

I don't even know why. . .my job's getting boring now that I'm getting
used to it. . .and Jim keeps saying "Well, then quit." I thought

I loved him but when he bugs me like that - I just don't know. . .

But he's probably right. . .and my parents, too. I should have tried
college. Anyway, do you have those test things we were going to

look at?' '

§ituation: Junior high student talking to school counselor re: problem
of missing class. Second interview.

Client: Well. . .maybe I skip class a couple of times a week. . .but
only classes I don't like.

Situation: Thirtv-five vear old man talking to a counselor about some

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eighth interview.

Client: Why can't we get along? I've tried and tried and nothing seems
to work. Is divorce the only thing left?

265

FREE RESPONSE EXERCISE FOLLOWUP TEST

Situation: The client is a 20-year old male college student.
he made an appointment to see the counselor, and this is the
first interview. The Client seems to be nervous and uncom-
fortable. _

Client: I don't know where to begin: it's all very difficult...
I don't know if anybody can really help me.

Situation: A female college student is talking to her dorm
counselor. In previous interviews they have explored her
relationship with her roommate and determined several things
she could do to handle the situation. It is the 6th interview.

Client: I know I really need to do something about the situation
withh her, but I just never seem to find the time. Whenever I get
some time aside to talk to her about it all, something else comes
up. Anyway, things seem to be much better now.

Situation: A high school.senior who is undecided about whether
to go to college is talking to his school counselor. In previous
interviews they have been considering various options. It is the
6th interview.

Client: I know I said I would try to talk to my parents about

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may 3v uu-w¢¢‘UJ v.3 aavv bvuab v3 wwa-a-vbvossvuv ‘ news to 69v urkuu

_ to it.

Situation: A Zh—year old married female is seeing a community
counselor. It is the first interview.

Client: You know, I was wondering if my husband could come to

‘these sessions with me, after all, it' a both of ours problem

really.

Situation: This is the 6th interview between a male community
college student and a counselor. In past weeks they have been
exploring his relationships with people and his difficulty in
making friends.

Client: I know we decided I should ask one person to go for
coffee after class ...but you know, there is no where to go really.
This town is so dull...look, it doesn' t even have a theatre or
anywhere that has decent concerts. Haw can you stand to live
here?

Situation: A female junior high school girl is talking to the
counselor about school problems. This is the first interview.

Cchnt: I realize I' m flunking the course but I just want someone
to know that I' m actually trying very hard. It seems like the
harder I try the lower my grades get. What should I do?

9.

10.

11.

.12.

266

Situation: A Zh-year old. recently married male is talking to
a community college counselor about problems he's having with
his parents.

Cliént: Why can't they accept the'fact that I'm no longer their
little baby boy. I thought getting married would make a difference
and they would at last realize that I'm an adult. My mother,...
she just keeps on checking up on me.

Situation: A female college freshman is seeing a counselor at
the college counseling center. They have been discussing how
unhappy she is with college. It is the #th interview.

Client: I just feel so depressed I'm really beginning to think
the only way out is to kill myself...I just can't take anymore...
I just can't try again.

Situation: hO-year old male is seeing a private counselor about
a weight control problem. It is the 2nd interview.

Client: I know I eat too much, especially in the evenings...
it is around and I eat and drink...I know I don't need it. but...

Situation: A female high school student is talking to her scnooi
counselor about her future plans and her relationship with her
parents. It is the 3rd interview.

Client: I know my parents really want me to become a doctor.
But I don't know what I want to do yet. You know, I don't even
know what is involved in going into medicine, how long the training

”is and things like that. Maybe I should find out some things

about studying medicine.

Situation: A l9-year old male is talking with his caseworker at
the court. ,It is the 6th interview. For the last two interviews
he has been talking about the difficulty he's had getting a job.

Client: I guess I really haven't been very truthful with you
about trying to get a job...I didn't think you would believe me
when I said I had really tried to get a job...I haven't done
anything, I just sit around with friends all day.

Situation: l9-year old male has been seeing a placement counselor
about getting a job. It is the nth interview.

Client: I actually went for a job interview this week-~my first
one you know--I was rather nervous. but at least I didn't do
anything stupid or get tonguetied.

13.

lb.

15.

16.

17.

18.

267

Situation: A lS-year old girl is talking with her school
counselor. It's the hth interview. In previous interviews they
have been talking about her home situation and how to get along’
better with her mother.

Client: I'm so fed up with my Mom always checking up on me and
telling me when to.be in by...on Friday night I stayed out really
late just to annoy her...I had a good time too.

Situation: The client is a 29- -year old female who has been seeing
a mental health counselor for several weeks about her difficulties
in making friends and general loneliness.

Client: Do you know I come out of these sessions with you feeling
really good, and that good feeling lasts for several days...I just
don't think I could handle things without your support.

Situation: The client is a 16- -year old'male student who has been
referred to the school counselor by the principal. He' 8 a
habitual truant and has been in trouble with the police on
numerous occasions. .

Clignt: There' 8 nothing you can say to me that I wanna hear.
Being here is better than math class, but I'd rather be out in
the street.

Situation: A lS-year'old girl is seeing the school counselor
about her classroom behavior. The teachers consider her to be a
nuisance and disruptive influence. The girl is concerned about
being kicked out of school and her father finding out.

-~Client: I really don't want to get kicked out of school--my Dad

would murder me, but I just can't help it, those classes are so
boring and that Miss Jones. she canft teach for peanuts. Every-
body else was talking too. .

Situation: A college student is seeing a counselor about giving
up smoking. It is the 2nd interview.

Client: It seems to me that I smoke all the time...I just do it
out of habit, I guess.

Situation: The client is a male college freshman who is at the
college counseling center for his first interview. .

Client: I don't know what's wrong with me--everything is going
wrong. I just can't seem to cope...I've never been so fed up and
unhappy before...it's all the time...I just can't shake it off.

19.’

20.

22.

23.

268

Situation: 30—year old female at community counseling agency.
It is the 2nd interview.

Client: My supervisor is so tiresome; he's always on my back
about some silly little detail...and then he's always checking
up on me. He's just looking to find fault with me, but I know
I do a good job. I wish I could tell him how much it upsets me
and interferes with my work.

Situation: The client is a 35- -year old male at a community mental
health agency for his second interview.

Client: You know, it's peculiar, but now I've almost get where I
want to be, you know-~a good job, a nice house and family, money
to do what I want to--it still feels as if something is missing...
sometimis I wonder if it's worth it. it's been a lot of hassles
and war .

Situation: A young teacher is talking to the school counselor
about some problems she is having with one class. It is the 2nd
interview.

Client: I get so frustrated with that class, they just won't
settle down. It' s the only class I have trouble with, and that

a- ..1.: ....1 .1 .1- 7 -.-- -19
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getting more and more angry with them...I' m afraid that one of
these days I'm really going to lose control.

Situation: The client is a #S-year old male talking to a counselor
about family related problems. This is the 7th interview. In the
previous interview the client had been very upset and distressed

'Over some of the things he had talked about, in particular his

relationship to his own father. The counselor has just asked him
if he had thought anymore about what they had been discussing
last time.

Client: Well, it's been a good week for me...I'm feeling really

good. This weekend we all went to see the ballgame--that was a
great game, did you see it?

Situation: 22-year old female is seeing a counselor at a community

.agency. This is the third interview.

Client: I seem to be losing control or something...I don't know
what's wrong with me...I'm fed up with work, I wish I hadn't

taken this job but waited to see if another one come up, but we
needed the money and Bob told me to take it, he's always telling
me what to do, that really bugs me, why does he have to do that.

My parents are just the same always, or at me about something or
the other, their latest is getting at me for not going to college--
maybe I will go back to a community college or something, I don't
know...what do you think I should do?

2h.

25.

269

Situation: The client is a junior high school student who is
talking to the school counselor about a smoking problem. S/he
has been caught several times smoking in school.

Client: Yeah, I guess I smoke quite a bit...outside school,
that is.

Situatign: A 29-year old man is talking to a counselor about
some problems with his marriage. This is the 8th interview.

Client: I don't know, we just seem to fight all the time, or
else we don't talk at all...I'm just so tired of it all, it used
to be such an open and honest relationship, and now...now it seems
hopeless. I've tried and tried, like those things we talked about
here, you know, really trying to understand her feelings and
attitudes, but things haven't got any better.

APPENDIX AA

FREE RESPONSE EXERCISE:

INSTRUCTIONS FOR RATERS

APPENDIX AA

FREE RESPONSE EXERCISE: INSTRUCTIONS FOR RATERS

Each tape will have a total of 7S counselor trainee responses
on it for you to categorize into one of the ten counselor response
types. The format is:

Side 1: Pretest--25 responses

Side 2: Posttest--25 responses
Short blank space
Followup Test--25 responses

As you listen to the tape, keep the list of definitions of the
ten counselor response types in front of you so you can refer to it if
needed. You may also want to follow along with the printed test items
(in your folder) since the responses are not numbered on the tape.
This will be a check in case any of the items are omitted.

After listening to each response, write the number of the type
of response on the rating sheet provided. (See the list of types of
counselor responses for code numbers—-e.g., if the response is a
restatement, categorize it 1.) ’

If the trainee gives a long response which encompasses more
than one type of response, categorize the types in the order in which
they were made. For example:

"You‘re feeling really upset about the divorce. How
long has this been going on?"

would be categorized as (8) reflection, (2) Question.

 

If you are really unsure about how you have categorized a
particular response, put a question mark after your rating. TRY TO
KEEP THESE TO A MINIMUM.

Rating_Forms

 

The Rating Forms for the tapes are in your folder. One Rating
Form (providing for the rating of 25 responses) will be needed for each
test (pretest, posttest, followup). Therefore, for each tape you rate,
you will need three Rating Forms.

270

271

At the t0p of each Rating Form, write the trainee's number
(identified on the tape) and the type of test (pretest, posttest,
followup) in the space provided.

Then categorize the 25 responses on that particular test for
that trainee.

The items are not numbered on the tape, so you will have to be
careful when rating them that you are placing the correct rating next
to the correct item number. It will help you to follow along with the
printed test items provided in your folder. By knowing what the
trainee was responding to, the response will make more sense to you and
will provide a double check on the item numbers.

If any items are omitted by the trainee, code them with a
zero (0).

If any items are unintelligible or erased, please code them
with an (X).

If you have any questions, call me at:
Home: 485-5672
Work: ORC 202 Erickson

353-4495
Monday afternoon, Wednesday morning

Shelter Home
482-1326
Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday afternoon

APPENDIX BB

RATING EXERCISE:

PRETEST FORM AND POSTTEST AND FOLLOWUP FORM

APPENDIX BB

RATING EXERCISE:

PRETEST FORM AND POSTTEST AND FOLLOWUP FORM

Instructions for the Rating Exercise

 

Listen to the accompanying audiotape of a counseling performance.
Then rate the counselor on each item on the rating form attached. Some
items are to be just rated for quality, i.e., how well the counselor
performed on that item, some items are to be rated for both quality and
quantity. You may be able to rate some items as you are actually

listening to the tape.

Please use the

HOW WELL: 0 -
1 -
2 -
3 -
4 -
5 -
HOW OFTEN: 1 -
2 _
3 -
4 -
5 -

following scales:

No attempt

Poorly

Less than acceptably
Acceptably

Well

Exceptionally well

Seldom or never

Less than desirable.
Often enough

More than desirable
Excessively

272

2T73

PRETEST

RATING EXERCISE

Dimensions are to be rated on a six-point scale for quality and a five-point scale
for frequency.

HOW WELL: 0 - No attempt HOW OFTEN: l - Seldom or never

l - Poorly J 2 - Less than desirable
2 - Less than acceptably 3 - Often enough A
3 - Acceptably 4 - More than desirable

4 - Hell . 5 - Excessively
5 - Exceptionally well a

W: ' H

OH HELL
.How well did the counselor ....

l. Conmunicate desire to help the client? _0 l 2 3 4 5
2. Show interest in the client? 0 l 2 3 4 S
3. Encourage the client to talk about self? 0 l 2 3 4 S
4. Encourage the client to talk about feelings? 0 l 2 3 4 S
5. Use voice control(softness.pitch,rate)? 0 l 2 3 4 5
6. ,Use language(non-technical vocabulary,well- .

formulated thoughts)? 0 l 2 3 4 5

O
..a
N
w
ch
0"

7. Seem to understand the client's lifespace?

W:

A How HELL How OFTEN
How well and how often did the counselor ,,,,. :
8.. Use reflection of feelings? 0 l 2 3 4 S l 2 3‘ 4
9. Use restatement of content? 0_ l 2 3 4 5 l 2 3 4
l0. Use Open-ended questions to p , . .
initiate client talk? 0- l' 2 3 4 5 . l 2 3. 4
ll. Ask questions and make state- ‘ '
ments that were clear and concise? 0 l 2 3 4 5 l 2 3 4
12. Use empathic responses to A ' ' .
encourage'client talk? 0 l 2 3 4 5 l 2 3 4
13. Use concrete responses to obtain
specific information from client? 0 l 2 3 4 5 l 2 3 4
_ l4. Use verbal reinforcement? 0 l 2 3 4 -5 l 2 3 4
l5. Ignore client off-talk? 0 l 2 3 4 5 l 2 3 4
l6. Use refocus responses when client ' '
wanders off the topic? 0 1 2 3 4 s' l 2 3 4

l7. Use check questions to detennine
if sunnarizations are on target?
l8. Use appropriate response types?' 0 l 2 3 4 5 l 2 3 4 5

O
...:
N
u
b
m
d
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w
b
(H

274

 

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REFERENCES

 

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