ABSTRACT THE SECONDARY SCHOOL AND CROSS-TRIBAL INTEGRATION IN WEST CAMEROON By Walter Norman Haupt This exploratory investigation sought to determine under what conditions the secondary school in West Cameroon is an agent of cross-tribal integration by determining and comparing students' levels of integration and by analyzing factors related to integration. Cross-tribal integration was conceptualized as a voluntary integra- tion among persons, cross-tribal friendships being the key relation- ship as an interstitial element in voluntary associations and networks of relationships which provide matrices for the integration of a culturally pluralistic society. The measurement of cross-tribal friendship thus became a means of measuring cross-tribal integra- tion. Concepts of types and dimensions of friendship were developed as a result of preliminary field research which was conducted in West Cameroon, the English-speaking state of the Federal Republic of Cameroun, from September to December, 1968. Questionnaires, Walter Norman Haupt interviews, and sociometric techniques were used to obtain data from 524 randomly selected students from five secondary schools. Smaller groups of terminal primary school students, secondary-age non-students, and former secondary school students were also used for comparison purposes. In addition to questions about demographic facts, the ques- tionnaire used was composed of two behavior scales and an attitude scale of the Guttman-type. These scales were developed in the field after intensive interviews, judging, and pre-testing provided ques- tions which would measure integration by means of behaviors and attitudes related to cross-tribal friendships. The data obtained from these instruments were analyzed by Guttman Scale Analysis, one- way analysis of variance, Pearson product-moment correlations, and chi-square tests. Comparisons of levels of integrationwere made between groups of students categorized by various demographic or educational factors in order to demonstrate (1) that the secondary school contributes to increases in levels of integration and (2) to determine what factors in the secondary school and students' back- grounds are related to levels of integration. Sociometric data were collected to provide additional information and to substantiate data gathered from the questionnaires. Factors which encourage or dis- courage cross-tribal integration were also investigated by student Walter Norman Haupt and teacher interviews and closed and open-ended questions in the questionnaire. Findings of general interest included the following: 1. The secondary school did contribute to increases in levels of cross-tribal integration, as defined in this study. Levels of integration were influenced by school type and location. Levels of integration were also influenced by environ- mental factors, but not by age, sex, academic ability, or polygynous family structure. Tribal differentiation of educational opportunity was found in West Cameroon. The factors which encouraged cross—tribal integration were prolonged contact, multi-tribal proximity, and interaction. The factors which discouraged cross-tribal integration were misconduct, culture conflicts, and discrimination or favoritism. The teacher' 3 role as an integrative agent was per- ceived to be, at best, positive but weak. Walter Norman Haupt 8. Students' membership in voluntary associations or the number of African languages they speak were not indi- cators of levels of integration. 9. Levels of integration were found to be inversely related to the number of tribal representatives within a class or school. 10. The same school-related activities which encourage integration may, under certain conditions, discourage it. It was therefore concluded that the secondary school is an integrative agent when it provides the integrative environment, motivation, and opportunities for interaction for its students to develop networks of cross—tribal, voluntary relationships thereby preparing them for participation in the urban, cross-tribal voluntary associations, the networks of which provide the matrix for a stable, culturally pluralistic society integrated around some common goals, tasks, aspirations, and values. Specific recommendations suggesting means of strengthen- ing the secondary school' s role as an integrative agent were made on the basis of the findings of this research. THE SECONDARY SCHOOL AND CROSS-TRIBAL INTEGRATION IN WEST CAMEROON By Walter Norman Haupt A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1969 , ;- 7,2 3' 7 7-3~C7 © Copyright by “HtLTTHiDflJRhLANTHAdHPT 1969 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I gratefully recognize the contributions of others who were instrumental in producing this study. A debt of thanks is owed: To Dr. John W. Hanson for his advice and encourage- ment as Chairman of the Guidance Committee, To Dr. Carl F. Gross, Dr. Ted W. Ward, and Dr. Charles H. Hughes for graciously making themselves avail- able as members of the Guidance Committee, To Dr. Harry L. Case forwillingly acting as an alternate member of the Guidance Committee, To Dr. Andrew C. Porter and the staff of the Office of Research Consultation for their advice and guidance in the statis- tical aspects of this study, To Dr. Julian F. Kateley, Mr. Donald F. Spyke, and Dr. Ted W. Ward for making possible the use of the Michigan State University computing facilities for the long periods of time needed to analyze the data for this research, iii To Dr. Norman T. Bell, Mr. Richard Brandt, and Mr. John Barnard of the Learning Systems Institute for making computing facilities available and assisting in the programing of data analyses, To the Midwest Universities Consortium for International Activities for its funding of the field research which was done in the Federal Republic of Cameroun, To the National Science Foundation whose support, in part, made possible the use of the Michigan State University com- puting facilities, To Dr. A. D. Mengot, Cultural Delegate (Buea) of West Cameroon, whose cooperation made possible the field research upon which this study is based, To the principals of Merrick Baptist College, St. Augus- tine' s College, Cameroon Protestant College, Presbyterian Secondary School (Kumba), and Saker Baptist College whose per- mission, hospitality and accommodation made the field research a pleasant and profitable experience, To the headmasters of the primary schools at Ndu, Banso, Bamenda, Massaka, New Bekondo, Kumba, and Victoria who per- mitted their students to provide data for the research, iv To all the teachers, students, missionaries, and pastors who willingly gave of their time and thought thus making it possible for this study to become a reality, To Rev. S. N. Waindim, a Cameroonian pastor, and E. B. Ngafeeson, a Cameroonian secondary school student, who made unique contributions to the basic conceptualizations of this study, To Mrs. Gary Schroeder who spent endless hours recording data, And to my wife and children who willingly made significant sacrifices to make this undertaking possible. To them I owe the greatest debt of thanks. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES Chapter I. INTRODUCTION AND PROBLEM Tribal Loyalty vs. National Unity Defining "Tribe" and "Tribalism" Cameroun--Land of Diversity Tribal diversity Linguistic diversity . Religious and political diversity . Geographical and historical diversity . The Role of Education . The school as an agent of integration . The school as an agent of malintegration Circumstantial and inconclusive evidence . The Problem. Overview of the Thesis U. THEORIES AND CONCEPTUALIZATIONS . The Activation of Tribalism . The Bases of Integration Achieving Integration . . Voluntary Associations as a Means . Networks as a Means . Friendships as a Means . Friendships and Integration Integration and the School . Questions to Be Investigated by This Study vi Page xii xvi 28 28 33 36 38 41 43 45 48 52 Chapter Questions Related to Previous Research Summary III. DESIGN OF THE STUDY Procedure . . Selection of the Sample Primary schools . Secondary schools . . Secondary- age non- -student samples Instrumentation Questionnaires Students' interviews Teachers' interviews Sociometric measures Testable Hypotheses Analyses of the Data Questionnaire data Students' interview data Teachers' interview data Sociometric data . Summary IV. DEVELOPMENT OF OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS AND INSTRUMENTS Early Efforts to Measure Integration . Development of Behavior and Attitude Scales Development of Concepts and Operational Definitions. Types of friendships Dimensions of friendship Construction of the Questionnaire Sociometric Instrumentation Summary vii Page 55 57 59 60 64 64 65 67 67 68 69 70 71 72 82 82 85 86 86 88 91 92 95 104 105 109 111 113 119 Chapter V. VI. ANALYSES OF DATA PERTAINING TO LEVEL OF INTEGRATION Analyses of the Instrument Guttman scale analysis Test for reliability. Testing of Hypotheses by Data from the Questionnaires . Hypotheses related to the secondary schools' functional influence on level of integration . Hypotheses related to students' backgrounds . . Hypotheses related to the smchools' structural influence on the level of integration Hypotheses related to previous Wresearch Testing of Hypotheses by Sociometric Data Hypotheses related to tribal factors Hypotheses retested by sociometric data. Summary of hypotheses retested by sociometric data . Hypothesis related to tribal factors Summary ANALYSES OF DATA PERTAINING TO FACTORS RELATED TO INTEGRATION Factors Encouraging Integration Responses from closed questions of the questionnaire . . Responses from open- -ended questions of the questionnaire . Responses from student interviews . Responses from teacher interviews Factors Discouraging Integration Responses from closed questions of the questionnaire . . Responses from open- -ended questions of the questionnaire viii Page 124 124 125 128 129 131 138 165 174 182 182 185 196 197 202 207 208 208 209 215 217 218 218 220 Chapte r VII . Responses from student interviews . Responses from teacher interviews The Teacher as an Integrative Agent Responses from students' questionnaires and interviews . Responses from teacher interviews Tribal Representation in Secondary Schools . Supplemental Information from Student Interviews The role of the school Institutionalized friendships . Perception of "my tribe" Voluntary associations Elements of friendship Origins of tribes . Proximity relationships . Supplemental Information from Teacher Interviews . The role of the school Tribes Tribalism . . . Voluntary associations Friendships Summary CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary of Research Findings Levels of Integration Hypothesis related to question a Hypotheses related to question E Hypotheses related to question 2 . Hypotheses related to question d . Hypotheses related to question_ i— . Hypotheses related to question .1 Hypotheses related to tribal factors General conclusions derived from studies of levels of integration . ix Page 226 226 228 228 230 233 238 238 239 240 240 242 242 243 246 246 250 252 255 255 257 262 263 263 265 266 266 268 269 269 270 271 Chapter Factors Related to Integration Factors encouraging integration Factors discouraging integration Teachers as integrative agents Tribal differentiation of educational opportunity . General conclusions derived from studies of factors related to integration . Suggested Recommendations . Recommendations from teachers interviewed . Additional recommendations derived from this research . . . Implications of This Research in the Wider Context. . . Clarification of Concepts Tribalism . . Voluntary associations Elements of friendship The role of the school National Unity in Cameroun Implications for Today' s World Recommended Further Research Concerning weaknesses of this study Concerning African Studies Concerning education in Africa BIBLIOGRAPHY Appendix A. Tribal Composition of West Cameroon B. Essays on Tribal Conflict . C . Questionnaire D. Shortened Form of the Questionnaire . E. Scaling Questionnaire . Page 273 273 274 275 276 277 279 279 281 285 285 286 289 290 291 296 298 299 299 300 301 303 322 326 335 349 356 Appendix F . G. 35.0.23 :0 Refined Scaling Questionnaire Tabulation of Guttman Scale Analyses Code Book for Questionnaire and Interview Data . Code Book for Sociometric Data Factors in Secondary School Experience Reported by Students as Having Encouraged Them to Make Friends with Students from Other Tribes Factors in Secondary School Experience Reported by Students as Having Discouraged Them from Making Friends with Students from Other Tribes . Ethnic Composition of the Twenty-one Strata ofthe RuralZone . . . . . . . . West Cameroon Population by Tribal Strata . West Cameroon Population by Regions Male Secondary School Population by Tribal Strata . Female Secondary School Population by Tribal Strata. Male Secondary School Student Population by Regions. Female Secondary School Student Population by Regions. .. . Student Population in Subject Secondary Schools Listed by Tribal Strata . . . . . . . . xi Page 360 363 366 387 390 393 396 401 402 403 404 405 406 407 Table 10. 11. 12. LIST OF TABLES Level of Integration: of Education . Level of Integration: Level Level of Integration: of Education Level of Integration: Level of Integration: Level of Integration: place . Level of Integration: Tribes Level of Integration: of Residence Level of Integration: Religions . Level of Integration: Standing Level of Integration: Experience Level of Integration: Mean Scores by Level Mean scores by Class Mean Scores by Level Mean Scores by Sex Mean Scores by Age Mean Scores by Birth- Mean Scores by Regional Mean Scores by Area Mean Scores by Students' Mean Scores by Academic Mean Scores by Urban Mean Scores by Location of Former Primary School xii Page 133 135 137 139 140 142 144 146 148 150 152 154 Table 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. Level of Integration: Occupation Level of Integration: Occupation Level of Integration: Education . Level of Integration: Education . Level of Integration: Structure . Level of Integration: School Level of Integration: Envi ronm’ent Level of Integration: Students Level of Integration: Level of Integration: School Location Level of Integration: Mean Scores by Fathers' Mean Scores by Mothers' Mean Scores by Fathers' Mean Scores by Mothers' Mean Scores by Family Mean Scores by Type of Mean Scores by School Mean Scores by Type of Mean Scores by Schools . Mean Scores by Primary Mean Scores by Mono- Tribal Voluntary Association Membership Level of Integration: Mean Scores by Multi- Tribal Voluntary Association Membership Level of Integration: Mean Scores by Neighboring Languages Spoken xiii Page 156 158 160 162 164 166 168 170 171 173 175 177 179 Table 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. Level of Integration: Mean Scores by Distant Languages Spoken. Level of Integration: Proportions of In-Tribe Friendships by Class Levels Level of Integration: Proportions of In-Tribe Friendships by Sex Level of Integration: Proportions of In-Tribe Friendships by Regional Tribes . Level of Integration: Proportions of In-Tribe Friendships by Type of School Level of Integration: Proportions of In-Tribe Friendships by School Environments Level of Integration: Proportions of In-Tribe Friendships by Schools . Summary of Retested Hypotheses Level of Integration: Proportions of In-Tribe Friendships of Tribal Groups in Various Schools (School-wide Friendships) . Level of Integration: Proportions of In-Tribe Friendships of Tribal Groups in Various Schools (Class Friendships). Settlement of Hypothesis Thirty Summary of Hypotheses Analyses Factors Encouraging Integration: Questionnaire Results . Factors Encouraging Integration: Interview Results . xiv Page 181 187 189 190 191 193 195 196 198 199 200 204 209 216 Table 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. Factors Discouraging Integration: Questionnaire Results . Factors Discouraging Integration: Interview , Results . Tribal Origins of Students Compared with the Distribution of Tribes in the Total Population . Regional Origins of Students Compared with the Distribution of the Total Regional Population Spacial Relationships Among Friendship Patterns XV Page 219 225 236 237 245 Figure LIST OF FIGURES Federal Republic of Cameroun: West Africa West Cameroon Tribal Boundaries . A Paradigm Summarizing the Concept of the Activation of Tribalism . . . . A Paradigm Summarizing Little's Concept of the Process of Integration An Individual' s Sociological Field in the Integrative Plane The Role of the School in the Process of Integration A Comparative Paradigm Illustrating the Research Design The Secondary School as an Integrative Agent The Secondary School as a Malintegrative Agent . . . . xvi Page 10 13 31 39 47 50 62 292 295 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION AND PROBLEM The new African nations are desperately seeking means of uniting their multi —tribal populations into consolidated, effective nations. This integration of tribal groups is perhaps the most pressing problem in ”nation building" throughout Africa, as experi- ences in Nigeria and Congo bear witness. Mercier concisely stated the situation when he wrote: The ethnic group in old Black Africa certainly presented an essential social framework. In spite of all the changes that took place during the last century, limits between ethnic groups can remain important, or become so again. In the present states where ethnic composition is complex, these ethnic divi- sions can constitute an impediment to nation-building. The problem of unification is acute for these states. 1 Although tribalism is being eroded today by increasing cross-tribal contact, nationalism, and education, the role which education plays in the process of social integration is not fully understood. 2 This 1Paul Mercier, "On the Meaning of ' Tribalism ' in Black Africa, " Africa: Social Problems of Changgand Conflict, P. L. van den Berghe, editor (San Francisco: Chandler Publishing Company, 1965), pp. 484-485. 2James S. Coleman, Education and Political Development (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1965), p. 357. study seeks to explore by empirical field research the role which the secondary school plays in social integration in West Cameroon, the English-speaking state of the Federal Republic of Cameroun. I. TRIBAL LOYALTY VS. NATIONAL UNITY In pre-colonial times, social relationships which were compounded into groupings and often termed "tribes" provided social integration within the tribe. These groupings also provided a measure of social integration between the different tribes because they formalized and recognized differences--often at a ritual level3 --between tribes, thus making successful contact and interaction possible without hostility. In this sense tribes were functional to social integration during that period of history. In colonial times an imposed integration was established in some areas where tribes were artificially brought together into single political units by foreign powers. Although such unions heightened suspicion, rivalry, and open hostility, much of this fric- tion was forced to submerge due to colonial force and power. A second force which tended to minimize tribal conflict was the wish by nationalist leaders in many places to present a united front to the Europeans and thus enhance their struggle for independence. 3Colin M. Turnbull, The Lonely African (Garden City, New York: Doubleday and Company, 1963), p. 182. With independence came release from a dominant colonial power and the need for a united front to gain independence disappeared. The result was that in the years following independence, tribalism in West Africa increased4 and came to be regarded as one of the major social ills against which politicians continually inveigh. This increase in tribalism is proving to be dysfunctional to nation build- ing and social integration because, as Skinner wrote: The various groups in contemporary African societies are not competing for ancestral rights or privileges, but for the appurtenances of modern power. In most cases they seek to control the nation-state where they find themselves, or at worst seek to prevent being dominated by other groups within the state. 5 This is the heart of the problem in the current Nigerian-Biafran conflict, which vividly portrays the dysfunctional role of tribes in nation building. In addition to being an impasse between tribe and nation, such conflicts also include the struggle between tradition and change and the frustrations of the gap between fact and aspira- tion. 4P. C. Lloyd, Africa in Social Chang (London: Penguin Books Limited, 1967). p. 288. 5Elliott Skinner, "Group Dynamics in the Politics of Changing Societies: The Problem of ' Tribal' Politics in Africa, " Essays on the Problem of Tribe, June Helm, editor (Proceedings of the 1967 Annual Spring Meeting of the American Ethnologi cal Society, Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1968), p. 183. Africa' 3 national leaders see the need for tribal or social integration in their nations because tribal opposition is perceived as a highly disturbing threat to their regimes for several reasons: 1. The desire to maintain separate sub-identities is at variance with the African nationalists' dream of "unity. " Maintaining sub-identities involves perpetuation of traditional authorities, such as chiefs, which are considered "unmodern. " Dreams of territorial realignment are perceived as ”treason" or "separatism. " Inevitably, opposition to national leaders almost always includes a tribal dimension. Tribal demands usually involve a re-distribution of political and economic power. Opposition stemming from tribal solidarity is very "difficult to control since it feeds on itself. "6 These threats are powerful enough to evoke the following public statements from two of Africa' s well-known leaders: Says Ivory Coast President Felix Houphouet-Boigny: "Tribal— ism is the scourge of Africa. " Unless tribalism goes, adds 6Aristide R. Zolberg, Creating Political Order (Chicago: Rand McNally and Company, 1966), pp. 70-71. Kenya's Minister of Economic Planning Tom Mboya, "much of what we have achieved could be lost overnight." II. DEFINING ”TRIBE" AND ”TRIBALISM" Any study of the problem of social integration and tribalism must give some attention to the broad usage of such words as "tribe, " "tribalism, " and "ethnicity. " That these terms rank high in ambi- guity is reflected by the multifarious definitions which are currently in use. Three broad categories of definition are discernible: 1. The well-established anthropological definitions based upon common legend or ancestry, similarities of lan- guage, or related social or political institutions. 2. The more recent definitions used by scholars of African sociology in which tribalism is conceptualized as an urban phenomenon, sometimes called "ethnicity, " developing from colonial contact and the modernization process. 7"On Tribalism as the Black Man' 3 Burden, " Time, XCH (August 23, 1968), p. 18. 8Morton H. Fried, "On the Concepts of 'Tribe' and 'Tribal Society, ' " Essays on the Problem of Tribe, June Helm, editor (Proceedings of the 1967 Annual Spring Meeting of the American Ethnological Society, Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1968), pp. 1-5. 9Paul Mercier, op. cit, pp. 483— 501; Max Gluckman, ”Tribalism in Modern British Central Africa, " Cahiers d' Etudes 3. The very comprehensive definitions, exemplified by those of P. L. van den Berghe and P. C. Lloyd, which include a spectrum of concepts such as localized group living, common language, pre-colonial states, syn- onyms for ”rural" in opposition to "urban, " synonyms for "traditional" or meaning the opposite of "national, " adherence to traditional norms which are inappropriate in the towns, or a transcendent loyalty to one' s ethnic group. Certain aspects of these definitions have been considered pejorative by some Africans and by scholars who have relied upon the sophisti- cated term "ethnicity" to label these concepts and remove any pos- sible pejorative qualities or Western value judgments. Lloyd explained this when he wrote: It [tribalism] is used as a term of abuse--as might "bourgeois, " "capitalist, " or "communist" be used in other parts of the Africaines, I (January, 1960), pp. 55-70; Immanuel Wallerstein, "Ethnicity and National Integration in West Africa, " Cahiers d'Etudes Africaines, I (July, 1960), pp. 129-139; and A. L. Epstein, Politics in an Urban African Community (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1958). 10P. C. Lloyd, op. cit.; and Pierre L. van den Berghe, "Introduction, " Africa: Social Problems of Changeand Conflict, P. L. van den Berghe, editor (San Francisco: Chandler Publish- ing Company, 1965), p. 3. world. Yet the term is vague, and its current usage embodies a number of separate concepts. Tribalism is perhaps most commonly used, however, to connote loyalty to an ethnic group (or tribe) which parallels or tran- scends loyalty to the new state. The term "ethnicity" is fre- quently used here by sociologists, though it has yet to find its way into colloquial usage in the English-speaking states. 1 In the state of West Cameroon, where research for this study was done, the term "ethnicity" is little understood, while "tribe" and "tribalism" are commonly used and bear no pejorative implications. It is for this reason that the terms "tribe" and "tribalism" will be used in this study. "Tribe" is recognized by Cameroonians as indicative of normative relationships based upon common ancestry and a common myth of origin which generate group consciousness and related behavior patterns. 13 This definition, without any pejo- rative implications, will be used in this study. A definition of "tribalism" which can be derived from the above and which relates to the problem of nation building has been supplied for this study by Mayer when he wrote: 11P. C. Lloyd, op. cit., p. 288. lzIbid., p. 289. 3It is noteworthy that the Cameroonians who were inter- viewed perceived language as a differentiating factor but of a sec- ondary nature because historically many Cameroon "tribes" are recognized as fragmentations of larger tribal groups which were originally more linguistically homogeneous than is now the case. Hence kinship and origin are considered the prime differentiators. In studying multi -tribalism, then, we are concerned with "tribalism" in the sense of a narrow loyalty which may prove inimical to wider loyalties, ratherthan "tribalism" in the sense of a non-westem quality of norms and values. 1 It is clear that this is not a complete definition for such a complex concept. Instead it is a stipulated definition for the purposes of this study selected from a broad range of reportive definitions because of its importance to the process of nation building. Scholars wishing to pursue the problem of definition further may refer to the pertinent American Ethnological Society publication, Essays on the Problem of Tribe, which deals with this subject in greater depth. 15 III. CAME ROUN - - LAND OF DIVE RSI TY The significant characteristic of contemporary African nations which must wrestle with the problem of tribalism is their high degree of pluralism and diversity which make their societies, in some respects, more complex and loosely integrated than those in most other parts of the world. Such a nation is the Federal Republic of Cameroun, which was selected as the area of research 14Philip Mayer, "Introduction: The Study of Multi-Tribalism, " The Multitribal Society, A. A. Dubb, editor (Proceedings of the Sixteenth Conference of the Rhodes-Livingstone Institute held at the Oppenheimer College for Social Service, February, 1962, Lusaka: Rhodes-Livingstone Institute, 1962), p. vi. Italics added. 15June Hehn, op. cit. because of the researcher' s eight years' experience in education in this state, its unusually great tribal diversity, and its extraordi- nary integration problems as the former French and British trustee- ships seek to unify. Cameroun, 16 which is situated in the area where West Africa and Equatorial Africa merge (see Figure 1), has been labelled "an original puzzle of living diversities" by its presi- dent, Ahmadou Ahidjo. 17 This puzzle includes diversities of tribe, language, religion, political institutions, geography, history, and attitude . Tribal diversity. A cursory look at Murdock' s tribal map of Africa shows that Cameroun is one of several areas in Africa where there is unusual racial and tribal diversity. Historically, this diversity was caused by local and foreign slave-trade, tribal wars, and by Foulbe invasions from the north. Cameroun is the 6A word of explanation about the spelling used is always necessary when dealing with Cameroun. The French spelling of the word--Cameroun--is generally used to designate the former French trusteeship or the entire, independent Federal Republic of Cameroun. The English spelling—-Cameroon--designates the former British trusteeship or the present western state of the Federation, now known as West Cameroon. This convention will be used throughout this study. 17Ahmadou Ahidjo, As Told by AhmadouAhidE, Political Bureau of the Cameroon National Union, editors (Monaco: Paul Bory Publishers, 1968), p. 40. 10 $089004 a L°\ o i flamed-Chad CHAD r' . ' Ml'ya/:§/.~"< ”(Vida/(98,? .‘ L lamare v. 0,5 . /’ W;.J6’enoo a -\ / ' unmu \\_'/ .‘ NIGERHA j Adamaofi_,;\\ j mm“ 55f Gyms/van .7 l. ' 7’, PLAT-EA ’-DAWA .l" “Bap-Kg ” ‘v- 47 I (CENTRAL ’ 9 ' / ".1? Mbaml/ Zom-ef- -‘ AFRICAN o o X 1A0 ' H o 5, 5’ A‘f’" K REPUBLIC \ gyongwef- ’ ‘ -> . *fiwo m In"? A”. 8 \ t __ / “ NyOIIg . ’5oumfia ’ GUM .... a “”117 ~— 0‘ ~ ”9"“ /‘ 2f Mb" ’Me’" r’Dl'aef-lobo: I 1: ° ‘° "° "‘ GUINEA '-°-1°‘L"“1°“'- 'v- - W I GABON 1 CONGO (513228107169 FIGURE 1 FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF CAMEROUN WEST AFRICA 11 meeting place of three of Herskovits' great African sub-cultures: the Guinea Coast (Nigritic), the Western Sudan (Fulani and Arab), and the Congo Basin (Bantu). Murdock divides them into the Atlantic, the Bantoid, and the Chadic groups. 18 Clarke divided the people by areas. 19 In the south are the Bantus, a farming people who have been deeply influenced by Christian missions and European markets. In the forests of this area about 6, 500 pygmies can be found also. In the central area of the country are the Semi-Bantus of lesser- known origin. Sudanese negroes are found in the north along with Hamitic Foulbe and Choa Arabs. Each of these major groups is divided into many smaller units, thus producing a great tribal diver- sity. The French-speaking state of East Cameroun has some 136 different tribes while the West Cameroon, where the research for this study was done, has about sixty-five. 20 It is difficult to be spe- cific about the number of tribes because of the differences in replies which respondents offer when asked about their tribal origin. Ardener reported that a respondent: 8Victor T. LeVine, The Cameroons from Mandate to Independence (Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1964)) pp: 5'11. 19J. 1. Clarke, "Cameroun," Focus (New York: The American Geographical Society, Vol. 16, No. 7, March, 1966), pp. 2, 4. 2 0Victor T. LeVine, Op. cit., p. 6. 12 . may give the name of his tribe, or of his village (even of a section of his village ) or the nearest fair-sized town, or of another tribe which is more well-known. Whatever he says may be given in the phonetic form of his own language, but commonly in some other form he imagines, rightly or wrongly, to be more comprehensible. Appendix A lists those tribes which are generally recognized by anthropologists and government officials and was used as the defini- tive list for this research. Figure 2 clearly portrays the tribal diversity of the area in which the research for this study was done. Linguistic diversity. Although over sixty tribes have been differentiated in West Cameroon, LeVine reports that the number of identifiable tongues in this small state approaches one hundred. 22 Language fragmentation is so extreme that neighboring villages often speak mutually incomprehensible dialects or languages. Broadly speaking, the languages appear to be of three types: the Bantu languages spoken in the coastal areas, the Benue-Cross River languages--sometimes referred to as semi-Bantu or Bantoid--in the interior and highland areas, and the Tikar languages whose classifi- cation is still in question. The languages of the Fulani and Hausa 21Edwin Ardener, Shirley Ardener, and W. A. Warmington, Plantation and Villaie in the Cameroons (London: Oxford University Press, 1960), p. 23. The interested reader will find a more com- plete and interesting explanation of the problems of tribal identifi- cation on pp. 23-27 and Appendix C on pp. 368-370. 22Victor T. LeVine, "The Cameroon Federal Republic," Five African States, Gwendolen M. Carter, editor (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1963), p. 289. 13 P, I, ,.-\ Chang 5 'M 3:: ”'2 A? ‘3 '3 9"“ . ' "I . .. “. ‘ \ ! ° .4nn\ . ‘ I" ' K E Y )( \ _a-‘ HAHIILA p\ /"' HIIMII "W“ \ I a" f I ' ACHIH I 1‘ r lut'\' JISSUNW . TRIBAL BOUNDARIES I "rennet DAM-iv“ Hummus-u rm 1mm.» .. my,“ "run CHI. Waffiuhu . ““th ..-“un.u.............u......... -md ".° f" Hob load-”u“..— \ IJAONAH . I conudunmry.’ ........................ -l j ‘uw. ./ /.,./ 'm" “0M0.“ “Own!“ ....................... ' \” ‘m V' A' lama \ u w. I C “Nut“ 0 Low I mu. . F Vick?“ .0... Int-=0 ’ ‘ O that. ‘ ‘ ‘ H Inland. I. Nil 8.: 70'0“ mamas...” MM ..CO~MIM «O. J than Ion-ur- FIGURE 2 WE ST CAMEROON TRIBAL BOUNDARIES 14 are also found in the northern sectors of West Cameroon. The problem of linguistic diversity is described by Kwast who wrote: There is no vernacular spoken in West Cameroon by more than fifty or sixty thousand people, and most are spoken by only a few thousand or less. No one vernacular has proved large enough to become a lingua franca, although attempts were made to make Bali and Douala such. To bridge these language bar- riers Pidgin English or "Wes Kos" has become the lingua franca and is used extensively throughout the territory by lit- erate and illiterate alike. Religious and political diversity. In addition to this tribal and linguistic fragmentation-and the cultural diversity which it potentially contains--religious and political institutions contribute their part to further complicate the scene. West Cameroon, and indeed all of Cameroun, is an arena in which Christianity, Islam, and a great variety of traditional religions are found. Political institutions vary from the powerful chiefdoms, which were formerly kingdoms, to more democratic forms of government by councils, societies, or associations. Geographical and historical diversity. Possibly the source of much of this diversity is the geographical and historical inheritance 23Lloyd E. Kwast, "West Cameroon Baptist Church Growth" (unpublished master' 8 thesis, Fuller Theological Seminary, Long- beach, California, 1968), pp. 24-25. This work gives a very ex- haustive and scholarly description of the diversity of West Cameroon and is recommended for the interested scholar. 15 to which these people became heir. The traveller on his way from south to north passes through areas of marshes and swamps, dense forests which finally creep up into the plateau, and finally rolling sa- vannah highlands or grasslands, as they are often called. West Cameroon lies on a fault zone with volcanoes and mountains which render the land rugged and inaccessible. This broken terrain and dense forest have undoubtedly led to tribal isolation with the linguis- tic and cultural differences which breed in such a situation. To this must be added the diversity which a unique history has brought to Cameroun. In pre-colonial times Camerounwas the scene of inva- sions from the south, the north, and the west--each with its myriad differences of peoples and cultures. With colonialism came the influence of the Germans, whose forty years in the land left a mark which is still visible, followed by French and British domination from the end of the First World War until independence in 1960. This historical and cultural diversity has created immense prob- lems for the new nation as it seeks not only to unify the diverse tribes but also the French and British cultural heritages which lay heavy upon it. This, then, is the mosaic of diversity which underlies the ground and being of approximately five million Camerounians, 16 twenty per cent of whom live in West Cameroon. 24 Kwast reports that "the people of West Cameroon are predominately young, according to population statistics. In 1964 eighty per cent of the people were 34 years of age and younger, whereas 46. 8 per cent were 14 years of age and younger."25 The nation' s diversities with their resulting conflicts and frictions have permeated the youthful bulk of the population. In order to portray the conflicts which youth experience or perceive, a group of fourth year students at the sec- ondary school at Bali was asked to write essays reporting instances of tribalism in their school. The most revealing examples are found in Appendix B. Although they deal primarily with school situ- ations, they reflect elements of tribal friction reaching deeper into life and experience than just the school situation. The essays deal mostly with such subjects as stereotypes, teacher preference, regional conflicts, disciplinary favoritism, historical disputes, and minor grievances labelled "tribal" when in fact they probably are not.26 2480ciété d' Etudes pour le Developpement Economique et Social, The Population of West Cameroon: Main Findipgs of the Denflraphic Survey of West Cameroon, 1964 (Paris: Rue de Lille, 1966), p. 53., 25Lloyd E. Kwast, op. cit., p. 20. 6For rather interesting and quite different attitudes toward tribal conflict among the laborers on the plantations in West Came- roon see Edwin Ardener et al. , op. cit. , pp. 101-106. 17 These attitudes make it clear that tribalism is more than a nominal problem in this complex African nation. The problem is real enough for the dominant political party of Cameroun to have announced a policy against tribalism. The party' s sensitivity to this problem is evident in their leader' 8 statement: Cameroon is one of the African countries that has in this way inherited from history the greatest diversity. It has Bantus and Fans, Sudano-Bantus and Peuhls, Arabs and Pygmees. Its tribes and dialects are innumerable. Situated at the cross- roads of the migrations, it is a veritable Africa in miniature. To finish the picture, it should be noted that the vast majority of the North is Moslem, the South is animist, Catholic and Protestant, and the country has been colonized, successively or simultaneously, by the Germans, the French and the British, all of whom have left often contradictory imprints on the ways in which Cameroonians think and act. ”We have different races and different customs, " says Ahmadou Ahidjo. "We practise various religions. If this diversity is in reality a richness, it also constitutes a handicap in the achievement of our unity. ” IV. THE ROLE OF EDUCATION The sum of the preceding material is not only a description of the scene in which this research was carried out, but also of the complexity and depth of the problem of integration in a modern African nation. Because of the immensity of the problem it seems reasonable to conjecture that no one institution in society will be 27Political Bureau of the Cameroun National Union, The Political Philosophy of Ahmadou Ahidjo (Monte Carlo: Paul Bory Publishing Company, 1968), p. 26. 18 able to bring about the integration which is so diligently sought. Much has been written about possible political solutions to this problem, but effective integration must be more than just a collec- tion of diverse tribes in one political container. Economics has also been envisioned as the tie that will bind diversity together, but more must be hoped for than the bickering and bartering of the market place. Even religion, in its institutionalized form, seems as capable of division as of integration. What, then, is the role of the school in integration? Cer- tainly the school fosters political integration by developing new attitudes toward the government and the nation, by political sociali- zation, and by the training and recruitment of elites. 28 Similarly, schools contribute to econOmic and religious integration, but can or do schools provide more than these? Schools alone cannot achieve integration; indeed, their contribution is inconclusive, as Anderson suggested when he wrote: What schools or more diffuse sorts of education do to prejudice and perceptual frameworks about the social world depends primarily upon the broader context within which education Operates. Additional or intervening variables are always crucial in these complex processes, and they may be so numer- ous or so subtle that we cannot reach firm conclusions with which to guide educational policy. 29 28James S. Coleman, op. cit. , pp. 17-18. 29C. Arnold Anderson, "Sociological and Educational Con- straints Upon International Understanding, " Education and Inter- national Life: The Yearbook of Education, 1964, G. Z. F. Bereday 19 The school as an agent of integration. A few studies give support to the widely held contention that schools are integrative agents. This conviction is common in the United States where the school' 8 role in the "melting-pot" process has been widely studied. Harding gt_a_._l. have reported several studies which give credence to the integrative role of schools. 30 One such study reported that prejudice decreased and ethnic attitudes became more favorable with increasing years in school. Other studies indicated that knowledge about the other ethnic group, desirable teachers' attitudes, and healthy relationships between the teacher and his pupil can increase the integrative role of schools. 31 In Africa little empirical research has been done which indicates that the school has played a positive role in integration. Musgrove, while making a case study of a Uganda secondary school, indicated that the school was conducive to integration because former groups, statuses, and loyalties were obliterated and reorganized within the school. 32 Weeks' study of and J. F. Lauwerys, editors (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, Incorporated, 1964), p. 67. 30John Harding, et al. , "Prejudice and Ethnic Relations, " Handbook of Social Psychology, Vol. 2, Gardner Lindzey, editor (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1954), p. 1046. 311bid., p. 1048. 32F. A. Musgrove, "A Uganda Secondary School as a Field of Culture Change, " Africa, XXII (1952), pp. 234-249. 20 cross-tribal friendship patterns, also done in a Uganda secondary school, indicated that cross-tribal integration does take place especially where similarities of language and culture exist. 33 Although research in Africa on this topic is limited, the contention is widely held that schools help integration. This is illustrated by Arensberg who wrote: National school systems are primarily concerned with the dissemination of information about the national goals. Each new nation hopes at least to build a national system of uni- versal education, though few have yet achieved it. Through such schools literacy and the national language can be taught, a means by which the central governments hope to communicate with all groups more easily and by which they hope to better integrate them. By many such nations literacy is viewed as a veritable key to the problem. Johnson, in writing about the unification of English- and French- speaking Cameroun, indicated that similar sentiments exist in that . 35 natI on . 338. G. Weeks, "A Preliminary Examination of the Role of Minority Students at a Day Secondary School in Kampala, Uganda, " Papers of the East African Institute of Social Research, 1963, 14 pp. (mimeo). 34Conrad M. Arensberg and Arthur H. Niehoff, Introducigg Social Change: A Manual for Americans Overseas (Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company, 1964), pp. 135-136. 35Willard R. Johnson, "The Cameroun Federation: Politi- cal Union Between English and French Speaking Africa, " French SpeakEIg Africa: The Search for Identity, W. H. Lewis, editor (New York: Walker and Company, 1965), p. 216. 21 The school as an agent of malintegration. Two studies made in West Africa have concluded that schools may be malinte- grative agents. Clignet summarized his Ivory Coast research on secondary schools by writing: Two additional conclusions can be drawn from this array of data. First, it is often tempting to emphasize the homogeniz- ing influence of an educational environment. This effect is probably most definite when the functions performed by the school are reinforced by other agencies and by a mass com- munication system. Yet in Africa, ethnic differentials in atti- tudes do not seem to be deeply eroded by education. Secondly, if the attitudes of students from various ethnic back- grounds remain quite distinctive, it may be seen that such diversity is even more characteristic of other social environ- ments. Namely, the school population is relatively homoge- neous in such areas as ability, age, aspirations, and living in sheltered institutions relatively close to external influences. Populations with an identical level of participation in the mod- ern sector of the economy, or living in a comparable urban neighborhood are much more diversified and are therefore more likely to keep their traditional values and norms. At least for the short term, this observation leads us to think that social change does not eradicate traditional ethnic tensions and cleavages. The persistence of the stressing of ethnic particu- larisms remains one of the major obstacles of African nations to overcome in the process of their growth. The second example of research done on this subject was Foster' s study in Ghana in which he substantiated the point Clignet expressed when he said: Most observers would agree that, in the long run, the extension of formal education among the masses tends to lessen many 6Remi Clignet, "Ethnicity, Social Differentiation, and‘ Secondary Schooling in West Africa, " Cahiers d' Etudes Africaines, VII (Summer, 1967). p. 378. 22 intercultural differences and helps to replace particularistic and local values by attitudes more consonant with the needs of the whole nation. This view may be correct but some caution is needed. . . . We shall argue here that in the short run (and the short run can be a very long time) regional inequalities in the distribution of schooling can exacerbate ethnic conflicts. Further, it will be indicated that regional inequalities in provision of schools are virtually inevitable in areas where there has been a differential internal rate of economic and social change. This has been the . . . . 3 case In VIrtually every AfrIcan terrItory. . . . Circumstantial and inconclusive evidence. To cite the previous studies as extremes is, of course, inconsonant with reality. They do suggest that the role of the school as an integrative agent depends a great deal upon circumstances and is still not completely understood. Abernathy and Coombe have presented both aspects of the schools' role. 38 On the one hand, they contend, the school is integrative by providing political socialization, equality of oppor- tunity, and opportunities for contact with students from other tribes. On the other hand, they emphasize that multiplication of schools can lead to unemployment and social instability, to the localization of the students' experience, to newly educated elites challenging the 37Philip J. Foster, "Ethnicity and the Schools in Ghana, " Comparative Education Review, VI (October, 1962), p. 128. 38 David Abernathy and Trevor Coombe, "Education and Politics in Developing Countries, " Harvard Educational Review, XXXV (1965). PP. 288, 290. 23 existing power structures, and to the development of cliques of elites originating within the same schools. In these respects, schools would be malintegrative agents. Coleman also presents both aspects of the schools' role in integration. In addition to observations made in the previous reference, Coleman stresses the malintegrative role of the school in its creation of the elite-mass gap and the perpetua- tion or intensification of existing cleavages. 39 He sees the school as an integrative agent in circumstances where there are only a few schools or most schools are boarding schools. In these situations it is possible for political socialization to take place along with the broadening of perspectives of diverse peoples and the inculcation of homogeneous values. Coleman concludes that the process of inte- gration and the role of education in it are "more complicated, uncer- tain, and variable than it was originally thought to be. "40 V. THE PROBLEM In view of the magnitude of the problem of tribalism and nation building and of the limited understanding of the role of 9James S. Coleman, Education and Political Development (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1965), pp. 30, 39-40; and James S. Coleman, "The Politics of Sub-Saharan Africa, " The Politics of the Developing Areas, G. A. Almond and J. S. mman, editors (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1960), p. 367. 40James S. Coleman, op. cit., 1965, p. 19. 24 education in helping to solve this problem, the need for further study is apparent. Landecker described this need when he wrote: Nowadays it seems less pertinent to ask: What is integration? If this question is asked at all, then it is only in preparation for the more fruitful question: How can integration be mea- sured? And, again this latter question is not of interest of itself but merely a preliminary step, which leads to genuine problems of research such as these: Under what conditions does social integration increase? Under what conditions does it decrease? What are the consequences of a high degree of integration? What are the consequences of a low degree of integration? Sociology is in need of basic research oriented toward this kind of problem. 41 In view of this need for research into the conditions under which social integration increases, it is the purpose of this study to seek to explore the question: under what conditions are the secondary schools agents of cross-tribal social integration in West Cameroon? , the assumption being that secondary schools are agents of cross- tribal integration in West Cameroon. In addition to the need for such studies to advance our general or theoretical knowledge about the role of education, there is a practical urgency about such a study in Cameroun. The Ministry of National Education has been in the process of harmonizing the British and French educational systems, which were the colonial inheritance of the two Camerounian 4{lWerner S. Landecker, "Types of Integration and Their Measurement, " The Langpage of Social Research, Paul F. Lazars- feld and Morris Rosenberg, editors (Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, 1955), p. 19. 25 states. 42 As Cameroun seeks to adapt its educational system and curricula to the needs of the nation, it is vital for the government to know whether these institutions are agencies promoting cross- tribal integration or, in fact, agencies inadvertently emphasizing tribal parochialism. Furthermore, considering the large percent- age of the national budget which is designated for secondary educa- tion in Cameroun (2. 9 per cent in l963-64)43, and that no research data are currently available to relate the impact of secondary schools of Anglophone Cameroon to cross-tribal integration, it appears that this study may be able to make some contribution to a relatively unexplored aspect of education in Africa. The secondary school has been selected as the field of study for three reasons: 42W. Norman Haupt, "The Unification of the British and French Educational Systems in the Federal Republic of Cameroun" (unpublished P. G. C. E. thesis, University of London Institute of Education, London, March, 1962); and W. Norman Haupt, "Toward an Understanding of East Camerounian Educational Policies and Practices" (unpublished article, Cameroon, October, 1965). 4‘3'I'he total expenditure for education was 15.7 per cent of the 1963-64 operational budget. Of this, 2. 92 per cent was for secondary education. These figures do not include the expenditures of the private sector. See Unesco, Report of the Second Unesco PlannEIgMission to Cameroon. United Nations: Unesco, 1965, pp. 72, 74. 26 1. It is often the first cross-tribal school which African students attend; their primary schools normally being very local in outreach. 2. The impact of the socialization process is more sig- nificant at the secondary school level. 44 3. The writer has had personal interest and experience as teacher and principal in secondary schools in West Cameroon. While the secondary schools of East Cameroun are of the French type, those of West Cameroun are basically British-type grammar schools, the overwhelming majority of which are boarding schools operated by missionary organizations under the aegis of the govern- ment. VI. OVERVIEW OF THE THESIS After exploring the subject of social integration in Africa, describing its scene of action, and stating the problem of this study in this chapter, relevant theories of integration and the basic con- ceptualizations of this study will be presented in Chapter II. The design of the study will be outlined in Chapter III. Chapter IV is devoted to an explanation of the creation of the instruments used in 4Joseph Fischer, "Indonesia, " in James S. Coleman, Q. c_it., 1965, p. 107. 27 the research. The data are analyzed in Chapters V and VI. Final conclusions, implications, and recommendations constitute Chap- ter VII. CHAPTER II THEORIES AND CONCEPT UALIZA TIONS To clarify the conceptual framework for this study, it is necessary to provide a more complete explanation of the activation of tribalism, explore relevant definitions of integration, and sum- marize three theoretical means by which integration may be achieved. It is then possible to establish, upon this foundation, the definition and model of integration to be used in this study as well as a con- ceptualization of the role of the school as an integrative agent. The concepts make it possible to outline the objectives of this study and suggest any other investigations which might be pertinent. Because: it is possible to deal with only a fragment of the total phenomenon of tribalism and integration and that other aspects could be studied, limitations to this study must be established. The models and con- cepts developed within this chapter prescribe those limitations. 1. THE ACTIVATION OF TRIBALISM In the first chapter tribalism was briefly described as "g I narrow loyalty which maLprove inimical to wider loyalties. ' In 28 29 order to develop a deeper understanding of integration, it was nec- essary to develop a more complete conceptualization of the forma- tion and effects of tribalism than was presented in the preceding definition. The works of Epstein, Anderson Eli—a1.” and Crawford Young provided the basis for this conceptualization. Kuper explained Epstein' s thesis when he wrote: Epstein' 3 study provides a corrective for the point of view that tribalism is a unitary phenomenon, in the sense that tribal loyalties act with the same strength over the total field of social relations in which the urban African is involved. He emphasizes instead the principle of situational selection as operating within a developing system marked by the continuing conflict of differ- ent principles of social organization. Presumably situational selection is a general characteristic of all societies, and not a new principle of behavior evolved by Africans in a Copperbelt town. Anderson' s work stressed that tribalism is activated by external Challenge, the nature of the situation, and the actor' s perception of 2 that situation. Crawford Young' 3 study outlined the causes of ethnic awareness, the basis of ethnicity, and the roots of ethnic tension. \ 1Leo Kuper, ”Sociology--Some Aspects of Urban Plural so(:ieties, " The African World, Robert A. Lystad, editor (New Ork; Frederick A. Praeger, 1965), p. 120. 2 Charles W. Anderson, Fred R. von der Mehden, and awford Young, Issues of Political Development (Englewood Cliffs, ew Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Incorporated, 1967), pp. 60-62. Cr N - 3Crawford Young, "The Politics of Ethnicity, " Politics \13 the Congo, Crawford Young, editor (Princeton, New Jersey: binceton University Press, 1965), p. 234. 30 From these sources the following conceptualization of the processes involved in the activation of tribalism was generated. Tribalism develops from three basic roots: (1) common historical factors such as origin, kinship, language, institutions, culture, and geographical setting; (2) cultural values as exemplified by such values as the extended family, communality, and mutual assistance; and (3) social pressures including social instability and change; scarcity or poverty, limited opportunity and unemployment, competition, rising aspirations, and differentiation. These three roots demand the exercise of loyalty toward the kinship group which manifests itself as preference, favoritism, or nepotism, and in turn generates a reaction on the part of other tribal groups who per- ceive these situations as threats or challenges to their identity or SOlidarity. In this reactive phase, the nature of the situation and the actor' s perception of it prescribe the appropriate tribal role to be activated within the actor. These tribal roles may include any one of several levels: family, lineage, clan, tribe, region, nation, 01‘ race. The frequent and intensive reactivation of this role by perceptions of challenging situations ultimately results in a deeply e1lgrained tribal group consciousness and accompanying behavioral J"Ilanifestations, such as loyalty or preference, which center on the Q(Jmmon characteristics claimed by the actors and recognized by 31 EdemmemrH .mO ZOHH<>HHU¢ HE ,mO HAHUZOU WEB UZHNHM¢J>HSHDM EUHQEAH < madam 33:2onme .. Fasten“? gmflconommg I noflfloaaoo I £33595.“ I noflmuqoawmpm I monsmmopa Hmwoom m HMDUHrm / \ oowmzpom mw Eon 3339. among» m. on voZoopoa 283.95% :oflomom 588: “dogma: fiwflawammmgm wouammuoon one mnoflaonzom V \ < @3956 mcoflmnfim 3oz / wommouocfi mmonmsowo mcoo H.339 monnmmopa afloomm moans NEENS Efi ease 32 the observers of the situation. These common characteristics may include origin or kinship, language, culture, political or religious institutions, race, occupation, associations, etc. , and are of a centripetal nature. This centripetal action also has a centrifugal reaction in society which appears as social fragmentation, frustra- tion, competition, and differential opportunity and status. As this entire process goes through its various cycles, it tends to feed upon itself, thus aggravating each successive situation until some form of violence deveIOps to relieve the accumulated social pressures. This concept of the activation of tribalism may be summarized by the paradigm shown in Figure 3. An example of the activation of tribalism in the context of educational matters was provided by Anderson 9:11. when they wrote: In most developing countries, the diffusion of social awareness has reached a point where both rural and urban populations are keenly conscious of the relationship between educational oppor- tunity and social mobility. Thus access to education is a criti- cal issue, and policy decisions which tend to culturally define educational opportunities provoke violent reactions. There are many points at which cultural pluralism and educational policy intersect. The choice of language of instruction may give what appears to be an unfair advantage to those for whom this is a maternal tongue. . Identification of the schools with a given religion may virtually require parents to choose between re- nunciation of their faith and lack of education for their children. Regional differences in the density of the school network may operate a silent but highly effective selection of the future elite. One particular cultural group may contribute a disproportionate number of schoolmasters and then be suspected of favoritism in admissions and grades. Scholarships for university study 33 domestically or overseas may be thought to be awarded on cultural criteria: few Ministers of Education have not heard this charge raised against them. The payoff in prestige and material prospects from education is so high that the unsuc- cessful are bound to be bitter and quick to find an explanation in cultural partisanship. A number of other less salient causes of cultural conflict might be listed, but these seem the most important. What character- izes all these types of conflict is the perception of the dispute in terms of cultural identity by large numbers of persons. II. THE BASES OF INTEGRATION To talk of social integration in a tribalistic or pluralistic society seems incongruent, for pluralism implies structural and organic differentiation and segmentation. If there is to be integra- tion, these cleavages dictate that the bases for integration must be able to span the entire multivariant texture of society. Although Comte, Parsons, and Durkheim predicated social cohesion on ”com- mon beliefs" or "value consensus, " van den Berghe saw two alter- native bases for integration in the absence of value consensus: c°ercion and compliance. Examples of integration by coercion iIlClude political unification or economic interdependence; oomph- ance, on the other hand, is the "playing of the game" wherein, 1filOugh they have differing values, peOple conform behaviorally as \ a 4Charles W. Anderson et al., op. cit. , p. 66. Italics dded. ' 34 5 a result of their free choice. In contrast with these bases for integration, Coleman described two others when he wrote: The concept of "national integration" has a variety of meanings which are not always clearly defined. For our purposes national integration is regarded as a broad subsuming process, whose two major dimensions are (1) political integration, which refers to the progressive bridging of the elite-mass gap on the vertical plane in the course of developing an integrated political process and a participant political community, and (2) territorial inte- gration, which refers to the progressive reduction of cultural and regional tensions and discontinuities on the horizontal plane in the procegs of creating a homogeneous territorial political community. A third approach to defining the bases of social integration was pro- vided by Landecker when he stated: A typology of integration can be developed on the premise that for sociological purposes the smallest units of group life are cultural standards, on the one hand, and persons and their behavior, on the other. If one uses this premise as a criterion of types of integration, three varieties suggest themselves: integration among cultural standards, integration between cul- tural standards and the behavior of persons, and integration among persons. 5Pierre L. van den Berghe, "Toward a Sociology of Africa, " Airica: Social Problems of Change and Conflict, P. L. van den eI‘ghe, editor (San Francisco: Chandler Publishing Company, 1 965), p. 83. 6James S. Coleman and Carl G. Rosberg, Jr. , Political mes and National Integation in Tropical Africa (Berkeley: Iliversity of California Press, 1964), pp. 8-9. 7Werner S. Landecker, "Types of Integration and Their Measurement, " The Language of Social Research, Paul F. Lazars- Eld and Morris Rosenberg, editors (Glencoe, Illinois: The Free I‘ess, 1955), p. 20. 35 Out of these three varieties of integration he labelled four types: "cultural integration" and "normative integration, " which were derived directly from his first two varieties, and "communicative integration” and "functional integration" derived from his third variety, integration among persons, which he defined as "exchange of meaning" and "exchange of services," respectively. Out of the concepts of integration as suggested by van den Berghe, Coleman, and Landecker were drawn the elements of the concept of social integration used in this study. Those elements were that social integgtion was conceived as an integration amopg persons (Landecker) based upon compliance as a result of free choice (van den Berghe) and leadipg progressively toward the reduc- Eon of cultural and rgjonal tensions and discontinuities on the Erizontal plane in the process of creatipg an interactipg community (Coleman) which is characterized by a national, tribally-transcendent Mty amongics constituent tribal groups. Coleman' s word "homo- geneous" was replaced with "interacting” because it seemed doubtful that the tribalistic composition of African societies would lead, in the foreseeable future, to homogeneous societies. The importance of these persons or small groups interacting rather than simply eacting, as in the case of tribalism, was explained in Breitkreuz' statement: 36 The group is a sociological concept defined as "any set of two or more persons who take each other into account in their actions and thus are held together and set apart from others by virtue of their interaction. " The key word in the group concept Is Interaction; there must be mutual influence, otherw1se there is only a collection of people. Mere physical proximity or possession of certain common characteristics does not make a meaningfigl group unless there is interaction among the persons involved. III. ACHIEVING INTEGRATION Having delineated the concept of social integration, the next step in the formulation of the thesis of this study was a consIdera- tion of the locus and means by which cross-tribal integration may be approximated. General agreement was found among scholars of African sociology that the locus of cross-tribal integratIon Is the in effect, an integrative environment. Gut- urban center which is, ". the urban areas of Africa, both old and new, are kind wrote: the originators of change and the focus of a new SOCIal order Little, In his very comprehensive conceptualization of the develop- IIlent of an integrated society, also named the urban center as the \ 8Elmer A. Breitkreuz, "An Analysis of School Influence and Subgroup Structures" (unpublished Master' 8 thesis, University of Alberta, Edmonton, 1967), p. 18. Peter C. W. Gutkind, "Network Analysis and Urbanism in Africa: The Use of Micro and Macro Analysis," The Canadian Re- Qw of Sociology and Anthropology, II (August, 1965), p. 128. 37 point of origin in the integrative process. 10 As for the means by which cross-tribal integration may come about, no unilateral approach was suggested. Instead various possible means have been envisioned which, though often described individually, are highly interdependent and interrelated. Mitchell, in his study of African urban life, outlined three types of social relationships which can be identified: 1. Categorical relationships such as tribe, social class, or skin color in which people are labelled. 2. Structured relationships in which roles are played and described by organizational constitutions as found in churches or other voluntary associations. 3. Networks of relationships which are informal, unstruc- tured, and include both kinship and friendship net- works. 11 Stemming from the identification of these relationships, scholars have postulated that the means to cross-tribal integration may be \ 10Kenneth Little, West African Urbanization (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1965), p. 1. 11J . Clyde Mitchell, "Types of Urban Social Relationships, " went Interrelations in Central African Rural and Urban Life, 5 - J. Apthorpe, editor (Proceedings of the Eleventh Conference of he Rhodes-Livingstone Institute for Social Research, Lusaka: lil'lodes-Livingstone Institute, February, 1958), pp. 84-85. 38 found in the structured voluntary associations, the unstructured networks of relationships, or upon the interpersonal relationships based upon friendship. IV. VOLUNTARY ASSOCIATIONS AS A MEANS Kenneth Little' 5 conceptualization of the process of inte- gration is summarized by the paradigm in Figure 4. He thought that the modernization process which gives birth to the urban center becomes the scene for new activities which in turn generate new motivations and new opportunities for those living there. These, in turn, provide new roles and new senses of identity which grow into new associations among those who are becoming urbanized. These new roles and associations, before becoming completely institutionalized, require a "system of relationships" which can link the old with the new structures of society. This is needed because the gap in terms of social values is so great. Therefore, traditional roles have to be adapted and fresh social institutions have to be inte- g rated with a wider social system than previously prevailed. This ' ! SBrstem of relationships" is composed of voluntary associations which Little defined as institutionalized groups in which membership is att'étined by joining rather than by kinship. Wallerstein defined a \ 12Kenneth Little, op. cit., pp. 1-2. 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This formulation of the concept of the role of schools in integration supported by the previously developed concept of the role of friendship in integration formed the basic conceptual frame- Work for this study and provided its limits. It was, then, possible to define the objectives of this study as derived from the original Problem: under what conditions are the secondary schools agents of cross-tribal integration in West Cameroon? IX. QUESTIONS TO BE INVESTIGATED BY THIS STUDY The specific questions which this study sought to answer w e re: a. Is there a difference in the increase of cross-tribal integration between those who attended secondary school and those who did not during the five year 53 period after primary school, when compared with levels of integration at the end of primary school? b. Does cross-tribal integration increase with an increase in the number of years spent in secondary school? c. What relationships exist between students' backgrounds and their levels of cross-tribal integration? Following Williams' suggestions, 25 the following aspects of students' backgrounds were investigated: rural-urban origin, sex, parents' socio-economic status, location of primary schools attended, length of urban experience, age, tribal membership, religion, academic standing, residence, and family structure. 25Williams reported the following factors as being related to cross-tribal relations: " To the extent that the foregoing description is valid, it leads to implications that should be testable. In the first place, it implies 1il‘lat greatest difficulty and resistance to the acceptance of interaction across ethnic lines in situations that require the gsellschaftliche principles (specificity, neutrality, universalism, performance) are 111xer to appear among those persons who: (1) are of rural origin; (f? 3 are women rather than men; (3) of lower socio—economic posi— tl (an; (4) of lower educational level; (5) have experienced little geo- g I‘aphic mobility; (6) have experienced little social mobility during eir own occupational careers. These predictions, of course, W Quld be expectedto hold only if other relevant variables were con- 8“taint in each instance. " Robin M. Williams, Jr., op. cit., 1964, p. 358. 54 d. What relationships exist between the levels of cross- tribal integration of students and the environmental setting and type of their secondary schools? e. Which of the following factors in the secondary school experience are most frequently reported by the students to be positively related to cross—tribal integration: academic subjects, extra-curricular activities, reli- gious instruction and activities, school organization, and aspects of residential life in a boarding school? f. Which of the above factors in the secondary school ex- perience are most frequently reported by the students to be negatively related to cross-tribal integration? g. Are teachers perceived by students and teachers as being integrative agents ? 2 6 26That the role of the teacher as an integrative agent is in question was revealed by Abernathy and Coombe' 8 statement: :' Thus the teaching profession presents a paradox. Teachers are {Indispensable to the nation-to-be. Their primary function is to 11'tlstruct the young, and they are also a vital link between rulers and I“‘lled. However, the very forces of mass education and democracy which are expected to advance the growth of national consciousness Stimulate the alienation of the teachers from their government and Se riously inhibit their role as mediators to the masses of national Va~1ues. " David Abernathy and Travor Coombe, "Education and Politics in 1Developing Countries, " Harvard Educational Review, XXXV (1965), ~ 297. . 55 These seven questions were derived directly from the original problem of this study. X. QUESTIONS RELATED TO PREVIOUS RE SEARCH Previous work done by other scholars also suggested addi- tional questions which might be investigated because they were relevant to the basic concepts of this study. Research carried out in West Africa by Foster and Clignet focused attention on the problem of tribal inequalities in secondary school admission and attendance. 27 This suggested investigation 0f the same problem in the Cameroon context as specified in the Question: h. What relationships exist between tribal representation and secondary school admissions and attendance? A second research—related question was suggested by the V9 ry important part which the voluntary associations play in the development of integration as conceptualized in this study. Clubs, \ 27Philip J. Foster, "Ethnicity and the Schools in Ghana, " anarative Education Review, VI (October, 1962), pp. 127-135; eIni Clignet, "Ethnicity, Social Differentiation, and Secondary Ql'looling in West Africa, " Cahiers d' Etudes Africaines, VII (Sum- , “tier, 1967), pp. 360-378; and Remi Clignet and Philip J. Foster, -1\e Fortunate Few (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 966). 56 societies, and associations are a very prominent feature of most segments of Cameroon society. Landecker suggested that it might be possible to measure communicative integration by individuals' participation in such groups when he wrote: A more direct approach could be taken by attempting to dis- cover the proportion of persons in a group who lack intimate social contacts. Communicative integration would vary inversely with the proportion of such persons. Research techniques which have been developed in studies of patterns of social visiting in a community and of the frequency of personal contacts in a neigh- borhood could be utilized for the purpose of determining the local number of isolated persons. Another useful technique would be that which has been employed by so-called "social participation" studies. These deal mostly with the participation of the individ- ual in organized groups. This suggested the following question for investigation by this study: (i) What relationships exist between the levels of cross- tribal integration of students and their membership in voluntary associations ? A third possible question was suggested by Weeks' study in East Africa in which he found languages spoken by students to be an important factor in social interaction among the tribal representa- tiVes in secondary school. 29 This was also substantiated by Hans Wont whose linguistic studies indicated that: \ 28Werner S. Landecker, op. cit. , p. 24. . 298. G. Weeks, "A Preliminary Examination of the Role of Elnority Students at a Day Secondary School in Kampala, Uganda, " \apgrs of the East African Institute of Social Research, 1963, 14 pp. IIlimeo). 57 The evidence presented shows that inter-ethnic or inter- societal relationships have linguistic correlates and suggest, therefore, that certain features of linguistic behavior may serve as an index of these relationships. The investigation suggested by these studies was: j. What relationships exist between the levels of cross- tribal integration of students and the number of African languages spoken by them? These three research-related questions plus the original seven derived from the problem comprised the specific questions which this study sought to answer. XI. SUMMARY The fundamental theories and concepts of this study were Presented in this chapter. The concept of the process of the activation of tribalism, including its roots, reactions, and self- Pel‘petuating elements, was presented. In apposition to this, social Integration was defined as an integration among persons based upon Voluntary compliance and leading toward the reduction of cultural and regional differences and discontinuities on the horizontal plane In the process of creating an interacting community which is \ 30Hans Wolff, "Language, Ethnic Identity, and Social Shange, " Anthropological Linguistics, IX (January, 1967). PD. 18, 4. Also see Hans Wolff, "Intelligibility and Inter-Ethnic Attitudes, " wropological Lirguistics, I (March, 1959), p. 39. 58 characterized by a national, tribally-transcendent loyalty among its constituent tribal groups. The suggested means by which social integration may be obtained were voluntary associations, networks of relationships, and friendships. Friendships were described in their role in the process of integration as the primary steps toward the formation of effective and extended networks ultimately culminat— ing in the development of interlocking voluntary associations which provide the bases of integration in a pluralistic society. Because of the primary role of friendships in this conceptualization, cross- tribal integration was defined as the existence of voluntary inter- personal relationships (excluding marriage) between individuals from differing tribal groups. The potential role of the school in the integrative process Was defined in terms of its ability to provide an environment which f0Sters the development of cross-tribal friendships and voluntary aSSociations through its provision of new activities, centers of interest and opportunities for contact, interaction, and selection. The development of these basic concepts made possible the state- Inent of the questions to be investigated by this study as derived from the original statement of the problem and from previous re- Se"=1rch done by other scholars. The declaration of these specific questions led to the development of the design for this study which is presented in the following chapter. CHAPTER III DESIGN OF THE STUDY The problem to which this study is addressed is complex. This complexity is reflected in the research design and led to the necessity to develop and use multiple instruments to obtain a greater depth of information and understanding than might have been obtained from a single approach. Another source of complexity in the design is the fact that two types of information were sought regarding inte- gration. This required dividing the investigation into two aspects: (1) determining the leg of cross-tribal integration, and (2) deter- mining the factors relating to integration. Therefore the various constituents of the design are presented in segmented form in order to provide clarity. This chapter describes the procedures which the research design required, the sampling techniques which were uSed, and a brief outline of the instrumentation. A more complete trt-Z‘atment of instrumentation is provided in the next chapter because of the development of a new instrument. Statements of the testable hyDotheses derived from the questions this study seeks to investigate 59 60 and the models and analyses used to test these hypotheses conclude the chapter. I. PROCEDURE This research study involved the use of written question- naires, interviews, and sociomatrices. The first aspect of the two- part design sought information to determine whether the secondary school is, in fact, an integrative agent and also to seek for relation- ships which might exist between students' backgrounds and their level of integration. This aspect, which provided the basic informa- tion for questions a through d, _i and _j_ in the previous chapter, included the administration of a written questionnaire to all students in the terminal year of the primary school and at every class level in the secondary school in order to compare the level of integration at the various class levels of the secondary school with the primary School level. Interviews on specific topics were also held with terminal secondary school students and primary school leavers who did not attend secondary school but were of comparable age, sex, and provenience (hereafter designated "secondary-age non-students") in Order to determine their level of integration. Thus three com- Dari sons were possible: (1) the primary school results with the reSults of the secondary-age non-students, (2) the primary school 61 results with those obtained in the secondary schools, class level by class level, and (3) a comparison of the terminal secondary school students with the results of the secondary-age non—students to deter- mine whether any differences exist. A comparative paradigm illus- trating this part of the design is presented in Figure 7. This paradigm is not meant to imply that this was an experimental design. The problems of control and contamination, though carefully investi- gated, appeared to be insurmountable for three reasons: (1) this study concerned an uncontrived situation in nature, (2) it was a cross-sectional rather than a longitudinal study, and (3) the number of secondary schools studied was very limited. The second aspect, dealing with factors which are perceived as influencing integration, sought information for questions _e through g_ stated in the previous chapter. This included the administration of a written questionnaire to students at every class level in secon- dary school and interviews which were held with selected students and teachers in the same schools in order to determine the factors in students' and teachers' school experiences which related to cross- tlf‘ibal integration. The relationships between tribal representation and admis- sion and attendance in secondary schools--question h in the previous chElpteruwere obtained by a comparison of the percentage of 62 205mm mumaqlmmmm HE UZHHEHmDAAH EUHQEAVA H>HH§m3 mmfiu Amspmtzmacs mOlllvO|llmOlllmOlllHOlll// // Amoufimcsofimng xxs mqoomom O Wgsumm \ x \ ho mmjv \ \ AEMH 33328:: GO lllllllllllllllllllll \\ AOONOm WMAVAHZOU Hm OZ 63 admissions by tribal groups with the percentage of those tribal groups' representation in the state -wide population. In conducting the research, a routinized system of investi- gation was organized using the instruments developed. This routine included the following steps: 1. Administration of questionnaires to randomly selected secondary school students from each class in the school. 2. Holding of interviews with randomly selected secondary school students from each class in the school. 3. Holding of interviews with all members of the teaching staff who had at least one year' 5 experience in secon- dary school. 4. Administration of questionnaires to all students in the terminal year of a nearby primary school. 5. Holding of interviews with a small group of primary school leavers who did not go to secondary school but were of comparable sex, age, and provenience with those of the terminal year in secondary school. 6. Gathering data to establish the per cent of tribal rep- resentation within the secondary school. 64 7. Gathering sociometric data and drawing sociomatrices as sources of data for comparison with the question- . naire responses of secondary school students. This routinized system of investigation was developed and followed after the development, pre -testing and re-testing of instru- ments was done at the first secondary school visited (Ndu). It was also possible in this initial phase to obtain some evidence of the validity and reliability of the instruments used. II. SELECTION OF THE SAMPLE Primal}t schools. The selection of the sample of primary schools was determined by two major criteria and three minor ones. The major criteria were geographic location and proximity to a secondary school. The geographic location of the schools resulted from the rural-urban and grassland-forest region dichotomies which exist in West Cameroon and made it possible to say something abOUt the relationship of environment and integration. Thus three Primary schools were selected in the grasslands: one in a rural area (Ndu), one in a mono-tribal town (Banso), and one in a multi- tri133.1 urban area (Bamenda); and four primary schools in the forest region; one in an isolated rural area (Massaka), one in a rural area near the main road (New Bekondo), and two in multi -tribal 65 urban areas (Kumba and Victoria). In each case, the schools chosen were relatively near the secondary schools involved in the study in order to compare levels of integration in the two types of schools while keeping environment and tribal grouping relatively constant. The minor criteria included accessibility, the availability of permis- sion from the operating authority, and the desire to obtain a mixture of schools from the various missions and local councils which spon- sor them. Thus it was possible to include Catholic, Baptist, and local council schools among the six selected. In all these primary schools, the questionnaires were ad- ministered to the entire terminal class, which was usually small, and resulted in 224 observations. Secondarl schools. The selection of the sample of secon- dar y schools was determined by environment and type of school in order to investigate possible relationships between these variables and cross-tribal integration. In both primary and secondary schools, enViI‘Onments were identified as rural or urban and grassland or forest. region. Thethree possible types of schools were boys' schoOls, girls' schools, and co-educational schools (often called Hmixed schools" in West Cameroon). Selection of the schools was also determined by availability of permission to do the study and the requirement that each school be a complete five year institution-- 66 this being the duration of the normal secondary school course in West Cameroon. The five schools included in this study were: Ndu: a rural, grassland region, boys' boarding schooL Banso: a grassland region, co-educational boarding and day school, located in a mono-tribal town, Bali: a grassland region, boys' boarding school, located in a mono-tribal town, Kumba: an urban, forest region, co-educational board— ing school, Victoria: an urban, forest region, girls' boarding school. In these schools questionnaires were administered to approximately on(e‘third of the students in each class, thus providing 524 randomly selected respondents. 1 Interviews were also given to a total of 120 randornly selected students on the basis of the following quota per school: eight from each fifth year class level and four from each of the other four class levels. 2 All available members of the teaching \ 1Students were selected with the aid of a table of random number‘s. 2In West Cameroon the term "form" is used to designate all Of the students at a particular grade level in school. Thus the fifth form" is composed of the fifth year students who may be iVldeti into as many "classes" as the administration deems neces— sary There are usually approx1mately. thlrty students in a "class. " F or the sake of clarity the term "class level" will be used throughout 67 staff of each school were interviewed providing they had had at least one year' 3 experience in secondary school. This selection, includ- ing both expatriate and Cameroonian teachers, provided forty-nine interviews. Names of students and teachers interviewed are listed in the Bibliography. Secondary-age non-student samples. These samples were selected from the areas in which the five secondary schools were lo- cated so that it would be possible to make comparisons between sec- ondary school students and the secondary—age non-students regarding levels of integration. In each area eight primary school leavers who had not gone to any post-primary institution, who had been out of pri— In'élry school for five years, and who were of comparable sex and Provenience with those interviewed in the terminal secondary school classes, were interviewed in order to determine their level of inte- Although it was very difficult in some areas to find people g ration. who met these criteria, it was possible to obtain forty-six interviews. III. INSTRUMENTATION In view of the exploratory nature of this survey, written questionnaires and informal interviews were considered the most \ this study to designate what Americans call "grade level" and aIneroonians call "forms. " This is done because the words "form" and "grade" have differing connotations for the American and aIftleroonian readership. 68 appropriate instruments because of their adaptability. Four instru- ments were derived from these techniques and used to carry out this investigation. TWO of them, the questionnaire and the sociometric measures, were developed on the field and included new concepts and approaches to measurement. They are discussed more fully in the next chapter and only mentioned briefly here. Questionnaires. The questionnaire developed was in four parts. The first part included questions on demographic facts con- cerning the respondent; information which was needed in order to Compare students' backgrounds with their level of integration. The Second part was composed of two Guttman scales which measured the respondents' level of integration by his behavioral interaction in cross-tribal friendships. One scale was based upon the school sitUation; the other upon the holiday situation. The third part was a terl-item Guttman attitude scale designed to measure attitude in areas v"here cross-tribal interaction was forced upon students by the sec— ondary school environment. The fourth part of the‘questionnaire consisted of two sets of questions designed to determine what factors in the students' secondary school experience were perceived as encouraging or discouraging them in seeking to make cross-tribal frifindships and thereby influencing cross-tribal integration. A copy of this questionnaire is found in Appendix C. This questionnaire was 69 also adapted for use in the primary schools and in all interviews. In its adapted form two parts of the basic questionnaire were omitted: the Guttman scale concerning the school situation, and the entire fourth part which concerned secondary school experiences. Some of the questions in the demographic section were not pertinent to the primary school students and the non-students and were simply omitted at the time of administration. A copy of the shortened form of the questionnaire is found in Appendix D. Students' interviews. Interviews held with students were in two parts. These two parts were suggested by the design of the study. The level of intgration was determined in the interviews by using the shortened form of the questionnaire and administering it verbally. This made it possible to interject clarifying questions by the re- searcher in order to establish the depth of interaction as accurately as Possible. Following this structured part of the interview, a sec- ond unstructured part sought to provide information on tOpics which were considered important not only as sources of factors related to W but also as a means of establishing definitions, values, and conceptualizations in this cross-cultural study. The topics inclIlded were: a. The role of the school in integration. b. Factors in the secondary school experience which relate to integration or malintegration. 70 c. Definitions of tribe and tribalism; tribal histories, tribal self-perception. d. Behavioral manifestations of integration among stu- dents: with whom do they eat, sleep, or sit in the classroom? e. Definitions and qualities of friends and friendship. f. Sources and cross-tribal aspects of institutionalized friendships. g. Membership in voluntary associations. Information collected in this way was recorded for further analysis by the researcher taking notes during the interviews. Use of a tape recorder was found to be detrimental because of tensions which appeared to develop in the respondents during its use. Teachers' interviews. Although interviews with teachers were unstructured, they were very valuable sources of information Which helped clarify definitions and deepen conceptualizations. Inter- VieWS with Cameroonian teachers, both younger and older, were much more fruitful than those held 'with expatriate teachers because Of the latters' limited understanding of their students' lives, back- grounds, and activities. Interviews with teachers included the same topics as those explored in the unstructured part of the students' i . - nteI‘VIews with an additional emphasis upon the integratlve and 71 malintegrative roles which the teacher could play. In addition to these interviews, Cameroonian pastors also proved to be unusually valuable sources of information ranging over the same topics used with students and teachers. Sociometric measures. After intensive field investigation into the Cameroonian concept of friendship and its behavioral mani- festations, two sociometric questions were prepared and adminis— tered to all students in the five secondary schools studied. These we re used to provide information for questions 2, _c, and d in the preceding chapter and also to demonstrate tribal groupings within classes and within schools. They also became source of four new questions which were investigated: 1. Is there a relationship between the number of cross- tribal friends and the distance of students' tribes from their schools? 2. Is there a relationship between the number of cross- tribal friends and the size of the tribal representation within that class ? 3. Is there a relationship between the number of cross- tribal friends and the total state-wide tribal popula- tion ? 72 4. Do the number of cross-tribal friendships of tribal groups vary from school to school? At the same time that these sociometric data were gathered it was possible to determine the tribal representation in each school and compare it with the tribal representation in the state -wide popula- tion as required by question h in the preceding chapter. A more complete explanation of the sociometric questions used and their development is given in the next chapter because of the new concepts involved . IV. TE STABLE HYPOTHESES The questions which this study sought to investigate, as outlined in the previous chapter, were the source of thirty hypothe- see which were tested with data obtained from the use of the instru- ments described in the preceding section. Their large number would have made analysis extremely difficult but for the fact that comDuter facilities were available to assist in the analyses. The hypotheses which this research tested were as follows: 1' $11 hypothesis: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among primary school students, secondary- age non-students, and fifth year secondary school students. 73 Alternate hypothesis: The mean level of integration will increase from primary school students to secondary-age non-students to fifth year secondary school students. Null hypothesis: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among the various class levels in secondary school (determined by questionnaires). Alternate hypothesis: The mean level of integration will in- crease with an increase in the number of years in school. Null hypothesis: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among the various class levels in secondary school, the ex-secondary school students, and the students at a post-secondary college (determined by interviews). Alternate hypothesis: The mean level of integration will in- crease through the various class levels to the ex-secondary school students to the post-secondary college students. Null hypothesis: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration between male and female secondary school students. Alternate hypothesis: The mean level of integration for male students will exceed that of female students. Null hypothesis: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among students in various age groups. 74 Alternate hypothesis: The mean level of integration will in- crease with an increase in the age of students. 6. Null hypothesis : No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among students born in grassland or forest regions or among those born in rural, town, or urban areas. Alternate hypothesis : The mean level of integration will in- crease from grassland to forest region and from rural to town to urban areas. 7. Null hypothesis: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration between grassland tribes and forest region tribes. Alternate hypothesis: The mean level of integration for forest region tribes will exceed that of grassland tribes. 8. Null hmothesis : No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among students resident in grassland or forest regions or among those resident in rural, town, or urban areas. Throughout these hypotheses "town" is used to indicate a relatively small, predominantly mono-tribal town while "urban area" refers to a larger, multi -tribal town or city. 10. 11. 75 Alternate hypothesis: The mean level of integration will in- crease from grassland to forest region and from rural to town to urban areas. Null hypothesis: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among students of traditional religions, Islam, other religions, Baptist, Presbyterian, or Catholic churches. Alternate hypothesis: The mean level of integration will in- crease from students of traditional religions to Islam to other religions to Baptist to Presbyterian to Catholic churches. Null hypothesis: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among students whose academic standing is in the lowest quarter, the third quarter, the second quarter, or the top quarter of their class. Alternate hypothesis: The mean level of integration will in- crease with an increase in academic standing in class. Null hypothesis: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among students with varying lengths of urban experience. Alternate hypothesis: The mean level of integration will in- crease with an increase in the length of urban experience. 76 12. Null hypothesis: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among students whose former primary school was located in grassland or forest regions or among those located in rural, town, or urban areas. Alternate hypothesis : The mean level of integration will in- crease from grassland to forest locations and from rural to town to urban locations. 13. Null hypothesis: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among students whose fathers' occupations are farming or fishing, unskilled labor, skilled labor, tribal political leadership, trade or commerce, and pro- fessional, higher technical, or administrative positions. Alternate hypothesis: The mean level of integration will in- crease from farmer or fisherman to unskilled laborer to skilled laborer to tribal political leaders to traders or commercial men to people in professional, higher techni- cal, or administrative positions. 14. Null hypothesis: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among students whose mothers' occupations are farming, housekeeping, handcraft, trading, skilled or trained labor, and professional or administrative positions. 15. 16. 17. 77 Alternate hypothesis: The mean level of integration will in- crease from farming to housekeeping to handcraft to trad- ing to skilled or trained labor to professional or adminis- trative positions. Null hypothesis: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among students whose fathers' education included no schooling, primary school, other training, teacher training, secondary school, or university. Alternate lgpothesis: The mean level of integration will in- crease with an increase in the fathers' educational experi- ence. Null hypothesis: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among students whose mothers' education included no schooling, primary school, other training, teacher training, secondary school, or university. Alternate hypothesis: The mean level of integration will in- crease with an increase in the mothers' educational expe- rience. Null hypothesis: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration between students from polygamous families and those from monogamous families. 18. 19. 20. 78 Alternate hypothesis: The mean level of integration of students from monogamous families will exceed that of students from polygamous families. Null hypothesis: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among girls' secondary schools, boys' secondary schools, or co-educational secondary schools. Alternate hypothesis: The mean level of integration will in- crease from girls' schools to boys' schools to co-educa- tional schools. Null hypothesis: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among secondary schools located in the grassland rural areas, grassland town areas or forest region urban areas. Alternate hypothesis: The mean level of integration will in- crease from grassland rural schools to grassland town schools to forest region urban schools. Null hypothesis: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration between boarding and non-boarding secon- dary school students. Alternate hypothesis: The mean level of integration of board- ing students will exceed that of non-boarders. 21. 22. 23. 24. 79 Null hypothesis: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among the five schools studied. Alternate hypothesis: The mean level of integration will in- crease from Ndu to Banso to Bali to Kumba to Victoria secondary schools. Null hypothesis : No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among primary schools located in the grass- land or forest regions or among those located in rural, town, or urban areas. Alternate hypothesis : The mean level of integration will in- crease from grassland to forest region locations and from rural to town to urban locations. Null hypothesis: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among students having membership in one, two, three, or four mono-tribal voluntary associations. Alternate hypothesis: The mean level of integration will in- crease among students having from one to two to three to four voluntary association memberships. Null hypothesis: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among students having membership in one, two, three, or four multi -tribal voluntary associations. 25. 26. 27. 80 Alternate hypothesis: The mean level of integration will in- crease among students having from one to two to three to four memberships in multi-tribal voluntary associations. Null hypothesis: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among those students who speak one, two, three, or four neighboring African languages. Alternate hypothesis: The mean level of integration will in- crease for those speaking from one to two to three to four neighboring languages. Null hypothesis: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among those students who speak one, two, three, or four distant African languages. Alternate hypothesis: The mean level of integration will in- crease for those speaking from one to two to three to four distant languages. Null hypothesis: No relationship exists between the level of integration of students (as expressed by proportions of in— tribe friendships) and the distances of their tribes from their schools. 4Neighboring language is defined as a language spoken in the respondent' 3 region of origin. Distant language is defined as a language which is not spoken in the respondent' 8 region of origin. 28. 29. 30. 81 Alternate hypothesis: The level of integration will increase with an increase in the distance of the students' tribes from their schools. Null hypothesis: No relationship exists between the level of integration of students (as expressed by proportions of in- tribe friendships) and the number of tribal representatives in their class. Alternate hypothesis: The level of integration will decrease with an increase in the size of the tribal representation in a class. Null hypothesis: No relationship exists between the level of integration of students (as expressed by proportions of in- tribe friendships) and the size of their state-wide tribal population. Alternate hypothesis: The level of integration will decrease with an increase in the size of the state-wide tribal popu- lation. Null hypothesis: No difference will be found in the level of integration (as expressed by proportion of in-tribe friend- ships) among students from the same tribe but in different schools. 82 Alternate hypothesis: The average level of integration will differ among students from the same tribe but in different schools. V. ANALYSES OF THE DATA The data for this study were collected in West Cameroon between September and December, 1968. All instruments were administered by the researcher with the exception of the interviews conducted with the secondary-age non-students and the students in a post-secondary school college. These were conducted by Cameroon- ian secondary school teachers and former students who had been instructed and prepared for the task by the researcher. Questionnaire data. The demographic data from the first part of the questionnaire‘were the source of the independent vari- ables used in the hypotheses listed in the preceding section. The two Guttman behavior scales of the second part and the Guttman attitude scale of the third part of the questionnaire were analyzed on the Michigan State University CDC 3600 computer by a Guttman Scale Analysis program. 5 The Guttman analysis was considered 5The program used was: BMDOSS- -Guttman Scale #1 in the Computer Institute for Social Science Research' 3 Technical Report No. 27, adapted for use at Michigan State University by J. Robert Zerby from the work of the Health Service Computing Facility, Department of Preventive Medicine and Public Health, School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, in June, 1968. 83 appropriate because it provided a more powerful analytical tech- nique than other attitude scale analyses and the construction of the scales, as described in Chapter IV, was based upon the two funda- mental assumptions of the Guttman technique: unidimensionality and continuity. Unidimensionality is the assumption that the items of the scale deal with only a single dimension of an attitude universe-- cross—tribal friendship, in this case. Continuity is the assumption that the items of the scale form a continuum such that agreement with one step of the scale (for example, item 4) implies agreement with the preceding scale steps of lesser degree (in this case, items 1, 2, and 3). The Guttman Scale Analysis program provided three statistics: (1) the Guttman coefficient of reproducibility (REP), (2) the minimal marginal reproducibility (MMR), and (3) the indi- viduals' scale scores. Both REP and MMR are measures of inter- nal consistency and reproducibility. Felty explained the difference between these two statistics when he wrote: Whereas REP provides an estimate of the accuracy with which a knowledge of a respondent' 3 total score enables the predic- tion of individual item' s ”pass" or "fail, " according to the scale characteristics of the items, MMR (minimal marginal reproducibility) "represents the reproducibility of the matrix using a knowledge of the item proportions only" (Lingoes, 1963, p. 514).5 5John E. Felty, ”Attitudes Toward Physical Disability in Costa Rica and Their Determinants: A Pilot Study" (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Michigan State University, East Lansing, 1965), p. 89. 84 Guttman has specified a REP of 0. 90 as indicative of scalability while scales with a lesser REP are termed "quasi-scales. " The specification of a REP of 0. 90 is arbitrary and some authorities accept 0. 85. 7 For dichotomous responses, MMR ranges between 0.50, which indicates an equal proportion of "yes" and "no" an- swers, and 1.00, which indicates an extreme of either "yes" or "no" answers. The desirable ideal is a moderate value of MMR and as high a value for REP as can be obtained. 8 After obtaining an indication of the internal consistency and reproducibility of the scales, the third statistic obtained from the Guttman Scale Analysis, the individual' 3 score, was used to deter- mine means for the various groups specified in hypotheses 1 through 26. In order to determine whether significant differences existed among the groups, these means were tested by the one -way analysis of variance model using the 0.01 level of significance. This analy- sis technique was used because it is the most powerful model which can be used with the disproportionality in number exhibited by the populations of this research. In using this technique it was assumed that the scores provided continuous data which were independently drawn from normal populations each having the same variance, and 7John E. Felty, op. cit., p. 46. 8Ibid., p. 90. 85 with error components independent across all groups com- pared. The reliability of the questionnaire was determined by calculating the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient from data obtained in a test-retest program with a seven day inter- val carried out with thirty randomly selected secondary school students from all class levels. The data from the fourth part of the questionnaire, which dealt with the factors in the students' secondary school experience related to cross-tribal integration, were analyzed by determining the cumulative frequencies of the responses and making compari- sons. In the case of the open-ended questions, it was first neces- sary to categorize the information before a descriptive content analysis was made. Students' interview data. The first part of the interview involved the use of the shortened form of the questionnaire, thus making it possible to analyze these data using the Guttman Scale Analysis and the one-way analyses of variance previously described. These analyses facilitated the testing of hypotheses 1 and 3 from the preceding section. The-data obtained from the unstructured part of the interviews was categorized and summarized by descriptive content analysis. 86 Teachers' interview data. Data obtained from teachers were also categorized and summarized by descriptive content analy- sis because of its similarity to data gathered from the unstructured part of the students' interviews. Sociometric data. It was originally intended to present the data gathered by these sociometric techniques as Weeks had done in the form of sociograms. This method of presentation was discarded and replaced by sociomatrices for two reasons: 1. A sociomatrix can easily be constructed by anyone without the assistance of the researcher. This is not the case with sociograms. 2. Kerlinger strongly recommends the use of socio- matrices rather than sociograms when the group size exceeds twenty because of the complexities of the choice relationships and interpretation difficulties. Therefore a sociomatrix was prepared for each class level in each school, plotting the data from the two questions by tribes rather than individuals as is usually done. This made possible the por— trayal of tribal groupings within class levels and institutions thus 9Fred N. Kerlinger, Foundations of Behavioral Research (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1964), p. 558. 87 presenting data which could be compared with data obtained from the questionnaire. Because of the difficulties of reproducing socio- matrices in printing, the difficulties of interpreting the information, and the limited statistical analyses which can be performed with data in that form, the decision was made to prepare all sociometric information by dichotomizing the data into "in-tribe friends" and "out-tribe friends" and presenting it in tabular form. In this way no significant information was lost and it was possible to summarize, evaluate, and present the information more concisely. Two types of analyses were used with these data: the chi- square test and the Pearson product-moment correlations. The chi-square test was deemed appropriate because it can be used to establish the fact that the frequency distribution of a set of scores is distributed beyond what is expected by chance. Because the observations were mutually exclusive, independent and could be categorized, it was possible to use chi-square tests on these data by determining the frequencies of in-tribe and out-tribe friendships. Thus it was possible to test hypotheses 2, 4, 7, 18, 19, 21, and 30 using the 0.01 level of significance. The presence of relationships as suggested in hypotheses 27 through 29 was investigated by deter- mining the Pearson product -moment correlation coefficient which establishes the strength of a relationship between two variables or 88 specifies the degree to which one variable can be predicted by knowing the other variable. All analyses on sociometric data were done on the College of Education' 8 IBM 1130 computing facility at Michigan State University. VI. SUMMARY The design of this study was in two parts: determining the 1951 of integration and determining the factors relating to integra- tion. The instruments used included questionnaires, interviews, and sociomatrices. Levels of integration of primary school students, secondary school students, and secondary-age non-students were determined and compared to ascertain the influence of secondary schools. Students' secondary school experiences were examined to determine those which were perceived as factors encouraging or discouraging cross-tribal integration. The sample of the primary schools was chosen by their location and proximity to secondary schools included in this study thus making it possible to say some- thing about relationships between environment and integration on one hand, and the influence of the two types of schools upon cross- tribal integration on the other. The selection of the sample of secondary schools was determined by the environment and type of school in order to investigate possible relationships between these 89 variables and integration. Environmental factors included grass- land and forest region as well as rural, mono-tribal town, and multi-tribal urban locations. Types of schools included boys' schools, girls' schools, and co-educational schools. Students from these schools were randomly selected and provided 224 primary and 524 secondary school questionnaires plus 120 secondary school stu- dents' interviews. A non-student sample of forty-six was inter- viewed to determine their level of integration thus permitting com- parisons with primary and secondary school levels. Forty-nine teachers' interviews were also held to determine the perceived role of the teacher in integration. The four-part questionnaire contained demographic data, two Guttman behavior scales, a Guttman attitude scale, and a section investigating students' secondary school experiences for possible factors related to integration. A shortened form of this question- naire was used in the primary school investigation, the secondary school student interviews, and with non-students. A second part of the student interviews consisted of unstructured discussions of topical questions designed to establish definitions, concepts, values, and the role of the school in integration. Teacher interviews fol- lowed the form of the unstructured questions used with the students. 90 In addition to using questionnaires and interviews, socio- metric data were gathered in order to study tribal differentiation of educational opportunity, relationships between proportions of in- tribe friendships and tribal demographic factors, and to provide supportive evidence for information gathered from other sources. Pursuant to the objectives of this study as presented in the preceding chapter, thirty hypotheses were specified to be tested by the data gathered. Data from questionnaires were analyzed by Guttman Scale Analysis and one -way analysis of variance using the 0.01 level of significance. Sociometric data were analyzed by chi- square tests and the Pearson product -moment correlation technique, both using the 0.01 level of significance. Pearson correlations were also used to establish the reliability of the instruments used. All interview data were categorized and summarized by descriptive content analyses. The information obtained from these analyses is presented in chapters V and VI. CHAPTER IV DEVELOPMENT OF OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS AND INSTRUMENTS The development of new operational definitions and instru- ments for this study was necessitated by thelack of congruity in cross-cultural definitions and concepts and the lack of previous research and instrumentation for measuring cross-tribal integra— tion in a West African school. A review of previous research involving integration in East and Central Africa and a field investi- gation of West Cameroon concepts provided the bases for the opera- tional definitions of friendship and cross-tribal integration which are used as the means of measuring integration among secondary school students. This chapter outlines the previous relevant research, the content of the interviews which provided these operational definitions, and the scales that were developed from them. The formulation of the questionnaire and the sociometric instrument with their adapta- tions, testing, and refinement are also included in this chapter. 91 92 I. EARLY EFFORTS TO MEASURE INTEGRATION The study of relationships between different tribal groups has developed from two approaches: the first focusing on the groups themselves, the second on the individual. Because this study involved tribally mixed groups the approach followed was of necessity that of the individual. Harding et al. described the history of this method when they wrote: The second approach to ethnic relations focuses on the attitudes and behavior of single individuals, and is concerned primarily with variations in attitudes and behavior from individual to individual within a particular population or ethnic group. For reasons of convenience most research in this tradition has dealt with attitudes rather than overt behavior, and the tradition may (be said to begin with a series of attitude studies by E. S. Bo- gardus. It is worth noting that Bogardus in these studies was following a number of suggestions made by Park, and his basic concept--that of social distance--came from the same source. In his studies of ethnic groups in the United States, Bogardus con- trived a social distance scale in which subjects were asked whether they would agree to associating with different ethnic groups in the following social situations: lJohn Harding et a1. , "Prejudice and Ethnic Relations, " Handbook of Social Psycholggy, H, Gardner Lindzey, editor (Cam- bridge, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1954), p. 1021. The studies of Bogardus may be found as follows: "Social Distance and Its Origin, " Journal of Applied Sociology, IX (1925), pp. 216-226; "Measuring Social Distance, " Journal of Applied Soci- ology, IX (1925), pp. 299-308; "Race Friendliness and Social Dis- tance, " Journal of Applied Sociolgy, XI (1927), pp. 272-287. Interested readers may also refer to R. E. Park, "The Concept of Social Distance, " Journal of Applied Sociology, VH1 (1924), pp. 66- 83. 6. 7. 93 Would marry. Would have as regular friends. Would work beside in an office. Would have several families in my neighborhood. Would have merely as speaking acquaintances. Would have live outside my neighborhood. Would have live outside my country. This concept and scale was later adapted to the Copperbelt region of Africa by Mitchell who modified the items as a result of field investigations to include the following: 1. 2. 6. 7. Would admit to near kinship by marriage. Would share a meal with him. Would work together with him. Would allow to live nearby in my village. Would allow to settle in my tribal area. Would allow as a visitor only in my tribal area. Would exclude from my tribal area. 2 The analyses of these data revealed two points: the seventh item had not succeeded because of the negative aspect of the question, and the order in which the situations were placed was not a set of regular 2 J. Clyde Mitchell, The Kalela Dance (Manchester: Man- chester University Press, 1956), p. 22. 94 steps in social distance. Therefore they were rearranged to include: 1. Would admit to near kinship by marriage. 2. Would allow to settle in my tribal area. 3. Would allow to live nearby. in my village. 4. Would share a meal with him. 5. Would work together with him. 6. Would allow as a visitor only. 3 Although Mitchell' 8 study in Central Africa provided a possible framework, it proved inadequate for this study for three reasons. First, the large number of West Cameroon tribes—-more than sixty --made this approach far too cumbersome because it was necessary to multiply the six items of Mitchell' 8 scale by the total number of tribes with whom association was possible. Thus Mitchell' 8 instru- ment included 147 questions covering twenty-one tribes. To use this method in West Cameroon would mean the use of over 360 questions4 --far too many for an instrument to be administered to the wide age- range of students covered in this study. The second drawback in 3J . Clyde Mitchell, "Some Aspects of Tribal Social Dis- tance," The Multitribal Society, A. A. Dubb, editor (Lusaka: Rhodes-Livingstone Institute, 1962). p. 10. 4Using Mitchell's modified six-item scale instead of his original seven-item scale. 95 Mitchell' 8 approach concerned the final analyses. In his analyses, Mitchell compared social distance between tribal groups. In the school context of the present study this was wholly inappropriate for school situations dictate the comparison of tribally mixed groups. Thirdly, some of the situations referred to in Mitchell' 3 scale, such as marriage, are outside the experience of school-aged Came- roonians and were therefore considered to be inappropriate for use with this youthful population. It was therefore evident that it would be necessary to create a new instrument to measure cross-tribal integration among stu- dents. Remembering that Harding 3311' wrote that most research in the individual tradition had been with attitudes rather than overt behavior5 and that studies using both attitude and behavior are quite scarce, 6 it was decided that this study would include both but retain a major emphasis upon overt behavior. II. DEVELOPMENT OF BEHAVIOR AND ATTITUDE SCALES Based on the researcher' s previous experience with stu- dents in West Cameroon a list of fifty-two activities was made in 5John Harding et al., op. cit., p. 1021. 61bid. , p. 1037. 96 which integration or cross-tribal friendship would be the issue. This list was discussed with a Cameroonian student on the campus of Michigan State University before proceeding to the field. 7 As a result of these discussions three important matters came to light: (1) it would be necessary to modify the form of the questionnaire so that it could be easily handled by students inexperienced in this research technique, (2) it would be necessary to modify the language used in order to accommodate the wide range of age and experience which the population to be studied would represent, and (3) it would be necessary to make field investigations in order to bridge the in- congruence of American and Cameroonian cultural values, defini- tions, and concepts. This Cameroonian informant was also able to suggest means and a vocabulary which would make it possible to determine'which of these fifty-two activities are, in fact, relevant to integration or cross-tribal friendships. Upon arrival in West Cameroon investigation was conducted by interviewing forty-two individuals representing a wide spectrum of experience, background, and education including teachers, pastors, students, administrators, missionaries, farmers, and laborers. The names and positions of these interviewees are 7Mr. Elias M. Awa, then a Master's degree candidate, to whom I am indebted for his help and understanding. 97 recorded in part B(4) of the Bibliography. During these interviews respondents were asked to sort fifty-two cards, each of which listed one of the previously mentioned activities, in order to determine (a) whether the issue of cross-tribal relations was involved and (b) how difficult it is‘to do the specified activity with a person from a tribe different from their own. As a result of this card sort some activities were discarded because they lacked the ability to differen- tiate while other activities recurrently appeared in the same pile, thus forming a pattern of activities. Five other activities were sug- gested by respondents as being highly indicative of cross-tribal integration and included: sharing each others' clothes, sharing personal secrets, discussing family problems, lending money, and sleeping in their house. These activities plus the surviving ones from the original list of fifty-two were submitted to a random sample of one hundred secondary school students from all class levels in the form of a scaling questionnaire in order to determine the level of difficulty of the activities in cross-tribal relationships. A copy of this questionnaire is found in Appendix E. These questionnaires were then analyzed to determine whether important differences existed between respondents of differing class level, tribe, region, or age. It seemed especially important to determine whether re- gional differences might invalidate certain activities as indicators 98 of integration. Although differences did appear, they were not significant or consistent. In a further effort to determine which items in the scaling questionnaire provided the best indicators and differentiators, a refined scaling questionnaire was produced by combining the five highest scoring items from each of the three cate- gories hard to do, not so hard to do, and easy to do from the first questionnaire. A copy of this refined scaling questionnaire is found in Appendix F. This questionnaire was administered to thirty ran- domly selected secondary school students. Analysis showed that the greatest range of scores was obtained by using items from all three categories rather than "hard" or ”easy" items only. It was deemed advisable to use items in the instrument which would yield a wide range of scores because the sensitivity of these items had not yet been established. Comparisons of the two questionnaires also showed that there were no significant differences in the mean or median scores. It was therefore decided that items from all three categories would be used in the final instrument. While conducting interviews to determine the indicative activities and their validity it became obvious that some criteria must be established to deter- mine which activities would be acceptable in the final instrument because some activities involved issues other than integration and were considered confusing. Therefore the following criteria were used to select the activities to be used in the instrument: 99 1. The activity must be an action universal to all people. 2. The activity must be such that all people have the opportunity to do it. 3. The activity must involve the freedom to choose the person or persons with whom the participant interacts. 4. The activity must be a universal experience in the normal lives of Cameroonians. 5. The activity must be relatively free from parental or school control. 6. The activity must be moderately difficult to do with people from tribes different from their own. 7. The activity must be difficult to do because of the cross- tribal issue and not because of moral, cultural, reli- gious, or other value systems or issues. The application of these criteria resulted in the drastic reduction of the number of acceptable activities to the following eight: -- being best friends with someone from a different tribe. -- "moving in the town"8 with someone from a different tribe. 8A pidgin-English expression meaning "to be seen in public" or "strolling down the street. " The implications of this activity for a Cameroonian were ably expressed in one of fifty—five essays writ- ten on the tOpic "What I Look For in a Friend",in which a student Wrote: 100 -- sharing a room for a night with someone from a differ- ent tribe. -- making daytime visits to the home of someone from a different tribe. -- lending something to someone from a different tribe. -— borrowing something from someone from a different tribe. -- discussing family problems with someone from a dif- ferent tribe. -- telling your own secrets to someone from a different tribe. These were scaled on the basis of the per cent of students who re- ported these items as being difficult to do on the original scaling questionnaire and resulted in the above order. Having defined the possible items for a scale, the possi- bility of using Guttman' s technique of scale analysis appeared appropriate for three reasons: 1. The selected activities represented steps in a uni- dimensional continuum--an underlying concept for "My friend is also a person with whom I move on the street or in town. If I move with a boy who is not my friend, he could misbehave in my presence and all the behaviour will be put on me because PCOple will think that since I was moving with him and he is a bad boy, therefore I am also a bad boy. " 101 Guttman scales. Felty explained this concept when he wrote: Scale analysis provides a method fordetermining whether a set of items can be ordered along a single dimension. If a particular attitude universe is really one-dimensional, any sampling of items from it should also be one—dimensional, and should pro- vide an ordering of respondents essentially the same as that provided by any other sampling of items from the universe. 2. Although Guttman scales generally involve attitudes, Guttman himself had previously defined attitude as a ”delimited totality of behavior with respect to some- thing"10 thereby implying that his scaling technique could also be used on behavior. scales. 3. Cross-cultural studies involve hazards of meaning equivalence, translation, and equivalence of terms and concepts. Felty explained the usefulness of scale analysis in such a study when he wrote: In respect to problems of input equivalence, Suchman, in reporting methodological findings of the Cornell Cross-Cultural 9John E. Felty, "Attitudes Toward Physical Disability in Costa Rica and Their Determinants: A Pilot Study" (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Michigan State University, East Lansing, 1965), p. 44. A resume of Guttman' s writings is difficult to find. Felty provides an elaborate, up-to-date discussion and summary, of the literature on Guttman on pages 41-46 and 311-312. 10Louis Guttman, "The Problem of Attitude and Opinion Measurement, " Measurement and Prediction, S. A. Stauffer, editor (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1950), p. 51. 102 Methodology Project, has distinguished between "concept" equivalence and "index" equivalence. He reported that it was not possible to compare specific questions and indices across cultures because: "Technical problems such as language translation along with more subtle factors of the meaning of words, combined to make it extremely difficult to compare responses from different cultures with any degree of confidence that they were indeed equivalent. On the other hand, it was found that while specific indices might not be comparable, broader concepts were. " He suggested that scale analysis offered a "particularly promis- ing method" of determing concept equivalence. Therefore, in the formulation of the instrument these items were presented as Guttman scales in two areas of the students' lives: activities at school and activities during the holidays. (The face or content validity of these items as indicators of cross-tribal integra- tion was established by the responses of interviewees and supported by the secondary. school students' essays on the topic of friendship in which sharing secrets, lending, borrowing, visiting friends' homes, sleeping together, and moving together were the most fre- quently named activities which friendship implies. In addition to the two behavior scales, an attitude scale was also developed from the same original set of activities. The criteria for the selection of items for this scaleiwere as follows: 11John E. Felty, op. cit., pp. 42-43. 103 1 . The activity must be traditionally difficult to do with persons from other tribes as indicated by a high per- centage response on the scaling questionnaire as being difficult to do during holidays. 2. The activity is forced upon the person by school or public life and is indicated by a low percentage response on the scaling questionnaire as being difficult to do dur- ing school. These items were then ordered by the difference between the two percentages mentioned in the above criteria and resulted in the fol- lowing ordered scale: -- buying things from a person from a different tribe. -- sitting next to a person from a different tribe. -- washing clothes with a person from a different tribe. -- going to church with a person from a different tribe. -- working with a person from a different tribe. --. farming with a person from a different tribe. -- eating with a person from a different tribe. -- joining clubs whose members come from different tribes. -- bathing with a person from a different tribe. -- sleeping with a person from a different tribe. 104 This completed the construction of the basic scales for the measure- ment of integration. III. DEVELOPMENT OF CONCEPTS AND OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS A further outcome of the forty-two interviews and fifty-five essays was the elaboration of the Cameroonian concept of friendship and the resulting operational definitions which this study demanded. In his study of students' friendships in Uganda, Weeks found that: Friendship has a number of meanings to the students. . . . There are a variety of factors that influence the formation of friendship bonds ; that may be so but not necessarily are: same tribe, same clan, come from the same village, went to the same primary or junior secondary school, sit next to each other at school, walk home the same way together, live to- gether at the same place, or are of the same religion. The shared expectations that accompany friendship, besides assis- tance when in need, academic tutoring, the provision of food and money, may include the following: the communication of secrets, discussion of personal problems, revelation of rela- tionships with girls, provision of cigarettes, drinking together or going to the cinema when one has enough money. There is no specific ritual act that accompanies or confirms friendship. The data from Cameroon support these observations. Cameroonians agreed that friends are not relatives, the distinction being clearly understood, and that the tie of friendship involves affection, mutual 128. G. Weeks, "A Preliminary Examination of the Role of Minority Students at a Day Secondary School in Kampala, Uganda, " Bpers of the East African Institute of Social Research, 1963, 14 pp. (mimeo). 105 help, doing things together, common interests, trustworthiness, sharing feelings, and being sensitive to each others' wants and preferences. Interviewed students agreed that their permanent friendships usually formed during the third or fourth year of secon- dary school and often incorporated. a group of three or four mutual friends. They perceived the function of these friendships as a means of broadening their own knowledge, complementing their own weak- nesses and reinforcing their self-concept. 13 One aspect of friend— ship upon'which there was divided opinion was whether it is easier to make friends with peOple from tribes similar to their own or with those which are distinctly different. Older informants (adults) believed that friendships were more easily established with neigh- boring tribes because of cultural and linguistic similarities. Many students, on the other hand, believed that friendships between dis- similar tribes were easier to develop because of their keen desire to "learn more about others." Types of friendships. An important aspect of the concept of friendship in Cameroon which was agreed upon by all was that three types of friendship are recognizable: k 13This element of friendship-which is usually expressed as "I like him because he is like me and he complements my weaknesses" seems to echo Lerner' s concept of empathy and its role in moderni- zation. See Daniel Lerner, The Passing—of Traditional Society (New York: The Free Press, 1966), p. 49. 106 1. "Drinkirigfriendshig" which are extremely short- lived, casual, and based on contact or situation. These relationships lack the elements of inducement or affection and may easily be cross-tribal. Some- times called "social" or "dancing" friendships, this type may result from chance contact in public or the forced interaction of persons in an institution such as a school. 2. "Bought friendships" are induced by material gifts or demonstrated affection often for ulterior motives. These relationships are reciprocal and terminate when reciprocity ceases. These also may easily be cross- tribal. 3. "Tight friendships"14 are long-term, affectionate and voluntary relationships which contain elements of inter- dependence and empathy. They will hardly be cross- tribal, especially for the traditional person, but may be so given the opportunity to participate in an integra- tive environment. 14The expressions "drinking friendships," "bought friend- ships," and "tight friendships" are delightfully descriptive pidgin- English expressions which the uninitiated reader'will understand and which had to be used throughout this research because of the vague meaning of the expression "best friends"--"best" in what sense? 107 This typology of friendships was supported by the students' essays which often warned about "bread and butter friends. " One student wrote: . There are various types of friends ; for example, friends because of money, friends because of reputation, friends of love, etc. Another described "tight friendship" as a "complete trust and shar- ing, where each other' 3 needs are sensed rather than expressed, and resources are shared on the basis of this sensitivity and need. " In order to determine whether these three concepts of friendship were present in all regions of West Cameroon, inquiries were made. into the vernacular names for these concepts in four languages which represent three regions: the coast, the forest area, and the grasslands. In the Bakweri vernacular of the coastal area the three types of friendship are designated by the following expressions: "Drinking friendship" -- "Yosa ya mimba" "Bought friendship" -- "Yosa ya woli" or "yosa ya molanga" "Tight friendship" -- "Yosa ya ndinge" or "mbunda ya ndinge. " In the Ejaghem dialect of the forest area two of the types of friend- ship are expressed as: 108 "Drinking friendship" -- "Okor e njaah" "Tight friendship" -- "Okor e mbenge. " In the grassland area the Kom people speak of: "Drinking friendship" -- "E suin mulo" "Bought friendship" -- "Ekong iyuintiti" or "E suin ekong ni ma" "Tight friendship" -- "Ekong ufugeni" or "E suin lua ni ma, " while the Ngemba people of the same region but from a different origin speak of: "Bought friendship" -- "Akongne ankap" "Tight friendship" -- "Akongne nwi. " When these three types of friendshipewere compared with the behav- ior scales previously developed, the following pattern appeared: Presence in Types of Friendships Activity "Drinkipg" "Bought" "Tight" Move in thetown X Visiting homes Lending Borrowing NNNNN Sharing a room Discussing family problems NNNNNNN Sharing personal secrets 109 In view of the evident relationships between activities and types of friendships it was then possible to arrive at an operational definition of best friend (pidgin-English: tight friend) as: l. a person with whom you "movein the town. " 2. a person with whom you visit at his house or compound. 3. a person to whom you lend something such as money or clothes. 4. a person from whom you borrow things such as money or clothes. 5. a person with‘whom you share a room for a night. 6. a person with whom you discuss your family problems. 7. a person to whom you tell your own secrets. Dimensions of friendship. The second important concept derived from the interviews was the existence of four dimensions of friendship. The first dimension, labelled "depth," concerns the depth or degree of difficulty of participating in an activity with a person from a different tribe. It is easier to "move in the town" with someone from a different tribe than it is to tell them your personal secrets. Thus it was possible to list the selected activities in order of increasing depth or difficulty as: moving in the town, visiting, lending, borrowing, discussing family problems, and tell- ing personal secrets. The second dimension, labelled "frequency, " 110 measures friendship by the frequency with which the actors engage in these cross-tribal activities. These frequencies may be cate- gorized as never, a few times, or many times. The third dimension of friendship, labelled "breadth, " is the quantitative one concerning the number of different tribes with which a person engages in these selected activities and may be expressed as with my own tribe only, with one or two different tribes, or with three or more different tribes. The final dimension, labelled "length, " measures friendship by considering the. culture gap between tribes as exemplified by neigh- boring tribes with similar cultures, distant tribes with widely dif- fering cultures, grassland vs. forest region cultures, or semi- Bantu vs. Bantu cultures. In West Cameroon this culture gap may be convem'ently expressed by a regional demarcation as _f_o_r_e_s_t_ region, grassland region, or both regions. The underlying assump- tiontineach of these dimensions is that it is more difficult to carry on activities of increasing difficulty an increasing number of times with an increasing number of different tribes across a widening cultural gap than it is to remain within one' s own tribal group for social interaction. The implication for this study is that as one Progresses along these dimensions of cross-tribal friendship, one, in effect, progresses toward a greater degree of social integration. Therefore it is possible to use these dimensions of cross—tribal 111 friendship as an operational definition of cross-tribal social integpa- tion wherein individuals or groups of people are said to be more socially integrated when thgy: 1. increase the degree of difficulty of their cross-tribal activities or relationships, 2. increasethe frequency of such cross-tribal activities, 3. increase the number of tribes involved in these activities, and 4. interact in these activities with tribes of increasing cultural difference. These dimensions of friendship are reminiscent of Epstein' s dimen- sions of networks which he defined as interconnectedness, range of intensity, effectiveness, and extendedness. Although the parallel is not complete, the relationships between friendships and networks is implied and has been suggested in chapter II. IV. CONSTRUCTION OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE With the establishment of these concepts and operational definitions it was possible to construct the written questionnaire which was to be the basic instrument in this research. The ques- tionnaire (Appendix C) consisted of four parts including: 1. Demographic questions, questions about languages, friends, and voluntary association membership 112 as dictated by the hypotheses listed in chap- ter III . 2. Two Guttman scales on activities done at school and during holidays. 3. An attitude scale of the Guttman type covering enforced interaction. 4. Structured and open-ended questions to determine the factors in secondary school experience which relate to cross-tribal integration. Trial administrations of the questionnairewere conducted at the secondary school at Ndu. The first trial brought to light problems of language andword usage. The second trial rectified these errors but by that time a fourth dimension of friendship (previously referred to as cultural difference) became evident and had to be included. This new dimension was incorporated in the third revision of the questionnaire. A test-retest program with a seven day inter- val was then carried out with thirty randomly selected students from all class levels to determine the reliability of the instrument and yielded a Pearson correlation coefficient of +0. 865. Statistical analyses onthe dichotomized answers of one of each of the "school" and "holiday" Guttman scales produced a Guttman reproducibility factor of . 883 and . 913 respectively. Although these analyses had 113 been done with only a small sample in one school, the high factors of correlation and reproducibility encouraged the acceptance of this form of the questionnaire as the basic instrument for this study. In order to use this basic instrument in the primary schools and with secondary-age non-students it was necessary to make some adaptations. Because primary school children and the secondary- age non-students did not live in a school as most of the secondary school students did, it was necessary to replace the Guttman scales on school and holiday activities with a Guttman scale of similar activities but in a general rather than a specific situational context (See Appendix D). A further modification in the basic instrument was the omission of irrelevant questions from the demographic part of the questionnaire and the entire fourth part concerning factors in the secondary school experience related to integration. When statistical analysis on dichotomized answers produced a Guttman reproducibility factor of .92 for the primary school population, the adapted instrument was also considered acceptable. V. SOCIOME TRIC INSTRUMENTATION Thedesire to study the question of secondary school stu- dents' cross-tribal friendships by an approach quite different from the scaling techniques used in the questionnaires and thus provide 114 additional information and perhaps a means of establishing the validity of the questionnaire led to the development of a sociometric instrument. Weeks had made fruitful use of sociometry in his study of students' friendships in a secondary school in Uganda. 15 In addi- tion to providing supportive evidence16 and establishing validity, sociometry appeared a desirable approach because it provided a technique by which: (a) the entire student body of each school could be measured rather than only a random sample as was used for the questionnaire, and (b) it provided a graphic portrayal of tribal groupings within classes and institutions, if indeed these did exist. Lindzey suggested five basic requirements for the develop- ment of a sociometric test including: 1. indication of the groups' limits, 2. permittingan unlimited number of choices, 158. G. Weeks, op. cit. 6Sociometricians agreed that sociometric techniques should be used along with other observation techniques rather than exclusively and that their use should be based upon a sound theo- retical framework rather than simply being a curiosity or con- venience. For further discussions about the limitations and weak- nesses of this technique, the interested reader is referred to: Susan Deri et al. , "Techniques for the Diagnosis and Measurement of Intergroup Attitudes and Behavior, " Psychological Bulletin, XLV (1948), p. 256; and Gardner Lindzey and E. T. Borgatta, "Socio- metric Measurement, " Handbook of Social Psychology, I, Gardner Lindzey, editor (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Pub- lishing Company, 1954), p. 407. 115 3. provision of specific criteria for choice or rejection, 4. assurance that results would be kept private, and 5. expressing questions at the respondents' level of under- standing. 17 These requirements were easily met. The organizational frame- work of the school provided the group limits--classes, forms or schools. Specific criteria for choice or rejection was provided by the operational definition of "best friend" previously developed. Fulfillment of the fourth and fifth requirements was augmented by the researcher! 3 long experience of working with Cameroonian secondary school students. The matter of the number of choices to be permitted is still a matter of controversy among sociometricians. Northway specifically suggests that three criteria and three choices be used. 18 In this research ultimately two criteria and unlimited choice were used. Permitting unlimited choice was later regretted because it complicated statistical analyses. The sociometric test for this study-was administered in all classes in each of the five secondary schools studied. The-written test was preceded by an explanation of what is a "best friend" and the following operational definition written on the blackboard: 17Gardner Lindzey and E. T. Borgatta, op. cit., p. 407. 18Mary L. Northway, A Primer of Sociometry (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1952), p. 3. 116 "A best friend (tight friend) is a person: The students -- to whom you lend money, -- to whom you tell your own secrets, -- with whom you move in the town, and -- with whom you share your clothes. " were then asked to provide written answers to the fol- lowing questions: 1. 2. What is your name and class? What is your tribe? List the names of yourpe_st_friends in this class only. After their names, put their tribe. You may list as many as you wish. List the names of yourpgs_t friends in all classes of your form. After their names, put their tribe. List the names of the students to whom you lend money. After their names, put their tribe. List the names of the students to whom you tell your own secrets. After their names, put their tribe. List the names of the students with whom you move in the town. After their names, put their tribe. List the names of the students with whom you share your clothes. After their names, put their tribe. 117 9. List the names of your _b_e_st friends in any classes in this college. After their names, put their tribe and class. Analyses of the preliminary results showed that the names given in answer to questions 3, 5, 6, 7, and 8 were the same as those pro- vided in answer to questions 4 and 9. Therefore the duplicating questions were eliminated and the sociometric instrument included only the following questions: 1. What is your name and class? 2. What is your tribe? 3. List the names of your _b_e£t friends in all classes of your form in this college. 19 After their names, put , their tribe. You may list as many as you wish. 4. List the names of your w friends in any classes of this college. After their names, put their tribe. You may repeat the names from question (3) if you wish. If you have no friends, write "nobody. " Although Northway wrote that "the usual measures of reli- ability and validity do not seem to be particularly appropriate for 19m West Cameroon the term "college" is universally synonomous with "secondary school." 118 2 sociometry, " 0 because of the variability of social grouping and interaction, Selltiz stated: Studies of the reliability of sociometric data, on the basis of repeated tests, indicate that although there may be considerable variation in specific choices, patterns of group interaction and various scores or indices derived from the data are quite stable. 2 1 The reliability of the sociometric instrument used in this study was established by the test-retest method with a seven day interval and yielded aPearson correlation coefficient of +0. 881. As for validity, both Lindzeyzz and Northway23 suggest that no demonstration of it is necessary in sociometry as long as the responses were limited to written, inter-personal choices and that preferences had been disclosed honestly. The validity of the instrument used here‘was supported by the content or face validity established through the forty-two interviews in determining the operational definition of "best friend" and also by the agreement which became apparent between these data and data obtained from the scaling questionnaire. 20Mary L. Northway, op. cit., p. 16. 21Claire Selltiz et al. , Research Methods in Social Rela- tions (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1965). p. 269. 22Gardner Lindzey and E. T. Borgatta, op. cit., pp. 420- 424. 23Mary L. Northway, op. cit., p. 16. 119 VI. SUMMARY The development of new concepts, operational definitions and new instruments to measure cross-tribal integration were pre- sented in this chapter. Forty-two interviews and fifty-five students' essays pro- I vided information which led to the development of the concepts of types of friendships and the dimensions of friendship. Three types of friendships were evident in Cameroonian culture: l. "Drinkilifriendships" which are extremely short- lived, casual, and based on contact or situation. These relationships lack the elements of inducement or affection and may easily be cross-tribal. Some- times called "social" or "dancing" friendships, this type may result from chance contact in public or the forced interaction of persons in an institution such as a school. "Bought friendsgps" are induced by material gifts or demonstrated affection often for ulterior motives. These relationships are reciprocal and terminate when reciprocity ceases. These also may easily be cross- tribal. 120 3. "Tight friendships" are long-term, affectionate and voluntary relationships which contain elements of interdependence and empathy. They will hardly be cross-tribal, especially for the traditional person, but may be so given the opportunity to participate in an integrative environment. Four dimensions of friendship-were also discernible: l. Depth--the degree of difficulty of participating in an activity with a person from a different tribe, 2. Frequency--the number of times in which the actors engage in cross-tribal activities, 3. Breadth--the number of different tribes with which a person engages in cross-tribal activities, 4. Length--the cultural gap between tribes of similar or differing cultures whose representatives are involved in cross-tribal interaction. In addition to these new concepts, information gathered from the same sources provided two fundamental operational defini- tions; one for best friends and one for social integration. Best friend (pidgin-English: "tight friend") was defined as a person with whom you do any or all of the following activities: -- "move in the town. " -- visit their homes or compounds. 121 -- lend something. -- borrow something. -- share a room for a night. -- discuss your family problems. -- share your personal secrets. Integration was operationally defined by specifying that individuals or gpoups of peOple are more socially integrated when they: -- increase the depth or degree of difficulty of their cross- tribal activities or relationships, -- increase the frequency of such cross-tribal activities, -- increase the number of tribes involved in these activities, and -- interact in these activities with tribes of increasing cultural difference. These operational definitions provided the bases for develop- ing two Guttman scales with which to measure individuals' levels of integration in school and holiday situations. Statistical analyses on dichotomized answers produced a Guttman reproducibility factor of .883 and . 913 respectively. Face or content validity of the items was established by interviews. Measurement of reliability of the instrument yielded a Pearson correlation coefficient of +0. 865 when using a test-retest method with a seven day interval. These Guttman 122 scales were incorporatedinto a questionnaire which also included a Guttman attitude scale, demographic information, and structured and open-ended questions to determine the factors in students' secondary school experience which they perceived as being positively or negatively related to integration. This basic questionnaire was adapted for use with primary school students and secondary-age non-students who were interviewed. The operational definition of best friend was also used in the development of a second new instrument to measure students' levels of integration by a sociometric technique. The sociometric instrument, which was used with all students in the five secondary schools studied, included the following questions: 1. What is your name and class? 2. What is your tribe? 3. List the names of your 2% friends in all classes of your form in this college. After their names, put their tribe. You may list as many as you wish. 4. List the names of your b_es_t friends in any classes of this college. After their names, put their tribe. You may repeat the names from question (3) if you wish. If you have no friends, write "nobody. " The validity of this instrument was based on face or content validity as established by the interviews and also by the agreement which 123 became apparent between these data and data obtained from the scaling questionnaire. Reliability was established by the test-retest method with a seven day interval and yielded a Pearson correlation coefficient of +0. 881. The formulation of fundamental operational definitions and the new instruments which were derived from them provided a great quantity of data, the analyses of which is presented in chapters V and VI. CHAPTER V ANALYSES OF DATA PERTAINING TO LEVEL OF INTEGRATION The great volume of data provided by the instruments used in this study necessitates the division of their analyses into six sections in order to present the findings concisely and intelligibly. These sections are subsumed under the two broad headings which characterize this study: the level of integration and the factors relating to integration. The analyses concerning the level of inte- gration include the analyses of the instrument and the testing of the hypotheses using both questionnaire and sociometric data. They constitute the presentation in this chapter. The factors relating to integration are analyzed in the next chapter. I. ANALYSES OF THE INSTRUMENT In order to answer questions p through g, i_ and _1 it was necessary to prepare an instrument to measure the students' levels of integration and use this instrurrlent to test the twenty-six hypothe- ses which these questions suggested. 124 if V .i L L |. . 125 Two analyses were made to establish the characteristics of the instrument: a Guttman Scale Analysis and a test for reliability. Guttman Scale Analysis. The scale analysis program used on the Michigan State University CDC 3600 computer permitted the treatment of trichotomous answers and scales with a maximum of twenty-five items per scale. 1 The scales in the second and third part of the questionnaire were, therefore, analyzed in two ways. In the first case, the items in each of the "school" and "holiday" behav- ior scales were treated as three separate scales under each heading with six items per scale. One of the six item scales was composed of all 5 parts, another of all p parts, and the third of all 3 parts of the six questions. In the second analysis, all eighteen items of the "school" behavior scalewere ordered by the program into one long scale rather than three short ones. The same was done with the "holiday" behavior scale. The ten items of the attitude scale were also ordered and treated as a Guttman scale. The program provided the Guttman coefficient of reproducibility (REP) and the minimal 1The program used was: BMDOSS--Guttman Scale #1 in the Computer Institute for Social Science Research' 3 Technical Report No. 27, adapted for use at Michigan State University by J. Robert Zerby from the work of the Health Science Computing Facility, Department of Preventive Medicine and Public Health, School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, in June, 1968. 126 nal reproducibility (MMR), which are measures of internal tency and reproducibility, for each of the scales formed and ch of the groups to which it was administered. A tabulation of ' coefficients (REP and MMR) is presented in Appendix G. The .ter program also provided an indication of the possible REP would be obtainable had the item answers been dichotomized. possible REPs are also presented in Appendix G and are based he logical combination of the answers into negative and positive lses to form the dichotomy. A brief summary of the REPS ad from the long scales revealed the following minimum and turn coefficients covering all groups: Scale Minimum REP Maximum REP , behavior scale 0. 68 0.78 y behavior scale 0. 72 0. 80 [or scale2 0. 71 0.84 le scale 0.59 0.90 llar summary of the REPs which could be obtained by dichoto- { the responses in the same scales revealed the following co- nts: This scale on the shortened form of the questionnaire ed the "school" and "holiday" behavior scales of the longer onnaire because the latter were not appropriate to the popula- sted with the shortened questionnaire. 127 Scale Minimum REP Maximum REP School behavior scale 0. 73 0. 85 Holiday behavior scale 0. 77 0. 84 Behavior scale 0.78 0. 91 Attitude scale 0. 60 0. 93 It can be seen that the dichotomized responses provide higher REPs. Nevertheless, the scoring of these scales was done using all three responses without dichotomizing them in order to avoid collapsing data. A study of Appendix G revealed that the differences between the REPs of the short, six-item scales and that of the longer, eighteen- item scales was slight. Therefore, all hypothesis testing was done using the data in the form of the eighteen-item Guttman scales and scored accordingly. The Guttman Scale Analysis program also ordered the items of each scale on the basis of individual response patterns within the group tested, with the result that each groups' scale was ordered differently. Therefore it was impossible to make direct comparisons between the Guttman orders and the ordering of items as established by the interviews during the development of the scales. Three gen- eralized observations are noteworthy because of their repeated occurrence: 1. In the behavior scales the item "moving in the town" was always ordered above, and thus easier to do than, 128 the item "best friends. " In the original scale "best friends" was ordered as the easiest to do. 2. In the behavior scales the items "lending something," " and "sharing secrets" tended "borrowing something, to be ordered as the most difficult to do in cross-tribal relationships, with "lending" and "borrowing" being slightly favored. In the original scale, "sharing secrets" was ordered as the most difficult to do. 3. In the attitude scale the items "bathing" and "sleeping, " which were originally ordered as the most difficult to do, maintained that position in most of the groups' scales. Test for reliabilijy. A field test of the reliability of the instrument had been made in Cameroon by using a test-retest method with a seven-day interval. This yielded a Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient of +0. 865 which was computed across all three scales combined. Computer analysis of the same data provided the following Pearson correlation coefficients for each of the scales: Scale Pearson _r_' School behavior scale +0. 8062 Holiday behavior scale +0. 7988 Attitude scale +0. 9070 129 These coefficients established an acceptable reliability for the questionnaire. II. TESTING OF HYPOTHESES BY DATA FROM THE QUESTIONNAIRES The following twenty-six hypotheses were tested on the CDC 3600 computer by data from written and oral answers to the questionnaires. 3 Computer print-outs of the analyses made are available from the author in the form on the following page. Because of their large number, the hypotheses are grouped under the following categories: 1. Hypotheses related to the secondary schools' functional influence on the level of integration. 2. Hypotheses related to students' backgounds. 3. Hypotheses related to the schools' structural influence on the level of integration. 4. Hypotheses related to previous research. 5. Hypotheses related to tribal factors. For the same reason the presentation of the treatments of the data is in an extremely concise form and follows the general order: 3Code books for the recoding of data from the question- naires and from the sociometric questions are presented in Appen- dix H and Appendix I. V‘- \- u 130 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE TABLE Dependent Variable is Attitude Scale Category Variable is Age Source , Significance of Sum of Mean Probability Variance Squares D. F. Square F of F Betwee‘.‘ 48. 6010 4 12.1502 0.7641 0.549 categories . *Linear 1.9751 1 1.9751 0.1242 0.723 *Quadratic 1. 7806 1 1.7806 0.1119 0.735 *Other 44.8451 ’ 2 22.4225 1. 4101 0.245 mm“ . 8220. 9851 517 15.9013 categories Total 8269. 5862 521 *"Linear, " "quadratic" and "other" refer to relationships among the scores which were computed as part of the one-way analysis of variance program. They indicate that trends are present in the scores which composed the data analyzed. 131 -- Category of the hypothesis. -- Statement of the hypothesis. -- Data treatment--specification of the tests or models used. -- Data-summation table--a tabular presentation of the data treated. -- Settlement of the hypothesis--a statement indicating whether the hypothesis was rejected or not rejected on the basis of available data. -- Trend statement-~a reference to the presence of linear relationships which indicated trends in the scores analyzed. -- Summary statement-—a concluding statement indicating possible alternate hypotheses which would describe the relationships tested in light of the settlement of the null hypothesis and the presence of trends. In the following sections, this form of presentation begins at the top of a separate page for each hypothesis. Hypotheses related to the secondary schools' functional influence on the level of integration. Hypotheses l, 2, and 3, which were derived from questions a and b in chapter II, sought to investi- gate the secondary schools' influence upon integration by comparing 132 the levels of integration among primary school students, secondary- age non-students, and secondary school students. 133 Category of the hypothesis: schools' functional influence. H-l: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among primary school students, secondary-age non- students, and fifth year secondary school students. Data treatment: one-way analysis of variance. TABLE 1 LEVEL OF INTEGRATION: MEAN SCORES BY LEVEL OF EDUCATION Groups of Varying N Behavior Attitude Educational Scale Scale Level Terminal primary 224 33 85 22 29 school students Secondary-age 46 33 11 24 41 non-students ' ' Terminal secondary school students 40 38- 58 23- 93 Settlement of the hypothesis: The null hypothesis was rejected on the basis of data from the behavior scale (F = 5. 68 with 2 and 309 d. f.) and the attitude scale (F = 6.04 with 2 and 309 d. f. ). (Criterion: 0.01 level of significance.) 134 Trend indications: The presence of linear relationships indicated the existence of trends among the scores in both scales. (Cri- terion: 0.01 level of significance.) Summary statement: These data suggested that the following hy- pothesis would predict the relationship: The mean level of inte- gration will increase from terminal primary school students to secondary-age non-students to fifth year secondary school stu- dents . 135 Category of the hypothesis: schools' functional influence. H-2: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among the various class levels in secondary school. Data treatment: one -—way analysis of variance. TABLE 2 LEVEL OF INTEGRATION: MEAN SCORES BY CLASS LEVEL Behavmr Scales Attitude Class Level N . Scale School Holiday 1 103 20.72 28.34 22.47 2 105 35.60 30.82 22.49 3 109 35.97 31.78 22.22 4 100 39.52 ' 34.15 22.78 5 1 106 39.09 32.61 22.24 Settlement of the hypothesis: Although the null hypothesis could not be rejected on the basis of data from the attitude scale alone (F = 0.34 with 4 and 522 d. f. ), the data from the "school" scale (F = 16. 98 with 4 and522 d. f.) and the "holiday" scale (F = 6. 35 with 4 and 522 d. f.) could be used to reject the null hypothesis. (Criterion: 0.01 level of significance.) 136 Trend indications: The presence of linear relationships indicated the existence of trends among the scores in the "school" and "holiday" behavior scales. (Criterion: 0.01 level of signifi- cance.) Summag statement: The bulk of these data suggested that the fol- lowing hypothesis would predict the relationship: The mean level of integration will increasewith an increase in the number of years in school. 137 Category of the hypothesis: schools' functional influence. H-3: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among the various class levels in secondary school, the ex-secondary school students, and thestudents at a post— secondary college. Data treatment: one —way analysis of variance. TABLE 3 LEVEL OF INTEGRATION: MEAN SCORES BY LEVEL OF EDUCATION Groups of Varying N Behavior Attitude Educational Scale Scale Level Class level 1 20 32.45 25.65 Class level 2 24 32.42 24.21 Class level 3 21 38. 95 26.29 Class level 4 19 36.53 23.26 Class level 5 40 38.58 23.93 Ex-secondary school students 8 40 5O 24 38 Students in a post- 19 42. 00 21. 37 secondary college S_ettlement of the hypothesis: The null hypothesis was rejected on the basis of data from the behavior scale (F = 3. 70 with 6 and 138 150 d. f.) and the attitude scale (F = 3.16 with 6 and 150 d. f. ). (Criterion: 0.01 level of significance.) Trend indications: The presence of linear relationships indicated the existence of trends among the scores in both scales. (Cri- terion: 0.01 level of significance.) Summary statement: These data suggested that the following hy- pothesis would predict the relationship: The mean level of integration will increase through the various class levels to the ex-secondary school students to the post-secondary college student 3 . Hypotheses related to students' baigrounds. Hypotheses 4 through 17, whichwere derived from question _c in chapter-II, sought to investigate which factors in students' backgrounds are related to their levels of integration. The following were the back- ground factors acting as independent variables in these hypotheses: sex, age, birthplace, tribal origin, residence, religion, academic standing, urban experience, location of former primary school, fathers' and mothers' occupation and education, and family struc- ture. 139 Catggory of the hypothesis: students' backgrounds. H-4: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration between male and female secondary school students. Data treatment: one ~way analysis of variance. TABLE 4 LEVEL OF INTEGRATION: MEAN SCORES BY SEX Behawor Scales Attitude Sex N S al School Holiday c e Male 352 35.79 31.66 22.69 Female 172 37.03 31.26 21.92 Settlement of the lgpothesis: The null hypothesis was not rejected on the basis of data from the ”school" scale (F = 2. 10 with 1 and 523 d. f. ), the "holiday" scale (F = 0.24 with 1 and 523 d. f. ). and the attitude scale (F = 4. 38 with 1 and 523 d. f. ). (Crite- rion: 0.01 level of significance.) Trend indications: None. Summary statement: These data indicated that the null hypothesis would account for the data. 140 Category of the hypothesis: students' backgrounds. H-5: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among students in various age groups. Data treatment: one -way analysis of variance. TABLE 5 LEVEL OF INTEGRATION: MEAN SCORES BY AGE . Behav1or Scales Attitude Age in years N Scale School Holiday 11-12 21 33.05 29.57 21.90 13-14 146 34.01 30.14 22.84 15-16 163 36.08 31.54 22.10 17-18 129 38.98 33.71 22.44 19-20 63 37.05 30. 83 22.44 Settlement of the hypothesis: Although the null hypothesis could be rejected on the basis of data from the "school" scale alone (F = 5. 97 with 4 and 521 d. f. ), the date from the "holiday" scale (F = 3.24 with 4 and 521 d. f.) and the attitude scale (F = 0.76 with 4 and 521 d. f.) could not be used to reject the null hypothe- sis. (Criterion: 0.01 level of significance.) 141 Trend indications: The presence of linear relationships indicated the existence of trends among the scores in the ”school" scale. (Criterion: 0.01 level of significance.) Summary statement: The bulk of these data suggested that the null hypothesis would account for the data. 142 Catgpry of the hypothesis: students' backgrounds. H-6: 5 No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among students born in grassland or forest regions or among those born in rural, town, or urban areas. Data treatment: one —way analysis of variance. TABLE 6 LEVEL OF INTEGRATION: MEAN SCORES BY BIRTHPLACE Birthplace N Behavior Scales Attitude School ' Holiday Scale Grassland-rural 253 33.09 28.89 22.41 Grassland-town 45 34.76 30.18 21.78 Grassland-urban 39 37.28 33.72 22.77 Forest-rural 92 40. 66 ‘ 35.40 22.60 Forest-town 13 38.38 31.77 22.15 Forest-urban 81 40. 80 35.04 22. 62 Settlement of the hypothesis: Although the null hypothesis could not be rejected on the basis of data from the attitude scale alone (F = 0.38 with 5 and 522 d. f. ), the data from the "school" scale (F = 16.81 with 5 and 522 d. f.) and the "holiday" scale (F = 12.43 143 with 5 and 522 d. f.) could be used to reject the null hypothesis. (Criterion: 0.01 level of significance.) Trend indications: The presence of linear relationships indicated the existence of trends among the scores in the "school" and "holiday" scales. (Criterion: 0.01 level of significance.) Summarpstatement: The bulk of these data suggested that the fol- lowing hypothesis would predict the relationship: The mean level of integration will increase from grassland to forest region and from rural to town to urban areas. 144 Catgory of the hypothesis: students' backgrounds. H-7: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration between grassland tribes and forest region tribes. Data treatment: one sway analysis of variance. TABLE 7 LEVEL OF INTEGRATION: MEAN SCORES BY REGIONAL TRIBES . Behav1or Scales Attitude Regions N Scale School Holiday Forest 160 41.11 35.14 22.36 Grassland 348 34. 12 30. 01 22.42 Settlement of the hypothesis: Although the null hypothesis could not be rejected on the basis of data from the attitude-scale alone (F = 0. 02with 1 and 507 d. f. ), the data from the "school" scale (F = 70. 95 with 1 and 507 d. f.) and the "holiday" scale (F = 39.35 with 1 and 507 d. f.) could be used to reject the null hypothesis. (Criterion: 0.01 level of significance.) Trend indications: None. Summary statement: The bulk of these data suggested that the fol- lowing hypothesis would predict the relationship: The mean 145 level of integration for forest region tribes will exceed that of grassland tribes. 146 Category of the hypothesis: students' backgrounds. H-8: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among students resident in grassland or forest regions or among those resident in rural, town, or urban areas. Data treatment: one -way analysis of variance. TABLE 8 LEVEL OF INTEGRATION: MEAN SCORES BY AREA OF RESIDENCE Residence Area N Behavjor Scales Attitude School Holiday Scale Grassland-rural 222 32 . 02 2 8. 04 22 . 45 Grassland-town 34 33.91 2 9. 50 22.00 Grassland-urban 42 37 . 88 33. 40 23. 02 Forest-rural 51 40. 08 35.78 23.71 Forest-town 18 37.22 34.28 23.72 Forest-urban 153 40. 85 34. 80 2 1. 76 Settlement of the hypothesis: Although the null hypothesis could not be rejected on the basis of data from the attitude scale alone (F = 2. 59 with 5 and 519 d. f. ), the data from the "school" scale (F = 23.73 with 5 and 519 d. f.) and the "holiday" scale (F = 16.60 147 with 5 and 519 d. f. ) could be used to reject the null hypothesis. (Criterion: 0. 01 level of significance.) Trend indications: The presence of linear relationships indicated the existence of trends among the scores in the "school" and "holiday" scales. (Criterion: 0.01 level of significance.) Summary statement: The bulk of these data suggested that the fol- lowing hypothesis would predict the relationship: The mean level of integration will increase from grassland to forest region and from rural to town to urban areas. 148 Category of the hypothesis: students' backgrounds. H -9: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among students of traditional religions, Islam, other religions, Baptist, Presbyterian, or Catholic churches. Data treatment: one éway analysis of variance. TABLE 9 LEVEL OF INTEGRATION: MEAN SCORES BY STUDEN TS' RELIGIONS Students' Behavior Scales Attitude Religions N . Scale School Holiday Traditional 1 31.00 26.00 18.00 Islam 2 38.00 36.00 27.00 Other 3 46.67 41.33 21.67 Baptist 106 36.32 31.81 21.78 Presbyterian 274 38.34 33.18 22.31 Catholic 138 31.62 27. 80 23.18 Settlement of the hypothesis: Although the null hypothesis could not be rejected on the basis of data from the attitude scale alone (F = 2. 41 with 5 and 523 d. f. ), the data from the "school" scale (F = 11.73 with 5 and 523 d. f.) and the "holiday" scale (F = 8. 26 149 with 5 and 523 d. f.) could be used to reject the null hypothesis. (Criterion: 0.01 level of significance.) Trend indications: The presence of linear relationships indicated the existence of trends among the scores in all three scales. (Criterion: 0.01 level of significance.) Summary statement: The bulk of these data suggested that the fol- lowing hypothesis would predict the relationship: The mean level of integration will increase from students of traditional religions to Islam to other religions to Baptist to Presbyterian to Catholic churches. 150 Category of the hypothesis: students' backgrounds. H-10: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among students whose academic standing is in the lowest quarter, the third quarter, the secondary quarter, or top quarter of their class. Data treatment: one -way analysis of variance. TABLE 10 LEVEL OF INTEGRATION: MEAN SCORES BY ACADEMIC STANDING Academic Behavmr scales Attitude Standing N Scale School Holiday Bottom 25% 34 27. 00 31.85 23.47 “we" Huddle 103 36.60 31. 97 22. 16 25% Upper m‘ddle 122 35.40 31.17 22.57 25% Top 25% 166 34.87 30.57 22.55 Settlement of the hypothesis: The null hypothesis was not rejected on the basis of data from the "school" scale (F = 1.06 with 3 and 424 d. f.), the "holiday" scale (F = 0.59 with 3 and 424 d. f. ), and the attitude scale (F = 0.99 with 3 and 424 d. f. ). (Criterion: 0.01 level of significance.) 151 Trend indications: None. Summapy statement: These data indicated that the null hypothesis would account for the data. 152 Category of the hypothesis: students' backgrounds. H -11: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among students with varying lengths of urban experience. Data treatment: one -way analysis of variance. TABLE 1 1 LEVEL OF INTEGRATION: MEAN SCORES BY URBAN EXPERIENCE Length of Behavmr Scales Attitude Urban N Scale Experience School Holiday None 162 30.26 26.29 22.31 Less than °ne 120 37.83 33.14 22.83 year One year 35 36.57 32.51 22. 31 Two years 35 38.71 33.60 23.54 3 - 4 years 48 39.46 34.46 22.10 5 - 9 years 56 39.79 35.98 21.70 10 or more 62 41.06 34.29 22.21 years Settlement of the hypothesis: Although the null hypothesis could not be rejected on the basis of data from the attitude scale alone (F = 1. 08 with 6 and 517 d. f. ), the data from the "school" scale 153 (F = 21.71 with 6 and 517 d. f.) and the "holiday" scale (F = 17. 42 with 6 and 517 d. f.) could be used to reject the null hypothesis. (Criterion: 0.01 level of significance.) Trend indications: The presence of linear relationships indicated the existence of trends among the scores in the "school" and "holiday" scales. (Criterion: ' 0.01 level of significance.) Summary statement: The bulk of these data suggested that the fol- lowing hypothesis would suggest the relationship: The mean level of integration will increase with an increase in the length of urban experience. Catpgow of the hypothesis: students' backgrounds. 154 H-12: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among students whose former primary school was located in grassland or forest regions or between those located in rural, town, or urban areas. Data treatment: one -way analysis of variance. TABLE 12 LEVE L OF INTEGRATION: MEAN SCORES BY LOCATION OF FORMER PRIMARY SCHOOL Behavior Scales Locations N Agggpéle School Holiday Grassland-rural 229 32.58 28.21 22.29 Grassland-town 37 33.86 28.73 22.49 Grassland-urban 37 35.19 31.30 22.84 Forest-rural 67 40.46 36.01 22.88 Forest-town 33 38.09 34.73 21.94 Forest-urban 119 41.18 35.29 22.37 \ Went of the hypothesis: Although the null hypothesis could not be rejected on the basis of data from the attitude scale alone (F = 0.41 with 5 and 521 d. f. ), the data from the "school" scale (F = 21.29 with 5 and 521 d. f.) and the "holiday" scale (F = 18.43 155 with 5 and 521 d. f.) could be used to reject the null hypothesis. (Criterion: 0.01 level of significance.) Trend indications: The presence of linear relationships indicated the existence of trends among the scores in the "school" and "holiday",scales. (Criterion: 0.01 level of significance.) Summapy statement: The bulk of these data suggested that the fol- lowing hypothesis would predict the relationship: The mean V level of integration will increase from grassland to forest region locations and from rural to town to urban locations of former primary schools. Catggory of the hypothesis: students' backgrounds. 156 H-13: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among students whose fathers' occupations are farming or fishing, unskilled labor, skilled labor, tribal political leaders, trade or commerce, and professional, higher tech- nical, or administrative positions. Data treatment: TABLE 13 one -way analysis of variance. LEVEL OF INTEGRATION: MEAN SCORES BY FATHERS' OCCUPATION Behavior Scales Occupations N Agtlfife School Holiday Farming, fishing 217 33.23 29.20 22. 65 Unskilled labor 32 36. 78 31 . 34 21 . 94 Skilled labor 72 39.33 34. 93 21.82 Tribal leader 7 37.43 31 . 00 20. 29 Trade commerce 34 39.25 33.15 22.85 I').15‘<>1:‘essional, hlgher technical, 145 38.21 32.96 22.42 administrative \ Set¢ment of the hypothesis: Although the null hypothesis could not berejected on the basis of data from the attitude scale alone 157 (F = 1.04 with 5 and 506 d. f. ), the data from the "school" scale (F = 8. 95 with 5 and 506 d. f.) and the "holiday" scale (F = 6. 49 with 5 and 506 d. f.) could be used to reject the null hypothesis. (Criterion: 0.01 level of significance.) Trend indications: The presence of linear relationships indicated the existence of trends among the scores in the ”school" and "holiday" scales. (Criterion: 0.01 level of significance.) Summary statement: The bulk of these data suggested that the fol- lowing hypothesis would predict the relationship: The mean level of integration will increase from farmer or fisherman to unskilled laborer to skilled laborer to tribal political leaders to traders or commercial men to professional, higher technical, and administrative positions. Catggory of the hypothesis: students' backgrounds. 158 H-14: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among students whose mothers' occupations are farming, housekeeping, handcraft, trading, skilled labor, and pro- fessional or administrative positions. Data treatment: TABLE 14 one -way analysis of variance. LEVEL OF INTEGRATION: MEAN SCORES BY MOTHERS' OCCUPATION Behavior Scales Occupations N (2.23:6 School Holiday Farming 338 34.59 30.41 22.55 Housekeeping 61 38.93 33.44 21.70 Trading 32 39.63 33.66 21.34 Handwork 40 40. 38 34.75 22.38 Skilled labor 19 37.74 32.11 22.79 Pli‘Ofessional or administrative 22 39.73 33.86 24.00 \ Mment of the hypothesis: Although the null hypothesis could not be-rejected on the basis of data from the attitude scale alone (F = 1.66 with 5 and 511 d. f. ), the data from the "school" scale 159 (F = 6. 86 with 5 and 511 d. f.) and the "holiday” scale (F = 3. 52 with 5 and 511 d. f.) could be used to reject the null hypothesis. (Criterion: 0.01 level of significance.) Trend indications: The presence of linear relationships indicated the existence of trends among the scores in the "school" and "holi- day" scales. (Criterion: 0.01 level of significance.) Summapy statement: The bulk of these data suggested that the fol- lowing hypothesis would predict the relationship: The mean level of integration‘will increase from farming to housekeeping to handcraft to trading to skilled or trained labor to professional or administrative positions. Category of the hypothesis: students' backgrounds. 160 311-15: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among students whose fathers' education included no schooling, primary school, other training, teacher train- ing, secondary school, or university. Data treatment: one -way analysis of variance. TABLE 15 LEVEL OF INTEGRATION: MEAN SCORES BY FATHERS' EDUCATION Behavior Scales Level of Attitude Education N Scale School Holiday No schooling 191 32.42 28.86 22.51 Primary school 165 37.85 32.36 22.53 Teacher training 51 37.67 32.65 21. 90 Other training 35 39.74 34. 69 21.74 Secondary school 28 42.18 36.21 21.86 University 33 39.39 33.61 23.18 \ mment of the hypothesis: Although the null hypothesis could not be rejected on the basis of data from the attitude scale alone (F = 0.77 with 5 and 502 d. f. ), the data from the "school" scale (F = 13.38 with 5 and 502 d. f.) and the "holiday" scale (F = 7.19 161 with 5 and 502 d. f.) could be used to reject the null hypothesis. (Criterion: 0.01 level of significance.) Trend indications: The presence of linear relationships indicated the existence of trends among the scores in the "school" and "holiday" scales. (Criterion: 0.01 level of significance.) Summary statement: The bulk of these data suggested that the fol- lowing hypothesis would predict the relationship: The mean level of integration will increasewith an increase in the fathers' educational experience. Category of the hypothesis: students' backgrounds. 162 H-16: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among students whose mothers' education included no schooling, primary school, other training, teacher train- ing, secondary school, or university. Data treatment: TABLE 16 one -way analysis of variance. LEVEL OF INTEGRATION: MEAN SCORES BY MOTHERS' EDUCATION Behavior Scales Levels of N Aggrgie Education School Holiday No schooling 356 35.36 30. 89 22.61 Primary school 111 38.47 33.22 21.57 Teacher training 16 42.31 35.38 25.25 Other training 7 37.29 33.71 21.00 Secondary school 11 34.00 30. 64 21. 91 University 2 41.50 37.00 1 22.50 ‘ Settlement of the hypothesis: Although the null hypothesis could not be rejected on the basis of data from the "holiday" scale alone (F = 2.04 with 5 and 502 d. f. ), the data from the ”school" scale (F = 3. 70 with 5 and 502 d. f.) and the attitude scale (F = 3. 08 163 with 5 and 502 d. f.) could be used to reject the null hypothesis. (Criterion: 0.01 level of significance.) Trend indications: The presence of linear relationships indicated the existence of trends among the scores in the ”school" scale. (Criterion: 0.01 level of significance.) Summary statement: The bulk of these data suggested that the fol- lowing hypothesis would predict the relationship: The mean level of integration will increase with an increase in the mothers' educational experience. 164 Ca’tpgory of the hypothesis: students' backgrounds. H -17 : No differenceiwill be found in the mean level of integration between students from polygynous families and those from monogynous families. Data treatment: one -way analysis of variance. TABLE 17 LEVEL OF INTEGRATION: MEAN SCORES BY FAMILY STRUCTURE Family N Behavmr Scales Attitude Structure School Holiday Scale Polygynous 193 35.30 30.36 22.17 Monogynous 304 36.52 32.23 22.69 No answer 20 39.80 32.95 20. 25 Sittlement of the hypothesis: The null hypothesis was not rejected on the basis of data from the "school" scale (F = 2. 64 with 2 and 516 d.f. ), the "holiday" scale (F = 2. 90 with 2 and 516 d. f. ), and the attitude scale (F = 4.10 with 2 and 516 d. f. ). (Criterion: 0.01 level of significance.) Trend indications: None. Summary statement: These data indicated that the null hypothesis would account for the data. 165 Hypotheses related to the schools' structural influence on the level of integration. Hypotheses 18 through 22, which were derived from question _d_ in chapter II, sought to investigate which factors in the schools' structural aspects are related to students' levels of integration. These structural aspects include type of school (boys' , girls' , co-educational), location of the school, and the provision of boarding facilities in schools. These categories were the independent variables in the following hypotheses. 166 Category of the hypothesis: schools' structural influence. H-18: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among girls' schools, boys' schools, and co-educational secondary schools. Data treatment: one -way analysis of variance. TABLE 18 LEVEL OF INTEGRATION: MEAN SCORE BY TYPE OF SCHOOL BehaVlor Scales Attitude Types of School N Scale School Holiday Girls' schools 100 40.20 33.24 21.11 Boys' schools 183 35.17 30.89 22.33 Co-educational Behools 241 35.32 31.30 23.07 §gt_tlement of the lgpothesis: Although the null hypothesis could not berejected on the basis of data from the "holiday" scale alone (F = 2. 43 with 2 and 523 d. f. ), the date from the ”school" scale (F = 12.19 with 2 and 523 d. f.) and the attitude scale (F = 8. 94 with 2 and 523 d. f.) could be used to reject the null hypothesis. (Criterion: 0.01 level of significance.) Trend indications: No linear relationships exist. 167 Summarystatement: The bulk of these data suggested that the fol- lowing hypothesis would predict the relationship: The mean level of integration varies among students from girls' schools, boys' schools, and co-educational secondary schools. 168 Category of the hypothesis: schools' structural influence. H-19: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among secondary schools located in the grassland rural areas, grassland town areas or forest region urban areas. Data treatment: one -way analysis of variance. TABLE 1 9 LEVEL OF INTEGRATION: MEAN SCORES BY SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT . BehaVlor Scales Attitude Env1ronments N S al School Holiday C e Grassland-rural 89 32.34 28.51 21.90 Grassland-town 235 33.65 29.49 23. 15 Forest-urban 200 40.91 35.27 21.84 Settlement of the hypothesis: The null hypothesis was rejected on the basis of data from the "school" scale (F = 51. 15 with 2 and 523 d.f. ), the "holiday" scale (F = 30. 73 with 2 and 523 d. f. )., and the attitude scale (F = 6. 99 with 2 and 523 d. f. ). (Criterion: 0. 01 level of significance. ) Trend indications: The presence of linear relationships indicated the existence of trends among the scores in all three scales. (Criterion: 0.01 level of significance.) 169 Summagy statement: These data suggested that the following hypothesis would predict the relationship: The mean level of integration will increase from grassland rural schools to grass- land town schools to forest region urban schools. 170 Catggory of the hypothesis: schools' structural influence. H-20: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration between boarding and non-boarding secondary school students. Data treatment: one-way analysis of variance. TABLE 20 LEVEL OF INTEGRATION: MEAN SCORES BY TYPE OF STUDENTS Types of N Behav1 or Scales Attitude Students Scale School Holiday Boarders 522 36.19 31. 54 22.42 Non-boarders 2 35.50 28.00 26.50 Settlement of the hypothesis: The null hypothesis was not rejected on the basis of data from the "school" scale (F = 0.01 with l and 523 d. f. ), the "holiday" scale (F = 0.32 with 1 and 523 d. f. ), and the attitude scale (F = 2.08 with 1 and 523 d. f. ). (Criterion: 0. 01 level of significance.) Trend indications: None. Summary statement: These data indicated that the null hypothesis would account for the data. 171 Category of the hypothesis: schools' structural influence. H-21: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among the five secondary schools studied. Data treatment: one -way analysis of variance. TABLE 2 1 LEVEL OF INTEGRATION: MEAN SCORES BY SCHOOLS Secondary BehaVlor Scales Attitude Schools N Scale School Holiday Ndu 89 32.34 28.51 21.90 Banso 141 30.85 27.05 23.43 Bali 94 37.85 33.15 22.73 Kumba 100 41.61 37.29 22.57 Victoria 100 40. 20 33. 24 21.11 Settlement of the hymthesis: Although the null hypothesis could not be rejected on the basis of data from the attitude scale alone (F = 5. 72 with 4 and 523 d. f. ), the data from the "school" scale (F = 38. 46 with 4 and 523 d. f.) and the "holiday" scale (F = 29.01 with 4 and 523 d. f.) could be used to reject the null hypothesis. (Criterion: 0.01 level of significance.) 172 ' Trendindications: The presence of linear relationships indicated the existence of trends among the scores in all three scales. (Criterion: 0. 01 level of significance.) Summagy statement: The bulk of these data suggested that the fol- lowing hypothesis would predict the relationship: The mean level of integration will increase from Ndu to Banso to Bali to Kumba to Victoria secondary schools. 173 Category of the hypothesis: schools' structural influence. H-22: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among primary schools located in the grassland or forest regions or between those located in rural, town, or urban areas. Data treatment: one ~way analysis of variance. TABLE 22 LEVEL OF INTEGRATION: MEAN SCORES BY PRIMARY SCHOOL LOCATION Location N Behavior Attitude Scale Scale Grassland-rural 40 30. 30 24. 45 Grassland-town 36 26. 86 18. 22 Grassland -urban 46 36 .1 00 20. 67 Forest-rural 23 31.22 22.22 Forest-town 0 .......... Forest-urban 79 38.35 24.01 Settlement of the hypothesis: The null hypothesis was rejected on the basis of data from the behavior scale (F = 20. 99 with 4 and 223 d. f.) and the attitude scale (F = 20. 83 with 4 and 223 d. f. ). (Criterion: 0.01 level of significance.) 174 Trend indications: The presence of linear relationships indicated the existence of trends among the scores in both scales. (Cri- terion: 0.01 level of significance.) Summary statement: These data suggested that the following hy- pothesis would predict the relationship: The mean level of integration will increase from grassland to forest region loca- tions and from rural to town to. urban locations of primary schools . Hypotheses related to previous research. Hypotheses 23 through 26, which were derived from questions _i_ and _j in chapter II, sought to investigate whether the following factors are related to level of integration: mono- and multi—tribal voluntary association membership and neighboring and distant languages spoken. These factors were the independent variables in the following hypotheses. 175 Catggory of the hypothesis: previous research. H—23: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among students having membership in one, two, three, or four mono—tribal voluntary associations. Data treatment: one -way analysis of variance. TABLE 2 3 LEVEL OF INTEGRATION: MEAN SCORES BY MONO-TRIBAL VOLUNTARY ASSOCIATION MEMBERSHIP Number of N Behavior Scales Attitude Memberships School Holiday Scale One 85 34.04 30. 60 23.05 Two 44 36.02 30. 20 22.43 Three 5 29.40 26.60 22.40 Four 7 37.71 32.43 23.00 Settlement of the hypothesis: The null hypothesis was not rejected on the basis of data from the "school" scale (F = l. 64 with 3 and 140 d.f.), the "holiday" scale (F = 0.57 with 3 and 140 d. f. ), and the attitude scale (F = 0. 24 with 3 and 140 d. f. ). (Criterion: 0.01 level of significance. Trend indications: None. 176 Summary statement: These data indicated that the null hypothesis would account for the data. 177 Catpgoq of the hypothesis: previous research. H-24: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among students having membership in one, two, three, or four multi -tribal voluntary associations. Data treatment: one -way-analysis of variance. TABLE 24 LEVEL OF INTEGRATION: MEAN SCORES BY MULTI-TRIBAL VOLUNTARY ASSOCIATION MEMBERSHIP Number of N Behavior Scales Attitude Memberships School Holiday Scale One 133 37.64 32.46 22. 55 Two 57 39.21 33.77 22.49 Three 19 35.47 33.00 23.89 Four . 10 36. 00 31.90 21.50 Settlement of the hypothesis: The null hypothesis was not rejected on the basis of data from the "school" scale (F = 1. 18 with 3 and 218 d. f. ), the "holiday" scale (F = 0.36 with 3 and 218 d. f. ), and the attitude scale (F = 1. 00 with 3 and 218 d. f. ). (Criterion: 0. 01 level of significance. ) lrend indications: None. 178 Summary statement: These date indicated that the null hypothesis would account for the data. 179 Categpry of the hypothesis: previous research. H-25: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among those students who speak one, two, three, or four neighboring languages. Data treatment: one-way analysis of variance. TABLE 25 LEVEL OF INTEGRATION: MEAN SCORES BY NEIGHBORING LANGUAGES SPOKEN BehaVlor Scales Attitude Number Spoken N Scale School Holiday One 136 37.67 32.92 22.85 Two 56 37.09 32.02 22.23 Three 17 38.65 32.88 20.76 Four 5 41.20 33.40 20.60 Settlement of the hypothesis: The null hypothesis was not rejected on the basis of data from the "school" scale (F = 0.43 with 3 and 213 d. f. ), the "holiday" scale (F = 0.16 with 3 and 213 d. f. ), and the attitude scale (F = 1. 81 with 3 and 213 d. f. ). (Criterion: 0.01 level of significance.) 4Neighboring language is defined as a language spoken in the respondent' s region of origin. 180 Trend indications: None. Summary statpment: These data indicated that the null hypothesis would account for the data. 181 Categopy of the hypothesis: previous research. H-26: No difference will be found in the mean level of integration among those studerslts who speak one, two, three, or four distant languages. Data treatment: one ~way analysis of variance. TABLE 26 LEVEL OF INTEGRATION: MEAN SCORES BY DISTANT LANGUAGES SPOKEN ‘7— BehaVlor Scales Attitude Number Spoken N Scale School Holiday One 6 35.67 34.33 . 19.17 Two 5 40.20 35.00 23.20 Three 1 34.00 29.00 17.00 Four 0 --------------- Settlement of the hypothesis: The null hypothesis was not rejected on the basis of data from the "school” scale (F = 0.39 with 2 and 11 d.f.), the "holiday" scale (F = 0.12 with 2 and 11 d.f. ), and the attitude scale (F = 2. 02 with 2 and 11 d. f. ). (Criterion: 0.01 level of significance.) 5Distant language-is defined as a languagewhich is not spoken in the respondent' 8 region of origin. 182 Trend indications: None Summary statement: These data indicated that the null hypothesis would account for the data. III. TESTING OF HYPOTHESES BY SOCIOME TRIC DATA The following nine hypotheses were tested on the IBM 1130 computer by data from the school-wide and class friendship questions of the sociometric instrument. The computer determined frequen- cies and with this information made Pearson product-moment cor- relations and chi-square tests to investigate the hypotheses. The grouping of the hypotheses and the presentation of the treatments of the data remain the same as far as possible. Hypotheses related to tribal factors. Hypotheses 27 through 29, which were suggested by the sociometric data, sought to investi- gate which of the following factors are related to level of integration: distance of students' tribes from their schools, size of state -wide tribal population, and size of class tribal representation. These factors were the independent variables in the following hypotheses. , 183 Catpany of the hypothesis: tribal factors. H-27: No relationship exists between the levels of integration of students (as expressed by proportions of in-tribe friend- ships) and the distances of their tribes from their schools. ( Data treatment: Pearson product-moment correlation. Data from 1803 students divided into 457 tribal groups in twenty-five class levels in the five secondary schools studied wereanalyzed by determining what relationship exists between the proportion of their‘in-tribe friendships and the distances of their tribes from their schools. The determination was made on two sociometric questions: one involving school-wide friendships, the other involving classfriendships only. Settlement of the hypothesis: The) null hypothesis was not rejected on the basis of the‘data obtained,from the school-wide friendship question (5 = -0. 032) and the class friendship question (_r_ = -0. 127) of the sociometric instrument. (Criterion: 0.01 level of sig- nificance.) Summary statement: These data indicated that the null hypothesis would account for the data. 184 Captpgopy of the hypothesis: tribal factors. H-28: No relationship exists between the levels of integration of students (as expressed by proportions of in-tribe friendships) and the number of their own tribal repre- sentatives in their classes. Data treatment: Pearson product-moment correlation. Data from 1803 students divided into 457 tribal groups in twenty-five class levels in the five secondary schools studied were analyzed by determining what relationship exists between the proportion of their in-tribe friendships and the number of their tribal rep- resentatives in their classes. The determination was made on two sociometric questions: one involving school-wide friend- ships, the other involving class friendships only. Settlement of the hypothesis: The null hypothesis was rejected on the basis of the data from the school-wide friendship question (3 = +0. 919) and the class friendship question (3 = +0. 951) of the sociometric instrument. (Criterion: 0. 01 level of significance.) Summary statement: These data suggested that the following hy- pothesis would predict the relationship: The level of integration of students (as expressed by proportions of in-tribe friendships) decreases with an increase in the number of tribal representa- tives in their classes. 185 Catggpry of the hypothesis: tribal factors. H-29: No relationship exists between the levels of integration of students ( as expressed by proportions of in-tribe friendships) and the size of their state-wide tribal popu- lation. Data treatment: Pearson product-moment correlation. Data from 1803 students divided into 457 tribal groups in twenty-five class levels in the five secondary schools studied were analyzed by determining what relationship exists between the proportion of their in-tribe friendships and the size of their tribe' 3 state- wide pOpulation. The determination was made on two socio- metric questions: one involving school-wide friendships, the other involving class friendships only. Settlement of the hypothesis: The null hypothesis was not rejected on the basis of data from the school-wide friendship question (3 = +0. 200) and the class friendship question (_r = +0. 155) on the sociometric instrument. (Criterion: 0.01 level of signifi- cance.) Summary statement: These data indicated that the null hypothesis would account for the data. Hypotheses retested by sociometric data. Hypotheses 2, 4, 7, 18, 19, and 21 were retested using data from the sociometric 186 instrument and treating it with chi-square tests. These hypotheses involved the following independent variables: class level, sex, regional tribes, type of school, location of school, and the five schools studied. 187 Category of the hypothesis: schools' functional influence. H-2: No difference will be found in the level of integration (as expressed by proportions of in-tribe friendships) among the various class levels in secondary school. Data treatment: chi-square test. TABLE 27 LEVEL OF INTEGRATION: PROPORTIONS OF IN-TRIBE FRIENDSHIPS BY CLASS LEVELS School -wide Class Class Levels N In-tribe In-tribe Friendships Friendships 1 103 46.27% 38.85% 2 105 41.45 38.37 3 109 38.72 33.31 4 , 100 42.16 35.36 5 106 27.68 23.98 Settlement of the hypothesis: The null hypothesis was rejected on the basis of data from the school-wide question (x2 = 169. 67 with 4 d. f.) and the class question (x2 = 74.57 with 4 d. f.) of the sociometric instrument. (Criterion: 0.01 level of signifi- cance.) 188 Summag statement: These data suggested that the following hypothesis would predict the relationship: The level of integra- tion of students (as expressed by proportions of in-tribe friend- ships) is different in the various class levels in secondary school. 189 Category of the hypothesis: students' backgrounds. H-4: No difference will be found in the level of integration (as expressed by proportions of in-tribe friendships) between male and female secondary school students. Data treatment: chi-square test. TABLE 28 LEVEL OF INTEGRATION: PROPORTIONS OF IN-TRIBE FRIENDSHIPS BY SEX School -wide Class Sex N In-tribe In-tribe Friendships Friendships Boys 352 75. 45% 59. 48% Girls 172 52. 93 40. 86 Settlement of the hypothesis: The null hypothesis was rejected on the basis of data from the school—wide question (x2 = 96. 54 with 1 d.f.) and the class question (x2 = 50.57 with 1 d. f.) of the sociometric instrument. (Criterion: 0.01 level of significance.) Summary statement: These data suggested that the following hypothesis would predict the relationship: The level of integra- tion (as expressed by proportions of in-tribe friendships) is different for male and female secondary school students. 190 Cateflpy of the hypothesis: students' backgrounds. H-7: No difference will be found in the level of integration (as expressed by proportions of in-tribe friendships) between grassland tribes and forest region tribes. Data treatment: chi-square test. TABLE 2 9 LEVEL OF INTEGRATION: PROPORTIONS OF IN-TRIBE FRIENDSHIPS BY REGIONAL TRIBES School-wide Class Regions N In -tribe In-tribe Friendships Friendships Forest 160 22.83% 17. 89% Grassland 348 47. 88 43. 13 Settlement of the hypothesis: The null hypothesis was rejected on the basis of data from the school-wide question (x2 = 772. 19 with 1 d. f.) and the class question (x2 = 407.08 with 1 d. f.) of the sociometric instrument. (Criterion: 0. 01 level of significance. ) Summary statement: These data suggested that the following hypothesis would predict the relationship: The. level of integra- tion (as expressed by proportions of in-tribe friendships) is different for grassland and forest region tribes. 191 Category of the hypothesis: schools' structural influence. H-18: No difference will be found in the level of integration (as expressed by proportions of in-tribe friendships) among girls' secondary schools, boys' secondary schools, and co-educational secondary schools. Data treatment: chi-square test. TABLE 30 LEVEL OF INTEGRATION: PROPORTIONS OF IN-TRIBE FRIENDSHIPS BY TYPE OF SCHOOL - School-wide Class Types of school N In -tribe In-tribe Friendships Friendships Girls' schools 100 23.23% 18.42% Boys' schools 183 35. 67 30. 42 Co-educational 241 50.28 45. 51 schools O Settlement of the hypothesis: The null hypothesis was rejected on the basis of data from the school-wide question (x2 = 699. 83 with 2 d. f.) and the class question (x2 = 376. 93 with 2 d. f.) of the sociometric instrument. (Criterion: 0.01 level of significance.) Summary statement: These data suggested that the following hypothesis would predict the relationship: The level of 192 integration (as, expressed by proportions of in-tribe friendships) is different among students from girls' schools, boys' schools, and co-educational secondary schools. 193 Catpgory of the hypothesis: schools' structural influence. H-19: No difference will be found in the level of integration (as expressed by proportions of in-tribe friendships) among secondary schools located in the grassland rural areas, grassland town areas, or forest region urban areas. Data treatment: chi-square test. TABLE 31 LEVEL OF INTEGRATION: PROPORTIONS OF IN-TRIBE FRIENDSHIPS BY SCHOOL ENVIRONMENTS School-wide Class Environments N In-tribe In-tribe Friendships Friendships Grassland-rural 89 42. 23% 32 . 89% Grassland-town 235 53. 49 49.46 Forest-urban 200 21. 80 18. 37 Settlement of the hypothesis: The null hypothesis was rejected on the basis of data from the school-wide question (x2 = 1210. 65 with 2 d. f.) or the class question (x2 = 637. 03 with 2 d. f.) of the sociometric instrument. (Criterion: 0. 01 level of signifi- cance . 194 Summary statement: These data suggested that the following hypothesis would predict the relationship: The level of integra- tion (as expressed by proportions of in-tribe friendships) is different among secondary schools located in grassland rural, grassland town, and forest region urban areas. 195 Category of the hypothesis: schools' structural influence. H-21: No difference will be found in the level of integration (as expressed by proportions of in-tribe friendships) among the five secondary schools studied. Data treatment: chi-square test. TABLE 32 LEVEL OF INTEGRATION: PROPORTIONS OF IN-TRIBE FRIENDSHIPS BY SCHOOLS School -wide Class Schools N In-tribe In -t ribe Friendships Friendships Ndu 89 41.31% 33.59% Banso - 141 66. 83 62. 18 Bali 94 29.67 25.73 Kumba 100 20. 02 17.54 Victoria 100 23.35 19. 01 Settlement of the hypothesis: The null hypothesis was rejected on the basis of data from the schoolrwide question (x2 = 2137. 92 with 4 d.f.) and the class question (x2 = 1053. 22 with 4 d. f.) of the sociometric instrument. (Criterion: 0.01 level of signifi- cance.) Summary statement: 196 These data suggested that the following hypothesis would predict the relationship: The level of integra- tion (as expressed by proportions of in-tribe friendships) is different among the students of the five secondary schools studied . Summary of hypotheses retested by sociometric data. The following summary provides a comparison of results obtained when hypotheses were tested by two sets of data ; one from the question- naire, the other from the sociometric instrument. TABLE 3 3 SUMMARY OF RETESTED HYPOTHESES In de en dent Questionnaire Sociometric H°‘ Vagiabl e "School" "Holiday" Attitude "School" "Class" Class level R R NR R R 4 Sex R NR NR R R 7 Rigmnal R R NR R R trlbes 18 School type R NR R R R 19 S°h°91 R R R R R locatlon 21 Schools R R R R R R = rejected NR = not rejected 197 Hypothesis related to tribal factors. The final hypothesis was tested by sociometric data and treated with the chi-square test only . Category of the hypothesis: tribal factors. H_-_3_0_: No difference will be found in the level of integration (as expressed by proportions of in-tribe friendships) among students from the same tribe but in different schools. Data-treatment: chi-square tests. Data-summation tables: See Tables 34 and 35. Settlement of the hypothesis: Table 36 summarizes the analyses made on tribes. Tribes represented in only one or two secon- dary schools and those which listed no in-tribe friends are omitted from-.this summary. (Criterion: 0. 01 level of signifi- cance.) Summary statement: These data suggested that the following hypothesis would predict the relationship: The level of integra- tion (as expressed by proportions of in-tribe friendships) varies among students from the same tribe but in different schools. 198 TABLE 34 LEVEL OF INTEGRATION: PROPORTIONS OF IN-TRIBE FRIENDSHIPS OF TRIBAL GROUPS IN VARIOUS SCHOOLS (School-wide Friendships) Schools Tribe Ndu Banso Bali Kumba Victoria Bakweri 26. 86% 4. 34% 34 17% 24. 88% 37. 42% Douala 0 0 ----- 4. 54 16.55 Bafor ---------- 13.63 20. 57 21. 00 Balong 0 ----- 17.07 3. 84 6. 45 Bakossi 5. 26 30. 43 0 39.65 22.39 Nigerian 0 7. 69 0 7. 31 19.27 Banyang 15.38 11.11 20. 91 16.54 24.81 Ejaghem 0 ----- 7.01 0 10. 52 Bangwa ----- 29.62 ----- 15.38 0 Mbonge 22. 22 ----- 0 0 ----- Balue 13.04 ----- 0 5. 55 ----- Bakundu 18.75 ---------- 25.00 33.33 Bamileke 28.78 11.36 7. 69 19.28 12.79 Meta 40.31 77.66 21.77 20.15 31.21 Moghamo 44.70 30. 76 42.52 21.49 12.00 Bali 19.04 15.44 19.44 3. 33 35. 00 Ngemba 45.45 13.00 37.96 8. 33 16.58 Bafut 36.84 50. 00 38.13 24.00 27.65 Ndop 25.37 28.67 16.44 0 11.42 Kom 49.41 30. 64 7.14 0 29.35 Nsaw 47.82 84. 06 43.75 ----- 20. 58 Oku 59.25 45.31 6. 66 ----- 17.33 Yamba 42.85 ----- 49.23 ----- 5. 00 Noni 15.38 57. 75 ---------- 0 Aghem ----- 16. 66 40. 38 ----- 7.14 Ngie 23.80 0 29.76 13.33 0 Fungom ----- 0 20. 00 12.50 3.22 Mundani 0 ----- 6. 66 0 ----- Wimbum 61.01 59.31 7.69 ----- 43.96 199 TAB LE 35 LEVEL OF INTEGRATION: PROPORTIONS OF IN-TRIBE FRIENDSHIPS OF TRIBAL GROUPS IN VARIOUS SCHOOLS (Class Friendships) Schools Tribe Ndu Banso Bali Kumba» Victoria Bakweri 19.73% 9. 09% 25.71% 19.46% 28.93% Douala 0 0 ----- 2. 56 22.38 Bafor ---------- 13.04 20. 68 14. 28 Balong 0 ----- 15. 00 4. 00 3. 77 Bakossi 7. 69 23. 07 0 36.66 20. 38 Nigerian 0 0 0 2. 12 14. 28 Banyang 11. 11 14.28 21.05 11.72 18.34 Ejaghem 0 ----- 4. 34 0 16. 66 Bangwa ----- 29.41 ----- 0 0 Mbonge 21. 42 ----- 0 0 ----- Balue 0 ----- 0 11.11 ----- Bakundu 20.00 0 ----- 10. 86, 0 Bamileke 16.27 11.36 8.00 19.44 15.00 Meta 38. 75 0 15.38 31.25 24.47 Moghamo 33.33 5. 00 34.61 22. 85 15.38 Bali 11. 11 10. 52 21.68 0 30. 76 Ngemba 35.39 4.76 31.91 3.70 16.66 Bafut 29.03 37.68 34.78 11.90 13.20 Ndop 18.60 20.00 18.91 0 8.34 Kom 37.50 26. 92 0 0 25.80 Nsaw 45.16 81.11 48. 00 ----- 13.04 Oku 44.92 22. 22 0 ----- 3. 33 Yamba 30. 00 ----- 31. 03 ----- 0 Noni 0 50. 44 ---------- 0 Aghem ----- 33.33 38. 46 0 4. 00 Ngie 12.50 0 28.57 22. 22 0 Fungom ----- 0 0 0 6. 45 Mundani 0 ----- 0 0 ----- Wimbum 55. 73 45.83 10. 00 ----- 32.85 200 3. u at 5H .oH u use won—ooh?” «oz 3 u .2. “mm .mm «5 pouoonom . ogmnmomz 3 u so use .32 u use oooooflom 3 n no as .33 N5 oooooflom «so: 3 u :6 an .N u use cocoon: “oz 3 u no so .2 mos cocooflom oxozasm 8 u .3 “mm .H n was con—ooh?“ uoz S u up “mm .H was poaooflos “oz 323me a u no “5 .m u use cocoon: “oz 3 u .6 a; .N «5 cocooflos 3oz 633m 3 u so "no .3 u «5 866.38 “oz 3 u so “33 .m use cosoonos 62 canon: a u no as .3 u use cocoon: 62 a u as :3 .3 Nos cocooflos ooz 333:3 S u .2. 3m .m n was pouoonoh “oz 3 .1. .5 “we .m «5 pouoohou «oz Sosmmflm 3 u as x: .3 u use cocoohoo “oz 3 u so am .4. 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SUMMARY Due to the great volume of data to be analyzed, this chapter presented the analysis of the data pertaining to 13331.55. of integration, leaving those pertaining to factors related to integration for the suc- ceeding chapter. Data pertaining to levels of integration were obtained from questionnaires developed for this purpose. Two fundamental analyses were made to establish the characteristics of the instru- ment: Guttman Scale Analyses and tests for reliability. Guttman Scale Analyses yielded the following coefficients of reproducibility (REP): Scale Minimum REP Maximum REP School behavior scale 0. 68 0. 78 Holiday behavior scale 0. 72 O. 80 Behavior scale 0. 71 0. 84 Attitude scale 0. 59 0. 90 A complete list of coefficients of reproducibility (REP) and minimum marginal reproducibility (MMR) is provided in Appendix G. The reliability of the questionnaire was established by Pearson product- moment correlation coefficients as follows: 203 Scale Pearson _r School behavior scale +0. 8062 Holiday behavior scale +0. 7988 Attitude scale +0. 9070 After establishing the characteristics of the questionnaire, hypotheses 1 through 26 were tested by data from the questionnaires using the one-way analysis of variance model and the 0. 01 level of significance. Data from the sociometric instrument were used to test hypotheses 27 through 29 by the Pearson product-moment cor- relation coefficient using the 0. 01 level of significance. Sociometric datarwas also used to test hypothesis 30 and retest hypotheses 2, 4, 7, 18, 19, and 21 using the chi-square model and the O. 01 level of significance. The settlement of these hypotheses is presented in tabular form for the sake of brevity. See Table 37 on the following page (R = rejected; NR = not rejected). It is noteworthy that in the majority of cases data from the "school" and "holiday" behavior scales could be used to reject the null hypotheses while the data from the attitude scale could not. In those cases where the null hypotheses were rejected, the presence of linear relationships at the 0. 01 level of significance were indicated in most cases. The presence of linear trends-among scores provided support for related alternate 204 TABLE 37 SUMMARY OF HY POTHE SE S ANA LY SE S _._ Hypothesis Behavior Scales Ageizige Rififizis School Holiday 1 - - - R R yes 2 R R NR yes 3 - - - R R yes 4 NR NR NR no 5 R NR NR yes 6 R R NR yes 7 R R NR no 8 R R NR yes 9 R R NR yes 1 0 NR NR NR no 1 1 R R NR yes 1 2 R R NR yes 1 3 R R NR yes 1 4 R R NR yes 1 5 R R NR yes 1 6 R NR R yes 1 7 NR NR NR no 1 8 R NR R no 1 9 R R R yes 2 0 NR NR NR no 205 TABLE 37 (continued) . . Attitude Linear Hypothesns Behavmr Scales Scale Relations School Holiday 2 1 R R R yes 22 R R R yes 2 3 NR NR NR no 24 NR NR NR no 25 NR NR NR no 2 6 NR NR NR no 27 R R NR yes 28 R R NR yes Schoolwide Class 2 9 NR NR - - - - - - 30 R R - - - _ - _ 3 1 NR NR - - - - .. - 32 R R - - - .. .. _ School Holiday 2 (retest) R R - - - - - _ 4 (retest) R R --- _-_ 7 (retest) R R --- --- 18 (retest) R R --- --_ 19 (retest) R R --- --- 21 (retest) R R --- _-_ 206 hypotheses. When. hypotheses were retested by sociometric data, there was agreement in the settlement of the hypotheses when com- pared with data from the behavior scales in all cases except one (hypothesis 4). " The information obtained by the analyses of data pertaining to levels of integration provides a raison d' etre for the analyses of data pertaining to factors related to integration, which are pre- sented in the following chapter. CHAPTER VI ANALYSES OF DATA PERTAINING TO FACTORS RELATED TO INTEGRATION Having determined in the previous analyses that significant differences do exist in levels of integration among groups, it is appropriate in this chapter to investigate what factors were per- ceived by respondents as being encouraging or discouraging to inte- gration. The means used to investigate these factors, which were suggested in questions 3 through _h in chapter II, included closed and open-ended questions in the fourth part of the questionnaire, student interviews, teacher interviews, and comparisons of demographic and sociometric data obtained from the secondary school students. The analyses of these data were done by frequency determination and descriptive content analysis. Although data obtained from question- naries and interviews overlapped in answering the questions of the study, for the sake of clarity the data are presented here under the headings of the questions rather than by the techniques used to obtain the information. 207 .208 I. FACTORS ENCOURAGING INTEGRATION Question _e in chapter II asked: Which of the followig factors in the secondary school experience are most frequently reported by students to be positively related to cross-tribal integra- tion: academic subjects, extra-curricular activities, religious instruction and activities, school organization, and aspects of resi- dential life in a boarding school? The answers to this question were obtained from the closed and open—ended questions in the fourth part of the questionnaire and from student and teacher interviews. Responses from closed questions of the questionnaire. In the fourth part of the questionnaire respondents were asked to mark those experiences in secondary school which encouraged them to seek to make friends with students from other tribes. The frequency of responses for the various factors may be briefly summarized by Table 38 on the following page. A more complete breakdown of the responses by school, class, and sex is provided in Appendix J. Although there were frequent significant differences between schools, there were none between classes across all schools. The apparent sex differences in response were characterized by disproportionately lower frequencies among factors encouraging integration and a dis- proportionately higher frequency in specifying no factors as encour- aging among the girls. 209 TABLE 38 FACTORS ENCOURAGING CROSS-TRIBAL INTEGRATION: QUESTIONNAIRE RESULTS Factors Frequency Per Cent* 1. Being in class together. 359 68. 5% 2. Extra-curricular activities. 345 65. 8 3. Religious instruction and activities. 317 60. 5 4. Residential life in a boarding school. 307 58. 6 5. Academic subjects. 278 53. 1 6. Free-time activities on campus. 267 51. 0 7. Off-campus activities. 209 39. 9 8. Teachers. 202 38.5 9. Other experiences not listed. 186 35. 5 10. None of these. 29 5.5 *Based on a total of 524 students. Responses from open-ended questions of the questionnaire. In these questions respondents were asked to explain what specific experience under each of the nine factors listed above encouraged them to make friends with students from other tribes. Summaries of their responses are presented here under the heading of each factor suggested in the questionnaire. 1. Being in class together. The following were the most frequently named experiences in the classroom which encouraged cross-tribal integration: 210 Experience Frequency Interaction, i.e. working, studying, or cooperating together. 124 Learning about each others' customs, tribes, areas, etc. 92 Social contact including sitting together, discussions, good behavior 79 of fellow students, and being sociable. These responses were exemplified by the following quotations taken from various questionnaires: "We do everything together and forget tribalism. " "Discussing a problem in class and my non-tribal man having a wide knowledge. " "While we study and play, we learn to know more of each other and come closer. " 2. Extra-curricular activities. The following were the most fre- quently named activities which encouraged cross-tribal integration: A ctivity F requency Games, including football, basket- ball, volleyball as well as indoor 162 games. Clubs 89 Work projects 72 Sports and athletics (organized) 61 211 3. Religious instruction and activities. The most frequently named religious activities which encouraged cross-tribal integration were as follows: Activity Frequengy Bible studies and classes. 67 Preaching services. 62 Special activities such as camps, 44 plays, rallies, and annual feasts. 4. Residential life in a boarding school. Although a multitude of experiences was listed as encouraging integration in the boarding school situation, they could easily be combined into three general headings: Experience Frequency Proximity--eating, sleeping, living 144 together. Learning from each other--table etiquette, social behavior, new foods, 66 other life-styles, etc. Sharing material things such as food, clothing, personal property, etc. 45 These responses were exemplified by the following quotations taken from various questionnaires: 5. 212 "We have been together for a long time. " "We are not different from one another. " "We have-a wider understanding of the other stu- dents as regards their traditions. " "We understand our angers because we belong to the dormitory football team. " Academic subjects. Few academic subjects were listed as encouraging cross-tribal integration in the academic or subject- matter aspect. grative factors because of concomitant aspects. ing order of occurrence were: 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th Subject English History Mathematics French Geography Biology Physics Literature Concomitant Aspe ct As a means of communication in a multi-lingual nation. Learning about tribal origins and histories. Its difficulty generated group study. As a means of communication. Learning about other places and peeple. "We are all the same. " Its difficulty generated group study. Provision of a broader view of mankind. More often, academic subjects were seen as inte- Listed in decreas- Frequency 119 112 56 43 40 33 25 17 213 The role which English plays was expressed by two students who wrote: "I was forced to make friends in the first year because I couldn't understand English well. " "English made me to make friends with them because we speak and understand." 6. Free-time activities on campus. Most responses to this factor were readily grouped under two headings: doing things together (186 responses) and discussion and communication (122 responses). The former included playing, walking, eating, and helping each other; the latter included discussions, advice and "storying" together, as it is called in pidgin-English. The importance of play in cross- tribal integration was aptly described by one student who wrote: "We play as if one mother has delivered us. " 7. Off-campus activities. All responses in this category were combined under two broad headings of equal frequency. One head- ing, intimate contact, included such activities as visits to other students' homes and travelling together; the other, social interaction, included helping, sharing, playing, learning, and being sociable. One student explained his plight and dependence upon cross-tribal friends when he responded: "Helping me when I am out of my tribal area. " 2 1:4- 8. Teachers. Although this factor was listed among others in the questionnaire, a presentation of information on this topic falls more appropriately under question g and is presented later in this chapter. 9. Other experiences. A multitude of experiences or activities was listed under this broad heading. They'were categorized as follows: Experience Frequency Musical activities such as singing 45 and dancing. Emotive experiences of friendship 30 (companionship, fellow ship) . "Getting to know each others' manner of doing things. ” 24 The emotive experiences of friendship were described by students in such phrases as: ”socialism, altruism, brotherhood, " "devoted- ness to one another, practicing charity and making everyone to be always happy, " "smiling with them, " and ”making friends according to my natural likeness for them. " As a summary of the data gathered from the open-ended questions it is of interest to note those factors from among all cate- gories which appeared most frequently in the questionnaire responses. The factor most frequently named was "doing things together during free-time" (f = 186) followed in descending order by: "games" 215 (f = 162), "living, eating and sleeping together in a boarding school" (f = 144), "working, studying and cooperating together in the class- room" (f = 124), "discussion during free-time" (f = 122), and the two academic subjects: English (f = 119) and history (f = 112). Other factors were reported less frequently. It is noteworthy, too, that one factor--"learning from each other" or "learning about each other"--was not mentioned as frequently in any one category as the previously mentioned factors, but it did appear in the four cate- gories: geography (f = 40), residential life in a boarding school (f = 66), being in class together (f = 92), and other experiences (f = 24). These written responses to open-ended questions were sup- ported by the open-ended questions asked during student interviews. Responses from student interviews. Interviews were held with 124 students. Oral responses to the question: "What experi- ences have you had in secondary school which encouraged you to seek to make friends with students from other tribes?" were sum- marized as shown in Table 39 on the following page. Other factors mentioned in the interviews which were also reported in the ques- tionnaire included French, "doing things together, " history, geog- raphy, sharing food and personal property, visiting each others' homes, and discussions and "storying" together but were mentioned less frequently than those listed in the table. 216 TABLE 39 FACTORS ENCOURAGING INTEGRATION: INTERVIEW RESULTS Frequency ' 2:: Experiences Reported Per Cent 1. Sports, games, and athletics. 35 28.2% Learning about each others' customs, 2. . 34 27.4 areas, and life-styles. 3 Academic-‘aSSistance in mathematics, 28 22 6 ' physics, etc. from other students. ' 4. Prolonged proximity and contact. 22 17.7 5. Religious instruction and activities. 21 16. 9 6. Teachers. 18 14.5 7. Working or studying together. 18 14. 5 8. Friendliness and helpfulness of other 16 12. 9 students. 9. Residential life in a boarding school. 13 10.5 10. Musical activities such as singing and 13 10. 5 dancmg. 11. English. 10 8.1 12. Clubs. 10 8.1 13. Good behavior in others. 10 8. l 14. Recognizing a need for future assistance. 10 8. 1 *Based on a total of 124 interviews. 217 Responses from teacher interviews. Each of the teachers interviewed was asked what activities in school life were possible factors encouraging integration. Very few teachers gave as exten- sive a list of factors as the students did, but rather explained a few factors in greater depth. Therefore the presentation of a frequency determination is inappropriate as a summarizing technique for these interviews. The following factors were gleaned from notes taken while interviewing teachers: 1. History, biology, domestic science, and literature. 2. Religious activities. 3. Social activities such as clubs, dancing, singing, etc. 4. Speaking other people' 3 vernacular or tribal language. 5. Games and sports. 6. Visiting each others' homes. 7. All-school assemblies and programs. 8. Work projects assigned without tribal references. 9. Students visiting other secondary schools. 10. Students' friendships which often spread to their parents and become a new matrix for social relationships. To summarize the analyses of factors encouraging cross- tribal integration as suggested in objective 3, it is possible to con- clude that the following factors, stated in decreasing order of 218 frequency, may encourage cross-tribal integration: school organization ("being in class together"), extra-curricular activities, residential life in a boarding school, religious instruction and activities, and, finally, academic subjects. II. FACTORS DISCOURAGING INTEGRATION Question _f in chapter II asked: Which of the above factors in the secondary school egperience are most frequentlLreported by students to be negatively related to cross-tribal integration? The answers to this question were obtained from the closed and open- ended questions in the fourth part of the questionnaire and from stu- dent and teacher interviews. Responses from closed questions of the questionnaire. In the fourth part of the questionnaire respondents were asked to mark those experiences in secondary school which discouraged them from making friends with students from other tribes. The frequency of responses for the various factors is briefly summarized by Table 40. A more complete breakdown of the responses by school, class, and sex is provided in Appendix K. Although there were frequent signifi- cant differences between schools, there were few between classes across all schools. The apparent sex differences in responses were characterized by disproportionately lower frequencies among factors 219 discouraging integration and a disproportionately higher frequency in specifying no factors as discouraging among the girls. response patterns were similar to those observed in the data on These factors encouraging integration and cannot be accounted for by data from this study. A TABLE 40 FACTORS DISCOURAGING INTEGRATION: QUESTIONNAIRE RESULTS Factors Frequency Per Cent* 1. No experiences were discouraging. 261 49.8% 2. Being in class. together. 84 16.0 3. Extra-curricular activities. 81 15.5 4. Off-campus activities. 80 15. 3 5. Religious instruction and activities. 74 14. 1 6. Academic subjects. 71 13.5 7. Residential life in a boarding school. 69 13.2 8. Other experiences not listed. 65 12.4 9. Free-time activities on the campus. 63 12.0 10. Teachers. 52 9. 9 *Based on a total of 524 students. 220 Responses from open-ended questions of the questionnaire. In these questions respondents were asked to explain what specific experience under each of the nine factors listed above discouraged them from making friends with students from other tribes. Sum- maries of their responses are presented here under the heading of each factor suggested in the questionnaire. 1. Being in class together. The following were the most frequently named experiences in the classroom which discouraged cross-tribal integration: Experience Frequency Conflicts resulting from differences in language, custom, or feelings of 29 inferiority. Misconduct or "primitive" behavior including lying, gossiping, provoca- 25 tion, and uncleanliness. Academic competition, jealousy, 7 and pride . These responses were exemplified by the following quotations taken from various questionnaires: "It makes me know those who dislike me, when some- thing happens they save their own tribal friends. " "To see whether I am far in education by comparing with them. " 221 2. Extra-curricular activities. The following were the most frequently named activities which discouraged integration: Activity Frequency Work projects--"only helping their tribal mates. " 14 Arguments, quarrels, fights, and 12 rudeness. Discrimination and favoritism in 9 sports and games. 3. Off ~campus activities. The most frequently named off-campus experiences which discouraged integration were: Experience Frequency Misconduct, lack of self-control, 17 and bad language. Discrimination in social functions. 3 Conflict with local, non-school 3 people . 4. Religious instruction and activities. The following were the most frequently named experiences in religious activities which dis- couraged cross-tribal integration: LLL. . -. 222 Experiences Frequency Denominational differences. 15 Utilization of traditional charms, fetishes, or superstitions. Use of coercion to join or participate in activities. One student explained his discouraging experience when he wrote: "In services, they only follow their own members of his tribe. " 5. Academic subjects. Few academic subjects-were listed as discouraging cross-tribal integration. Those listed included: Subject Frequency Hi story 9 English 8 Mathematics 4 Chemistry 3 French ' 3 Physics 2 The following comments from two questionnaires throw some light on why these subjects were named: "Their [referring to other tribes] history is not all that encouraging. " 223 "They deceive people in English. ” 6. Residential life in a boardinischool. Again a multitude of experiences was named as discouraging integration, but they could be combined into three general headings: Experience Frequency Misbehavior--poor eating habits, ”bad" behavior, stealing, unjust 28 punishment by prefects, not bathing. . . . . . 1 Provo cations - -favor1t1sm, pmsomng, talking too much, ridicule. 16 Cultural diffe rences- -eating strange foods, different life—styles, use of 8 tribal languages. Under this heading appeared the first comments about the prefect system and its negative effects upon cross-tribal integration as demonstrated by the following quotation taken from one questionnaire: "Dormitory heads [prefects] set those who don' t give them garri [a kind of food] in the dormitory on punishment. " 1In many schools student deaths have been attributed to poison. 2Many West Cameroon secondary schools use older students in minor administrative and disciplinary positions. This system of student management and participation in school administration is similar to those found in British public schools were these students are given the title "prefect. " 224 7. Other experiences. Although many experiences were listed as discouraging integration, they could be summarized under two broad headings as follows: Experience Frequency Misconduct--being angry or abusive, disobedience, stealing, refusing help when needed, "bad" character, lack 36 of cleanliness or friendliness, witch- craft, and anti-social attitudes. Favoritism--talk of tribal wars, lack of unity, using tribal languages, not 23 understanding others' traditional culture, partial prefects. The most frequently named single experiences were using tribal languages, stealing, and ”bad" character. 8. Free-time activities on the campus. All responses in this category were readily grouped under two headings of equal frequency: misconduct, including rowdyism and quarrelling; and tribalism, including speaking tribal languages and grouping together by tribes. 9. Teachers. Although this factor was listed among others in the questionnaire, a presentation of information on this topic falls more appropriately under question g and is presented later in this chapter. As a summary of the data gathered from the open-ended questions in the questionnaire, it is of interest to note those factors 225 which appeared most frequently among all categories. The factor most frequently named was "bad behavior" (f = 89) especially steal- ing, followed in descending order by "cultural differences” (f = 37), especially the use of tribal languages, and "favoritism" (f = 23). It is also noteworthy that these same factors appeared repeatedly in more than half of the questions asked. These written responses to open-ended questions were supported by the open-ended questions asked during student interviews. TABLE 41 FACTORS DISCOURAGING INTEGRATION: INTERVIEW RESULTS Experiences Frequency Per Cent* 1. Exclusiveness, discrimination, 14 11.3% favoritism. . 2. Misbehavior. 10 8.1 3. Bad character. 10 8. 1 . n - - ll 4. Use of Witchcraft, medicme, and 7 5. 6 paison. Cultural differences: "behavior differ- 5 . . ,, 6 4. 8 ent from mine. 6. Use of tribal languages. 6 4. 8 7. Stealing. 5 4.0 *Based on a total of 124 interviews. 226 Responses from student interviews. Oral responses to the question: "What experiences have you had in secondary school which discouraged you from seeking to make friends with students from other tribes?" were obtained from 124 students and were sum— marized by Table 41 on the previous page. Responses from teacher interviews. Each of the teachers interviewed was asked what activities in school life were possible factors discouraging cross-tribal integration. Very few teachers gave extensive lists of factors, but rather explained a few factors in greater depth. Therefore the presentation of a frequency deter- mination is inappropriate as a summarizing technique for these interviews. The following factors were gleaned from notes taken during teacher interviews: 1. Tribal or regional favoritism practiced by prefects. 2. Use of tribal languages. 3. Tribal or regional student meetings or clubs. 4. Tribal or regional emphasis in sports. 5. Tribal or regional competition in any school activities. 6. Conflict and rivalry over girls‘in co-educational schools. 7. Reviving ancient tribal animosities while studying tribal wars in history. 227 8. Thefts with their resulting tribal accusations. 9. Tribal dances. 10. Elections of prefects or other officers from among the student body. 11. Denominationally-oriented religious activities. To summarize the analyses of factors discouragingpcross- tribal integration as suggested in objective _f_, it is possible to con- clude that the following factors, stated in decreasing order of frequency, may discourage cross-tribal integration: school organi- zation ("being in class together”), extra-curricular activities, religious instruction and activities, academic subjects, and, finally, residential life in a boarding school. It must be emphasized that the greatest frequency of responses indicated that no experiences in secondary school had discouraged students in seeking to make cross- tribal friendships. Fifty-five fourth year students at the secondary school at Bali were asked to write essays on tribal conflict in secondary schools. Some of the more poignant essays are reproduced in Appendix B as examples of students' experiences in school whichwere perceived as beingdetrimental to cross-tribal integration. 3Certain Christian denominations tend to be associated with certain tribes for historic reasons. 228 III. THE TEACHER AS AN INTEGRATIVE AGENT Question g in chapter II asked: "Are teachers perceived by students and teachers as beingyintyeggtiveggnts?" The answer to this question-was obtained from students' replies to the questions about factors related to integration in the fourth part of the question- naire and from student interviews. Teachers also provided insight into this question during interviews conducted with them. Responses from students' questionnaires and interviews. In the closed questions of the questionnaire students were asked to indicate if they perceived teachers as a factor encouraging or dis- couraging integration. Although 38. 5 per cent of the students responded that they perceived teachers as factors encouraging inte- gration, the item "teachers" ranked eighth out of ten factors encouraging integration. The item "teachers" ranked tenth out of ten factors discouraging integration and was perceived as a dis- couraging factor by only 9. 9 per cent of the 524 students questioned. In the open-ended questions students were asked to tell specifically-what experiences they had had which resulted in their perceiving teachers as factors encouraging or discouraging integra- tion. The following were the experiences named by students which resulted in their perceiving teachers as agents encouraging integra- tion: 229 Experience Frequency Teachers' helpfulness and advice. 40 Professional competence. 35 Teachers' friendliness and kind- 19 ness. Learning new behaviors (non- 1 1 academic) from teachers. Teachers' impartiality. 7 Teachers' integration among them- 6 selves. The experiences named by students which resulted in their perceiv- ing teachers as factors discouraging integration were: Experience Frequency Favoritism 14 Injustice 7 Strictness or harshness 5 Failing students 3 Poor teaching techniques 2 In student interviews teachers were not mentioned as dis- couraging factors but were labelled as integrative agents by 14.51 per cent of those interviewed. Out of a ten-item list of factors which encourage integration, students ranked teachers as sixth in this list. 230 Resmnses from teacher interviews. During interviews, teachers were asked to express their views regarding the teacher' 8 role as an agent for cross-tribal integration. Although most teachers perceived their role as encouraging integration, they were able to list substantially more ways in which a teacher could become an agent discouraging integration. Teachers reported the following as means by which they can encourage integration: 1. Arranging tribally-mixed seating and grouping for all student activities. 2. Demonstrating impartiality. Those teachers who have special responsibilities in a boarding school, such as house masters or advisors, must especially maintain impartiality. 3. Discouraging students from discriminating or making discriminatory statements. 4. Being a loved and respected teacher permits him to become an integrative influence among students. 5. Having a school staff which is integrated itself. Many teachers felt the staff of which they were a member was not integrated, racially or tribally. They believed that a tribally-mixed staff is necessary for encourag- ing integration among students. 231 Having expatriate teachers on the staff who maintain an objective, non-tribal attitude. Missionary teachers were perceived as integrative agents to the extent that their religious emphases are broader than denomina- tional limits. Expatriate teachers with long service in Cameroon were also perceived as an integrative influ- ence because of their understanding of student and national tribal problems. Teachers reported that it is possible for teachers to dis- courage cross-tribal integration by the following means: 1. If teachers ridicule students regarding their tribal origin or characteristics, or, conversely, support or praise their own tribe with the implied depreciation of others. If teachers tend to discipline one student frequently, others assume he is discriminating against that student' 3 tribe. As one teacher said, "Tribal friction starts with teachers and spreads to students." If teachers associate with students from their own tribe, others will react by withdrawing into tribal groups. If teachers permit students to visit their homes, the suspicion of favoritism is created. Favoritism, the 10. 232 most frequently mentioned factor discouraging integra- tion, may also exist in admission policies or practices, dismissals, marking students' work, discipline, par- taking in students' tribal societies, and in giving special advice or warnings. If expatriate teachers show lack of knowledge or interest in fellow-staff members or students. Short-term expatriate teachers were perceived as a possible factor discouraging integrationbecause of their limited expe- rience with Cameroon students. If teachers are quarrelsome and antagonistic. If teachers emphasize their own tribal origin or expatriate teachers inquire too frequently into the tribal origins of students. If teachers praise students from their own tribe. If teachers originate from the schools' localities, they are placed in the role of helper and counsellor, thus becoming a source of discrimination. If teachers hire students from a particular tribe for private work or for running errands, this is viewed as dis crimination . 233 11. If the majority of teachers of a school are from one tribe, as was the case in two of the five secondary schools studied. 12. If teachers permit themselves to become involved in students' tribal problems or yield to the preferential treatment sometimes solicited by students. Most teachers reported that they perceived themselves as being integrative agents; only a few would agree with the teacher who frankly said, "Teachers can' t do anything effective to decrease tribalism. " IV. TRIBAL REPRESENTATION IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS Research carried out in West Africa by Foster and Clignet focused attention on the problem of tribal inequalities in secondary school admission and attendance. 4 This suggested the concurrent investigation conducted to answer question h which asked: "mt relationships exist between tribal representation and secondary 4Philip J. Foster, "Ethnicity and the Schools in Ghana, " Comparative Education Review, VI (October, 1962), pp. 127-135; Remi Clignet, "Ethnicity, Social Differentiation, and Secondary Schoolingin West Africa," Cahiers d' Etudes Africaines, VII (Sum- mer, 1967), pp. 360-378; and Remi Clignet and Philip J. Foster, The Fortunate Few (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1966). 234 school admissions and attendance?" In the sociometric instrument students were asked to indicate their own tribal affiliation. This information was then compared with state-wide population statistics from the 1964 demographic survey in orderto investigate this ques- tion. 5 Unfortunately the report of this survey grouped the various tribes in West Cameroon into "strata" thus complicating the compari- sons which were made with information gathered from students. Appendix L presents the tribal composition of the twenty-one strata. The population of each stratum is presented in Appendix M while regional populations are presented in Appendix N. The sociometric data obtained from students was tabulated by sex and tribal strata (Appendices O and P), by'sex and regional population (Appendices Q and R), and by schools and tribal strata (Appendix S). These two sets of data were then used to provide an indicator showing the ratio between secondary school attendance and state -wide population among the tribal strata. The ratio for secondary school attendance was obtained by dividing the number of representatives of each tribal strata in each school by the total population of that school. State- ‘wide population ratios of tribal strata were obtained by dividing the 5Société d' Etudes pour le Developpement Economique et Social, The Population of West Cameroon: Main Findiggs of the Demggyaphic Survey of West Cameroon, 1964 (Paris: Rue de Lille, 1966), pp. A-5 to A-7. 235 population of each tribal strata by the total state-wide population. The indicator of the ratio between these two ratios, called the "selectivity index, " was calculated by dividing the school population ratio by the state-wide population ratio. This "selectivity index" was used in the following tables. A "selectivity index" of 1. 00 indicates that the tribal representation in schools approximates the tribal representation in the state -wide population, while ratios greater or less than 1. 00 indicate student populations which are greater or less than their tribal populations. Tables 42 and 43 com- pare male and female school populations in the five secondary schools studied by tribal strata and regions. The following observations are clearly evident from a sur- vey of these statistics: 1. Grassland male students exceed females in secondary school attendance while forest region females exceed males. 2. Grassland tribes exceed forest region tribes in secon- dary school attendance. 3. Among the male students sampled, tribal strata 11, 15, and "other" far exceed the remaining tribal strata in secondary school attendance. ("Other" includes Hausas, Fulanis, Nigerians, and East Cameroonians.) 236 TABLE 42 TRIBAL ORIGINS OF STUDENTS COMPARED WITH THE DISTRIBUTION OF TRIBES IN THE TOTAL POPULATION Tribes General Male Female by Population Sampled Selectivity Sampled Selectivity Census Proportion Students Index Students Index Strata % % % :23: 36.3% 23.0% o. 6 30.9% o. 9 1 4.4 3.7 0.8 10.7 2.4 2 4.5 0.9 0.2 0.6 0.1 3 4. 9 1.2 0.2 0.5 0. 1 4 4.3 3.3 0. 8 6.7 1.6 5 3.9 5.3 1.4 5.1 1.3 6 4.9 2.3 0.5 0.2 0.04 7 4. 9 5.2 1.1 6.0 1.2 8 4.5 1. 1 0.2 1.1 0.2 Grasslands 63. 7% 77.0% 1. 2 69.1% 1.1 9 6.1 6.9 1.1 7.1 1.2 10 3.8 3.7 1.0 0.6 0.2 11 3.4 8.4 '2‘.5 6.8 2.0 12 3.0 3.3 1.1 3.4 1.1 13 6.1 5.9 1.0 3.6 0.6 14 6.4 3.8 0.6 2.5 0.4 15 8.6 26.5 3. 1 26.0 3.0 16 2.7 1.0 0.4 0.3 0.1 17 4.1 0.4 0.1 0.5 0.1 18 3.9 2.3 0.6 3.1 0.8 19 5.4 7.4 1.4 3.1 0.6 20 4.2 1.5 0.4 0.3 0.07 21 3.1 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.2 Other 2.9 5.6 1.9 11.3 3.9 100. 0% 100. 0% 100. 0% T°ta1 (1291) '" (645) '" 237 TABLE 43 REGIONAL ORIGINS OF STUDENTS COMPARED WITH THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE TOTAL REGIONAL POPULATION 1 964 General Male Female Census Population Sampled Selectivity Sampled Selectivity R . Proportion Students Index Students Index egions ‘70 ‘70 % Forest Region 44.3% 24.9% 0. 6 38.1% 0. 9 Victoria 12.5 5.2 0.4 14.4 1.2 Kumba 19.9 11.2 0.6 16.4 0.8 Mamfe 11.9 8.5 0.8 7.3 0.6 Grasslands 55.7% 74. 4% 1. 3 61. 9% 1. 1 Bamenda 35.6 61.3 1.7 53.8 1.5 Wum 10.2 3.7 0.4 3.9 0.4 Nkambe 9.9 9.4 0.9 4.2 0.4 _ 100. 0% 99. 3%* 100. 0% T°tals (1281) (645) *Not included are 10 foreign students. 238 4. Among the female students sampled, tribal strata 1, 11, 15, and "other" far exceed the remaining tribal strata in secondary school attendance. The tribal differentiation of educational opportunity portrayed by these tables follows many of the sexual, regional, and tribal trends observed in Foster and Clignet' 5 studies. V. SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION FROM STUDENT INTERVIEWS In addition to providing answers to the specific questions asked in this study, interviews with students provided supplemental information which had bearing upon this study but which is not readily included in the analyses of data presented under the previous head- ings. This supplemental information is presented here in order to preserve the information and also to add depth of understanding to the topics related to the problem of cross-tribal integration. The role of the school. Students were asked whether they perceived the school as an integrative agent or as an agent reinforc- ing tribal particularism. The replies of 100 students interviewed were as follows: -- the secondary school encourages integration: 73. -- the secondary school discourages integration: 2. 239 -- the secondary school can do both: 9. -- the secondary school has no effect upon integration: 16. These observations are congruent with data obtained from the ques- tionnaires even though the written questionnaire, its language, and the type of questions asked were relatively foreign to the students. Institutionalized friendships. Some of the West Cameroon secondary schools have institutionalized friendship relationships between younger students ("smalls") and older students ("bigs"). This relationship is a voluntary, mutual-aid agreement which is made consciously, but without formality, between one older student and one or more younger ones. In return for the older student' 3 protection, academic and financial help, advice, and reflected status, the "small" agrees to wash or iron his "big' 8" clothes and dishes, run errands for him, or help him in other menial tasks. "Bigs" choose their "smalls" after observing them during the first few weeks at school. In some cases "smalls" are chosen because of former acquaintance during primary school days or because of younger students' parents' requests. If the relationship is a happy one, it may terminate only when the "big" leaves secondary school at the completion of his course. This relationship has been institu- tionalized by the schools in an effort to avoid conflicts and abuse. During the interviews students were asked whether they had a "big" 240 or a ”small, " how the selection had been made, and what tribal affiliations were involved. Of the 100 students asked these ques- tions, seventy-three were partners in such a relationship, 67. 1% of them being partners with students from tribes other than their own and only 32. 9% of them being partners with students from their own tribe. It is noteworthy that so few of these important relationships were with students from the same tribe. Perception of ”my tribe. ” Students were also asked how they perceived their own tribe in relation to other tribes whose representatives they had met at school or elsewhere. Of the thirty- five students asked, 57. 1% felt their tribe was equally as good as any others, 22. 9% felt their tribe was not as good as others, while 20. 0% felt their tribe was better than most others. Considering the tribal consciousness and conflicts which exist among students, it is noteworthy that so few felt their tribe was not better than all the others; the implication being that tribal consciousness does not involve prejudice as much as it does attitudes of other dimensions, such as loyalty. Voluntaryassociations. In chapter 11 the role of voluntary associations as a means of integrating society was presented. Dur- ing interviews students were asked about their membership in such 241 clubs or societies. Because of their prominence in West African society, it was anticipated that most students would have member- ship in various types of voluntary associations. This was not the case. Among the 524 students who completed the questionnaire, only 141 belonged to non-school voluntary associations. In probing for the reasons for this, the following factors were revealed: 7. Remoteness of residence prohibits membership. No voluntary associations exist in many students' home areas. Most such associations are for older people only; not for students. No time is available to participate because of studies or being away at school. Students usually do not have the money needed to par- ticipate. Membership in some is prevented because of lack of invitation, permission, or parents' approval. Students fear participation with people of higher status. It was to be expected, therefore, that voluntary association member- ship would give little indication of levels of integration. 242 Elements of friendship. A thorough explanation of the types of friendships recognized in Cameroon was presented in chapter-IV in relation to the development of the-instrument to measurelevel of integration. Student interviews were the prime source of this con- cept. In addition, students' very frequent reference to three ele— ments of friendship makes their mention here appropriate. When asked why they had friends, students' invariable repliesincluded one or both of the following concepts: empathy ("heis like me, " "I am like him, " or-"I want to be like him") and help ("I have friends so they can help me"). Whether this great dependence upon others for "help" is the result of poverty, parental training, feelings of helplessness derived from a non-scientific world-view, disease, or other cultural values is a topic worthy of further research. A third element in friendships mentioned by students was the attraction they . felt for those students who displayed the socially-acceptable behavior which they see as necessary for social mobility and acceptance in modern, urban society. They actively seek to befriend such fellow- students, especially if theycome from tribes other than their own. Orflns of tribes. Crawford Young and other scholars have found cases of "tribes" which historically were not tribes at all but were rather groups of peOple who had been labelled as such by for- eigners‘who had come in earlier days. Such a case was described 243 by one student during an interview and later confirmed, without solicitation, by two other interviews. The Balundu "tribe" is evi- dently not a tribe at all. Balundu is known to be a small village in Kumba Division and was the home of a former plantation foreman during the days of German administration of coastal plantations. When plantation workers were recruited from the area surrounding Balundu, men from such tribes as Bakundu, Balue, Ngolo, and Mbonge were all labelled "Balundu" tribesmen because the foreman from the village of Balundu was the only man on the plantation who could understand their dialect. Today, "Balundu" is generally accepted as being a tribe. Interviews also revealed that students do not consider homogeneity of language or culture as a necessary part of the defi- nition of tribe. Students repeatedly reported that their tribes' origins depend upon common kinship, myth, and point of origin. These were viewed as the ultimate criteria for the identification of a tribe. Most tribes in West Cameroon trace their origin to a time -when a conflict over succession to the throne divided the parent group to which they had originally belonged. Proximity relationships. In an effort to support the previ- ously established validity of the instruments used in this study, 244 students were asked to specify the name, tribe and closeness of their relationship to those with whom they are in close proximity when in their classroom seats, their dining room seats, or their beds in the dormitories. The responses to these questions were summarized in Table 44. It wasexpected that percentages based on friends from their own tribe would decrease in the three categories (classroom seats, beds in dormitories, and seats at meals) over the five years represented by the five class levels, but this was not unanimous. The trend of increasing relationships with students from tribes other than their own was shown by increasing percentages over the five years. The increasing percentage of proximity to stu- dents who are not personal friends was unaccounted for except in the case of fifth year students, most of whom were prefects and were obliged by their responsibilities to position themselves for maximum disciplinary control. Although student interviews were very productive, their fruitfulness was greatly enhanced by the frankness and openness of E. B. Ngafeeson, a secondary school student at Ndu, who, with his friends, was able to explain some of the cultural aspects of friend- ship in the Cameroonian context which ultimately led to the concep- tualization of the three types of friendship. 245 :2 3: 3: 3: 3: :2 3: 3: 3: 3: :3. 3: 3: 3: 3: . . . . . :85 .82: .353 .82: .82: .82: .82: .82: .32: .32: .32: .8 2: .3 2: .3 2: .3 2: .3 2: mono?“ _ . . . . 3:023 3.3 .23 98 «.3 3.3 . 93 98 3.3 3.: Z: 3.33 so 3 3 333 :: Sampson; 25.23.. 5:: .339: 05 3.3 93. 92.. 3.3 .23 2: 3.2 3.3 333 3.33 93 92. 3.3 3.: 3.3 £835 0: 0mm 2:8un o .3 o 3.3 o c o o 3.3 a 3.3 .3 o 3.3 o Ho 2.2: 58 5:5 32:35 I: 3.8 3.2 o o I: 3.33 can. 3.33 3.3 3.3 3.33 933 3.33 3...: 02.38 so: 252.: 5:3 warn—:50 .33: .333 .33: 2...: o .333 .32. .33 .3: 2:: .23: so...“ .33: .33: .333 23588.: 353 5:3 3 3 3 N : m 3 3 3 : m 3 3 m : 20.6..— mmflu $0.54 $20 3264 mmmfiv 2am: um 3.3m «soowfigw 2:qu 5 2:5 unmanned. Emma 500.5920 “amour; 322232 2.828.: mzmmbzm 2502282 0202... mmfimzofijmm 433:3 «v WA mafia. 246 VI. SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION FROM TEACHER INTERVIEWS Interviews with teachers were rich sources of supplemental information regarding the role of the school in the process of inte- gration, the causes and manifestations of tribalism, voluntary asso- ciations, and friendships. The role of the school. Thirty teachers of the forty-nine interviewed were asked what is the role of the secondary school in the process of integration. Fifty per cent expressed the belief that the secondary school encourages cross-tribel integration, 16.7% indicated that it discourages integration, 20% indicated that it can do both, and 10% did not know. The ways in which schools can encour- age integration, as reported by teachers, are: 1. By enforcing proximity and prolonged contact. 2. By minimizing tribal differences. 3. By ensuring tribally-mixed admissions into new classes every year. 4. By teaching students how to interact with each other, regardless of tribe or origin. 5. By providing opportunities for travel with its resulting benefits. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 247 By ensuring cooperative, positive staff attitudes towards students from all tribes. By widening outlooks and perspectives. By giving students the opportunity to learn from each other. By presenting new roles and values in a new and rela- tively strange environment which may be more condu- cive to reorienting behavior. By encouraging curiosity in the students, thus increas- ing their desire to learn about others. By providing residential facilities which increase con— tact, interaction, and learning. By providing students the opportunity to compare their cultural traditions and heritages. By providing a set of common goals and standards of behavior'within which students become a unitary "social " as one teacherlabelled it. body, By locating schools in widespread areas rather than locating the majority of them in one area or one type of environment . By providing sufficient playground and sports facilities. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 248 By ensuring that students' basic needs are met, thus removing the insecurities of poverty and other social ills which can feed tribal competition. By providing co-educational opportunities, thereby en- couraging girls to broaden their experiences and per- spectives. By removing children from the inhibiting traditionalism which can be found in some students' homes or resi- dential areas. By emphasizing new, non-tribal affiliations. By providing networks of non-tribal groups such as classes, forms, dormitories, clubs, sports teams, etc. By encouraging former students to form "old boys' associations" which can become powerful in society after students' departure from secondary school. By instilling self-discipline and self-reliance thus free- ing students from a sense of helplessness and tribal dependence. Although teachers recognized the school' 3 possible integrative role in society, they also realized that the school can discourage integra- ti on by the following means: 10. 249 By creating and perpetuating the elite-mass gap between the educated and the uneducated. By becoming a haven for "problem children" whose selfishness and egotism disrupt the potential unity of the student body. By perpetuating educational stratification on the basis of status of the schools attended. By creating conflict and friction between school person- nel and the local population. By having one dominant tribe constitute the majority of students or staff members. By accentuating tribal aspects of problems. By permitting religious or political considerations in decisions regarding the admission of new students. By producing more highly qualified people, thus increas- ing their economic power which increases competition and tribal rivalry. One teacher explained this when he said, "Education doesn' t. cause tribalism, but it does provide the opportunity to express it. " By preferential distribution of scholarships. By creating emotional tensions which generate conflicts among students and staff members especially in the final year near examination time. 250 11. By permitting historic or current tribal tensions to be activated among the students. 12.. By favoring the cultural fashions or traditions of one particular tribe or region. 13. By permitting or encouraging academic competition until it generates tribal conflict or jealousies. 14. By being controlled or financed by an agency which is tribally or regionally oriented. 15. By remaining secluded and isolated from the surround- ing community. During interviews teachers expressed the opinion that schools were not being used to further cross-tribal integration as they might be. Tribes. No incongruences became evident between teachers' and students' reports concerning the definition and origins of tribes. Teachers agreed with students' statements that linguistic homogeneity is not a necessary characteristic of Cameroon tribes. Teachers' statements also supported the myths of tribal origin involving frag- mentation of earlier groups because of power struggles, which stu- dents reported in their interviews. Teachers were able to elaborate upon these by adding the factors of migration, invasion, and slavery which alsocontributed to; fragmentation and division. Because today' s 251 Cameroon tribes recognize that they originated from larger groups, a problem of determining tribal affiliation arose, for one was never sure, unless deeper inquiry was made, whether the answer to the question, ”What is your tribe?" would be the name of the fragmented group recognized today or the name of the older, larger group of origin. For example, a Widekum man may also be a Moghamo man, or a Meta man, or an Ngemba man, or an Ngie man, or an Ngwaw man, for Widekum is the name of the older group of origin as well as the name of a small tribe and a small village today. Teachers also reported that the names of some tribes, as used today, are not tribal names at all but derived from foreigners' classifications of groups. In some cases, during the earliest days of foreign contact, Cameroon place names or descriptive words were used by the foreigner tolabel tribes. An example is the name Kembong which is accepted today as the name of a specific group but which was derived from a mispronunciation of a Cameroon expression meaning ”those who travel. " It is also commonly reported, and supported by teacher and student interviews, that the groups who are known today as Ngemba, Menemo, and Moghamo were labelled as such by foreigners who recognized that these people used the words "ngemba, " "menemo, " and "moghamo" as does the Englishman who says "I 1' " i say" to gain someone' s attention before continuing his statement. 252 As a result of this information from teachers, it was possible to be very careful when trying to determine students' tribal affiliations during the sociometric questions. Because of the cultural differences between grassland and forest region tribes, it was also necessary to carefully determine the line of demarcation between these cultural areas. From information gleaned from teachers it was possible to distinguish between the geographical boundary and the cultural bound- ary between the two. The problem arosewith the Widekum people who are located in the forest region adjacent to the grasslands. Through teacher interviews it was possible to determine that these pe0ple are culturally related to the grassland tribes rather than the forest region tribes surrounding them. This cultural difference is manifested by differences in marriage customs, palm oil production, death celebrations, and language--all of which was described by one teacher as "a terrible difference. " This was found to apply to the Bangwa and Mundani people also. Tribalism. Lengthy discussions were carried on with teachers about tribalism, its source, and its manifestations. Many _ teachers reported that they believe that tribalism has increased since 1940 because of increased personal ambition, rising expecta- tions, and, more recently, rising unemployment. Three female teachers candidly reported that they believe that tribalism has 253 increased since independence in 1960. Tribalism was described as superseding friendships should a situation arise which called for a choice of allegiance. Teachers explained that parents tend to be more tribalistic than their children because of unemployment and economic competition from which their children in school are still shielded to some extent. In Cameroon, children are often trained by their grandparents, with the result that traditional behaviors and stereotypes are instilled early and endure longer. Teachers offered several interesting definitions of tribalism during interviews. One teacher described tribalism as a culturally- based group consciousness in which normative behavior demands that you "put your own first. " When "your man is up in the plum tree, " the saying goes, your people will benefit. Teachers reported that tribalism, or familial favoritism as somedescribed it, is a "natural thing" in Cameroon society. Another teacher defined trib- alism as a "group manifestation of individualism." Others equated tribalism with the "struggle for existence" which is made more dif- ficult in Cameroon by geographic and technological factors. Some teachers expressed the opinion that tribalism developed only when the colonial administrators established "qualifications" for various jobs and social statuses. Otherteachers believed that tribalism originated before "qualifications" became the criteria for desirable 254 and powerful positions. All agreed that unemployment, poverty, scarcity, a drive for security in a changing society, desire for prestige, and trying to maintain or enhance one' 3 standard of living are factors which support or perpetuate tribalism. During interviews teachers were asked which man they believed to be the most tribalistic: the uneducated farmer, the trained primary school teacher, or the university graduate in a high administrative post. Their insightful response was that the farmer was probably the most tribalistic but in his situation in the rural area among his own people he had little opportunity to demonstrate his tribalism. The highly educated administrator, on the other hand, may have many, many more cross-tribal friends and associations, but in his position he can demonstrate his tribalism in the most dra- matic ways, and is expected by his relatives to do so, although he may not feel the need to do so for his own gain. Therefore, the teachers decided, the man who is the most tribalistic is the insecure, poorly educated and therefore unqualified leader who must meet the demands made upon him for favors, maintain his insecure, high position of leadership, and at the same time raise his own standard of living. These three elements form a self-perpetuating cycle of interaction in which each element supports the other two and any weakness causes a deterioration of relationships and status. 255 Tribalism was a very popular topic of discussion among the teachers, possibly because they did not feel themselves immune to its consequences or its obligations. Voluntarxassociations. Teachers' responses to questions concerning the part which secondary school students play in volun- tary associations supported the students' responses on the same topic. Teachers considered secondary school students too young and financially unable to participate in cross-tribal voluntary clubs or societies. They also agreed that students from rural areas have very few opportunities to join such groups because rural clubs or societies tend to be mono-tribal and exclusive in membership. Friendships. Interviews with teachers also contributed toward the conceptualization of the types of friendship and their behavioral manifestations presented in chapter IV. They empha- sized that friends are often sought for personal gain in their society where scarcity is a prominent factor in life. Affectionate or "tight" friendships develop among those who are similar in various char- acteristics or who share similar interests and abilities. Another powerful force drawing students together, they reported, is the desire to learn socially—acceptable behavior from those who display these talents. This attractive element in friendships was also 256 frequently mentioned in student interviews. Teachers also recog- nized the element of "help" in friendships, which was so frequently reported by students in their interviews. Teachers explained this strong emphasis upon "help" by noting that they consider the idea of "stretching the hand to help" a cultural value which is taught by parents and considered normative and desirable behavior. Teachers had some interesting comments to make concern- ing the "after secondary school" aspects of school friendships. A majority of the teachers interviewed believed that school friendships persist after students leave school and cited examples of enduring cross-tribal friendships which even withstood recent violent tribal conflicts. Teachers also reported that two of the older secondary schools in West Cameroon are known as the source of "old boys' associations" which were formed by their former students and which have, in recent years, become active and powerful in administrative circles in many areas of the nation. These associations are cross- tribally integrated but become the source of new social differentia- tions and tensions, they reported. For those secondary school students who go on to post—secondary school institutions for further education, tremendous social and political pressures exert their influence on those students and result in increased social and politi- cal sensitivity and activity within student-based voluntary associations. 257 Although these new associations may be the sources of additional cross-tribal friendships, they are also the frequent source of new cleavages, the ramifications of which, because of their political involvement, extend far beyond the educational institutions which house them. VII. SUMMARY Information on factors related to cross-tribal integration was obtained by closed and open-ended questions in the fourth part of the questionnaire, by student and teacher interviews, and by com- parisons of demographic and sociometric data. Data obtained from these sources were analyzed by frequency determination and descrip- tive content analysis. One of the objectives of this study was to determine the factors in secondary school which encourage integration. .Responses from the closed questions of the questionnaire indicated the four most encouraging factors to be (1) being in class together, (2) extra- curricular activities, (3) religious instruction and activities, and (4) residential life in a boarding school. Responses from open- ended questions in the questionnaire supported these observations and added games, doing things together during free-time, and learn- ing from each other. In student interviews the factors most fre- quently mentioned were: games, sports and athletics, learning 258 about each other' 3 customs and traditions, and helping each other with academic problems. During interviews teachers stressed the importance of history, religious, social and sports activities, stu- dent friendships and visits to other' s homes and schools as factors encouraging integration. Another objective of this study was to determine which factors in secondary school discourage cross-tribal integration. The most frequent response from the closed questions in the ques- tionnaire was that nothing in the students' experiences had dis- couraged their efforts to integrate. Misbehavior, cultural differ- ences, and favoritism were the factors most frequently named by students in the open-ended questions of the questionnaire. Student interviews emphasized favoritism, discrimination, and exclusive- ness as the most powerful discouraging experiences influencing inte- gration. During their interviews, teachers listed favoritism by prefects, use of tribal languages, tribal or regional emphasis in sports, academic competition, clubs, and dances, and denomina- tionally-oriented religious activities as being detrimental to integra- tion. In reply to questions about the role of the teacher as an integrative agent, students ranked teachers eighth out of ten factors encouraging integration and tenth out of ten factors discouraging 259 integration. In the open-ended question of the questionnaire, teachers were never mentioned as factors discouraging integration, but teachers' helpfulness and professional competence ranked high as factors encouraging integration. In student interviews teachers were ranked sixth out of ten factors encouraging integration. In their interviews, teachers named the following means by which they could be more effective integrative agents: 1 . Arranging tribally-mixed seating and grouping for all activities. 2 . Demonstrating impartiality. 3. Discouraging student discrimination. 4. Being a loved or respected teacher. 5. Having a school staff which is integrated itself. Teachers also realized that it is possible for them to hinder integra- tion by ridiculing students, discriminating, associating with students from only one tribe, failing to understand students' tribal conflicts, being antagonistic, emphasizing their own tribal origins, or permit- ting themselves to become involved with students' tribal problems. The fourth question investigated in this chapter was the existence of relationships between tribal representation and secon- dary school attendance. Sociometric data were compared with sta- tistics from the 1964 demographic survey of West Cameroon to 260 determine whether tribal differentiation of educational opportunity existed in West Cameroon. Statistics from the five secondary schools studied indicated that regional male-female imbalances exist among students, grassland tribes exceed forest region tribes, and tribal strata 1, 11, 15, and "others," which includes Nigerians and East Camerounians,” markedly exceed other tribal strata in secondary school attendance. Supplemental information gained from student interviews was also presented on the topics of the role of the school in integra- tion, institutionalized friendships, tribal self-perceptions, voluntary associations, elements of friendship, origins of tribes, and prox- imity relationships with other students. Supplemental information obtained from teacher interviews included the positive and negative role of the school in integration, definitions and histories of tribes, sources and manifestations of tribalism, voluntary associations, and the post-secondary school aspects of friendships. In addition to the information presented in this chapter, teachers made specific suggestions how the secondary school could be developed into a more potent agent to encourage cross-tribal integration. Because their recommendations constitute part of the recommendations of this study, they'will be summarized in the next 261 chapter in which all conclusions, evaluations, and recommendations are presented. CHAPTER VII CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS This concluding chapter is divided into two parts in an effort to present adequately the conclusions, implications, and recommendations which result from this research. The first part is concerned with possible answers to the basic problem of this study: under what conditions are the secondary schools agents of cross-tribal, social integration in West Cameroon? The specific questions derived from this problem are answered by information gathered and analyzed in terms of the two aspects considered in the preceding two chapters, namely l_e_v_eis_ of integration and factors related to integration. After a summary of the conclusions and implications of these parts of the study, recommendations are sug- gested concerning means by which secondary schools may be made more effective agents encouraging cross-tribal integration. The second part of this chapter attempts to clarify concepts used in the light of what was learned in this study and suggests their wider 262 263 implications for Cameroon and today' s world in general. Sugges- tions for possible future research conclude the chapter. I. SUMMARY OF RESEARCH FINDINGS The previous two chapters presented analyses of data with- out evaluations, interpretations, or conclusions. These are pre- sented here under the headings of levels of integration and factors related to integration, each being subdivided according to the ques- tions for which they supply possible answers. These conclusions and interpretations culminate in the presentation of specific recom- mendations regarding means of strengthening the school's role as an integrative agent. Levels of Intgg'ation The analyses of data based upon levels of integration were made by testing each hypothesis by several scales or questions, depending upon the instrument used. Before making conclusions and interpreting these analyses, it was necessary, therefore, to estab- lish some criteria upon which to base the evaluation of the analyses results. A cursory glance at Table 38 reveals that agreement among all tests used was rare. It was therefore necessary to establish the following criteria for the interpretation of the analyses: 264 In cases where the null hypothesis was rejected or was not rejected on the basis of data from all three scales of the questionnaire or from both questions of the socio- metric instrument, that conclusion was, of course, retained and labelled NOT SUPPORTED or SUPPORTED, respectively. In cases where the null hypothesis was rejected on the basis of data from the two behavior scales, and was not rejected on the basis of data from the attitude scale, the hypothesis was concluded as being rejected and labelled NOT SUPPORTED. In cases of disagreement in the data from the two sociometric questions, the hypothesis was concluded as being rejected and labelled NOT SUPPORTED. In cases where the null hypothesis was rejected on the basis of data from the "school" scale, and could not be rejected on the basis of data from the "holiday" and the attitude scales, the hypothesis was concluded as being not rejected and labelled SUPPORTED. In cases where the null hypothesis was rejected on the basis of data from the "holiday" scale, and could not be rejected on the basis of data from the "school" scale 265 and the attitude scale, the hypothesis was concluded as being not rejected and labelled SUPPORTED. The underlying assumptions in these criteria were as follows: 1. The fact that all except four of the null hypotheses in which the attitude scale was used, could not be rejected on the basis of data from that scale, suggested that either the attitude scale was a weak differentiating instrument or that attitudes simply did not vary that much among the students tested. 2. Behavior scales were considered more powerful indi- cators of cross-tribal integration, or lack of it, than were attitude scales which asked respondents what they "thought" or "felt" about various activities. 3. The "holiday" scale was probably the most significant of all. Activities conducted in holiday situations are usually carried out in an atmosphere which is relatively less integrative or less permissive with regard to inte- gration than that found in secondary schools. Hypothesis related to question a. Question 3 asked: Is there a difference-in the increase of cross-tribal integration between those who attended secondary school and those who did not durii the five year period after primary school, when compared with levels of 266 integration at the end of primarLschool? Hypothesis 1, which pre- dicted no difference in levels of integration between terminal primary school students, secondary-age non-students, and fifth year secondary school students, was NOT SUPPORTED. It was therefore concluded that differences do exist and, in light of the higher mean score of the secondary school sample, that the secon- dary school did contribute to this increased level of integration. Hypotheses related to question b. Question _b asked: Does cross-tribal integration increase with an increase in the number of years gent in secondary school? Hypotheses 2 and 3, which pre- dicted no difference in the levels of integration between students in the various class levels of secondary school, former secondary school students, and students at a post-secondary school institution, were found to be NOT SUPPORTED. Hypothesis 2 was also tested by sociometric data and NOT SUPPORTED. Linear trends in the scores with respect to both hypotheses suggested that levels of inte- gration increase with an increase in the number of years spent in secondary school. The implication derived from this observation was that a positive relationship exists between level of integration and time spent in secondary school. Hypotheses related to question c. Question _9 asked: What relationships exist between students' backgrounds and their levels 267 of cross-tribal integration? Hypotheses 4 through 17 investigated possible relationships between levels of integration and students' backgrounds by predicting no difference in the levels of integration among groups categorized by various background factors. Follow- ing the established criteria, hypotheses 4, 5, 10, and 17 were SUP- PORTED while all others were not. Hypotheses 4 and 7 were also tested by sociometric data and NOT SUPPORTED. Thus hypothesis 7 was NOT SUPPORTED by both tests, but hypothesis 4 was SUP- PORTED by all three scales of the questionnaire but NOT SUPPORTED by the sociometric data. The explanation for this incongruence was not apparent. Therefore the following general summary was made concerning students' backgrounds and their levels of integration: sex, age, academic standing, and polygynous family structure appar— ently have no significant influence upon level of integration, while birthplace, region, residence, religion, urban experience, location of former primary school attended, fathers' and mothers' occupa- tion and education may be factors influencing level of integration. Linear relationships among the scores of all groups, except the dichotomized tribes in hypothesis 7, indicated that levels of integra- tion increase from rural to urban areas, from traditional religions to other religions, from no urban experience to increased urban experience, from rural to urban and from grassland to forest region 268 primary school locations, from unskilled to skilled parental occupa- tions, and from unschooled to trained parental backgrounds. Eypotheses related to question d. Question 9 asked: What relationships exist between the levels of integration of students and the environmental setting and type of their secondary schools? Hypotheses 18 through 22 investigated possible relationships between levels of integration and type of school (girls' schools, boys' schools, or co-educational schools), school environments (grassland rural areas, grassland town areas, or forest region urban areas), and boarding and non-boarding schools by predicting no differences in the mean levels of integration of students from these schools. Of the five hypotheses, only hypothesis 20, which compared boarding and non-boarding students, was SUPPORTED. All others were NOT SUPPORTED. Hypotheses 18, 19, and 21 were also NOT SUPPORTED by tests using sociometric data. It was therefore concluded that no significant differences exist between boarding and non-boarding stu- dents, but differences do exist between students who come from schools of different sexual composition and schools in different environments. When comparing environmental settings the highest mean score in level of integration was obtained by students from forest region urban schools. In comparisons of boys' , girls' , and co-educational schools, students from girls' schools had the highest 269 mean score in level of integration. This resulted from the fact that the extremely low scores of students from a mono-tribal, co-edu- cational school masked the very high scores of students from a multi -tribal, co-educational school. In comparisons among schools, highest scores were obtained by students from a multi-tribal, co- educational, forest region school located in an urban area. Hypotheses related to question i. Question i asked: What relationships exist between the levels of integration of students and their membership in voluntary associations? It was impossible to investigate relationships between levels of integration and school club memberships because some schools had no clubs while others required club membership of all students. Hypotheses 23 and 24 were, therefore, concerned with non-school club membership. Hypothesis 23 predicted no difference in levels of integration among students who belonged to various numbers of clubs with multi- tribal membership while hypothesis 24 compared students belonging to clubs with mono-tribal membership. In both cases the hypotheses were SUPPORTED, indicating no significant differences existed between students who belong to one or more voluntary associations. Hypotheses related to question i. Question lasked: What relationship} exist between the levels of integiation of students and 270 the number of languages spoken by them? Hypotheses 25 and 26 predicted no difference in the levels of integration between those students who speak one or more neighboring languages or those who speak one or more distant languages. Both these hypotheses were SUPPORTED, indicating that no significant differences existed in levels of integration between students who speak one or more Afri- can languages . Hypotheses related to tribal factors. Four additional factors were investigated as a result of sociometric data gathered. These investigations sought to determine whether relationships existed between students' levels of integration (as expressed by proportions of in-tribe friendships) and (a) the distance of the students' tribes from their schools, (b) the total state-wide population of the students' 3131033: (c) the number of tribal representatives in their classes, and ((1) whether differences existed in levels of integration between stu- dents from the same tribes but in different schools. Hypotheses 27 and 29, which concerned relationships of distance and state -wide tribal population, were SUPPORTED, indicating that no relationships between these factors and levels of integration existed. Hypothesis 28, which predicted no relationship between levels of integration and the size of the students' tribal representations in classes, was NOT SUPPORTED. It was therefore concluded that some relationship 271 does exist between these two factors. Hypothesis 30 predicted that no differences in levels of integration exist between students from the same tribes but in different schools. This hypothesis was tested by data from over thirty tribes. For some tribes the hypothesis was SUPPORTED; for others it was NOT SUPPORTED. No general pat- tern was apparent among the tribes with the exception that propor- tions of cross-tribal friendships among tribal groups in the various schools tended to be more stable in class friendships than in school- wide friendships . General conclusions derived from studies of levels of inte- gration. These findings suggested the following nine general conclusions which were derived from the studies of levels of inte- gration of various groups. 1. The school is a contributing force in increasing levels of cross-tribal integration. This was supported by student and teacher interviews and by questionnaire responses to questions investigating factors related to integration. 2. Factors in students' hereditary background, such as sex, intelligence (as indicated by academic standing), and age are apparently not related to their levels of integration. 272 Environmental factors in students' backgrounds, including birthplace, region of origin, residence, urban experience, location of former primary school, and religion are apparently related to their levels of integration . Parental factors in students' backgrounds, including father' s and mother' s occupation and level of educa- tion, apparently are related to their levels of integra- tion, although family structure is not. School location, both primary and secondary, is apparently related to students' levels of integration. Levels of integration tended to be higher among stu- dents who attend schools located in the more developed, tribally-mixed, and urban areas. Type of school is apparently related to students' level of integration. Levels of integration tended to be higher in multi -tribal, co-educational schools while those in mono-tribal schools were the lowest. Membership in voluntary associations and number of African languages spoken are apparently not related to integration and are not, therefore, indicators of cross ~tribal integration. 273 8. The number of tribal representatives in a class is related to students' levels of integration. No relation- ship existed between distance from school or state- wide tribal population and levels of integration. 9. Levels of integration tended to be higher and more stable among class groups than among school-wide groups. Factors Related to Integration The second aspect of integration considered in this study was an investigation of factors in secondary schools which are related positively or negatively to cross-tribal integration. The following conclusions, interpretations, and implications are derived from data obtained from student and teacher interviews and from closed and open-ended questions in the fourth part of the question- naire. Factors encouraging integration. Question 9. asked: Which of the follofligfifactors in the secondary school egerience are most frequentgz_reportediy the students to be positively related to cross- tribal integration: academic subjects, extra-curricular activities, re_ligious instruction and activities, school organization, and aspects of residential life in a boardigg school? The factors most frequently 274 reported by students were: being in class together (school organization), extra-curricular activities, religious instruction and activities, and residential life in a boarding school. The specific activities mentioned by students under these four headings were "doing things together in class, " games and sports, religious instruction which emphasizes love, integration, and equality, and ”learning from each other" or ”learning about each other" in the residential situation in boarding schools. Academic subjects were seldom reported as encouraging integration although students did report potential possibilities for English, history, and geography. Factors discouraging integration. Question _f_‘_ asked: Which of the above factors in the secondary school experience are most frequently reported by the students to be negatively related to cross- tribal integration? The most frequently reported factors were: none of these factors, being in class together, extra-curricular activities, off-campus activities, and religious instruction and activities. The frequent reporting of "none" suggested that students did not perceive their secondary school experiences as discouraging cross-tribal integration. It was interesting to note that the very factors reported as encouraging‘integration most frequently (being in class together, extra-curricular activities, religious instruction and activities) were the same ones reported as discouraging 275 integration most frequently. The integrative role of the school was emphasized by the frequent reporting of off-campus activities as discouraging experiences for students. The specific activities men- tioned by students as discouraging integration were: misbehavior by other students, partiality and favoritism practiced by prefects, tribal or regional competition or segregation in sports, academic, social, or religious activities, use of tribal languages, and intol- erance for varying life-styles and traditions. It is noteworthy that in urban schools these negative factors were not reported as fre- quently as in other schools. Teachers as integrative agents. Question g asked: Are teachers perceived by students and teachers as being integative M? Students' frequency reports ranked teachers sixth out of ten factors encouraging integration compared with a rank of tenth out of ten factors discouraging integration. Interviewed teachers reported they perceived themselves as being integrative agents but recognized that they could, with relatively little effort, become agents discouraging integration, thus setting their schools afire with tribal tensions and conflicts. Teachers were integrative agents, the students reported, when they. were impartial, helpful, and inte- grated among themselves. Teachers who demonstrated favoritism or ridicule, emphasized tribal differences, or were ignorant of 276 tribal tensions and problems were perceived as being discouraging factors in students' experiences. Tribal differentiation of educational opportunity. Question 13 asked: What relationships exist between tribal representation and secondary school admissions and attendance? Comparisons of male and female tribal representation in the secondary schools studied with the total state -wide tribal populations revealed the following percentage imbalances in educational opportunity: 1. Boys exceed girls in the grasslands while girls exceed boys in the forest region. Students from the grasslands exceed those from the forest region in both sexes. Among the girls, tribal strata 1, 11, 15, and ”other" (composed predominantly of Nigerian and East Camerounian tribes) greatly exceeded all other tribal strata while strata 2, 3, 6, 16, 17, and 20 were greatly under-represented. Among the boys, tribal strata 11 and 15 greatly exceeded all other strata while strata 17 and 21 were greatly under-represented. Much of the regional imbalance is the result of the unusually high representation in schools of strata 11 277 and 15, both of which are from Bamenda Division in the grasslands. A factor contributing to the tribal imbalance portrayed by the statis- tics of this study was the inclusion of a secondary school which is unusually large and predominantly mono -tribal. General conclusions derived from studies of factors related to intggration. These findings suggested the following-eight gen- eral conclusions which were derived from investigations of factors related to integration. 1. The important elements in factors encouraging integra- tion are multi -tribal proximity, contact through shared goals or interests, interaction, and advocation of unity. The important elements in factors discouraging inte- gration are misbehavior among students, cultural con- flicts, and favoritism or discrimination. The same school-related activities which encourage integration may, under certain conditions, discourage it. Academic subjects have an unused potential for encour- aging integration and could do so by the use of inter- active teaching methods, the advocation of integration, 278 the addition of courses such as civics, and the avoidance of divisive historical factors. Teachers, who were not perceived as powerful integra- tive agents, could improve their effectiveness by encouraging and exemplifying integration, by demon- strating impartiality toward students, by high profes- sional competence, and by increasing the interaction between themselves and their students. Teachers have the potential for encouraging or discouraging integra- tion. The school is perceived as an agent of cross-tribal integration, most of the factors encouraging integra- tion being in-school activities rather than activities outside the school. Urban environment apparently weakens both the positive influences of such factors as religious and extra- curricular activities and the negative influences of most factors discouraging integration. Tribal differentiation of secondary school admission and attendance is present in West Cameroon, thus offering unequal opportunities for cross-tribal integra- tion to future generations of some tribes. 279 Suggested Recommendations The studies of levels and factors of integration led to the following recommendations as means by which the role of the secon- dary school as an agent encouraging cross-tribal integration could be strengthened. It must be emphasized that these recommendations were made with the following reservations: -- they are based upon terms as defined in this study, -- they are based upon research carried out in a limited number of schools over a very limited period of time, -- they are based upon factors of school experience rather than a wider context, and finally, -- they are presented with the recognition that the school is a contributing force but not the only force in integra- tion. Recommendations from two sources are presented: those from teachers interviewed and those derived from the hypotheses which were tested. Recommendations from teachers interviewed. 1. A national emphasis should be given to educational goals and activities. 2. Students' opportunities to participate in clubs, sports, and other voluntary activities which are conducive to 280 cross-tribal integration should be increased during school time. Tribal political influences should be removed from educational institutions . Schools should make a conscious effort to educate for integration. Cameroon teachers should be trained in psychology and other relevant subjects in order to increase their ability to seek and utilize means of relieving tribalism and combating its influences. Prefects should be taught, advised, or warned about their delicate role vis-a-vis tribalism. Administrators should ensure that prefects represent various tribal groups and that representation changes annually. Teachers should stress the positive factors among tribal groups and not permit themselves to speak or act de- rogatorily toward any tribe. The staff of each school should have Cameroonian teachers from various tribes and regions. More courses and texts should be provided in such sub- jects as Cameroonian history, geography, and civics in order to develop a national consciousness in students. 281 10. Schools should avoid favoring any tribal or regional 11. foods, dances, songs, or other cultural distinctives. Secondary schools should not be "regionalized, " that is, they should be permitted to draw their students from all areas of the state rather than from their own locality only. Additional recommendations derived from this research. In addition to the recommendations made by teachers during inter- views, the following recommendations were suggested by other data obtained from this research. Each of the following recommendations should be prefaced with the phrase, "If the secondary school is to be an effective agent encouraging cross-tribal, social integration, then . . ." in order to emphasize the fact that these recommenda- tions are made with this single goal in mind. 1. Secondary schools should be co-educational, residential institutions . They should be located in the more developed, tribally- mixed, and urban areas as much as possible. The locations of future secondary schools should be distributed as widely as possible to insure equality of educational opportunity for all tribal groups. 282 Secondary schools should be large enough to permit a wide range of tribal representation but should be struc- tured internally to provide many small, overlapping, goal- or interest-oriented groupings. The entire curriculum should be consciously oriented toward education for cross—tribal, social integration. Where necessary, subjects should be added to strengthen students' understandings and attitudes toward their state, their government, and the peoples which com- pose their nation. Increased emphasis should be placed upon the advoca- tion of social integration in religious instruction and activities conducted in secondary schools. Secondary schools should provide increased oppor- tunities for travel and educational excursions as measures to counteract the isolation in which some schools and students find themselves. Teachers should be encouraged to use teaching methods which provide maximum opportunity for interaction between students rather than the passive methods which are commonly used. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 283 In schools having multi-racial and multi-tribal teachers, every effort should be made to encourage the develop- ment of integrated, cooperating staff. The administration should make every effort to ensure multi-tribal admissions to secondary schools with no tribalgroup or region predominating. The administration should attempt to ensure that all groups within the secondary school contain an approxi- mately equal number of tribal representatives. Perhaps the prefect system should be abolished and replaced with a system of junior administrators (such as the surveillantes used in French schools) whose service would be part of a teacher-internship program. The administration should attempt to mix students from various socio-economic backgrounds. If possible, students from various religious backgrounds should also be mixed together within the school. The administration should be very careful to avoid tribal or regional competition, preference, or differ- entiation in any aspect of school 1ife--especially sports. Perhaps the use of tribal vernaculars or tribal lan- guages should be discouraged or prohibited. 17. 18. 19. 284 Secondary schools should not be sponsored or controlled by tribally-oriented or regional agencies. Conscious efforts should be made by administrators to rectify: the tribal imbalance which presently exists in secondary school attendance by admitting more stu- dents from the under-represented tribal groups. Those who shape educational policy must seek ways to harmonize the goal of cross-tribal, social integration with the goals and demands of government, parents, teachers, students, and the agencies sponsoring schools. In concluding these recommendations, it is appropriate to cite Williams' note of warning concerning the implementation of programs or actions designed to increase cross-tribal integration. At the close of his study, The Reduction of Integroup Tensions, he cau- tioned: . complex interdependence often leads to various indirect and unanticipated or "boomerang" effects of specific actions. Insofar as the theorems of multiple causation and of interdepen- dence. of variables are valid, they have at least these implica- tions: a. The effects of isolated actions or programs are likely to be small. Frequently these effects will be attenuated, obscured, or reversed by other factors operative in the total situation. The effects of a given action or program are not neces- sarily confined to the most direct or obviously related 285 areas. Both research and action must be sensitized to the possibility of repercussions which are indirect and far reaching. c. Other things being equal, programs of action are likely to have greatest effects when they operate simulta- neously on several strategic factors, rather than upon one or a few. d. Causal inferences must be made with great care, and in the light of all possible relevant known factors. e. Panaceas for control of group hostility definitely will not be found. II. IMPLICATIONS OF THIS RESEARCH IN THE WIDER CONTEXT The second part of this concluding chapter is devoted to the presentation of implications of this research in the wider context of theory and the needs of today' 8 world. This part is divided into the following sections: concept clarification, implications for Cameroun social development, and general implications for today' 3 world. Suggestions for possible further research conclude the chapter. Clarification of Concepts Information and data gathered during this research indicated the need to clarify some of the concepts which formed the foundation 1Robin M. Williams, Jr. , The Reduction of Intergroup Ten- sions (New York: Social Science Research Council, 1947), p. 44. 286 of this study and were presented in chapters I and 11. Among those needing clarification were tribalism, the role of voluntary associa- tions, elements of friendship, and the role of the school in social integration. Tribalism. Although defined in terms of parochial loyalty earlier‘in this study, all interviewees defined tribalism in terms of economic competition. All tribal conflict or tensions, even in areas such as politics, education, and land disputes, were ultimately re- expressed in economic terms by the interviewees. Because of the powerful relationship between economics and tribalism, tribalism was not perceived as a serious problem among young people who are still in school. Tribalism becomes an active factor in life only upon the individual' s entry into the world of economic productivity and competition. This was also borne out in the students' percep- tions of their own tribes. Most students perceived their tribe as being approximately equal to most other tribes. Hatred or feelings of superiority or inferiority seemed to play a smaller part in tribal consciousness than was earlier assumed to be the case. The great activator of tribalism today, therefore, was perceived to be eco- nomic conditions. In chapter II tribalism was described as being a situational phenomenon. This was supported during teacher-interviews in an 287 interesting way. When asked which man--the uneducated farmer, the trained primary school teacher, or the university-trained admin- istratoru-was the most tribalistic, teachers' replies were explained in terms of the situations surrounding these men. In his situation the farmer was expected to be the most tribalistic but had the least opportunity to demonstrate it. The administrator, on the other hand, was probably the least tribalistic but had the greatest opportunity to demonstrate it and the greatest pressure upon him to do so. Teachers concluded that the man most likely to be very tribalistic was the man with relatively little education but who had been able to acquire a high administrative position for which he‘was not qualified or in which he felt himself very insecure. In this situation the favoritism which is part of tribalism became a means of maintaining himself in office and was considered a necessary part of life. Another example of the situational influence on tribalism was provided by the comparisons of behavior and attitude scores of the students of three primary schools located neareach other but in entirely different environments. In the primary school in a village at the end of the road (Masaka), behavior scores were the lowest (least tribalistic) but attitude scores were the highest of all three schools. In the primary school in a village along the main road leading to an urban area (New Bekondo), behavior scores were 288 higher-while attitude scores were the lowest of the three schools. In the primary school in the urban area (Kumba Town), behavior scores were the highest while attitude scores were between those of the previous schools. This analysis led to the following conceptuali- zation of the locus of tribal conflict. 1. In the village there is no tribal conflict because the group is almost homogeneous tribally. 2. Along the main road tribal conflict is higher because it is the place of initial contact and competition with other tribal groups. 3. In the urban areas tribal conflict is highest because of scarcity, contact, and competition. Tribal integra- tion is also high in this situation because of increased opportunity for contact. This may be summarized by the paradigm on the following page. In these situations, attitudes often reflect experiences, or lack of them, with people from other tribal groups. Thus the students in the primary school at the end of the road may have had high attitude scores because they had no experience with people from other tribes --experience which might have been negative. Students in the pri- mary school along the main road may have had the lowest attitude scores because they represent those who may have only recently had Village Main road . Urban area. 289 Tribal Conflict None: there are no other tribal groups. Increasing conflict due to opportunities for con- tact plus the strength of the tie to the kinship group. High incidence of conflict due to competition and scarcity plus constant contact. Tribal Intggfirati on None: there is no opportunity for con- tact. There is integration within the tribal group itself. Increases due to increased opportunity for contact (sporadic). Highest incidence of integration due to con— stant contact, oppor- tunity, and common interests and goals. contact with various other tribal groups. Such persons would be in a transitional situation between rural and urban influences. Perhaps the students from the urban primary school had middle-range atti- tude scores because their positive and negative cross-tribal expe- riences had blunted their willingness yet increased their tolerance for cross-tribal interaction. These observations suggest directions of possible further research. Voluntaryassociations. In chapter 11 voluntary associations were described as means of integrating various segments of society. It was postulated that voluntary association membership in the lives of secondary school students would also contribute toward their 290 cross-tribal integration. While doing this research study, it became evident to the writer that secondary school students seldom belong to voluntary associations during their school days and that such groups are often controlled or prohibited by school authorities, thus making their role in the integrative process less vital. In Figure 6, which portrayed the role of the school in the process of integration, the position which is given to voluntary associations would, there- fore, have to be changed to interest- or goal-centered activity groups. This label would indicate those clubs, societies, teams, and com- mittees which form a normal part of secondary school life but which do not fit the usual description of voluntary associations which are, by definition, voluntary and controlled from within rather than by some external authority such as school authorities or policies. This change does no violence to the basic concept of the role of the school in the process of integration, but does clarify and refine it. Elements of friendshii. In chapter IV the concept of friend- ship with its three categories of friends was presented. Further analysis of the data gathered from interviews revealed the prevalence of three elements of friendship which were very frequently reported by students in responses to the question, "Why do you have friends?" The three reasons given were: (1) to get help from them, (2) to learn from them, and (3) for empathic reasons which were expressed 291 by "He is like me" or "I am like him" or "I want to be like him. " Though the affective element in friendships was often reported, these elements were more frequently and more readily mentioned. Cer- tainly these three elements could be present in "bought" friendships and ”tight" friendships, but their presence in "drinking" friendships is not clear. Further research would be required to clarify the rela- tionships between types of friendship and the elements involved in each. The role of the school. In chapter VI long lists were pre- sented which summarized teachers' reports concerning ways in which the secondary school may be an integrative or malintegrative agent. The great number of items suggested that the school has powerful potentials to become EITHER type of agent. The direction in which the school influences society can be directly controlled by the school' s administrators and policy-makers. In view of this, it is important to clarify the concept of the role of the school as an integrative agent and as a malintegrative agent. The refined con- ceptualizations of these roles are presented in Figures 8 and 9. They may be summarized as follows: The secondary school is an integrative agent when it pro- vides an integrative environment, integrative motivation, and inte- grative opportunities. An integgative environment includes 292 THE SECONDARY SCHOOL IS AN INTEGRATIVE AGENT WHEN IT PROVIDES THE -- students tribally mixed - co-education - staff tribally mixed -- unbiased administration --— urban setting ; INTEGRATIVE ENVIRONMENT -— interests -- activities - academic subjects -- religious instruction -- advocation of integration —- aspirations ,_ MOTIVATION -- in classrooms -- in dormitories -- in dining rooms - in work groups -- in study groups -- in religious activities -- in sports teams __ OPPORTUNITIES FOR INTERACTION FOR ITS STUDENTS TO DEVELOP NETWORKS OF CROSS-TRIBAL, -- friendships -- clubs and societies - sports teams -- holiday visits -- church groups -- student government VOLUNTARY RE LATIONSHIPS FIGURE 8 THE SECONDARY SCHOOL AS AN INTEGRATIVE AGENT 293 -— by qualifications -- by attitudes THEREBY PREPARING THEM -- by interests FOR -- by aspirations -- by other qualities PARTICIPATION IN THE URBAN, CROSS-TRIBAL -- leagues -- clubs and societies -- congresses VOLUNTARY ASSOCIATIONS " Pam“ "' umons -- committees -- churches - - movements THE NETWORKS OF WHICH PROVIDE THE MATRIX FOR A STABLE, CULTURALLY PLURALISTIC SOCIETY INTEGRATED AROUND SOME COMMON GOALS, TASKS, ASPIRATIONS, AND VALUE S. FIGURE 8 (continued) 294 tribally-mixed, co-educational institutions with tribally-mixed staffs and an unbiased administration, located in a more developed, tribally- mixed, urban area. Intgfirative motivation may be obtained from interests, activities, academic subjects, religious instruction, advo- cation of integration, and various aspirations. Intggrative oppor- tunities are provided in school by encouraging interaction and contact among students in classrooms, dormitories, dining rooms, work groups, sports teams, study groups, and religious activities. The result of this contact and interaction is the development of cross- tribal associations and friendships, thereby preparing students in qualifications, attitudes, interests, aspirations, and other qualities for participation in urban, cross-tribal voluntary associations, the networks of which provide the matrix for a stable, culturally pluralistic society integrated around common goals, tasks, values, and aspirations. The secondary school is a malintgggative- agent when it hinders students from developingnetworks of cross-tribal friend- ships and associations. This may be accomplished by a basic tribal- orientation in the school' 8 location, organization, personnel, and its educational process. A tribally-oriented location is exemplified by an isolated, mono-tribal, traditional environment. Tribal- orientation in the school' 3 organization exists when students are 295 THE SECONDARY SCHOOL IS A MALINTEGRATIVE AGENT WHEN IT HINDERS STUDENTS FROM DEVELOPING NETWORKS OF -- friendships -- clubs and societies - study groups -- sports teams -- church groups -- student governments CROSS-TRIBAL, VOLUNTARY RELATIONS -- being in an isolated, BY A TRIBALLY-ORIENTED LOCATION, mono-tribal, traditional environment -- permitting or establishing tribal groupings ORGANIZATION’ for work, study, sports, or other activities -- most students from one tribe -- most teachers from one tribe -- tribally-conscious administration -- discriminating prefects COMPOSITION OF PERSONNEL, -- not consciously teaching integration OR EDUCATIONAL PROCESS. " emphastzjng ”“331 Alfferences - - emphaSIZIng , competition -- using inactive teaching methods FIGURE 9 THE SECONDARY SCHOOL AS A MALINTEGRATIVE AGENT 296 grouped along tribal lines for work, study, sports, or other activities. Tribal orientation of school personnel refers to mono—tribal student bodies and staffs, tribally-conscious administrations, and discrimi- nating prefects. Education processes which are malintegrative are those which permit little or no interaction among students, empha- size competition, refer to tribal differences, or are not consciously teaching integration. (See Figure 9.) As implied by these concep- tualizations and the data gathered in this research, the secondary - school can be structured to be an integrative agent. The burden, therefore, rests upon educators and policy-makers to structure their schools in such a way that they'will be able to contribute to the process of nation-building in Cameroun or in any multi -tribal society. National Unity in Cameroun In an earlier part of this study the problem of tribalism in nation-building was discussed and the tribal diversity of Cameroun portrayed. It seems fitting in conclusion, therefore, to describe some prospects for an integrated Camerounian society and the school.) 8 contribution toward that goal. Scholars have described three possible models which could be the goal for the integrating nation. One model is the complete acculturation of different tribal groups to one relatively homogeneous set of beliefs and behavior patterns. This model is typified by the American "melting-pot" 297 theory of assimilation. The second model is a mosaic type of society in which many separate groups retain their cultural characteristics, reduce contact among different groups to a minimum, and seek inte- gration in philosophies of tolerance, in interlocking economic and political interests, or in various kinds of authoritative controls and suppression. The third model was aptly described by Williams: Somewhere between these contrasting points of view, so faras cultural groups are concerned, is the orientation known as cultural pluralism or "cultural democracy. " Although often a vague and somewhat inconsistent position, cultural pluralism as usually represented envisions an end-situation in which (1) a considerable portion of the cultural distinctiveness of various groups will be retained, but (2) there will be extensive interaction among all groups, and (3) at least a minimal body of shared values and traditions will be emphasized. 2 Although the temptation may exist to dream of the completely accul- turated, homogeneous society, or to establish and exercise the con- trols and authority of the mosaic type of society, Cameroun' s greatest hope for a stable, coherent society lies in a cultural plu- ralism as described above. If this is the case, the secondary school' 3 contribution to national unity will be clear. Its functions will be two- fold: ( 1) educatitgg for interaction by providing opportunities for training and practice in interaction and by encouraging the develop- ment of capacities and attitudes which will make such interaction successful, and (2) educating for concord by inculcating those values, 2Ibid., p. 11. 298 interests, traditions, and aspirations which will be the foci of cross-tribal interaction. These functions would constitute an education for integration. Implications for Todgis World The world social scene today is filled with contrasting movements in which some nations are seeking to integrate multi- tribal societies while other nations seem to be fragmenting more and more. The tribal problem dealt with in this study is to some extent a reflection of the world' s racial and ethnic problems. It is conceivable that those factors in secondary school which encourage integration in a multi -tribal society will also be the factors which assist in relieving present tensions and contribute toward a desir- able stability in society. Although the secondary school is only a contributing force and not an ultimate force in integration, evidence from this research indicates that it is possible to increase its effectiveness as an integrative agent by consciously orienting its facilities, organization, and programs toward that goal. Not only must provision be made for instruction in the interactive processes of integration, but also for instruction in values and facts with an international perspe ctive . 299 Recommended Further Research Three categories of further possible research were sug- gested by this study: research to strengthen the weaknesses of this study, research in the area of African studies, and research in education in Africa. Concerning the weaknesses of this study. The following investigations were suggested by the weaknesses which appeared in this study. 1. A study involving the use of Guttman facet design for the formation of scales to measure integration. This theoretically sound method of developing scales would be an improvement on the way scales were prepared in this study. 2. A study of correlations between methods of measuring levels of integration among the various categories of individuals studied. This treatment of the data gathered was not done because of the great volume of work involved in making the Guttman scale analyses. 3. A replication of this study using all secondary schools and equal numbers in the samples would permit the use of two-way analyses of variance to indicate possible interaction effects among the factors investigated. 300 Analyses of the data from the primary school sample remain to be done. These analyses were beyond the scope of this study but the data is available for further investigations concerning levels and factors of integra- tion among terminal primary school students. A longitudinal replication of this study in which levels of integration would be measured in the same group of students over a long period of time. This would over- come the obvious short-comings of a cross-sectional study such as this one. ConcermngAfrican Studies. This study also suggested the following investigations in the wider area of African studies: 1. What relationships exist between tribal self-concept and the demographic factors of the population involved? What are the psychological bases of cross-tribal rela- tionships? What are the influences of traditional African philosophy and religion upon the elements or structures of friend- ships? What are the influences of historic tribal stereotypes upon cross-tribal relationships? 301 What indicators of cross-tribal integration can be developed to measure integration among the illiterate? Do levels of integration vary among similar popula- tions in different areas of Cameroun? Concerningiducation in Africa. The following investiga- tions more specifically in the area of education in Africa were also suggested by this study: 1. Replication of this study in post-secondary schools and universities. Developing curricula fostering integration. Developing plans for administrative reorganization which would favor integration. A study of what and how African students learn from each other. A study of the historic roots, present manifestations, and possible future uses of the institutionalized friend- ships known as "bigs" and "smalls. " A study of the political influence of voluntary associa- tions among students in post-secondary school institu- tions. 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New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, Incorporated, 1964, pp. 67- 82. Bogardus, Emory S. "A Social Distance Scale," Socioggyand Social Research, XVII (1933), pp. 265-271. 312 Bogardus, Emory S. "Measuring Social Distance, " Journal of Applied Sociolgy, IX (1925), PP. 299-308. Bogardus, Emory S. "Race Friendliness and Social Distance, " Journal of Applied Sociology, XI (1927), pp. 272-287. Bogardus, Emory. S. "Social Distance and Its Origin, " Journal of Applied Sociology, IX (1925). PP. 216-226. Clignet, Remi. "Ethnicity, Social Differentiation and Secondary Schooling in West Africa, " Cahiers d' Etudes Africaines, VII (Summer, 1967), pp. 360-378. Deri, Susan, et al. "Techniques for the Diagnosis and Measure- ment of Intergroup Attitudes and Behavior," Psycholcgical Bulletin, XLV (1948), PP. 248-271. Epstein, A. L. "The Network and Urban Social Organization," Human Problems in British Central Africa, The Rhodes- Livingstone Journal, XXIX (June, 1961), pp. 29-62. Foster, Philip J. "Ethnicity and the Schools in Ghana," Compara- tive Education Review, VI (October, 1962), pp. 127-135. Gluckman, Max. "Tribalism in Modern British Central Africa, " Cahiers d'Etudes Africaines, I (January, 1960), pp. 55- 70. Gutkind, Peter C. W. "African Urbanism, Mobility and the Social Network, " International Journal of Comparative Sociolcgy, VI (March, 1965), pp. 48-60. Gutkind, Peter C. W. "Network Analysis and Urbanism in Africa: The Use of Micro and Macro Analysis, " The Canadian Review of Sociolggy and Anthropolpgy, II (August, 1965), pp. 123-131. Gutkind, Peter C. W. "The Energy of Despair: Social Organization of the Unemployed in Two African Cities: Lagos and Nai- robi, " Civilizations, XVII (1967). pp. 186-214 and 380-405. Merton, Robert K. "Fact and Factitiousness in Ethnic Question- naires, " American Sociological Review, V (1940). pp. 13-28. 313 Musgrove, F. "A Uganda Secondary School as a Field of Culture Change," Africa, XXII (1962), pp. 234-249. "On Tribalism as the Black Man' 3 Burden, " Time, XCII (August 23, 1968), pp. 18-19. Park, R. E. "The Concept of Social Distance, " Journal of Applied Sociology, VIII (1924). pp. 66-83. Rosander, A. C. "An Attitude Scale Based upon Behavior Situation, " Journal of Social Psycholggy, VIII (1937), pp. 3-15. Ruel, M. J. "Modern Adaptations of Associations Among the Ban- yang of West Cameroon, " Southwestern Journal of Anthro- pology, XX (1964), pp. 1-14. Wallerstein, Immanuel. "Ethnicity and National Integration, " Cahiers d' Etudes Africaines, I (July, 1960), pp. 129-139. Wolff, Hans. "Intelligibility and Inter-Ethnic Attitudes, " Anthro- pological Lingg’stics, I (March, 1959), PP. 34-41. Wolff, Hans. ”Language, Ethnic Identity and Social Change, " Anthropological Linguistics, IX (January, 1967), pp. 18-25. 4. LIST OF PERSONS INTERVIEWED TO DEVELOP BASIC CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS (TOTAL: 42) Name Position Date 1. Mr. E. Awa Cameroonian graduate September 7, student at Michigan 1968 State University, East Lansing. 2. Mr. C. L. Awanda Primary school September 14, teacher, Soppo. 1968 3. Mr. A. N. Bang Clerk, Land and Survey September 14, Department, Buea. 1 968 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. Name Mr. P. Tebe Mr. M. B. Fobuzie Mr. D. W. Iwoi Rev. S. Nteff Mr. J. Mbeng Rev. E. Ngwang Rev. N. Nyanganji Mr. J. N. Nkerbu Rev. Matuba Rev. L. E. Kwast Rev. G. Lang Mr. P. P. Njom Mr. Nibot 314 Position Agricultural Officer, Mbengwi . Primary school teacher, Mbengwi. Primary school teacher, Bamenda. Executive Secretary, Cameroon Baptist Convention, Bamenda. Supervisor of Schools, Bamenda. Teacher, Baptist Bible Training Centre, Ndu. Teacher, Baptist Bible Training Centre, Ndu. Primary school teacher, Ndu. Student, Baptist Bible Training Centre, Ndu. Missionary, Ndu Missionary, Ndu Student, Merrick Baptist College, Ndu, form 5. Student, Merrick Baptist College, Ndu, form 4. Date September 17, 1968 September 17 , 1 968 September 18, 1969 September 18, 1968 September 18, 1968 September 1968 September 1968 September 1968 September 1968 September 1968 September 1968 October 1968 October 1968 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. Name Mr. Ngafeeson Mr. Nkwentamo Mr. Wm. Ebot Mr. C. Chomilo Mr. M- B. Fonkenmun Mr. Fontama Mr. Toh Mr. Wm. Nzante Mr. O. P. James Mr. G. Mbunkur Mr. Tamnj ong Miss E. Edinger 315 Position Student, Merrick Baptist College, Ndu, form 5. Student, Merrick Baptist College, Ndu, form 5. Student, Merrick Baptist College, Ndu, form 4. Student, Merrick Baptist College, Ndu, form 4 Student, Merrick Baptist College, Ndu, form 5. Student, Merrick Baptist College, Ndu, form 5. Student, Merrick Baptist College, Ndu, form 5. Carpenter, Merrick Baptist College, Ndu. Foreman, Merrick Baptist College, Ndu. Teacher, Merrick Baptist College, Ndu. Teacher, Merrick Baptist College, Ndu. Teacher, Merrick Baptist College, Ndu. Date October 1968 October 1968 October 1968 October 1968 October 1968 October 1968 October 1968 October 1968 October 1968 October 1968 October 1968 October 1968 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. Name Miss C. Hell Mr. I. N. Sayani Mr. Matumamboh Mr. D. S. Njini Mr. M. Nganji Mr. P. Vugar Mr. L. D. Sama Rev. J. N. Waindim Rev. Rhodeson Rev. Yonkuma Mr. S. Becke Mr. E. K. Martin Miss Woloa 316 Position Teacher, Merrick Baptist College, Ndu. Teacher, Merrick Baptist College, Ndu. Teacher, Merrick Baptist College, Ndu. Teacher, Merrick Baptist College, Ndu. Teacher, Merrick Baptist College, Ndu Teacher, Merrick Baptist College, Ndu Primary school teacher, Oku. Pastor, Ebenezer Baptist Church, Victoria. Fisherman and former pastor, Victoria. Teacher, Baptist Teacher Training Centre, Great Soppo. Principal, Baptist Teacher Training Center, Great Soppo. Educational Adminis- trator, Buea. Teacher, Saker Baptist College, Victoria. Date October 1968 October 1968 October 1968 October 1968 October 1968 October 1968 October 1968 December 1968 December 1968 December 1968 December 1968 December 1968 December 1968 42. 317 Name *Position Date Mr. B. A. Latche Primary school December 1968 teacher, Victoria. LIST OF SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS INTERVIEWED (TOTAL: 49) SCHOOL: Merrick Baptist College, Ndu. DATE: Between September 20 and October 12, 1968. NAMES: 1. Mr. D. S. Njini 6. Mr. I. N. Sayani 2. Mr. Matumamboh 7. Mr. P. Vugar 3. Mr. G. Mbunkur 8. Mr. Tamnjong 4. Miss E. Edinger 9. Mr. M. Nganji 5. Miss C. Hell SCHOOL: St. Augustine' s College, Banso. DATE: Between October 20 and 30, 1968. NAMES: 10. Fr. J. Nielen 14. Mr. Ndinayi 11. Mr. Bamboye 15. Mr. Barah 12. Fr. Barnicle 16. Mr. Sitar 13. Mr. Azefor 17. Mr. Yenwo SCHOOL: Cameroon Protestant College, Bali. DATE: Between November 4 and 17, 1968. NAMES: 18. Mr. van Eerten 24. Mr. Che 19. Mr. F. K. Martin 25. Miss Schaetti 20. Mr. Mbah 26. Rev. Schurian 21. Mr. Renger 27. Mr. S. N. Sayani 22. Mr. Broenniman 28. Mr. Muluh 23. Rev. G. Gordon 318 SCHOOL: Presbyterian Secondary School, Kumba. DATE: Between November 18 and 30, 1968. NAMES: 29. Mr. S. N Sumbele 30. Mr. A. Mauerhofer 31. Mr. Ngone 32. Miss Ejole 33. Mrs. Thomas 34. Mr. Tche 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. SCHOOL: Saker Baptist College, Victoria. DATE: Between December 1 and 13, 1968. NAMES: 40. Mr. D. Witt 41. Mrs. 42 . Mrs 43. Mrs 44. Mrs R. . E. Witt Mbongo . Henshaw . Quan 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. Mr. Mbeneya Mr. Ayuknchong Mr. Elango Mr. Forjindam Mr. Akpey Miss Ndando Miss Kingdon Mrs. Abunaw Mr. Chapoton Mr. Ressiguie 6. LIST OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS INTERVIEWED (TOTAL: 124) SCHOOL: Merrick Baptist College, Ndu. DATE: Between September 20 and October 12, 1968. FORM ONE: 1 Mr. Ntang 3 Mr. Monkwe 2 Mr. Azange 4. Mr. Akenji FORM TWO: 5. Mr. Ahman 7 Mr. Fomufod 6 Mr. Lanyuy 8 Mr. Nkewah FORM THREE: 9 Mr. Njualem 11. Mr. Ngollo 10. Mr. Dasi 12. Mr. Timah FORM FOUR: 13. Mr. E. F. Ade 15. Mr. J. E. Efange 14. Mr. N. Gwaya 16. Mr. J. A. Mbah FORM FIVE: 17. 18. 19. 20. SCHOOL: St. Augustine' s College, Banso. DATE: Between October 20 and 30, 1968. FORM ONE: 1. Mr. A. A. Kinkenin 6. 2 Mr. E. Visha 7. 3. Mr. B. Wirsa 8. 4 Mr- H. Tarh 9. 5 Mr. Tangwa FORM TWO: 10. Miss D. Ekokobe 12. 11. Mr. C. Vidzem 13. FORM THREE: 14. Mr. J. Ntantan 16. 15. Miss M. Lukong 17. FORM FOUR 18. Miss F. Singe 21. 19. Mr. L. Mborong 22. 20. Miss E. Nsamelu FORM FIVE: 23. Miss J. Yensi 27. 24. Mr. R. Suinyuy 28. 25. Mr. D. Chi 29. 26. Mr. G. Chifu 319 . Adamu . Ndifon . Shei . Njeh 21. 22. 23. 24. Mr. Halle Mr. Sab Mr. Ngwayi Mr. Nyadi Mr. G. Veye Miss A. Fenafe Miss D. Gensang Mr. J. T. Sunjo Miss H. Ndifon Miss M. Ayonghe Mbah Fondzeyuf Kangs on S :3 9?.00 Tanj 0 Mr. W. Ngala Mr. H. Kinyuy Miss A. Bongmoyong SCHOOL: Cameroon Protestant College, Bali. Mr. Abongnifor Mr. Ndango Mr. Forsuh DATE: Between November 4 and 17, 1968. FORM ONE: 1 Mr. Ngwa 3. 2 Mr. Penn 4. FORM TWO: 5. Mr. Asanji 7. 6 Mr. Ghogomu 8. Mr. Tiku FORM. THREE: 9. 10. 11. FORM FOUR: 14. 15. FORM FIVE: 18. 19. 20. 21. 320 Mr. Che Mr. Numfor Mr. Penn Mr. Mengot Mr. Divine Mr. Mbuyah - Mr. Ambe Mr. Agbor Mr. Mokube 12. 13. 16. 17. 22. 23. 24. 25. . Takwa . Tamba . Aweh . Jam . Kadzem . Kweti . Monono . Awuro SCHOOL: Presbyterian Secondary School, Kumba. Miss J. Ngeyep Miss C. Ngando Miss V. Takwi Mr Mr. . J. B. Kay S. M. Meme . E. M. Fomunuh . P. B. Nyimen . E. M. Njang Miss H. Bakosah Dr. D. A. Bisong Miss C. Makia DATE: Between November 18 and 30, 1968. FORM ONE: 1. Mr. S. E. Nyinty 3. 2.'Mr. V. N. Ngonga 4. FORM TWO: 5. . Mr. J. T. Fangtang 7. 6. Mr. E. B. Nchamkong 8. FORM THREE: 9. Mr. M. M. Ngembane 11. , 10. Miss A. Itoe 12. FORM FOUR: 13..Mr. E. T. Takang 15. 14. Mr. A. M. Fondo 16. FORM FIVE: 17. Mr. J. C. Abangma 21. 18. Miss C. Gango 22. 19. Mr. J. Y. Ngwafon 23. 20. Mr. V. N. Baseh 24. SCHOOL: Saker Baptist College, Victoria. DATE: Between December 1 and 13, 1968. FORM ONE: 1 . 2 . Miss H. Ndive Miss M. Younku Mr . C. A. Arrey 3. Miss R. Tibi Miss L. Ngonde FORM TWO: FORM THREE: FORM FOUR: FORM FIVE: 9. 10. 13. 15. 16. 17. 18. 321 Miss B. Epie Miss B. Masalla Miss J. Ateh Miss A. Chia Miss M. Eyong Miss P. Alima Miss C. Ewusi Miss M. Gashu Miss C. Mofor 8. 11. 12. 14. 19. 20. 21. 22. Miss G. Ekwoge Miss E. Ndayon Miss C. Ijomah Miss G. Mokake Miss H. Dimla Miss C. Inyang Miss R. Ituka Miss S. Eko Miss F. Ngoh APPENDICES APPENDIX A TRIBAL COMPOSITION OF WEST CAMEROON Source: Great Britain, Colonial Office, Annual Report of Her Majesty' 8 Government to the Assembly of the United Nations on the Cameroons underyUnited Kingdom Admin- istration for'the Year 1958 (London: 'Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1959), pp. 3-4. (i) Victoria Division: Bakweri (er) Balong Bamboko Bantu-speaking forest lsubu (Bimbia) peoples. Wovea (Bota) Bakolle (ii) Kumba Division: Bafo (Bafaw) \ Bakossi (with related Ninong and Elung) Bakundu Balue Balundu Balundu-ba-Diko Bamboko Bantu-speaking forest Barombi ? peoples . Bassossi (with Banyu and Ngemingu) Ekumbe Lower Balong (with Bai sub-tribe) Mbonge Ngole-Batanga ) 322 Upper Balong (Bafu and Batswi) Korup Isangele (iii) Mamfe Division: Assumbo Bangwa Banyang Ejagham (Keaka, Chang and Ekwe) Mbulu Menka Mundani Takamanda Widekum Mbo (iv) Bamenda Division: Menemo (Meta) Moghamo Ngemba Ngwo Ngi Bafut Banso Ndop \_\f__JL_V_Jg.—v_./ K—v—JW—/ A people speaking a :- Bantoid language similar to Banyang (Mamfe). A people speaking a Bantoid language of Cross River type. A composite group of Efik (Nigeria) and Balundu origin. Forest peoples speaking Bantoid languages of various origins and types. A people speaking a Bantu language. Mainly grassland peoples speaking Bantoid languages, claiming 'origin from Widekum (Mamfe). Grassland people of Tikar origin speaking Bantoid languages. Bali (v) Wum Division: Kom Bum Fungom Aghem (Wum) Beba - Be fang Esimbi (vi) Nkambe Division: Wiya War Tang Kaka (Mbem) Mbaw Mfumte 324 A grassland people of Chamba (Northern Cameroons) origin, different branches speaking Bantoid and non-Bantu languages. Grassland peoples mainly of Tikar origin speaking Bantoid languages. A grassland people of obscure origin but speaking a Bantoid language closely similar to that of Fungom. Peoples of obscure, possibly Widekum, origin, speaking Bantoid languages. Grassland peoples of Tikar origin speaking Bantoid languages. A people of mixed Tikar and Mambila (Northern Cameroons) origin speaking Bantoid and non- Bantu languages. A people of non-Tikar origin speaking a Bantoid language. Mbembe Misaje 325 Peoples of non-Tikar origin speaking non-Bantu languages, partly allied to Jukun. (vii) Bamenda, Wum and Nkambe Divisions: Fulani I A pastoral people of disputed ultimate origin, but most recently from Adamawa. APPENDIX B ESSAYS ON TRIBAL CONFLICT The following are six essays selected out of fifty-five which were written by the Form four students of Cameroon Protestant College, Bali, in October, 1968, at the request of their English teacher. They are presented here as portrayals of the tribal con- flict in the secondary schools which have roots in the larger aspects of the total experience of society. These essays are pre- sented as written by the students; no corrections have been made so that the original flavor would not be diluted. Two words of explana- tion are needed: 1. The abbreviation "CPC" stands for the name of their school, and 2. The word "graf '" means "grasslander"--one who lives in the savanna or grassland area of West Cameroon. "An Instance of Tribal Conflict in College Franco-Britanique in Bamako "College Franco-Britanique is a government college in Bamako in East Cameroon. This college had some tribal conflicts 326 327 between the students. This college consisted of two main groups that is, those from West Cameroon and those from East Cameroon as it is a bilingual college. "This conflict arose one day when a football match was played. The boys from the West played against those from the East. The boys from the East were very proud and they went into the field with full confidence that they were going to get the game. They were surprised by the boys from the West who had the game by five goals to two. "After the match, the boys from the East started hating those from the West. They started 'some discriminations and as they out-numbered the boys from the West, they proved higher. "The boys from the East showed discrimination in that they did not like to mingle themselves with those from the West. In the refectory they occupied one part which was good, while the bad part was for the boys from the West. The Easterners did not move about anywhere with the Westerners. "This event went as far as the tutors. The tutors from West Cameroon were despised by those from the East. The news was reported to the Cameroon government who took steps against such by dismissing the principal who was even involved in such deeds and also the ring-leaders among the staff and students. The 328 government promised to close the school if such conflicts arose again. " ******** "Tribal Conflict in CPC "Cameroon Protestant College is made up of boys drawn from nearly all tribes in West Cameroon hence there are frequent tribal conflicts within the whole student body. These conflicts arise mainly from political differences within and without the college, position of some tribes in relation to so-called civilized towns or how civilized a certain tribe is and finally tribal set ups and even historical background. "A certain boy whose tribesman happens to be a high ranking official, say the Prime Minister, brags outwardly to his friends hence be is mocked and jeered at by other boys. Such boys as well as the mocked boy are always alert to hear whether this Prime Minister had done something good to his tribe even if it be just or unjust, he is criticized and nepotism consequently boys from that tribe fight back. These then are at loggerheads with each other. This again even happens during the election of prefects that boys from a particular tribe vote only for a boy who happens to come from there too. 329 "Other boys, remarkably those from the south, turn to look down on their colleagues from the north as uncivilized. Those from the north fight back and again there is high tension. Even up here in the north there is still disagreement: a boy comes from say, Mankon, says Ngie is backward hence the word "Ngieish" becomes a sort of insult to the others. Others carry tribal conflicts from home and easily transform them to duals here in CPC. Fur- thermore there are still hot arguments as to whether your tribe beat mine during a certain tribal war and again they are at feud. "Finally, tribal conflicts here are all in the hands of the students. They are very reactive to talks about their tribes. The question whether they can be eradicated or not remains to be an- swered. " ********* "A Tribal Conflict at CPC "The students of Cameroon Protestant College have formed a society of people through their unity. This unity has been brought about by the principal who selects all these youths from all over the country. Among all these students, there are those who prove intellectually fit and those that prove otherwise. Their being bad having been contributed from where they come from and the previous lives they had been living. If this has been adapted naturally, it 330 obviously comes from heredity which in very few cases is predomi- nant among them. "Since all of them cannot govern themselves there is then the need for others whom they will elect and under whose jurisdiction they are subjects. Theywill make rules and enforce them and to restrict them to a limit the students don' t feel suppressed if it hap- pens that most of the electors come from the same village, they will perhaps during their tribal meetings decide not to punish boys from the same village who intentionally commit crimes. This will then give them the access to crime committing which eventually leads to lawlessness and obstinancy. Since dismissal is the only ultimatum for lawlessness the other students from different villages who commit very minor crimes, may be out of ignorance, is always subjected to punishment. During punishment, he grumbles and tells his friends about the punishment which might lead to his dismissal. All this is due to absence of friendship and as a result of consequence, leads to enmity. Sometimes some students intensionally steal their friends' property especially towards vacation days. This is to help him make up for an occasion which might take place during the vacation. Three years ago I went to college and during this time I have heard threats being made by boys whose property has been stolen. There is a sorcerer in Chomba village and he is believed to prove thieves 331 whenever one of such students has been proved by this man through psychology, this goes into the speculation of all the students and usually boys who come from the same village with this boy, on any instance of theft, these boys are termed thieves. "In the class, there is usually a struggle between the intelli- gent boys against who should come first in class. Those that are lazy tend to hate these students, for instance when the studious boy makes his notes during class the lazy one who merely sits down cogitating on some love affairs snatches the book and studies for his test and only brings it back after the test. In the dining hall, it is obvious that some students do not eat much while some do. Those that don' t eat much may be because of lack of appetite or with some occasion being that the food was not properly cooked tried to buy in order to obment and subsidize their meals. In the process of doing so, friends crowd around him and wish to share with him. When he refuses, hatred takes over. Any other boy who tries to behave like- wise follows the same procedure. Occasionally, conflicts arise from different angles. " ******** "The 'Graffi' Boys "' Sit down you foolish "graffi" man. No "graffi" man has sense. ' This is what Agbor would always say in the dormitory. But 332 why should he always say this rubbish? Well, most of the top students in Ashili house are from the southern zone so when Agbor utters his statements, he is always supported. At first the 'graffi ' boys (the word is properly grassfield) bore his insults, but it soon became so monotonous that the boys would not bear it any longer. The grassfield boys started murmuring so that it was plain that on any other occasion when the word ' graffi ' was uttered they would protest. It did not take long. The Opportunity came sooner than the boys expected. "' Why are you late for rest, you stupid "graffi" man, ' Agbor asked Kum. "' What do you always mean by "graffi" ?' asked Mbuyah in an angry tone. "' I say "graffi" because no "graffi" man has sense, ' replied Agbor with a higher tone. It did not remain a problem between Mbuyah and Agbor. Enyong immediately joined in in sup- port of his comrade, Agbor. The opportunity the grassfield boys had so longed for had arrived. Mudoh opposed Enyong and the whole house was led in a commotion. The Bamenda boys against the southern boys. The Bamenda boys argued that the Vice President of the Cameroon Republic and Prime Minister of West Cameroon were both 'graffi' men. 333 "' That is how we deceive the "graffi" people so that they work for us, ' replied the southern boys. "Of course it was a difficulty for the house captain to cool down the racket, but when he finally succeeded, every 'graffi' boy was satisfied for the famous Agbor was defeated. " ******** "Instances of Tribal Conflict Between Students and Staff at CPC "Most tutors have the belief that when a student is not from his tribe, he is a bad student. It seems they do not like to live in socialism with people from other tribes. Thus they are forced to speak well only of boys of their tribe and no one else. "There is a member of staff at CPC who is a good example of this mess. He had caused the downfall of several students from other tribes in the past and he is yet on the same tracks. He had fought for the prosperity of his tribe students and is still struggling harder for them. He punishes boys from other tribes falsely and marks their test papers of some of them with a wicked mind. Thus he fails boys messlessly. He pretends to do his duty well by just punishing boys in a situation he would have excused them with a warning. When even he was on a boy' s tracks, he made sure he did his best to see that he left the school. He bullies boys everywhere ta 334 and even in town during school holidays in order to gain fame for himself. He takes boys up to their masters, principal, and even to the staff meeting for subjugation because of minor crimes he would have overlooked. "He does all this mess to boys of other tribes but always warns his tribal students against such things or kicking against major crimes. He even leaks out some secrecy of the staff to secure the stay of any of his tribal students. "Well, we know this is typical of African staff though with some few white staff, thus we call on those who feel themselves out of this mess to see about these wicked acts. " ******** "Aspects of Tribalism Resulting from Previous Land Disputes As a result of the Widikum-Menka land dispute: "Young men of today in these tribes do not associate just due to this inconvenience that happened sometimes. A child who grows up and hears of this story think of evil things against the other tribe. School boys do not like to attend schools in Widikum if he Or she is from Menka. They have fear and think that they can somehow be badly treated. Students, when they have a small argument, will take it serious and provoke themselves which can result to a figh ." APPENDIX C QUE STIONNAIRE Part 1 Tick the correct answer or fill in the blank which is provided. 1. Are you a boy or a girl ? 2. What is your age? 3. Where were you born? in Division. 4. What is your tribe? 5. When you are not in school, where do you usually stay? In Division. 6. What is your religion? Catholic Islam (Muslim) Presbyterian Traditional Baptist Other 7. What was your position in class at the last report? out of 8. Have you ever lived in any big town like Victoria, Tiko, Kumba, Buea, or Mankon? Yes No If you have, how long did you live there? (Number of months) 9. What is the name of your present school? 335 336 10. Is it a boys' school ? a girls' school ? a mixed school ? 11. Is the school located in a village or a town ? 12. What is your form? first form fourth form second form fifth form third form primary seven 13. When you are at school, do you live in the dorms or the town ? 14. What primary school did you attend last? Is it located in a village or a town ? 15. What is your father' 8 present occupation? Be very careful to explain the work he actually does. If he is dead, then write in what he used to do, if you know. 16. What work does your mother usually do? 17 . How much education did your parents have? Put a tick in the space opposite the highest level that they each reached. Father Mother Did not go to school Had some primary schooling Completed primary school Had some secondary schooling Completed secondary school Attended a teacher training centre or college Went to a university Completed at another kind of school If so, what kind? I do not know. 18. Has your father more than one wife at present? Yes No 19. 20. 21. 22. 337 Think of the names of your four best friends in this school. In the space below write the first letter in the names of your four best friends and then write the name of his/her tribe. First Letters His/Her Tribe Best friend Second best friend Third best friend Fourth best friend Think of the names of your four best friends outside of this school. In the space below write the first letter in their names and then write the name of his/ her tribe. First Letters His/Her Tribe Best friend Second best friend Third best friend Fourth best friend What African languages other than your own do you know? List them and indicate whether you speak it or only understand it. Langpage I speak it I understand it only List the names of all clubs and societies to which you belong ip this school and which you joined voluntarily (not because of age, family, inheritance, etc. ). Place a mark after those clubs or societies which have members which come from different tribes. Name of club or society Members from different tribes? Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No 23. 338 List the names of all clubs and societies to which you belong outside of school and which you joined voluntarily (not because of age, family, inheritance, etc. ). Place a mark after those clubs or societies which have members which come from dif- ferent tribes. Name of club or society Members from different tribes? Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Part 2 Instructions: The following questions concern activities which you are doing while in this school. Answer each question by underlining the word or words which describe what you have done. Question One How many best friends do you have in this school this year who come from tribes different from your own? None One or two Three or more You have as best friends students from how many different tribes ? From my own From 1 or 2 From 3 or more tribe only different tribes different tribes From what region do these different tribes come? Forest region Grassland region Both regions 339 Question Two How often during this year did you move in the town with stu- dents who come from tribes different from your own? Never A few times Many times You moved in the town with students from how many different tribes ? From my own From 1 or 2 From 3 or more tribe only different tribes different tribes From what region do these different tribes come? Forest region Grassland region Both regions Question Three How often this year did you make day-time visits to the com- pounds of students who come from tribes different from your own? Never A few times _ Many times You visited the compound of students from how many different tribes ? From my own From 1 or 2 From 3 or more tribe only different tribes different tribes From what region do these different tribes come? Forest region Grassland reflm Both regions 340 Question Four , How often this year did you lend something to students who come from tribes different from your own? Never A few times Mag): times You lent something to students from how many different tribes? From my own From 1 or 2 From 3 or more tribe only different tribes different tribes From what region do these different tribes come? Forest region Grassland region Both regions Question Five How often this year did you borrow somethipg from students who come from tribes different from your own? Never A few times Many times You borrowed something from students from how many different tribes? From my own From 1 or 2 From 3 or more tribe only different tribes different tribes From what region do these different tribes come? Forest region Grassland region Both reflns L‘ in 341 Question Six a. How often this year did you discuss famgy problems with stu- dents who come from different tribes? Never A few times Many times b. You discussed family problems with students from how many different tribes? From my own From 1 or 2 From 3 or more tribe only different tribes different tribes c. From what region do these different tribes come? Forest regiyon Grassland region Both regions Instructions: The following questions concern activities which you do during the holidays when you are not at school. Answer them in the same way as the previous questions. Question One a. How many best friends do you have this year who are not stu- dents and who come from tribes different from your own? None One or two Three or more b. You have as friends people from how many different tribes? From my own From 1 or 2 From 3 or more tribe only different tribes different tribes c. From what region do these different tribes come? Forest region Grassland region Both regions 342 Question Two While on holiday this year, how often did you move in the town with people who come from tribes different from your own? Never A few times Many times You moved in the town with people from how many different tribes ? From my own From 1 or 2 From 3 or more tribe only different tribes different tribes From what region do these different tribes come? Forest region Grassland rggion Both regions Question Three How often during holidays this year did you share a room for at least one night with people who come from different tribes? Never A few times Many times You shared a room with people from how many different tribes? From my own From 1 or 2 From 3 or more tribe only different tribes different tribes From what region do these different tribes come? Forest region Grassland regfiion Both regions Question Four How often during holidays this year did you lend somethig to people who come from different tribes? Never A few times Many times You lent something to people from how many different tribes? From my own From 1 or 2 From 3 or more tribe only different tribes different tribes From what region do these different tribes come? Forest region Grassland rggion Both regions 343 Question Five How often during holidays this year did you borrow something from people who come from different tribes? Never A few times Many times You borrowed something from people from how many different tribes ? From my own From 1 or 2 From 3 or more tribe onLy different tribes different tribes From what region do these different tribes come? Forest region Grassland region Both regions Question Six How often during holidays this year did you tell your own secrets to people who come from different tribes? Never A few times Many times You told your secrets to people from how many different tribes ? From my own From 1 or 2 From 3 or more tribe only different tribes different tribes From what region do these different tribes come? Forest region Grassland region Both regions 344 Part 3 Instructions: 10. Answer the following questions by placing a mark (\/ ) under I DO NOT LIKE IT, I LIKE IT, or IT DOES NOT MATTER according to the way you think about each question. Before answering, think how you feel about each question in a general way, not just in a school or holiday situation. I Do It Does Not I Not Like It Like (It Matter Do you like to buy thing from a person who comes from a tribe different from your own? Do you like to sit next to a person who comes from a tribe-different from your own? Do you like to wash clothes with a person who comes from a tribe different from your own? Do you like to goto church with a personwho comes from a tribe different from your own? Do you like to work with a person who comes from a different tribe? Do you like to farm with a person who comes from a different tribe? Do you like to eat with a person who comes from a different tribe ? Do you like to join clubs whose members come from different tribes? Do you like to bathe with a person who comes from a different tribe? Do you like to sleep-with a person who comes from a different tribe? 345 Oman 38 Z so pone—3:00 .03 £930 J30? .muuoam 605mm mm :25 moflgfiom Abgfiom on» mamfi Q mmmHOuHOISO 5 mooqofloaxo mg iv . . . moo? 1.8m Cam .mommflo .moflgflom 3co>o m5 ofiwcv .m msowwmoa E moocoflmaxo mg .m boa—m ZOE? due 3333: .nmfimcm AmuOOHQH—m m5 Dams .m mm :36 moggm EOOhmmmao 32 .N mmflo than 5 month .350 Bob mucopgm 5?» Amosofloaxo o5 oEmS .H pofiowou mfion mo mocoflomxo ~32 .H in?» 50% mm mama mm Sign .35 DOM. .mmnEu .850 98: mucongm 5“? $2.82.“ So» pommhaooso 96: £033 omofi Eco #32 9:wa Room o» no» pomwusoocm :03? «won?» aofio Eon.“ mucopgm 52» 32.63.“ oosofloaxm no hugfiom 330m 2.: 53qu - magma xoom 3 so» Cowmanooco mm: 3: no was: doing 50% was“ SO: Sumo Dorm owofioO 5 moocoioaxo 9:30on o5 mo :03? Ono no Emozmu w uh mm 346 A9500 05 .00 0000 0000000 0.30 00% .03 0000 00000 005 005.5 0050 0005 0000030 52» 000000.“ w0§000 0000 00 00% 0090000000 000 30000 E0000000 00 00500 .2 0055 0050 0000.0 0500050 503 0000000 m0§000 0000 00 000 U0m0000000 0>00 A9500 0000.00 A005 0003 .0 ~05 00000000000 00 0m005 0050 3000000000 05 00005 .0 3000000000 05 00005 S 3000000000 05 00005 .0 3000000000 05 0003000 .0 00005000.. . 000 0030000 0057005 @5000 000000000 05 Mm 00000000000 32 0005.. 00000 mghac 00009000 05 fi'o. 0000030000 ~32 0m0200 05 .00 00000000 05 50? 0000000030 mg 02 05:0. 05 00 w0500 000 00058000 05 00 w0m>m .00 0000000000 52 .ofi 0m0m 3002 00 00003000 .000 .0030 .0003 .000000 000000 00 0000 0030500 300,300 0500005 .0 0000000300 00 0000000030 %H>H .0 O o a I O o 0 O o m00fl> -000 000 .0000000 0033300 3000.0 05 00005 .0 0033000 00 0000000090 %2 .m %U030 0 02.03 .Bo .0320 500:0 347 0000300 05 00005 .N s 00 0000 0000000 000000030 %2. .m o . o o o o o mmso ha AH.“ 000000 0050 0000.0 00000000 53». 3000000000 05 000000 .0 0050w00 M0000 .00 0000000000 %2 .H .0050» .0003 00% 00 %0000 00 00000 %000 00% 0050 0000.0 00000000 503 0000000 00000 00% 00m000000300>00 00.03 0005 %H00 0002 00. m0§000 0000.0 00% 00w0000003. 00003. 0000000 0050 0000.0 00000030 503 0000000 00000 0000000000 00 53300 #00000 05 0000000 03 w03~000 0000.0 00% 00m00000000 000 030 00 00000 6000000 00% 005 00000. 0000 00m . , 0w0200 00 0000000000 w0030200 05 .00 000005 03H. 0030000 am 348 . 00000005 00 0000 0000000 0>00 00% .03 0000 00000 005 000000 0050 0000.0 00000000 53» 0000000 00000 00 0000000 0000.0 00% 0000000000 000 000000 %00000000 00 000500 .3 00500 0050 0000.0 00000030 503 0000000 00000 00 0000000 0000.0 000 00m00000000 0>00 A0>000 000000 0005 00.5 .m 0000 00000000000 00 0m005 0050 0003-000.“ m00000 0003:0003 M00000 0000000000 05 00005 . N. 000000000 05 WM 00000000000 %2 0M0200 05 00 0000000000 05 000000 .0 00000000 05 53? 0000000090 %2 02 05:0. 05 00 m0300 000 %00330000 300000090 05 00009000 .0 00003000 I -03H 00 30000 0000000000 05 00005 .0 000000000 05 a 00000000000 %H>H . 05 00 mfibn .00 0000000000 %2 . .oH APPENDIX D SHORTENED FORM OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE Part 1 Tick the correct answer or fill in the blank which is provided. 1. Are'you a boy or a girl ? 2. What is your age? 3. Where‘were you born? in Division. 4. What is your tribe? 5. When youare not in school, where 'doryou usually‘stay? in Division. 6. What is your religion? Catholic , Islam (Muslim) Presbyterian Traditional Baptist Other 7. What was your position in class at the last report? out of 8. Have you ever-lived in any big town like Victoria, Tiko, Kumba, Buea, or Mankon? Yes No. If you have, how long did you live there? (Number of months) 9. What is the name of your present school? 349 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 350 Is it a boys' school ? a girls' school ? a mixed school ? Is the school located in a village or a town ? What is your form? first form fourth form second form fifth form third form primary seven When you are at school, do you live in the dorms or the town ? What primary school did you attendlast? Is it locatedin a village or a town ? What is your father' 3 present occupation? Be very careful to explain the work he actually does. . If he is dead, then-write in what he used to do, if you know. What work does your mother usually do? How much education did your parents have? Put a tick in the space opposite the highest level that they each reached. Father Mother Did not go to school Had some primary schooling Completed primary school Had some secondary schooling Completed secondary school Attended a teacher training centre or college Went to auniversity Completed at another kind of school If so, what kind? I do not know. Has your father more than one wifeat present? Yes No 19. 20. 21. 22. 351 Think of the names of your four best friends in this school. In the space below write the first letter in the names of your four best friends and then write the name of his/ her tribe. First Letters His/ Her Tribe Best friend Second best friend Third best friend Fourth best friend Think of the names of your four best friends outside of this school. In the space below write the first letter in their names and then write the name of his/ her tribe. First Letters His/ Her Tribe Best friend Second best friend Third best friend _ Fourth best friend What African languages other than your own do you know? List them and indicate whether. you speak it or only‘understand it. Langage I speak it I understand it only List the names of all clubs and societies to which you belong i_n this school and which you joined voluntarily (not because of age, family, inheritance, etc. ). Place a mark after those clubs or societies which have members which come from different tribes. Yes No Nameof club or society Members from different tribes? Yes No Yes No Yes No llll 23. 352 List the names of all clubs and societies to which you belong outside of school and which you joined voluntarily (not because of age, family, inheritance, etc. ). Place a mark after those clubs or societies which have members which come from dif- ferent tribes. Name of club or society Members from. different tribes? Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Part 2 Inst ru cti ons: The following questions concern activities which you often do. Answer each question by underlining the ‘word or words which describewhat you have done. Question One How many best friends do you have this year who come from __ tribes different from your own? None One or two Three or more You have best friends from how many different tribes? From my‘ own From 1 or 2 From 3 or more tribe only different tribes different tribes From what region do these different tribes come? Forest region Grassland region Both regions 353 Question Two How often during this year did you move; in the town with people who come from tribes different from your own? Never A few times Many times You moved in the town with people from how many different tribes ? From my own From 1 or 2 From 3 or more tribe only different tribes different tribes From what region do these different tribes come? Forest region Grassland region Both regions Question Three ‘ How often during this year did you make day-time Visits to the compounds of people who come from tribes different from your own? Never A few times Many times You visited the compound of people from how many different tribes ? From my own From 1 or 2 From 3 or more tribe only different tribes different tribes From what region do these different tribes come? Forest region Grassland region Both regions Question Four How often this year did you lend something to people who come from tribes different from your own? Never A few times Many times You lent something to people from how many different tribes? From my own From 1 or 2 From 3 or more tribe only different tribes different tribes From what region do these different tribes come? Forest region Grassland region Both regions 354 Question Five How often this year did you borrow something from people who come from tribes different from your own? Never A few times Many times You borrowed something from people from hOw many different tribes ? From my own From 1 or 2 From 3 or more tribe only different tribes different tribes From what region do these different tribes come? Forest region Grassland reflm Both regions Question Six How often this year did you tell your own secrets to people who come from tribes different from your own? Never A few times Many times . You told your secrets to people from how many different tribes? From my own From 1 or 2 From 3 or more tribe only different tribes different tribes From what region do these different tribes come? Forest region Grassland region - Both regions 355 Part 3 Instructions: 10. Answer the following questions by placing a mark (\/ ) under I DO NOT LIKE IT, I LIKE IT, or IT DOES NOT MATTER according to the way you think about each question. Do you like to buy thing from a person who comes from a tribe different from your own? Do you like to sit next to a person from a different tribe? Do you like to wash clothes with a person from a different tribe? Do you like to go to church with a person from a different tribe? Do you like to work with a person from a different tribe? Do you like to farm with a person from a different tribe? Do you like to eat with a person from a different tribe? Do you like to join clubs whose members come from different tribes? Do you like to bathe with a person from a different tribe? Do you like to sleep with a person from a different tribe? I Do It Does Not I Not Like It Like It Matter APPENDIX E SCALING QUESTIONNAIRE The following is a list of activities which you do with fellow-students in school. When doing various activities with stu- dents, it is sometimes hard to do them with students who come from a tribe other than your own. When it is hard to do, you sometimes give serious thought before doing it with a student from another tribe. Other activities are not so hard to do with students from other tribes, but you still give it a bit of thought before you do them. Then again, other activities are very easy to do with students from other tribes and in these cases you give no thought to the matter. In the following list, read each activity and decide whether you think it is hard to do with students from other tribes, or only a bit hard, or it is. easy to do with students from another tribe. When you have decided, place a tick in the space after each of the activities listed, indicating whether you think it is "hard to do, " "not so hard to do, " or "easy to do" by ticking in the column under the proper heading. ALL THESE ARE ACTIVITIES DONE DURING TERM-TIME AT SCHOOL. In each case imagine that you are going to do it with a student from another tribe. Not So Hard Hard Easy Activity To Do To Do To Do 1. Sit next to during meals 2. Belong to out-of-school clubs or societies with 3. Play football on the same team 4. Going to prayers or chapel with 5. Short, daytime visit to his com- pound 356 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 357 Hard Activity To Do Not So Hard To Do Easy To Do Move about the town with Sitting next to in class Washing your clothes with Lending something to Dance with girls from Borrowing something from Drinking in a bar with Drinking in the market with Being best friends with . Sleep next to in the dorms Work with on school work project Bathing with . Dance with boys from Have as a "big" Play games with . Work on the school farm with Belong to school clubs or societies with Have as a "small" Go to church or Sunday school with 25. 26. 27. 28. you are not at school. 358 Activity Move and talk with during free- time Study or work with in the library . . . Share secrets with Discuss family problems with Not So Hard Hard Easy To Do_ To Do To Do The next list includes activities done duringholidays when Tick them in the same way as above. Remember these are holiday activities which you might do with people (not necessarily students) who are go_t from your tribe. Activity Lend something to . . -.~. Stay overnight at the compound of Do community development work with Drink in the market with. Short, daytime visit to his com- pound . Sell something to Play football on the same team with . [Drink in a bar with . Not So Hard Hard Easy To Do To Do To Do 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 359 Ha rd Activity To Do Be best friends with Not So Hard To Do Easy To Do Share a house or room with Going tochurch or Sunday school Borrow something from Move about the town with boys from Dance with girls from Sleep with . Belong to same club or society Go out for evangelism with Move about the town with girls from Going to the cinema with Eating with Bathing with Buy something from Play games with Work ona farm with Washing your clothes with Dance with boys from Share secrets with Discuss family problems with APPENDIX F RE FINED SCALING QUESTIONNAIRE The following is a list of activities which you do with fellow-students in school. When doing various activities with stu- dents, it is sometimes hard to do them with students who come from a tribe other than your own. When it is hard to do, you some- times give serious thought before doing it with a student from another tribe. Other activities are not so hard to do with students from other tribes, but you still give it a bit of thought before you do them. Then again, other activities are very easy to do with students from other tribes and in these cases you give no thought to the mat- ter. . In the following list, read each activity and decide whether you think it is hard to do with students from other tribes, or only a bit hard, or it is easy to do with students from another tribe. When you have decided, place a tick in the space after each of the activities listed, indicating whether you think it is "hard to do, " "not so hard to do, " or "eagy to do" by ticking in the column under the proper heading. All these are activities done during term-time at school. In each case imagine that you are going to do it with a student from another tribe. Not So Hard Hard Easy Activity To Do To Do To Do l. Borrow something from . 2. Drink in a bar with . 3. Drink in the market with 4. Share secrets with 5. Discuss family problems with 360 361 Not So Hard Hard Easy Activity To Do To Do To Do 6. Short, daytime visit to his com- pound . 7. Washing your Clothes with 8. Lend something to 9. Be best friends with 10. Dance with boys from 11. Sit next to during meals 12. Play football on the same team . 13. Going to prayers or chapel with 14. Sitting next to in class 15. Go to church with The next list includes activities done durigyholidays when you are not at school. Tick them in the same way as above. Remember these are holiday activities which you might do with people (not necessarily students)! who are $31 from your tribe. Not So Hard Hard Easy Activity To Do To Do To Do 1. Stay overnight at the compound of 2. Borrow something from . 3. Sleep with . 4. Share secrets with 5.. Discuss family problems with 362 Not So Hard Hard Easy Activity To Do To Do To Do 6. Share a house or room with 7. . Move about the town with boys from 8. Belong to same club or society 9. Move about the town with girls from 10. Eat with . 11. Do communitydevelopment work with 12. Play football on the same team with 13. Going to church with 14. Buy something from 15. Play games with Before handing this in, please Check that you have answered each one and that you have 393 ticked one question twice by mistake. Thank you. What is your class? What is your tribe? APPENDIX G TABULA'I'ION OF GUTTMAN SCALE ANALYSES The following coefficients of reproducibility (REP) and minimal marginal reproducibility (MMR) were obtained as a result of data analyzed by Guttman Scale Analysis on the CDC 3600 com- puting facility. The program also provided an indication of possible coefficients of reproducibility were the original data to be dichoto- mized rather than trichotomized as it was in the instrument used in this study. This possible REP from dichotomized data is recorded under the heading Possible REP. Scales labeled A, B and C represent three distinct six- item scales, while those labeled "total" represent the same items but analyzed as one Guttman scale of eighteen items. ; Possible Group Scale REP MMR REP Secondary School A . 65140 . 46024 . 8470 School . School B . 71947 . 46947 . 8461 Questionnaires School C . 83747 . 57188 . 8553 (N = 524) T°tal .SCh°°1 .68140 .50053 .7342 Behavior Holiday A . 66667 . 48696 .8127 Holiday B . 72201 .49014 .8623 Holiday C . 84637 . 63581 . 8624 T°ta1 find” . 72890 . 53764 .7773 Behav10r Attitude . 59828 .5061 1 . 6044 363 364 Possible Group Scale REP MMR REP Secondary School A . 77160 . 48765 . 8704 School School A (retest) . 84568 . 54321 . 9198 Questionnaires: School B . 79012 .51235 . 8766 Test-Retest School B (retest) . 85802 . 53704 . 9320 School C . 80247 . 64815 . 8272 (N = 29) School C (retest) .79630 .62346 .8580 T°tal .S°h°°l . 73251 . 54938 .8188 BehaVior Total School Behavior (retest) .78601 .56790 . 8579 Holiday A . 82099 . 56790 .8703 Holiday A (retest) . 80864 .51852 . 8517 Holiday B . 82716 .57407 .8519 Holiday B (retest) . 85185 . 52469 . 8641 Holiday C .83951 .70988 .9197 Holiday C (retest) .85185 . 69136 .9198 T°ta1¥i°hday . 77366 . 61728 .7943 BehaVIOr Total Holiday Behavior (retest) . 80247 . 57819 . 8478 Attitude . 82 963 . 52222 .8666 Attitude (retest) .81481 .51111 .8888 Secondary Behavior A . 71371 . 47581 . 8535 School Behavior B . 74731 . 45161 . 8454 Interviews Behavior C . 82930 . 55242 . 8562 (N = 124) Total Behavior .71147 .49328 .7890 Attitude . 77500 . 57581 .7920 365 Possible Group Scale REP MMR REP Primary Behavior A, . School B, C Not available Questionnaires Total Behavior . 66592 . 49454 . 731 1 (N = 224) Attitude . 66027 . 47143 . 6871 Non-secondary Behavior A . 78261 . 51449 . 8985 School Behavior B . 84420 .53623 . 8876 Interviews Behavior C . 86594 . 57246 No change (N = 46) Total Behavior .78744 .54106 .8794 Attitude . 82 826 . 59130 . 8892 Pre-university Behavior A . 85088 . 55263 . 9123 Students' Behavior B . 90351 . 58772 . 9210 Interviews Behavior C . 89474 . 63158 . 9649 (N = 19) Total Behavior . 84503 . 59064 . 9180 Attitude . 90526 . 70526 . 9316 Former Behavior A . 79167 . 60416 .8333 Secondary Behavior B . 83333 . 68750 No change School Students' Not scalable because one Interviews question (54) was answered Behavior C the same by all. The pro- (N = 8) gram required at least two different answers. Total Behavior Not scalable for the same reason. Attitude . 86250 . 57500 No change APPENDIX H CODE BOOK FOR QUESTIONNAIRE AND INTERVIEW DA TA The following system of coding was used to record data from questionnaires and interviews on computer punchcards which were used in the analyses. Card 1 Column 1 Card Number 1 First card 2 Second card 3 Score card 2 -4 Empty 5 Data Description Secondary school questionnaire Primary school questionnaire Non-secondary school interview Teacher interview Secondary school interview Ex-secondary school student interview Secondary school questionnaire retest Post-secondary school students in college dozentthI-‘o 366 Column 6-9 10 11 12 13 367 Individual Identifi cation Number Sex I? CDQQOJU‘IIFOONHC Boy Girl Eleven years Twelve years Thirteen years Fourteen years Fifteen years Sixteen years Seventeen years Eighteen years Nineteen years Nenty or more years Birth Place (”UlrbOONI—‘o Tribes coooqmoipmwt-‘o Coast - - rural Coast--urban (Victoria, Tiko, Kumba, Buea) Grassland - - rural Grassland-~urban (Bamenda, Mankon) Coast--town (Mutengene, Muyuka, Mamfe, Tombel) Grassland--town (Banso, Bali, Bafut) Foreign (Ghana, Nigeria, India, Sudan) Bakweri Balong Bamboko lsubu (Bimbia) Wovea (Bota) Bakolle Bafor (Bafaw) Bakossi Bakundu Balue Column 14 15 16 Tribes CDmQODUII-FOONHO Tribes (Om-JODUTI-FWNHO Tribes coco-Jamitht-to ' 368 Balundu - Balundu -ba-Diko Barombi ~ Bassos si Ekumbe Mbonge N golo - Batanga Korup Isangele Bangwa Banyang Ejagham (Keaka, Obang, Ekwe) Mbulu Menka Mundani Takamanda and Anyang Widekum Mbo Meta (Menemo) Moghamo Ngemba Ngie-Ngwaw Bafut Babanki Nsaw (Banso, Nso) Ndop Bali (Chamba) Kom Bum-Fungom Aghem (Wum) 369 Column 1 7 Tribes Beba-Befang Wimbum Yamba (Kaka, Mbem) Mbaw Mfumte Mi saje -Mbembe Hausa-Fulani Coastal Nigerians Bamileke, Bangante, or Grassland East Cameroonian Coastal East Cameroonian, Bassa, Douala (om-JODU'Irh-DDNHO 1 8 Holiday Residence 0 Coast--rural 1 Coast--urban (Victoria, Tiko, Kumba, Buea) 2 Coast--town (Mutengene, Muyuka, Mamfe, Tombel) 3 Grassland- -rural 4 Grassland--urban (Mankon, Bamenda) 5 Grassland--town (Bali, Banso, Bafut) 19 Religion 0 Catholic 1 Presbyterian 2 Baptist 3 Islam (Muslim) 4 Traditional 5 Other 20 Position in Class (Academic Standing) (for non-school = primary school standing) 0 Top quarter 1 Upper middle quarter 2 Lower middle quarter 3 Bottom quarter Column 370 2 1 Urban Experience mmqmmpro-Ao No v Yes--3 months Yes-~6 months Yes-~9 months Yes--1 year Yes-4% years Yes--2 years Yes--3 years-4 years Yes-~5 years-9 years Yes--10 or more years 22 Name of School (for non-school = location of interview) ,p cowl-*0 COQK‘IODUI Merrick Baptist College, Ndu St. Augustine College, Banso Cameroon Protestant College, Bali ‘Presbyterian Secondary School, Kumba, and Massaka primary school Saker Baptist College, Victoria, and Victoria. primary school Primary school, Ndu Primary school, Banso Primary school, Bamenda Primary school, New Bekondo Primary school, Kumba 23 Type of School (Student Body) (for non-school: omit) 0 1 2 boys' school girls' school mixed school Column 371 24 School Location (for non-school: omit) U'Ithi-‘O Coast--urban (Victoria, Buea, Kumba, Tiko) Coast--rural Coast--town Grassland--urban (Mankon, Bamenda) Grassland - - rural Grassland--town (Banso, Bali, Bafut) 25 Form or Class (for non-school: omit) Ofio‘vbWNP-‘O First form Second form Third form Fourth form Fifth form Primary seven Ex-secondary school 2 6 Boardig Student (for non-school: omit; for primary: omit) 0 1 in the dorms in the town 27 Location of Former Primagy School (fisth/ONHC Coast--urban (Victoria, Buea, Kumba, Tiko) Coast--rural Coast--town Grassland-~urban (Mankon, Bamenda) Grassland - -rural Grassland--town (Banso, Bali, Bafut) 372 Column 28 Father' 8 Occgation 0 Farmer Raises cash crops (coffee, bananas, cocoa, etc.) Skilled worker (mason, carpenter, tailor, shoe- mender, driver) Medical field Teaching Clerical Government position Banking Trade Construction NH (000405me 29 Father' 8 Occupation Wine -tapping and rubber tapping Laborer- -unskilled Sawyer, carver Cattle - farme r Ministry--pastor, evangelist Court, justice Traditional ruler, chief Hunting de‘IhOONt-bo 30 Mother' 8 Occupation Telephone operator, bank clerk Typist 0 Farming 1 Nurse 2 Cook 3 Trading 4 Wine - seller 5 Sewing, handwork 6 Housewife 7 Teaching 8 9 Column 373 31 Father' s Education QQU'IIFWNHO (000 Did not go to school Had some primary school Completed primary school Had some secondary school Completed secondary school Attended a teacher training college Went to a university Completed at another kind of school--commercial or technical BBTC or theological Do not know 32 Mother' s Education dmwtkwNHo 00 Did not go to school Had some primary school Completed primary school Had some secondary school Completed secondary school Attended a teacher training college Went to a university Completed at another kind of school--commercial or technical BBTC or theological Do not know 33 Polygamous Family 0 1 3 Yes No No answer 34 School Friends what-no Same tribe- -one Same tribe- -two Same tribe- -three Same tribe- -four Column 35 36 37 38 39 40 374 School Friends (same region) cowl—4o Neighboring tribe - - one Neighboring tribe - -two Neighboring tribe - -three Neighboring tribe - -four School Friends (other region) comp-4o Distant tribe - -one Distant tribe - -two Distant tribe - -three Distant tribe - -four Non-school Friends cant-4o Same tribe - -one Same tribe - -two Same tribe - -three Same tribe - -four Non-school Friends (same region) (DMD-lo Neighboring tribe - -one Neighboring _ tribe - -two Neighboring tribe - -three Neighboring tribe - -four Non-school Friends (other region) (DMD-Io Distant tribe - -one Distant tribe - -two Distant tribe - -three Distant tribe - -four African Lang-pages (same region) WNHO Neighboring tribes - - one Neighboring tribes - -two Neighboring tribes - -three Neighboring tribes - -four Column 41 42 43 44 45 375 African Langpages (other region) Distant tribes- -one Distant tribes- -two Distant tribes--three Distant tribes- -four “ND-‘0 School Clubs (for non-school: omit) 0 Yes- -one 1 Yes- -two 2 Yes--three 3 Yes- -four School Clubs (for non-school: omit) 0 No--one 1 No--two 2 No- -three 3 No--four Non-school Clubs 0 Yes--one 1 Yes--two 2 Yes-~three 3 Yes--four Non-school Clubs O No--one 1 No--two 2 No--three 3 No- -four 376 Part 2 -- School Itenls Column 46 47 48 49 50 51 Question 1a- -Best Friends 0 None 1 One or two 2 Three or more Question 1b--Number of Tribes 0 Own tribe 1 One or two different 2 Three or more different Question 1 c- -Regions 0 Own 1 Other 2 Both Question 2a--Move in Town 0 Never 1 Few times 2 Many . time s Question 2b--Number of Tribes 0 Own tribe 1 One or two different 2 Three or 'more different Question 2 c- -Regions 0 Own 1 Other 2 Both Column 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 377 Question 3a--Dgy-time Visits 0 Never 1 Few times 2 Many times Question 3b--Number of Tribes 0 Own tribe 1 One or two different 2 Three or ‘more different Question 3 c- -Regions 0 Own 1 Other 2 Both Question 4a--Lend Something 0 Never 1 Few times 2 Many times Question 4b-—Number of Tribes 0 Own tribe 1 One or two different 2 Three or -more different Question 4c--R_egions 0 Own 1 Other 2 Both Question 5a- -Borrow 0 Never 1 Few times 2 Many times 378 Column 59 Question 5b--Number of Tribes 0 Own tribe 1 One or two different 2 Three or more different 60 Question 5c--Rggions 0 Own 1 Other 2 Both 61 Question 6a--Secrets or Family Problems 0 Never 1 Few times 2 Many times 62 Question 6b--Number of Tribes 0 Own tribe 1 One or two different 2 Three or more different 63 Question 6c--Regions 0 Own 1 Other 2 Both Part 3 --Attitudes Column 64 Question 1 - -Buy 0 Do not. like 1 Like it 2 No matter Column 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 379 Question 2 - - Sit Next 0 Do not like 1 Like it 2 No matter Question 3--Wash Clothes 0 Do not like 1 Like it 2 No matter Question 4 - -Church 0 Do not like 1 Like it 2 No matter Question 5 - -Work 0 Do not like 1 Like it 2 No matter Question 6 - - Farm 0 Do not like 1 Like it 2 No matter Question 7 - -Eat 0 Do not like 1 Like it 2 No matter Question 8- -Join Clubs 0 Do not like 1 Like it 2 No matter 380 Column 72 Question 9--Bathe 0 Do not like 1 Like it 2 No matter 73 Question 10- -Sleep 0 Do not like 1 Like it 2 No matter 74 Non-school Person' 8 Occupation Laborer Clerk Local N.A. (messenger) Trader Tailor, seamstress Baby tender Bar maid Farmer Teacher Unemployed (OGDQODUIIFOONHO 75 Miscellaneous Tribes 0 Oku 1 Sudanese 2 Noni 381 Card 2 Column 1 Card Number 1 First card 2 Second card 3 Score card 2 -4 Empty 5 Data Description Secondary school questionnaire Primary school questionnaire Non-secondary school interview Teacher interview Secondary school interview Ex-secondary school student interview Secondary school questionnaire retest Post-secondary school students in college dQU‘yfiOONI—IQ 6 - 9 Individual Identification Number Part 2 - - Holiday Column 10 Question 1a--Best Friends 0 None 1 One or two 2 Three or more 11 Question 1b--Number of Tribes 0 Own tribe 1 One or two different 2 Three or more different Column 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 382 Question 1 c - -Regions 0 Own 1 Other 2 Both Question 2a--Move in Town 0 Never 1 Few times 2 Many times Question 2b--Number of Tribes 0 Own tribe 1 One or two different 2 Three or more different Question 2 c- -Regions 0 Own 1 Other 2 Both Question 3a--Share a Room 0 Never 1 Few times 2 Many times Question 3b--Number of Tribes 0 Own tribe 1 One or two different 2 Three or more different Question 3c--Regions 0 Own 1 Other 2 Both Column 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 383 Question 4a - - Lend 0 Never 1 Few times 2 Many times Question 4b--Number of Tribes 0 Own tribe 1 One or two different 2 Three or more different Question 4c--Regions 0 Own 1 Other 2 Both Question 5a--Borrow 0 Never 1 Few times 2 Many times Question 5b--Number of Tribes 0 Own tribe 1 One or two different 2 Three or more different Question 5 c - -Regi ons 0 Own 1 Other 2 Both Question 6a--Secrets 0 Never 1 Few times 2 Many times 384 Column 26 Question 6b--Number of Tribes 0 Own tribe 1 One or two different 2 Three or more different 27 Question 6c--Regions 0 Own 1 Other 2 Both Part 4 - -Question 1 Column 28 Number 1--Classroom Experiences 0 Not marked 1 Marked (yes) 2 9 Number 2 - -Academi c Subjects 0 Not marked 1 Marked (yes) 30 Number 3--Religious Activities 0 Not marked 1 Marked (yes) 31 Number 4--Curricular Activities 0 Not marked 1 Marked (yes) 32 Number 5--Residential Life 0 Not marked 1 Marked (yes) 385 Column 33 Number 6--Teachers' Influence 0 Not marked 1 Marked (yes) 34 Number 7--Off-compound Experiences 0 Not marked 1 Marked (yes) 35 Number 8- -Free-time Experiences 0 Not marked 1 Marked (yes) 36 Number 9--Other Experiences 0 Not marked 1 Marked (yes) 37 Number 1 0 - -Nothing£ncourag§g 0 Not marked 1 Marked (yes) Part 4- -Question 2 Column 38 Number 1--Classroom Experiences 0 Not marked 1 Marked (yes) 39 Number 2--Academic Subjects 0 Not marked 1 Marked (yes) Column 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48-80 386 Number 3--Religious Activities 0 1 Not marked Marked (yes) Number 4--Extra-curricular Activities 0 1 Not marked . Marked (yes) Number 5--Residential Life 0 1 Not marked Marked (yes) Number 6--Teachers' Experiences 0 1 Not marked Marked (yes) Number 7 - -Off-compound Experiences 0 1 Not marked Marked (yes) Number 8--Free-time Experiences 0 1 Not marked Marked (yes) Number 9--Other Eageriences 0 1 Not marked Marked (yes) Number 1 0 - -Nothig Discouraged 0 1 Empty Not marked Marked (yes) I IIIIIIJ: full “I“. If . I]! I I. Column 1-3 4-6 7-9 10-12 13-15 16-18 19-21 22-24 25-27 28-30 31-34 35-36 37-39 40-42 APPENDIX I CODE BOOK FOR SOCIOME TRIC DATA Card 1 Empty Tribal Distance from School in Miles Empty State-wide Tribal Population in Thousands (e. g. 72. 5) Empty Number of Persons Respondigg Empty Total Number of Friends Listed Empty Number of In-tribe Friends Empty Number of Out-tribe Friends Empty Proportion of In-tribe Friends by Percent (e. g. 26. 8) 387 Column 43 44 45 46 47 388 Schools 1 Ndu 2 Banso 3 Bali 4 Kumba 5 Victoria Types of Schools 1 Boys' school 2 Girls' school 3 Co-ed school School Location 1 Grassland, rural 2 Grassland, town 3 Forest, urban Class Level 1 First year 2 Second year 3 Third year 4 Fourth year 5 Fifth year Problem Scope 1 Friends in entire school 2 Friends in their own class level 389 C olumn 48-49 Tribes 1 Bakweri 2 4 Ehaghem 2 Douala 2 5 Oku 3 Barombi 2 6 Bum 4 Balundu 2 7 Yamba 5 Bafor 2 8 Bangwa 6 Balong 2 9 Noni 7 Bak ossi 3 0 Aghem 8 Bassossi 3 1 Anyang 9 Nigerian 32 Ngie 1 0 Banyang 3 3 Fung om 1 l Bamileke 34 Hausa 1 2 Meta 35 Misaj e 1 3 Moghamo 3 6 Widekum 1 4 Bali 37 Mb onge 1 5 Ngemba 3 8 Balue 1 6 Bafut 3 9 Mundani 1 7 Ndop 40 Ngwaw 1 8 Kom 4 1 Mfumte 1 9 Nsaw 42 Batanga 20 Wimbum 43 Dikume Balue 2 1 Fulani 44 Sudane se 2 2 Mbembe 45 Ngolo 2 3 Bakundu 4 6 Mbo 5 0 .3235 1 Males 2 Females 51-62 Tribal Names Printed Out in Alpha 63-80 Empty 390 .m. a« .2 2 ea 0 0.« « 0.0. 2 «.« « .3205 982 .2 .mm 2: .mm 3. o.m« a« 93 «m 0.8 we «.3 no 085085 .850 .m . . . . . . 000800 8 $« .0. 2. e on «a e S 3 a on «r. 0. «e «0 so 80303 0.80.30 .0 .«m eo« .8 en ode we ”.3 on 0.3 3 0.3 3. 0.30303 nsafisoéo .0. .3. «o« .0. 0. ode we «.3. «A 0.5 «m «.2 «e 03580. .e . . . . . . .0850 3 Sn as «0... o 8 8 m E S 0 F. «a 0. me «0 052800 :0 0.030 .0 . . . . . . . 50508 8 new 3 on o 8 8 o «e «e 0 we 5 a S. «e 023008-220 .e . . . . . . .8303 8 Sn 5 S o 2 m... m «a we a 8 2. 0 2. 2 one 30308 2600030 .« .8 05 .3. we o.«e «e a .3 we a .3 2. «.3 3 3.630 nsonnsn 38380 .« .3 000 o .S S o .2 «a 0 .8 we « .00 «m a .8 «e. 020002 $03 5 0:60 .0 as a as .0 as 0 as 0 as a s 0 0&3 so: so: 0.8 :e: 83 2830 088 2863 36:0 030 8:00 2.2 000000m mmmHmH KHEO 20mm mHZHQDHm EH3 mQZmEmm mam; OH. EHE QEU§ m< mHZHQDHm wm QHHMOQMM HUZHHSMQNH JOOmUm VmfiwQZOUmHm ZH mmOHUdflm M NHQZmnmnjw 394 .88 H88 «.88 88 8.88 88 8.88 88 8.H« 88 «.«« 88 888588 8882 .8H .8H «8 8.8H HH 8.8H «H 8.8H H8 8.«H 8H «.« 8 88.88.8888 .850 .8 . . . . . . 850580 «H 88 8 HH 8H 8 «H «H 8 HH «H 8 «H «H 8 8H 8H co 8883888 8888-888 .8 .«H 88 8.8H «H 8.8H 8H 8.8H 8H 8.8H 8H 8.«H 8H 88888888 8388-880 .« .8 88 «.8 « 8.«H «H 8.8H 8H 8.: «H 8.8 8 88.888. .8 . . . . . . .HooHH“8 «H 88 « 8 8 8 «H «H 8 HH «H 8 88 H8 « HH «H 8888:8385 8:85.84 .« . . . . . . 88883888 «H H8 8 8H 8H 8 «H «H « 8H «H H 8H 8H 8 8H «H 83383.8th .8 . H . . . . . 888888 8 8« 8 « 8 8 «H «H 8 «H 8 8 HH «H 8 «H 8H 888 858.8888 8.688.238 .8 .8: H« «.8 « 8.8H 8H «.8H 8H 8 .3 «H 8 .3 «H .8858 «883:8 88888884 .« .8H 88 «.2 8H 8.88 88 «.8 8H 8.88 H8 «.8H «H .8588 8888 588888 .H .8 8 .8 8 .8 8 .8 8 .8 8 .8. 8 8888 H88: H88: H88: H88: 88: 88888.8 H888 « 8 8 8 H mwmmmHU 888820 .3 «888858.585 hocoaompm .m 395 8 .88 H88 8.88 88H 8.88 «8H .82: 8o 282 .8H 8.8H 88 H8 8H «.8H H8 8888.898 .850 .8 8 .8H 88 8 .8H 8H 8 .8H 88 88888 no 888838888 8.5.888 .8 8.8H 88 8.8 8H 8.8H 88 88:33.8 8388-880 .« 8 .8 88 8 .8 8H 8 .HH «8 8.888888. .8 8 .8H 88 8 .8H H8 8 .8H 88 H858 8:88.888 8 :8 8883.8 .8 8.8H H8 . 8.8H 88 «.8 «8 8888388 8288888888888 .8 H .8H 8« 8 .8H H8 H .8H 88 .8882... 888 88888588 8:888:38 .8 8 .8H 2. 8 .«H H8 «.8H 88 888838 383:8 888888888 .8 8 .8H 88 8 .8H H8 8 .«H 88 885883 8838 88 888888 .H .8 8 08. 8 8. 8 .8888 5: 8888 2338 H8898 «H.880 88om ||r 88m .3 coflHHQEH—EQ mocmsvonm .U APPENDIX L ETHNIC COMPOSITION OF THE TWENTY-ONE STRATA OF THE RURAL ZONE1 1. Victoria Division, East Stratum 1: Coastal Group Balong, Bakweri, Bamboko, Bimbia (lsubu), Mungo, Wovea (Bota), and Tiko areas. Characterized by the presence among small ethnic groups of similar origin of large numbers of immigrants from other areas. II. Victoria Division, West and Kumba Division, Southwest Stratum 2: Western Creek Group Various groups of different origins, have been com- bined on the basis of similar ecology; the "Fish Towns, " a large stranger fishing population along the coast and estuaries (Bakolle, Isangelle, Oron, Ekundu Nene, Iloani Loe, show further concentration), Balundu, Balundu-Badiko and Barombi. Most of this population now forms part of Kumba Division and so the remainder has also been added to that Division. 1Source: Societe d' Etudes pour le Developpement Econo- mique et Social, The Population of West Cameroon: Main Findifi of the Demographic Survey of West Cameroon, 1964 (Paris: Rue de Lille, 1966). pp. A-5 to A-7. 396 III. IV. 397 Kumba Division Stratum 3: Inland Kumba Group Bima, Ngolo, Batanga, Balue, Mbonge, Korup. These people are generally among the most inaccessible in Kumbe Division. All are closely related with the ex- ception of Korup, which is treated here for convenience. Stratum 4: Central Mixed Group Bafo, Balong (all groups), Barombi of East Kumba, Ekumbe and Bakundu, an ancient area of ethnic frag- mentation on the main north-south route, now com- pounded with modern developments in Kumba Town and elsewhere. The Kumba. Bambako are included in this stratum--they are peculiarly situated and do least stratigraphical harm here. They are closely related to Stratum 1, but have not been subject to the same modern developments. Stratum 5: ‘ Bakossi Group A compact, closely connected group of people (Bakossi, Elung, Ninong, Bassossi, with Banyu, Babesi, Nge- mingu) to which has been added the related Mbo, who since 1963 have formed part of Kumba Division. There is a considerable stranger population in the Tombel area. Mamfe Division «Stratum 6: Mamfe Overside Group Ethnic groups much intermingled, isolated and without communication: Assumbo groups (Assumbo proper and Ama), ,Messaga-Ekol, Takamanda groups (Anyang, Buki), Mbulu groups (Anyang, Manta), Menka groups (Ambele, Otutu, Wetchu), Widekum area (Befang, Biteku, Wide- kum). 398 Stratum 7: Cross River Groul The most economically developed people of the Divi- sion. Banyang and Ejaghem (Ekwe, Obang, Keaka). Stratum 8: Plateau-Edge Group Bangwa and Mundani. Stratum 6 and 7 having been established, this group is statistically too small to subdivide further. Although they are not strictly of the same ethnic origin, apart from sharing the geo- graphical unity implied in the name given here, they are all fragments of populations, some of which are mainly in the East Cameroun (Bamileke and Mbo). V. Bamenda Division Stratum 9: Menemo-Moghamo Group Menemo2 and Moghamo areas. Stratum 10: Ngie-Ngwaw Group Ngie, Ngwaw (Ngunu, Ngwo). Stratum 11: Ngemba Group Ngemba area, excluding the urban portion of Mankon. Stratum 12: Bali Group Bali excluding the villages established in the Ndop area, which have been added to Stratum 14 for geo- graphical convenience. Stratum 13: Bafut Group Excluding the urban portions of Bafreng and Bamenda Station. 2More frequently known as Meta. 399 Stratum 14: Ndop Group Ndop "clan, an administrative grouping. Stratum 15: Nsaw Group Nso (Nsaw). VI. Wum Division Stratum 16: Wum Western Group Aghem, Esimbi, Beba-Befang. Although Aghem is assigned to this stratum for statistical reasons, Aghem has historical and ethnic connections with both this stratum and the next. Stratum 17: Wum Northern Group Fungom and Bum areas. Stratum 18: Kom Group Kom (Bikom). VII. Nkambe Division Stratum 19: Wimbu3 Group Tang, War, Wiya (also known as Nsungli). Stratum 20: Nkambe Eastern Group Mfumte, Mbem4, Mbaw. 3More frequently known as Wimbum. Now known as Yamba. 400 Stratum 21: Mbebe-Misaje Group Mbebe5 and Misaje. The arrangements of these two groups into one stratum of not very large size seemed to do least damage to the ethnic picture. 5More frequently known as Mbembe. WEST CAMEROON POPULATION BY TRIBAL STRATA APPENDIX M . . Rural Percent Strata Major Tribes Included Population of Total 1 Balong, Bakweri 27, 524 4. 4 2 Balundu, Barombi 27, 846 4. 5 3 Balue, Mbonge 30, 761 4. 9 4 Bafor, Balong, Bakundu 27, 184 4. 3 5 Bakossi, Bassossi 24, 124 3. 9 6 Anyang, Widekum 30, 374 4. 9 7 Banyang, Ejaghem 30, 952 4. 9 8 Bangwa, Mundani 27, 990 4. 5 9 Menemo, Moghamo 37, 984 6. 1 10 Ngie, Ngwaw 23,488 3. 8 11 Ngemba 21,429 3.4 12 Bali 18,811 3.0 13 Bafut 37, 898 6.1 14 Ndop 40, 184 6. 4 15 Nsaw, Oku, Noni 53, 657 8. 6 16 Aghem, Beba-Befang 17, 196 2. 7 17 Fungom, Bum 25, 857 4. 1 18 Kom 24, 694 3. 9 19 Wimbum 33, 839 5. 4 20 Yamba 26, 103 4.2 21 Mbembe, Misaje 19, 119 3. 1 Others Fulani 18, 360 2. 9 Total 625, 374 100. 0% *Source: Societe d' Etudes pour le Developpement Econo- mique et Social, The Pogulation of West Cameroon: Main Finding_s_ of the Demographic Survey)’ of West Cameroon, 1964 (Paris: Rue de Lille, 1966), pp. A-8 and A-9. 401 APPENDIX N WEST CAMEROON POPULATION BY REGIONS* Divisions _Df Jure Population Proppbrtion Victoria 128, 888 12. 5 Kumba 205,280 19.9 Mamfe 122, 388 11. 9 Forest Region Total 456, 556 44.3 Bamenda 366, 574 35. 6 Wum 105,710 10.2 Nkambe 101, 880 9. 9 Grassland Region Total 574, 164 55.7 Grand Total 1, 030, 720 100. 0% *Source: Societe d' Etudes pour le Developpement Econo- mique et Social, The Pgulation of West Cameroon: Main Findiggp of the Demographic Survey of West Cameroon, 1964 (Paris: Rue de Lille, 1966), p. 57. 402 APPENDIX O MALE SECONDARY SCHOOL POPULATION BY TRIBAL STRATA Strata Ndu Banso Bali Kumba Total Propaczrtion 1 11 2 12 22 47 3. 7 2 -- -- -- 12 12 0. 9 3 8 -- 2 6 16 1.2 4 3 2 9 28 42 3. 3 5 5 2 2 59 68 5. 3 6 28 -- 1 -- 29 2. 3 7 9 2 23 33 67 5.2 8 2 3 5 4 14 1.1 9 15 5 44 25 89 6. 9 10 3 1 38 6 48 3.7 11 36 7 60 6 109 8.4 12 5 8 25 5 43 3. 3 13 23 13 31 9 76 5. 9 14 13 17 16 3 49 3. 8 15 32 295 15 -- 342 26.5 16 -— 1 10 2 13 1. 0 17 -- 3 -- 2 5 0.4 18 21 2 5 2 30 2. 3 19 56 34 6 -- 96 7.4 20 9 -- 11 -- 20 1.5 21 1 2 -- 1 4 0. 3 Others* 1 1 16 15 30 72 5. 6 Total 291 415 330 255 1291 100. 0% *Includes Fulanis, Hausas, various East Cameroun tribes, and expatriates. 403 APPENDIX P FEMALE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT POPULATION BY TRIBAL STRATA Strata Banso Kumba Victoria Total Propgorti on 1 2 ’9 58 69 10.7 2 -- 2 2 4 0.6 3 -- 3 -- 3 0.5 4 -- 16 27 43 6.7 5 3 9 21 33 5.1 6 -- -- 1 1 0.2 7 2 5 32 39 6.0 8 4 2 1 7 1.1 9 4 7 35 46 7.1 10 -- 3 1 .4 0.6 11 12 3 29 44 6.8 12 9 -- 13 22 3.4 13 11 2 10 23 3.6 14 6 -- 10 16 2.5 15 154 1 13 168 26.0 16 -- -- 2 2 0.3 17 1 -- 2 3 0.5 18 7 -- 13 20 3.1 19 4 -- 16 20 3.1 20 -- -- 2 2 0.3 21 -- 1 2 3 0.5 Others* 9 10 54 73 11. 3 Total 228 73 344 645 100. 0% *Includes Fulanis, Hausas, various East Cameroun tribes, and expatriates. 404 APPENDIX Q MALE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT POPULATION BY REGIONS Schools Areas Total % Ndu Banso Bali Kumba Victoria 12 3 14 38 67 5. 2 Kumba 19 4 15 106 144 11. 2 Mamfe 39 5 29 37 110 8.5 FM?” 70 12 58 181 321 24.9 Region Bamenda 133 352 240 66 791 61. 3 Wum 21 6 15 6 48 3. 7 Nkambe 67 36 17 1 121 9. 4 Gr35381and 221 394 272 73 960 74.4 Region a b Total 291 406 330 254 1281 99.3% aDoes not include nine Sudanese expatriate students. bDoes not include one Indian expatriate student. 405 APPENDIX R FEMALE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT POPULATION BY REGIONS Schools Areas Total % Banso Kumba Victoria Victoria 3 16 74 93 14. 4 Kumba 6 30 70 106 16. 4 Mamfe 6 7 34 47 7. 3 FM?“ 15 53 173 246 33.1 Region Bamenda 201 19 127 347 53. 8 Wum 8 0 17 25' 3. 9 Nkambe 4 1 22 27 4. 2 Gra831and 213 20 166 399 61.9 Region Total 228 73 344 645 100. 0% 406 APPENDIX S STUDENT POPULATION IN SUBJECT SECONDARY SCHOOLS LISTED BY TRIBAL STRATA Pro- Strata Ndu Banso Bali Kumba Victoria Total portion % 1 11 4 12 31 58 -116 6.0 2 -- -- -- 14 2 16 0. 8 3 8 -- 2 9 -- 19 1. 0 4 3 2 9 44 27 85 4.4 5 5 5 2 68 21 101 5. 2 6 28 u: 1 -- 1 30 1.5 7 9 4 '23 38 32 106 5. 5 8 2 7 5 6 1 21 1.1 9 15 9 44 32 35 135 7.0 10 3 1 38 9 1 52 2.7 11 36 19 60 9 29 153 7. 9 12 5 17 25 5 13 65 3.4 13 23 24 31 11 10 99 5.1 14 13 23 16 3 10 65 3.4 15 32 449 15 1 13 510 26.3 16 -- 1 10 2 2 15 0. 8 17 -- 4 -- 2 2 8 0.4 18 21 9 5 2 13 50 2. 6 19 56 38 6 -- 16 116 6. 0 20 9 -- 11 -- 2 22 1.1 21 1 2 -- 2 2 7 0. 3 Others 11 25 15 40 54 145 7. 5 Total 291 643 330 328 344 1936 100. 0% 407 r'IICHIGRN STQTE UNIV. 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