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A CASE STUDY OF CHEMISTRY TEACHING AND LEARNING

IN A TENTH GRADE CLASSROOM IN JORDAN

by

Fathi Hasan Malkawi

A DISSERTATION

submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Educational Administration and Curriculum

I984

ABSTRACT

A CASE STUDY OF CHEMISTRY TEACHING AND LEARNING
IN A TENTH GRADE CLASSROOM IN JORDAN

by

Fathi Hasan Malkawi

The purpose of this study was to describe and interpret the teaching-
learning process in a tenth grade science classroom as a way of understanding
the quality and effectiveness of science instruction. The study addressed three
main components of the teaching-learning process: program materials, actual
instruction, and students‘ learning.

The study used a case study approach and employed ethnographic methods
of data collection including participant observation, video and audio recordings,
analysis of official documents, and interviews.

Data from observations and interviews strongly suggest that the quantity
of subject matter was found to be too much to cover in the time available. In
order to cover this amount, the teacher in this study excluded the experimental
part of the program and was very demanding in the full utilization of classroom
time. The presentation of some topics was found confusing, and the teacher
faced problems in teaching them. In some cases, she missed the meaning of what
she read in the textbook and assigned other meanings derived from prior
experience.

Time was a major factor in understanding many aspects of this classroom's

teaching and learning. The teacher practiced a high level of control and

Fathi Hasan Malkawi

influence over the knowledge and social order of the classroom. One major
function to which she devoted a great amount of time was that of translating the
formal Arabic of the textbook into colloquial Arabic when presenting the
material to the students.

Teaching and learning in this classroom were limited to the conceptual
knowledge of the course. Many students had problems in learning certain tapics
as well as general principles and main ideas. They succeeded, however, in
learning most of the specifics of the subject matter. Evidence was presented to
show that this classroom was representative of many other classrooms
throughout Jordan.

The results of this study lend themselves to be utilized readily by policy
makers, teachers, and teacher educators in the field. Specific implications and

limitations of this study were discussed.

flu flit: name afr04fl’afl t5: most metal/at, and £5.45 moat gene/Wat

 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Many people have contributed to the accomplishment of this work. The
first one I would like to acknowledge is the case teacher, Miss Hanan Talib (a
fictitious name, as are all names used in this study), whose trust, openness, and
understanding were major factors in conducting this study in her classroom. The
principal of Northeastern Girls Secondary School should also be acknowledged for
her belief in the worth of research.

During the course of my doctoral program, I received guidance, support,
and assistance from many individuals at Michigan State University to whom I am
deeply indebted, especially my guidance committee: Drs. James Gallagher,
Edward Smith, Susan Florio—Ruane, and Paul Hunter. Professor Gallagher, my
advisor and chair of the guidance committee, gave me invaluable support,
advice, and motivation. The insight and criticism of Dr. Smith were very
helpful. Dr. Florio-Ruane, my teacher of ethnography, granted me a great deal
of encouragement. My gratitude and appreciation are due all of them.

My family deserves special recognition. My parents in Jordan, my wife
Sabah, and my children Lina, Malik, Anas, and Banan have suffered and
sacrificed greatly. Their patience and prayers should be acknowledged the most.

Finally, I would like to acknowledge Yarmouk University in Jordan which
provided me with the scholarship that made it possible for me to accomplish my

doctoral degree.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables

List of Figures

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION

The Purpose of the Study

Science Education in Jordan

Research on Science Education in Jordan: Status and Priorities
The Research Problem

The Research Questions

CHAPTER 11: REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Overview of the Chapter

Chemistry Education: Present Status and Future Trends
Ethnography: Methodology for Understanding

Related Research on Teaching and Learning Science
Summary

CHAPTER III: DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY

Research Design

Search for the Setting

Getting into the Classroom
Participant Observation

Interviews

Machine Recording

Official Documents

Testing Students' Learning

Overview of the Research Procedures
Writing the Research Report

CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS OF DATA
Overview of the Chapter
The Development of the Natural Science Course
Content and Organization of the Curriculum Materials

Experiments and Practical Activities of the Course

iii

vi

_

3:001»:-

l9
I9
31
49

51

51
52
56
58

61
64
65
67
70
70

71
72

Presenting Topics in the Curriculum Materials: Two Examples 85

Analysis of Teaching Activities 91
The Actual Classroom Instruction 95
The Flow of Events in a Typical Lesson 98
Understanding Classroom Interaction 101
Student Categories 114
The Teacher's Power and Control 120
Evaluation of the Teaching-Learning Process 122
Student Learning Outcomes 127
Overview of Students' Learning 146
Summary of Chapter Four 149

CHAPTER V: INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION 1514
Introduction 15¢
Discussion of Curriculum Materials 155
Interpreting and Discussing the Teaching Activities 167
Interpreting and Discussing Student Learning 170
Teaching and Learning about the Nature of Science,

Attitudes Toward Science, and Scientific Skills I73
Teaching and Learning the Direction of Electron Flow 176
Teaching and Learning Laws of Chemical Composition and

Faraday's Laws of Electrolysis 179
Miss Talib and Abu Zaid Al-Hilali: a General Overview 182
Discussion of the Research Design 188

CHAPTER VI: CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND LIMITATIONS 193

Conclusions 193
Implications of the Study 198
Limitations of the Findings of This Study 203
Appendices 205

Bibliography 299

iv

4.1

4.2

4.3
4.4

4.5

4.6
4.7

“.8
4.9

4.10
4.11

4.12

4.13

4.14
4.15

LIST OF TABLES

Goals and Objectives Relevant to the First
Three Chapters of Unit Three of NSC

Experiments Required by the Textbook and/or
the Teachers' Guide

The Lessons Observed During the Period of the Study
Formats of Periods of Observation

Format and Number of Lessons Analyzed Using
FIAC System

Time Spent in FIAC Categories in Various Lesson Formats

Percentages of Teacher Talk, Student Talk and
"Lost Time" in Various Lesson Formats

FIAC Interaction Analysis Matrix of Lesson 2-3

Calculations of the Average Time for Asking or Answering
a Question in Typical Lessons

Results of the Students' Performance on the Three Posttests

Students' Responses on the Three Multiple Choice
Posttests Combined Together

Students' Responses on the Five Multiple Choice
Pre- and Posttests

Scores Intervals and Frequencies of Students' Scores
on the Three Posttests Combined

Responses of Students on Item One and Item Two

Students' Responses on Item 20, Tests 3-1 and 3-2

80

86
96

98

103

104

10 5
107

113
131

132

132

133
135
137

1.1

2.1
3.1
3.2
3.3
4.1
4.2

4.3
4.4
4.5

4.6
5.1
5.2

LIST OF FIGURES

Time allotted to science and mathematics in the
school system in Jordan

A representation of the processing of descriptive data
The research design

Floor plan of the classroom

Scope and frequency of questions in the research process
The interrelationships of the components of the study

Continuity and interrelationships among activities
of teaching

Directions of teacher's movements
Agenda of school examination for one semester

Graph of frequencies of students' scores on
the three posttests combined

Electrical current passing through an electrolyte
Building scientific knowledge and human understanding

A process scheme related to large numbers of concepts

vi

42
52
59
69
70

92
100
126

133
144
158
159

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The Purpose of the Studl

 

The scarcity of research and the lack of studies on chemistry education in
Jordan have been documented in a number of references (Nazar, 1980; Malkawi,
1978). Some of the features of chemistry education as seen from research
conducted in the United States do not apply in the same way in Jordan, due to
the difference in centralization of control of education. Schools and teachers in
the United States have a high degree of authority regarding choice of content,
standards, and modes of presentation. In Jordan, as in most nations, the Ministry
of Education governs all aspects of education in a centralized way by providing a
standard curriculum, centralized general examinations, and a cadre of
supervisors to help evaluate teachers' performances in implementing the
curriculum.

Most of the changes and modifications of curriculum materials, teaching
methods, and staffing are based on personal experiences and general impressions
of the administrators concerned. Very seldom were these based on research
findings or some systematic approach. This also seems to be the case in the
United States (Cody et al., 1980). The need for research in science education in
general, especially research which aims at understanding the actual practices in
classrooms, is obvious. If such research can serve as a diagnostic device to deal
with the specifics of classroom teaching and learning of a particular science
program, then efforts to improve classroom practices are likely to be more

successful.

The present study on chemistry teaching and learning in a tenth grade
classroom in Jordan aimed at understanding what happends in that particular
classroom. Teaching is the actions in which a teacher provides the necessary
conditions to enable students to learn, but learning itself comes down to the
individual student in the individual classroom. Teaching activities, students'
learning outcomes, and curriculum materials being used were the three foci of
this study. The research design adopted here was the case study in which the
ethnographic approach was used for collecting data, and both qualitative and
quantitative types of evidence were employed. Various aspects of classroom
instructional activities have been researched most often using quantitative
evidences. Very few studies have been conducted in the qualitative tradition.
The major gap in science education research is the lack of studies which address
the various contextual factors of the classroom instruction at the same time.

By using a holistic approach and employing multiple perspectives in
conducting this study, the researcher hopes to contribute some understanding of
teaching and learning science in Jordan and to introduce a research tradition
which is still not familiar to the small community of researchers in Jordan.

The rest of this chapter will provide a background about science education
in Jordan, the status and priorities of research on science education in Jordan,

the research problem, and the research questions of the study.

Science Education in Jordan

 

During the first nine grades, children study a course in general science
every year. At the end of the ninth grade, almost 2596 of the total number of
students go to vocational schools. The quantity and quality of science received
by students in vocational education depend on the type of vocation. Those in

agricultural education and nursing education receive intensive courses in biology

and chemistry with some physics. Industrial students receive an intensive course
in physics and some chemistry. Business students receive general science
courses of a descriptive nature.

The other 7596 of students continue their academic education. Two science
courses are taught for tenth grade students: a course in biological sciences and
another in physical sciences. The latter course is an integration of chemistry,
physics, geology, meteorology, and astronomy. But the emphasis is given to
major scientific concepts and processes.

At the end of the tenth grade. students are divided according to their
achievements in science and mathematics into a science branch or a literature
branch, with 50% of the total number of students usually entering each branch.
All students in the science branch receive the same educational curriculum in
chemistry, physics, biology, and mathematics. They spend almost half of their
time in science and mathematics in each of eleventh and twelfth grades.
Students in the literature branch receive a light course in general science and
another in general mathematics in each of eleventh and twelfth grades.

Figure 1 shows the number of periods per week of science and mathematics
for each of the twelfth grades in the school system in Jordan. Each period lasts
for 40-45 minutes. The fact that there is a certain textbook assigned by the
Ministry of Education for each school subject at each grade level to be taught
during those assigned periods in the school schedule makes it obvious that
science as well as mathematics are considered basic subjects at all educational
levels. Science is important for everyone.

During the late 19605, science education has received some attention,
especially in developing new curricula and writing new textbooks. The approach
of these curricula and textbooks has ben developed after reviewing various

materials developed by that time in the United States, the United Kingdom, and

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

; SCIENCE MATHEMATICS'
No. of No. of Total #
School Type of Periods Type of Periods Periods
Level Grades Science /Neek* Hath** /Week /Neek
Elemen- l, 2, general 3 new 4 26
tary 3, 4, general 3 new 4 26
5 general 4 new 4 28
6 general 4 new 4 28
Prepara- 7, 8, general 4 new 4 3O
tory 9
Secon- l0 biology 2 new 4 3l
dary natural 4
Academic
ll, l2 physics 4 new 5 3l-
(sci. chemistry 3 33
branch) biology 2
ll, 12 general 3 general 3 3l-
(lit. 33
branch)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

* a period is 35-45 minutes
** a change from traditional to new math has been taking place
gradually since l972

Figure l.l.

Time alloted to science and mathematics in the school

system in Jordan.

 

other countries. For example, the approach adopted for chemistry is basically
the same as that of the American CHEM-Study program (Pimentel, 1963).

Besides developing the curriculum and textbooks, the Ministry of Education
tries to improve chemistry teaching through the efforts of chemistry supervisors
associated with the local educational directorates. Those supervisors visit
schools and arrange local short seminars, workshops, and summer courses for
chemistry teachers.

During the last decade the Royal Scientific Society (RSS), with the
cooperation of the Ministry of Education, made some valuable efforts to improve
chemistry education. The following are some of those efforts.

1. Establishment of a science education resource center at the RSS
which was provided with various modern literature and
materials. Chemistry teachers and supervisors can use these
resources to be aware of the current developments in chemistry
education in the outside world.

2. Arranging inservice courses and seminars to train teachers to
improve their practices in teaching specific topics or concepts in
newly developed chemistry curricula.

3. Producing some supplementary materials for teachers and some
booklets for students and translating into Arabic some
outstanding foreign books in school science. "Chemistry, an
Investigative Approach" by Cotton et al., an off-shoot of CHEM-
Study, has been translated and distributed to chemistry teachers.

The Jordanian Chemical Society, a group of young chemistry teachers, has

made some contributions to chemistry teaching at the secondary level.

 

With limited financial support they collected equipment and
chemicals and worked out all the relevant experiments referred to in

the secondary school curriculum. With help from students of

chemistry departments at both universities in the East Bank, the

society holds periodic exhibitions in schools where students are

familiarized with the experimental aspects of chemistry (Nasar, 1980,

p. 173).

Many of the difficulties that face chemistry education in Jordan are of the
general, administrative type. Limited financial resources have made it difficult
for schools to provide effective education in science. Classes are overcrowded
by large numbers of students. Many school buildings are not designed for
effective classroom instruction and many are poorly equipped. Science labs and
other practical facilities sometimes do not exist. The two shift system which is
still a general practice in many cities makes the school day too short to provide
time for any extracurricular scientific or educational activities.

Professionally, Jordan loses many qualified science teachers and
supervisors each year as they go to other Arab countries for better salaries.
Some teachers may leave for other professions inside Jordan for the same
reason. This loss disturbs the stability of science teachers and requires the
appointment of many new teachers every year, increasing the burden of
orientation and inservice training programs for new teachers of science.

Under such conditions, teachers and students are striving to get as much
science education as possible. High school graduates who pursue their college
educations outside Jordan proved, however, to be at least as successful as
students of other countries with better educational conditions.*

Due to the limitation of studies on the status of science education in

Jordan, the researcher sought other sources of information about science

education in the Jordanian high schools. Reports of science supervisors

 

*A comment made by Dr. Benson, foreign student advisor at Michigan
State University, during a conversation with the researcher in the fall of 1981.

 

constitute a valuable one. In fact these reports reflect the quality of science
education to a great extent. Unfortunately, these reports are not used for the
purpose of improving the educational activities in science; rather they are
consulted only as an evaluation tool for the supervisors themselves to make
decisions concerning teachers' promotions.

In the process of writing a teacher's guide for a chemistry textbook,*
reports of science supervisors about chemistry have been reviewed. It was
apparent that chemistry education had not gone much beyond reading textbooks
and discussing the content. Practical activities suggested in the curriculum were
done, at best, as demonstrations by the teacher.

With direct responsibility from the school principal for the teacher's
performance and with a follow-up by a science supervisor, the teacher feels
responsible to cover all material in the textbook. Under this pressure, s/he does
not find time to put emphasis on the development of some scientific skills or
processes. The student also knows that s/he will sit for a general national
examination, competing in answering questions concerning the facts and
theoretical concepts included in the textbook. With these facts in mind, there
has been a general attitude among teachers, principals, and supervisors of "why
bother about skills and practical experience?"

Science textbooks and teachers' guides indicate the importance of students'
achieving a sound level of skills and understanding of science processes. In
practice, it was found that the expectations of curriculum developers and
textbook writers were seldom fulfilled (Malkawi, 1978). The performance of
Jordanian students on the modified Processes of Science Test (POST), however,
is not less than the performance of American students on the original POST.

Malkawi's study suggested at least three factors to account for this level of

 

*Personal experience of the researcher during 1976.

performance and emphasized the need to study these factors to determine how
they might affect students' understanding of scientific concepts and processes.
These factors are textbooks, classroom instruction, and the evaluation system.

Research on Science Education
in Jordan: Status and Priorities

 

 

Considering the current status of science education research and practice
in Jordan, any good research efforts will be valuable contributions. At the
present, the efforts given to research activities at the Ministry of Education
level or at the university level are very limited. Both Yarmouk University and
the University of Jordan offer a Master's program which requires field research
and writing a Master's thesis. The level of this research is very good, but there
is no specific line of research which might be related to science education in
particular.

Teachers usually have negative images of research and view research
findings and procedures as biased and not applicable to their classroom levels.
One of the factors which might account for this phenomenon is the fact that
some professors and instructors at the university level and in teacher education
programs "preach" to teachers to use some educational experiences in their
schools. To justify this, teachers are told that research findings indicate that
these experiences have been used successfully in country X. Teachers, however,
appreciate research which deals with the real problems of their classroom
activities. An example of this kind of research is the "action research project"
which every trainee at Certification and Inservice Teachers' Training Institute
(CITTI) should carry out as part of the training program. Field tutors of CITTI
help teachers define a number of their own classroom problems and carry out a
research effort to deal with one of these problems or try to solve it. Science

supervisors sometimes volunteer to do research in their local districts. However,

there is no financial support for this effort, and there is very little chance to
publish it.

Defining priorities of research is a task which could be carried out in
various ways. One way is a theoretical analysis of the elements of the inputs,
process, and outputs of science education, then choosing from these elements
those having high priority (Yager, 1978). Another way is using some techniques
for obtaining judgments of a large group in an operational way (Butts et al.,
1978). The first case relies on opinions and value judgments of individuals or a
small group; in the second case a large group of individuals might represent a
general trend.

In the case of science education in Jordan, it is suggested that priorities
might be better determined through the type of research which aims at
understanding the educational practices in school sciences through direct
observation. The procedures and techniques of this suggested research should
serve as diagnostic devices to deal with the specifics of classroom teaching and
learning of a given science program. It is hoped this will define problem areas
and, consequently, will suggest further research to tackle these problems.

To deal with teachers' negative images of research, there is a need for
research which develops a continuous, two-way flow of information between
practicing teachers and researchers. This flow has the potential to modify the
conceptions of both sides about each other and to facilitate communication
between them (Smith 6: Berkheimer, 1977).

Research which deals with the specifics of classroom instruction should
focus on subject matter and the instructional program as factors having a
relatively large degree of structure on teachers' thought and behavior. Most
research, unfortunately, has examined classroom teaching with an exclusive

focus on observed teaching behaviors: ". . . ignoring the subject matter content

10

and instructional program altogether or has treated them as two of many
variables that modify relatively stable teaching patterns" (Smith 8: Berkheimer,
1977, p. 4).

When the tOpics of a subject matter are taught, students are expected to
learn something. Most of the research of students' learning outcomes in Jordan
and elsewhere was an attempt to reflect on how much students know and learn in
terms of scores on certain examinations. But the quality of what the individuals
know and what they do not know are also important. Any research effort
directed to characterize students' learning outcomes will lead to various problem
areas about students' conceptions or misconceptions of the scientific knowledge
addressed in any specific topic. Defining such problem areas by doing such
research is a priority because it is expected to provide a knowledge base to
relate research to practice. Failure of students to learn something may be
related to a misleading method of presentation in the textbook and/or in
classroom instruction or to prior knowledge of students that misdirects the
meaning of their learning.

Since the field of research on science education in Jordan is novel, it is
assumed that the need is greater for research which "displays scope without very
much precision," which is more characteristic of the ethnographic approach than
research which "displays precision without very much scope," and is
characteristic of the experimental-correctional approach (Roberts, 1981, p. 25).

The study reported here was a case study which has some limitations in
being able to generalize from it, but its sc0pe encompassed a wide range of
factors playing together on the same stage at the same time. This is always

what the classroom is—-dynamic and complex.

11

The Research Problem

 

The development of curricular materials, teacher education programs,
techniques and procedures of evaluation, and other educational services aim
basically at the improvement of classroom teaching—learning process. To
achieve such basic goal, any decisions related to these services should be built
upon valid knowledge of the given situation. Understanding of the real situation
of chemistry teaching and learning in Jordan is the starting point of this
research.

The content and methodology of this study have tried to meet some of
these priorities. It dealt with the subject matter addressed in the program
materials, the classroom instructional activities organized by the teacher, and
student learning outcomes. It started from students' prior knowledge, then went
to the specifics of this knowledge as prescribed in the textbook and teachers'
guide to the details of the actual classroom incidents--what was addressed and
what was not addressed--and, finally, analyzed what, how, and why students have
learned or did not learn.

The present chemistry program in high school was started in 1974. The
curriculum and textbooks were developed following the lines of the American
CHEM-Study project. The material was chosen, with necessary modifications
and adaptations, from the four various versions of that project. Science
supervisors, chemistry teachers, and students have various impressions about the
program and textbooks. But there was no published research work to evaluation
the implementation of this program or its textbooks.

The topic of the subject matter (properties of matter and the particle
model) and the grade level (tenth) in this study are both of particular interest.
The topic is a major theme of chemistry education at the three secondary

grades. It was documented at the Ministry of Education that teachers find

12

difficulty teaching the concepts of this unit (Teachers' Responses on the
Questionnaire of Curricula Department, 1981). The researcher himself has
written the unit which was investigated in this study. The tenth grade is a
critical one as far as science education is concerned because students at the end
of that year are expected to choose science, or a science-related discipline, as a
career or to leave science with whatever understanding and attitudes that have
already developed by that time. These considerations suggest an intensive study
of the specifics and particulars of the subject matter and classroom instructional
activities and learning outcomes. The potential strength of the ethnographic
approach in its ability to deal with such specifics and particulars is fairly obvious
(Kilbourn, 1978).

Many of the basic concepts and principles in chemistry were included in the
chemistry unit of the natural science program for tenth grade, unit three:
"Properties of the Matter and Particle Model." The approach of this unit is
summarized as follows: "introducing some experimental observations and using
them to develop unifying principles or models." The unit does not have much
detail about these experimental observations. This was one of the criticisms
directed to this approach. When visiting the classroom, it was found that
teachers are treating every observation as a topic for its own sake, exactly as
they used to do in the previous chemistry program, and as it was introduced in
the traditional textbooks of high school or college chemistry.

To introduce teachers to this new approach, it was a point of emphasis in
the teachers' training program held every year since 1972 at the University of
Jordan or at the Royal Scientific Society or by the Ministry of Education. The
teachers' guide also emphasized this point many times in stating the basic
objectives of the chapter and in suggesting the activities and methods of treating

various topics.

13

Teachers, however, find it easier to do the experiment (or just discuss it)

and solve the problems without relating them to the major concepts or principles

of the lesson. Consequently, students are left without understanding the
relevance of the topic under study to the main goal.
Section 1:2 in the textbook, for example, is translated like this:

"1:2 Laws of chemical composition as a source of information
about the structure of the matter" (Abanda, 1974).

Each law is illustrated briefly, using one example in order to see the
quantitative relationships in chemical reactions. The definite behavior of
chemical elements described through these relationships (laws) is accounted for
using the concepts of the molecule and the atom. It is important to see that the
proportions involved in the chemical reaction of some elements represent
pr0portions among the atoms of these elements.

Instead of using this approach, teachers have a tendency to deal with each
law separately and make sure that students memorize the definition of the law
and can solve various problems on it; only at the end do they explain how
Dalton's atomic theory was able to interpret these laws.

This change of emphasis and allotted time results in modifying the topics in
such a way that the meaning of the program materials is affected. Missing the
meaning in science classroom activities by modifying curriculum material
creates problems in understanding school science and the attitudes which they
develop toward science (Clarkson, 1977). This situation is critical for students in
the tenth grade in particular.

The absence of meaningful science instruction has also been recognized by
a group of researchers at Michigan State University (Sendelbach, 1980; Anderson
dc Smith, 1981; Smith, 1980) and by others as well (Gabel et al., 1984). This

phenomenon refers to a problem in the quality of science teaching: the lack of

l4

relevance of scientific knowledge components which lead to major concepts. It
is also an indication of absence of teacher awareness of specific goals and
objectives of science programs as intended by the curriculum developers.
Shulman and Tamir (1978) referred to a similar observation which is the absence
of discussion before or after doing laboratory activities where "much of that
work is never consolidated, never brought together, never related to anything
else" (p. 13).

Analyzing the origins of this problem through a systematic research effort
seems of high priority. One aspect of research that seems appropriate to deal
with this problem is to analyze how teachers use the content of the textbook in
the classroom. Another aspect of the same importance is to deal with the
scientific knowledge of students in order that the teacher will know what the
student knows and does not know within the prescribed objectives of the
curriculum. These two areas of research were also recognized as being of high
priority by the studies on the status of science education in the United States
sponsored by the National Science Foundation (Stake, Easely, et al., 1978).

Research on curriculum implementation has pointed out that the degree of
success in curriculum development and application depends on the level of
understanding of how curriculum materials can be adapted to meet the local
classroom conditions. This might account for the shift of research interest
toward more emphasis on adaptation and implementation of curriculum materials
(Shulman 6r Tamir, 1978).

Welch (1981) has recognized another shift of concern in the methodology of
the educational research. This shift is represented by the growing interest and
acceptance of some alternative research strategies which do not impose
constraints upon the system under study while the correlational and experimental

methods of research are receiving more and more criticism.

15

It was mentioned earlier that science teachers. staff members at the
Jordanian secondary school level, have relatively short tenure due to low
salaries. Entering the system each year, there is an expectancy on the part of
new teachers of much help and training from local science supervisors. But
various responsibilities and heavy demands on science supervisors do not allow
them to meet the needs of the individual teachers very effectively. The
inservice teacher training program which became available for teachers of
elementary and middle school in 1971 through the CITTI proved to be much more
effective than the usual services of supervisors. In this model of training, a local
field tutor is responsible for a group of teachers from the same field of
specialization. The field tutor meets with his/her trainees very often, either
during school visits or in a weekly seminar, to discuss specific topics related
directly to the classroom teaching-learning activities. A major factor of success
is that the field tutor has a chance to examine the subject matter of the
textbook and the teacher's planning book before the class in order to make
observations during instruction and to intervene to provide needed training for
the teacher. Discussions before and after the classroom visit usually deal with
the specifics of subject matter. instructional activities, and students' learning
difficulties. Using the results of such experiences in many consecutive visits for
each teacher provides the field tutor with a wealth of understanding and
accounting for what is going on in the classroom. The type of training teachers
receive in this way (known in the CITTI program as practical education) provides
the teacher with the chance to implement various suggestions and discuss the
results of these implementations with the field tutor. It also provides the field
tutor with information about the suitability of training activities in various

situations with various teachers.

 

16

The methodology of this study, called ethnographic, is expected to make
basic contributions in many aspects. First, it is a methodology for understanding
the complexity of the classroom in a natural educational setting, using various
techniques to obtain in-depth knowledge of the activities under study. Second,
ethnographic approach provides holistic descriptions and takes into account
various contextual factors. It attempts to understand the teaching-learning
process in terms of the values, perceptions, and culture of the participants in a
natural setting rather than in terms of some preconceived ideas derived from the
review of research and studies in areas of different culture and values or derived
from pre-structured, experimental situations. Third, the diagnostic
characteristic of thisapproach has indicated various problem areas which need
to be further researched in the same way or in any other traditional
observational or psychometric approach. Fourth, the results of such a study lend
themselves to be utilized readily by practitioners. The direct contact between
the research and the teachers provides teachers with various techniques by which
they can self—monitor the effects of their own teaching and involve them in an
action-research process. Other teachers will also find the study useful in
examining their own situations.

To draw on the experience of the work of CITTI, in which the researcher
was involved for seven years, and deal with the problems mentioned above, this
proposed study aims at understanding and accounting for the actual status of
chemistry teaching and learning in a tenth grade classroom and finding out the
nature of the interrelationships among three elements: subject matter as
presented in the program material, actual classroom instruction, and students'

learning outcomes.

The purpose of this study was to describe and interpret the classroom
teaching-learning process in a tenth grade science classroom and to identify
some of the factors associated with science instruction. The design of the study
allowed for a wide range of observations and procedures of data collection,
implying various perspectives, to focus on actions, interactions, activities, and
beliefs of the classroom participants. Research questions for this purpose came
in a general form and were characterized by an open-ended nature to allow for

soliciting comprehensive descriptions and employing diverse perspectives of

17

The Research Questions

 

classroom instruction, its antecedents, and its consequences.

The study tried to answer the following questions.

1.

What is the structure of unit three, "Properties of Matter and

the Particle Model," of the Natural Science Course (NSC) of the

tenth grade, as presented in the textbook and the teachers'

guide?

What is the nature of actual classroom instruction?

2.1 How does the teacher use the course material in her
instruction?

2.2 How does the teacher address the scientific objectives of
the course?

2.3 What do the activities of classroom instruction mean to the
teacher and to the students?

What is the nature of student learning outcomes?

3.1 What accounts for the differences between intended
learning outcomes and achieved learning outcomes?

To what extent do the teacher and students share the meanings

of knowledge addressed in the unit?

The purpose of this study was to describe and interpret the classroom
teaching-learning process in a tenth grade science classroom and to identify
some of the factors associated with science instruction. The design of the study
allowed for a wide range of observations and procedures of data collection,
implying various perspectives, to focus on actions, interactions, activities, and
beliefs of the classroom participants. Research questions for this purpose came
in a general form and were characterized by an open-ended nature to allow for

soliciting comprehensive descriptions and employing diverse perspectives of

17

The Research Questions

 

classroom instruction, its antecedents, and its consequences.

The study tried to answe the following questions.

1.

3.

What is the structure of unit three, "Properties of Matter and

the Particle Mode ," of the Natural Science Course (NSC) of the

tenth grade, as presented in the textbook and the teachers'

guide?

What is the nature of actual classroom instruction?

2.1 How does the teacher use the course material in her
instruction?

2.2 How does the teacher address the scientific objectives of
the course?

2.3 What do the activities of classroom instruction mean to the
teacher and to the students?

What is the nature of student learning outcomes?

3.1 What accounts for the differences between intended
learning outcomes and achieved learning outcomes?

To what extent do the teacher and students share the meanings

of knowledge addressed in the unit?

 

l8

5. How does the teaching—learning process in the particular
classroom under study relate to the situation of other classrooms
in other schools?

The following chapter presents a review of literature related to the present
study. Literature of three areas is reviewed briefly. The present status and
future trends of chemistry education are reviewed first, then the basic features
of the ethnographic approach which is the research methodology used in this
study are presented. Finally, some aspects of the research of teaching and
learning science are presented, especially the research which focuses on
relationships among curriculum materials, teaching activities, and student

learning, and which employs case studies and students‘ conceptual learning.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Overview of the Chapter

 

The purpose of this chapter was to present a picture of three main areas
which relate to the content and methodology of this study. These three areas
are (a) the current status and future trends of chemistry education, (b) the
ethnographic approach as the research methodology adopted for understanding
classroom teaching and lerning, and (c) research on teaching and learning science
which focuses on how subject matter is presented in curriculum materials, taught
by teachers, and learned by students, with special emphasis being given to case
studies of science instruction.

The content of classroom teaching and learning in this study comprised the
first three chapters of unit three of the natural science course for tenth grade
students in Jordan. This unit, "Properties of Matter and the Particulate Model,"
was originally part of the Jordanian high school chemistry program developed in
1970. But it was incorporated in the natural sciences program in addition to
other topics related to physics, astronomy, geology, and meteorology. The unit
deals with concepts such as molecule, atom, mole, chemical reaction, electron
configuration, periodicity of chemical properties, solution, chemical bond, etc.,
which are considered to be fundamental concepts in any school chemistry course.
The development of our knowledge related to these concepts is also considered
an important example of how scientific theory grows and is a chance for students
to understand some aspects of the nature of science. An overview of literature
concerning teaching and learning these concepts will be helpful to relate the

19

20

findings of this case study to what is thought to be the situation in the larger
context of the educational world.

The use of ethnographic techniques for studying educational setting has
been growing recently. But ethnography is still unfamiliar in Jordan. Some
aspects of this tradition have been presented in this chapter, especially with
reference to its use in studying teaching and learning in science classrooms.

Finally, several studies were chosen to be reviewed briefly. Those studies
investigated the quality of the relationship among curriculum materials, teaching
activities, and student learning by conducting case studies of relatively small
numbers of subjects. A subcategory of this kind of research might be the
growing trend in investigating the nature of students' conceptual development.

Many researchers met in 1982 and 1983 in two conferences to report and
discuss students' scientific conceptions. The results of these discussions were
summarized. A general summary was presented at the end of the chapter.

Chemistry Education:
Present Status and Future Trends

 

Chemistry as a science plays an essential part in producing educated
citizens in society, citizens who are sensitive to possible effects of the activities
of scientists and technologists on their welfare, both now and in the future. In
this respect, if chemistry is taught adequately, it stimulates an intellectual
pleasure, gives variety of experiences in posing and solving problems, and helps
people to make sense of their surroundings. Because the lives of all people are
so intimately tied to chemical reactions, both within their bodies and in the
environment around them, chemistry can have special significance in helping

students know themselves and the world in which they live.

21

In addition to this role of chemistry in general education, human society
needs the service of chemists in large numbers, larger than for any other science
discipline, in order to achieve and maintain reasonable standards of living
(Coulson, 1974). For this purpose, the school should be prepared to attract the
needed number of individuals for a profession in chemistry.

Among other science disciplines, chemical education has received
considerable attention and support in the post-Sputnik era, not just in the United
States, but in many other countries as well. New courses and program materials
have been developed in the USA, Europe, and many of the Third World countries.
Laboratory equipment and supplies have been provided to school. Various
teacher education programs and workshops have been conducted. Research on
chemical education, especially in the United States, however, indicates
inconsistent results concerning the effectiveness of these new courses,
materials, and techniques. Therefore, some questions have been raised
concerning the accountability and pay off of the large amount of money which
has been spent in this regard.

The reform movement in science education in the 19605 was considered a
revolution on a broad educational front, involving not only the curriculum and its
organization, but a change in the entire philosophy about the purposes and values
of education (Hurd, 1970). "New" chemistry courses, for example, were believed
to reflect the structure of the discipline itself. That is why the chemical bond
approach (CBA) and the chemical education material study (CHEMS) were
different. The powerful pressure group of scientists who produced CBA were
mainly physical chemists in universities. Consequently, their focus was
molecular architecture, and the entire course was built around the bonding

concept which they perceived as the central idea of chemistry. CHEMS, on the

22

other hand, was designed to reflect chemistry from the Chemist's point of view.
CHEMS director stated:
A chemist is a person who makes experimental observations and

then interprets them in terms of atoms and molecules and their

behavior. The CHEM Study course is planned to allow even first year

students to utilize the same approach and conceptual treatment

(Campbell, 1971, p. 88).

In addition to its emphasis on the importance of the experiment, CHEMS
continually stressed the "beautiful structure" of chemistry by encouraging
students to realize " . . . that by observing the results of experiments and their
regularities, one may come to recognize and identify the unifying principles
which are the framework and structure of chemistry" (Seaberg 6r Ridgeway, 1980,
p. 10).

Developers of the "new" chemistry programs had an ambition of providing a
quality of chemistry education in which students would be able to achieve better
understanding of the nature of science and develop a positive attitude toward
science as well as competence in using scientific processes and skills. For this
purpose the chemistry programs included various materials: textbooks, lab
manuals, special lab equipment, films, and many supplementary booklets,
activities, and tests. The objectives of chemistry teaching incorporated the
three domains of knowledge: cognitive content, attitudes, and skills. Scientific
facts were not considered important by themselves; the principles upon which
these facts rest were given much more importance. The textbook is not the final
authority for developing these principles; the empirical data derived from
laboratory work by students are the basis for this development. The direct
involvement of students in doing science, not the knowledge of teachers, is the
key for student learning.

The authors of "Chemistry, an Investigative Approach," an off—shoot of

CHEMS, tell students in the preface of their textbook:

23

You will be engaged in scientific activity in fundamentally the
same way as any scientist is engaged. You will become a scientist as

you study chemistry.
Great emphasis is placed on experimentation and obsevation as

the basis for all knowledge of chemistry. The unifying principles of

the subject are developed in a logical way with laboratory work

providing a basis for that development (Cotton et al., 1973, p. v).

This view does not necessarily appeal to many students who are motivated to
continue careers in science. However, students can learn science concepts
without being scientists. They can also understand scientific laws and principles
without being in the laboratory using the discovery method.

It was expected that these new materials would attract more students to
chemistry classes and help them achieve the above mentioned quality of
learning. But the actual situation as seen in the findings of many studies was far
below the expectations of the curriculum developers and represents an
unsatisfactory state of affairs, especially when compared with the great
expenditures and energetic efforts made to achieve the intended changes (Welch,
1979; National Science Foundation and Department of Education, 1980).

Chemistry enrollments, however, showed a small percentage of gain in the
19605 and early 19705. Since 1971 the percentage of students taking chemistry
appears to have declined slightly. In 1977, only 1996 of high school students have
taken chemistry (Ware, 1980). Many schools moved quickly to use CHEMS in the
19605. Thirty percent of students studying chemistry were using CHEMS
materials in early 1971. The use of CHEMS, as well as other NSF-developed
science programs during the 19705, has shown a continuous decline (NSF, 1980).
In 1974 state reports and surveys indicate that 5096 of students studying
chemistry were using Modern Chemistry (Holt), the text used by most students of

chemistry during the 19505 (Helgeson et al., 1977). Less than two percent of
students studying chemistry were using CBA in 1970-71 and 1976-77 (Welch, 1979).

24

In the way it is currently taught in the United States, chemistry is a self-
selective course. Students who select chemistry usually have above average IQs,
college-bound futures, and scientific-type career goals. Students taking all types
of chemistry courses constitute approximately 4096 of all high school graduates
in the United States (Bridgham, 1973).

In response to a variety of concerns, the National Science Foundation
initiated a major effort in 1975 to examine the status of pre-college science,
mathematics, and social studies education. Ronald Anderson (1980) summarized
the significant findings about the status of science education as reflected in the
NSF series of studies in four points.

1. Science education is not a significant part of general education.

2. There is an obvious, extensive, and almost exclusive attention to
fundamental knowledge, with a very few isolated instances of
attention to other goals.

3. The curriculum is textbook-bound, and the text is the authority
and source of information.

4. The teacher plays the key role, and the educational experience
of students in the classroom is a function of who the teacher is.

Many researchers suggest that high school students face many difficulties
in learning science. These difficulties, at least in part, are cognitive in nature.
The existing instructional mateials, on the other hand, offer teachers very little
help in overcoming these obstacles to learning and understanding. Arons (1981)
believes " . . . that deeper insights leading to improvement of instruction can
come from careful observation of the details of student cognitive processes" (p.
166).

During the past half-century, hundreds of research studies have been

conducted within a framework of Piaget‘s developmental theory. Science and

25

mathematics education had a good share of these studies. Studies in this
tradition claimed that most chemistry concepts are too difficult to be
understood by a large proportion of high school students because those students
did not acquire the required "cognitive operations" for such understanding. Kass
and Wheeler (1979) have found that at least one-third of high school chemistry
students may be classified as "concrete thinkers and, hence, according to
Piagetian theory, will likely have difficulty in coping with some of the logical
requirements of the concepts presented" (p. 2).

Patricia Smith (1978) cited many investigations which show that
approximately 5096 of high school students are unable to use formal thought
processes. Most of the questions of general examinations in chemistry, such as
those of CHEMS, assume the ability to use formal operational thought processes.
Most chemistry concepts are abstract in their nature, and many students are
unable to understand them unless appropriate strategies in teaching were used.
Even in solving problems related to these concepts, students can do the problem
if it is set nicely without understanding of a concept like the mole.
Memorization of an algorithm which can be used to solve the problem " . . . fools
both teacher and student into thinking that the lesson has been learned" (p. 115).

Critics of studies conducted within the framework of Piagetian educational
psychology refer to a source of confusion in interpreting the findings of these
studies. For example, Novak (1978) indicated in this regard that

Much of the confusion in educational work based on Piaget's
studies has delved from extrapolating ideas from his developmental
psychology to the interpretation of learning events and to the design

of instruction constrained by parameters of Piaget's developmental

theory (p. 10).

This researcher holds a more optimistic view of human nature than the

pessimistic one that can be inferred from the findings of Piaget's studies. This

view depends on the fact that most people of various ages can perform

26

extremely well in abstract thinking when they are equipped with the required and
relevant framework of concepts. If the instructional design can provide an
adequate organization of educational experiences which facilitate new learning,
then students might be able to learn those abstract chemistry concepts that
students of Kass and Wheeler and Smith were not able to learn.

A number of studies were carried out during the late 19705 concerning
students' misconceptions in chemistry (Gabel et al., 1984; Kass 8: Wheeler, 1979;
Smith, 1978). Many of the major concepts usually presented in high school
chemistry are found difficult for students to comprehend and integrate with
another into a coherent understanding. Among these are the mole, chemical
equation, rate of chemical reaction, electronic structure of the atom, concepts
of thermodynamics, and many others.

The results of the national assessments of science indicate that most
students at ages 13 and 17 are most deficient in just those higher order mental
skills which are components of reflective thinking and problem solving ability.
The methods and outcomes so frequently recommended by science educators are
not often found in actual instructional practice in schools or as an actual
outcome by students (Champagne 6r Klopfer, 1981).

There have been many recent reports concerning the declining skills of
entering college freshmen. Groby at Washington State University has gone to
great length to document this decline for entering chemistry students at that
school. Brooke (1978) believes that this observation reflects a national
phenomenon: "College chemistry departments have been accommodating the
decline for some years . . . . Our society is less reading-oriented and less
homework-oriented than it was 15 years ago" (p. 90).

Bent (1980) indicated that most chemistry courses and classes these days

attempt to do too much too soon. There is too much telling, too little showing.

27

They do not reflect the real nature of science. While we tell students that
science is not dogmatic and is not guessing, we provide them with texts full of
"telling"; we test them using multiple choice questions and allow very limited
time to use in laboratories. Chemical education in schools today emphasize the
products and ends of science (facts and theories) over the processes and means of
science. It " . . . emphasizes better things for better living . . . over better ways
to better things" (p. 30).

At the International Conference on New Directions in the Chemistry
Curriculum held in June 1978 at Ontario, the participants expressed their feelings
about the widespread negative attitude toward the subject of chemistry. They
also referred to the "down-grading" of experiments as of lower significance than
theory (Benfey, 1980).

The case for school science laboratories is no longer as self evident as it
once seemed. Since the late 19705, money for education has become scarce, and
educational priorities have been reevaluated. Some research findings indicate
that some students find laboratory to be a waste of time and merely a means of
slowing their pursuit of new theories and concepts (Bates, 1978).

A very experienced chemistry teacher in a very prestigious town who is the
head of the science department in his school and who participated in the early
development of CBA and PSSC does not view the role of laboratory as an
important thing.*

For chemical education and science education in general, the 19705 period
was described by Fernelius (1976) as the age of the "breakdown of confidence."
When NSF was established, the public had confidence in science, scientists and

scientific establishment. But the public have lost their faith in science and in

 

*Personal observation of the author in a visit to that school in Winter 1980.

 

 

28

science education. In the public's view, science was the solution for problems of
society; science is now thought of as the reason for many difficult problems
facing society. Education was the institution of preparing the scientifically
educated citizens; education is now viewed as producing high school young people
lacking the "basic skills"!

One of the problems facing chemical education in the United States is the
lack of experience for those who enter the profession without adequate
preparation in it in college and the lack of inservice teacher education programs,
especially after the vacuum created in the field by the termination of NSF

institutes and conferences.

New Trends in Chemical Education

Curriculum development has been subject to contemporary societal
pressure. A new curriculum usually tries to address new demands. In the late
19505, the shock of Russian technological progess presented a challenge for the
United states to provide an adequate supply of stilled scientists and
technologists. CHEMS and CBA came as a result of this pressure with a heavy
emphasis on producing more and better trained chemists. During the 19705, new
types of pressure were developed; energy crises and environmental crises turned
many curriculum developers toward programs which addressed the new societal
demands and brought into being many chemistry programs which put an emphasis
on the relevance of the program to daily life problems and issues.

Many courses in chemistry were developed during the last few years with
an emphasis on environmental problems. This major emphasis has gradually
shifted to a broader concern about the world's resources of air, wate, energy,
minerals, and food. There is also an emphasis on chemical education related to

health (Kolb 8: Taylor, 1981). To make chemistry classes more interesting and at

 

 

 

29

the same time help students keep their grades at a reasonable level, Arnold
(1980) used a special technique in his teaching called "research project and two-
level curriculum." To keep chemistry relevant to societal problems, Kolb and
Taylor (1980) developed a course in chemistry and civilization. The basic
material of this course is made up of current "squib" items from the printed
media. In addition, there is a tendency to provide chemistry courses at different
levels to match corresponding levels of students' abilities and also to match the
requirements of some specific fields of specialization. Newman (1980) has
developed two different courses for the superior students.

Patricia Smith (1978) developed a high school chemistry course to promote
formal reasoning by increasing Opportunities for self-regulation and to increase
students' understanding of chemical concepts by making the instruction relevant
to students' developmental levels. She used the SCIS-learning cycle--
exploration, invention, and discovery--in her program.

To face the "back to basics" movement, Waterman (1980) developed his
chemistry course to emphasize the mastery of three basic objectives: to
communicate effectively, to demonstrate a working knowledge of mathematics,
and to apply acquired knowledge in thinking and solving problems. He believes
that chemistry teachers have unique opportunities to develop these skills, and in
this process a great deal of chemistry can be taught as well.

High school chemistry teachers participating in the master program in
chemical education in several universities in the United Kingdom have made
significant contributions to the development of chemical education as an
academic discipline. The emphasis of this program is the research of problems
or the developments of teaching and learning ideas related directly to the work
of the teacher in his/her own school (Hudson, 1980). This trend is an attempt to

fill the gap between educational research and practice which is very wide and

 

 

30

very unfortunate as well. Cope and Gray (1979) described some important
experiences in this regard.

To emphasize the importance of chemical education as a part of general
education in Italy, Paoloni (1979) proposed a culture-based approach for students
aged 13-18. In this proposal, chemistry was introduced as a logical method for
the analysis of the nature of matter without using the concepts related to the
electronic structure of the atoms and with elimination of the distinction between
the organic and inorganic. This methodology:

. . . allows a consistent presentation of the concepts of
chemistry used for more than a century for the study of matter, and

it allows pointing out clearly their shortcomings and, hence, to

prepare the ground for an approach based on some concepts of

elementary quantum mechanics (p. 375).

There is an increasing tendency to express the need to include value~based
issues in chemical education (Brooke, 1980). The same need is also applied to the
history of chemistry. There is no doubt that including history of chemistry in
curriculum reveals to the students that chemistry is an integral part of human
activity. It also helps to recognize that the subject is a dynamic one. Ilnde (1980)
refers to the "flow of research papers dealing with all aspects of history of
chemistry" as a facilitating factor of developing courses in the history of
chemistry with considerable accuracy. He also indicates the importance of this
field in developing an interest in the subject, revealing an understanding of the
nature of scientific enterprise and fully appreciating that ". . . the best wisdom
of those at the frontiers of the science represents merely a transient state in
understanding of the subject" (p. 12).

There is a real need for chemistry courses to broaden students' intellectual
horizons and enable them to enjoy more fully our cultural environment. We need

to enjoy our lives with greater harmony with the world around us. Both the style

and content of chemical curricula are worthy of continual attention and

 

 

31

modification. Students need to be aware of the current activities in chemistry
and the goals that motivate those activities (Hammond, 1979). The main theme
of any course is built around what was known and understood at that time. But it
should be possible to "weave in a pattern of the unfolding field" by choosing
carefully some examples of aspects that we do not yet understand or things that
we cannot do.

That students usually respond better to specific problems has been the
subject of considerable investigation. Choosing such aspects as our goals helps in
teaching methodologies which seem to work in solving these problems. This does
not mean that generating some awareness and interest in more global problems
should be excluded.

The researcher tends to agree with Patricia Smith (1978) in her idea that:

. . . secondary chemistry instruction must move away from an
encyclopediac coverage of the field and toward teaching things of
greater conceptual understanding. The large majority of high school
chemistry students do not major in chemistry. Some do not go to
college. For these students, the opportunity to mature their thinking
style and become acquainted with the way that scientists work is
infinitely more important than detailed knowledge of theory (Smith,

1978, p. 118).

Ethnography: Methodology for Understanding

Science education researchers have been using typical research
methodologies for almost one century. The dominant research paradigm was
based on the natural science model (Patton, 1975). It was argued also that this
research paradigm tried to be rooted in or rationalized by reference to some
form of psychological theories of learning and motivation (Shulman, 1970). This
research paradigm, however, has been exposed recently to many attacks. Some
researchers describe the methods of this paradigm as becoming "increasingly

tired and tiresome" (Roberts 6: Russell, 1975) or "cumbersome and inadequate"

(Hamilton, 1977). Other researchers recognize that these experimental,

 

 

32

correlational methods ". . . provide little information about physical, social,
temporal contexts within which events occur and which help give them meaning"
(Power, 1976, p. 5). This research also uses pre-set category systems which
describe the frequency of events in the classroom but do not describe the quality
of these events (Kilbourn, 1978).

Many alternatives have been introduced by the opponents of the dominant
research paradigm. These alternatives are based usually on some
metatheoretical assumptions diffeent from those of the dominant one. The
differences between the two paradigms also exist at the operational level. Each
alternative has a point of emphasis and, consequently, was given a special name
accordingly. Among the various names are contextual, descriptive, qualitative,
ecological, ethnographic, holistic, anthropological, phenomenological,
constructive, naturalistic, illuminative, etc. Although there might be some
differences among these names, there is a common tendency among most of
them to do intensive study of the educational setting without imposing any
constraints on the situation. The tem which is used the most is the
ethnographic approach.

There has been much controversy during the last few years concerning the
relative merits of each of the traditional and ethnographic approaches. Recently
some researchers and reviewers of research recognized the need for the two.
After examining the value of both alternative forms of inquiry, Welch (1981)
concluded:

Each has a place in educational research and each should be
accepted by the research community as capable of increasing
knowledge and understanding. It is important, however, to recognize
their strengths and limitations so that informed choices can be made
in choosing one or the other of these inquiry paradigms (p. 15).

Douglas Roberts (1981), likewise, analyzed the different metaphysical

commitments inherent in each of two approaches of research in science

 

 

33

education; then he tried to ". . . develop a systematic account of the differences
between quantitate and qualitative research, which in turn enables one to
conceptualize their complementarity and importance of both to science
education research community" (p. 1).

Since the two approaches of research complement each other, both are
valid; the choice of using one approach should depend on the research problems,
the types of questions to be asked, and the kinds of decisions to be made as a
result of the research.

It was decided earlier that ethnographic approach would be chosen since it
appears to be the tool most helpful in addressing the questions of the study. A
brief discussion follows about the basic features of this methodology, its
assumptions, procedures, and applications in science education.

The use of ethnographic techniques for studying educational settings is
growing. "Ethnographic" refers to an anthropological method because
historically it has been associated with that particular discipline, but is is now
described as an alternative paradigm to the dominant correlational experimental
approach. This alternative paradigm was labeled variously as field work; case
study; naturalistic description; descriptive, constructivist, or ecological
approaches, etc. (Erickson, 1978).

The major question in an ethnographic study is, What are people in a given
setting doing, and why are they doing it? To answer this question, the
ethnographic researcher tries to describe in detail what is going on in that
setting; then s/he analyzes that description to make sense of the data collected
and to test his/her perceptions and sense-making against the persepectives of the

native participants.

 

34

Ethnographic approach aims at refocusing educational research on the
complexity of the school phenomenon which needs to be explained by making
extensive descriptive and interpretive efforts.

It is important to understand that ethnographic approach represents
fundamentally different claims about the nature of human behavior and ways of
coming to understand it. These claims could be represented by the assumptions
of the ethnographic approach. This approach considers the subjects being studied
as "knowing beings" and assumes that the knowledge they possess has important
consequences for how behaviors or actions are interpreted. A second assumption
is that complex behaviors like teaching and learning might be best understood as
being constructed purposively by teachers and pupils themselves and cannot be
adequately studied without accounting for meaning and purposes. A third
assumption is that a human being has a highly developed capacity for developing
knowledge by organizing complexity, attending to the meanings of complex
communication, and having individuals take on complex social roles (Magoon,
1977).

Ethnographers claim that if one hopes to generalize research findings to
the everyday world, whee most human events occur, then the research must be
conducted in settings similar to those that the researchers hope to generalize
about. Divergent findings of extensive research demonstrate the importance of
the influence of the setting when the same phenomenon is studied in laboratory
and in the field. School exerts many powerful forces on participant behavior, so
educational ethnographers warn that if one wants to generalize research findings
to schools, then the research is best conducted within school settings where all
these forces are intact.

Available theories of learning and teaching should be related to a realistic

view of the classroom in order that meaningful hypotheses can be formulated

 

 

35

about teaching process and its effects. To accomplish this, it is important to
make distinction between traditional educational research hypotheses testing,
and the generation of such hypotheses as a result of ethnographic accounts for
how a particular situation can be explained within the framework of a more
general theory. Observations give the researcher access to an immense number
of sequences of events. As s/he tries to shape these into empirical and
conceptual order, hypotheses arise (Magoon, 1977). The rule for generation of
theory is not to have any pr e-set or valued hypotheses, but maintain a sensitivity
to all theoretical relevances among the data.

In this connection, Rist (1977) viewed the means by which knowledge and
understanding are developed as an inductive analysis and stated that theory
begins with an extrapolating from "grounded events." The ethnographic
researcher "begins not with models, hypotheses or theorems, but rather with
understandings of frequent minute episodes or interactions that are examined for
broader patterns and processes" (p. 44).

In an attempt to foster large-scale educational reforms, fieldwork has
thrown light on some of the blind spots of previous research, namely neglect of
the social and cultural dynamics of schooling. Through consideration of how
educational activities fit into (or conflict with) the various social roles of actors
in education (parents, students, teachers, etc.), fieldwork techniques have
offered a way of identifying some of the obstacles to reform that were missed
before. The methodology of fieldwork can uncover a variety of information
which may be lost to quantitative methods of inquiry (Schwille 6t Porter, 1976).

The ethnographic approach has gained a wide acceptance in psychology and
sociology within the last two decades, and it is probable that it will rapidly gain
such acceptance in educational research in the decade ahead. Recently,

ethnographic research has become of major interest in the United States at the

 

 

36

federal level. NIE sponsored two large projects (CBTSS, FSUDS) using fieldwork
as a vehicle for research to improve our general knowledge of schooling (Schwille
8: Porter, 1976). NSF sponsored 11 case studies, conducted throughout the USA by
specialized educational researchers, to apply ethnography as a methodology to
understand the status of science education and as a result to draw some desirable
future direction.

Doyle (1979) viewed this trend of research on teaching, one he calls the
ecological model, as an "analytical framework for understanding how classrooms
work." He distinguished among three important aspects in which such an
ecological understanding will provide help. First, it is especially useful for
individual teachers to interpret problems and to generate solutions to meet
practical contingencies in specific classrooms. Second, it assists curriculum
planners in designing programs that account for the demands of classroom
environment. Third, it provides a basis for identifying points for intervention
into the classroom system and for anticipating the consequences of changing
curriculum.

The methods used in ethnographic research can be rigorous and systematic
as those of other approaches. It is a vital and viable tradition which is
constantly in the process of being evaluated and refined. One of the most
important ideas behind this approach is that there is no one right method; the
method should match the study. The special technique used in this research can
be coordinated with other methods into an excellent research design that could
elicit information not accessible to researchers using more quantitative
techniques.

After using an ethnographic approach to study some parameters of teacher
effectiveness, Scoot (1978) concluded that, although this methodology is difficult,

time consuming, and expensive, it proved to be very fruitful and yields data that

 

37

cannot be obtained using other techniques; and once these data are collected,
they can be used again and again as new questions arise.

Both Patton (1975) and Rist (1977) cited the contribution of Scriven (1972) in
discussing the objectivity and subjectivity in educational research. The terms
objective and subjective are always held to be contrasting; they are used mainly
to reflect the quality of the evidence where subjective means unreliable, bias, or
matter or opinion, and objective means reliable, factual, and confirmable. It is
precisely to avoid the fate of unreliable, biased, or opinionated data that
reliability is stressed in quantitative approaches. But for the same goal,
qualitative researchers get reliability through personalized, intimate
understandings of social phenomena, stressing "close in" observations to achieve
factual, reliable, and confirmable data. The quantitative researcher would
pursue confirmation through the use of a large number of subjects, while the
ethnographer would seek the same goal using large numbers of incidents or
events in an intensive case study of a small group or even one individual.

Ethnography as a holistic approach to understanding schooling can produce
an explanatory model of what goes on in a classroom (Lutz, 1981). When the
classroom is observed as a cultural system using the tools of ethnography in
collecting data and seeking for meaningful patterns of events and behaviors, the
ethnographer can document how the "natives" of the classroom interpret those
events and behaviors. The researcher also has his/her own interpretation. Lutz
called the natives' perspective and the researcher's perspective a
representational model and an operational model, respectively. The interface of
those two models produces what Lutz called explanatory model.

Ethnographic research depends on the ability of the researcher to make
him/herself a sensitive research instrument by transcending his/her own

perspective and becoming acquainted with the perspectives of those being

 

7’—fi

38

studied (Wilson, 1977). Seeing, rather than measuring, was the activity of the
project of case studies in science education. Wayne Welch summarized his
fieldwork methodology in Case Study-5 as follows:

The data were obtained from six different sources: (1) semi-
structured interviews where notes were taken concurrently, (2) in-
class observations using a class observation form, (3) school
documents such as daily bulletins, enrollment sheets, and the school
yearbook, (4) meetings I participated in or attended, (5) informal
discussions in the hall, lunch room, or teachers' lounge, and (6)
informal perceptions from just moving around the building (Stake 6c
Easley, 1978, p. 5:18).

One of the primary ways of increasing validity is by triangulation and
cross—checking. The triangulation in the case studies in science education
occurred both within and across case studies. The field observers sought out

informants having different positions, roles, experiences, attitudes, and goals in

 

order to check the perceived regularity of a phenomenon. The researchers
i themselves observed and analyzed documents. Their findings were reviewed by
site visit teams, site coordinators, and on-site educators. All provided additional
views as well as confirmation or disconfirmation of particulars. Also, a great
deal of information was obtained from a large p0pu1ation of teachers, principals,

supervisors, and parents throughout the USA by means of a general survey as

 

part of the same project of CSSE (Stake 8r Easley, 1978, p. 18:2).

Case study approach has been degraded by several major methodologists in
the past. The well-known Campbell and Stanley (1963) description of
experimental and quasi-experimental design for research in teaching pointed out
that the one-shot case study which they called the X-O design has a "total
absence of control as to be of almost no scientific value." Many opponents of
the case study approach still quote this position of Campbell, perhaps unaware of
the fact that he has retreated from this earlier position and admitted that such

studies had "regularly contradicted" his "prior expectations" and that they probe

 

 

39

and test power which he "had not allowed for." He stated clearly, "If we are to
be truly scientific, we must reestablish this qualitative grounding of the
quantitative in action research" (Campbell, 1974, p. 30).

The number of researchers, evaluators, and policy makers in various fields
and different countries who have been urging the use of case study techniques is
growing significantly. The field of educational research now is familiar with
such terms as educational ethnography, school ethnography, classroom
ethnography, and microethnography, which refer to case studies involving a
school system, one classroom, one teacher, one lesson, or even one student.

Although case studies have been described repeatedly in recent literature
as approaches of using qualitative types of evidence, they can, in fact, use either
qualitative or quantitative techniques, or both at the same time (Yin, 1982).

A case study is not necessarily an ethnography. Ethnographic methods of
data collection can be used in a case study, but other methods of systematic
observation systems can also be used in a case study. The case study is a
research strategy whose distinguishing characteristic is its "attempts to examine
. . . a contemporary phenomenon in its real-life context" (Yin, 1982, p. 169).

Because teaching is an interactive complex of events, ethnographic
methods were used to study the instructional process as it occurred naturally in a
college science classroom to determine specifically how and why a distinguished
professor was successful in accomplishing his teaching goals. A detailed
descriptive account of teacher-student interactions was provided as well as
documentation of the professor and his students' perspectives. Colleen Cooper
(1979, 1983) who was the participant observer in this study found that the
professor used a storytelling technique to share his knowledge and to involve his

students in the learning activities. The research in this study was viewed as

 

7*—

39

interactive, inductive, and developmental procesess which involved five research
activities: posing broad questions, collecting data, developing tentative
hypotheses, confirming or disconfirming hypotheses, and developing more
specific questions.

A year-long ethnographic study of the interrelationships of three
instructors of science in a community college and their students in a laboratory
setting was conducted by Dodge (1982). Various qualitative methods including
participant observation, surveys, interviews, videotapes of lab sessions, and
review of documents were used. The study suggested that the teacher role is a
function of transaction among many extrinsic factors such as curriculum,

institution, students, and the physical arrangement and intrinsic factors such as

 

personality, values, and attitudes. The teacher's perception of his/her role in
managing the learning environment determined the amount and type of
instruction in a laboratory setting.

Related Research fl
Teaching and Learning Science

 

 

It would be a very difficult task to review research on teaching and
learning science in general here. This kind of research is included in many
summaries and review of research in science education such as the yearly
summaries of research published in the Science Education and the yearly
abstracts of papers presented for the annual meeting of the National Association
of Research in Science Teaching (NARST). There are also reviews of certain
areas or types of research such as reviews of science classroom interaction
research (Balzer et al., 1973; Power, 1977), review of studies related to the
concept development in adolescent science students (Driver 6: Easley, 1978), and

review of classroom observational studies in science education (Anderson, 1979).

 

40

Researchers in science education differed greatly from each other in the focus,
level, and approach they used in their studies. They are also influenced by the
dominant trends in the practice of education and educational research in general.
The major focus of research in the 19605, for example, was on curriculum
development. This focus has changed in the 19705 into teacher effectiveness
(Brophy, 1980). In the last few years, the number of studies dealing with
conceptual change and student learning of scientific concepts is growing.

Writings of philosophers of science, especially those identified as logical
empiricists, and of the "new" philosOphers of science such as Kuhn, Toulmin, and
Hanson indicate the importance of the conceptual knowledge shared by the
community of scholars and its influence on scientific achievements. Information
processing psychologists, likewise, are concerned with the influence of the
conceptual knowledge held by a person on that person's behavior. Although this
conceptual content which is to be taught in the classroom is important as seen by
those philosophers of science and psychologists, this content has not received the
attention of educational researchers that has been given to other commonplaces
of education, the teacher, the learner, and the milieu (Stewart et al., 1982). This
neglect was noticed two decades ago by Schwab (1964): "Only the subject matter
among the four has been relegated to the position of a good wife: taken as
familiar, fixed, and at the hand when wanted" (p. 4). Only recently the content
or the subject matter became the focus of interest in some research efforts.
Similar growing interest and awareness of the value of case study techniques and
ethnographic observations among science education researchers, brought the
subject matter in a science classroom to be the focus of investigation in research
literature which will be reviewed briefly.

Smith and Sendelbach (1980, 1982) carried out a program of research to

investigate the teaching-learning process in a sixth grade classroom using an

 

 

41

activity-based science program. Four focal points for analysis in this research
represent the components of the model of research developed in this study.
These components are program materials, teachers' intentions, classroom
instruction, and student learning. Smith and Sendelbach deveIOped various
procedures, instruments, and protocols to analyze each of these components.
The key point of this investigation was the examination of what actually was
taking place in the classroom and understanding how program materials and
teachers' intentions influence what happens.

In his dissertation, Sendelbach (1980) has used a theoretical framework for
the research model pr0posed by Stake (1974). The model consists of two columns
referring to what is intended and what is observed in the teaching-learning
process. Each column has three levels referring to the three stages of the
teaching-learning process, the antecedents, the transactions, and the outcomes.
Stake proposed to investigate the contingencies between the levels of each
column and congruence between corresponding levels of both columns. The
model is illustrated in Figure 2-1. Sendelbach made the focus of his study on the
first two levels of both columns.

General findings of his study reveal the teachers' orientation is related to a
segmented, conceptual framework which is significantly different from the
holistic approach of the literal program. The major concern of the teacher in
this study was to get her students to be engaged in manipulating materials and to
meet the classroom management requirements. Intended learning outcomes
were not often developed by students.

This study picked up on what Sendelbach has done and used the same
theoretical framework proposed by Stake (Figure 2-1), to investigate the
dependency of the features of any level on features of other levels, and the

extent to which the observed levels are congruent with the intended ones.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

42

Intended I Observed
Antecedents Congruence -——" Antecedent
Logical Empirical
Contingency Contingency
Intended Congruence ——__—p Observed
Transactions g Transactions
Logical Empirical
Contingency Contingency
Intended l Congruence ; Observed 1
Outcomes Outcomes

 

 

 

Figure 2-1. A representation of the processing of descriptive data (Stake, 1974).

 

Several case studies were conducted at Michigan State University to
investigate the factors that limit the quality of science instruction at the upper
elementary level (Eaton et al., 1983; Smith 6c Anderson, 1983; Slinger et al., 1983;
Anderson 8r Smith, 1984; Smith 6: Anderson, 1984). The main objectives of these
studies were to analyze existing patterns in teachers' use of science program
materials and their effect on instruction as well as to analyze the effect of an
environmental intervention to promote a mutual adaptation process which
involves modification of both teachers' guides and teachers' planning processes.
Eclectic methodology and perspectives were used in these case studies where
school ethnography had been a major source. Each case study dealt with one or
two teachers and a small number of students. Teachers observed were known to
be "excellent" or "good" experienced teachers. Several interesting findings were
reported. The textbook and teachers' guide were found to be inadequate in

addressing the scientific concepts in a way which takes into consideration the

 

43

misconceptions usually held by students. Teachers were not able to be
appropriately prepared to deal with these misconceptions by relying on the
textbook and the teachers' guide. Teachers were interested in getting students
to arrive at what is believed to be the correct answer without treating the
incorrect answers in diagnosing the students' misconceptions (Slinger, 1983).
Even when the teacher became aware of these misconceptions in another study
(Smith 6: Anderson, 1983), she was not successful in helping her students replace
these misconceptions with what she intended them to learn. This disappointing
result was seen in light of the differences in views held by the teacher and the
curriculum developer about student learning and the nature of science.
Teachers' guides failed to communicate a view of student learning and
instructional strategy to the teacher which can help her design an adequate
strategy to promote student learning.

To be able to capture the quality of relationships among teachers'
intentions, program materials, classroom teaching, and student outcomes,
Kilbourn (1982) undertook a qualitative analysis of one biology lesson in a ninth
grade classroom. Kilbourn argued that:

This qualitative analysis arising from the participant observation

of a beginning teacher has nurtured the development of a way of

looking at science teaching that respects both the reality of

classroom events and some of our more treasured epistimological

goals for science teaching (p. 686).

The purpose of introducing the topic in the textbook was to enable students
to develop some understanding of scientific process. This goal was also included
in the teachers' plan for teaching. After analyzing the topic of the lesson as
presented in the text and the teaching episode of that lesson, the researcher
found that both of them had fallen short of dealing adequately with the topic to

achieve the intended goal. The "salient content" in the text was missing, and the

teacher did not have an active attempt to provide that content or to help the

 

44

students either to be aware of the intellectual skills they were using or to see
what aspects of the investigation were analogous to scientific work and what
aspects were not. The text and the teaching act were "epistimologically flat,"
which is the term suggested by Kilbourn to characterize situations where
epistimological issues such as the nature of science are central to fulfilling
intended outcomes, but the effort of curriculum writers or classroom teachers
falls short of dealing adequately with those issues. A conviction that Kilbourn
shared with many others (Renner, 1982; Schneider et al., 1980; and this researcher
as well) is that it is the responsibility of the curriculum developer and, more
importantly, the classroom teacher to explicitly provide learners with an
awareness of any epistimological issue in a clear and active manner.

John Olson (1981) reported a case study in which he tried to understand how
teachers used the material of a science program designed in Canada to apply
certain innovative doctrines. Eight teachers participated in the study, and a
variety of data collecting procedures were used; several qualitative and
quantitative analyses were also employed. Olson found that teachers see the
innovations as increasing the diffusion of their work. Curriculum materials have
been translated by teachers into more specific and familiar terms which derive
their meaning from the existing vocabulary of the teacher. For example,
discussion became lectures and recitations, intellectual skills development was
translated as content memorization and examination rehearsal, and the
integrated design was translated as a patchwork of specialized content.
Important elements of the innovation materials were either ignored or redefined
in more traditional terms. To deal with such practice and to have a better
chance for innovation to be employed, Olson suggested that innovation material
should be written in the working language of classroom practice where teachers

do not need to make translations which change the images that the innovators

 

_. _. 4 __- -.'—_—

45

tried to present. Curriculum writers should understand the ways teachers use
instructional materials practically and take these ways into their consideration.
Such kind of understanding should also be based on the social, institutional, and
individual realities in which teachers usually work.

A naturalistic study was conducted by Hills (1981) to focus on the efforts of
a seventh grade student to solve problems using the algebraic approach.
Strategies of clinical interview were used in order to reveal what was involved in
the students' attempts to make sense of the problems of the textbook. The study
concluded that they were systematic and fundamental differences between
procedures prescribed by the textbook and those actually used by the student in
working out certain problems. These differences are not easy to detect from
their written work on paper; and in order to learn more about why students
experience difficulties in solving problems, researchers are advised by Hills to
pay attention to what students say and do as they work out these problems.

During the last decade, there has been a growing number of studies
revealing evidences that students of various grade levels have certain scientific
conceptions which are different from accepted scientific theories and which are
resistent to change in spite of formal instruction. The relevance of this kind of
research to this study of science teaching and learning in Jordan is the students'
understanding of knowledge of the topic being the central focus. In addition to
this common focus, most of this research, sometimes called research on
misconceptions in science, have dealt with small numbers of students, and direct
observation and clinical interview were employed. Researchers in this field
share an interest in content-related conceptual deveIOpment rather than a
general intellectual development. A brief review of several chosen studies will

follow.

 

 

46

A group of researchers in science education met in a conference in April,
1982, at Leicester University in Great Britain. The conference was devoted to
the investigation of students' existing ideas about science and how they affect
students' learning. Fifteen papers were discussed at that conference. Sutton and
West (1982) reported a summary of these papers and analyzed the papers and the
participants' discussions of them. This area of research was viewed as a new
field in science education which is fast-growing and gaining acceptance. Origins
of students' conceptions about science were suggested to be coming from the
immediate physical experience, from language usage, from beliefs and opinions
encountered by peers, and from formal and informal instruction. Research on
students' conceptions of science was considered essential because it focused on
the nature of the students' learning which is the basic goal of education. The
researchers in this conference seemed to rely on two major assumptions: that
students need to construct their own learning and that students' present
knowledge influences their responses to new knowledge. The presentation of
papers and the discussion of researchers' perspectives revealed that there are
several interesting ideas shared by those researchers. The following are among
those ideas:

-concepts are not fixed entites that students can have or not;
these concepts change as students develop and learn

--diffeent and sometimes conflicting ideas can exist
simultaneously in students' minds

«useful information about students' learning can be collected, in
part at least, using interviews

«learning is more than repeating in a verbatim form what has been
presented in the classroom; it involves students in constructing
their own meaning from the formal or informal instructions

-social interactions influence the private understandings of the
student

 

47

Dealing with students‘ misconceptions can take either a revolutionary or
evolutionary approach. Researchers using the revolutionary approach were
concerned with identifying alternative frameworks, their nature and incidences;
they viewed these frameworks as barriers to science learning. Researchers using
the evolutionary approach, on the other hand, were concerned with relationships
among concepts and propostions and made emphasis on using the feedback from
using the relationships, integrations, and differentiations in teaching.

Nussbaum and Novick (1982) presented in their study an instructional
strategy to deal with students' misconceptions they called alternative
frameworks. The suggested strategy is based on the thesis that science concept
learning involves cognitive accommodation of an initially held alternative
framework. The strategy consists of three phases: exposing alternative
frameworks, creating conceptual conflict, and encouraging cognitive
accommodation. The first phase is facilitated through an exposing event while
the second and third focus on a discrepant event. The authors have used previous
research findings about student alternative frameworks of the structure of gas,
to create exposing and discrepant events for an introduction to the particle
model of gases. They presented a case study of two lessons in a sequence on the
particle model and an analysis of the phases of the instructional strategy which
they employed to get students to achieve the cognitive accommodation. The
suggested strategy was found to contribute to students' conceptual change and
accommodation in various ways: being aware of their alternative framework,
feeling the need for a theoretical model, engaging in meaningful discussion, and
experiencing the conceptual conflict which enhances the accommodation.
Teachers who have good skills in listening and creating exposure events are
needed to expose and analyze students' alternative frameworks and help them

pass conceptual conflicts into a more adequate cognitive accommodation.

 

 

48

Fifty-five papers were presented at the international seminar on students'
misconceptions in science and mathematics in Ithaca, New York, in June 1983.
The papers are included in the proceedings of that seminar (Helm & Novak, 1983);
they can be considered a representative sample of the reports of studies
conducted in that field in various countries of the world. The 118 researchers
participating in this seminar were in agreement that many of the science and
mathematics curriculum projects of the 19505 and 19605 failed to achieve their
goals because they failed to recognize the influence of students' prior knowledge
and their resistance to change during instruction. The students' prior conceptual
frameworks, often called student misconceptions, have a profound influence in
shaping the meaning of what students learn in the classroom. During the
discussion sessions of the seminar, the participant identified several important
issues which can be summarized in the following point:

«teachers are usually not aware of students' misconceptions, and
they discuss tOpics of instruction as though students were tape
recorders.

«textbooks sometimes are at fault; they contain misleading and
incorrect information

«teachers, too, hold misconceptions
«students are skillful in hiding their misconceptions

«problems of students' misconceptions is a complex and
multifaceted one that has no easy "quick fix" (Novak, 1983)

The papers presented in this seminar covered different issues related to the
problem. Thirteen papers dealt with theoretical, historical, and philosophical
issues; twelve papers deal with methodological issues; nine with instructional
issues; and the rest of the papers dealt with certain concepts of elementary and
secondary school science. Only one paper was related to chemistry, 11 to physics,

six to biology, and five to mathematics.

 

 

49

Summary

In this chapter, an attempt was made to review the literature related to
the topic of this study, teaching and learning chemistry and the methodologies
related to it. Present status and future trends in chemistry teaching and
learning in various places in the world were summarized first. It was found that
innovations in curriculum development in chemistry have been taking place since
the late 19505. Results of those innovations did not manifest unique desirable
learning outcomes; enrollment in chemistry courses was decreasing, especially in
countries where students have choices; attitudes toward chemistry were not
improving significantly; and the laboratory role in chemistry education was
losing ground. Many chemistry concepts have an abstract nature which was not
easy for many students to understand, especially with teachers who lack the
experience and good training and with too much material to cover in a short
time. Recent trends in chemistry education emphasized social and
environmental issues, stressing the quality over the quantity, and the need of
teachers to reflect and understand more about that work. The nature of
chemistry education in Jordan was presented in Chapter I and more details and
the cornerstone of chemistry which is the particle model or theory of matter is
presented in Chapter IV.

Ethnography as a research approach was presented as a methodology for
understanding the teaching learning process. What characterizes ethnographic
approach from the dominant experimental, correlational, and statistical
approaches, was mentioned briefly. The assumptions that researchers in this
tradition have employed, the questions they asked, and the nature of their
techniques and findings were also presented. It was emphasized that
ethnography is not a replacement for other approaches; each approach has its

merits and should be used separately or together, depending on the type of

 

 

 

50

research, the kinds of questions, and the nature of decisions to be made.
Examples of research in science teaching and learning using ethnographic
approach were reviewed. More details about the ethnographic techniques which
were used in this study are included in Chapter 111.

Finally, research on teaching and learning science which makes the
content-related conceptual development its focus was reviewed and found to be
a new field of research, but one getting increasing interest and acceptance.

The literature reviewed in this chapter provided a useful background for
this study. The present status and future trends of chemistry education allowed
for better understanding of the topic of this study by relating it to what happens
in other settings in the United States and to obtain a broader perspective.
Reviewing ethnographic approach as a methodology for understanding the
classroom system was helpful in showing how various tools and techniques of
ethnography have been used by other researchers and in dealing with the value of
these tools and techniques for the purpose of this study. Research on teaching
and learning science which relates the subject matter in the curriculum
materials, the classroom instruction, and the students' learning outcomes in a
combined case study was found an important and still growing area which needs
further research efforts. This study was an attempt to provide some
contribution in this area and to improve our understanding of teaching and

learning science in Jordan.

 

 

CHAPTER 111

DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY

Research Design

 

This study uses a case study approach to describe and examine the
interrelationships among three components of teaching learning process: the
program materials, the actual instruction, and the students' learning. The case
study described one teacher, Miss Hanan Talib, and one of her tenth grade
classrooms in the natural science program at Northeastern Girls Secondary
School in a major town in Jordan during a period of seven consecutive weeks.
The subject matter addressed in this study, the properties of matter and the
particle model, was the focal point in the three components. The subject matter
was analyzed to identify the goals and objective of the scientific knowledge
prescribed in the textbook, suggested in the teachers' guide, covered in the
instruction, or learned by the students.

This case study has used qualitative and quantitative types of evidence and
employed ethnographic methods in collecting data. Figure 1 illustrates the
research model developed in this study.

The figure illustrates that the research work has three components: the
research strategy, the type of evidence, and the data collection. Each needs to
be decided upon. These three components have interrelationships among each
other. Each also contributes to the choice of design to be used in the research.

The special combination of the three foci in one study and the types of
questions addressed in it, as presented in Chapter I, need a special research

design which employs a variety of methods and perspectives in an eclectic

51

 

T_———

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

52
Quagi‘tciative _. Case Study ‘__ Ethnography
Quantitative
it _ I
[Research Strategy
/ \
Type of . A ata Collection

 

1

Evidence fi

 

 

 

 

Figure l: The research design.

 

approach. Ethnographic research as described in Chapter 11 uses varius

 

procedures and techniques to answer questions about events of interest and to
seek clarification and evidences from various sources. The strength of
ethnographic research in addition to the combination of qualitative and
quantitative sources of support made the research design of the study a unique

one.

 

Search for the Setting

 

Earlier in Chapter I, a rationale was given for choosing the examination of
the natural sciences course (NSC) for the tenth grade. Science supervisors in the
three largest school districts in Jordan where approximately 7596 of the students
of the East Bank* are located were asked to identify whom they considered to be
the best six teachers among those who teach NSC for the tenth grade and to
provide some background information about each of them. This background
information included experience in teaching, academic qualifications, and

reasons for choosing the particular teacher among the best. A questionnaire was

 

*The West Bank of Jordan has been under Israeli occupation since 1967.

 

 

53

sent to each chosen teacher (18 teachers: nine males and nine females) to collect
basic knowledge about their teaching practices, such as using the textbook,
teachers' guide, and other references; using the lab and doing demonstrations;
problems and difficulties faced in teaching; and his/her willingness to participate
in the main study. Appendices I and J show the questionnaire for supervisors
and the questionnaire for teachers. These data helped in choosing several
candidate teachers for the study. ,

Although special cases have the value of examining what was special in
each case, in order to follow a good example or to avoid a bad one, they lack the
possibility of making generalizations from them in the traditional definition of
generalizability (Bagdon 8c Biklen, 1982). In this study, however, the choice of
having a good teacher was made to avoid cases which might not help to continue
the study. The practical circumstances of doing this research include providing
the basis for choosing a good teacher who is likely to be a good choice for the
study is a teacher who can understand and appreciate circumstances such as
investigating the target setting in Jordan while the researcher is in the USA, the
timeframe available for being on site, the unusual burden on the teacher of
having an observer with videotape equipment in the classroom for approximately
10 weeks, and the need for having the teacher spend extra time with the
researcher for interviews without financial compensation. Various problems
have been recognized in the classrooms of beginning teachers and those who are
weak in subject matter, but what happens with a good teacher is not very well
understood.

An attempt was made, however, to avoid certain special cases which might
not be representative of the majority of classrooms. Teachers who were
teaching for the first year or who were teaching NSC for the first time were

excluded. By the time the researcher arrived in Jordan to meet with the

 

 

54

candidate teachers, he had the opportunity to find almost all Jordanian
chemistry teachers in one place, grading the general examination for the first
semester. After discussing the purpose and procedures of the study with these
candidates, the researcher found it would not be easy for most of them to
participate in the study. However, with some hesitation Miss Talib showed some
interest to "give a try, to make use of the experiences of others, and to develop
(her) abilities and skills in teaching."

Miss Talib is a 26 year old who received her Bachelor's degree in chemistry
at the University of Jordan and her diploma in education at Yarmouk University.
This is her fourth year of teaching, but the second year she has taught NSC to
the tenth grade. Northeastern Girls Secondary School (NGSS) where Miss Talib
teaches is located on the east side of a major town in the northern part of the
East Bank of Jordan. Like many other inner city or large town schools in Jordan,
NGSS is overcrowded by a large number of students (58-65 students per
classroom in tenth grade, 40-45 in eleventh and twelfth grade classrooms). The
school was built in 1953 and started as an elementary school. It was changed to
an elementary and preparatory school sometime later. Since 1977, it has been
the only secondary school in the north and east parts of the town. Secondary
school students from various villages in the area are also accommodated in this
school. It has 21 classrooms this semester: five tenth grades, six eleventh
grades, and 10 twelfth grades. The total number of students exceeds 1000, most
of them coming from low and middle classes in terms of economic level. Almost
5096 of them come from families living in the nearby villages. The Jordanian
government pays the salaries of all employees and teachers in the school system
and provides most of the equipment and furniture there. Local expenditures
related to daily requirements of practical activities in art, home economics,

physical educaiton, science labs, etc., are paid from the school budget which is

 

 

55

approximately JD4000 this year (approximately $12,000). The source of this
budget is student fees (usually called donations). About 3096 of the students do
not pay these fees because they are considered to come from poor families.

Miss Talib has taught NSC and chemistry for eleventh and twelfth graders,
so she is aware of the structure of the chemistry program at the secondary
school. This year she teaches NSC for two sections of tenth grade and chemistry
for five sections of twelfth graders, a total of 23 periods a week. She is
responsible for the school committee of cosmotology and is a school monitor one
day a week. She has been excluded from one major responsibility that all
teachers share-being a classroom referee for a particular classroom. Each
classroom has a referee who keeps records of student developments in all
aspects, academic achievements, and social and psychological problems and
reports to the school office any problems related to students in that classroom,
as well as trying to help students with their special needs. Miss Talib is excluded
from this responsibility because she has a teaching load which exceeds the
prescribed one in addition to her other administrative and instructional
responsibilities.

Miss Talib was chosen first by the science supervisor as one of the best
teachers; this is also the way she thinks of herself and the way the principal
described her in the first interview. In an interview with the researcher, the
science supervisor for the Northern School District stated:

I thought that (Miss Talib) will be among the best for the
purposes of your study. She is a confident person with a strong
personality. But as far as teaching is concerned, she represents the

mainstream of teachers in our schools (Interview, January 28, 1982).

In her third interview with the researcher, the school principal stated:

 

 

56

Miss Talib is a sincere teacher. I do not have special problems
with her. No problems have been reported from students about her
teaching. She is not that type of teacher who asks repeatedly for
leaves or excuses. 1 know her very well because I taught her when
she was a student in the secondary school . . .

In regard to the lab work, like most teachers she has a negative
attitude. Most teachers are not ready to spend time to prepare for
experiments outside the schedule of the school day. Planning is a
problem for most teachers, also. Miss Talib shares with most
teachers this negative attitude toward planning, although she
prepares her lessons and tries to meet the specified requirements;
however, I heard her yesterday telling you that there is no difference
between writing the lesson plan before the lesson or after the lesson.

This is really a dangerous idea (Interview, March 3, 1982).

The above extracts from the science supervisor and school principal's
interviews have many implications, but it is sufficient to say at this point that
they both describe Miss Talib as a teacher who is among the best in terms of
personality, management, and social relationship. But when teaching behaviors
become a criterion, they both describe her as a typical teacher. Typicality of
teaching behavior of Miss Talib was noticed by five professors of education who
have 15-25 years of experience in science education and teacher education in

Jordan when they viewed one tape of Miss Talib's classroom.

Getting into the Classroom

After the approval of Miss Talib to participate in the study, at least in
principle, several legal and administrative steps were taken to secure formal
approval of the director of the school district and the school principal. Also
obtained was the permission of the director of a nearby community college to
use the college's video equipment and to secure a leave for an audiovisual
instructor to help as a cameraman.

Several points were discussed and clarified with Miss Talib before
classroom observations took place. Among these, the researcher pointed out
that there was no need to change the natural setting of the classroom for the

purpose of the study because the intention was to study classroom activities as

 

 

57

they actually occurred. The teacher pointed out that she hoped there would be
no obtrusiveness or disruption to the school's schedule or instructional events in
the classroom because she had a tight schedule and had no time to "sacrifice for
the purpose of doing experiments . . . " Assurances were also given for the
confidentiality of all names associated with the school and classroom setting, but
permission was given for viewing or listening to the tapes by persons related to
the design of the study. The first lesson was observed without using any
equipment. The teacher introduced the researcher to the class as the author of
the unit they would start studying this semester, saying that he was doing a
research project to examine how this unit is being used, taught, and learned in
the classroom setting and that for this purpose he was going to use audio and
video recording of the classroom activities as they naturally occurred. A place
was reserved for the researcher in the back of the room, the first lesson began,
and the researcher started writing his fieldnotes.

The classroom for section one of the tenth grade was located in the west
corner of the third floor. The arrangements and area of the classroom were
similar to those of all other classrooms in the school. Figure 2 illustrates the
design and physical arrangement of the classroom.

The area of the classroom was 7x5 meters or 35m2. It had 31 standard
student desks for two students each and one table and chair for the teacher. It
had one door in the corner, three large windows on the west wall, coat hangers in
the back, a green chalkboard with a bulletin board on each side, a book shelf
cabinet in the corner facing the door, a small first aid cabinet on the east wall,
and a waste basket near the door. With this arrangement, the classroom could
accommodate 62 students; there were 59 present during the first lesson of

observation.

 

”saw-

58

Participant Observation

The researcher was a participant observer in the classroom during the 26
lessons in which the teacher covered the subject matter of the first three
chapters of NSC during the winter of 1982. Being a participant observer, the
researcher shared the teacher and students' lives and experiences. He took notes
of instructional activities, and he also carefully observed various features of the
classroom world: role taking, verbal and nonverbal interactions, work on the
chalkboard, seat work, feelings exchanges, intellectual exercises, and conceptual
development. Before each lesson began and after it ended, he had chances to
talk to students about various topics, to examine the content of their notebooks,
and to ask about the meanings of behaviors. The classroom observations and
casual conversations with students before and after lessons served to identify
points of interest for later interviews. There were occasions where the
researcher as participant observer was asked to clarify points of disagreement
between the teacher and students and occasions where he volunteered to clarify
some point or ask some questions. Toward the end of the period of observation,
he was asked to spend the whole lesson with the students in a question/answer
session. In the lab session, he helped in setting up the experiment and fixed
equipment when it failed to work adequately.

But the central assumption of participant observation is the fact that the
researcher has shared, as intimately as possible, in the life and activities of the
classroom, trying to adopt the perspectives of the other participants (Denzin,
1978).

Part of the researcher's fieldnotes were written in the classroom, but many
of them were written after leaving the classroom. Fieldnotes included
descriptions of the happenings as the researcher saw, heard, and experienced

them; but they also included his own reflection, classification, and

-' .~ h- M __— 4

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 2. The classroom.

0

FxU~znmmuom>r

Student desks
Teacher's desk
Chalkboard
Bulletin board
Book shelves
Teacher's chair
Coat hangers
Windows

Door

First aid

Waste basket
Camera positions

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

—- r—‘v-—_ _—.——.— flaw-__-

 

60

understandings of what happened and some points to follow, clarify, or test in

later observations.

Interviews

Understanding cannot be complete by just observing and recording the
ongoing sequences of behavior. The observation usually raises questions which
need direct and purposeful talk to resolve them. Trying to consider the
perspective of an individual needs testing to see whether this individual really
holds this perspective. Interviews elicit various kinds of responses and
knowledge which fill the gaps that the researcher finds after reviewing and
reflecting the fieldnotes of the observation. An interview was defined by
Maccoby and Maccoby (1954) as "a face to face verbal interchange in which one
person, the interviewer, attempts to elicit information or expression of opinions
or beliefs from another person or persons (p. 499).

Although the kind of knowledge elicited from various interviews in this
study were very useful, the task of doing them was very difficult. Finding time
to schedule the interviews was one barrier; a place in the school to hold the
interviews was a problem; the embarrassment of having a man (the researcher)
sitting with a woman (the teacher, the principal, or a student), talking privately,
trying not to involve others in listening to the conversation, was also considered
a problem in the local culture; and, finally, the natural feeling that the
interviewer was organizing the interview, directing the conversation for certain
purposes of his own work, was also an obstacle, especially when the interview
was tape recorded.

Despite all these problems which should be considered in the context of

analyzing the content, the researcher was able to hold the following interviews:

61

1. three tape recorded interviews with the teacher and several
other casual interviews and conversations which were not
recorded;

2. two tape recorded interviews with the school principal, one
unrecorded interview, and several informal conversations;

3. tape recorded interviews with six students, unrecorded
interviews with five students, and casual/informal conversations
with many other students (reported in fieldnotes);

4. five tape recorded interviews with a university professors after
viewing one taped lesson of Miss Talib's classroom; and

5. two interviews, one tape recorded and one not, with two science
supervisors.

These various interviews provided the researcher with a wealth of
information and perspectives for understanding the teaching and learning of
science in Jordan, with reference to this case study in particular. In planning the
interviews, the researcher used Denzin's (1978) chapter on sociological interview

as a guide.

Machine Recordig

 

Writing fieldnotes directly during the classroom observations or interviews
is very important, but there are so many things to observe which cannot be
reported instantly in the fieldnotes. Audio and video recorders have helped
greatly in reproducing events so they can be seen or heard again and again to
capture many of the details which did not get the attention of the observer the
first time. With a special focus on teaching and learning the subject matter
addressed in the textbook, it was necessary to document all verbal
communications in the classroom for a late analysis of the content of the
communications. This documentation was done through audio or video taping.
The observer did not have to spend much time writing what the teacher said or
what a student responded; therefore, more time was available to attend to other

activities such as how students used their notebooks and the way the teacher

.m‘

62

presented her questions and the students responded. On the second visit to the
classroom, an audio cassette tape recorder was used with a small, wireless
microphone carried by the teacher in her hand (she felt uncomfortable hanging
the microphone around her neck). The receiver was built into the cassette
recorder as an FM radio. For the next two lessons, the microphone was placed in
the pocket of the teacher's jacket. Another tape recorder with two sensitive,
built-in microphones was used for the rest of the lessons in order to reduce the
inconvenience of using the wireless microphone. The recorder in the last case
was so sensitive that it captured most of the classroom's verbal communication
while it was located in the back of the classroom near the observer.

As the teacher started teaching chapter two, a video camera was
introduced into the classroom. Eleven of the 26 lessons for Chapters 2 and 3
were videotaped. In addition to documenting the verbal communication, which
the audio tape recorder did, the video recorder documented the sound and the
picture. Mr. Shadi, an instructor of audiovisual courses at the local community
college, helped as cameraman for most of the videotaped lessons. The
researcher himself was the cameraman for the rest of the lessons.

The purpose of producing a documentary videotape of the classroom is to
preserve a record of actual happenings, the stream of events of classroom life in
space and across time. Using a video camera involves a choice of recording a
sample of the classroom events at a single moment because many different
things happen at each moment. The camera was mounted on a tripod in a given
place during lessons, but the cameraman moved the camera, changing the angle
and breadth of the shot to take into the scene individuals and places of major
activity in the lesson, such as writing on the board, showing a model, a student
answering a question, etc. One camera was placed in three locations on

different days in order to show the lessons from different angles. The physical

 

 

63

arrangement of the classroom did not permit setting the camera in a position
where it could include within its frame all the classroom participants at the
same time.

Actual sequence and real time duration of events were preserved in both
audio- and videotapes in order to be used as data sources during the analysis
process. Audiotape copies from the videotapes were made in order to make use
of the audiotapes when the videotapes were not needed and verbal

communication was the focus of interest in the analysis.

Official Documents

 

The written words of the participants in the research setting, made or
produced as part of their routines, or as reports and records related to the nature
of their work, constituted another source of data. Large filing cabinets in
various offices and departments of the Ministry of Education needing large
storage areas have huge amounts of data about schools and other organizations
which, if researched adequately, can provide a strong knowledge base for
improvement. Since the researcher worked for some time as a chemistry
member of the curriculum department of the Ministry of Education, he was
aware of this source of knowledge about teaching and learning chemistry,
particularly of the NSC. He secured permission to examine the files of NSC at
the curriculum department which included documents such as teachers'
evaluation forms on which science supervisors report classroom practices of
teachers based on visits to those classrooms, teachers' yearly reports for
evaluating textbooks, and questionnaires completed by science supervisors and
teachers at the request of the curriculum department which speak to problems or

difficulties faced at the local level.

64

The file for the Northeastern Girls Secondary School was examined at the

school district's education office. The researcher also reviewed many documents

at the school level, including Miss Talib's lab record which she filled in and
signed each time she used the lab for doing practical activity or checking out
some equipment to use in the classroom. Miss Talib's long and short range
written plans were examined, and planning books of other teachers were also
made available for the researcher. Student notebooks and lab books for Miss
Talib's classroom were also investigated. Photocopies of some of these

documents were taken and kept by the researcher for furthe examination.

Testing Students' Learning

 

All the above mentioned methods of data collection are considered the
basic means of collecting qualitative data, but they can also geneate
quantitative data. In this classroom, testing was considered basically a means of
generating quantitative data, but it was also also very helpful in generating
qualitative data. Tests made by the researcher and reviewed by Miss Talib were
used before instruction to provide an idea about students' prior knowledge and to
provide a means to test their prior knowledge against the knowledge they have
afte instruction in terms of quality and quantity. Multiple choice items wee
used in most tests to examine some expected alternative frameworks that
students hold. The items of each test cover almost all the concepts and ideas in
the chapter. Free response questions were also used to give students the chance
to express their knowledge without any prior clues or indicators and to test the
meaningfulness and clarity of the statements they wrote in response to those

free response questions.

65

Overview of the Research Procedures

This study used a case study strategy in which ethnographic data collecting
methods wee used and qualitative and quantitative types of evidence were
employed. The entry step in which the researcher made personal contact with
the teache who was the principal informant in the field was an important and
critical one. Official and administrative contacts wee used, and personal and
social contacts wee critical in facilitating the entry step. Without engaging the
researcher's wife and parents and the teacher's parents and grandparents, the
researche would not have succeeded. Sometimes entry becomes an
ovewhelming obstacle because the teacher in such studies might be reluctant to
allow the obsever to be in the classroom for an extended period of time.
Eldridge (1981) has reported that he failed to start he observations in classrooms
three times. Each time, the teache agreed to participate in the study, then s/he
called the next day to tell the researche that, afte thinking it ove, s/he would
not be able to spend the required time and effort in the study.

In this study, the data collection period lasted for 10 weeks during the
winter of 1982. Participant obsevation, interviews, audio- and videotape
recordings, tests, and examination of records wee used as data collecting
methods. Data collecting started before entering the research site when the
researche examined related curriculum materials and official files and
documents.

Data analysis is the stage in which the researche tries to organize the
data s/he has collected, break it down into units, search for regularities and
pattens, and find out some that s/he can tell othes about his/he research. In
the case of this study, part of this analysis was done during the stage of data
collection whee the researche had some ideas or hunches about what was going

on and he looked for confirming or disconfirming evidence by examining the data

66

he already had or looking for more data to collect. Data analysis in this study
included an intensive analysis of the classroom teaching/learning process, the
subject matte of the unit as addressed in the textbook and teaches' guide or the

antecedents, and the students' learning outcomes or results.

 

Analysis of the Program Materials

The chemistry curriculum pamphlet of the secondary school science was
reviewed to identify the goals and objectives of teaching science in Jordan and
the major conceptual and process themes the Ministry of Education asked the
authors of the textbook to conside and apply in writing the textbook and
teaches' guide. Propositional knowledge addressed in the NSC textbook and
teaches' guide was analyzed using the procedures of analysis described by
Landes, Smith, and Anderson (1980). This literal analysis was consideed as part
of the author's intentions for teaching the program and provided a basis for

comparing with the knowledge addressed in the actual classroom instruction.

Analysis of the Actual Instruction

Actual instruction, classroom teaching and learning inteactions, and the
ways in which the program material was used in the classroom wee documented
and recorded in the form of fieldnotes, and audio- and videotape recordings. The
meanings and importance of certain events in the classroom were also discussed
with participants reflecting diffeent perspectives, including those of teaches,
students, school principal, and several teache educators. These discussions wee
also documented in fieldnotes or audiotape recordings. Audio-and videotapes of
classroom lessons and interviews were reviewed seveal times, and transcripts
wee made for more careful study whenever the situation so warranted.

Propositional knowledge addressed in the classroom lessons was also analyzed

67

using codes to refe to the proposition, the chapter in the textbook, the lesson,
and the peson who addressed the proposition (the teache or student).

Besides propositional knowledge, several othe aspects of classroom
instruction wee analyzed. Verbal interaction was analyzed using Flandes
Inteaction Analysis Categories (FIAC). Several quantitative and qualitative
aspects of this verbal inteaction wee examined, such as the amount of time
spent in teache talk or student talk, the number and type of teache's questions,
the types of students' responses, and control of knowledge and the social order.
Students' categories in the classroom wee identified by examining the nature of

their behavior and the type of the teache's treatment.

Analysis of Students' Learning Outcomes

 

The research used three diffeent types of data to examine the learning
outcomes of students: students' inteactions in the classroom, their responses
and discussions in inteviews, and their responses on the pre- and posttests.
Students responses on five multiple choice tests were analyzed by computer
tofind out the frequencies of student responses to various altenative
frameworks. Responses on items before and afte instruction served as a base to
analyze the nature of students' prior knowledge and its effect on students'
learning. Special attention was given to examining various types of instructional
objectives, including cognitive knowledge, process skills, and attitudes.

The items of all tests wee analyzed to identify the altenative frameworks
addressed in each item as diffeent scientific propositions and the number of

students who held each framework before and afte the instruction was found.

Writing the Research Regort
This dissetation is the summary of the research work conducted in this

study. It has reported what has actually been done. In the process of conducting

 

68

the study, several things have changed from the way they wee originally
planned. New ideas were developed, new questions were raised, and new
procedures wee employed. This kind of change is expected and is usually
characteristic of this type of research. The broad questions which initiated the
study continued to guide the research process to the end; but between enteing
and leaving the research setting, many other questions were raised. These
questions are more in number, but narrowe in scope. The initial questions wee
broad; for example, "How does the teacher use the curriculum material in the
classroom?" The new questions varied in scope, but at the end they focus on
specifics and particulars; for example, "Why did the teacher mention that
electrons flow from the positive teminal of a battery to the negative one,
contrary to what the textbook employs?" "What was the effect of reprimanding
Hawazin on her attentiveness when she failed to respond correctly to the
question about the definition of the second law of chemical composition?" "What
did Manal write in her notebook about the experiment of discharge tube?" etc.
Toward the end, responses to these many and specific questions were
synthesized together to make more geneal statements about the whole situation
in an attempt to respond to the initial questions which are small in number and
broad in scope. Figure 3-3 illustrates the diffeence in the number and scope of

questions during the research process.

69

HIGH/ WIDE
Frequency
of

questions
(m.-. I

Scope
of

the
question

( )

 

 

 

LOW/ NARROW

 

 

L

Entry Time End

Figure 3-3. Scope and frequency of quesitons in the research process.

CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Overview of the Chagte
This case study touches some aspects of Schwab's four commonplaces of
education: the teacher, the learne, subject matte, and the milieu. The focal
point, however, is the knowledge of subject matter as presented in curriculum
mateials in classroom teaching and in student learning. Figure 4-1 shows the
relationship of the different components of the teaching-learning process which

were addressed in this study.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

h W
Curriculum . Students'
Mateials 7 Learning

Subject
Matte
Classroom
Teaching
Milieu
L J

 

Figure 4-1. The interrelationships of the components of the study.

70

 

71

The purpose of this chapte was to describe the curriculum materials,
teaching activities, and students' learning within the social context of the
classroom in particular and the school in general. The purpose of this description
was an attempt to understand the teaching-learning process of a tenth grade
science classroom at Northeastern Girls Secondary School in a major town in the
north part of Jordan.

The curriculum mateials wee described first, indicating the objectives
and content of the curriculum, the basic structure and organization of the
subject matte in the curriculum pamphlet, the students' textbook, and the
teachers' guide. Teaching activities wee described next. Three teaching
activities were identified: planning, classroom instruction, and evaluation.
Some quantitative and qualitative aspects of classroom inteaction were also
described. Finally, students' learning outcomes were described through analysis
of the students' participation in the classroom, their responses to the
researchers' questions during inteviews, and their performance on several

written examinations. A summary was also provided at the end of the chapter.

The Development of the Natural Science Course

In 1963 the Ministry of Education of Jordan began a major effort to reform
school education in all subjects at all levels. An educational act, No. 16, 1964,
was suggested and passed by the parliament and was considered to be a
revolution in education. In this educational act, the philosophy of education in
the Jordanian society was redefined and based on the urgent and expected
societal needs of the country. The act also included a definition of the general
goals of education and general educational goals for each subject matter at each
school level: elementary (grades 1-6), preparatory (grades 7-9), and secondary

(grades 10-12).

 

72

By 1969 the new school curriculum and textbooks in all school subjects wee
prepared and implemented at the elementary and preparatory levels. Other
committees wee appointed to redesign the school curriculum at the secondary
level. Three different committees were assigned the responsibility of designing
the curriculum in physics, chemistry, and biology. Members of each committee
represented the Univesity of Jordan, teachers' training colleges, science
supervisors, secondary school teachers, and the Department of Curriculum and
Textbooks at the Ministry of Education.

Afte drafting the major themes and concepts in the three subjects and
distributing them to three secondary grades (10, 11, and 12), a decision was made
to reconsider the kind of science necessary for tenth grade students before they
are classified at the end of the year into science and literature branches for
the eleventh and twelfth grades (see Table H). The natural science course (NSC)
was developed as a reuslt of this consideration.

The subject matte of this course was organized in four units:

1. measurement, experimentation, prediction, and explanation;

2. equilibrium;
3. properties of matte and the particle model; and
4. enegy.

The content of each unit is shown in Appendix A.

Content and Organization
of the Curriculum Mateials

 

 

Curriculum materials related to the natural science course for tenth
graders are a curriculum pamphlet, students' textbook, and teachers' guide. The
researcher was one of the authors of the these three components of the NSC
mateials. Since the intentions of the authors of these mateials might be
difficult for teaches to infer in a way which is similar to what they can

describe, this researcher will try in this analysis to detach himself from this

 

73

background and depend on the written words of the materials for describing the
intentions and perspectives of the curriculum materials. Whenever the

researcher's perspective is being employed, it will be indicated clearly.

Curriculum Pathlet

 

The curriculum pamphlet is organized around four headings: goals,
content, instructional activities and techniques, and evaluation. Goals are
written in brief and geneal tems. they include three basic statements refering
ot the three domains of instructional goals: cognitive knowledge, habits and
attitudes, and psychomotor skills. Content is presented in a considerably
detailed manner in which topics, subtopics, and examples are related directly to

suggested activities and methods of presentation in the following way:

Content: topics Methods and tech- Practical activities
subtopics, and niques of experiments,
examples presentation filmsz etc.

 

 

The evaluation portion of the curriculum emphasized the concept of continuous
assessment of students' acheivement, curriculum materials, and instructional
activities.

The curriculum pamphlet and various official lettes related to the
curriculum which are usually sent by the Ministry of Education to inform
teachers of any changes or modifications in the curriculum should be officially

available to teaches.

 

 

74

Textbooks

The textbook came in two volumes. The first volume consisted of units one
and two and was taught in the first semester of the year; the second volume,
consisting of units three and four, was taught in the second semeste. The
content of unit three which was the focus of analysis in this study is shown in
Appendix B.

The textbook was written in a language in which the writes address the
individual reader. Definitions, main concepts, and conclusions were printed in
blue. Equivalent English terns are added directly afte main concepts. Some
conclusions and definitions are repeated or paraphrased and printed in blue in
page margins. All figures and diagrams in the textbook wee drawn by hand;
none of them was a photograph of real equipment. One of the features of the
textbook is the use of questions, especially before or afte describing an
experiment. Sometimes the answers were provided; sometimes not. Each
chapte ended with chapte questions and problems. Chapte questions had
various forms: multiple choice, short answer, essay, matching, and numerical
problems.

The geneal and specific goals of the NSC textbook, volume two, wee
mentioned in the introduction to the book. General goals are the same goals of
science education as presented in the curriculum pamphlet:

l. to acquire basic knowledge required to understand and explain
natural phenomena and realize the regularity, conformity, and
aesthetic aspects of the world;

2. to udnestand the nature of science as a human intellectual
activity, to recognize the importance of science and its
contributions to human life and to appreciate the work of

scientists; and

3. to develop scientific attitudes, intellectual, and psychomotor
skills; i.e., the accuracy of observation and work, the ability to

 

75

analyze the results, and the habits of patience and perseverence,
suspending judgments, scientific reading, and appreciation of
research.

 

Specific goals of this textbook are:

l. to explain the natural phenomena which are related to the
properties of matter and its structure, to recognize th laws that
control the behavior of matte and its changes and illustrate the
efforts of scientists which they have done to reach the
contemporary scientific achievements; and

2. to recognize the forms and changes of enegy, to understand the
principles on which various apparatuses and devices work and the
practical application of energy, to understand the importance of
energy in the civilization of contemporary society, how to
develop and use enegy sources to meet the increasing demands
of human societies (Abanda, 1976, p. c).

l The first chapte in the textbook started with a short introduction to point
out that the central issue in the whole unit, the structure of matter, was an old
issue. It required a great genius from skillful scientists to conduct experiments
and construct theories. It is possible, however, "for anyone to conduct these
experiments and arrive at the conviction of the existence of molecules and
atoms" (p. 1). Gas laws were referred to very briefly, but several simple
experiments regarding the properties of gas wee required to be conducted in
order to interpret the differences among various gases in terms of the
diffeences among the molecules of those gases. Laws of chemical composition
were presented through two numerical examples and a definition of each law.
The rationale of introducing those two topics in the textbook was to see that the
behavior of gases and their chemical composition as described by empirical laws

i are explained by refering to the existence of the molecule and the atom. At

this point, the concepts of element and compound were introduced and defined

using the models of the molecule and atom, and the basis for chemical symbols

and formulas were established.

—"‘_'l

 

76

The kinetic molecular theory assumed that molecules have no volume and
do not have attraction forces among them. But there is no such gas with these
characteristics; it is an ideal gas. Practically, we deal with real gas which
deviates from the behavior of ideal gas. The concept of mole was also
introduced through Avogadro's hypothesis and used in numeical problems.
Chapter I ended with a table of all known elements, indicating their symbols,
atomic weights, and atomic numbers.

The second chapte began with explaining the properties of pure substance
and how the change in phases of a substance can help in identifying the kind of
substance, recognizing whethe it is pure or mixed with other substances, and
separating one substance from other kinds of substances. The chapter did not
make any explicit refeence to knowledge developed in the first chapte. The
concept of solution was then introduced, emphasizing the differences between
pure liquid and solution. Vapor presssure was consideed an important property
of pure liquid, and the change in its value which results from dissolving a
substance in liquid allows for the change in the properties of a solution.

Concentration of solutions and the solubility of a substance in another
substance wee introduced, and numeical examples and problems wee used.
Electrolytes and non-electrolytes were discussed, showing that molecules of
electrolytes form ions when dissolved in wate, and through these ions the
solution conducts electric current. An extended section of separating the
components of solution illustrated the processes of distillation, crystallization,
and extraction, the principle on which each process works, and its applciation in
practical purposes.

Chapte two ended with a section on colloidal solutions; their composition,

formation, properties, and application were mentioned.

 

77

Chapte three started with a refeence to the conclusions which students
developed in the first chapte, indicating that this chapte would expand those
conclusions. Dalton's model of atoms was developed to intepret a number of
observations, but this chapter illustrated the inadequacy of this model to
intepret many of the obsevations and the need to expand Dalton's model to a
new one which happened to perceive the atom as a large universe similar to that
of the solar system.

The section on the electrical nature of matte reminded students of their
prior knowledge developed in the preparatory level (grades seven through nine)
about static and current electricity, reviewing this knoweldge as an introduction
to experiments of electrolyte and discharge tubes. Faraday's laws were
introduced using numeical examples and arriving at the concept of the electron.
Thompason's model of the atom was suggested as a result of these experiements
as being more adequate than Dalton's model. But Thompson's model did not live
long because of its failure to account for new observation. Rutherford's
experiment was then introduced and used to show how the nucleus of the atom
was discovered. At this point many new concepts related to the structure of the
atom wee introduced; proton, neutron, atomic number, isotopes, and various
types of chemical bonds were explained. A new model of the atom, Rutherford's
model, was used to explain electrical conductivity and heat conductivity.

Chapter three ended with a section on forces of attraction between
molecules of a substance which account for the three states of matte: solid,
liquid, and gaseous. Van Der Waal's forces were introduced very briefly, and the
hydrogen bond was explained and used to intepret the particular properties of

wate.

 

78

Teaches' Guide

 

Each volume of the textbook has its own teaches' guide. The guide for the
second volume dealt with each chapte in the textbook in the following format:

1. the approach, the nature and organization of the chapte, its

importance and questions to raise interest in learning its subject;

2. the major objectives;

3. activities and procedures:

a. description of experiments,

b. geneal suggestions about treating certain topics, and

c. movies, films, or filmstrips available in the audiovisual
departments related to the topic;

4. answes and solutions to chapte questions and problems; and

5. additional ref eences and readings in Arabic and in English.

The teaches' guide, however, neithe specifies modes of teaching nor
suggests certain strategies of presentation of diffeent topics, nor does it
provide any suggestions about time distribution. The general suggestions about
introducting the chapte and identifying objectives and procedures of doing
experiments are left to the teacher to infer what to do, when, how, and within
what time frame. To illustrate the importance of the topic and encourage
students to attend carefully, the teachers' guide suggests that the teache raise
one or more of eight questions which seve as advanced organizers to establish
direct relevance to some background knowledge and facilitate more meaningful
learning. The teachers' guide also indicates the reason for not including much
detail about the subject matter presented in the text: information about gas
laws, properties of gasses, and laws of chemical composition are not goals for
their own sakes. The goal in this case is to show the continuous and systematic

spirit of inquiry which scientists follow using various activities such as

 

79

description, experimentation, organization of acquired information, and
interpretation. According to the teachers' guide, the teacher is expected to deal
with these activities of scientific inquiry explicitly by discussing these activities
of sience and relate them to the inductive reasoning explained in the garbage
collector analogy (see Appendix G) which was also provided in the teachers'
guide.

To show the teache the line on which knowledge about the structure of
matte was built, the teachers' guide expanded the introduction about the nature
and purpose of the unit (prOperties of matte and the particle model) which
began the first chapte of the textbook:

Building the atomic model in this chapte does not follow the
historical development of the concept of atom or relies on
complicated experiments which need sophisticated equipment; rather
it depends on presenting some obsevations about a certain
phenomenon, raising some questions and using simple experiments to
answe these questions in order to arrive at appropriate conclusions.
Atomic model was suggested first as an infeence about the hidden
structure of matter. Then the model was developed, refined, and
expanded gradually as our knowledge was growing and evidences were
accumulating (p. l).

The instructional objectives of the first three chaptes of the unit as specified in

the teaches' guide are shown in Table 4-1.

 

 

 

80

Table 4.1
Goals and Objectives Relevant to the First Three Chapters
of Unit Three of the NSC

 

to demonstrate an understanding of the nature of science and the work of
scientists:

a. definition of science

b. activities of science, description, organization of data, explanation
c. the temporal nature of scientific conclusions

d. the differences among laws, theories, and models

e. using knowledge of chemical composition and properties of gas as
sources of information about the structure of matter

f. appreciate the scientist's efforts

to state and explain

a. laws of chemical composition

b. laws of gases

c. Avogadro's hypothesis

d. principles of the atomic theories of Dalton, Thompson, and Rutherford
to differentiate among element, compound, and mixture

to recognize and write the chemical symbols of the following elements:
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sodium, carbon, chlorine, mercury, florine,
silver, gold, iron, potassium, copper, chrome, calcium, sulfer

to write the following chemical formulas and equations

NH3 4» H20 «NHqOH
HCl + H ..
2° H30 + Cl
2NOZ 4» H20 « HNO3 + HN02
C12 + H20 - HClO + HCl
2H2 + 02 " "'20

ZNO + Oz « 2N02
NazSZO3 + 2HC1 « 2NaC1 + $02 + H20 4» S

 

81

Table 4.1, continued

 

6.

 

 

1 CC.
\ dd.
ee.
, ff.
gg.
hh.
ii.
ii-
kk.
11.
mm.
nn.

PP-
rr.

ss.
tt.
uu.
vv.
ww.
xx.

 

To explain and define the following concepts

atom

molecule

element

compound

solution

mole

aqueous solution
Avogadro's number
symbol

molecular formula
structural formula
real gas

ideal gas

relative weight
scientific theory
scientific law
scientific model
endotheic reaction
exothermic reaction
isotopes

atomic mass
atomic number
electron

proton

neutron
electrolyte
non-electrolyte
ion

molarity

melting point
freezing point
boiling point
condensation point
vapor pressure
atmospheric pressure
chemical bond
covalent bond
metallic bond
ionic bond
hydrogen bond
equilibrium
solubility
saturation
colloidal state
crystallization
extraction
filtration
distillation

 

 

-—-——-v._—._—_—_~—__ ._ _e

82

Table 4.1, continued

 

10.

ll.

12.

13.

14.

15.
16.

22. petroleum
aaa. liquid air
bbb. alpha particles
ccc. gamma rays
ddd. cathode rays
eee. anode
fff. cathode
ggg. battey
hhh. electro-chemical cell
iii. pure substance
j jj. evaporation
kkk. fractional distillation
lll. Brownian movement
mmm. conductor
nnn. semi-conductor
ooo. electrical conductivity
ppp. heat conductivity

to perform calculations related to the mole and molar concentrations

to identify the following laboratory equipment and demonstrate their use in
the construction of apparatus and conducting experiments: beaker,
volumetric flask, bunsen burner, funnel, themomete, condensor,
fractional condensor, test tube, stand, clamp, screen, cathode tubes,
discharge tubes, voltmete, rheostat, sensitive balance, Rumcorff coil,
Thompson apparatus, AC-DC electrical transformer

to deveIOp some intellectual skills and processes: obseving, infering,
establishing relationships

to develop the habits of patience and c00peration in conducting
experiments

to distinguish pure liquid from the solution and draw the curve of changing
the state for each of them

to use the principles of separating components of a solution in useful,
practical applications

to recognize the electrical nature of matte and the relationship between
matte and electricity

to recognize and explain the forces which bind the basic particles inside
the atom, atoms in molecules, and molecules with each othe

to construct models of some molecule such as ammonia and methane

to explain some prOperties of matte using Rutherford's model of the atom

 

 

83

Exgriments and Practical Activities
of tTne Course

 

 

Doing the experiments and practical activities is considered essential in
teaching NSC. VolumeI of the textbook emphasizes that:

The teacher is required to conside the practical activities and
experiments' major part of the course. He has to spend needed effort
and time to do them or urge the students to do them. Neglecting
these practical activities and just talking about them hurts the
philosophy of the curriculum and reduces the possibility of achieving
expected results (Al-Sheikh et al., 1979, p. 6).

The textbook requires the reader to do certain experiments and asks
questions about the reade's obsevations, without providing direct answers; but
the conclusions given in the paragraphs which follows these experiments in the
texbook provide indications regarding what students are expected to understand
from the experiments. An example is given in the following extract:

Bring a test tube full of ammonia gas close to another test tube full
of hydrogen chloride gas; remove the stopper from each test
tube; what do you notice?

Expose nitrogen oxide to the oxygen of the air; what happens?
Compare the gas formed with nitrogen dioxide; try to explain
your obsevation.

Ignite a matchstick; put out the flame, leaving some fire; inset the
matchstick into a test tube full of oxygen. What do you notice?

Bring a matchstick close to hydrogen gas; explain your obsevations.

From what you have done, you notice that gases are different from
each other in their chemical reactions. Each gas has its own
characteristics . . . (the textbook continues explaining what
students should conclude based on the experiments) (p. 4).

In othe cases, the text provides sufficient clues to answer the questions or
explain the obsevations:

Heat a solution of sugar in wate until it boils; condense the resulting
vapor usin a distillation apparatus as in Figure 3-2 (see
Appendix J . Notice how the solution behaves during boiling.
Does the solution boil at the same boiling point as pure water?
Does the temperature stay constant while the solution is boiling
as it does when pure water boils? Or does it continue to rise?
Compare the behavior of pure wate and behavior of the solution
as represented in Figure 2-4 (see Appendix J). Try to recognize
what the arrows in the figure refe to.

 

 

 

84

Notice that the temperature at which the solution starts boiling is
highe than that in the case of pure water. Try to explain that.

You know that pure wate boils when its vapor pressure become
equal to the atmospheric pressure. In the case of the solution,
you notice that you raised the temperature to a higher point than
the boiling point of pure water. If you remember that . . . (the
text continues to explain and answer the questions raised before)
(pp. 36-37).

Another way of treating the experiments in the textbook is the way in
which the text does not provide an explanation of the observation or answer to
questions; help from the teacher is most probably needed in this case. The
following extract is an example of this case.

Direct a narrow light beam (passing through a small hole) at a beaker
containing real solution and another beaker containing colloidal
solution. Compare your obsevation in both case.

Direct a narrow light beam at the bottom of a long glass beaker
containing hypo solution such that the passing rays will fall on
the classroom ceiling. Notice very carefully the color of the
falling rays. Add a few drOps of hydrochloric solution to the
hypo solution. Stir for one moment; wait until the particles of
sulfur start forming. Notice the color of the colloidal particle.

Continue following carefully the color of light rays on the ceiling and
notice the change in color until the light disappears completely.

How do you explain the previous light phenomenon? (P.S., perform
these experiments in a dark room.) (end of chapte two in
textbook, p. 69)

There are experiments which are presented in the textbook in a way which
does not require the reader to conduct them. Such experiments are presented in
two forms. The first is a description of the origianl experiment done by a
particular scientist:

In this experiment, Rutherford exposed very thin sheets of some
elements to a flow of positively charged alpha particles, after
acceleating their velocities, he noticed that the particle are
scattered as follows . . . (p. 75).

The second form is a description of an experiment as if someone has been

doing it or the way in which it can be done:

If a certain amount of oxygen is mixed with another certain
amount of hydrogen . . . (p. 2)

To examine whether there is any change in the amount of solute
exceeding the solubility, the following experiment can be performed:
1. a certain amount of ordinary iodine is dissolved in . . . (p. 43).

 

 

85

The experiments and practical activities which the textbook and/or
teachers' guide require the teacher to conduct as demonstrations and/or provide
the chance for students to conduct are presented in Table 4-2. The textbook
does not specify whethe the expeiments should be done by the teacher or
students. The teachers' guide indicated explicitly that experiments in the second
chapter were important, easy to conduct, and could be conducted by students
using simple equipment; it required the teacher to provide the chance for
students to work by themselves individually or in groups. The teachers' guide did
not provide any suggestions as to whether experiments in chaptes one and three
should be done by students or as demonstrations by the teacher.

Presenting Topics in the Curriculum Mateials:
TWO Examples

 

The concept of vapor pressure and the direction of electron flow were
chosen to describe introduction of mateials in the textbook and teachers' guide.
These two example were chosen because the teacher in this study, Miss Talib,
encounteed some problems in teaching them in her classroom, and some data
about students' learning are available. The first example seems to be
fundamental in the chapte, and it was used in more than one place in the
textbook. Eight of 18 questions at the end of the chaptr were related to this
concept. The second example did not seem fundamental in the textbook, but the
teacher put a substantial emphasis on it during classroom teaching.

Showing the way in which these two concepts wee presented in the
curriculum materials is expected to serve the analysis and discussion of

classroom teaching and student's learning of those concepts.

 

 

 

86

Table 4.2

Experiments Required by the Textbook and/or Teachers' Guide

 

Chapte I
l.

2.

Chapte II

Pr0pertie of gasse
«colors of gasse, solubility of gasse in wate, color of chemical
indicator in solutions of gasses, chemical reaction of gasses; text,
pp. 3-4; teachers' guide, pp. 10-14
Law of consevation of matte; teachers' guide, p. 14

Boiling point of pure wate; teachers' guide, p. 23

Melting point of paradichlorOpenzene; teachers' guide, pp. 24-28

Curve of melting ice; teachers' guide, pp. 28-29

Homogeneous solution; text, p. 34

Boiling curve of sugar solution; text, p. 36

Molar concentration; teachers' guide, pp. 29-30; text, pp. 40-41
Supersaturated solution and crystallization; text, p. 47; teachers'
guide, pp. 37-39

Distinguish electrolyte from non-electrolyte; teachers' guide, pp. 30-
32; text. pp. 47-49

Extraction; teachers' guide, pp. 32-34

Distillation; teachers' guide, pp. 34-36

Fractional distillation; teachers' guide; pp. 36-37

Electrical conductivity of solutions of various concentration; text, p.
52; teaches' guide, pp. 30-32

Colloidal solution; text, p. 64; teachers' guide, pp. 39-41

Chapter III

1.
2.
3.

\l 0‘ VI 4?
O 0

Static electricity; teachers' guide, p. 47

Electrolysis, Faraday's experiment; teachers' guide, pp. 47-51
Electrochemical cell; teachers' guide; pp. 52-53

Electrical conductivity of various substances; teachers' guide, pp. 53-
54

Discharged tubes and propertie of cathode rays; teachers' guide, pp.
51-52

Models of molecule: CH4, C02, CzHu, Csz, N2, 02, H2; teachers'
guide, p. 54

Model of atoms: H, He, Na; teachers' guide, p. 55

 

 

Vapor Pressure

The

textbook introduced the concept under a subtitle "Vapor pressure--

equilibrium between the liquid and its vapor" under the main title of "properties

of pure substance" in Chapte Two. It begins:

 

 

 

87

A little while ago we considered that liquid changes into vapor at
the boiling point of liquid. But liquid evaporates at all temperatures.
Evaporation rate increases as temperature is increased. The presure
exerted by the molecules of vapor of the liquid over that liquid is
called the vapor pressure of the liquid.

Each liquid has a certain va or pressure which depends on the
kind of liquid and on temperature p. 32).

 

 

 

The underlined statement was printed in the textbook in blue. Parallel to
these three statements in the margin of the same page are two statements, also
printed in blue. They read as follows:

Liquid vaporizes at all temperatures, the vapor resulting from

this process generates a pressure called the vapor pressure of the

liquid at a certain temperature.

Vapor pressure depends on the kind of the liquid and the
temperature.

Then the textbook explains the dynamic equiplibrium between the liquid
and its vapor in a closed system, when the atmosphere over the liquid becomes
saturated, and relate it to the concept of boiling. Values of vapor pressure of
water and ethyl alcohol at temperatures of 20, 40, and 100 degrees celsius were
compared to account for the fact that ethyl alcohol boils at a lowe temperature
than water. Finally, it concluded that the pure substance is characterized by
three propertie: melting point, boiling point, and saturated vapor pressure.

All these ideas wee paraphrased and printed again in blue on the margin of
the same page.

The concept of vapor pressure was brought up again during discussion of
the behavior of solutions during boiling (pp. 36-37) to account for the fact that
solutions boil at a higher degree than pure liquid and that temperature does not
stay constant during the boiling of solutions; it continue to rise.

The knowledge regarding the concept of vapor pressure addressed in these

places and required for students to know in order to be able to answer chapter

questions is summarized in the following prOpositions.

 

 

 

88

1. Each pure substance has, as a specific property, a certain vapor
pressure.

2. Liquid evaporate at all temperatures.
3. Evaporation rate increase as temperature is increased.

4. The pressure created by the molecule of vapor over the liquid is
called the vapor presure of that liquid.

5. Vapor pressure traped over liquid in a closed containe become
constant when the space over the liquid become saturated by

vapor.

6. Dynamic equilibrium between the liquid and its vapor is produced
when the space over the liquid is saturated with its vapor.

7. Vapor presure of a certain liquid increase as temperature is
increased.

8. Vapor presure become constant when it reaches the amount of
atmospheric presure.

9. The boiling point of a liquid is the point where the vapor pressure
become equal to atmospheric presure.

10. If vapor presure of a cetain liquid (A) is higher than vapor
presure of another liquid (B) at a certain tempeature, then the
boiling point of A will be lower than that of B.

11. Pure ethyl alcohol has a higher vapor pressure than wate, so it
boils at a lower temperature.

12. The vapor pressure of a solution is lowe than that of a pure
liquid.

13. The boiling point of a solution is higher than that of a pure liquid
because the solution has a lower vapor pressure than pure liquid.

As mentioned earlie the teachers' guide does not provide any suggestion in
dealing with specific topics. The concept of vapor presure was refered to in
the teachers' guide in the following instances:

1. as a new concept to be learned under the objectives of the
chapter;

2. "students are expected to conduct the experiment in section 2:3:1
in the textbook and to follow the procedure decribed in the
textbook" (p. 23). The experiment deals with the behavior of a

 

 

 

 

89

solution during heating. Students are expected to answe the
quetion in that section whee the concept of vapor presure
shoudl be employed;

3. students are expected to conduct the experiment in section 2:1:2
about boiling pure water. The procedurs of doing this
experiemtn wee presented in the teachers' guide in some detail.
Several quetions were provided including a quetion about the
fact that the boiling point of wate is expected to be lower than
100 C. The reason given was that the vapor presure of water at
that particular altitude will be equal to atmospheric presure
which should be les than 760 mm; and

4. the answers to eight questions at the end of chapte two in the
textbook which include the use of the concept of vapor presure
wee provided in a similar way to that mentioned in the textbook
itself. All the knowledge addresed in thee answers was
included in the list of propositions mentioned earlie.

Direction of Electron Flow

The topic in this example was electrical conductivity and its explanation in
tems using knowledge learned from the structure of matte after the
development of Rutherford's model of the atom. One and one-half pages of the
textbook were devoted to explaining how static electrical charge are formed by
friction on plastic and glass when they are rubbed with wood and silk,
respectively, and how thee charge are discharged. Chemical reaction in an
electrochemical cell (battey) was given as another source of the formation of
electrons. When the two terminals of the battery are connected to each other by
a conductor, electrons flow from the terminal whee they accumulated in large
numbers (called the negative terminal) to the terminal which has a shortage in
electrons (called the positive teminal). The conducting wire can facilitate the
flow of electrons because it has mobile electrons in its atoms which can be
pushed in a certain direction forming an electrical current. The pr0positions

related to this topic as pr eented in the textbook were the following:

«chemical reaction is a source of accumulating electrical charges

 

 

 

 

90

«mobile electrons in metals such as copper and silver can move in a
certain direction if subjected to some force

«the battey is the source of electrons which accumulate on the
negative electrode

«the negative electrode has plenty of electrons which are ready to
be given away

«the positive electrode has a shortage of electrons and are ready to
accept them

«if the two electrodes in a battey are connected by a conductor, a
potential difference cause electrical current to flow

«if a bulb is connected to the conductor, it will glow

«the battery provide substitute electrons to the negative electrode
to keep the electrical current flowing

«the battery doe the work of a pump in pushing electrons in the
direction of the current

«if a galvanomete is connected to the conductor, the needle of the
galvanometer will move, indicating the passage of current

«the battey is similar to a pump which pumps electrons from the
negative electrode ot the positive electrode (pp. 87-88)

Nothing in the teachers' guide was related to the direction of electron flow
except one instance where a battery is expected to be opened "to identify its
components and to know that these components are the source of the electrical
current (the electrons)" (p. 47). However, electrification and electrical
conductivity wee listed as new concepts to be learned under the objectives of
the chapter.

In brief, the Natural Science Course for students of the tenth grade was
deigned in 1970, when the syllabus and guidelines related to the concent and
methods of presentation were approved by the Board of Education. The syllabus
and guideline were included in the Science Curriculum Pamphlet for the
Secondary School. The first printing of the textbook appeared in 1974, and
teachers began to use it in their classrooms at that time. The first printing of

the teachers' guide appeared in 1976.

 

 

 

 

__—

91

The purpose of introducing unit three of NSC (propertie of matte and the
particle model) was to help students explain the natural phenomena which are
related to the propertie and structure of matte and to recognize the laws
which control the behaviors and change of matter. Understanding of the nature
of science and the development of scientific skills and attitude wee
emphasized as important objective for students to acquire.

The organization, conceptual content, and practical activities and
experiments of the first three chapters of the unit in the textbook and teachers'
guide wee decribed in order ot provide a base for the following analysis of

teaching activitie and students' learning outcome.

Analysis of Teaching Activitie

 

Introduction

 

One of the slogans frequently used by the administrators in the Ministry of
Education in Jordan was "elements of the educational proces are planning,
implementation, and evaluation." In this part of the analysis, the reearcher has
addresed Miss T alib's teaching activitie in light of thee three elements.

It is assumed hee that the teacher starts his/her teaching activitie before
entering the classroom by thinking why, what, and how s/he is going to teach. In
other words, s/he makes a plan. In the classroom the teacher use some
instructional strategie to implement that plan. At various points during
classroom teaching, at least toward the end, the teacher gets some data about
how effective those plans were. There are three phase«planning,
implementing, and evaluating«that comprise the major components of any
teaching act. There is continuity and interrelationship among the phase; each

has influence on and is influenced by the othes.

 

 

 

 

92

1 Planning D

lassroom _‘L ,. < Evaluation 1
Instruction

Figure 4.2. Continuity and interelationships among phase of teaching.

 

 

 

 

 

In the following sections, attempts wee made to look at thee three phase in
Miss Talib's case, teaching natural science in a tenth grade classroom at

Northeastern Secondary School.

Planning

In an inteview with the Northeasten Secondary School's principal, she
classified teachers into three categorie as far as planning is concerned:

1. those who write their plans in a meaningles way because it is

something officially required,

2. those who write good plans and believe in their importance, and

3. those who do not write any planning and do not believe in its

importance.

She also noticed that most teaches have negative views of planning
and that more experienced teacher give better attention to planning, and
that all teachers do not carry their planning books to their classrooms
because they conside this "a sign of their inability to remember and a sign
of not sufficient preparation" (Inteview with principal, February 9).

According to the principal's judgment, Miss Talib falls into the first

category.

 

 

 

— —-— __—

93

Miss Talib prepared he own yearly plan at the beginning of the
school year, and she write her leson plans in a planning book;

nevertheles, she has a negative attitude toward planning in its official
meaning. She write down leson plans because it is required. According
to her own description:

The leson plan has a general goal which is the same and is
repeated in each plan. To acquire the basic information required to
understand and explain natural phenomena, understand the nature of
science, develop scientific attitude and intellectual and psychomotor
skills. Then I choose three or four specific objectives of the leson, I
cannot write all the objectives because the space provided for them
in each page of the planning book is very small . . . . I do not always
write the leson plan before the leson; it is possible to write it after
I give the leson. Of course, they assume that it should be written
before; I say thee is no difference to write it before or after.

Inteviewer: If it is required to be written before, why do you
write it after?

Miss Talib: Because it is required from me to write anyway.
Sometime I use a certain activity or procedure during the leson
which comes to my mind accidently. I put this in the leson plan
(when I write it after the leson). This will help me if I teach the
leson for anothe section or next year.

Inteviewer: Whatever procedures of writing the leson plan
might be, how do you prepare yourself to teach a topic?

Miss Talib: I read the tapic in the textbook; sometime I use a
paper and pencil, sometime not. I do not break down the topic
into parts or put marks in my textbook, but everything is
mentioned during the leson according to the same sequence
presented in the text. I try to find the relationship of the topic
with what is relevant to it in previous topics. If something is not
clear, I try to make it clear for myself. If a number is
mentioned and I do not know where it came from, I take a paper
and a pencil to see whee it came from. It is not always
necessary to carry a pencil. It is possible to prepare while the
TV is on (second inteview, March 1).

Thinking about the practical activitie and experiments that should be
conducted in the following leson is part of the planning activity. This require
the teacher to know what is available in the school laboratory and to try the

experiment before the leson. Since there is no free time for teachers except

 

 

 

94

afte the school day, this represents another burden. In presenting ways in which
a separation funnel is used to separate liquids, one student suggeted that it be
demonstrated in class; the teacher reponded to this suggestion by saying that
most probably the lab did not have a separation funnel. At a late date, she took
the researcher to visit the lab where she realized that there was more than one
funnel there.

Appendices L and M show sample of Miss Talib's leson plans. Under the
activitie' aids and procedure, the teacher listed the following:

I. perform simple experiments on static electricity,
demonstrate an electrical cell and recognize its components,

explain Faraday's laws, and

sew

. conduct the experiment of electrolysis if possible (Appendix Lb).

In the actual leson, she talked about thee experiments, but did not do any of
them. In a late inteview, she was asked why she did not do that; the answe
was, "Thee experiments are simple and well known; why waste time on then.
And the electrolysis experiment is impossible to work."

The expeience of the reearche in teaching and teache education in
Jordan for 12 years reminds him of the anxiety that teachers and student
teaches feel when the word "planning" is mentioned. Almost all teacher will
agree that planning is the first logical phase of any teaching, but most teachers
feel that requiring a specific method of planning and writing down that plan is a
burden which they do not like.

Supervisor: She will tell you, "I do not deny that planning is very
important," and she will swear that she neve goe into a
classroom without preparation; but her argument goe like this,

"I prepare in order to know why, what, and how I am going to
teach the next leson in a certain class, so it is part of my own
busines which I do in my own way. When you require me to
write this plan in a certain planning book in a certain model

which is defined by those at the top, in order that the principal
and supervisor will see and sign that they have seen this on such

95

and such a date, the planning at this point become something
for them and doe not below to me."

Teacher: Tell me, honestly, is that not right?

Audience: (laugh)

(Informal discussion in the principal's office during
the school activity day, March 10, fieldnote.)
The Actual Classroom Instruction
Leson Format

Assuming that all tapics of natural science course, volume two, will be
covered during the second semeter, unit three could be reasonably covered in
eight-nine weeks (32-36 periods of 45 minute each). Table 4.3 shows the
distribution of topics covered during the period of observation in the present
study. Twenty-six periods wee spent in teaching the three chaptes in the unit.

The usual classroom of the first secondary class, section one, was the place
where instructional activitie occurred in 25 periods. Period 3-3 was spent in the
school lab. Five periods were spent in doing the pre— and posttets of three
chaptes. At least one period was spent in reviewing each chapte through;
answering the chapter quetions.

Vebal communication, "talk and chalk," was the main method of
presentation during all periods. The only instance where the teacher used
something else wee the following: (a) teacher demonstrated passing electrical
current through discharged tube of neon, argon, and nitrogen gasses: (b) teacher
showed a model of the solar system to demonstrate Rutherford's model of atoms;
(c) teacher showed small balls of plasticine to represent atoms with sticks to
represent chemical covalent bonds; (d) students read from the textbook and
teacher made comments in one leson; and (e) teacher assigned the responsibility

of presenting new topics to two students. Even in the last instance, teacher talk

was dominant because she made comments or clarification on what the first

96

 

 

 

 

Table 4.3.
The Lesons Obseved During the Peiod of the Study
Form of
Recorded

Number Date Topics Covered Data

1-1 1/27 Pretet, Chapte 1 SR, FN

1-2 1/28 Introduction, gas laws, prOpertie of gase FN, AT

1-3 1/31 Laws of chemical composition FN, AT

1-4 2/ 2 Dalton's atom, Avagadro's hypotheis FN, AT

1-5 2/ 3 Ideal gas, review FN, AT

1-6 2/4 Review, chapte questions FN, AT

1-7 2/7 Posttet, Chapter 1 FN, AT, SR
2-1 2/9 State of matte, melting and boiling FN, AT

points

2-2 2/10 Vapor pressure FN, AT, VT
2-3 2/11 Behavior of solution FN, AT, VT
2-4 2/14 Molarity FN, AT, VT
2-5 2/16 Solubility FN, AT, vr
2-6 2/17 Electrolyte and non-electrolyte FN, AT, VT
2-7 2/18 Separation of solution's components FN, AT

2-8 2/22 Fractional distillation FN, AT, VT
2-9 2/23 Colloidal state FN, AT, VT
2-10 2/24 Review of chapte questions FN, AT, VT
2-11 2/25 Posttet of Chapte 2 FN, SR

3-1 3/1 Pretet of Chapte 3 FN, SR

3-2 3/2 Expanding atomic model FN, VT

3-3 3/ 3 Lab, electrical discharge FN, VT

3-4 3/4 Rutherford experiment FN, AT

3-5 3/8 Forces between atoms FN, AT, VT
3-6 3/9 Explanation of conductivity FN, AT, VT
3-7 3/11 Hydrogen bond; chapte review FN, AT

3-8 3/15 Posttet of Chapte 3 SR

 

Key to Forms of Recorded Data

FN:
AT:
VT:
SR:

Field notes

Audiotape

Videotape

Student response on text

 

 

97

student had to say or helped the students in situations where she was not able to
state the correct information. The second students felt anxiety and tension in
being in the place of the teache and was not able to do the presentation; the
teacher took over the situation and pursued her role as usual.

At the end of each period, the teacher assigned certain pages to be
prepared as homework. During the next period, she discussed the topics on those
pages using lecture and question/answer approach whee questions from the
teacher solicit student response as far as students were able to understand their
reading of the textbook at home. Textbooks wee expected to be closed during
the leson.

Afte obseving the 26 lesons, the researcher found very little evidence of
of the existence of a clear base to classify the lesons into certain categories.
Miss Talib did not recognize many diffeences among lesons except in the
quality of the students' preparation at home. The lesons went more smoothly
and there was a bette chance of students' understanding the topic if they wee
well prepared. Periods of tets could be distinguished, however, as a separate
format "because they are not periods of instruction; they are periods of
evaluation." There wee also slight difference between a typical leson in which
the teacher presented a new tOpic and periods in which some numeical problems
were solved or chapter quetions were answered. When the teacher assigned the
role of presenting the new tapic to a certain student, the kind of classroom
interaction was different from that in a typical leson. The leson which was
given in the laboratory where some demonstrations wee conducted was also
different in the type of classroom interaction. Table 4-4 shows the distribution
of the 26 periods in six formats. The analysis presented in the following section

is related to the 21 periods devoted to teaching. The five periods of testing are

98

excluded for the time being, and student response on tets will be analyzed late

in this chapter.

 

 

 

Table 4.4
Formats of Peiods of Obsevation
Number of
The Leson Format Code Peiods

1. Typical leson, presentation of new topic TYP l4
2. Problems solved and chapte questions

answered REV 4
3. Student preentation STUD.P l
4. Reading aloud from textbook READ.B l
5. Laboratory sesion LAB 1
6. Tet TEST 5

TOTAL: 26

 

 

The Flow of Events in a Typical Leson

 

A typical leson in Miss Talib's classroom usually is the leson in which the
teacher "gives" a new topic. Unles it is a special visit for a certain goal, a
science supervisor plans to visit the teacher during a typical lesson. Even the
teacher does not like to be visited in lesons of review or when answeing
chapter quetions. Leson plans of typical lesons are expected to be written in
preparation books. The teacher's performance in such a leson is expected to be
a good repreentation of he mastery of subject matter and teaching skills. The
reearcher did not attend one leson in the second chapte; the next day Miss
Talib told him, "You missed nothing yesterday; we just solved some problems on
molarity." In another instance, the researcher asked, "What is the leson about
today?" and she answered, "It is a usual leson; I am going to give them . . . I
want to continue separation of solutions' components."

A typical leson in Miss Talib's classrooms starts approximately one minute

afte the bell rings if there is no videotaping, or afte setting the camea

99

(usually three minute). Before the teache entes the classroom, a student
cleans the board, write the day's date in the upper right hand corner, the course
name (natural science) in the upper middle of the board, and the topic's name on
the right hand side. The teacher enters the classroom and greets the students
("Good morning"). The students stand up as a traditional sign of repect for the
teacher, and the teacher will wave he hand for students to sit down or she will
say, "In your places."

If the leson is not the first one in the chapte, the teacher will ask the
students to close their textbooks and then refer to the main topic of the last
period, making a quick review by asking several questions. The teache has he
own copy of the textbook. She opens it and turns it over on her desk. She then
refers to the main topic of the present leson and starts her questions, assuming
that students have read the assigned homework. She restate or paraphrase the
correct responses, correcting the incorrect one, and using the chalkboard to
write some important information or drawing some figure and making
calculations. Students will copy in their notebooks what is written or drawn on
the board. Before leaving one topic for another, the teacher trie to make sure
that students have understood the previous one by asking, "Have you understood
well oh, first?“ Most probably the students will respond in chorus, "Ye, miss."
Then she will ask the question in anothe way, "Does anyone have any question?"
Students usually do not repond.

Students sitting in their assigned places, two at each dek, are shown in
Figure 3.1. A student stands up when answering a question or directing a
question to the teache. Miss Talib never sits at her dek; she always moves,

most of he movement along one of three line in Figure 4.3.

 

*By "first" she means "first secondary class."

100

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

S S
S S
// T; j:-
E
W
C
Ke :
Student desks
B Teacher's desk 3 C?“ l"""8'3f3
C Chalkboard 1 giggdows
ED wmbmrd J Firs: aid
Ives
F Teacher! K Waste basket
5 chair L Camera positions

Figure 4.3. Directions of teacher's movement.

One major feature of Miss Talib's classroom was the high frequency of
mixed choral reponse of a relatively large number of students, as a spontaneous
response to a question from the teache or accompanying the teache's reponse
of he own quetion. More than one-half of the total number of teacher's
questions wee of this type. About one-third of the questions wee assigned to
students without calling name; the remaining quetions were assigned to
students by calling name.

Thee was occasional seat work in Miss Talib's class. When the tapic of the
leson had numerical problems, the teacher gave an example or dictated a
problem to the students to be written and solved in their notebooks, then picked
a student to solve the problem on the board while explaining it orally. Students
took note in their notebooks, including drawing anything the teacher put on the
chalkboard, and solved numerical problems and answered chapter quetions

there.

101

Toward the end of the leson, a few minute before the bell rang or
immediately afte it rang, the teacher opened her textbook and assigned
homework, such as, "Prepare, oh, first, for the next period topics x, y, etc., until
the end of the page . . . " Page assignments seemed an important routine for
students. At the end of leson 2-5 (solubility), the teacher told students to
prepare the next t0pic and named it "electrolyte and non-electrolyte." Several
students wee heard to be asking "until whee should we prepare?" The teacher
heard them and answered, "Up to the beginning of page . . . " She might add,
"Answe questions 1-4 from the chapte questions at the end of the chapte,"
"Write down in your notebooks: explain the kinds of chemical bonds in the
following: chlorine molecule, wate molecule, aluminum atoms . . ." "Write the
answes in your notebook," or "Write the answers on a separate paper to be
handed to me."

The step of reviewing the last leson and announcing the topic of the
preent one is usually called the introduction and lasted for 1-5 minutes, the bulk
of the leson is called the presentation, and the final step is the conclusion or

evaluation which is, in fact, assigning homework and took 1-2 minute.

Undestanding Classroom Inteaction

Various move and processe of classroom interaction might be seen as
similar to those in othe social settings, such as busines, religious and industrial
institutions. Communicative procese are always governed by certain goals and
rule. Classroom inteaction, however, is characteized by the uniqueness of its
own patterns and functions (Barker, 1982).

The dynamic nature of classroom inteaction is a result of various
components and levels of communication which make the classroom a complex

setting and a difficult object for study. Undestanding classroom inteaction is

102

an esential goal of education because the central assumption on which education
has been built during the history of human life is that various aspects of
classroom interaction have a great impact on the total personality of the
individual and on society in the long run. In studying classroom inteaction, the
quantity and quality of involvement of various participants in the classroom
environment should be taken into consideation. Language usually is the main
instrument of communication in classroom interaction. More than 80 systems of
classroom inteaction analysis were developed, but they all depend on similar
foundations. Most of them deal with the verbal aspect of interaction. Flanders'
Inteaction Analysis Categorie (FIAC) system, for example, was developed on
the assumption that verbal behavior of an individual is an adequate sample of
his/her total behavior and that verbal behavior can be obseved with a highly
reliable degree (Amidon & Hough, 1967). FIAC is the bet known and most widely
used system because of its simplicity and flexibility to be used for various
aspects and patterns of information. FIAC was employed in some parts of this
section.

However, FIAC as well as other quantitative obsevational instruments has
several limitations, especially if it wee used as the only source of evidence in
making judgments about the effectiveness of teahcing. FIAC was used here as a
convenient tool for breaking down the verbal communication of a classroom into
major categorie, then to investigate some of these categorie using the various
source of qualitative data which are available in this study.

Flandes' systen catagorized the verbal behavior of a classroom into 10
categorie:

1. teacher accepts f eeling of students (T. accepts f.),

2. teacher praise or encourages students (T. praise),

3. teacher accepts or use students' ideas (T. accepts id.),

103

. teacher asks questions (T. questions),
teache lectures (T. lectures),
teacher gives directions (T. directs.),

teacher criticizes or justifie authority (T. criticizes),

students respond to teache soliciting (S. respond),

w w N e v s

. students initiate talking (S. initiate), and
10. silence or confusion in which inteaction cannot be understood (sil.).
Applying the necesary steps and ground rules decribed by Flandes (1970),
eight lesons wee chosen to be analyzed, representing verbal interaction in
various formats of lesons in Miss Talib's classroom. The number of lesons

analyzed in each format are shown in Table 4.5.

 

 

 

 

Table 4.5
Format and Number of Lesons Analyzed Using FIAC System

Leson Format Number of Lesson
Typical 3
Review and problem solving 2
Student presentation 1
Reading aloud 1
Lab 1

TOTAL: 8

 

 

Pecentage of time spent in each category of verbal interaction in thee

eight lesons is shown in Table 4.6.

Pecentages of teacher's talk, students' talk, and lost time are shown in

Table 4.7.

104

It is obvious that the teacher's talk dominate most of the time of any
period, epecially in a typical leson where students have very limited

opportunity to talk (8.23% of the time) and the teacher does not waste any time.

Table 4.6
Time in FIAC Categorie in Various Leson Formats

 

96 of FIAC Categorie
Leson
Format 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 TOTAL

 

Stud.Pres. 0.48 0.12 11.15 11.15 48.08 2.52 0.84 7.31 5.40 12.95 100
Read.Aloud 0.0 0.0 5.15 1.8 48.96 4.73 0.14 36.02 2.09 1.11 100
Lab 0.60 0.0 4.80 4.07 54.37 4.67 0.48 2.51 1.44 27.07 100

Review and
Prob.Solv.(l) 1.07 0.0 10.7314.60 44.64 4.08 2.79 9.87 3.86 8.37 100

Review and
Prob.Solv.(2) 0.0 0.62 6.15 8.62 31.23 17.23 3.69 5.54 4.77 22.15 100

l_+_2 0.45 0.36 8.06 11.11 37.72 10.74 3.32 7.35 4.40 16.40 100
2

Typical (a) 0.0 0.11 13.28 14.30 48.13 1.59 1.02 10.78 0.91 9.88 100

Typical (b) 0.0 0.38 8.23 9.87 66.84 2.66 1.66 5.70 0.51 4.94 100

Typical (c) 0.25 0.25 7.01 9.95 70.76 2.3 1.66 6.25 0.13 1.53 100
a+b+c

0.08 0.24 9.6511.36 61.34 2.201.30 7.70 0.53 5.62 100

FIAC Categorie

 

(1) T. Accepts feeling
(2) T. Praise

(3) T. Accepts Ideas

(4) T. Questions

(5) T. Lectures

(6) T. Directs

(7) T. Criticizes

(8) S. Repond

(9) S. Initiate

(10) Silence or confusion

105

Table 4.7
Pecentages of Teacher Talk, Student Talk, and "Lost Time"
in Various Leson Formats

 

96 of Teacher Talk 96 of Student Talk

 

Sum of Sum of Lost Time
Format Categorie 1-7 Categorie 8-9 Category 10
Stud. Pres. 74.34 12.71 12.95
Review and
Problen Solve 60.77 38.11 1.11
Lab 68.98 3.95 _ 27.07
Read. Aloud 71.86 11.74 16.40
Typical 86.15 8.23 5.62

*While waiting for students to finish c0pying the solution of a problem from
the board, Miss Talib asked them to "hurry up; we do not want to lose time in
copying. The important thing is to understand how we solved the problem; then
you should be able to solve it yourselves at home" (in lesons 1-6).

 

 

The 5.6296 shown under lost time is, in fact, the periods of silence when the
teacher is busy in drawing or writing something on the board or when the teacher
or a student is clearing the board. It is surprising also that even in periods of
answeing the chapte questions or solving numeical problems, the chances for
students to talk are few (11.7496). A relatively large pecentage (22.1596) of lost
time is shown in the period of solving numeical problems (Review and Problen
Solving 2). Most of this time, in fact, was spent while students were copying the
right solution to a problem from the board to their notebooks or in cleaning the
board.

The total 42 minute spent in the lab leson was distributed into two
portions. The first 25 minute were spent in preenting Faraday's second law,
the same mode as in a typical period. The ret of the period, 17 minutes, was

spent with students watching the demonstration. Most of the lost time (27.0796)

106

was lost waiting for the demonstration to work. It was necesary to adjust the
screw of the Rumcorff coil several time during the demonstration. The rest of
the lost time was spent while changing a gas tube in the electrical circuit for
another. Since the connecting wire used in the demonstration did not have
crocodile clips, the teacher, with the help of the lab secretary, had to enter the
wire teminal with a small ring at each end of the gas tube and fold the wire
firmly.

It is clear that a high percentage of students talk in the reading aloud
period was a reult of the teacher's calling on students to (read aloud from the
text. Even in this case, the teacher's talk still dominate (60.7796), while lost
time was negligible (1.1196).

Table 4.8 represents the inteaction analysis matrix of verbal inteaction in
a typical leson where the teacher's talk is closet to the average in typical
lessons. Teache's talk in this leson is 88.8696. FIAC matrices for lesons from
other formats are provided in Appendix G. Most of this time (75.21%) was spent
in lecturing, 10.6896 was spent in asking questions, and 9.2696 was spent in
repeating, clarifying, and developing student ideas.

Thee was no instance where the teache accepted the students' feelings,
and only three instance (nine seconds) whee she praised the students. There
wee few instances (1.6696) of criticism and little more (2.66%) of giving
directions. Student talk in this particular leson was mainly (91.8496) responses
to teache questions with only four instances (8.1696) of student's initiation.

From viewing the tape of this particular leson and turning one's attention
to the quality of teacher talk and student talk, it was possible to recognize
certain pattens of classroom verbal communication. The content of instruction
was broken into a chain of propositions, most of them followed by rhetorical

questions. The content of the rhetorical quetions was usually either the same

107

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 4.8
FIAC Inteaction Analysis Matrix of Leson 2-3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 TOTAL 96
l 0 0.0
1 2 1 2 3 0.38
3 22 8 26 2 l 6 65 8.23
4 33 2 2 36 1 l 75
5 3 l 30 I466 3 2 23 528
6 3 a 9 2 l 2 - 21
7 l 6 2 l 10
8 37 2 5 l 45
9 3 l 4
10 2 25 4 2 5 39
T 0 3 65 75 528 21 10 45 4 39 790
96 0 0.38 8.23 9.87]66.84 2.66 1.66 5.70 0.51 4.94 100

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

content as the previous proposition or the completion of the preent one. In both
cases, the answes wee given by students spontaneously in a mixed choral
response. Students' choral reponse are mixed with teacher's response in most
cases. Students' correct repsonse are also mixed with incorrect reponse very
often. The teacher clearly expected students to know the answers. A geture of
surprise and objection was shown on the teache's face whenever an incorrect
reponse was given by the class or by one or more of the students (if the
incorrect response could be recognized at all over the noise of the choral
response). The teacher usually reponded to the same rhetorical questions and

her voice was mixed with the chorus.

108

The following extract from this leson (2-3) represents the mode of choral
response to rhetorical quetions:

T: The second reult is that boiling point of a solution doe not stay
constant while the substance is boiling (she wrote this statement
on the board). So the temperature did not . . .

Ss: stay constant
T: during
T a $5: boiling
T: it continued
T 6t 55: rising up
T: I will represent thee reults for both . . .
T 8: $5: the solution
T: and
T a $5: the pure wate
T: the kind of representation is called
T & Ss: graphic representation
T: I make two axis, X and
T at 55: Y
T: X represents
T 8: $5: time
T: time measured in
T 8: $5: minutes
T: Y represents
T 8: $5: temperature
T: temperature measured in
T d: Ss: Celsius

Miss Talib solicits these mixed reponse intentionally most of the time.
She expects thee reponse and waits for them. Sometimes she speaks slowly so
that students will catch some phrase or words at the end of her statement.
Other time she stops speaking, waiting for the students to utter the word or
phrase she was about to utte or write on the board. She might also write on the
board or refer to something already written that which she expects the students
to mention in chorus. Students seem motivated by thee mixed reponse. The
teacher feels that this practice indicates a clue of paying attention and following
along with the instruction. The students and teacher get the impression that
everything is well understood.

Afte spending consideable time in presenting the relationship between

vapor presure and boiling points of water and ethyl alcohol, the teache called

109

on a student to answe a quetion about which one of then should have higher
vapor pressure. The student answeed incorrectly, so the teacher gave more
illustration and repeated the same quetion, calling on another student to
answe. The second student answered incorrectly, too. At this point, Miss Talib
provided more illustration with a highe voice and impatient geture, soliciting
the required reponse inspired and guided by rhetorical questions. At the end of
this segment of instruction, she asked the traditional quetion—whethe the

students understood or not«and the students answeed positively as usual.

The following extract from leson 2-2 illustrate this very clearly.

T: Which one has higher vapor presure, wate or ethyl alcohol?
Ye? (pointing to a student)

5: Wate.

$5: No!

T: Why? Suppose that we heated wate to the boiling point. Wate
reached the boiling point at 100 C; alcohol at 78.5 C at the
atmospheric presure. Which is higher, the vapor presure of
water or alcohol?

(No hands wee raised.)
Both of them reached . . . (She pointed to the number 760 on the
board.)

T d: Ss: 760 mm

T: But I was able to boil ethyl alcohol at 78.5 C; wate at what
degree?

T at $5: 100 C

T: 50 who has higher vapor pressure, wate or ethyl alcohol?

(Few hands wee raised, and the teacher picked one of the
students.)

S: Wate.

Ss: (noise) No, miss . . .

T: I need to raise the temperature to 100 C. But for this (ethyl
alcohol), I need to raise the temperature only to 78.5 C. What
should it (vapor pressure) be«higher or lowe?

55: Higher.
T or 55: Highe.

T: This (ethyl alcohol) should have much higher (vapor presure)?

So the vapor presure of ethyl alcohol is . . .
T & 55: Higher than the vapor presure of wate.

T: Why? Because I need to get them to reach the same pressure in
order for them to boil at sea level, and vapor pressure depends
on what?

T Jr 55: temperature

T: For this ethyl alcohol, I do not need high temperature, so its

presure is originally . . .
T 8: 55: high

110

T: But what about the presure of this (wate)?
T & Ss: low

T: So I need more temperature to get it to reach the presure of
760 mm. 15 there any quetion on vapor presure?
(no reponse)
On the melting point?
(no response)
Is everything undestood?

Ss: Ye.

T: Erase (the board)

(While one student from a front dek cleaned the board, the
teache started a new topic, saying, "Let us start to distinguish
between pure substance and the solution.")

The teacher herself was not even sure about he own understanding of this
problem. In answering one of the chapte questions related to the same problem,
she accepted an incorrect reponse from a student and moved to the next
question. But a student, "Rana 5.," was not satisfied and questioned the
incorrect response. The teacher asked her opinion of the right answer, and she
gave the correct answe. At this point, the teacher asked the reearche to
clarify the situation, and he did. Students' reponse to quetion 30 in the
posttet at the end of the chapte also provide mixed evidence about how much
they have learned. Thirty-three of 53 answeed a quetion of similar type
incorrectly; six students of them are among the highe achievers.

Toward the end of leson 2-6 and after the teache has finished teaching
the factors that affect the solubility, she asked he traditional question, "Doe
any of you have any quetions?" There was no response. She addresed the class:
"Tomorrow, if I bring a question on solubility, half of you will not answe it."

The teacher sometime asks a rhetorical quetion to a particular student
even if the question has already been answeed by the class. The reason in this

case is eithe to draw the attention of that particular student to participate or

put some emphasis on the content of the questions.

111

It is interesting to note that students in most case can distinguish between
quetions which need spontaneous answers in chorus and quetions which need
answes of individual students.

T: Clean the board. We will start studying the concentration of
solution. We start with cups of sugar solutions, two identical
cups. In the first we dissolved one spoon of sugar and in the
second we dissolved two spoons of sugar. Which of thee cups is
sweeter? (She pointed to a student without calling her name.)

5: The one with more sugar.

T: Why are two spoons of sugar in a cup of wate sweete than one

spoon of sugar in a cup of the same size? (She picked a student

without calling her nam e.)

Because the molecule of sugar in the second cup are more.

You depended on the quantity of the sugar. (She wrote on the

board "the quantity of sugar.") The quantity of sugar affects the

sweetness of the solution. A jar and small cup each full of wate.

I dissolved one spoon of sugar in each of them. Which one is

sweete? The solution in the cup will be sweete than that in the

jar. What is the difference hee? The quantity of water. So in
one case the solute, sugar, is diffeent; in anothe case, the
quantity of wate is different. What do I call this solution?

S: (Picked by the teacher without calling nam e.) Concentrated
solution.

55: (noise) Aqueous solution.

T: Aqueous solution. This proportion between the quantity of wate
and the quantity of sugar I will call the concentration of
solution. Take two beakers of the same volume. (She drew two
beakers on the board.) Each one has one litre of water. I
dissolved 100 gm of sugar in the first and 100 gm of wate in the
second. (She wrote su ar in the first and water in the second.)

it'll?

Ss: (noise, but not clear
T: (Afte looking at the class, repeated the last statement.)
5: Miss, the second should have sugar, not wate.
T: (Teacher noticed the error and changed the word wate in the

second beake to gag.) This is salt. 15 the proportion of sugar in
water the same as the proportion of salt in wate?
55: (Mixed whispers.)
T: We come back to Avogadro's hypothee.
Ss: (Mixed whispers.)

T: The number of molecule is diffeent. I have to conside the
concentration of the solution which means the number of
molecule of sugar in wate and the number of molecule of salt
in water. (The last statement is repeated by the teacher.) What
did Avogadro say?

Ss: (Whispers and movements.)

T: What did he say, Majida?

M: (Silence)

T: (Addresing all the class) What is the problem, class? Would you
like me to give an exam? Or what? (The teache picked another
student by pointing to her and saying, "Ye?")

112

5: Equal volume of diffeent gase have the same number of
molecule.

T 8t 55: Equal volume have the same number of molecule.

T: Hee do we have the same number of molecule?

$5: No.

T: I will see what is the number of molecule of sugar in one litre
and the numbe of molecule of salt in the other. I have to go
back to the mole. How many molecule in one mole?

Ss: Avogadro's number.

T: What is Avogadro's number?

Ss: 6.02 x 1023 molecule (in chorus).

T: How much is the mass of one molecule? What is the thing that
contains Avo adro's number of molecule? (The second quetion
was repeated?) Ye? (She picked one student.)

S: Molecular mass in grams.

T: Molecular mass in grams. Mass of a mole is equal to the molar
mass in grams. Where can I obtain the molar mass from? From
the molecular formula (answeing herself directly). What is
molecular formula for sugar? You took this in biology. Yes
(pointing to a student).

5: C5H1206.

T 8: $5: C5H1205 (in chorus) (from Leson 2-3).

Quetions to be answeed individually are usually presented for the first
time in the corresponding leson. The answes usually need more than 155 or _r_n_o;
they require more than one word. They may involve a memory search for
previous learned definitions, a recognition of diffeences or reasoning why. In
such quetions, the teacher usually face the class searching for someone to call
on. While she is stating the question, few hands are raised. Students with hands
up whisper, "me, miss; me, miss." It is probable that the student who is called on
to answe cannot answer correctly; then the teacher's reponse to this incorrect
answer will differ depending on the teacher's perspective about that particular
student, as seen later when categorie of students are addresed.

Thee are case where Miss Talib was bothered by the choral response of
the class and gave directions not to answer in group.

Analyzing the three typical lesons with a special inteest in the

questioning skills of Miss Talib reveals the following:

113

Questions to "called on student by nam e": 41 }
124

Questions to "called on student without nam e": 83
Questions "answered by choral reponse": _l_52
Total number of questions: 283

The total time spent in asking them quetions of the first two type during the
three lesons was 13.95 minute, and the total time for answering these questions
was 9.45 minutes. Usually a quetion took more time in stating because is was a
complete, meaningful statement, repeated or paraphrased twice in most case
(sometime more than twice). Each quetion on the average had 6.75 seconds to
be stated by the teacher and 4.57 seconds to be answeed.

Table 4.9

Calculation of the Average Time for Asking or Answeing
a Question in Typical Lesons

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

No. Tallie
L_es_§_pg_n T. asks (Cat. 4) S. ans. (Cat. 8)

1-4 126 95

2-3 75 45

3-2 78 49
Total No. of Tallie: 279 189
Total Time in Seconds: 837 567
Total Time in Minute 13.95 9.45
Total Number of Questions: 124 124
Average Time for Each Question: 6.75 4.57

 

 

 

114

The time used for asking questions of the third type was not recorded
separately because, according to Flanders' system, these are not consideed to be
questions. Miss Talib also considered this type of solicited response as a
teaching strategy, not as quetions, per se.

By examining FIAC matrix of typical leson 2-3 (see Table 4.8), it is
intereting to realize the absence of pause periods from the type 4-10-8 which
indicate a wait time of three seconds between the teacher's question and the
student's answer. There is only one instance where a pause of three seconds
followed a question. This instance came in a sequence 4-10-10-7-7-8. The
quetion in this case was not stated clearly, and the student who was called on to
respond could not repond (first pause); other students hesitated to raise their
hands (a second pause mixed with whispers); then the teacher criticized the class
using four threatening questions in six seconds. Few students raised their hands,
and the teacher called on one of them to repond.

Most of the 4.9496 of the leson's time in category 10 repreents the types
3-10-5 and 5-10-5 which have pause during the teacher talk, especially when she
is writing or drawing something on the board.

During an increasingly rapid rate of teache's lecture, comments, and
questions, students have very little time to think. Wait time afte questions is in
the range of l-2 seconds. If the student is not able to think quickly enough to
repond, the teache repeats the question, paraphrase it, ask a diffeent

quetion, or calls on another student.

Student Categorie

 

Afte two or three lesons of observation, the obsever in Miss Talib's

classroom become familiar with name of certain students in the class. Few

115

students' name are called on very often; othe name have never been called on
during the whole period of obsevation.

Rana, Hamama, Jamila, Nadia, and Manal whose name are called on most
often are among the bet students in terms of achievement on tets. They are
also the only students who initiate questions or comments in the classroom.
They repreent a group of students who "understand well from instructors," raise
their hands if quetions are offeed, and answe correctly if called on. If a
student from this group doe not understand something or quetions the teacher's
ideas, the teache will take this as a sign that the situation needs more
clarification. In two case of this type, the teache called on the obseve to
make the clarification. The teache gives more time to a student in this
"steering group" to repond or to correct herself if she doe not answe correctly
on the first try.

Among the more frequently utteed name are a few students who
repreent anothe group, those who sit quietly, listen passively, do not ask
questions, and very seldom answer a question correctly. If a student in this
group answes correctly, the teache make sure that the student is not reading
the answe from he notebook. The teacher then asks anothe quetion to
detemine that the student's answering the first quetion correctly was really a
sign of understanding. Whenever a student in this group answes incorrectly, she
will not be given time to correct heself.

A dramatic example of such a difference in treatment of the two types of
students is shown in the following extracts. .

Example 1

T: Some alpha particle pass through the (gold) sheet (in
Rutherford's experiment) with deviation in their paths, and some
particle are reflected. Why, Banan?

116

B: (Reading from he notebook) The deviation of some particle
from their paths and the reflection of some others indicate that
the atom has a very small area in which the matter of the atom
is concentrated . . .

T: You have copied this answe from the textbook. Explain it to us;
leave this notebook aside. (The teacher took Banan's notebook,
looked at the answes, and said, "Is this a notebook?") What is
the small thing?

B: Vey small region with positive charge.

T: What is the positive charge? Who has the positive charge in the
atom? What does the atom have?

(The teache threw the notebook on Banan's desk.)

We are back to the stupidity of the beginning of the year. Do
you want me to spank you twice and cause a dizzines for you?
Do you want us to waste the time on the stupid people of the
class?

(The teache turned to the class with anger.)

Small numbe of particle are reflected; othes deviated. Why?
(Leson 3-6.)

Example 2

T: We come back to the ionic bond. What is the ionic bond? What
is the ionic bond, Nuha?

N: It is the bond whose molecule conduct the electrical current.
(The teache was standing near Nuha, facin her directly and

iving he gesture of rejection to he answer.)

N: Trying to give a bette statement) The bond whose atoms or
molecule . . .

T: Do we call them atoms and molecule? Doe an atom have a

charge?

The atom has in it a nucleus . . .

(Noise from othe students.)

Oh, class, let us undestand from Nuha. What is the atom?

It is the smallest part of the matte.

What are its components?

Protons, neutrons, and electrons.

What is the charge of the protons.

Protons are positive, neutrons are neutral, and electrons are

negative.

g

35:13:33?

T: What about the electrons and protons?

N: They are equal in number. -

T: Positive charges are equal to negative charges. How is the
atom?

N: Neutral.

T: How do atoms and molecule of ionic bond conduct electrical

current? Are not the atoms neutral? How do they conduct the
current? Who conducts the current? What should be available in
order that the current be conducted? Why did not you study,
Nuha? Sit down and listen (angrily) (from Leson 3-6).

117

Compare these two case of Banan and Nuha with the following two

extracts.

Example 3

T: (Reading question number 14) Explain why a glass rod is charged
positively when rubbed with silk, Manal.

M: Because the glass has a negative charge. Electrons from it go to
the silk.

$5: No, miss.
T: No, the glass is positive and the silk is negative?
55: Me, miss; me, miss.

T: No, let Manal herself answe.

M: Electrons move from silk to glass.

T: It (the glass) is positive; if it takes electrons, then it will be
negative. Which one lose electrons?

55: Silk.

M: Silk.

55: No, no . . .

T: Let us go with Manal as she likes. Silk lose electrons and it
becomes positive. But what does the quetion say? The glass is
positive and the silk is . . .

T at Ss: Negative

M: The glass lose electrons and become positive. The protons
become more than electrons, so the glass become positive. Silk
takes electrons, the electrons become more than protons, and
the silk become negative.

T: Of course, the transfe of electrons is caused by rubbing (the
glass with silk). Quetion l5 . . . (from Leson 3-6).

T: CH4 carbon (drawing the nucleus and electrons in orbits) has
atomic number six. The atomic number is . . .
T at $5: Six 2 and 4.
T: How many (electrons) in the outside orbit?
T 8: Ss: Four.
T: Does it (carbon) tend to gain or lose (electrons? Jamila?
: Tends to gain.
55: Doe not gain or lose.
T: Now generally speaking, it has four (electrons); does it tend to
gain or lose?
J: Sometime it lose; sometime it gains.
Ss: (noises)

T: Does it gain or lose?

J: It tends to lose.

T: Doe it lose the four (electrons)?
J: (silence)

S: Share

S: Does not lose and does not gain.

7."

Does not lose nor

118

T & Ss: Does it gain
T: It likes to share. (Then she moved on to show how C atom shares
with four H to form CH4.) (lesson 3-6)

Jamila and Manal belong to the steering group. Two similar case, with
Hamama and Nadia, form the same group are also distinguished. Banan and Nuha
belong to the group whose name are also frequently heard in the classroom.
Four more name can be easily distinguished as belonging to this group.
Menbers of this group seem to get some attention from the teacher. They are
frequently called on to answer quetions and to check their notebooks and their
attentiveness. They get considerable verbal punishment (and physical
punishment, in one case of four students). The teacher feels that thee students
should be reprimanded for their lazines and carelesness.

Some students are careless. They do not mind whether they
understand or do not, and they do not even ask questions about what

they do not know. 1 am concerned about them because if neglected a

student of this type will never improve. One student started to study

well after I reprimanded her in front of the class. Sometime I call

on a student of this type to go to the board and answe a question or

solve a problem, and 1 know that she cannot; but I need to put

pressure on her and to notice where the weaknes exists . . . (from

an interview with the teacher, March 11).

This group will be called the "concern group." Three students of this group
(the teacher calls it Group C) have been interviewed and expresed their
frustration for this kind of treatment. All the students who were inteviewed
mentioned that they do not ask questions if they do not know something, because
they are afraid of hearing insulting comments from the teacher. One student
expresed her feeling this way:

1 prefe to ask another girl afte the leson. I am afraid to hear
some words. She (the teacher) will start saying, "Did not we explain

this?"; then she will add a few words of insult. Miss Talib is a good
teache; she is not a special case in this; all teachers do the same ..."

119

Anothe student who is the siste of Miss Talib and belongs to the "steeing
group" was asked by the reearche why most students do not ask quetions about
what they do not know. She answeed in this way:

It depends on the nature of the student heself. Some students
are courageous, most of then are afraid. A student is afraid to ask
quetions, afraid of the teache, afraid for the othe students to get
the impresion that she doe not undestand, and even afraid of
heself . . .

Miss Talib is aware of thee two groups and of a third one which make up
the majority, the aveage type students, who are consideed a "refeence group"
(or group B) by Miss Talib.

You have to explain the mateial at the level of the aveage
student. Those who are above the aveage should accommodate
themselve to this method; those who are below should improve
thenselve in order to catch up. It is a frequent practice to ask
anothe student or meely to repeat the correct answe already
given, because this is useful for students of the type C. Repetition
teache the donkey, as the proveb says. But I can't do this always in
order that all students will undestand; whee is the time for this?
What will happen to the required mateial that I have to cover and
the plan that I need to finish? One cannot guarantee that all students
of the class have understood the subject 10096. Thee are always five
students in evey class who are careles, and they know themselve.
They know that they will repeat the geneal exam . . . (Inteview,
March 1).

It was noticed earlie in the analysis of classroom vebal inteaction that
categorie l and 2 are almost empty. The very few words of thanks are mostly
offeed whenever a student peforms a procedural duty--cleaning the board,
bringing something from the office, and the like. Only one instance of
acknowledging a student's idea was recorded during the period of obsevation.
The teache was talking about solar enegy as a method of purification of sea
water when a student volunteeed to mention that Jordan has a station for using
solar enegy in Agaba. The teache made a few comments about the station and
thanked the student for bringing this into the discussion. Only one instance was

recorded whee the teache made a joke about one student who was making jokes

120

about the science course (how difficult it is and how science teachers turn
students crazy) during the previous day, the day of school activities. It seems
that this was reported to Miss Talib, so she started the lesson of that day by
referring to the student's jokes which made all the class laugh. Then she added a
few words of criticism of the student. Other than that, each lesson was a
continuous flow of verbal communication about official business, the kind of

classroom that Flanders (1970) calls an "afflectional desert."

The Teacher's Power and Control

A major criterion for the science supervisor's choosing Miss Talib to
participate in this study was her confidence in herself and her strong personality.
Statistics of the Ministry of Education in 1980 show that 9296 of the total number
of teachers at the secondary level are not qualified to teach according to the
official qualifications required by Education Act No. 16 of 1964* (Jaradat 6t
Abdul-Hamid, 1980). Miss Talib is considered among the eight percent of
teachers in Jordan who are certified to teach at the secondary level since she
has a diploma in education (33 credits hours of graduate work) beyond her
Bachelor's degree in chemistry. This fact might contribute to part of her
confidence, but the patterns of communication and roles played in the classroom
will help in better understanding the position of the teacher. Two major roles
for Miss Talib in her classroom can be identified, both of which have the spirit of

control«control of knowledge and control of the social order.

 

*To be certified to teach at the secondary school level, a teacher should
have at least one year of graduate studies in education, in addition to the
bachelor's degree in a subject matter area.

121

Control of Knowledge e«««-> Control of Social Orde

Botln role are carried out simultaneously, and to maintain one role, the
other should also be maintained. The teacher feels that she has to be in control
of the educational proces, on one hand:

If I do not guarantee this control, can you imagine what a class

of 56 students of this age would look like in terms of noise and

disturbance? How can any kind of learning be achieved without such

control? What would the school principal or visitor from the office

of education think of a teacher whose classroom is not well

disciplined and controlled? (Informal discussion with Miss Talib,

Fieldnote, February 16.)

On the other hand, the teache is expected to teach the textbook, so the
sequence of topics and the organization of the subject matter should meet the
semeter plan to cover all tapics:

I need the least amount of interuption to carry out my plan. I
cannot proceed on the pace of those slow learners. I have no time to

wait for them. They have to raise their level to the average. I do

not teach 20 or 30 students in a classroom. I teach 50 to 60 students

(Informal discussion with Miss Talib, Fieldnote, February 16).

So there are many academic and social constraints under which the teacher
works and which legitimize and justify the authority the teacher has to have to
perform he duties. Expectation of the administrative staff, presure of the
curriculum, the large number of students in the classroom, and the attempt to
avoid the risk of problems can be identified among those constraints.

Authority of a teacher should be distinguished from the power she might
posses. Authority of a teacher implie a certain set of roles recognized clearly
by students where the teacher also feels legitimate in exercising her control In
the classroom. Power, on the other hand, refers to the spirit of dominance which
is possessed by a powerful teacher whether students like it or not.

The relationship between Miss Talib and her students Involve consistent

forms of inteaction related to the organization and pace of the knowledge

transmitted and received where the teacher exercise her authority with no need

122

or chance for negotiation. But even in other areas such as classroom
management and discipline where students might have consideable power or
right (a more appropriate term) to negotiate a working consensus at the
individual or collective level, Miss Talib seems to display her powe in forms of
commands backed by threats or quetions worded in reprimands to justify the
required behavior (see the extract from leson 2-3 in Appendix E).

The picture of classroom interaction should be seen in the immediate flow
of teacher-student inteaction (at the micro-level) without denying the impact of
some subtle ways in which broade social structural factors exist at the macro-
level. But this does not necessarily need to carry out a systematic analysis from
one level of the social hierarchy to another. The position adopted here is that
teachers and students can accomplish teaching and learning together in certain
social interactions and under conditions which are of their own choice. There is
no need to explain the teaching-learning behaviors in a deteministic manne
refering to external forces. The performance of administration, the
communication channels with those on "top," the societal view of the teacher,
parents' neglect of their children, low salarie in the teaching profession (are
always issues of discussion In the teachers' hall. Such. extenal forces are always
referred to and viewed as causes of all ills in education. Since teachers feel
their inability to deal with such cause, the reult of such discussions is, in one
word, frustration. Edwards and Furlong (1978) refe to social structures as the
product of social inteaction of the human agency and at the same time the

medium through which interaction in that form is possible.

Evaluation of the Teaching-Learning Process
This section is intended to look at the evaluation process as one phase of

the teaching act in Miss Talib's classroom. At the beginning of second senete

123

this year, the Northeastern secondary school received from the Office of
Education a new model of a planning book where the leson plan lists the
components vertically as shown in Appendix L. The introduction of the planning
book emphasizes, however, that:
The teacher should keep into consideation that evaluation is a
continuous interrelated and integrative proces which measure the
extent of achieving the leson objectives in light of the general goals
of the subject, in order to help the student modify his/her behavior
towards the bette.
Rhetorical questions wee used quite often by Miss Talib to make sure that the
class as a group could repeat the correct information after it had been stated.
But she also asked questions to individual students or asked the class to solve a
numerical problem in their notebooks as part of the continuous evaluation. The
frequency of such questions was low and in some lesons evaluation can hardly be
seen. The level of the teacher's awareness of continuous evaluation did not
satisfy four professors of education at Yarmouk University who independently
viewed the videotape of leson 2-5. Three of them obseved that she seems not
aware of the continuous evaluation while the fourth obseved that, "I did not feel
the preence of any activity or even indication of evaluation in which the
teacher tried to make sure whether the girls have learned something or not"
(Viewing sesion and interview with Dr. Hasim, March 13).

A science supervisor in a neighboring district viewed the same tape and
noticed that:

Questions which the teacher use can be categorized in one type,
they are direct quetions, on the surface, related directly to an
already mentioned bit of information. She does not use the deep
probing quetion in which she can find out the problematic aspects in
the students' learning to deal with them" (Inteview afte a viewing
sesion with All Hatim, a science supervisor, March 14).

Whenever the teacher asks a student to solve a numeical problem on the

board, the student had very little chance to present her own understanding of the

124

problem. The continuous flow of questions and comments of the teacher guided
the student to perform exactly what the teacher wants her to perform. An
example of this is shown in appendix . . . (lesson 2-3) where Rana was expected
to work out a problem on the board about the procedures of preparing a solution
of NaCl which has a molarity of two moles/litre. All Rana did while at the board
was write what the teacher dictated. There were only two instances where Rana
uttered something.

One way to check the student's understanding is to check the quality of the
work in the notebooks. Miss Talib did, in fact, do this ched<ing, but her interest
was whether a student tried to do the homework. She asked, "Who of you did not
try to answer the questions?" If she chose to examine the notebooks of some
students, she would offer some comments about the organization of the
notebooks in addition to the content of the homework.

One of the instances in which the teacher got valuable knowledge of
students' learning was the follow-up of seat work which happened only in solving
numerical problems. In such a case the teacher had the chance to see the
strategies of solving problems in the notebooks of the first few students who
finished their work quickly. When the number of students who finish the work
and leave their seats to show the teacher their work increased considerably, the
time allowed to do seat work was terminated, and one student was called on to
work out the problem on the board.

The official evaluation record divides the total score of the semester into
certain components. The teacher was expected to make tests and to record
scores according to the agenda presented in Figure 4.4.

The teacher was expected to make at least six exams, to grade them,
record their scores, and to return the graded papers to the students. In many

cases the teacher makes more exams than the required number, then chooses

125

some of them to be included in the evaluation record. Twenty percent of the
total score is devoted to making an assessment of the students' activitie during
the semeter. Such activitie usually include lab performance, if any; individual
projects and reports about extracurricular activitie; classroom participation; lab
notebook and/or classroom notebook; etc. Miss Talib has to fill in a record of
this type for each of the seven classrooms she teaches. It is really a heavy load,
epecially when this is added to the other administrative reponsibilities that
every teacher has to share.

During the period of obsevation, Miss Talib made several tets, but three
written tets made for the purpose of this study were also used as part of the
classroom tet record.

The exam is not consideed a welcome event for the students or for the
teacher. For a teacher to prepare the tet, grade it, and record the grade in a
classroom of 50 to 60 students is a burden. For most students, the exam is an
occasion for anxiety with very little impact on their learning and understanding.
The exam traditionally is a measure of how much a student doe know. The
exam is often used as an instrument of threats and punishment. Miss Talib tried
to relate the concept of concentration in leson 2-3 to the number of molecule
defined in the mole according to Avogadro's hypotheis presented in the first
chapte. She called on Majida to define Avogadro's hypothesis. Majida did not
respond, other students started whispering, but no hands were raised. Miss Talib
addressed the class, saying, "What is the problem, class? Would you like me to
give you an exam? Or what? Return to the custom of expelling out of the
classroom?"

In grading a paper, the teacher marks the response right or wrong. The
incorrect response are very seldom brought into the discussion, and the

individual student does not have enough courage to ask the teacher why they are

126

Student
Names ABCDEFGHIJKLK+L

 

k

“‘0‘“

etc.

Key:

A: Score, first month

B: Score, second month
C: Average of A and B

D: Two month exam score
E: Score, third month

F: Score, fourth month
Average of E and F

H: Average of C, D, and G
1: Semester final

9

J: Semester exam score (average of H and 1)
K: 8096 of J

L: 2096 for activities

K + L: Semester score

Figure 4.4. Agenda of school examination for one semester.

127

wrong. The tets made for the purpose of this study in Miss Talib's classroom
have valuable information about students' learning. Miss Talib did not make use
of any of them. The only thing she was intereted in was the list of name with

total scores on each test.

Student Learning Outcome

 

Introduction

It is useful at this point to distinguish between the intended learning
outcome and the accomplished ones. Earlie in this chapter, the general goals
of the natural science course as defined by the textbook and the teaches' guide
wee briefly mentioned. The teachers' guide specified the objective of each
chapte of the textbook. If the teaching-lening process of the first three
chaptes of the NSC at the tenth grade level were successful, then the students
would be able to achieve the objectives listed in Table 4.1.

It is clear from Table 4.1 that the objective intended by the curriculum
writes included conceptual knowledge learning, affective learning, and skill
learning. If thee three facets of science have apprOpriate share in teaching
and learning science, then it is hoped that the nature of science as an integral
body of content, proces, and attitude can be understood.

The teacher is expected to write down in his/her leson plan the geneal
goal and objective of teaching each leson. Appendix L shows that the
statement of general goals written by Miss Talib has three parts:

1. acquiring certain knowledge about nature and about science
(cognitive learning),

2. developing scientific attitude (affective learning), and

3. developing intellectual and sensory skills (skill learning).

128

Developing Attitude Toward Science

Miss Talib seems to be concerned about developing positive attitudes
toward science In her students. She was upset when she learned that one student
was singing a song about the difficulty of undestanding science and how science
turns students crazy. She employed the textbook's suggetion of asking students
to find out about methods of salt wate purification from other resources, books,
or persons and to write reports about the subject. This activity was part of the
2096 semete score devoted to students' activitie.

But the ways in which Miss Talib has refered to students' abilities to learn
science were seen by some students as an indication that science is a difficult
subject and some students were not able to study it. In her reponse to a student
who did not answer a question correctly (Leson 1-6), Miss Talib made a
statement which has some relevance.

T: These proportions are applications of which law, Banan?

S: (Silence.)

T: What is this, Banan? For how long should we wait for you? Are

you going to be in the science branch?

On a similar occasion, she addressed anothe student, saying, "What is the
problem with you, Sabah? From the beginning of the year until now, you did not
improve. Can't you undestand science? Or is science beyond your ability?"
(Leson 2-9).

Both Banan and Sabah viewed such statements of Miss Talib as indicators
that science is a difficult subject and they would choose the liteature branch
because it is easie than the science branch. Banan expressed the influence of
the teacher's statement on her perception of science more explicitly, saying,
"Did not you hear he (Miss Talib) saying not any student can be in the science
branch? Science branch needs peeple who can understand science and do well in

it!" (Inteviews of students, "Banan," March 11).

129

Developing Scientific Skills

The authors of the teaches' guide expected that learning some scientific
skills would be directly related to doing practical activities. If students do not
have the chance to do such activitie, to be involved in solving problems, and to
finding out about things, using their sense and piece of equipment to employ
certain procedures, the skill and process aspect of learning science is not
expected to develop. The practical activitie conducted by Miss Talib were
mentioned earlie. Students in Miss Talib's classroom did not have the chance to
practice any practical activity.

The intended outcomes refered to by Miss Talib's leson plans did include
the three aspects of learning science: content, proces, and attitude. But the
major emphasis in her classroom teaching was on learning the cognitive content
of the course.

Students' Conceptual Learnirm

The following section will address the students' learning outcome related
the content of the course using three diffeent source of data, the students'
response in the classroom, during the inteviews, and on the following written
tets prepared by the reearcher:

«25 multiple choice items, pretet (1.1) and posttet (1.2) of chapte one

«30 multiple choice items, posttet of chapter two (tet 2.2)

«3 free response items at the end of chapter two

«22 multiple choice items, pretest of chapter three (tet 3.1)

«33 multiple choice items, posttet of chapte three (test 3.2)

«1 free reponse item at the end of chapter three

Similar items in the pre- and posttet will help to investigate the change in
students' perceptions of some concepts as a result of learning. A number of

items from chaptes one and two wee also repeated in the posttet of chapte

130

three. This helped to investigate the retention factor in student learning. It is
not the intention of this section, however, to deal with all aspects of these
responses because this will make the discussion a voluminous one. The goals and
objectives of the course as presented in the teachers' guide were used as
indicators of the importance of some aspects which were chosen to focus on.
Miss Talib used the responses on the three posttests as evaluation measures to be
included in her evaluation records of the classroom. The quantity of learning is
the focus of evaluation in this case (see Table 4.10).

Table 4.11 shows the students' lerning outcomes as measured by the three
multiple choice posttests combined together. The total number of items in those
three tests is 88. It is obvious that no student was able to answer all the items
correctly. Very few students (9.4%) answered 75% or more of the items
correctly, 69.296 of the students answered 50% of the items correctly and were
considered successful, while the rest (30.296) wee considered failures. All
students answered 3196 or more of the items correctly. The mean score for the
whole class was 5796 (Table 4.10). Figure 4.5 shows that the distribution of the
scores was not too far from the normal. When the three posttests were viewed
separately, as in Table 4.12, the highest performance for the students was shown
on test 3.2 at the end of Chapter Three, while the lowest performance was shown
on test 2.2 at the end of Chapter Two of the textbook.

Such statistics—the mean, the percentage of success, etc.«are often used
by school teachers to describe students' performance on their courses and to
compare classrooms with each other as well as to make decisions about students
who should be in the scientific branch, who should take the exam for the course
again, and course again, and who should be promoted to the next grade.
Although such statistics have some indication about the quantity of student

learning and provide some base for comparing students and making decisions,

RESULTS OF THE STUDENTS' PERFORMANCE

131

Table 4.10

ON THE THREE POSTTESTS

 

Raw Raw Raw
Score Score Score
of of of
1-2 2-2 3-2
(Max. (Max. (Max.
Score Score Score Total % of
25) 30) 33) a+b+c
._d
Name a b c d -§§x 100
AFIFI, M. 10 17 12 39 44
AMAL, A. 17 12 19 48 55
AMAL, H. 12 13 20 45 51
AMAL, S. 16 16 14 46 52
AMINA, A. 16 15 24 55 63
AULA, G. 17 13 20 50 57
AULA, K 16 13 16 45 51
AURAIB, A. 14 14 15 43 49
BANAN, J. 10 14 17 41 47
BANAN, T 11 17 13 41 47
BASHIRA, M. 8 ll 22 41 47
BASMA, F 19 6 23 47 53
BUTHAIN, A. 18 20 24 62 70
FATIN, S. 15 12 18 45 51
FIRIAL, A. 12 7 15 34 39
GAMAR,A. 12 15 20 47 53
GAZALA, A. 12 15 18 52 59
GAZALA, S. 19 13 26 51 58
HAMAMA, A. 18 20 19 57 65
HANIDA, M. 22 21 25 68 77
HANAN, J. 17 20 30 67 76
HIDAIA, S. 11 12 17 40 45
JAMILA, M. 24 25 30 79 90
KHITAM, M. 11 17 12 40 45
KHITAM, S. 22 14 29 65 74
LINA. A. 15 9 17 41 47
LUBNA, G. 13 12 22 47 53
MAIS, A. 15 21 23 59 67
MAJIDA, D. 11 18 10 39 44
MALAK, E. 13 10 16 39 44
MANAL, A. 15 19 19 53 60
MANAL, M. 14 17 20 51 58
MARY, M. 23 23 22 52 70
MATAF, M. 18 16 22 56 64
MUNA, D. 17 18 19 54 61
MUNA, M. l3 l4 14 41 47

132

Table 4.10, continued

 

NADIA, T. 21 23 29 73 83
NANAL, F. 16 23 '16 55 63
NIDA, E. 18 20 24 62 70
NUHA, H. 18 19 21 58 60
NUHA, M. 16 18 22 56 64
RAHMA, M. 9 13 12 34 39
RANA, S. 21 25 28 74 84
RUBA, A. 13 11 22 46 52
SABAH, M. 13 8 'll 32 36
SAFA, E. 13 ll 18 42 48
SAJIDA, A. '17 15 20 52 59
SAJIDA, M. 15 14 24 53 60
SANSAN, A. '17 17 20 54 61
TAQNA, R. '17 17 29 62 70
NISAL, M. 5 12 10 27 31
ZAIN, A. 16 I4 16 46 52
ZAINAB, A. 15 12 17 44 50
Mean: 15.09 15.49 19.58 50.18 50.02
Table 4.11

Students' Responses on the Three Multiple Choice Posttests Combined Together

 

 

 

 

 

Percentage of Items Answered Correctly Percentpge of Students
100 0.0
75 9.4
66 22.6
50 69.8
31 100.0
Table 4.12

Students' Responses on the Five Multiple Choice Pre- and Posttests

 

 

Percentage of Items Percentage of Students on Each Test
Answered Correctly _l._l 1,} £2 _3_._l 3_._2_
100 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
75 0.0 13.2 9.4 0.0 22.6
66 0.0 35.8 20.8 0.0 37.7
50 13.2 71.7 52.8 11. 77.4
25 88.7 98.1 96.2 83.0 100.0

 

 

133

Table 4.13
Frequencies

 

Score Intervals

90
85
80
75
70
65
60
55
5O
45
40
35
30
25

Midpoints of Intervals

92.5
87.5
82.5
77.5
72.5
67.5
62.5
57.5
52.5
47.5
42.5
37.5
32.5
90-94

.—
-uw~o"'onoonou-o'—

 

 

<nzmcomxm
.4
d

_s
O

 

 
 

Figure 4.4.

Graph of frequencies of students' scores on three posttests

 

6

MIDPOINT 0F INTERVALS or scoats

 

 

 

134

they do not provide much knowledge about the quality of student learning. There
are some intended learning outcomes which might not be accomplished by the
majority of the students. In this case, a close attention should be paid to such
learning outcome, their suitability for inclusion in the course, the method of
presentation in the textbook, and the method by which they have been taught in
the classroom.

Appendix F shows the frequencies of students' reponse on the four
alternative of each item in the all-multiple choice tets. The following sections
have presented some aspects of students' learning as shown through the
performance of students on those tets, through their responses in the classroom
and through their response to the researcher's questions in the inteviews.
Learning §1_>out the
Nature of Science

Understanding the nature of science and the work of scientists was
considered a major goal for the whole course. Volume one which was taught in
the first semete of the year dealt with this in the unit devoted to
experimentation, measurement, explanation, and prediction. In the second
volume, unit three starts by refering to the fact that experiments that
scientists have done on the structure of matter can be done by anyone, and the
results of scientists' work are not absolutely true«they have a temporal nature
and are subject to change. The pretet of chapter one has thee two items:

Item one: Experiments that wee conducted by scientists during their

invetigations in the nature of matte are characterized by:

1. no one except scientists can repeat them,

2. anyone can repeat them,

3. they did not provide evidences on atoms and molecule, or
4. they proved that the molecule is the smallet part of matte.

135

Item two: When scientists come to some conclusions depending on

practical experiments, their conclusions are:

1. correct in all circumstances,

2. temporal subject to change,

3. not possible to accept them until other scientists come to similar
conclusions, or

4. incorrect if the prevailing theories cannot explain them.

The distribution of student responses is shown in Table 4.14

 

Table 4.14
Responses of Students on Item One and Item Two
Item One Item Two
__Choices eel .%_stt_-1 29522 are; 225m see}.
1. 11 15 5 2 1 7
2.* 6 14 39 * 16 25 33
3. 5 5 2 32 15 8
4. 29 19 7 3 12 5

* 2 is the correct response in both items.

 

 

It is clear that the number of students who responded correctly have
increased through the time of teaching the unit and more students are learning.
But after the teacher covered chapter three, the students' views of science and
scientists' work were becoming closer to what was intended. It was interesting,
however, that until the end of teaching chapter three, which has much of the
description of scientists' work and possibility of doing their experiments, there
were students who stuck to their misconceptions. Two students were identified
who continued to hold the idea that experiments of scientists did not provide
evidence on the existence of atoms and molecules. These students were asked
about their reasons for this misconception. Their responses were basically

similar and interesting. One of them said:

136

Atoms or molecules were not found to be in existence in the real
sense. There is no way to prove that by experiments. Scientists
invented these names to understand the structure of matter. They
are theories, atomic theory or molecular theory. Scientists accepted
these theories because there are no better theories. In the future
scientists may come up with better theories because the new theories
may explain more observation, but they will continue to be theories.

This student was considered a smart girl in the classroom, although her
performance on tests was not comparable to the clarity of her judgment. She
answered the second item correctly, holding the idea that scientific conclusions
are temporal and subject to change. When she was told that the right answer of
item one was the fact that any person could repeat the experiments that
scientists have done before, she replied, "I thought that this idea was definitely
incorrect, because it is unreasonable to think that anyone can do that. More
reasonable is to say any other scientist or anyone who is qualified or trained."

Item 21 in the pretest and posttest of chapter three is related in its
meaning to item two above.

Item 21. Dalton suggested the atomic theory to interpret a number of

phenomena and experimental laws which were known at his time, but

later his theory failed to interpret other phenomena and observations.

This means that:

1. there is a need to develop new experiments in order that their
results conform with the theory.

2. there is a need to modify Dalton's theory to be able to explain
the new experiments.

3. the previous laws and experiments did not have correct results.

4. the explanation of Dalton's theory of the previous observations
and experiments was incorrect.

Student responses on the different alternatives of the items are seen in Table

l1.15.

137

 

Table 11.15
Students' Responses on Item 21, Test 3.1, 3.2
Choices m Posttest
l. 12 13
2. * 29 2a
3. 8 7
14. 2 5
not answered 2 4

*the correct answer

 

 

Dalton's model of the atom is an example of the fate of the theory that
fails to explain new observations and new results. The number of students who
realized that Dalton's theory has to be modified (29) was reduced in the posttest
to 24 students. The number of students who thought that experiments should be
developed to get results which are in conformity with theory and those who
thought that explanations of previous experiments according to Dalton's theory
were incorrect changed very little. Four students in the posttest left the
question unanswered. On item two, four students of those who thought that in
the case of the failure of the theory to account for some experimental
conclusion, the conclusions are considered incorrect were consistent in that
belief. In item 21, they based the need to develop the experiments so they gave
results which conform with the theory. It seems that such consistency in their
perception prevented them from following the major theme of the unit which is
the continued development, change, modification of new theories to respond to

new discoveries and observations. This might also provide the conviction that

138

students' previous knowledge will be of great help or hindrance to learning new
knowledge on the part of many students.

Item 20 in test three required students to distinguish between a statement
of explanation and a statement of description. Before starting chapter three,
students held certain ideas about the distinction between description and
explanation as two basic activities of science. Laws and theories were redefined
in chapter one to employ this distinction. But the study of chapter three added
more confusion to what students had before. Only eight students from the 18
who identified the descriptive statement preserved their conception. The
attention of many students (28) was directed to chose the explanatory statement
to be a descriptive statement. In fact, this statement was given in the textbook
as an explanation of an observation (p. 76). Both the descriptive and explanatory
statements were illustrated in figures in the textbook. In this respect, most
students (34 of 53) were able to realize the fact that the laws of science are
descriptive statements or relationships. But the problem might be in the analysis
of the statement to find out whether it carries a relationship between two or
more factors (description or law) or implies an attempt of understanding the

meaning of a theory.

Learning Laws of Chemical Composition

Patterns in Miss Talib's use of questions were reported earlier in this
chapter. Most questions were found to be of the rhetorical type where the
statement of the question carries a clue to the required response, and responses
are given by students spontaneously in a choral manner. This practice can tell
very little about students' learning. Questions directed to individual students
might tell something. Students of the steering group and of the interest group

received considerable numbers of such questions. The responses usually

139

depended on the level of the questions. In most cases students of the steering
group were able to answer any questions correctly, but there were instances in
which the observer easily realized that even students in the steering group had
not learned much. Laws of chemical composition is an example. Miss Talib
spent one lesson in presenting these laws using examples from the textbook. In
the next lesson, she spent ll} minutes reviewing these laws. During the review,
students showed very little participation. No student was able to define any
chemical law on the first try. Manal, a student from the steering group, was
called on to give an example of the law of definite proportion. She did not give
an example in her response; she only calculated the proportion between the mass
of oxygen and hydrogen in water without relating it to anything else. She was
able to state a few facts which are necessary to come to a conclusion about the
law, but she did not reach that conclusion. The teacher made the necessary
illustration by explaining two methods of preparing water and indicated that in
both cases a water molecule has the same proportion of oxygen and hydrogen.
When she asked students to state the law and repeated the question twice, none
of them raised their hands. The teacher paraphrased the definition and asked the
question again, and this time six students raised their hands. Hamama was called
on to respond, and she gave a satisfactory statement. No student raised her hand
to define the laws of simple multiple proportion. The teacher asked the students
to give an example of the law, and Rana was the only student who raised her
hand, so the teacher got upset and reprimanded and threatened the class: "You
either study well or leave the classroom." When Rana was called on to respond,
the situation was similar to the earlier case of Manal and the second law: Rana
calculated the proportion of carbon to oxygen in carbon monoxide (3:11) and in
carbon dioxide (3:8), but she did not make the required conclusion. Miss Talib

called on the best student, Jamila, to state the conclusion. Jamila's statement

1'40

was a meaningless one, so the teacher tried to correct it by using another
incorrect statement, repeating the incorrect conclusion while the class was

repeating with her in chorus.

T: Any two elements always react with each other to produce more
than one compound. The pr0portions are:
(The following statements can be distinguished in the chorus.)
T 6: Ss: Multiple of each other.
Ss: Simple numerical pro ortion (the correct phrase).
Ss: Constant proportion (from Lesson 1-#).

The inability of most students to show an active role in this lesson was realized
by the teacher, and on two occasions she reprimanded the class for that (see

fieldnotes of lesson 1-4 in Appendix C).

Several errors were made by the teacher and by some students without
being corrected, besides the several statements made by the teacher which were
not accurate. During the time which was given to students to c0py the "correct
solution" from the board into their notebooks, Miss Talib examined the notebooks
of a few students and found that one student had solved problem 12 at the end of
chapter one (lesson 1-6) in a way which was different than Miss Talib had. The
student's solution was, in fact, correct, and showed that she had a good grasp of
the problem. However, Miss Talib showed that the student's method was
incorrect. In the same lesson one student was solving a problem on the law of
multiple proportion on the board. She calculated the mass of an element which
combined with one gram of oxygen in the first compound and the mass of oxygen
which combined with one gram of the element in the second compound. The
result, of course, was not correct, and the teacher did not make the needed

correction.

Forty-three students were not able to recognize the definition of the law
of multiple proportion before Miss Talib taught chapter one in the textbook.
Thirty-four of them were not able to do so even after they were taught the

chapter. Large numbers of students (21) confused this law with the law of

141

definite proportions (item 17, test 1.1 and test 1.2). The problem which the
teacher faced in teaching this topic can account for the fact that students did
not seem to learn much and the teacher was frustrated by their level of
participation in the classroom. Although Miss Talib blamed the students for this,
both the students, on one hand, and the teacher, on the other hand, seem to be
the victims of inadequate presentation in the textbook which put more emphasis
on stating the definition and solving numerical problems which were poorly

constructed than on building an adequate understanding of the concept.

Kinds and Numbers of Atoms in a Molecule

 

Eleven students were interviewed individually, each for a few minutes.
Three main questions were asked. The first question was about the difference
between the number of atoms and kinds of atoms in a molecule, the second
question was about the direction of an electrical current, and the third question
was aobut the relationship between the boiling point of a pure liquid and a
solution. Identifying the different kinds of atoms in a molecule of ammonia
(NI-I3) was a question on the pretest of chapter three. Eighteen students out of
53 responded that there are three different kinds of atoms. Seven students
among those who were interviewed were among those 18. Each student was given
a molecular formula (NaCl, CaClz, H2504, NH3, KMan, etc.) and asked to
identify the kind of atoms in the molecule. The seven students were not able to
answer correctly on the first try. They confused the kinds of atoms with the
number of atoms in the molecule. Some students had problems in representing
atoms and molecules by symbols and molecular formulas. The meaning of the
numbers in a molecular formula was not clear to some students. Four referred
to the number 3 in NH3 as something different from both N and H, so they

counted three different "things" in the molecule of NH3. The other three

142

students referred to the number 3 as indicating the presence of three atoms in
the molecule. Identifying the elements by using chemical symbols is an
important topic in chapter one. In the classroom teaching, there were plenty of
examples of using symbols, but 30 students out of 53 failed to realize that NH3
had two kinds of atoms, N and H. The interview with one student went this way:

I: How many different kinds of atoms are in a molecule of
ammonia NH3?
S: Three kinds.
I: How did you find that?
: Here it is written 2.
1: Three of what?
5: Three atoms of ammonia.
I: Is NH3 an atom or a molecule?
5: It is a molecule?
I: How did you know that?
Because atoms can't be found separately; they are found in
molecules.
What is the symbol of hydrogen?
H .
Dges the symbol refer to an atom or a molecule?
To an atom.
How do we refer to a molecule?
It is a compound.
What do you mean by a compound?
I mean more than one atom combined together in a definite
proportion.
H is a symbol representing one hydrogen atom. What do we call
H2?
I do not know. What do you mean?
I mean that we refer to the atom by symbol and to the molecule
by the group of symbols referring to the types and number of
atoms in the molecule.
Oh, I see . . . I know what that is, but I forgot what we call it.
Do you mean molecular formula?
I think so.
Ok, now, how many hydrogen atoms in each molecular formula of

the following: HCl, H20, NH3?

One, two, three.

How many nitrogen atoms in the following: NO, N02, N20?
One, one, and two.

Very good. What are the two elements in H20?
Hydrogen and oxygen.

How many elements in the compound NH3?

Ah, hawnitrogen and hydrogen, only two.

What is the total number of atoms of the two elements?
One of nitrogen and three hydrogen.

So how many kinds of atoms are there in the molecule?
Two kinds of atoms.

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143

I: Could you write the molecular formula for the molecule of

ammonia and water?

5: (The student wrote it this way: NH3 and H20, where the

numbers 3 and 2 were written at the level of the symbols and not
as subscripts to them.)

During the discussion of symbols and formulas, nine students showed some
problems in writing the symbols, seven students did not realize the need for a
capital letter 9 in a molecule of NaOH, two students were not able to write the
formula, and only two students from the 11 interviewees were able to write the
formula of sodium hydroxide correctly.

Learning about the Direction
of Electron Flow

The 11 students interviewed were shown a diagram similar to Figure 4.6 and
asked the following questions:

1. Is there an electrical current in this diagram?

2. If yes, what is the source of it?

3. What is the direction of Na”, Cl" ions in the solution?

4. What is the direction of electrons in the electrical circuit
outside the battery?

5. How did the negative electrode of the battery and the positive
electrode become negative and positive?

6. Do you expect electrical current to flow inside the battery?
None of the 11 students was able to realize that chemical reaction was the source
producing electrons inside the battery. Only two realized that the battery itself
is part of the electrical circuit where electrons should continue their flow inside
the battery in order to have a closed circuit. '

At least seven students did not seem to be influenced by the incorrect
emphasis made by Miss Talib that electrons flow from positive electrodes to
negative electrodes in the outside circuit. Five of those students were not aware

that the teacher made this emphasis contrary to what the textbook said. The

1M!

other two realized that, but they thought she was talking about some additional

ideas to which they did not pay attention.

 

 

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L--— __ __ __ __ _____.

 

 

 

Figure 14.6. Electrical current passing through an electrolyte.

 

One student stated: "I did not feel any problem in understanding that from
the textbook, it is clear. See?" (showing her copy of the textbook where she
underlined statements about the direction of electron flow from negative to
positive in five places on the same page).

The other four students were confused about the meaning of the signs (+
and -) on the electrodes of the battery. One of them expressed the change in her
conception in this way:

I used to think that the sign - on a battery means electrons and +
means protons, but in this chapter, I learned that protons do not move
because they are inside the nucleus. But yesterday, I learned a new
thing, that the sign - means that the electrode is in shortage of
electrons and the sign + means that the other electrode has an excess

of electrons, and that is why electrons flow from positive (+) to
negative (-).

1’45

Another student was confused by the warning that Miss Talib had made
about not confusing the flow of electrons with the flow of ions.

I used to think that anions in a solution move toward the
negative electrode and cations move toward the positive, but I think

that Miss Talib mentioned yesterday that the direction of the flow of

electrons outside the solution in an electric circuit is opposite to that

of ions inside the solution.

Boiling point and vapor pressure. A lot of time and effort was devoted to
teaching the relationship between the boiling point of a pure liquid or a solution
and its vapor pressure. Three multiple choice items about vapor pressure were
included in the test at the end of teaching chapter two. There was also a free
response test which included the following question: "Explain why a solution
boils at a higher point than a pure liquid." Of 53 students in the classroom, only
nine used the concept of vapor pressure in their free responses. They used the
concept in different ways:

-only two responses were considered to be correct eXplanations;
they stated that the vapor pressure of the solution was less than
that of the pure liquid

--one student mmtioned that pure liquid has a different vapor
pressure than solution

«three students mentioned that vapor pressure of solution is higher
than that of pure liquid

«two students mentioned that the boiling point of solution should
be higher in order that vapor pressure should be equal to
atmospheric pressure

--one student mentioned that saturated vapor pressure is a
constant at a certain temperature

The remaining #4 students did not even mention anything related to vapor
pressure. Almost half of them (23) thought that the high boiling point of a
solution was due to ”impurities" present in the solution or to the fact that the

solution had more than one substance so there was a need to boil the pure solvent

1116

first then to provide more heat to cause the other substances, the solutes, to
boil.

Since none of the students from the steering group provided a complete
answer to the question, the investigator intended to talk to them about that.
Three of them, Jamila, Nadia, and Manal, referred to the existence of another
substance in the solution, the solute, and the increase in the concentration of
this solute during the boiling process which requires an increasing heat and
temperature. This explanation, in fact, was given in the textbook to account for
the fact that the boiling point of the solution does not stay constant; it continues
to rise during the boiling process. All that is required to make this answer
relevant to the question was to refer to the impact of the solution on the pure
liquid which causes the vapor pressure of the solution to decrease. Auraib was
asked the question in the classroom (Lesson 2-11). Her response was similar to
that of Jamila, Nadia, and Manal; she was reprimanded for not being able to
answer correctly. Another student mentioned the role of vapor pressure, and the
teacher elaborated on the answer, emphasizing that the vapor pressure of the
solution is less than that of pure water, involving the class to state this fact in a
choral response. Auraib, however, did not change her mind. The written answer
given in the classroom and her oral answer in the interview were almost the

same.

Overview of Students' Learning
It was clear that most students did not understand the nature of science as
it was presented in the curriculum of the NSC. More than half of them did not
realize that scientific conclusions are temporal and subject to change; 12 of them
chose to believe that these conclusions should be incorrect if prevailing theories

did not explain them. Most students had problems learning the laws of chemical

147

composition, Faraday's laws of electrolysis, and many other basic concepts in
chemistry and in science in general, such as the element, the molecule,
solubility, and the number and kinds of atoms in a molecule. Students'
performance on stoichiometry related to calculation of concentration and
molarity was very poor. Similarly, the relationship between the vapor pressure
and the boiling point was not understood by the Majority of students.

In most cases, students have shown considerable progress in their learning
from instruction as measured by the difference between their performance on
pretests and posttests. This difference was a substantial one in learning the
following:

1. the relationship between atomic mass and atomic number, the
principles of Dalton's theory, Avogadro's hypothesis, and the
properties of cathode rays; the Increase in the number of
students who responded correctly on these topics was 6696 and
more;

2. the relationship between protons and electrons, the value and
sign of charge on electrons and protons, properties of ionic
crystals and the concept of scientific law; the increase in the
number of students who responded correctly on these topics was
3896 and more; and

3. the discovery of the nucleus by Rutherford, isotopes and the role
of neutrons, the concept of solution, the definition of an atom,
real and ideal gas, the relationship between the mole and
Avogadro's number; the increase in the number of students who
answered correctonly on those topics was 2896 and more.

There are a few concepts which have been learned by two-thirds of the

students. These include:
«the concept of scientific law
«the definition of Avogadro's hypothesis
«the similarity of atoms of the same element

«the difference between real gas and ideal gas

«the definition of mole, atom, compound, cathode rays, covalent
bond

148

«the formula of a compound formed by the attraction of certain
ions

«the difference between electrons and protons
In a few other cases, the number of students who answered certain items
correctly on the pretest has decreased on the posttest. The students, in those
cases, just did not seem to learn from instruction; they became more confused.
Examples of such cases are the following:

«the fact that gas laws are explained by the molecular kinetic
theory

«the relationship between the number of moles and the mass of a
substance

«using Avogadro's number in usual calculations
«the difference between descriptive and explanatory statements
Eight items from the test of Chapter One were repeated in the test which
was given to students at the end of the third chapter. The result of test 3.2
shows an improvement in students' repsonses on three items, a decrease in the
number of students who answered correctly on four items, and a similar situation
on one item. Two of the items on which students' responses have improved are
related to the understanding of the nature of science, while the third item was
one on which 15 students of the 28 who answered correctly on pretest l.l changed
their minds on pretest 1.2. Before instruction, many students (28) used their
common sense in answering questions correctly. it seems tha they became
confused after the instruction and tried to apply the number of molecules in a
mole in their answer. When the same question was repeated at the end of
chapter three, many of those students returned to applying their common sense
and chose the correct answer as they had before. The decrease in the number of
students who answered correctly on the other four items was not a sharp

decrease (896 - 1996). Even after this decrease, 6096 still held the right

149

conception. After a period of three weeks, students retained most of what they
have learned in these four items, retained the same learning in one item, and
learned more in three items.

The items from test 2.2 related to molar concentration in solutions were
repeated in test 3.2. The performance on test 2.2 related to these items (items
l7, l8, and 19) was generally poor; questions were answered correctly by 2696,
4596, and 1996 of the students, respectively; after a period of three weeks,
responses on the same items on test 3.2 (items 31, 32, and 33) were 2696, 3496,
and 3296; these responses are still relatively poor while maintaining the same
level of performance in the first item a slight decrease in the second and a slight

increase in the third.

Summary of Chapter Four

The three major components analyzed in this study were curriculum
materials, classroom instruction, and student outcomes. The curriculum
mateials are the same in all schools in Jordan. NSC was developed to explore
the natural phenomena, keeping in mind the unity of science and
complementarity of its disciplines and to provide students of the tenth grade
with some basic skills and understanding of science. NSC consists of four units:
(a) measurement, experimentation, prediction, and explanation; (b) equilibrium;
(c) the particle theory of matter; and (d) energy. The unit of interest in this
study was the particle theory of matter where the major theme of all five
chapters in the unit was the explanation of physical and chemical prOperties of
matter in terms of its molecular and atomic structure. The structure and
organization of the knowledge in each chapter were introduced, and the approach
of presentation of subject matter for teaching was also introduced. The main

approach is to demonstrate natural phenomena or conduct scientific

150

experiments, then to raise questions about the explanation of those experiments
or observations and conclude the facts, laws, and theories, making a direct
linkage with the applications of daily life.

The teaching activities included these interrelated phases: planning, actual
instruction, and evaluation. Although Miss Talib planned for teaching her
classes, she had a negative attitude toward "official planning" and toward
planning for experiments and practical activities. All 26 lessons observed in Miss
Talib's classroom were conducted in the same classroom except for one lesson
which was conducted in the school lab. Fourteen lessons among those 26 were
considered typical in format where the teacher introduced a new topic for the
class. Four lessons were spent answering the chapter questions and problems.
Five lessons were spent administering tests before and after the instructions. In
one instance, a student was asked to make the presentation; in another case,
students read aloud from the book and the teacher provided illustrations,
examples, and comments. Flanders' Interaction Analysis Categories (FIAC) were
used to estimate the percentage of time occupied by teacher talk or student
talk. The classroom was dominated by teacher talk in all types of lesson
formats, especially in typical lessons. A major feature of Miss Talib's classroom
is the students' choral responses which are encouraged intentionally by the
teacher, in most cases as a way of checking students' attentiveness. Most of the
time spent in teacher talk was either in lecturing or in asking questions and
elaborating on students' responses. Questions of Miss Talib's were mostly
rhetorical, either not needing answers from students or needing a spontaneous
choral response.

It was possible to distinguish among three categories of students in Miss
T alib's classroom. The first category was a reference group which was comprised

of the majority of students who have an average level of academic achievement;

151

Miss Talib intended to address this category most of the time. The second

category was a steering grog which was comprised of the best few students in

 

terms of their academic achievement. The third category was a concern group
consisting of students who were considered by the teacher to be the lowest in
achievement. The steering group and the concern group have both occupied a
considerable portion of classroom time. Most questions directed to students
from the steering group were answered correctly. Miss Talib called on members
of this group to answer questions very often because they were the only students
who raised their hands to respond to the teacher's questions. She also directed
many questions to students of the concern group to put them under pressure to
study and prepare well, but most of these questions were not answered correctly.

Miss Talib was considered to be among the eight percent of secondary
school teachers in Jordan who are qualified and certified to teach at the
secondary level, so she felt very confident. Two major roles can be identified
for Miss Talib in her classroom, both related to each other and carried out
simultaneously. They are the control of knowledge and the control of social
order.

Miss Talib taught the subject matter in the same sequence as it ws
presented in the textbook, but she did not do any of the experiments suggested
by the textbook or described by the teachers' guide, expect passing electricity in
dicharge tubes to see the color of the gas in each tube. She used rhetorical
questions quite often to get her students to repeat correct information as a
groupl, but occasionally she also asked questions to individual students and gave
seatwork assignments as part of her continuous evaluation. Official assessment
of students' work was carried out by a series of tests which were viewed

negatively by both teacher and students.

152

Students' learning outcomes as intended by the curriculum writers included
cognitive, affective, and skill aspects. Miss Talib was aware of the need to
develop in her students the skills and attitudes related to science. But the focus
of her interest was related to cognitive knowledge of the curriculum. Students'
learning outcomes were examined by looking at their responses during classroom
instruction and during interviews with the researcher in addition to their
performance on different tests. In most cases students showed considerable
progress in learning from instruction as measured by the difference between
their scores on pretests and posttests. This difference was substantial in topics
which were introduced to students for the first time, such as Avogadro's
hypothesis, cathode rays, isotopes, and neutrons. Students' correct responses on
some items showed a decrease in posttests in topics which were answered
correctly on the pretests using common sense and logic; instances of this type
are related to calculating relationships between a number of moles and the mass
of a substance using Avogadro's number in simple arithmetic and the difference
between descriptive and explanatory statements. Instruction has created some
confusion for students in those topics and reduced the number of students who
answered correctly. Although most students have learned the definition of many
concepts, laws, and theories, they, nevertheless, showed a poor ability to relate
these definitions to major themes or general principles. For example, very few
students were able to recognize the stages of development of atomic theory.

The textbook and teachers' guide did not provide direct linkages between
the specifics of the subject matter and the general principles, and the teacher
was not able to provide those linkages in the classroom. Although the students
learned most of the specifics, they did not, however, learn the conceptual
themes. There was no chance for students to learn the intended skills related to

the practical work because chances were not provided for them. Students were

153

also influenced by the general public view of science and the occasional
comments by the teacher about the difficulty of learning science; therefore,
they developed the same view. In addition, the tests revealed the fact that most
students were not able to learn the intended objectives related to understanding

the nature of science.

CHAPTER V

INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION

Introduction

 

The previous chapter presented an analysis of the three components of the
study: curriculum materials, teaching activities, and students' learning
outcomes. The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the main findings related to
the above-mentioned analyses and to make syntheses of those findings as an
attempt to develop a framework to understand and interpret the
interrelationships among the various contextual factors in each of the three
components. The discussion will also focus on the research methodology and the
value of combining qualitative and quantitative types of evidence in the research
strategy.

Analysis of the curriculum materials will be discussed first in terms of
clarity of the goals and objectives, the amount of subject matter taught, ways of
presentation of that subject matter, and the extent to which these curriculum
materials were helpful to the teacher and/or students in achieving what they
were designed for. Then the teaching activities will be discussed in light of the
complexity and interrelations of various related factors which shape those
activities. The students' learning outcomes will also be discussed and interpreted
as a product of the teaching and learning process with an attempt to account for
the level of learning various domains of instructional activities. In this
discussion, some examples of the subject matter content will be chosen and

traced through the three components of the study of Miss Talib's classroom.

154

155

Discussion of the Curriculum Materials

The Philosophy of the Course

 

The Natural Science Course for students of the tenth grade, from the
perspective of curriculum developers, has been carefully developed for the
following specific purposes:

1. the root of all science is the exploration of the natural
phenomena which usually have aspects related to various
academic disciplines, but the unity of science and the
complimentary nature of its disciplines should be preserved;

2. some natural phenomena have been traditionally excluded from
the three major disciplines (chemistry, physics, and biology) and
related to other areas such as geology, astronomy, meteorology,
oceanography. Since some of these natural phenomena are
considered important, there should be a way to include them in
the secondary school science curricula; and

3. all secondary school students need some basic science skills and
some understanding of the meaning of science at an early age
before they consider drOpping out or before they are channeled
into science and literature curricula.

As a result, the natural science course tried to achieve these goals. It was

built on a
. . . solid science base to help the student to interact efficiently

with his environment and society and to pursue the study of science

in various fields. This scientific base tried to show the unity of

science and complementarity of its disciplines. The various topics

were combined together and related to few conceptual schemes
which represent unifying ideas that cut across all sciences and help

the student to achieve a comprehensive perspective about things,
events, and phenomena around him (Malkawi, l972).

156

Three major conceptual schemes were identified to be essential in various
science disciplines: equilibrium, energy, and the particle structure of matter.
They were considered the base for combining many categories of science
concepts and theories and the framework of the organization of subject matter.
The nature of science and its major activities were also considered essential
goals to be presented at this level.

The conteit of the units is shown in Appendix A. The major theme of all
five chapters in this book was to show that physical and chemical properties of
matter are explained by the molecular and atomic structure of the matte.

Students in the tenth grade have had science before and wee familiar with
such concepts as atom, molecule, element, compound, chemical reaction, etc.
This unit, howeve, started from a point which assumed that no previous
theoretical knowledge would be necessary. Students would be expected to
reorganize their preconceptions about the structure of matter in a new
framework where all concepts and ideas should be interelated within major
conceptual schemes in which properties of matter could be understood in terms
of its molecular and atomic structure.

Students should have been exposed to the nature of scientific activity in
the first semeste. In this unit they learn the structure of matter as an example
of where scientific knowledge comes from and what it means to explain this
knowledge. These two points comprise the main purposes of Chapter 1 and most
of Chapter 3, while Chapters 2 and 4 are devoted to the using of knowledge
already developed in some examples of scientific applications in daily life and
societal needs. Chapte 5 is a unique intellectual exercise. The periodic table of
elements is considered a very simple, very successful way of organizing the huge
amount of scientific knowledge about elements which also facilitates the study

of this knowledge. The chapter starts from the periodic table as it stands in its

157

present form, analyzes various groups and periods of the table, and relates all
that students have already learned from previous chaptes about the structure of
the atom and electron configuration to the regularity and periodicity of
properties of chemical elements.

There is a strong emphasis in the introduction of the textbook and the
teachers' guide to relate regularities and consistency of patterns in chemical
behavior to an accurate image of science where underlying pattens of scientific
knowledge have certain meaning, limitations, and purposes. The major
assumptions here are derived from various sources, including the Jordanian
philosophy of education and Islamic values of the society and culture.

Among these assumptions is the view that the whole universe was created
for a purpose. By his very nature, man is an intellectual creature and his life as
part of the universe has a certain meaning. Everything is well organized, in a
state of harmony with everything else, and in a beautiful order. Nothing has
come by chance; nothing has developed randomly.

Science is an essential human activity by which man tries to achieve the
basic knowledge necessary to understand and explain the natural phenomena and
to realize the regularity, consistency, and aesthetic aspects of this universe
(Abanda et al., 1974, p. c). Since things of this universe are subject to the
exploitation of man, he has to know more about them in order to use them to
develop bette quality of life. Nothing prevents him from doing that except his
ignorance, nothing will help him more than acquiring knowledge. As he is
building his scientific knowledge, he is also building his own understanding and
developing continuously new meanings of his own life and his environment (see

Figure 5.1).

158

 

Wond eing
why? Explanation Theories Abstract
I I T 1‘
Controlled Generalization Models
experiment I I
Individual Description Laws Concrete
observation

Figure 5.1. Building scientific knowledge and human understanding.

 

Along with the conceptual scheme which represented the framework of the

 

subject matter of unit three, teaches also are oriented to a certain set of

process schemes to be acquired by tenth grade students as a result of learning

 

the required content through suggested processes. These process schemes are:
l. to accumulate data through obsevation and experiments,
2. to organize the gathered data in order to search for regularities
and patterns,
3. to explain the regularities by using a model system,
4. to understand the relationship between description and
explanation,
5. to recognize and understand the absence of certainty in
scientific knowledge and its temporal nature, and
6. to recognize the diffeence between the physical realities of
things and the conceptual constructs that people develop to
understand these things (Malkawi, 1975, p. 3).
It was also suggested that teaches should refer to these schemes at the
beginning of the lesson to establish a relevance of the topic to be learned and

facilitate students' understanding. The main conceptual scheme and the other

159

process schemes related to it represent the cognitive structure on which to build
meaningful learning of the topic's details and to achieve a higher level of
abstraction. One example is presented in Figure 5.2. It relates a network of
concepts to process scheme No. 5 about recognizing the uncertainty in scientific

knowledge.

Figure 5.2
One Process Scheme Related to a Large Network of Concepts

 

l Uncertainty in Science

Reasons: (Examples)

 

Human error 1. Peiodicity of chemical properties
Limits of accuracy «m etals/non-m etals
in equipment «m etals/non-m etals amphoteic
New information «Dobereine's triads
and techniques «Newland's law of octaves
Scientific knowl- «M endelyeev's table
edge is based on « ?
data which exist « ?
at any given time.
New data may alte 2. Atomic weight
concepts (under- «1 hydrogen atom
standing). «1/16 oxygen atom
«1/12 carbon atom
.. o

3. Atomic model: Dalton‘s,
Thompson's, Rutherford's, etc.

4. Gas molecule concept
«PV=nRT
--(P-a)(V+b)=nRT

‘4 «?
C Result 3

Scientific facts, laws, and theories
are relative, not absolute;
always subject to change

 

 

160

In discussing the philosophy embedded in the unit of properties of matter
and the particle model, at least two main questions should be addressed. First,
was this philosophy evident to teachers when they used the curriculum
materials? Second, what are the consequences of the fact that this unit was
basically a part of the chemistry curriculum which has been adopted originally
from the American Chemistry Project (CHEMS)?

Miss Talib‘s Awareness of the
Philosophy of the Curriculum

There was no evidence that Miss Talib had seen the curriculum pamphlet or
the teachers' guide before meeting with the researcher. In her response to the
questionnaire which was sent to her by the researcher (Appendix N), she
indicated that she does not use the teachers' guide. In fact, 10 teachers of the 18
who responded to the same questionnaire indicated the same fact. Six of those
10 indicated that they were never informed that there was a teachers' guide. But
even those who knew about it later on, such as Miss Talib, did not find it very
useful. For example, Miss Talib described the teachers' guide as follows, "All
that it includes is the experiments . . . the objectives are there also, but the
objectives are known anyway . . . I did not read the teachers' guide literally. I
just looked at it and saw what things it has."

It seems obvious from Miss Talib's several comments on the value of the
teachers' guide that this document as it stands failed to convey the authors'
perspectives to Miss Talib and the points the authors' emphasized were not those
which Miss Talib usually looks for in a teachers' guide. The authors' intentions
were not explicitly expressed in the teachers' guide because the decision was
made not to convey specific suggestions which might stand as a barrier to
teachers' creativity. Teaching methods‘ literature, especially in science

teaching, contains a great deal of criticism toward "cookbook" and "spoon

161

feeding" types of suggestions. Furthermore, the authors were afraid that
specific suggestions might not match the special Icircumstances of teachers and
schools. The overall suggestions in the teachers' guide regarding the teaching of
each chapter in general were not helpful to Miss Talib, especially identifying the
instructional goals of each chapter and procedures for doing experiments.
Instructional objectives need to be addressed through the teaching of specific
tapics where thee is no "guide," and just identifying those objectives and listing
them was not seen as a great job. As far as detailed descriptions of how to
conduct experiments is concerned, there was not place for doing experiments in
Miss Talib's classroom, so she was not seeking help in this regard.

The teachers' guide has only a few suggestions with direct relevance to
specific topics. For example, it suggested not spending much time on discussing
laws of chemical composition and on doing numerical problems regarding those
laws because this topic was presented again in the twelfth grade chemistry
curriculum. What was intended here was only to refer to those chemical laws as
evidences for the particle structure of matte. Numeical problems were not
intended to be worked out by every student in the classroom. The targets of
those problems were the well-advanced students who needed to be challenged by
more than tasks designed for average students. There was no time frame
suggested in the teachers' guide for teaching the laws of chemical composition or
for any othe tOpic.

The introduction of each chapte in the teachers' guide had a brief
description of the nature of knowledge in that chapter and the way in which this
knowledge has been developed in the chapte with an attempt to build it on the
knowledge of the previous chapter and to link it to the general theme of the
whole unit. Miss Talib, however, did not refe to these introductions as a source

of guidance in the teachers' guide; for example, none of the questions suggested

162

in each introduction was used by Miss Talib in her classroom teaching. Those
questions were suggested by the authors to help teachers establish a relevance
for the chapter with some application to daily life and to achieve a state of
interest and motivation in the students for learning the topics of the chapte.

As far as the view of science is concerned, Miss Talib frequently repeated
statements from the textbook about the view that scientific knowledge is
temporal and subject to change; but the way she introduced this view and the
way most students learned it indicate two major misconceptions regarding the
philosoPhy which the curriculum tried to emphasize. These misconceptions are:

1. scientific concepts such as the mole, atom, ion, etc., were used

in the classroom in a realistic way so that the concepts were
perceived as real objects and not intellectual constructs; and

2. the change in scientific knowledge was seen as replacement of

an old "wrong" knowledge with a new "right" knowledge.
Dalton's model of the atom, for example, was viewed as the
"wrong" model, the "incorrect" and "faulty" one, so it was
replaced by Thompson's model. And when Thompson's model
"was found also incorrect, it was discarded and became no longer
the right model; it was replaced by Rutherford's model which is
considered the right model now" (Miss Talib, Lesson 3-4, March
4).

The garbage collector analogy in the first chapte of the teachers' guide
(see Appendix H) was written to convey the idea that no one had seen the atom
in a direct way and that the concept of atom is not something to prove the
physical existence of; it is an intellectual model developed by scientists to help
in understanding some obsevations, and scientists found various evidences that
this model was adequate. This analogy was not discussed in Miss Talib's
classroom.

Topics in the textbook were organized in way which helped reveal the
structure of knowledge regarding the atomic model. Explicit statements were

found in several places, indicating the temporal nature of scientific facts, laws,

and theories; uncetainty of scientific measurements; and the nature of

163

scientists' work. But the implicit structure of the unit and explicit statements
were not sufficient to enable Miss Talib to "discover" the intentions of the
authors.

In her response to the researcher's initial questionnaire (see Appendix N),
Miss Talib indicated that she did not face any problem in teaching any topic of
the NSC. In an inteview, she indicated that whatever the method of planning
for teaching might be and whatever the extent to which she used the teachers'
guide, she felt that she "treats everything as it should be taught" and she "never
asks for help." One way of interpreting this level of confidence that Miss Talib
f eels for herself is the way 'in which she understands what she reads in the
teachers' guide or textbook. For example, she excludes from her teaching any
statement or suggestion not related directly to the content of the topic or she
translates the meanings of these statements and suggestions into a language
derived from her own concerns. She excludes activities that need time beyond
the time limit of the school day and that effort which is needed to present
materials in the classroom and prepare and grade tests and examinations. She
thinks she does not have time to prepare required expeiments except afte the
end of the last lesson in the school day, and she does not feel obliged to do so
"because it is not included in the contract" with the Ministry of Education.

Another way of intepreting what Miss Talib does regarding using
curriculum materials is that she does not "read into" the curriculum materials
that which is not written there. She taught the stages of the development of the
atomic model as they are found in the textbook, and there is no place in the text
where the stages are discussed together to find some kind of relationship. All
statements and examples relevant to uncertainty in scientific knowledge are
presented in the textbook, but there is no specific tOpic to deal with this as a

separate issue to draw geneal conclusions; so Miss Talib did not understand why

164

one should spend time on such "additional" ideas. "If you think these ideas should
be discussed, why did you not write them explicitly in the textbook?" (occasional
comment, March 8).

In brief, the philOSOphy of the curriculum and the view that curriculum
tried to convey, as seen from Miss Talib's teaching behavior are located in the
written words of the textbook and not the teachers' guide and the meanings of
those words that she assigned can be interpreted in terms deived from her own
experience.

Some Issues Related
to the Design of NSC

 

 

The unit of pr0perties of matter and the atomic model in NSC was
originally parallel in its content to the first seven chapters of the American
CHEMS. The topics of this unit were supposed to have been reorganized to fit in
the NSC by including in them some applications of the basic concept in other
disciplines, physics, geology, etc. But the unit as it stands in this course was not
perceived by Miss Talib as more than a chemistry unit. She introduced the unit
in the first lesson of the second semester, saying, "Today we will start 'taking'
the second volume of natural science course; we will begin studying the
chemistry unit: properties of matte and the atomic model" (Lesson l-l, January
27).

Since Miss Talib has a degree in chemistry, this unit is a favorite one for
her; but this is not the case for other teachers who do not have university degree
or who have degrees in another discipline, as seen in their responses to the
questionnaire of the curriculum department in 1981. One frequent suggestion in
those responses was to break down the course into its original disciplines and

have three different courses in chemistry, biology, and physics.

165

The unit in this course on properties of matte and the atomic model
included many basic chemistry concepts. Table 4.1 listed the number of concepts
among the instructional objectives to be learned in the first three chapters of
the unit. One problem mentioned by 12 teachers of the 18 who responded to the
researcher's initial questionnaire, including Miss Talib, is that there is too much
material to be covered in the time available. When the researcher discussed
with the principal of the Northeastern Girl's Secondary School the reason for not
using the laboratory, she referred to the NSC as an example and said that all
teachers who taught the NSC in her school reported to her that they were not
able to cove the "theoretical part of the materials, not to speak of the
experimental part" because of the shortage of time. This problem has been cited
repeatedly by teaches, as though the curriculum developers miscalculated the
time required to cover the material. In fact, the curriculum mateials failed to
make explicit reference to the fact that many experiments and practical
activities could be done and discussed in such a way that students can understand
the concepts easier and perhaps faster than just discussing them in theory. Some
experiments were presented in detail in the teachers' guide to help teachers who
had limited experience and training in laboratory work. Properties of gases, for
instance, cannot be studied practically without preparing the gases. To prepare
each gas, an apparatus should be constructed. This process needs some
experience in cutting and bending glass tubes, making holes in cork or rubber
stoppers, using a Bunsen burner, and many other techniques and safety
precautions. Another assumption underlies these details: the fact that teachers
cannot find available sources of gases; therefore, they have to go to the trouble
of preparing them from chemicals.

Judging from the experience of the researcher in conducting the

experiments of the first three chapters of unit three of the NSC in a school

166

setting similar to Miss Talib's, the time required from the teacher to do these
experiments as demonstrations was estimated to be 14 lessons. This does not
include the time required for the teacher to prepare equipment and try out the
experiments before doing them with the class. _ It is reasonable at this point to
admit that the curriculum developers were too ambitious in requiring teachers to
teach and students to learn all of the content of unit three in one-half a
semester.

The process of borrowing from foreign educational experiences such as
adapting CHEMS to Jordan did not seem to have been sensitive enough to
consider the basic diffeences in school setting, teacher preparation, and other
societal and cultural aspects. If the total resources developed to help teachers
who teach CHEMS in the USA, including the quality of the textbook, teachers'
guide, lab manual, additional supplementary materials, films, charts, lab
equipment, etc., besides the special training of those teachers and the quality of
school and classroom physical arrangements, were taken into consideation, then
it would seem to be unfair to require the Jordanian chemistry teachers and
students to deal with almost the same subject matter of CHEMS while they are
deprived from some of the key resources identified above. The problems of this
cultural borrowing might also be found in the diffeence between the basic
assumptions of the borrowed mateial and the beliefs and value systems of the
society. The discussion of the case of adapting CHEMS in Jordan is beyond the
scope of the present study, but it is an issue which is worth investigation in
future research.

In summary, the goals and objectives of this part of the chemistry
curriculum in Jordan (the unit of properties of matte and the particle model)
are similar to those of CHEMS. But the quantity of the subject matte expected

by the curriculum deveIOpers to be covered in half a semester, the lack of

167

adequate lab equipment, the large number of students in the classroom, and the
poor teacher preparation programs make it difficult for teachers to teach and
students to learn those prescribed goals and objectives.

Interpreting and Discussing
the Teachfig Activities

 

 

Planning for teaching, for Miss Talib, has a simple meaning. It is a natural

step of knowing what to teach by reading the textbook. She does not have to

 

worry about 1_n_o_w_ to teach the material because she knows how to talk about it.
Sometimes she might use a certain procedure during the lesson which she never
thought of before. When this occurs, it becomes worthy of recording in the
lesson plan she writes afte the lesson has been taught. Writing lesson plans is
not an important activity because it is not meant to be used by the teacher. It is
something to show other people, a written evidence that the teacher plans for
teaching. For this reason, the plan that Miss Talib writes in her planning book is
not meant to be implemented in the classroom. She describes very well what is
required for inclusion in a lesson plan; she learned this in her graduate studies in
education. He written lesson plans also reflect this knowledge.

The number of written plans she must do each day was negotiated with the
principal, and she does not have to write plans for every lesson. A negative
attitude toward writing lesson plans was interpreted by the fact that she viewed

this planning as a timeconsuming process which does not have much impact on

 

the teacher's performance in the classroom. It is just "routine work with 29
meaning." For a written lesson plan to have more meaning for Miss Talib, it
should be written after the lesson is taught "to document the activities which
have proved to be working and to report the mateial that has really been taught

in that lesson."

168

Using the teachers' guide in preparing classroom teaching or thinking about

 

the experiments and practical activities were not among the main practices of

 

Miss Talib's planning procedures because the teachers' guide did not help her
much and the time she had available for teaching did not allow "wasting" any
moments in trying experiments which "might not work."

Lesson formats in Miss Talib's classroom wee basically systematic

 

presentations of new topics in the same order and sequence as found in the
textbook. Student's learning in these "typical" lessons was reinforced by
assigning some lessons to m the topics, answer the chapte questions, or
work out some problems. Student's learning was also evaluated in other lessons
assigned for 2233- In a few instances, Miss Talib made some changes in the
lesson formats from what had been typical for her. In one instance she assigned
to a student the task of presenting a new topic. In another instance she asked
the students to read aloud from the textbook, then she made some illustrations
and comments afte reading each paragraph. In the third instance, the lesson
was given in the laboratory not in the classroom, and she spent some time doing
a demonstration. Whatever the format of the lesson might be, teacher talk was
the dominant feature in the classroom interaction. Another major feature of the
classroom inteaction was students' choral responses to certain types of
rhetorical questions from the teacher.

Miss Talib thinks of herself as an active teacher because every minute of
her classroom time is used in teaching the subject matter, almost all types of
verbal communication are related to subject matter. She gets the attention of
all students and does not allow any student to lose her attentiveness to the
classroom task. Students' choral responses were seen as an evidence of their

attentiveness. Classroom time had no place for exchange of feelings or talk

169

about outside topics; "teaching is a serious business." She was always standing or
moving, never sitting in her chair to rest.

To decrease the amount of lost time in her classroom, Miss Talib ad0pted
the lecture method of teaching.

But it is diffeent from usual lectures at the university level where

students are just listening and writing notes. HereI involve students

in reactin to my presentation, and I use many questions “where

students Fiave to respond nndnvndually or collectively (Interv1ew 2,

February 10).

Again the _ti_m_e was seen by Miss T alib as a rationale for adOpting the
lecture method. It is a more effective method than others for transmitting more
knowledge in less time. Assigning a review lesson to answer chapte questions
seems to be more economical in time investment than reviewing each topic
individually. This also explains the very short time of "introduction" and
"conclusion" of most lessons. Students are required to read the topic of the
lesson from their textbooks before the lesson is presented. In doing so, they
become familiar with the content which enables them to understand it quickly in
the classroom. "The more the students prepare well (in reading the material) at
home, the smoother the lesson becomes and the less tim—e is required for them to
understand."

Miss Talib realizes that not all students in the classroom will understand
the topic at the end of the lesson because some students are slow learners who
need more time to be able to understand. She also realizes that she can help
those students by repeating the explanation once or twice, but "I have no _t_i_n£ to
wait for them; they have to raise their levels to the average."

She tried in various instances to explain most of her teaching behaviors in
tems of shortage of time, not only those behaviors related to planning and

preparation for teaching and to the instructional method, but also those related

to quality of social relationships, to the practice of power and control in the

170

classroom, and to the procedures of evaluating student learning. The school
principal sympathesizes with Miss Talib in her complaint about shortage of time,
but she admits that this kind of feeling is the "tax of the teaching profession"
when compared with other professions. However, Miss Talib is still single.
According to the principal, "If Miss Talib has all these complaints, what do you
expect from those teachers who are married, who have to worry about cooking
for their husbands and taking care of their children and meeting the demands of
more social responsibilities?"

It seems that the principal's tem "tax of the teaching profession" has more
than its literal meaning. It refers to the injustice and frustration that teachers
feel as a result of the disprOportionality between the moral and social
responsibilities and demands of the teaching profession on one hand and the lack
of support, low incentives, and declining social position of the teacher on the
other. This feeling of injustice is a general mode which contributes to negative
attitudes toward the profession itself and creates a low morale among teachers
in geneal. Science teaches as a subcategory in the profession are influenced
more by this situation than others because they feel that the demand of
preparing for lab experiments is added to the responsibilities they share with
other teachers, as indicated by the principal of the Northeasten Girls Secondary
School when she quoted a science teacher in her school saying, "Is my
specialization in science going to be a punishment for me?"

lntepreting and Discussing
Student Yearning

 

 

From Miss Talib's point of view, all students can learn the concepts of the
curriculum provided each one can devote the time required for him/her to
understand certain concepts. In her view the difficulty that some students

encounter in learning science is not embedded in science itself, nor is it that

l7l

those students cannot learn. If a student has the prerequisite knowledge to learn
certain concepts, then the new learning can be related to the previous learning,
making it easy for him/her to develop a special meaning of the new concepts and
retain the new learning.

Miss Talib refered to the importance of prerequisite knowledge in student
learning in various instances. In reviewing Chapter 1, lesson 1-6, she told the
class that "you should not forget the concepts you have learned in this chapter
because you need them as a base for learning the following chapters."

In lesson 2-7, Miss Talib asked the class as homework to write down
formulas of compounds which are examples on both ionic electrolytes and
molecular electrolytes. In reviewing students' responses in the next lesson (2-8),
she found that students were very confused. Her sister Nadia, a student in the
classroom, asked:

Nadia: How can we know whether a compound is ionic or molecular?

T: This is the question! When the bond is ionic which means that
one atom has the tendency to lose electrons and the other atom
has the tendency to gain . . . (she was interupted by another
question)

Nadia: And how can we know which atom is going to lose and which one
is going to gain?

T: From the configuration of electrons. We go back to see whether
the bond is ionic or covalent . . . (she went on to describe the
diffeence between the ionic and covalent bonds, then made the
statement:) All your homework was done incorrectly and you
have to do it again for next time.

In lesson 3-5, when Miss T alib taught electron configuration and kinds of
chemical bonds, she referred to Nadia's two questions and said, "You know now
afte understanding this background about the distribution of electrons and the
types of bonds; how to give examples of ionic and molecular electrolytes"; then

she made another relevant statement, "Remenber, class, this information

(electron configuration and chemical bonds) is very important, especially if you

172

are going to be in the science branch. There are many things you can't
understand in chemistry unless you know the bonds" (Lesson 3-5).

Prerequisite knowledge, however, does not seem the only factor affecting
student learning in Miss Talib's classroom. Time plays a role in students'
learning. Some students learn when they listen to the teacher's explanation the
first time; other students need repetition. "Sometimes I repeat the explanation
for the second time because students from Type C cannot understand from the
first time, but I cannot do that always because I have no time. 1 cannot wait for
the slow learners; they have to raise their level to the average." In another
instance, she said she realizes that as she repeats, more students will be able to
understand and learn. She quoted a proverb which says, "Repetition teaches the
donkey."

A third factor seems relevant also in student learning. "There are students
who learn directly from the textbook, but most students learn from classroom
instruction." Miss Talib said that she uses a variety of activities in the
classroom because she thinks students learn in different ways. Data are not
available to the researcher to know what Miss Talib means by "diffeent ways":
different strategies of learning or different time required to accomplish learning
a certain task? But she relates this concept to her attempt to use diffeent
methods of teaching in combination with the main method, the lecture.

In brief, Miss Talib was not happy at the low level of student learning, but
she did not find it surprising because she realized that students come with
diffeent levels of prerequisite knowledge, they devote diffeent amounts of
time in trying to learn, and they make use of the classroom instruction in
diffeent ways. In the following sections several examples of teaching and

learning certain topics wee discussed in some detail.

173

Teaching and Learningabout the Nature of Science,
Attitudes Toward Science, and Scientific Skills

This relatively low level of understanding the nature of science in Miss
Talib's classroom might not be a special case. Learning the nature of science

and developing positive attitudes toward science and scientific activities were

 

not viewed by many Jordanian science teachers as attainable goals by direct
planning. If a science textbook has a certain chapter devoted to the
development of some understanding of scientific activities, this chapte will not
be given time in the classroom and will not be considered important. Students
will be asked to read the chapte on their own. "The unit talks about science,
but it is not science . . . science is something like energy transformation,
electron configuration, and cell division. By studying science itself, you get a
better ideas about it" (comments of a science teache on the first unit of the
Natural Science textbook, volume 1).

In 1981 the Curriculum and Textbook Department of the Ministry of
Education in Jordan distributed a questionnaire to be filled in by teaches of
natural science at the tenth grade level. Science supervisors wee also asked to
choose the best teachers in their districts to write reports on their suggestions
and recommendations about the course and the textbook. Twenty-three such
reports were received, and the researcher had the opportunity to examine them.
Most of the teachers who wrote these reports consider the first unit of the
textbook, volume 1, to be not important and not worth the large numbe of pages
it has (see the content of this unit in Appendix A). A frequent comment in the
reports about the unit was, "So many pages, very little content; can be
summarized in few pages."

Since 1960 the Ministry of Education in Jordan has been applying the

system of branching students into science or liteature at the end of tenth grade.

174

When this system was started, only those who had average scores in mathematics
and science courses which exceeded 7596 were allowed to be in the science
branch. The researcher was among the group of students who were chosen to be
in the science branch in the academic year 1960-61; only 14 students out of
approximately 120 were channeled into the science branch in the city of Zarka.
The number was too small to provide a classroom with the necessary, qualified
science teachers and equipment for a laboratory, so the Ministry of Education
opened only three sections for the science branch to accommodate all the
students coming from an area covering three school districts at that time.

This kind of academic evaluation of students in tems of their abilities to
perform well in science courses at the tenth grade, besides the official and social
perception of science-related professions, has created a certain conception of
the nature of science, besides feeling and attitude toward science as being a
more difficult subject for study than other subjects. Students are definitely
influenced by this public view. Their understanding of science and their
attitudes toward its study will be affected, especially if they find that the school
system and teachers' attitudes conform with that view. There was no evidence
that Miss Talib was an exceptional case in this regard. The few instances in
which she tried to show her concern about building positive attitudes toward
science in her students were not sufficient to achieve this goal, especially in the
presence of other instances which displayed a negative attitude, whether in the
classroom or in the society at large.

An example of how teachers usually view the students' learning of

scientific attitudes is related to the experience of the researcher with 18

 

teachers of NSC for the tenth grade which formed one section of trainees in a

summer course in 1976. In discussing scientific attitudes as a learning outcome

175

of NSC, the researcher asked the teachers to list five scientific attitudes. The
most frequently listed attitudes were the following:

I. curiosity,

2. habit of patience and perseverance,

3. scientific reading,

4. deliberate reflection before making judgments, and

5. appreciation of efforts of scientists.

The teachers wee asked to list the number of instances in which they tried to
help students develop any of those attitudes and the time they spent on each
instance. The responses indicated that the time and effort devoted to such goals
of science education are almost negligible. The main reason given by these
teachers was that such goals are not meant to be developed directly; they are a
byproduct of learning scientific knowledge itself.

Attitude learning is not likely to deveIOp unless the teacher allows it to
develop. A teacher who provides his/her own answes for every question and
relies on his/he own understanding of the content presented in the textbook as
the final authority is not expected to provide students with a chance to develop
curiosity, Open-mindedness, or willingness to suspend judgment.

Skill learning in Miss Talib's classroom is similar to the situation of

 

attitude learning. Learning certain scientific skills is expected to be directly
related to doing practical activities. If students do not have the chance to do
such activities, to be involved in solving problems, and to finding out about
things, using their senses and pieces of equipment to employ certain procedures,
the skill and process aspect of learning science is not likely to develop. Students
in Miss Talib's classroom did not have the chance to practice any practical
activity. Ten teachers in six different schools in the same district where Miss

Talib's school is located were asked by the researcher about the number of

176

expeiments in which students wee involved in manipulating equipment and
mateials during the period of studying the first three chaptes of the "particle
theory of matter" unit. None of those teachers reported any experiment of this
type. Three teachers, however, reported doing demonstrations in front of the
class. Pressure to cover the content, shortage of equipment to be used by
students, time needed to prepare for and try the experiments, lack of confidence
in doing successful experiments, and the large number of students were factors
suggested by those teachers to account for the phenomenon of not conducting
practical expeiments.

Teaching and Learning the
Direction of Electron Flow

 

This example is a good case of how the teacher translated the curriculum
mateial and assigned certain meanings to it which are diffeent from their
liteal meaning. The topic in this example was electrical conductivity and its
explanation in terns using knowledge learned from the structure of matte afte
the development of Rutherford's model of the atom. One and one-half pages of
the textbook were devoted to explaining how static electrical charges are
formed by friction on plastic and glass when they are rubbed with wool and silk,
respectively, and how these charges are discharged. Chemical reaction in an
electrochemical cell (battery) was given as another source of the formation of
electrons. When the two teminals of the battey are connected to each other by
a conductor, electrons flow from the terminal where they accumulated in large
numbers (called the negative teminal) to the teminal which has a shortage in
electrons (called the positive teminal). The conducting wire can facilitate the
flow of electrons in its atoms which can be pushed in a certain direction forming

an electrical current where the battery provides a continuous flow of electrons.

177

The easier electrons can move from the conductor, the higher the conductivity it
has for electrical current.

In her teaching, Miss Talib did not make any refeence to the chemical
reaction as a source of electrons. She emphasized two points«the concept of a
closed circuit as a condition for the flow of electrical current and the direction
of electron flow from the positive terminal of the battery to the negative
teminal.

Miss Talib's emphasis on the direction of electron flow is in a way contrary
to what is stated in the textbook which caused confusion for some students. In
fact, Miss Talib did not realize the diffeence between what was written in the
text and what she was emphasizing. Two students, Rana and Hamama,
questioned her statement and refered to what was written in the textbook, but
she did not even realize her mistake then.

One factor in intepreting what happened to Miss Talib in this instance is
that she did not read the topic carefully before the lesson. Her lesson plan of
March 9 had only two points. The first is related to the objectives of the lesson:
"to understand and be able to explain electrification and electrical conductivity
and to know what the forces of Van der Wall are." The second point is written
uncle activities and methods of presentation: "One student will read aloud, then
make comments on some points" (see Appendix Mb). She assumed that this
lesson did not have new material, that it was "just a review" of some topics
which wee studied earlie in Chapter 3 of the textbook. The lesson was "just
explanatory of something we took before." She made this comment three times
during the lesson. This orientation toward the topics of the lesson seemed to
make the teacher less careful about what she was reading or hearing from

students as they read aloud.

178

Another factor which contributed to this misconception is the fact that
electrical current was conventionally described in physics courses and textbooks
in a different way than that of the flow of electrons. Electrical current by
convention flows from the positive terminal of a battery to the negative

terminal, opposite to the direction of electron flow from negative to positive

 

(Appendix O).

There are no data available regarding what students in this classroom
learned about the direction of the electron flow in the third chapter's test in
order to analyze the effect of classroom teaching in this particular case. The
responses of 11 students who were interviewed by the researcher about this case
might be representative of the student learning of the whole class. It is
interesting to note that some students who learned from reading the textbook
were not confused by the teacher's emphasis on what was contrary to what they
had learned. What they had learned was meaningful and became personal
knowledge which made sense for them. Even the two studies who realizd the
conceptual conflict (Naussbaum 6r Novich, 1982) between their acquired
knowledge and that presented in the classroom instruction were not confused.

A similar example of how Miss Talib assigned certain meanings which is
different from that implied in the curriculum materials was her statement about

the standard temperature (temperature of the standard conditions, STP). She

 

mentioned that this temperature is 20 Celsius, but the correct temperature is O
celsius. Twenty degrees Celsius is, in fact, the temperature at which voltages of
electrochemical cells for various electrodes were measured at conditions
considered to be in the standard state, as described in the textbook of chemistry

for the twelfth grade.

179

Teaching and Learning Laws of Chemical Composition
and Faraday's Laws of ElectroTySIS

Miss Talib did not feel comfortable with classroom inteaction during the
period of teaching the laws of chemical composition. This might be explained at
least in part by confusion about the place of the topic in this unit. In the
traditional textbook written in Arabic and English, laws of chemical
compositions wee presented as a chapter or a major topic with plenty of
numeical exercises and worked out examples. Chemistry of this type is turned
to stiochiometry whee students acquire the skill of working out numeical
problems without getting into the meanings of those problems as related to
chemical concepts and theories. This phenomenon was observed by other
researchers (Kass 8r Wheele, 1979; Rennie, 1981). Laws of chemical composition
in this course wee presented as a source of information about the structure of
matte. They were viewed as chemical evidences for the atomic theory. The
atomic theory proposed by Dalton was an attempt to explain why these laws
should exist. The teachers' guide emphasized the goal of this topic and suggested
the teache not spend too much time providing execises and problems on this
topic, emphasizing instead the central relationship in each law. The textbook,
however, does not seen consistent with this suggestion, because it offers two
mathematical examples on each law and one more complicated problem on each
law in the chapter questions, providing stronger evidence for the teacher and
students about the weight of this topic in the course. Some examples and
problems are not well chosen, and there are some printing errors which add to
the confusion. With this situation in mind, Miss Talib was not able to avoid the
confusion. She tried to follow the style of presentation of the textbook which

requires menorizing definitions. In order to try a diffeent style, she needs to

180

have a better undestanding of the topic to be able to provide more meaningful
statements.

A similar example of confusion occurred in teaching and learning the laws
of chemical composition is the topic of Faraday's experiments of electrolysis
which was also intended to be the chemical evidence for the electrical nature of
the atom. The objective of introducing this t0pic, according to the teachers'
guide, was to show that matte has an electrical nature and that there is a
relationship between units of matter and units of electricity. The teachers'
guide explains the procedures of doing experiments of electrolysis in some detail
and illustrates the quantitative relationship among the mass of the precipitated
substance and the number of amperes, the number of seconds, and the number of
coulombs. A confusing idea presented in the teachers' guide is the concept of
equivalent mass instead of atomic mass. Miss Talib devoted lesson 3-1 to
explaining Faraday's experiments. She also spent about 10 minutes of the
following lesson (3-2) to review Faraday's laws and state the important
conclusions of Faraday's experiments. Appendix E shows extracts from the two
lessons. Student participation was very low, and most of their responses were
incorrect.

It is expected that if students are going to learn something from classroom
teaching, they will face some points of confusion. A detailed illustration about
calculating the quantity of electricity has relevance if the experiment was
conducted practically. But for the purpose of establishing a relationship between
units of electricity and units of matte, there was no need to spend much time
and not be able to follow the misconceptions held by some students about the
topic. For example, Buthain was one of only three students who thought they
knew the relationship between time and current intensity, but she stated this

relationship incorrectly and the teacher did not correct her.

181

Miss Talib went into some detail in calculating the quantity of electricity
required to precipitate certain quantity of an element. Several errors were
made in the process. Buthain responded incorrectly to the teacher's question
about the relationship between time and current intensity, and the teacher did
not realize her error.
The relationship between atomic masses of elements and the masses
precipitated from those elements in the experiment of the second law is not a
direct prOportion as stated by the teacher. Depending only on the chosen data on
the board was not sufficient to establish this generalization. Even the chosen
data themselves did not lead to this conclusion. The teacher's confusion came
from the fact that there is a direct proportion between the mass of the
precipitated element and its equivalent mass, not its atomic mass.
The decision of the curriculum developes and textbook authors for the
tenth grade natural science course and the twelfth grade chemistry course was
not to introduce the concept of the equivalent mass because it would not be
helpful for any purpose. Miss Talib teaches both these grades, and she did not
use this concept at any point in her presentation, except in the last 13 seconds
(see the last two statements of the extracts from Lesson 3-2, Appendix E).
During these concluding seconds, four problems can be distinguished.
1. Miss Talib did not use the concept of equivalent mass in defining
Faraday's second law; she said she did.

2. Students responded positively to the question, "Didn't we say
that?" This positive response has no base. The only reason for
this spontaneous response is the fact that students have met the
teache's expectations, and it did not cost the students anything.

If such a situation was about a procedural issue which requires

182

students to be responsible for something, they might argue about
it, as they did in the final 10 seconds of Lesson 3-1.
T: Your lab book should be with you.
Ss: (Noises; students were surprised by this and looked at each
other.)
T: I asked you to get them in the first semete, the "tabia"
notebook.
Ss: You did not ask us that!
T: Ye, I did.
Ss: No, you didn't (end of Lesson 3-1).
3. The second statement, "When atomic mass increase, the
quantity of precipitated substance is increased," is expected to
be explanatory of the first statement, "The quantity of the
precipitated substance is in direct proportion to the equivalent
mass, did not we say that?" As a matte of fact, it has no
relevance.

4. The second statement is incorrect anyway.

These two example of examining student learning of laws of chemical
compositions and Faraday's conclusion about electrolysis of solutions, as seen in
the classroom interaction, were chosen because the classroom teaching paid
more attention and time than intended by the authors of the textbook.

Miss Talib and Abu Zaid Al-Hilali:*
a General Overview

 

 

While coming downstairs from the classroom after finishing lesson 3-7,
Miss Talib made a statement which might be an oversimplificaiton of her
situation, but it seemed useful in capturing the sense of her practice and in
understanding the various actions of her tenth grade classroom. She said, "in my
classroom, I am Abu Zaid Al-Hilali." The conversation which provided the

context for that statement went this way:

 

*Abu Zaid Al-Hilali is the name of a fictitious hero who was presented in
old Arabic fables as always victorious and in control of all circumstances.

183

Reearcher: I was the cam eaman today. Since this leson was the last to
be videotaped, I tried to take shots of all features of the classroom. I
tried also to focus on all students and document their attentiveness in
this lesson. What fascinated me the most was the complete attention
of all students and their readiness to respond to your quesitons . . .
(he was interrupted by the teacher).

 

Miss Talib: In my classroom, I am Abu Zaid Al-Hilali. I know what I am
oing. If I did not control the class in this way, then I would not have
finished the chapte today. I swear if I give them a chance, the class

mill be a mess; then I would not be able to teach (fieldnotes, March

Earle in Chapte IV, Miss Talib was seen in control of both the academic
knowledge and the social order of the classroom. Time was also seen as a
critical factor in justifying this control in order to cover the large amount of
material in the limited amount of time available. Time factor did not only
influence how the material was presented, but also how social inteaction in the
classroom was conducted.

Miss Talib has been using the textbook as an authority of knowledge. She
stuck closely to its materials, assigning certain numbers of page to be presented
in each leson, using the same sequence and almost the same language in her
presentation (but in a colloquial spoken Arabic instead of the standard written
one), emphasizing the teminology and definitions, talking about the practical
activities and experiments in the same manner as she dealt with other
"theoretical topics" instead of doing these activitie, and ignoring the
suggestions of the teachers' guide.

During the translation process of the standard Arabic of the textbook into
her spoken colloquial Arabic, Miss Talib sometimes added more example and
drew figures on the board in order to clarify the idea she was teaching. But in

this process she encountered some problems in modifying the original meaning or

missing the whole point.

184

The number of textbook pages she assigned to cover during a certain leson
regulated the time which she decided to spend on those pages and prevented the
time from being wasted. At the end of leson 2-9, Miss Talib assigned the task
of presenting colloidal solution in the classroom to Jamila, but she seemed
prepared to start this presentation herself in the next leson. A student noticed
that and asked, "Isn't Jamila supposed to present the leson today?" Miss Talib
responded, "No, she will take more time; I need to finish the chapte in this
lesson and start answering the chapter questions."

Miss Talib was asked by the researcher to chose from a list of teaching
methods one which bet described her teaching method in the tenth grade
classroom. She chose the lecture and said that her usage of lecture is diffeent
from that used in college because she involves he students in question/answer
inteaction during a lecture. She justified her choice of lecture as being the best
way to transfer more information to students than any other method during a
given period of time; it is also the best way to maintain a direct control over
students as they pay close attention to the teacher.

The question/answer activity which Miss Talib used was also another
feature of classroom control. Most of tlne questions she asked required a choral
response from students to give the teacher a feeling that they "follow" her in
stating the correct information. She might answer the question herself, then ask
the class to repeat the correct answer afte her. Sometime choral response was
required just to keep students' attention from being distracted when the teacher
was busy writing or drawing something on the board.

When I state a definition and I need to write it on the board, they

will repeat afte me. there is no way for a mistake here because the

right answe is mentioned and they are only required to repeat it. I

am satisfied in this case. There is a role here to be performed. It is

an indication that they are with me; they follow me in the subject
instead of spending the time talking to each other when I am writing

185

the definition on the board. They are with me in this case. They
participate (third interview with Miss Talib, March 11).

Borrowing Olson's (1983) metaphor, Miss Talib seems like a mountain guide

trying to maintain the attention of her students and not wasting time
Someone who knew the way to the summit and would not fall.

Such guide adopts direct methods and is in close contact with those

who follow. The relationship between the mountain guide and the

climbers simply do not involve low influence climbing methods; they

are hazardous, for one thing, and time consuming.

Miss Talib realized that such "complete control limits the freedom of students"
and "lecturing is boring." Also, the choral response is sometime a "source of
confusion," but she emphasized that such practices were necessary because
"teaching, afte all, is giving information, and I am responsible for setting the
conditions in which students can understand this information within the available
time."

The control which Miss Talib was afte made it difficult for students to
initiate quetions or make comments which might lead to extended discusisons.
Although some bright students did, in a few case, initiate questions and express
different understandings from the teacher, the way in which the teache dealt
with such case (not giving careful examination to the issue and hustling to judge
the student's point as an incorrect one) discouraged other students from trying
that technique. It was also noticed that whenever a discussion occurred between
the teacher and a student, many students withdrew their attention as if it were
not their concern. In this case, the teacher had to call on those students to pay
attention, then she cut the discussion short. Therefore, discussion did not seem
to be welcomed by Miss Talib.

A laboratory leson also presented special problems to Miss Talib. Student

attention was distracted by "looking and playing with things they see" as the

teacher was explaining something. Students might be "in another valley; they

186

might mess around, break some equipment . . . . some experiments are difficult
to work . . . during my attempt to fix an experiment who will control the class?"
This was apparent in lesson 3-3 which was given in the lab. As Miss Talib
finished her usual presentation and turned to the equipment to start the
experiment, students started talking, and she said, "Stop talking. Those who are
making a colony there in the back. Rana, Nadia . . . "
In brief Miss Talib was proud of being like Abu Zaid Al-Hilali in controlling
the classroom and exerting high levels of influence to maintain students'
attention and invest the available time properly. It gave her a sense of
accomplishment that something had been done. She felt the progress in moving
in a systematic manner through the pages of the textbook. At the end of the
lesson, she might ask the students to open their textbooks and show them this
accomplishment, "Today we have covered topic x from page y to page 2; prepare
for the next lesson, topic x' from page y' to page 2'."
That is her teaching craft. As far as students' learning is concerned, it is
their own craft. Miss Talib expects them to understand the material after it has
been presented to them. The final few seconds of the lesson are spent in giving
students a chance to testify that they have understood and there were no
questions to ask:
T: Is this clear?
Ss: Yes, miss.

T: Is that understood?
Ss: Yes, miss.

T: Any questions?
Ss: No response.

Some of the factors which contributed to the high level of control that
Miss Talib practiced were mentioned earlier in various places, factors related to

the constraints under which she found herself, with large sized classes, a heavy

teaching load, grading papers and exams, preparing for teaching, low pay,

187

declining social position of the teaching profession, etc. But some additional
comments on the reason for this phenomenon might add to our understanding of
it.

Three of the five professors of teacher education who viewed one of Miss
Talib's lessons independently noticed the high level of her control over the
classroom. They intepreted this by refering to the teacher's old menorie
about her school teachers and to the failure of college education to give the
prospective teacher a bette altenative. One of them put it this way:

This is the way teaches have been taught when they were
students in school, and this is also they way they were taught at
college. It is not surprising that teachers execise high levels of
control and authority in their classrooms because we failed to show
them another model. We tell them in our methods courses to give
students more role and more share in classroom activitie, we tell
them about the virtue of the discussion method and inquiry method
and all the items in the list of beautiful prescriptions, but we have
never been able to teach them in a discussion method or in an inquiry
method. When we examine them in methods course, they write
excellent answers about the importance of students' role and about
bette ways of conducting a classroom discussion, but when they
teach they use what was more familiar to them in their schools and
colleges, methods they are accustomed to (from an inteview with
Dr. Hasim, March 4).

Olson (1983 refered to a similar conclusion when he described his
experience with teachers in England and in Canada:

Teachers are aware that science education theorists and modern
science curriculum projects often expect them to use methods which
involve high pupil influence. Yet the methods espoused by such
projects are rejected by teachers or, more importantly, teachers do
not appear to construe these approaches effectively, and thus
important parts of innovative doctrines are not implemented.
Teachers persist in using more familiar, bette understood practices
like the syllabus system and recitation that I mentioned above,
methods in which their influence remains high (p. 142).

Many administrative practices seemed to encourage teachers' control.
Teachers' control was linked to strong personality, self confidence, and good
teaching as was seen in the criteria for decribing Miss Talib as a good teacher

by the science supervisor and the school principal. Problem students are more

188

likely to avoid confrontation when the teacher has such control. Those teachers
are more likely able to cover the syllabus and put more presure on students to

study and perform well in exams.

Discussion of the Reearch Deign

 

Ordinary people have a natural power to experience and understand (Stake,
1978). Case studie have the advantage of developing further understanding of
some people (the readers) by building on the direct expeience of other people
(case study researchers). When understanding and expanding the experience of a
particular situation constitute the major aims of the research work, case study is
a useful strategy.

In this case study, the purpose was M to produce generalizations in a way
similar to that known in the process of scientific induction. The purpose was to
set a basis for what Stake called "naturalistic generalization" which is "arrived
at by recognizing the similaritie of objects and issue in and out of context and
by sensing the natural covariation of happenings." The need in this case was for

. . . generalization about a particular case or to a similar case rather

than generalization to a population of case. The demands for

typicality and representativenes yield to needs for assurance that

the target case is pr0perly described. As readers recognize essential

similaritie to case of interest to them, they etablish the basis for

naturalistic generalization (Stake, 1978, p. 7).

This assurance of maintaining a proper degree of accuracy in decribing what
was supposed to be described in the case study is called the gal—Ritz in research
terminology. Validity in this particular case study in the recording of
obsevations and descriptions was achieved through the relatively long tem stay
in a classroom, combining direct observation with repeated listening and/or

viewing sesions of tapes, effectively seving the researcher to distinguish valid

decriptions from invalid one and supporting this validity by some contextual

189

evidences. Checking the perspectives of the researcher with those of other
participants was also another way of obtaining this validation.

Choosing the case study strategy served in focusing the attention of
research on understanding the role of individual participants and their particular
realities in that particular cultural milieu. During the period of the study, the
researcher was concerned with the study of teaching and learning behaviors from
the perpectives of the teache, the students, and the principal-«as insiders whose
meanings, intepretations, and values are the most relevant factors in
comprehending what actually happens within the classroom system. The
rationale for considering this "emic" dimension of perspectives was embedded
in the purpose of the study—the holistic understanding of the teaching/learning
process. The knowledge about their inner state of those people participating in
this proces was considered an essential factor for this understanding.

The "etic" perspective as contrasted to the emic refes to employing a
perspective relevant to the intepretation of people from outside the research
setting. It includes also the assumptions underlying the standardized
quantitative systems of observation such as Flandes' Interaction Analysis
Categorie (FIAC). The FIAC system has been designed and used extensiVely in
many studie to trace the type of teache influence in the classroom by
quantitative inspection of the amount of teacher talk and student talk and
silence, then to describe teachers on a direct vesus nondirect behavior

continuum.

 

*"Emic" and "etic" were first introduced by Pike (1967) as two approaches
for describing language and culture where the "etic viewpoint studie behavior as
from outside a particular system and as an esential initial approach to an alien
system. The emic viewpoint results from studying behavior as from inside the
system" (p. 37). Pike derived the words etic and emic from the words phonetic
and honemic to refer to a similar linguistic usage of the terms, but for more
general purposes.

190

Flanders' systen was used in this study partially _r_n_9_t to make a judgment
about the type of influence Miss Talib had. It served as an entry framework
which allowed the researcher to organize his obsevation of the classroom
behavior during the study and to categorize the vebal communication of the
classroom as a base for further qualitative investigation during the data analysis
phase.

The combination of quantitative data derived from the FIAC system and
qualitative data derived from various ethnographic technique proved to be
effective to apply whenever any type of them may be useful. Using students'
reponse on various tets was also an example of combining quantitative data
about students' learning and qualitative data generated through direct
observation of students in the classroom and through students' reponse to the
researcher's questins during inteviews.

The significance of using the case study strategy in this study was seen in
its succes of enabling the participants to play a major role in determining the
boundarie of the study. The reearch in this case touched more directly the
concerns of those insides (the emic dimension) and data collectin and analysis
had addressed these concerns.

One of the guiding ideas which the researcher carried with him to the
research site was the idea of task analysis of the three components of the study:
curriculum mateials, actual classroom instruction, and students' learning
outcomes. The reearcher planned to share with the teacher the knowledge
related to this analysis afte she finished teaching the first chapte of the
textbook. Miss Talib was not interested in this kind of analysis; she did not show
any willingness to spend time doing it or in changing her style of planning method

to incorporate the task analysis of chapter two to see how this idea might work.

191

Consequently, the phase of intervention which was originally planned was
dropped from the study.

The reearcher was careful not to identify his role with the role of any
particular group in the system; otherwise, the way in which various participants
might have seen him could have been influenced adversely. For the teacher, the
researche was not playing the role of a supervisor or a principal; for the
students, he was not an eye for the teacher; and for the principal, he was not an
official administrator from the Office of Education. In this way, he was able to
maintain a spirit of trust which encouraged participants to share with him their
intimate thoughts. Without this spirit, many insights, pespective, and feelings
would not have been conveyed to the reearcher by those native participants.
The atmosphere of frankness and trust which has been created is very difficult to
achieve in other methodologie. An important factor contributing to this was
embedded in the fact that the researcher did not intend to study that particular
situation using a certain theoretical framework to make some evaluative
judgments. Rathe the research employed Wilson's (1977) advise to the
ethnographer, to make himself a "sensitive research instrument by transcending
his own perspective and becoming acquainted with the perspective of those he is
studying" (p. 261).

In brief, the case study strategy was an appropriate one for the purpose of
this reearch: understanding the teaching-learning proces of chemistry in a
tenth grade classroom. The combination of qualitative and quantitative data was
found helpful in providing two type of evidence to support assertions made in
describing various aspects of the study. Ethnographic techniques provided
triangulating evidence coming from perspective of various people who are
related to the field of the study and to get into the depth of that field. A major

problem with using ethnography in this study, however, was the need for

192

extended periods of time to conduct interviews with the participants. Had this
time been available to inteview the teacher and conduct sesions for viewing

videotape of her lesons, for example, more evidence to support the claims

made by the reearcher may have been produced.

CHAPTER VI

CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND LIMITATIONS

Conclusions

 

The structure and objective of the unit "propetie of matter and the
particle model" were similar to those of the first part of CHEMS. The quantity
of subject matter of this unit was found to be too much to cove in the
prescribed time. Miss Talib felt obliged to cover this amount. In order to do
that, she omitted the expeiments and practical activitie to save time. She also
realized that this rapid coverage would leave some students unable to understand
the mateial.

The teachers' guide was not useful for Miss Talib because it did not contain
material which could add to her own experience. Had the teachers' guide been
written with specific suggestions about ways of presentation of topics, example
of relating particular concepts and topics to general theme or major conclusions,
it could have been more meaningful to Miss Talib's own situation.

The textbook was used as the only source of knowledge and was found
useful, especially the printing of main concepts, definitions, and conclusions in
blue and the use of margin note on some page to summarize certain conclusions
and definitions.

The questions and problems at the ends of chaptes wee viewed as
important. All those quetions and problems were answered In the classroom in
lesons devoted to this purpose. Although these questions wee answeed in the
teachers' guide, Miss Talib encountered some difficulty in dealing with them.

193

194

Most of her difficultie were related to numerical problems regarding the laws of
chemical composition or to vapor pressure.

The curriculum mateials seem to have failed in conveying the intentions
of the curriculum developers to the teacher; they did not provide direct linkage
between the specifics of the subject matte and the general principle. The
teacher was not able to provide these linkage in her classroom teaching.
Although many students learned most of the specifics, they did not learn the
general theme of the curriculum.

Teaching and learning in Miss Talib's classroom were mainly limited to
conceptual knowledge of the course. Objective related to the nature of science
and the work of scientists and to the development of scientific attitude and
skills were not addresed in the classroom because they were not considered part
of the conceptual knowledge. The low level of understanding the nature of
science, excluding practical activitie and ignoring attitude and skill objective,
were not unique to Miss Talib's classroom. Evidence was presented that shows
that this classroom is repreentative of many othe classrooms in this repect.
Topics in the textbook wee all presented in the same sequence: lecture method
combined with quetions and answers at the recall level. The problen that Miss
Talib faced in teaching some topics in the program wee due in part to the
confusing method of presentation of those tapics in the program mateials; but in
some case, the teacher missed the meaning of what she read in the textbook and
assigned other meanings derived from he own expeience in other source.

Time was a major factor in understanding many aspects of teaching and
learning in Miss Talib's classroom. Writing a leson plan was viewed by her as a
waste of time; conducting experiments needed part of her personal time which
she did not want to give away. She believed that all students could understand

all the mateial provided she could spend the time required to

195

meet the needs of various type of students and provided that the prerequisite

knowledge was available.

Miss Talib practiced a high level of control over the knowledge and social
order in her classroom. She was aware of the disadvantage of such control, but
she beleived that it was necessary to set conditions in which she could cover the
required material within the available time frame. Such control was viewed also
as an important factor in describing a good teacher who has a strong personality
and doe not allow for wasting time.

Students in Miss Talib's classroom did not have an active role in negotiating
aspects of classroom activitie, because they were not granted that choice.
Even raising questions about what they did not understand was not a common
practice, because they were afraid to do so. They admitted that the teacher did
not mind being asked questions, but they did not appreciate the way she dealt
with those quetions. Although students praised the teache for her sincerity and
commmitment in spending leson time teaching subject matte, some students
mentioned that they had problems answering quetions about topics they thought
they understood well.

Understanding the nature of science was considered a fundamental goal of
the natural science course. However, most students did not achieve that goal.
Most students had problems learning certain topics such as the laws of chemical
compositions, Faraday's laws of electrolysis, concentration and molarity of
solutions, and the relationship between vapor pressur and boiling point. In most
cases, the teacher herself had problems understanding thee tapics. The
confusion which the teacher encounteed in her teaching might account for the
students' poor level of learning as measured by tests and observed in classroom

communication.

196

Generally speaking, many students showed considerable progress in learning
from instruction as measured by the diffeence between their performance on
pretets and posttets. There wee case where students learned from the
textbook and wee not confused by the errors the teacher made in her teaching.
The poor level of learning the general theme and principle was intepreted to
mean that neither the curriculum mateails nor the classroom instruction
provided direct emphasis on these theme and principle; instead, the emphasis
was on the specifics of subject matter without relating that to the general
principle and main ideas.

In her teaching Miss Talib tried to transfe subject matte knowledge from
the textbook to her students. She expected students to master that knowledge
just as she passed it on to them. The academic meanings of that knowledge were
the teacher's own property, and her responsibility was to share that propety
with her students. Since classroom . teaching was limited to conceptual
knowledge, students did not have a chance to learn the intended skills or develop
the intended attitudes related to the experimental aspect of the subject matte.

The perceptions students could deveIOp from reading the textbook at home
should be suspended until the teacher presented the topic, at which time she
assigned her own interpretations. During the presentation, the teacher initiated
questions and evaluated student reponse according to those meanings.

The teaching and learning proces was carried out by the teacher's attempt
to move students into her system of meanings. Miss Talib provided various clues
to assure the succes of this movement. At the end of each segment of teaching,
she asked, "Did you understand what I mean? Is that clear? Do you have any

quetions? If you did not understand, I will repeat."

197

As the teacher was teaching a topic, she was trying to tell students the
meaning of the content of a topic; and by this process of telling, students were
expected to understand the meaning. That was how students were expected to
learn. Despite these continuous efforts on the part of the teacher, many
students did not learn; they did not succeed in adapting Miss Talib's system.

In cases where Miss Talib had assigned different meanings than the
students developed through their reading of the textbook, some students dropped
their own meanings to adopt the teacher's meaning without having a clear
understanding where the meanings came from. Few students continued to hold
their own meanings because they thought that the "teacher was talking about
something else."

This study was a case study of one teacher in one classroom. Miss Talib
was chosen as a good teacher on the assumption that a good teacher would be a
good choice for the study. However, the analysis of this case through interviews
with the school principal, science supervisors, students, and several teacher
educators revealed that Miss Talib was not a special case. Whether in her
approach to classroom instruction, in using curriculum materials, in the way she
dealt with students, or in her attitudes toward doing experiments and writing
lesson plans, Miss Talib was a reasonably typical example of science teachers in
Jordan, although she may have had a better scientific background than many.

The initial questionnaire sent to 18 teachers of the NSC for tenth grade
revealed that Miss Talib was among the majority who did not use the teachers'
guide. Ten other teachers in various schools in the same city as Miss Talib
responded to questions about the way they dealt with the experimental part of
the curriculum by revealing results similar to those observed in Miss Talib's

classroom. In addition, when some students were asked about the impact of the

198

way Miss Talib had reprimanded students, they indicated that they got
accustomed to this. One student said "most teachers insult students." The
school principal praised Miss Talib for her sincerity and commitment, but she
admitted that Miss Talib was among the majority of teachers who viewed leson
planning and the experimental part of the curriculum negatively. Similarly, the
teacher educators who viewed a tape of Miss Talib's leson obseved that the
case was very familiar to them in terns of her high level of classroom control
and her use of a great deal of telling and recitation practices.

The decription of this particular case of a science classroom in Jordan was
similar in many aspects to many case described in liteature of science
classrooms in othe countrie, especially in those case decribed by Olson (1983)
in Canada and the United Kingdom and those case refered to by NSF case
studie in the United State (Stake 6r Easley, 1978).

The typicality of Miss Talib's case adds to the significance of this study and

make the implications of this study relevant to many other case.

Implications of the Study

The development of various technique by which teachers can self-monitor
the effects of their own teaching behaviors in the classroom in order to improve
their practices and their students' learning is the most important purpose of
doing reearch from this type. Teachers who read reports of reearch of this
type can reflect on their own situation and develop a tendency to focus on the
meanings of their classroom instruction. In addition to the improvement of
claassroom practice, there are othe aspects of implication which are

summarized in the following paragraphs.

199

Implications for
CurriTzanm Development

 

 

Teachers have been using the Natural Science Course as well as other
chemistry course in classroom in Jordan for 10 years. There was no pilot draft
or try out experience when textbooks were approved. Curriculum development
literature refers to the importance of trying out the curriculum material before
publishing the first edition. This study indicated that teachers and supervisors
have many problems with the NSC. Classroom teaching and learning were found
to be far below the expectation of curriculum developers in terns of the way
science was preented in the classroom and in terms of the low level of students'
learning in various domains of instructional objectives.

Chemistry as experimental science and the procese of scientific inquiry
should not just be slogans for making innovations. Real innovations occur only
when classrooms employ them. In the same vein, data from this study imply that
the continuous process of evaluating the curriculum mateial is needed in Jordan.
The reports that many teachers, principals, and science supervisors have written
about the problen they encounteed in curriculum mateials should be treated
seriously by the Ministry of Education. Whatever the experience of curriculum
deve10pers, the experience of teachers and students in the classroom with the
products of curriculum deve10pment is what really counts. Improving curriculum
mateials should always be a continuous endeavor.

Implications for
Further Research

 

 

The research reported in this study has left the reearcher with more
quetions to ask and more points to pay attention to, rathe than les. This
come as no surprise. The teaching/learning process in the classroom is so

complex and the variable and factors which influence this proces are so many

200

that, when this fact is added to the continuous change in the conditions of our
social life, our schools and our knowledge and techniques, reearch should be a
continous proces of inquiry to provide ways for better understanding what
happens in the classroom.
There are aspects which this study has shown a need to reearch and study.
The following areas are among them.
1. Curriclum of chemistry in Jordan has been developed following
the line of the American CHEMS. The goals and objective are
almost the same. The experiments and practical activitie are
also similar. The nature of chemistry as a science conveyed in
both curricula is not expected to be diffeent. But peOple in
Jordan and the United State, although sharing some value and
beliefs, diffe in many world views and other values and beliefs
which might influence their ways of thinking and understanding
science. The consequences of cultural borrowing, in the case of
adapting American chemistry course as well as other science
course, constitute an inteeting subject for rearch. The
subject might be bet studied in a similar case study. The
strengths of the inteview, which lie in its ability to elicit
personal opinions, undestandings, and value, should be given
more space in such a study in order to trace the origins of
philoSOphical commitments of the interviewee and to
understand how these commitments are treated in the
teaching/learning proces.
2. This study built an adequate base for many other case studie
which can focus on a smaller portion of the subject matte,

where students' learning may be investigated in depth and be

201

related to (a) correponding segments of the classroom
instruction, (b) the preentation of the t0pic in the curriculum
mateial, and (c) student knowledge prior to instruction.

3. Some teachers like Miss Talib do not feel the need for help from
the teachers' guide or other source, partly because they did not
have this kind of help before. It is expected that a more useful
revision of the teachers' guide might challenge those teachers
and encourage them to improve their performance. A study such
as the one reported here can be considered a pilot study for
another one which includes an intevention phase where the
problems identified in curriculum materials in the study can be
treated and a revised edition may be developed and used in the
proposed study to get a better understanding how curriculum
mateials are used.

4. Teachers who have negative attitudes toward planning and doing
experiments can change this attitude by participating in case
studie where planning and doing experiments are the focus ofthe
study. Teaches who are used to cetain ideas reist changing
them. But when circumstances convince them to change, they
might find new approache which are more effective in
improving students' learning and their own effectiveness. This
could reult in better job satisfaction for the teachers.

Implications for
Presevice '1' eacher Education

 

 

One videotape of a leson taught by Miss Talib was independently viewed
by five university profesors and two science supervisors. After these viewing

sesions, the discussion of the researcher with those science and teacher

202

educators pointed out bitternes toward and dissatisfaction with the status of
science education in Jordan. They refered to the fact that teachers teach
science by telling and dictating the information preented in the textbook (in
many case, explaining it incorrectly), while the investigative spirit is
completely excluded from the curriculum. One of the reasons given for this
situation by those science and teacher educators was the status of the university
education which repreents the preervice education of teachers. They referred
to the separation of knowledge from its pedagogy. Knowledge of subject matte
which is usually addresed at the school level is not addresed at the university
level. Experiments are done by using advanced equipment which is not available
in school labs. Knoweldge of education and methodology is provided through
certain course which are given in a fragmented way, dealing with theoretical
situations or situations decribed in textbooks which are written for readers of
other societie.

In the present study Miss Talib stated in several instances that her
univesity preparation was not of great help to her, even in her graduate courses
in the diploma program. She was not inteeted in pursuing the maste‘s program
because she did not expect it to provide her with any new experience.

Preevice teacher education should be reconsidered carefully to provide
teachers with real life experience which help them meet the challenge they
expect to face in the classroom, whether related to an understanding of the
subject matter they will teach or to the methods of preenting this subject or the
techniques of promoting their students' learning.

Implications for
Inservice Teache Education

 

It has been documented in educational circle in Jordan that many teachers

hold negative attitude for educational supervision, partly because of the old

203

position supervisors used to hold as inspectors (the previous name of supervisors)
and partly because an important purpose of the supervisor's visit to schools is to
evaluation teachers' performance.

Whatever their preservice training might be, teachers continued to be in
need of help from someone with more experience. Science supervisors can
provide important help if they obtain the trust of those teachers. A supervisor
who is responsible for visiting a large number of teachers every year in addition
to performing other adminstrative and technical responsibilities might not be
able to obtain the needed level of trust. A better situation may be seen in the
light of this study, where building the mutual trust between the science
supervisor and science teacher is considered essential. If each science supervisor
were assigned a certain number of teachers (say 20 or 30), then s/he could meet
with them often, in weekly or bi-weekly seminars, in school and classroom visits
designed for certain professional purposes, discussing the specifics of subject
matter, teaching behavior, and student learning. In this way, science supervisors
could act as bridges to exchange many experiences among various teachers.
Providing some incentives for teachers' professional development seems essential
in this case.

Limitation of the
Findings of This Study

 

The limitations related to the implication of the finding of this study
should be realized from the fact that it is a case study which involved one
teacher in one classroom who was observed during a period of seven weeks while
teaching part of a chemistry unit. Careful consideration should be given to any
implication beyond teachirng this instructionnal material in that particular
classroom by that particular teacher. The purpose of the study, however, was

pat to generalize from it the statistical meaning of generalization. Naturalistic

204

generalization, however, can be established as was examined in the discussion of
the research method.

There were several circumstances which limited the ability of the
researcher to get into the depth of some aspect of the situation he was studying.
The cultural commitments related to sex separation allowed the researcher to
spend only short periods of time in interviewing participants of a girls' school.

The attempt of the researcher to avoid engaging in delicate situations
where the trust of the participants might be endangered was a source of
limitation for the study, especially in areas where data about how participants
viewed each other were important.

The analysis of data during the period of observation was very helpful in
developing the hypotheses and testing them continuously. The rest of the
analysis had been done with no way to continue this kind of interaction with
participants. Had the teacher, for example, been available for more viewing
sessions to reflect on her behaviors which were the subject of analysis, she could
have added more richness and depth to the analysis.

Ethnography, although, was a powerful methodology for providing a rich
description and understanding. It represented, however, some source of
limitation, especially by putting the emphasis on a wide scope rather than
dealing with the specifics. This dissertation was considered a summary of what
could be found in the case study. The large amount of data can yield much more

analysis and findings than what has been reported in this dissertation.

APPENDIX A

CONTENT OF NATURAL SCIENCE COURSE

CONTENT OF NSC VOLUME 1
UNIT ONE
MEASUREMENT, EXPERIMENT ATION, PREDICTION AND EXPLANATION

Chapter One Scientific Measurement

 

Definition of scientific measurement
Characteistic of scientific measurement
Measuring time

Measuring distance

Measuring mass

Measuring velocity

Units of measurement

:I-O—O-Dh-I—IU-‘t—
VO‘UO-l-‘WN"

Chapter Two: Scientific Emerimentation

 

2.1 Scientific obsevation
2.2 Making experiments: example of melting point of a pure substance
2.3 Dissemination of reults of experiments

Chapte Three Prediction and Explanation

 

3.1 Scientific prediction

3.2 Scientific explanation

3.3 Prediction of earth structure
3.4 Prediction of the stars

3.5 Prediction of planets

UNITTWO

Chapter Four: The Concept of Equilibrium

 

4.1 The concept of equilibrium
4.2 System and state of a system

Chapter Five Equilibrium of a Solid Under Forces

 

5.1 Newton's Laws

5.2 Force measurement and bodie weight
5.3 Forces and equilibrium of bodie
Chapte Six: Presure

6.1 Definition measurement and units of presure
6.2 Pressure in liquids

Chapter Seven: Equilibrium of a Solid in Liquid

7.1 Equilibrium of a solid in stationary liquid
7.2 Equilibrium of a solid in moving liquid

205

206

Chapter Eight: Equilibrium in Gas Systems

8.1 Gaseous state

8.2 Relationship between pressure and volume of gas

8.3 Relationship between volume and temperature of gas

Chapter Nine The Atmosphere

 

9.1 Nature of atmosphere
9.2 Strata of atmosphere
9.3 Measuring atmosphere

Chapter Ten: Heat Equilibrium

 

10.1 Measuring temperature

10.2 Heat quantity

10.3 Heat mixtures

10.4 Change of state and potential heat
10.5 Heat transfer

Chapte Eleven: Egiilibrium in Hydrosphere

 

11.1 Introduction
11.2 Structure of hydrosphere
11.3 Propertie of hydrosphere

ChaLter Twelve Hydrolic Equilibrium in the Atmosphere

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Saturation and condensation

12.3 Relative humidity

12.4 Saturation and condensation near earth surface

12.5 Saturation and condensation in high strata of atmosphere
12.6 Clouds and thunderstorms

Chapte Thirteen: Equilibrium in the Movement in the Atmosphere

13.1 Presure gradient force

13.2 Coriolis force

13.3 Geostrophic winds

13.4 Surface winds

13.5 Classifying surface winds

13.6 Winds in high strata of atmosphere

207

CONTENT OF NSC VOLUME 2
UNIT THREE
PROPERTIES OF MATTER AND PARTICLE THEORY

Introduction

Chapte One: Building the Atomic Model

h.—
0 O O O O O
«wanna-new N'—

fi—t-r-Ht—nh-

Gas laws as source of knowledge about the structure of matte

Laws of chemical composition as source of knowledge about the structure
of matter

Masse of molecule and Avogadro's hypothesis

Number of atoms in a gas molecule

Masse of atoms and molecule

The mole Avogadro's number

The atom and molecule-the elenent and compound

Building a molecular model of a gas«rea1 gas and ideal gas

Chapter Two: Pure Substance and Solution

 

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Propertie of pure substance

Distinguishing solution from pure substance
Propertie of solutions

Concentration of solutions

Solubility

Solutions of electrolyte and non-electrolytes
Separation of components of solutions
Colloidal solutions

Chapter Three Expandingthe Atomic Model

 

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.

10

Electrical nature of a matte

Experiments of electrolysis of solutions

Experiments of discharge tubes

Rutherford's experiments

The nucleus of the atom

The mass and volume of an atom

The forces inside an atom

The forces between atoms (chemical bonds)

Some propertie of matte explained by the atomic model
Attraction forces between molecule: state of matte

Chapte Four: Chemical Reaction

The meaning of chemical reaction
Chemical equation

Writing chemical equations
Stiochiometry

Energy changes in chemical reaction

208

Chapter Five The Periodicity of Propertie of Elements

The need for the classification of elements

Inet gas: the simplet group of elenents

Alkali metals

Halogens

Hydrogen

Elenents of the third period

The development of periodic table and its structure

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UNIT FOUR
ENERGY

Chapte Six: Work, Energy and Powe

 

6.1 Work

6.2 Power

6.3 Enegy

6.4 Energy cons evation

6.5 Momentum

6.6 Impulse

6.7 Momentum consevation

6.8 Elastic and inelastic collision

Chapte Seven: Enegy Source

 

7.1 Sources of enegy in the world
7.2 Solar energy

7.3 Fuel enegy

7.4 Nuclear enegy

Chapte Eight: Enegy Forms and Transformation

 

8.1 Mechanical enegy to electrical energy and vice versa
8.2 Heat energy to electrical energy and vice versa

8.3 Light energy to electrical energy and vice versa

8.4 Chemical energy to electrical energy and vice versa
8.5 Mechanical enegy to heat energy and vice versa

Chapte Nine Enegy Transfer

 

9.1 Enegy transfe by current
9.2 Enegy transf e by waves
9.3 Enegy transf e by field

Chapte Ten: Enegy Exchange Between the AtmoSphere and Earth Cret

 

10.1 The formation of earth surface
10.2 Denudation
10.3 Sedimentation

209

Chapte Eleven: Energy Exchange Between Atmosphere and Hydrosphere

 

11.1 Heat energy exhcange bewteen atmosphere and hydrosphere
11.2 Kenetic enegy exchange between atmosphere and hydrosphere

APPENDIX B

CONTENT OF UNIT THREE

CONTENT OF UNIT THREE
UNIT THREE

Chapter One Building Atomic Model

 

Preface

1.1 Gas laws as a source of knowledge on the structure of matte
l.l.l Some propertie of gase
Activity one Colors of gase
Activity two: Solubility of gase in wate
Activity three Chemical indicators colors in gase
Activity four: Chemical reactions in gase
What are molecule of a gas composed of?
Laws of chemical composition as a source of knowledge about the structure
of matte
The law of consevation of matte
The law of definite pr0portion
The law of simple multiple proportions
The law of reciprocal proportions
Explaining laws of chemical composition by Dalton's theory
Law of reacting volume of gas
Avogadro's hypothesis and masse of molecule
Number of atoms in a gas molecule
Masse of atoms and molecule
The mole—Avogadro's number
The atom and molecule—the element and compound
Building a molecular model of gas«real gas and ideal gas

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Chapter Two: Pure Substance and Solution

 

Propertie of pure substance
1 Change of solid into liquid«melting
.1.2 Change of liquid into gas—evaporation and boiling
3 Vapor pressure—equilibrium between liquid and its vapor

U

2 istinguishing a solutin from pure liquid
3 ropertie of solutions

3 1 Behavior of the solution during heating
3.2 Behavior of the solution during cooling
4 Repreentation of solution concentration
5 Solubility

5 l Solubility as a measure of saturated solution concentration
.5.2 Factors affecting solubility
5 3

6

6

7

7

7

"U

Super-saturation phenomenon
Solutions of electrolyte and non-electrolyte
. .1 Practical activitie
Separation of the component of solution
1 Distillation
.2 Crystallization

NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN

210

211

2.7.3 Extraction

2.7.4 Factional distillation

2.7.5 Fractional distillation of liquid air
2.8 Colloidal solution

2.8.1 Practical activitie

Chapter quetion

Chapte Three: Expanding of Atomic Model

 

Pr eface

3.1 Electrical nature of matte

3.2 Experiments of electrolysis of solutions

3.3 Experiments of discharge tubes

3 1 Positive charges and the discovery of the proton
3.2 Thompson's model of the atom
4 Rutherford's experiment
5 The nucleus of atom

6 The mass and volume of an atom
7 Forces inside atoms

8 Forces between atoms
8

8

8

9

9

9

1 Metallic bond
2 Ionic bond
3 Covalent bond
Explaining some propertie of matte by the atomic model

1 Electrical charge and electrical conductivity
2 Expansion of matte and heat conductivity

.1
l
l

0 Attraction forces between molecule: change of state

0.1 The diff eence of attraction forces in the three state of matte
0.2 Intemolecular forces. VanDeWall's forces

.lO.3 Molecular ploarization and the hydrogen bond

10 4 Attraction forces in ionic crystals

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Chapter queion

Chapte Four: Chemical Reactions

 

4.1 Meaning of chemical reaction

4.2 Chemical equations

.3 Writing chemical equation

3 1 Symbol and molecular formula of reactants and products
3.2 Indentification of reactants and products
3 3 Preeving the law of consevation of matter
4 Stoichiom etry
a

5

5

.1 Exercise
Enegy exchange in chemical reaction
. .1 Exercise

4
4
a
a
a
a
a
a

Chapte Five: Periodicity in Propertie of Elements

5.1 The need for classifying elenents
5.2 Inert gase«the simplist chemical group
5.2.1 Some prOpertie of inet gases

212

s
N

Sodium chloride«achieving the state of inert gas
Alkali elenents
Some propertie of alkali metals
Reactions of chlorine with alkali metals
Reaction of alkali metals with wate
Halogens
Some propertie of halogens
The chemistry of halogens
Halids of other elements
Hydrogen
ome propertie of hydrogen
Reaction of hydrogen with sodium
Reaction of hydrogen with chlorine
Element of the the third period
Some propertie of the third period elements
Some compounds of the third period elenents
Brief discussion of the development and structure of the periodic table

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Chapter quetions

APPENDIX C

AN EXAMPLE OF FIELD NOTES

FIELD NOTES

Leson: 1-4 Number of students present: 58

Date February 2, 1982, Tuesday Number of students absent: 2

The second period: 8:50-9:35 Taghrid Hatamleln, Summaia
Kawahli

The teache and I enteed the classroom at 8:51. I sat in the back of the second
column of table with the tape recorder beside me and the teacher held a
wireles microphone. She felt uncomfortable putting it around her neck. Next
time she would pref e to wear it on her coat. The chalkboard is clean except for
the title of the new leson: The law of equal volume" on the middle of the
board, and the date on the upper right corner. The teacher aleted me to turn on
the recorder and she began.

T:

T+Ss:

T:

Jamila:

Close your book first (secondary) class. Give me your attention. We
need to make a review. (Afte a few quetions about the definition of
the first two laws, she noticed a low reponse. None of the students
raised their hand to defined the third law.)

"Why, class, are you lazy today? What is the matte? Are you still
busy in the transfe from this school to the comprehensive school?
No more transfes to the comprehensive school now. That is it. We
are here now. You either study well or leave the school."

(Rana raised her hand and she was called on to give an example of the
third law.

The teacher repeats almost each word Rana uttes while she is
solving the problem on the board. In the mixed choral reponse, I
can distinguish that the reponse of many students are diffeent
from each other.)

Example

Always, any two elenents react with each other to produce more
than one compound, the proportions are

Multiple of each other. (More than one student around me said:
simple numerical proportion, and at least two students said constant
proportion.)

(It is obvious that the teacher did not explain the law of the simple
multiple proportions effectively. She failed to state the conslusion
correctly. When she asked a student to repeat the conclusion of the
definition of the law. The statement of the student was a
meaningles one. The teacher, however, built on it and ended it by an
incorrect phrase; an example follows.)

So what is the definition of the law of simple multiple proportions?

If an element reacted with a constant mass proportion and the
proportion was not constant, than the proportion between the two
masse is a simple num eical proportions.

213

214

A multiplied pr0portion.
(The definition in the text book is:

When two elenents react with each other to form more than one
compound, the proportion between the masse of one elenent which
combine with a constant mass of the other elenent is a simple
numeical proportion.)

(This definition is stated twice throw two diffeent example
H20/l-;202 and CO/COz and for a third time on the margin in blue
color.

(The review lasted for 15 minute)
He. + NH3 NH4CL
(She counted the number if similar atoms in each side of the equation

and found them equal. Then she asked,) "What is the law of chemical
composition which I preeved in this case?"

(It was easy to distinguish among many attempts of the student
random response the following:

«-«Law of definite composition

-««Law of definite composition

«~«Law of simple multiple proportion

«-«Law of consevation of mass

Some students around me tried more than one law.)

"Of course, Avogadro's hypothesis is not obsolutely true, they adopted
it because they did not find a better one". Usually I tried to discover
the bette. Avogadro's hypothesis was able to explain the law of
equal volume."

(She mentioned that the temperature of the standard state is 20
degree centigrade. That is incorrect. It is 0 degree centigrade.)

What is the definition of the mole?
It is Avogadro's number.
It is Avogadro's number but what is its definition?

(Noise)
(No hands wee raised)

Today the class is not with me at all.

(Noise)
(No hands)

Hurry up...you in the back

T+Ss:

Ss:

Ss:

Ss:

215

It is the mass of Avogadro's number of atoms

(Teacher nodded in agreement and repeated the same statement,
accompanied by many other students.)

It is the mass of Avogadro's number of atoms...
(Teacher wrote this on the board.
Write on your notebook! (She dictated the following problem.)

"We have a mole of chairs. The mass of one chair is 3 grams. What
is the mass of the mole of chairs?

(Relatively long period of wait time interupted by direction and one
instance of criticism. After some time, few students started to raise
their hands. The teacher asked what about the others. She called on
Wisal to solve the problem.)

We multiply the 3 grams by the number of chairs.

(rejecting the response) First tell: how many chairs are available

Avogadro's number

(Shezngrote on the board while she said:) one mole of chairs has 6.02
X 10

What is this number?

Chairs

What is the mass of one chair?

3 grams

The mass of all chairs?

Multiply by three

(During this time Wisal was standing up expected to repond to
teacher's quetions, but reponse wee given in chorus by many othe
students, too.)

(Definition of elenent, atom, molecule, compound, molecular
formula, structural formula... She spent some time writing on the
board.)

I repreent the atoms by symbols which we will take next time.

Prepare up to the end of the chapter. Answe the first five quetions
from chapte questions.)

APPENDIX D

TRANSCRIPT OF LESSON 2-3
BEHAVIOR OF THE SOLUTION AND MOLARITY

TRANSCRIPT OF LESSON 2—3, February 11
BEHAVIOR OF THE SOLUTION AND MOLARITY

(Before the teacher's arrival to the class, a student has written in the middle of
the chalkboard: Natural Science. In the upper right corner the date February
11, and below it, the topic of today: "Behavior of the Solution During Cooling".
Afte setting the camea, the camea man was looking at the teacher to give a
sign of start. She gave the sign by a clue of her head, then started).

002 T:
Ss:
T:

Basma:

009 T + 5:

Today we will continue the behavior of solutions

During cooling

During heating and cooling, we will go back to the boiling process.
Yeterday we had the boiling point of a solutin as compared with the
boiling point of a pure wate. We used a solution of sugar in wate
and noticed two conclusions. What was the first conclusion? What
was the first conclusion in relation to the boiling point? What was
the conclusion?

(She moved forward in the isle and pointed to a nearby student
without calling he name. No name is shorthanded NN)

No response

The boiling point of a solution in comparison with the boiling point of
a pure water equal, more or les?

(Noise)

(Teacher pointed to the class to calm and wait)

Why did you not study?

(Talking to the student who could not answer)

You should have studied in order to be able to answer. Ye, Basma.

The boiling point of a solution is higher than the boiling point of a
pure wate.

(A lady from outside the classroom was seen opening the door. Miss
Talib waved he hand to close the door, and that lady quickly closed
the door. A student put a concrete block behind the door so that the
wind would not blow it.)

Boiling point of a solution is higher than boiling point of a pure water.
(T. wrote the statement on the chalkboard the statement)

The boiling point....(while she was writing on the chalkboard)

216

T+Ss:

T + 55:
T:

T-n-Ss:

T+Ss:

T-n-Ss:

T + $5:
T:
T + 55:

T + Ss:
T:
T + Ss:
T:
T + $5:

T+Ss:

217

What was the second conclusion? (Noise) Ye? (Pointing to a

student NN)

The boiling point of a solution does not stay constant while it is
boiling

(Repeated student answer and added)...because the proportion of
sugar increases as water of the solution evaporizes. (She wrote on
chalkboard: Boiling point did not stay constant.) So the temperature
did not. 0 0

Stay constant

During

Boiling

It continued

Rising up

Now I will represent those reults for both (she started drawing on
chalkboard while she continued talking...)

the solution

And

Pure wate

The kind of representation is
Graphic representation

I make two axis: X and
Y

X represents

Time

Time measured in

in minuted

Y repreents
Temperature
Temperature measured in

Centigrade degrees

T+Ss:

T+Ss:

T+Ss:

T:
T + Ss:
020 T:

S:
T + $5:

T+Ss:

217a

Suppose that the temperature of wate (she wrote on the chalkboard
99 degree centigrade)

99 degrees centigrade

As 1 am heating the wate what happens to the temperature?
Temperature increase.

Until it reaches (she drew the line AB and put 100 degrees centigrade)
100 degrees centigrade

What happens at 100 degrees centigrade? Ye? (Pointing to a student
NN)

Wate starts boiling
So it starts changing form
Liquid state into gaseous state

Why are you talking together? (directing her statement to the whole
class) When it boils what happens? Ye? (Pointing to a student NN)

It evaporate changing from

Liquid state into gaseous state

And the tenperature (drawing the horizontal line BC in the graph)
Temperature starts rising up again

So here C-D is the gas and here (BC) It will change from liquid
Into gas

Now I want to compare this with the solutions I will draw the same
thing for the

Solution

In case of the solution, what is the boiling point?

Higher

It is higher than the boiling point of pure wate

Because vapor presure of the solution is les than that of pure wate.
I assume that the tempeature reached 101 degree centigrade. (She

drew the graph of solution pointing to the place of 101 degrees
centigrade). The solution starts boiling

T + Ss: Changing from liquid to gas

T:

Afifa + Ss:

T:
T + Ss:

T+Ss:

218

What happens to the temperature? Afifa? Does it stay constant?

No

Temperature did not stay constant. What happened?

It continued to rise up

Let us represent the temperature by (she‘drew a dashed line)

A dashed line

This graph is for what? (Writing on the graph solution and utteing
the word solution...in a certain intunation as if the atatement should
be completed

The pure (pure solution)

The solution

The solution which is made of more than one substance. This is the
diffeence between the pure wate

And the solution

Hee (pointing to the graph of the soltuion) as you heat, the
tempeature rise up, at a certain temperature, the boiling occurs.
What is the boiling point of the solution in comparison with the
boiling pont of pure water (pointing to a student NN)

Higher

Higher than

The boiling point of pure wate

Because its vapor presure is les

Than vapor pressure of pure wate

This is the case of heating. Now 1 will start studing the behavior of
the solution

During cooling

The opposite process. Take pure wate at 101 degrees centigrade.
What happens when you cool it?

It lose heat
It lose heat, what happen? (pointing to a student NN)
It changes from gaseous state into liquid state

No miss

219

No miss

I am saying it is a liquid (pointing to another student NN)
It condense

Noise. (Teacher pointed to the class to be quiet)

It is a liquid. When we cool it down what happens?
Tenperature decrease

First temperature decrease, then it starts freezing at what
tempeature doe liquid freeze?

At 0 degrees centigrade

At 0 degrees centigrade

(writing on chalkboard and stating) the freezing point of pure

Wate is 0 degrees

Now I will see the freezing point of the solution is it 0 degrees or les
Or higher

Take solution of sugar

in water

And start cooling, what will happen to the molecule? When 1 cool
them down? Manal?

Their movement decrease

Their movement decrease, and the molecule become close to each
other. In a certain moment, the molecule become closer to each
other. In a certain moment, the molecule start arranging and
changing into

T + Ss: 0 degrees centigrade

T:
T + 55:

Heat transfe from hot...

Object to cold object

Until the temperatures become equal. The wate and sugar in the
solution start freezing, molecule become close until it change into
what?

Solid state

What do we call the temperature at which the solutions freezes?

S:

T+Ss:

T+Ss:

T + Ss:
T:

T + Ss:
064 T:

Rahma:
T + Ss:
T:

220

(pointing at a student NN)
The freezing point
Freezing point

We continue cooling down, when temperature is les than zero, the
solution starts freezing, which one should I cool more, in order to
freeze, the solution or pure wate? (Silence) (Then very few hands
are raised up). Which one do we freeze more, the solution or pure
wate? (pointing at a student NN)

The solution

The solution, so what did we notice about freezing point of the
solution? What did we notice? (pointing at a student NN)

Freezing point of a solution is lower than freezing point of a pure
water. (T. wrote on chalkboard: Wate freeze at 0 degree
centigrade, solution freezes at lowe than 0 degrees centigrade while
she was stating it)

at les than 0 degrees centigrade

Try this in a refrigerator. Fill a containe of wate and another one
of solution. Afte one hour you notice that water has frozen, but
solution has not. So boiling point of a solution is

Les than boiling point of pure wate

During the freezing notice the temomete,
tempeature continue to decrease, that tempeature

you find that

continues to decrease

The reason for that is that the wate will freeze but the sugar will
stay in the ret of the solution, causing more concentration in the
solution and more decrease in temperature because cooling continues.
(T. started cleaning the chalkboard in the middle part, the graph,
while she continued talking. Than a student went out to complete
cleaning chalkboard). Now we will represent the freezing of wate
and solution during cooling process. (T. used the two axes of the
previous graph) Suppose that I start from water at 1 degree
centigrade. Wate will start decreasing in temperature from +1
degree centigrade into 0 degree centigrade (she drew A-B). It's
kinetic energy decrease until it reaches 0 degrees centigrade. What
will happen at zero? Rahma? What will happen to the water?
Rahma? (Noise)

Wate freezes
Wate freezes

Wate starts changing from...

T:
T + SS:
080 T:

221

Liquid to solid

Temperature will stay constant until...

All wate changes into solid

What happens next? Ye (pointing to NN student)

Temperature continues to decrease

Temperature continues to decrease

This is the graph of pure wate, the graph...

of pure wate

The solution will cool, did it freeze at 0 degrees centigrade? Did the
solution freeze at 0 degree centigrade (she pointed at a NN
student)?

No

No it has frozen below 0 degrees centigrade. Suppose it will reach
this point les than 0 degree centigrade, between 0 degrees
centigrade and --1 degrees centigrade, les than 0 degrees centigrade,
did tempeature stay constant?

No

What happened

Temperature continued to decrease while solution is freezing

Next time all of you, write on your notebook: Explain why: first:
freezing point of a solution les than that of pure wate. Seco a:
temperature did not stay constant while cooling a solution.

Next time I need this explanation on your notebook. Is there any
question about solution, how it behaves during boiling and cooling and
the difference of boiling point of pure water and solution and
freezing point of pure wate and solution?

(Thee was no reponse)

Clean the chalkboard. We will start the concentration of a solution
(she wrote on chalkboard "Concentration of Solutions"). Let us go
back to the cup of sugar and wate. Two identical cups. In the first
we disolved one spoon of sugar and in the second, we dissolved two
spoons of sugar. Which of them is sweete? Ye? (pointing at a
student NN)

One with more sugar

Why two spoons of sugar in a cup of wate is sweete than one spoon
of sugar in a cup of the same size? (looking at the same student)

T+Ss:

222

(same student) Because molecule of sugar in the second are more
You depended on what? The quantity of sugar . . .

is bigger

The quantity of sugar affects the sweetnes of solution. A jar of
wate and a small cup each full of water. I dissolved one spoon in

each one of them. Which one is sweete, Sajida?

The solution in the cup will be sweete than the solution in the jar.
You depended on what her e?

The quantity of wate

In one case the solute

is diffeent

In the other case the solvent
is diff eent

Which is the solute and which is the solvent? Ye? (pointed at a
student)

Sugar is the solute and wate is the solvent.
Sugar is the solute and wate is the solvent.

What do I call this solution in which wate is the solvent? Ye?
(pointed at a student)

Concentrated solution

Aqueous solution

Aqueous solution, when wate is the solvent in a solution, we call it
Aqueous solution

This prOportion between the quantity of wate and the quantity of
sugar, I will call concentration of solution.

Concentration of solution

Suppose I take two containers of the same volume (she drew them and
wrote 1 lite on each one). One liter of water 1 dissolved 100 grams of
sugar in the first and 100 grams of wate in the second (she wrote
sugar and water). This has 100 grams of sugar and this has 100 grams
of wage (some students made noise and one student stood up and
talked .

The second should have sugar in it

Hamama:

T:

Majida:
Ss:

223

Salt (teacher corrected and said salt and erased the word wate and
wrote salt instead). Is the proportion of sugar in water the same as
the prOportion of salt in wate?

(Noises)

We come back to Avogadro's hypothesis

(Noise) Me, miss; Me, miss

Is the proportion...(repeated the question and added) since the solute
is the same amount, Hamama?

The number of molecule is diffeent

The number of molecule is diffeent. I have to consider the
concentration of the solution which means the molecule of sugar in
wate and the number of molecule of salt in wate (she repeated, 1
have to consider...) Avogadro said, the masse of molecule or
volume...what did Avagadro say? What did Avogadro say? Majida?
(no reponse)

(Noise)

(Adresing all the class) What is the problem class? Would you like
me to give you an exam? or what? Return to the habit of expelling
out?

(Few students raised their hands. T. picked one)

Equal volume of diffeent gase contain the same number of
molecule

Equal volume, not necessary of gase, have...
The same number of molecule

Hee do we have the same number of molecule? (pointed to a

student)

No

I will see what is the number of molecule in this lite of solution of
sugar and the numbe of molecule in this liter (of salt solution). I
have to go back to the mole. How many molecule in one mole?
Avogadro's number

What is Avogadro's number?

5.02 x 1023 molecule

224

How much is the mass of one mole. Which (thing) contain Avagadro's
numbe of molecules (she repeated) which...and pointed at a student:

Molecular mass in grams

(T. wrote one mole = 6.02 X 1023)

Molecular mass in grams. Mass of a mole = molecule mass in gram
(she wrote molar mass = Molecular M grams). Whee can I get the
gramic molecular mass? From the molecular formula. What is the
molecular formula of sugar, you took this in biology. Yes? (pointing
at a student).

C6H12°6

C6H12°6

What is the salt? What is the name of it (picking one student)

NaCl

NaCl

Sodium

Chloride

I will try to calculate the

Molecular mass in grams for sugar and salt.

In order to see the number of molecule in one lite of each solution.
The molecular mass is equal to the total number of atoms in it.
Right or wrong?

Right

For sugar. How many 0 atoms?

6

How many carbon atoms?

6

and 12 atoms of hydrogen . . . 6 X

16

+12X

T+Ss:

T+Ss:

T:

Ss:

T+Ss:

T+Ss:

T+Ss:

T+Ss:

6.02 x 1023
_mr.

225

X 12

plus

72

equal to 180 grams. How much is the mass?

180 grams

What is the molecular mass of NaCl? The total masse of...
Atom of Na and the mass of atom of chlorine

I look at the periodic table to see the molecular mass of sodium and
chlorine. Sodium 29.9 we approximate it to 23 plus chlorine 35.5

58.5

Those 58.5 are preent where? (She wrote afte 58.5 gram/mole)
in mole

those are present in

mole

l mogg of sugar C5 H12 05, assuming that it is glucose sugar, has 6.02
X 10

How much gm of sugar do I have (pointing at 100 gm)

100 gm

In need to see how many molecule in 100 gm sugar. Right or wrong?
Right

Number of molecule of sugar

x 100 molecule

1 see now the number of molecule of salt

1 mole of salt (She wrote on chalkboard 6.02 X 1023 its mass 58.5

1 mole of salt

has Avagadro's number of molecule

1 have 100 gm of salt. The number of molecule in 100 gm is

23
"02 ’5“ 100 molecule

143 T:

Ss:
T:

Ss:

Ss:
T:
Ss:

T-n-Ss:

T:

T+Ss:

T:

T+Ss:

T + Ss:
153 T:

T + $5:
T:

226

Are these two numbers equal?

No
Are they equal to each other

No

Are the number of molecule of sugar and salt equal to each other?
No

Is the concentration of the two solutions equal

No

In concentration I did not use the mass of substance. I used

Number of molecule

As the number of molecule increase the concentration is increase.
Which is bigger, this (salt) concentration or this (sugar)? The number
of molecule of salt is

Larger than the number of molecule of sugar

Instead of talking about he number of molecule as concentration,
they gave it an expresion "the molarity, they gave it

the name of molarity
Now we come to molarity. We come
to molarity

(Teacher pointed to a student to clean the chalkboard, as she
contnued talking). There is a relationship between the quantity of
the solute and solvent, or between the mass of the substance and the
mole. (She wrote on the right side of chalkboard: "Molarity" and
pointed to a student who is still cleaning the left side of the
chalkboard to sit down). They defined molarity and gave it special
unit. They consider molarity to be the number of mole of the solute
in a liter of

water.

Not necessarily wate, the solvent in general, in a lite of the
solution. We will prepare a solution which has a concentration of 1
mole in a lite. Suppose we need to prepare 1 lite of the solution of
NaCl of...

Sodium Chloride

Which is

PLEASE NOTE:

Page 227 is lacking in number
only per author. No text is
missing. Filmed as received.

UNIVERSITY MICROFILMS INTERNATIONAL.

T + 55:
T:

228

Table salt

The process will be carried out as follows: I use volumetric flask (T.
Started drawing the flask) it has a stopper. Its volume is (she wrote

on chalkboard 1000 millilite) How many millillte yes? (Pointing to a
student)

1000 milliliter
1000 milliliter

How can I know the volume? There is a mark on the flask which
indicates the volume up to it is

1000 milliliter

In the preparation, I have to use pure distilled wate. Tap wate has
salts. If you taste it you will taste the salts. For this reason, the tap
wate of our town in particular has salts, its taste is

Salty

The taste of the wate of Amman City is diffeent from the taste of
wate in our town. What is the volume of the solution which I need to
prepare?

One mole

One mole. What is the mass of one mole of NaCl.
calculated it?

I have just

58.5 grams

What did I call 58.5 grams. (Pointed at a student)
Gramlc molecular mass

Gramic molecular mass

I take table salt and weigh how much?

58.5 grams

1 put them in the...

Flask

In the flask then I add distilled wate and stir to dissolve them. If the
whole quantity is dissolved in

the wate

I get a solution which has a concentration of 1 mole

T+Ss:

T-n-Ss:

175 T:

T + Ss:
T:

T+Ss:

T+Ss:

T + Ss:
186 T:

229

in liter
One mole 1 lite. If I count the number of molecule dissolved in
water, what is the number of molecule? Ye? (pointing to a student)

Avagadro's number

Avagadro's number, because it has one mole, so the number of
molecule is

6.02 x 1023 molecule
Do I find atoms in the solution? (pointing to a student)
No, miss

No. Because 1 dissolved molecule of NaCl, 1 will find molecule of
sodium chloride. Each molecule is made up of one atom of chlorine
and one atom of...

Sodium

When I used 58.5 grams of NaCl in the laboratory...

What is the quantity, here? Large one. I can use les amount and
prepare a solution of l mole/lite. Instead of using this whole amount
of NaCl and waste it, I can use les amount, but to prepare a solution
of the same concentration, one mole

per liter

Clean the board. I need to decrease the solute quantity, what should
1 decrease also at the same time?

the solvent

For example if I have two spoons of sugar and I need three cups of
tea, if I add the two spoons to the three cups, the tea will be bitter.
So I have to decrease the amount of tea in each cup. In order to
decrease the amount of sugar, I have to decrease the amount of what
in order to concentration. Constant?

the amount of wate

Suppose I need to prepare 100 millilite instead of l lite, how much
NaCl should I dissolve in order to keep concentration at 1 mole l
lite? When I prepared 1 mole/lite, I took 1000 millilite. If I need to
prepare 100 mil., how much the concentration will be? (She wrote on
chalkboard) 1000 mil., 1 mole/lite

100 mil? 1 multiply . . .

Reciprocal multiplication

I get 0.1 mole, where should I dissolve this?

T-n-Ss

T+Ss:

196 T:

T+Ss:

230

in 100 mil.

in this case I use a smalle flask than one lite. Its capacity is 100
mil. When I prepared 1 mole, I used one . . .

gramic molecular mass

One mole or 58.5 gram. To prepare 0.1 mole the mass of NaCl is

(on chalkboard) 1 mole = l gramic molecular mass 58.5
0.1 ?

the mass of NaCl is 58'5 X 0'1
where should 1 dissolve this:

= 58.5 grams

in 100 mil

what is the concentration of this solution
1 mole/ lite

What did 1 decrease... the solute

and the solvent

1 will prove that the concentration is

one mole/lite

I go back to what one mole repreents. (Repeat the same statement).
What did I call one mole? (She wrote "Molarity" on board)

Molarity
Molarity

What was the mass of the solute in one mole (l mole/lite) (She
pointed at 0.1)

0.1 mole

What was the volume of the solution

100 mil

100 mil out of 1000 mil “ng0 + 0.1 (she wrote that on the board then

wrote and uttered): M olarity = 90-11 =1

To prepare one mole/lite, what did I use? I used les quantitie.
Instead of using 1000 mil, how much I used her e?

5.85 grams

207 T:

214 T:

T+Ss:

221 T:

T + Ss:
229 T:

231

Always...(she read what she was writing)

the mass of solute in mole
volume of solution in ITter
Who is willing to come to the board? (Few hands were raised up).
What about the ret of the class? Let us solve a problem. Rania.
Let us see what is Rania going to do.

Molarity =

 

(Constructing a problem and directing the talk to Rania) Prepare a
solution of NaCl with concentration of 2 mole/liter. In other words:
2 molarity. (Rania wrote 2 mole for each... the teacher asked her to
put a dash instead of for each...)

We see the mass required to prepare 1 mole of NaCl.

Right the mass required to prepare 1 mole of NaCl. What was the
mass of 1 mole?

58.5 grams
But what should I prepare?
2 mole

Of course the volume of the solution is one lite. I say 2 mole for a
liter

I calculate the mole of NaCl. (Rania wrote 1 mole = 58.5 gram. 2
mole = ?)

The mass of one mole of NaCl is 58.5 grams. I need to prepare 2
mole/liter. Did the volume diffe?

No

The volume here is one lite of wate (required for l mole/lite) and
hee also, the volume is one liter of water (required for w mole/liter).
Where is the diffeence? In the mole and grams. Write Rania, the
mass of NaCl needed...

85.5 X 2
1 grams. I dissolve twice as much of the molecular mass. Go to

your place Rania. Thank you. Do you know what if I need to prepare
half mole?

We need half the quantity of NaCl

Right. I need half the quantity of NaCl is there any question? (No
reponse) All of you, on your notebook, start to solve the problem
No. 1. (She looked at her watch and said) there is no time left. Next
time solve problem 1, 2, 3. Prepare solubility until the beginning of
electrolyte solutions, page 47. 0' Class, you have not studied nor
you have prepared well today. Is it because it is the end of the week.
Last time you were not prepared. Today you are not prepared.
(Rania, the classroom monitor, brought the abscentee record for the
teacher to sign. Everyone is moving with a lot of noise; the time is
now 9:36).

APPENDIX E

EXTRACTS FROM LESSONS 3-1 AND 3-2
RELATED TO TEACHING FARADAY"S EXPERIMENTS

T:
Jamila:

T:

Buthain:

T:

Hamama:

T:

Sajida:

EXTRACT 5 FROM LESSONS 3—1 AND 3—2
RELATED TO TEACHING FARADAY’S EXPERIMENTS

So what is the reult that I can conclude? If I let the same quantity
of electricity pass through diffeent solutions of mercuric ions, and I
find equal quantitie of mecury precipitation, what is the first
conclusion about Faraday's experiment? (Silence...Five students
raised their hands: Jamila, Hamama, Rania, Muna D. and Manal.)

(nervous) What about the others? Ye, Jamila.
Equal quantitie of electricity precipitate equal quantitie of matte.

(repeated Jamila's reponse and made some more illustrations about
the relationship between the mass of matter precipitated in the
experiment and the current intensity and the time used. Then asked:)
what is the relationship between time and intensity of electrical
current? (Only three student raised their hands. The teacher called
on Buthain).

Intensity = TIME

Intensity is measured in ampers. There is a law which relate these
factors together we took it in the first semester. Okay, what is the
law of the quantity of electricity? (She repeated the question three
time while she was looking at the board and adding the units to the
time and the current intensity. Then she paraphrased the question
once more.) What is the quantity of electricity? (Very few hands
were raised. She called on Hamama to repond.)

Intensity of the current time the time in seconds.

(Repeated the answer and added: ampers time seconds. Then the
teache made a lengthy illustration giving some numerical example
and working them out on the board and makeing final conclusion
about the relationship between the quantity of electricity and the
units of matter) In other words: electricity passe in the solution in
a form of units. Certain units of electricity belong to one atom of
the matte, (she repeated this statement twice). In other words, each
atom will have a certain quantity of electricity, will have one unit or
two, but not one and a half. Units are whole numbes. This is
Faraday's first law. (She started to clean the board while she was
continuing her statement. Then she asked: What do you understand
from what I have said, Sajida, without waiting for students to raise
hands.

(silence)

(repeated the question) Go ahead Sajida. We are not asking about
something new. We are asking about something we wee explaining.
For how long will you continue like this? This means that you do not
understand science. Let us expel you outside from the science leson,

. 232

Muna D:

233

or let us forget about science. Science is beyond your level. Listen
to another one so you may understand. Yes? (pointing at a student
without calling her name).

The quantity of electricity is direct proportional to the quantity of
the precipitated substance.

(Repeated the students response and made more elaboration and
wrote the definition of Faraday's first law on the board...then moved
to the second law. The second law was presented quickly as it is in
the textbook, using the board to draw the diagrams and involving the
class in chorus responses and a few students in responding to some
rhetorical questions. Toward the end of the lesson, she turned the
students attention to the relationship between the masses of
precipated elements and the atomic mases of those elements using
the data on the board.

The first question was: These are the masses of the precipitated
substance and these are the atomic masses (pointing to the data on
the board). What is this kind of relationship? 108 (At mass of Ag)
precipitated 6.48 grams. 23 (atomic mass of Na) the precipitated
mass is 1.28, what is the kind of relationship? She pointed at Muna
D.

Inverse relationship

(Spontaneous chorus response): direct relationship!
Stand up Muna. Why did you say inverse?

(Silence)

So the precipated quantity is direct proportion to the atomic mass.
The the teacher concluded the lesson by relating the number of moles
to each other and found the proportion to be 6:2:3:6 which is a simple
numerical relationship and stated the conclusion of this to be: The
quantity of electricity passed through the solutions caused different
numbes of moles to precipitate, each quantity of electricity will be
possessed by a certain number of atoms, either the same number or
multiple to it, with a simple numerical proportions.

Next time...(directions about the following lesson and homework
assignment)

234

From Leson 3-2 in the Lab: Started the leson by asking students about the first
conclusion made by Faraday. Manal stated Faraday's first law correctly. The
teache then moved on to write on the board the data reulted form studying
Faraday's second law; and to repeat the kinds of infeences she made last leson
then she made the following infeence:

T:

Ss:

Leson 3-3

The quantitie of precipitated substances have simple numeical
proportion among them. We said the quantity of electricity
repreents units...each number of units are possesed by one atom of
the precipitated substance. Electricity is made of electrical charge.
Because the atom possese several units of electricity, so the atom
carrie the electrical charge. What are thee charge? What is
electricity? It is made up of mateial particle that have electrical
charge. Thee charge are found in a similar way In all atoms. 1 call
this charge the electron. Atoms have mateial particle with
negative charge called electrons. Thompson calculated the amount
of electrical charge of the electron and found it to be 1.6 x lo-19
Coulumb. (Most of thee statements were repeated twice.) Of
course the definition of the second law of Faraday is that: the
quantity of the precipitated substance is in direct proportion to the
equibalent mass. Did not we say that?

Ye

When the atomic mass increase the quantity of precipitated
substance is increased. Now we move to the experiments of
electrical discharge.

We are still in (Expanding the Atomic Model). We have arrived to a
certain model of atom. Thompson's model. We said that this model
was able to explain few things and was not able to explain others.
Such as the Linear spectra of elements. So this model was discarded
and a new scientist came. His name is Rutherford. (There made no
review of Faraday's Laws).

APPENDIX F

STUDENTS' RESPONSES ON
ALTERNATIVE PROPOSITIONS
TESTED IN MULTIPLE CHOICE TESTS

Key for Proposition Codes
and Tet Codes
The proposition code has four parts:
First: A lette I refes to propositions of tets.
Second: A number refes to chapte in the textbook (1, 2, or 3).
Third: A number refes to the item number in the text (1-25 for tet of
Chapter One, 1-30 for tet of Chapter Two, l-22 for pretet of
Chapte Three, and 1-33 for posttet of Chapte Three.
Four: A number of the choice in the item: 1-4.
Example T:3:l5:2 refes to a proposition in the second choice of item 15 in the
tet of Chapter Three.

The tet code has two parts:

First: A number of the tet which is the same as the number of the
chapte in the textbook, 1, 2, or 3.

Second: A number (a) refes to tet given prior to instruction (pretet)
or (b) refers to the tet given afte instruction (posttet).

Example Tet 3.2 ref es to the posttet of Chapte Three.

235

Fa
Alternative Propositions Tested in Chapter I

 

 

Number of
Students
Responding
OJ
2 o
f'J «H an
Proposi - t ‘63 3
tion 3 “a; 3-
Code The Proposition Pi $1 8
T:l:l:l Experiments conducted by scientists in their F ll 15
search for the structure of matter cannot be
repeated except by scientists.
T:l:l:2 Experiments conducted by scientists in their T 6 l4
search for the structure of matter can be
repeated by anyone.
T:l:l:3 Experiments conducted by scientists in their F 5 5
search for the structure of matter did not
provide evidence on the existence of atoms
and molecules.
T:l:l:4 Experiments conducted by scientists in their F 29 19
search for the structure of matter proved that
the molecule is the smallest part of matter.
T:l:2:l When a scientist arrives at some conclusions, F 2 1
depending on practical experiments, the
conclusions are always correct.
T:l:2:2 When a scientist arrives at some conclusions, T I6 25
depending on practical experiments, the
conclusions are temporal and subject to
change.
T:l:2:3 When a scientist arrives at some conclusions, F 32 15
depending on practical experiments, the
conclusions cannot be judged until other
scientists also arrive at them.
T:l:2:4 When a scientist arrives at some conclusions, F 3 12

depending on practical experiments, the
conclusios are incorrect if prevailing theories
cannot explain them.

236

237

 

 

Number of
Students
Responding
0.1
U)
.— +2
rd «H U"
. LL. an 0.)
Proposn~ E 3 33
tion 3 E 8’
Code The Proposition n— o. a.
T:l:3:l The study of gas behavior provided important F 4 2

information on atomic and molecular structure
of matter because particles of gas are easy to
study (a). .

T:l:3:2 The study of gas behavior provided important F 6 6
information on atomic and molecular structure
of matter because of the possibility of
generalizing the result about gas to other
states of matter (b).

T:l:3:3 The study of gas behavior provided important F 1 3
information on atomic and molecular structure
of matter because of the possibility of
changing substances into the gaseous state (c).

T:l:3:4 The study of gas behavior provided important T 42 41
information on atomic and molecular structure
of matter because of a, b, and c.

T:l:4:l The relationship which describes the regular F 10 2
behavior of a natural phenomenon is called a '
fact.

T:l:4:2 The relationship which describes the regular T 21 44
behavior of a natural phenomenon is called a
law.

T:l:4:3 The relationship which describes the regular F 14 3
behavior of a natural phenomenon is called a
phenomenon.

T:l:4:4 The relationship which describes the regular F 8 3
behavior of a natural phenomenon is called a
hypothesis.

T:l:5:l The law of definite proportion states that F 3 0
elements combine with each other
Spontaneously.

238

 

 

chemical unit is called the mole.

Number of
Students
Responding
0)
U1
r— 44
. LE *5: '3
Proposn- E 3 +43

tnon E E 8’

Code The Proposition +- 0— 0-

T:l:5:2 The law of definite pr0portion states that F 13 1
elements combine with each other producing
heat.

T:l:5:3 The law of definite proportion states that T 32 46
elements combine with each other in definite
mass proportion.

T:l:5:4 The law of definite prOportion states that F 5 5
elements combine with each other in definite
volume proportion.

T:l:6:l Dalton's atomic theory can't explain the F 6 9
definite composition of substances.

T:l:6:2 Dalton's atomic theory can't explain the way F 13 11
in which substances can react with each other.

T:l:6:3 Dalton's atomic theory can't explain the F 12 10
proportion in which substances react with each .
other.

T:l:6:4 Dalton's atomic theory can't explain the the T 19 23
structure of isotopes.

T:l:7:l The mass of Avogadro's number of any F 21 4
chemical unit is called atomic weight.

T:l:7:2 The mass of Avogadro's number of any F 10 1
chemical unit is called atomic number.

T:l:7:3 The mass of Avogadro's number of any F 4 1
chemical unit is called atomic mass.

T:l:7:4 The mass of Avogadro's number of any I 18 47

239

 

 

Number of
Students
Responding
(I)
U)
,— +4
r0 44 m
. Ll— an O.)
PY‘OpOST- E 3 :3
111011 3 C) uni”
Code The Proposition rs: & :3
T:l:8:l If Avogadro's number is 6.02 x 1073 and the F 9 3

mass of a hydrogen mole is two grams, then
the mass of one atom of hydrogen is 6.02 x
1023 grams. .

T:l:8:2 If Avogadro's number is 6.02 x 1023 and the F 11 5
mass of a hydrogen mole is two grams, then '
the mass of one atom of hydrogen is ()9) x 6.02
x 1023 grams.

T:l:8:3 If Avogadro's number is 6.02 x 1023 and the F 16 15
mass of a hydrogen mole is two grams, then
the mass of one atom of hydrogen is (216.02) x
1023 grams.

T:l:8:4 If Avogadro's number is 6.02 x 1023 and the T 15 30
mass of a hydrogen mole is two grams, then
the mass of one atom of hydrogen is (2/6.02) x
10'23 grams.

T:l:9:l Gas laws can be explained by Dalton's theory. F 5 13

T:l:9:2 Gas laws can be explained by molecular T 35 33
kinetic theory.

T:l:9:3 Gas laws can be explained by Avogadro's F 9 3

hypothesis.

T:l:9:4 Gas laws can be explained by modern atomic F 4 3
theory.

T:l:10:l The statement "Equal volumes of different I 9 46

gase have the same number of molecules at
similar conditions of pressure and
temperature" is called Avogadro's hypothesis.

T:l:10:2 The statement "Equal volumes of different F 0 0
gases have the same number of molecules at
similar conditions of pressure and
temperature" is called Gay-Lusac law.

240

 

 

Number of
Students
Responding
G)
(I)
.— 44
(O +3 m
. LL. m C)
PropOSi- E 3 3
tion 3 a, m-
Code The Proposition +1"- c’i a?
T:l:lO:3 The statement "Equal volumes of different F 26 1

gases have the same number of molecules at
similar conditions of pressure and
temperature" is called general gas law.

T:l:lO:4 The statement "Equal volumes of different F 16 6
gases have the same number of molecules at
similar conditions of pressure and
temperature" is called the law of definite
proportion.

T:l:ll:l Dalton's theory pr0posed that the atom has a F 3 1
massive nucleus.

T:l:ll:2 Dalton's theory pr0posed that atoms of the T 8 46
same element have similar masses.

T:l:ll:3 Dalton's theory proposed that electrons of an F 36 5
atom are found in orbits.

T:l:llw Dalton's theory prOposed that negative charges F 4 1
in an atom are distributed evenly.

T:l:12:l If the volume occupied by one mole of oxygen F 9 3
molecules 'at ST? is 22.4 liters, then the
volume occupied by one mole of hydrogen
molecules is (2/ 32) x 22.4 liters.

T:l:12:2 if the volume occupied by one mole of oxygen F 11 5
molecules at STP is 22.4 liters, then the
volume occupied by one mole of hydrogen
molecules is (ll 32) x 22.# liters. ’

T:l:12:3 If the volume occupied by one mole of oxygen T 22 35
molecules at ST? is 22.4 liters, then the
volume occupied by one mole of hydrogen
molecules is 22.14 liters.

241

 

Number of
Students
Responding

Proposi-
tion
Code The Proposition
T:l:12:4 If the volume occupied by one mole of oxygen
molecules at STP is 22.4 liters, then the
volume occupied by one mole of hydrogen
molecules is ()6) x 22.4 liters.

7‘ True/Fa1se
Pretest
Posttest

..a
O
..a
O

T:l:13:l Real gas behaves similarly to the behavior of F 4 4
ideal gas only in the condition that its
molecules do not have volume (a).

T:l:13:2 Real gas behaves similarly to the behavior of F 5 2
ideal gas only in the condition that its
molecules do not have mass (b).

T:l:13:3 Real gas behaves similarly to the behavior of F 3 4
ideal gas only in the condition that its
molecules do not have attraction forces (c).

T:l:13:4 Real gas behaves similarly to the behavior of 1- 33 4]
ideal gas only in conditions a and c.

T:l:l4:l Atomic theory on the structure of matter F ‘3 ‘3
explains a number of laws called gas laws.

T:l:l4:2 Atomic theory on the structure of matter F 1 0
explains a number of laws called Newton's
laws of motion.

T:l:l4:3 Atomic theory on the structure of matter T 13 18
explains a number of laws called laws of
chemical composition.

T:l:l4:4 Atomic theory on the structure of matter F 31 3]
explains a number of laws called gas laws and
laws of chemical composition.

T:l:15:l A mole is the mass of Avogadro's number of F 2 1
real atoms of an element.

T:l:15:2 A mole is the mass of Avogadro's number of F 5 5
real molecules of an element or compound.

242

 

 

Number of
Students
Responding
OJ
V1
.— +4
:2 t: z:
Proposi- E 3 3
ti on E :9 8 _
Code The Proposition 1— o- a.
T:l:15:3 T:l:15:l and T:l:15z2 are both correct. T 24 36
T:l:l5:4 T:l:15:l and T:l:15:2 are both incorrect. F 19 10
T:l:16:l Boyle's law is considered a description of a gas T 14 43
which is ideal.
T:l:16:2 Boyle's law is considered a description of a gas F 12 8
which is real.
T:l:16:3 Boyle's law is considered a description of a gas F 6 1
which has large molecules.
T:l:16:4 Boyle's law is considered a description of a gas F 17 1

which has high pressure.

T:l:l7:l The statement "Mercury reacts with oxygen to F 14 9
form two oxides and the proportion of the two
masses of mercury which combine with a
constant mass of oxygen is a simple numerical
one" is a description of the law of
conservation of matter.

T:l:l7:2 The statement "Mercury reacts with oxygen to F 17 21
form two Oxides and the proportion of the two
masses of mercury which combine with a
constant mass of oxygen is a simple numerical
one" is a description of the law of definite
proportion.

T:l:l7:3 The statement "Mercury reacts with oxygen to T 10 19
form two oxides and the proportion of the two
masses of mercury which combine with a
constant mass of oxygen is a simple numerical
one" is a description of the law of multiple
proportion.

243

 

 

Number of
Students
Responding
(U
U)
r— 44
(U +4 1n
. L1. :11 0.)
PropOSi - E 8 3
t1 on 3 <1) 11) '
. . S— S. 0
Code The PropOSition P— a. a.
T:l:l7:4 The statement "Mercury reacts with oxygen to F 10 4

form two oxides and the proportion of the two
masses of mercury which combine with a
constant mass of oxygen is a simple numerical
one" is a description of the law of reciprocal
proportion.

T:l:18:l A mole of Jordanian dinars (6 x 1023 JD) was F 12 11
distributed to the world's pulation. Each
person's share was 1 x 101 JD. The world
population is 6 x 1023.

T:l:18:2 A mole of Jordanian dinars (6 x 1023 JD) was F 7 6
distributed to the world's pulation. Each
person‘s share was 1 x 101 JD. The world
population is 6 x l0”.

T:l:l8:3 A mole of Jordanian dinars (6 x 1023 JD) was T 25 18
distributed to the world's pulation. Each
person's share was 1 x 101 JD. The world
population is 6000 million.

T:l:18:4 A mole of Jordanian dinars (6 x l023 JD) was F 9 18
distributed to the world's pulation. Each
person's share was 1 x 101 JD. The world
population is six million.

T:l:l9:l Chemical properties and characteristics of a F 15 6
substance are represented by the electron.

T:l:l9:2 Chemical prOperties and characteristics of a F 13 18
substance are represented by the atom.

T:l:l9:3 Chemical prOperties and characteristics of a T 11 17
substance are represented by the molecule.

T:l:l9:4 Chemical properties and characteristics of a F 13 12
substance are represented by the nucleus.

244

 

 

Number of
Students
Responding
Q)
U)
.— +3
(U 4—1 U)
. L1— :11 B
PropOSi- \o 3 P,
“0“ . . a 9: 8
Code The Prop051tion F- a. a.
F 9 1

T:l:20:l The smallest unit of a chemical substance
which takes part in a chemical reaction is
called an electron.

T:l:20:2 The smallest unit of a chemical substance T 25 40
which takes part in a chemical reaction is
called an atom.

T:l:20:3 The smallest unit of a chemical substance F 18 9
which takes part in a chemical reaction is
called a molecule.

T:l:20:4 The smallest unit of a chemical substance F 1 3
which takes part in a chemical reaction is
called a nucleus.

T:l:21:l The substance which has molecules consisting T 29 48
of two or more kinds of atoms combined in a
definite proportionn is called a compound.

T:l:21:2 The substance which has molecules consisting F 8 4
of two or more kinds of atoms combined in a
definite prOportionn is called an element.

T:l:21:3 The substance which has molecules consisting F 15 1
of two or more kinds of atoms combined in a
definite prOportionn is called a mixture.

T:l:21:4 The substance which has molecules consisting F 1 0
of two or more kinds of atoms combined in a
definite proportionn is called a solution.

T:l:22:l An element is defined as follows: the set of F 14 1
symbols referring to the kinds and number of
atoms in a molecule.

T:l:22:2 An element is defined as follows: pure 1' 15 28
substance made up of one kind of atoms.

245

 

 

Number of
Students
Responding
0.)
U)
.— 49
(U +4 1n
. LL. m B
Prop051- E .3 .3
“0.“ . . a a ‘8
Cooe The ProDOSition F— o. a.
F 6 22

T:l:22:3 An element is defined as follows: pure
substance with molecules made up of more
than one kind of atoms.

T:l:22:4 An element is defined as follows: the smallest F 16 2
unit which takes part in chemical reactions.

T:l:23:l A molecule of ammonia is made up of two F 3 3

atoms.

T:l:23:2 A molecule of ammonia is made up of three F 27 31
atoms.

T:l:23:3 A molecule of ammonia is made up of four T 10 17
atoms.

T:l:23:4 A molecule of ammonia is made up of five F 1 1
atoms.

T:l:24:l If the mass of one mole of hydrogen is two F 2 1

grams, then the number of moles of hydrogen
molecules in 10 grams of hydrogen is 6.02 x
1023 moles.

T:l:24:2 If the mass of one mole of hydrogen is two F 16 32
grams, then the number of moles of hydro en
molecules in 10 grams of hydrogen is (2/10§ x
6.02 x 1023 moles.

T:l:24:3 If the mass of one mole of hydrogen is two T 28 13
grams, then the number of moles of hydrogen
molecules in 10 grams of hydrogen is five
moles.

T:l:24:4 If the mass of one mole of hydrogen is two F 6 6
grams, then the number of moles of hydrogen
molecules in 10 grams of hydrogen is two
moles.

246

 

 

Number of
Students
Responding
0)
U)
.— +2
r13 4—1 w
. L1. 111 OJ
Prop051- E 3 fl
tion 5 51’ 8’
Code The Proposition +- o- 0—
T:l:25:l The number of moles of oxygen molecules in F 9 7
one mole of molecules of sulfuric acid is one
mole.
T:l:25:2 The number of moles of oxygen molecules in F 11 7
one mole of molecules of sulfuric acid is two
mole.
T:l:25:3 The number of moles of oxygen molecules in F 5 0
one mole of molecules of sulfuric acid is three
mole.
T:l:25z4 The number of moles of oxygen molecules in T 28 38

one mole of molecules of sulfuric acid is four
mole.

247

Fb

Alternative Propositions Tested in Chapter II

 

 

 

 

substance is greatest in the state of the
homogeneous aqueous solution.

Proposi- True # of
tion or Studs.
Code The Prooosition false LL

T:2:l:1 The change in a substance from one state to F 1
another is used to determine the kind of
substance (a).

T:2:l:2 The change in a substance from one state to F 9
another is used to determine the purity or
impurity of the substance (b).

T:2:l:3 The change in a substance from one state to F 2

' another is used to separating substances from
each other (c).

T:2:l:4 The change in a substance from one state to T 40
another is used to determine a, b, and c.

T:2:2:l Pure chlorine is found under normal pressure F 16
and temperature in the form of accumulation
of atoms of gas.

T:2:2:2 Pure chlorine is found under normal pressure T 18
and temperature in the form of‘clusters of
molecules of gas.

T:2:2:3 Pure chlorine is found under normal pressure F 11
and temperature in the form of clusters of ‘
ions of chlorine.

T:2:2:4 Pure chlorine is found under normal pressure F 8
and temperature in the form of evenly
distributed molecules of chlorine in air.

T:2:3:l The movement of molecules of a certain T 35
substance is greatest in its gaseous state.

T:2:3:2 The movement of molecules of a certain F 10
substance is greatest in its liquid state.

T:2:3:3 The movement of molecules of a certain F 5
substance is greatest in its solid state.

T:2:3:4 The movement of molecules of a certain F 3

248

 

 

Proposi- True # of
tion or Studs.
Code The Proposition False 2.2

T:2:4:l If the melting point of pure sodium is 98 C and T 13
the boiling point is 889 C, then the freezing
point of sodium is 98 C.

T:2:4:2 If the melting point of pure sodium is 98 C and F 22
the boiling point is 889 C, then the freezing
point of sodium is -98 C.

T:2:4:3 If the melting point of pure sodium is 98 C and F 22
the boiling point is 889 C, then the freezing
point of sodium is 889 C.

T:2:4:4 If the melting point of pure sodium is 98 C and F 13
the boiling point is 889 C, then the freezing
point of sodium is 811 C.

T:2:5:l As the evaporation process of a solution of F 3
salt in water increases, the boiling point of the
solution is increased.

T:2:5:2 As the evaporation process of a solution of T 34
salt in water increases, the boiling point of the
solution stays as it is.

T:2:5:3 As the evaporation process of a solution of F 10
salt in water increases, the boiling point of the
solution is decreased.

T:2:5:4 As the evaporation process of a solution of F 5

salt in water increases, the boiling point of the
solution is decreased first, then increased.

249

 

Proposi-
tion
Code

The Proposition

True
or
Fa1se

# of
Studs.
2.2

 

T:2:6:l

T:2:6:2

T:2:6:3

T:2:6:4

T:2:7:l

In the above diagram, a, b, and c describe the
behavior of pure water, and d, e, and f
describe the behavior of a solution during
boiling. The segment e-f states that
temperature changes during boiling the
solution (a).

In the above diagram, a, b, and c describe the
behavior of pure water, and d, e, and f
describe the behavior of a solution during
boiling. The segment e-f states that
temperature stays constant during boiling the
solution (b).

In the above diagram, a, b, and c describe the
behavior of pure water, and d, e, and f
describe the behavior of a solution during
boiling. The segment e-f states that the
solution boils at a lower temperature than the
pure water (c).

In the above diagram, 3, b, and c describe the
behavior of pure water, and d, e, and f
describe the behavior of a solution during
boiling. The segment e-f states both (a) and

(Ch

Evaporation is different from boiling only in
the fact that evaporation occurs at a certain
temperature (a).

25

17

250

 

 

and the vapor pressure of B at 20 C is 45 mm,
then the boiling point of A is characterized
only by being higher than that of B (a).

Proposi- True # of
tion or Studs.
Code The Proposition False 2.2

T:2:7:2 Evaporation is different from boiling only in F 2
the fact that molecules evaporate from all
parts of the liquid (b).

T:2:7:3 Evaporation is different from boiling only in T 12
the fact that the evaporation rate increases as
temperature increases (c).

T:2:7:4 Evaporation is different from boiling in a, b, F 38
and c above.
T:2:8:l Pure substance is characterized only by having F 4
constant boiling and melting points at a
certain pressure (a).

T:2:8:2 Pure substance is characterized only by being F 3
made of the same kind of atoms or molecules
(b).

T:2:8:3 Pure substance is characterized only by having F 4
a constant vapor pressure at a certain
temperature (c).

T:2:8:4 Pure substance is characterized by a, b and c. T 41

T:2:9:l Vapor pressure of a pure liquid depends only on F 4
atmospheric pressure (a).

T:2:9:2 Vapor pressure of a pure liquid depends only on F 2
temperature (b).

T:2:9:3 Vapor pressure of a pure liquid depends only on F 1
the kind of liquid (c).

T:2:9:4 Vapor pressure of a pure liquid depends on b T 44
and c.

T:2:10:l If the vapor pressure of A at 20 C is 18 mm T 9

251

 

 

of sugar in water.

Proposi— True # of
tion or Studs.
Code The Proposition False 2.2

T:2:10:2 If the vapor pressure of A at 20 C is 18 mm F 17
and the vapor pressure of B at 20 C is 45 mm,
then the boiling point of A is characterized
only by being lower than that of B (b).
T:2:lO:3 If the vapor pressure of A at 20 C is l8 mm F 8
and the vapor pressure of B at 20 C is 45 mm,
then the boiling point of A is characterized
only by its dependence on atmospheric
pressure (c).
T:2:10:4 If the vapor pressure of A at 20 C is 18 mm F 20
and the vapor pressure of B at 20 C is 45 mm,
then the boiling point of A is characterized by
both a and c.

T:2:ll:l The only solution in this list--bronze, F 0

ammonia, pop—is bronze.

T:2:ll:2 The only solution in this list--bronze, F 17

ammonia, pop-is ammonia.

T:2:llz3 The only . solution in this list--bronze, F 8

ammonia, pop—is pop.

T:2:ll:4 Bronze, ammonia, and pop are all solutions. T 27

T:2:12:l The only colloidal solution in this list--blood, F 1

jello, and milk--is blood.

T:2:12:2 The only colloidal solution in this list—blood, F 4

jello, and milk--is jello.

T:2:12:3 The only colloidal solution in this list--blood, F 2

jello, and milkuis milk.

T:2:12:4 Blood, jello, and milk are all colloidal T 45

solutions.

T:2:13:l Electrical current is conducted by a solution T 43

of table salt in water.

T:2:13:2 Electrical current is conducted by a solution 2

252

 

 

substance to a car radiator is the fact that the
freezing point of a solution is lower than that
of pure water.

Proposi- True # of
tion or Studs.
Code The Proposition False 2.2

T:2:13:3 Electrical current is conducted by a solution F 4

of alcohol in water.

T:2:13z4 Electrical current is conducted by a solution F 3

of distilled water.

T:2:l4:l A mixture of solid in liquid is always F 11

considered a solution.

T:2:l4:2 A mixture of liquid in liquid is always F 18

considered a solution.

T:2:l4:3 A mixture of gas in gas is always considered a T 14

solution.

T:2:l4:4 A mixture of liquid in solid is always F 6

considered a solution.

T:2:l5:l The amount of dissolved gas in a liquid is F 16

greatest under high pressure and high
temperature.

T:2:l5:2 The amount of dissolved gas in a liquid is F 11

greatest under low pressure and high
temperature.

T:2:l5:3 The amount of dissolved gas in a liquid is F 5

greatest under low pressure and low
temperature.

T:2:l5:4 The amount of dissolved gas in a liquid is T 21

greatest under high pressure and low
temperature.

T:2:l6:l The scientific principle of adding antifreeze F 15

substance to a car radiator is the fact that the
freezing point of a solution is higher than that
of pure water.
T:2:l6:2 The scientific principle of adding antifreeze T 15

253

 

Proposi-
tion
Code

T:2:16:3

T:2:l6:4

T:2:l7:l

T:2:l7:2

T:2:l7:3

T:2:l7:4

T:2:l8:l

T:2:18:2

T:2:18z3

The Proposition

The scientific principle of adding antifreeze
substance to a car radiator is the fact that the
temperature stays constant while freezing a
solution.

The scientific principle of adding antifreeze
substance to a car radiator is the fact that the
added substance reacts with water giving off
heat. ' .

If the mass of a mole of sugar is 342 grams
and a liter of aqueous solution of sugar has
68.4 grams of sugar, then the molarity of this
solution is 0.2 moles] liter.

If the mass of a mole of sugar is 342 grams
and a liter of aqueous solution of sugar has
68.4 grams of sugar, then the molarity of this
solution is 2.0 moles/ liter.

If the mass of a mole of sugar is 342 grams
and a liter of aqueous solution of sugar has
68.4 grams of sugar, then the molarity of this
solution is 0.02 moles] liter.

If the mass of a mole of sugar is 342 grams
and a liter of aqueous solution of sugar has
68.4 grams of sugar, then the molarity of this
solution is 20.0 moles! liter.

If the mass of a mole of sugar is 342 grms, the
mass of sugar required to make a liter of
solution with a 0.5 mole / liter concentration is
342 grams.

If the mass of a mole of sugar is 342 grms, the
mass of sugar required to make a liter of
solution with a 0.5 mole / liter concentration is
684 grams.

If the mass of a mole of sugar is 342 grms, the
mass of sugar required to make a liter of
solution with a 0.5 mole lliter concentration is
171 grams.

True
or
False

F

# of
Studs.
2.2

16

14

14

17

10

24

254

 

Proposi-
tion
Code

The Proposition

True
or
False

# of
Studs.
2.2

 

T:2:18:4

T:2:19:1

T:2:l9:2

T:2:l9:3

T:2:l9:4

T:2:20:l

T:2:20:2

T:2:20:3

T:2:20:4

If the mass of a mole of sugar is 342 grms, the
mass of sugar required to make a liter of
solution with a 0.5 mole /liter concentration is
0.5 grams.

If a mass of one mole of sugar is 342, then the
volume of solution which is 0.01 M required to
dissolve 3.42 grams of sugar is 10.0 liters.

If a mass of one mole of sugar is 342, then the
volume of solution which is 0.01 M required to
dissolve 3.42 grams of sugar is 1.0 liters.

If a mass of one mole of sugar is 342, then the
volume of solution which is 0.01 M required to
dissolve 3.42 grams of sugar is 0.1 liters.

If a mass of one mole of sugar is 342, then the
volume of solution which is 0.01 M required to
dissolve 3.42 grams of sugar is 0.01 liters.

If the solubility of silver nitrate in water is 13
moles/ liter at 20 C, then one liter of solution
which has 14 moles AgNO3 is considered a
saturated solution.

If the solubility of silver nitrate in water is 13
moles] liter at 20 C, then one liter of solution
which has 14 moles AgNO3 is considered an
under-saturated solution.

If the solubility of silver nitrate in water is 13
moles] liter at 20 C, then one liter of solution
which has 14 moles AgNO3

over-saturated solution.

is considered an

If the solubility of silver nitrate in water is 13
moles/ liter at 20 C, then one liter of solution
which has 14 moles AgNO3 is considered
having a state depending on the temperature.

F

9

10

17

19

10

25

14

255

 

Proposi-
tion
Code

The Proposition

True
or
False

# of
Studs.
2.2

 

T:2:21:l

T:2:21:2

T:2:21:3

T:2:21:4

T:2:22:l

T:2:22:2

T:2:22:3

T:2:22:4

If the solubility of silver nitrate in water at 20
C is 13 moles/ liter and a quantity of silver
nitrate stays undissolved in spite of continuous
stirring, then the solution is called saturated.

If the solubility of silver nitrate in water at 20
C is 13 moles! liter and a quantity of silver
nitrate stays undissolved in spite of continuous
stirring, then the solution is called under-
saturated.

If the solubility of silver nitrate in water at 20
C is 13 moles/ liter and a quantity of silver
nitrate stays undissolved in spite of continuous
stirring, then the solution is called super-
saturated.

If the solubility of silver nitrate in water at 20
C is 13 moles/ liter and a quantity of silver
nitrate stays undissolved in spite of continuous
stirring, then the solution is difficult to
identify its kind.

If the solubility of silver nitrate in water at 20
C is 13 moles/ liter, then the mass of dissolved
AgNO3 in one liter of saturated solution at 10
C will be 13 moles (a).

If the solubility of Silver nitrate in water at 20
C is 13 moles] liter, then the mass of dissolved
AgNO3 in one liter of saturated solution at 10
C will be less than 13 moles (b).

If the solubility of silver nitrate in water at 20
C is 13 moles] liter, then the mass of dissolved
AgNO3 in one liter of saturated solution at 10
C will be more than 13 moles (c).

If the solubility of silver nitrate in water at 20
C is 13 moles] liter, then the mass of dissolved
AgN03 in one liter of saturated solution at 10
C will be different than a, b, or c.

T

28

13

19

24

256

 

Proposi-
tion
Code

The Proposition

True
or
False

# of
Studs.
2.2

 

T:2:23:l

T:2:23:2

T:2:23:3

T:2:23:4

T:2:24:l

T:2:24:2

T:2:24:3

T:2:24:4

T:2:25:l

T:2:25:2

T:2:25:3

The lamp in an electrical circuit containing
solution A will glow brighter than one
containing solution B. This means that the
concentration of A is higher than that of B.

The lamp in an electrical circuit containing
solution A will glow brighter than one
containing solution B. This means that the
concentration of ions is higher in B.

The lamp in an electrical circuit containing
solution A will glow brighter than one
containing solution B. This means that A is a
stronger electrolyte than B.

The lamp in an electrical circuit containing
solution A will glow brighter than one
containing solution B. This means that B is a
stronger electrolyte than A.

Petroleum components are separated from
each other using a method of separation called
fractional distillation.

Petroleum components are separated from
each other using a method of separation called
extraction.

Petroleum components are separated from
each other using a method of separation called
normal distillation.

Petroleum components are separated from
each other using a method of separation called
crystillazatlon.

Normal distillation is used to separate solvent
liquid from solids dissolved in it.

Normal distillation is used to separate a
mixture of liquids which dissolve each other.

Normal distillation is used to separate liquids
which have close boiling points.

F

12

37

34

15

37

257

 

Proposi-
tion
Code

The Proposition

True
or
False

# of
Studs.
2.2

 

T:2:27:4

T:2:28:l

T:2:28:2

T:2:28:3

T:2: 28:4

T:2:29:1

T:2:29:2

T:2: 29:3

T:2:29:4

T:2:30:l

T:2:30:2

The electrical charges carried on particles of
the colloidal solution are formed as a result of
the disassociation of molecules of the
particles or attracting ions by those particles.

The particles of a colloidal solution are
characterized by a certain diameter of the
particle's being larger than 10“ Angestrum.

The particles of a colloidal solution are
characterized by being distributed in the
solution unevenly.

The particles of a colloidal solution are
characterized by continuous and random
movement in broken lines.

The particles of a colloidal solution are
characterized by their ability to pass light
rays through the solution so the rays will not
be seen.

The solubility of a substance in a solvent
depends only on the type of the solvent liquid.

The solubility of a substance in a solvent
depends only on the type of the dissolved
solute.

The solubility of a substance in a solvent
depends only on temperature. -

The solubility of a substance in a solvent
depends on the type of solvent, the type of
solute, and the temperature.

If the saturated vapor pressure of water at 60
C is equal to 160 mm, then the pressure
required to make the water boil at 60 C is
equal to 160 mm.

If the saturated vapor pressure of water at 60
C is equal to 160 mm, then the pressure
required to make the water boil at 60 C is
equal to 760 mm.

38

13

10

23

49

25

10

258

 

Proposi-
tion
Code

The Proposition

True
or
False

# of
Studs.
2.2

 

T:2:25:4

T:2:26:l

T:2:26:2

T:2:26:3

T:2:26:4

T:2:27:1

T:2:27:2

T:2:27:3

Normal distillation is used to separate salts
whose solubilities are influenced by heat.

If condensing vapor in the distillation process
is called liquid A and the remaining liquid
from separating crystals in the filtration
process is called B, then A is a saturated
solution and B is a pure substance.

If condensing vapor in the distillation process
is called liquid A and the remaining liquid
from separating crystals in the filtration
process is called B, then A is a pure substance
and B is a saturated solution.

If condensing vapor in the distillation process
is called liquid A and the remaining liquid
from separating crystals in the filtration
process is called B, then A and B are both pure
substances.

If condensing vapor in the distillation process
is called liquid A and the remaining liquid
from separating crystals in the filtration
process is called B, then A and B are both
saturated solutions.

The electrical charges carried on particles of
the colloidal solution are formed as a result of
scattering the light directed to the colloidal
particles.

The electrical charges carried on particles of
the colloidal solution are formed as a result of
the disassociation of molecules forming the
particles and nothing else.

The electrical charges carried on particles of
the colloidal solution are formed as a result of
the ability of colloidal particles to attract ions
from the solution and nothing else.

F

7

11

24

259

 

 

PrOposi- True # of
tion or Studs.
Code The Proposition False 2.2

T:2:30:3 If the saturated vapor pressure of water at 60 F 10
C is equal to 160 mm, then the pressure
required to make the water boil at 60 C is
equal to 600 mm.

T:2:30:4 If the saturated vapor pressure of water at 60 F 6

C is equal to 160 mm, then the pressure
required to make the water boil at 60 C is
equal to 60 mm. .

260

 

 

F c
Alternative Propositions Tested in Chapter III
Number of
Students
Responding
(D
U)
r- U
10 44 m
L1. in Q)
PY‘ODOST- B B 1.:
tion 5 9.) 8"
Code The Proposition F- 0- CL
T:3:l:1 The number of kinds of atoms in an ammonia F 7 2
molecule NH 3 is one kind.
T:3:l:2 The number of kinds of atoms in an ammonia T 22 43
molecule NH 3 is two kinds.
T:3:lz3 The number of kinds of atoms in an ammonia F 18 8
molecule NH 3 is three kinds.
T:3:l:4 The number of kinds of atoms in an ammonia F 3 0
molecule NH3 is four kinds.
T:3:2:l The number of neutrons in an atom of T 16 24
deuterium is one neutron.
T:3:2:2 The number of neutrons in an atom of F 15 11
deuterium is two neutrons.
T:3:2:3 The number of neutrons in. an atom of F 10 14
deuterium is three neutrons. '
T:3:2:3 The number of neutrons in an atom of F 3 1

deuterium is four neutrons.

T:3:3:l If the isotOpe of lithium has three protons, F 5 3
four neutrons, and three electrons, then its
atomic mass is three.

T:3:3:2 If the isotope of lithium has three protons, F 4 40
four neutrons, and three electrons, then its
atomic mass is six.

T:3:3:3 If the isotOpe of lithium has three protons, T 17 10
four neutrons, and three electrons, then its
atomic mass is seven.

T:3:3:4 If the isotope of lithium has three protons, F 25 0
four neutrons, and three electrons, then its
atomic mass is ten.

261

 

 

participation of two pairs of electrons is
called the ionic bond.

Number of
Students
Responding
(1)
U1
[-— U
(U +3 U)
. LL. m (1.)
PropOSi - E g :3
ti on 3 a, m .
Code The Proposition FF- 6: g
T:3:4:1 Since the atom is neutral, the number of F 14 3
electrons is equal to the number of orbits.
T:3:4:2 Since the atom is neutral, the number of T 11 38
electrons is equal to the number of protons.
T:3:4:3 Since the atom is neutral, the number of F 7 7
electrons is equal to the number of neutrons.
T:3:4:4 Since the atom is neutral, the number of F 17 5
electrons is equal to the number of protons
and neutrons.
T:3:5:l Elements are made up of atoms which have F 6 10
the same atomic mass.
T:3:5:2 Elements are made up of atoms which have T 32 37
the same atomic number.
T:3:5:3 Elements are made up of atoms which have F 4 '4
the same Avogadro's number.
T:3:5:4 Elements are made up of atoms which have F 4 1
the same number of neutrons.
T:3:6:l When an atom loses valence electrons from its F 1 2
outside orbit, it is called a nucleus.
T :3:6:2 When an atom loses valence electrons from its F 20 15
outside orbit, it is called a free group.
T:3:6:3 When an atom loses valence electrons from its T 27 30
outside orbit, it is called an ion.
T:3:6:4 When an atom loses valence electrons from its F 2 4
outside orbit, it is called a molecule.
T:3:7:l The chemical bond which is formed by the F 15 3

262

 

 

of gas in the discharge tube (a).

Number of
Students
Responding
OJ
.53 ..i
r!) 44 m
. Li. m 0)
Prop051— E B 3
tion 3 w W
Code The Proposition : 6'- 6C3
T:3:7:2 The chemical bond which is formed by the T 25 38
participation of two pairs of electrons is
called the covalent bond.
T:3:7:3 The chemical bond which is formed by the F 4 2
participation of two pairs of electrons is
called the electronic bond.
T:3:7:4 The chemical bond which is formed by the F 8 9
participation of two pairs of electrons is
called the multiple bond.
T:3:8:l Ionic crystals are characterized by having a F 5 ‘|
low melting point.
T:3:8:2 Ionic crystals are characterized by having the F 29 2]
ability to conduct electricity.
T:3:8:3 Ionic crystals are characterized by having a F 7- 2
high vapor pressure. '
T:3:8:4 Ionic crystals are characterized by having a T 3 27
high melting point.
T:3:9:l The most polarized molecule among CClq, F 6 0
AlCl3, HCl, and C02 is CClq.
T:3:9:2 The most polarized molecule among CClq, F 16 7
AlCl3, HCl, and co; is Alc13'
T:3:9:3 The most polarized molecule among CClq, T 15 4o
AlCl3, HCl, and C02 is l-lCl.
T:3:9:4 The most polarized molecule among CClq, F 15 5
AlClg, HCl, and C02 is C02-
T:3:10:l PrOperties of cathode rays depend on the kind F 10 5

263

 

 

Number of
Students
Responding
(U
U)
r- +3
to 4—> m
. L1. m 0)
P13219051- E B 4...:
ion 2, a, m-
Code The Proposition 1: 3‘. a?
T:3:10:2 Properties of cathode rays depend on the F 3 3

pressure of the gas in the tube (b).

T :3:10:3 Properties of cathode rays depend on the F 13
substance of the cathode (c).

T:3:10:4 PrOperties of cathode rays do not depend on a, T 23 42

b, or c.
T:3:ll:1 Cathode rays are made up of electromagnetic F 10 4
rays.
T:3:ll:2 Cathode rays are made up of electrons. T 9 44
T:3:ll:3 Cathode rays are made up of alpha particles. F 15 4
T:3:ll:4 Cathode rays are made up of gamma rays. F 16 0
T:3:12:1 If the atomic mass of an element is 23 and its T 8 43

atomic number is 11, then the number of
neutrons in the nucleus is equal to 12.

T:3:12:2 If the atomic mass of an element is 23 and its F 8 0
atomic number is 11, then the number of
neutrons in the nucleus is equal to 11.

T:3:12:3 If the atomic mass of an element is 23 and its F 8 2
atomic number is 11, then the number of
neutrons in the nucleus is equal to 23.

T:3:12:4 If the atomic mass of an element is 23 and its F 27 7
atomic number is 11, then the number of
neutrons in the nucleus is equal to 34.

T:3:13:1 The two atoms of a hydrogen molecule are F 0 0
combined by a chemical bond called electronic
bond.

264

 

Number of
Students
Responding

Proposi-
tion
Code The Proposition

‘* True/ Fal se
Pretest
Posttest

.—l
03
w
(A)

T:3:l3:2 The two atoms of a hydrogen molecule are
combined by a chemical bond called a covalent
bond.

“

T:3:l3:3 The two atoms of a hydrogen molecule are 26 18

combined by a chemical bond called a
hydrogen bond.

T:3:13:4 The two atoms of a hydrogen molecule are F 8 12
combined by a chemical bond called a metallic
bond.

T:3:l4:l An atom of element A loses two electrons F 14 2
while reacting with element B; at the same
time an atom of B gains one electron. The
molecular formula of the resulting compound
is AB.

T:3:l4:2 An atom of element A loses two electrons F 8 7
while reacting with element B; at the same
time an atom of B gains one electron. The
molecular formula of the resulting compound
is AZB.

T:3:14:3 An atom of element A loses two electrons T 24 42
while reacting with element B; at the same
time an atom of B gains one electron. The
molecular formula of the resulting compound
is A32.

T:3:l4:4 An atom of element A loses two electrons F 6 2
while reacting with element B; at the same
time an atom of B gains one electron. The
molecular formula of the resulting compound
is 4232.

T:3:l5:l Most of the atomic volume is occupied by the F 23 17
nucleus. ‘

265

 

 

from each other in their atomic mass.

Number of
Students
Responding
Q)
m
r- +4
(E ‘17: ‘63
Proposi - B 3 1'3
ti on - E 33 8'
Code The Proposition 1— a. a.
T:3:l5:2 Most of the atomic volume is occupied by the T 15 32
electrons.
T :3:l5:3 Most of the atomic volume is occupied by the F 6 1 .
neutrons.
T:3:l5:4 Most of the atomic volume is occupied by the F 5 2
positive charges.
T:3:l6:l The diameter of an atom is approximately 5 x F 9 9
10'5cm.
T:3:16:2 The diameter of an atom is approximately 5 x T 22 28
10'3cm.
T:3:l6:3 The diameter of an atom is approximately 5 x F 3 7
10‘l9cm.
T:3:l6:4 The diameter of an atom is approximately 5 x F 16 9
lO'zl‘cm. '
T:3:l7:l The mass of a hydrogen atom is approximately T 10 14
1.7 x 10‘24gm.
T:3:l7:2 The mass Of a hydrogen atom is approximately F 7 24
1.7 x 10'l9gm.
T:3:17:3 The mass of a hydrogen atom is approximately F 24 9
gm.
1.7 x10"8
T:3:l7:4 The mass of a hydrogen atom is approximately F 7 3
1.7 x10‘5gm.
T:3:l8:1 IsotOpes of a certain element are different F 15 11
from each other in their atomic number.
T:3:l8:2 IsotOpes of a certain element are different T 10 26

266

 

 

Number of
Students
Responding
OJ
:9 is
ft: +4 m
Proposi - t ‘5’, 33
tion 1 g '3; 4;-
Code The Pr0position :53 (5'. E.
T:3:l8:3 IsotOpes of a certain element are different F 5 11
from each other in their number of protons.
T:3:18:4 IsotOpes of a certain element are different F 21 5
from each other. in their number of electrons
in the outside orbit.
T:3:l9:1 Electrical charge of an electron and electrical F 3 4
charge on the proton are identical in value and
sign.
T:3:l9:2 Electrical charge of an electron and electrical F 19 8
charge on the proton are different from each
other in value and sign.
T:3:l9:3 Electrical charge of an electron and electrical F 14 5
charge on the proton are different from each
other in value and identical to each other in
sign.
T:3:19:4 Electrical charge of an electron and electrical T 15 35

charge on the proton are identical to each
other in value and different from each other in
sign.

T:3:20:1 The statement "Positively charged alpha F 7 28
particles collide with positively charged
nucleus of the atom of the golden sheet, and
they are reflected strongly" is more
descriptive than explanatory.

T:3:20:2 The statement "The pressure of gas results F 13 9
from the movement and collision of small
identical molecules which make the matter in
a gaseous state" is more descriptive than
explanatory.

267

 

 

Number of
Students
Responding
QJ
U1
.— +9
if in" 8
Proposi— E 3 3
tion 2 33 8'
Code The Proposition +— 0- 6-
T:3:22:2 The major scientific discovery resulting from F 10 3
firing alpha particles at a metallic sheet was
electrons.
T:3:22:3 The major scientific discovery resulting from F 13 7
firing alpha particles at a metallic sheet was
neutrons.
T:3:22:4 The major scientific discovery resulting from F 8 7

firing alpha particles at a metallic sheet was
Dalton's theory.

268

Fd

Alternative PrOpositions from Chapter I
Tested Again at the End of Chapter III

 

PrOposi- Proposi-

tion
Code
T:3:23zl

T:3:23:2

T:3:23:3

T:3:23zll

T:3:2#:l

T:3:24:2

T:3:Zln3

tion
Code
T:l:ld

T:l:l:2

T:l:l:3

T:l:l:4

T:l:2:l

T:l:2:2

T:l:2:3

 

The Proposition
Experiments conducted by
scientists in their search for the
structure of matter cannot be
repeated except by scientists.

Experiments conducted by
scientists in their search for the
structure of matter can be
repeated by anyone. ‘

Experiments conducted by
scientists in their search for the
structure of matter did not provide
evidence on the existence of atoms
and molecules.

Experiments conducted by
scientists in their search for the
structure of matter proved that
the molecule is the smallest part
of matter.

When a scientist arrives at some
conclusions depending on practical
experiments, the conclusions are
always correct.

When a scientist arrives at some
conclusions depending on practical
experiments, the conclusions are

- temporal and subject to change.

When a scientist arrives at some
conclusions depending on practical
experiments, the conclusions
cannot be judged until other
scientists also arrive at them.

True/Faise

F

Number

Students

of

Responding

f

f

f.

1.1 1.2 3.2

11

29

16

32

15

14

19

25

15

5

39

33

269

 

Number
of
q, Students
,3 Responding
Proposi- Proposi— t
tion tion 93’ f f 'f
Code Code The Proposition i 1-1 1.2 3.2

 

T:3:24z4 T:l:2:4 When a scientist arrives at some F 3 12 5
conclusions depending on practical
experiments, the conclusions are
incorrect if prevailing theories
cannot explain them.

T:3:25:l T:l:2#:l If the mass of one mole of F 2 1 3
hydrogen is seven grams, then the
number of moles of hydrogen
molecules in 10 grams of hydrogen
is 6.02 x 1023 moles.

T:3:25:2 T:l:zltzz If the mass of one mole of F 16 32 15
hydrogen is seven grams, then the
number of moles of hydrogen
molecules in 10 grams of hydrogen

is (2/10) x 6.02 x 1023 moles.

T:3:25z3 T:l:2#:3 If the mass of one mole of T 28 13 _32
hydrogen is seven grams, then the
number of moles of hydrogen
molecules in 10 grams of hydrogen
is five moles.

T:3:25:# T:l:24:l: if the mass of one mole of F 6 6 3
hydrogen is seven grams, then the
number of moles of hydrogen
molecules in 10 grams of hydrogen
is two moles.

270

 

Proposi- Proposi-
tion tion
Code Code

T: 396:r

T:3:26:2

T:3:26z3

T:3:26:4

T:3:27zl

T:3:27:2

T:l:12:l

T:l:12z2

T:l:12:3

r:1:12:a

T:l:lO:l

T:l:lO:2

The Proposition
Tithe volume occupieTby one mOTe

of oxygen molecules at STP is 22.4
liters, then the volume occupied by
one mole of hydrogen molecules is
(2/32) x 22!: liters.

If the volume occupied by one mole
of oxygen molecules at STP is 22.4
liters, then the volume occupied by
one mole of hydrogen molecules is
(l/ 32) x 22.4 liters.

If the volume occupied by one mole
of oxygen molecules at STP is 22.#
liters, then the volume occupied by
one mole of hydrogen molecules is
22.4 liters.

If the volume occupied by one mole
of oxygen molecules at STP is 22.4
liters, then the volume occupied by
one mole of hydrogen molecules is
05) x 22.# liters.

The statement "Equal volumes of
different gases have the same
number of molecules at similar
conditions of pressure and
temperature" is called Avogadro's
hypothesis.

The statement "Equal volumes of
different gases have the same
number of molecules at similar
conditions of pressure and
temperature" is called Gay-Lusac
law.

True/Fa1se

“

Number
of
Students
Responding

r r r
1.11.2 3.2
9 3 6

115 7

22 35 31

1010 ‘7

946 46

271

 

Proposi- Proposi-

tion
Code
T:3:27:3

T:3:27:4

T:3:28:l

T:3:28:2

T:3:28z3

T:3:28z4

T:3:29:l

tion
Code
T:l:lO:3

T:l:l0:4

T:l:7:l

T:l:7:2

T:l:7:3

T:l:7:4

T:l:8:l

The Proposition
The statement "Equal volumes of
different gases have the same
number of molecules at similar
conditions of pressure and
temperature" is called general gas
law.

The statement "Equal volumes of
different gases have the same
number of molecules at similar
conditions of pressure and
temperature" is called the law of
definite proportion.

The mass of Avogadro's number of
any chemical unit is called atomic
weight.

The mass of Avogadro's number of
any chemical unit is called atomic
number.

The mass of Avogadro's number of
any chemical unit is called atomic
mass.

The mass of Avogadro's number of
any chemical unit is called the
mole.

If Avogadro's number is 6.02 x 1023
and the mass of a hydrogen mole is
two grams, then the mass of one

atom of hydrogen is 6.02 x 1023

grams. ~

True/False

m

Number

0

f

Students
Responding

f

1.1
26

16

21

10

18

1

ft
.23.2
1 2

47 41

272

 

Proposi- Proposi-

tion
Code
T:3:29:2

T:3:29z3

T:3:29:4

T:3:30:l

T:3:30:2

T:3:30:3

T:3:30:4

tion
Code
T:l:8:2

T:l:8:3

T:l:8:4

T:l:4:l

T:l:4:2

T:l:4z3

T:l:4:4

The Proposition A
If Avogadro's number is 6.02 x 10“
and the mass of a hydrogen mole is
two grams, then the mass of one
atom of hydrogen is (’5) x 6.02 x
1023 grams.

If Avogadro's number is 6.02 x 1023
and the mass of a hydrogen mole is
two grams, then the mass of one
atom of hydrogen is (2/ 6.02) x 1023
grams.

If Avogadro's number is 6.02 x 1023

and the mass of a hydrogen mole is

two grams, then the mass of one

atom of hydrogen is (216.02) x 10"
grams.

The relationship which describes
the regular behavior of a natural
phenomenon is called a fact.

The relationship which describes
the regular behavior of a natural
phenomenon is called a law.

The relationship which describes
the regular behavior of a natural
phenomenon is called a
phenomenon.

The relationship which describes
the regular behavior of a natural
phenomenon is called a hypothesis.

True/False

F

Number

of

Students
Responding

f

1.1
11

16

15

10

21

14

r r

1.2 3.2
5 9

15 15

30 22

44 34

273

Fe

Alternative Proposition from Chapter 11
Tested Again at the End of Chapter III

 

Number
of
0, Students
,2 Responding
. . CE
Prop051-Prop051- E f 1:
tion V tion. E
j,—

 

 

Code# Code The Pro osition 9 1-1 l-2_
T:3:3l:l l:1:l/:l II tfiF—mfirm‘GWls T 14 14
342 grams and a liter of aqueous
solution of sugar has 68.4 grams of
sugar, then the molarity of this

solution is 0.2 moles] liter.

m

T:3:31:2 T:2:l7:2 If the mass of a mole of sugar is 14 20
342 grams and a liter of aqueous
solution of sugar has 68.4 grams of
sugar, then the molarity of this

solution is 2.0 moles] liter.

T:3:3l:3 T:2:l7z3 If the mass of a mole of sugar is F 17 15
342 grams and a liter of aqueous
solution of sugar has 68.4 grams of
sugar, then the molarity of this
solution is 0.02 moles] liter.

T:3:31:4 T:2:l7z4 If the mass of a mole of sugar is F 8 3
342 grams and a liter of aqueous
solution of sugar has 68.4 grams of
sugar, then the molarity of this
solution is 20.0 moles] liter.

T:3:32:l T:2:18:l If the mass of a mole of sugar is F 10 9
342 grams, then the mass of sugar
required to make a liter of solution
with a 0.5 mole! liter concentration
is 342 grams.

T:3:32:2 T:2:18:2 if the mass of a mole of sugar is F 8 5
342 grams, then the mass of sugar
required to make a liter of solution
with a 0.5 mole/ liter concentration
is 684 grams.

274

 

 

Number
of
0, Students
,3 Responding
Proposi- Proposi- 5:
tion tion 2% f f
Code Code The Proposition :- 1.1 1.2
:3: : : : :3 If the mass of a moIe of sugar Is T 24 18

342 grams, then the mass of sugar
required to make a liter of solution
with a 0.5 mole/ liter concentration
is 171 grams.

T:3:32:4 T:2:l8:4 If the mass of a mole of sugar is F 9 19
342 grams, then the mass of sugar
required to make a liter of solution
with a 0.5 mole/ liter concentration
is 0.5 grams.

T:3:33:l T:2:l9:l If a mass of one mole of sugar is F 5 9
342, then the volume of solution
which is 0.01 M required to dissolve
3.42 grams of sugar is 10.0 liters.

T:3:33:2 T:2:l9:2 If a mass of one mole of sugar is T 10 17
342, then the volume of solution
which is 0.01 M required to dissolve
3.42 grams of sugar is 1.0 liters.

T:3:33z3 T:2:l9:3 If a mass of one mole of sugar is F 17 10
342, then the volume of solution
which is 0.01 M required to dissolve
3.42 grams of sugar is 0.1 liters.

T:3:33z4 T:2:l9:4 If a mass of one mole of sugar is F 19 16
342, then the volume of solution
which is 0.01 M required to dissolve
3.42 grams of sugar is 0.01 liters.

APPENDIX G

FIAC MATRICES OF SEVEN DIFFERENT LESSONS

Lesson 1-4: Typical Lesson (1)

Lesson 2-4:
Lesson 2-8:
Lesson 3-2:
Lesson 3-3:
Lesson 3-6:
Lesson 34:

Problem Solving and Review (2)
Student Presentation

Typical Lesson (3)

Lab

Read Aloud from the Textbook
Problem Solving and Review (I)

FIAC Matrix of Lesson 1-4
Typicai Lesson (1)

6

7

10

TOT

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

10

 

T01

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

#— o o

1 1 0.11

48 21 35 1 4 1 7 117 13.28

38 2. 1 59 26 126 14.30

41 351 1 3 2 26 424 48.13

6 1 7 14 1.59

1 1 1 9 1.02

1 60 8 6 18 .1 95 10.78

3 1 3 1 8 0.91

6 17 28 5 9 2 18 87 9.88

1 117 126 424 14 9 95 8 87 881 .IO0.0
0.11 132814804813 1.591.0210.78 0.91 9.88 100.0

e 73.93% ere-11.591. L183?

 

275

 

 

276

FIAC Matrix of Lesson 2 - 4
Review-Problem So1ving (2)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

10

 

101

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2 3 gr 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 TOT 1
1 o o
1 1 1 1 4 0.62
16 10 6 4 3F .1 40 6.15
24 4 2 21 2 3 96 8.62
9 178 6' 5 5 203 31.23
1 2 5 5 7o 2 4 23 112 17.23
1 4 13 1 5 24 3.69
14 2 2 _3. 2 11 2 36 5.54
2 5 1 1. 3 13 6 31 4.77
3 3 7 20 6. 3 3 , 99 144 22.15
4 4o 56 203 1 112 24 36. 31 144 650 $100
0.62 6.15 8.62 31.23 17.23 3.69 5.54 4.77 22.15 100
4- *67i54% 7>45-1o.3O%-9»22.15

 

 

 

 

5‘

277

FIAC Matrix of Lesson 2 - 8
Students' Presentation

10

TOT

 

‘\

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

10

 

T01

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2 2 4 0.48
1 1 0.12
41 13 25 4 10 93 11.15
2 29 1 4 2 - 42 13 93 11.15
1 25 321' 2 6 46 401 48.08
1 1 2 6 1 4 4 2 21 2.52
1 2 4 7 0.84
_39 6 1 1o . 5 61 7.31
5 7 1 28 4 45 5.40
2 7 1o 51 4 5 3 26 108 12.90
4 1 93 93 401 ’ 21 7 61 45 108 834 ’ 100
0.48 p.12 11.15 11.15 48.08 7.52 0.84 7.31 5.40 12.90 100.
e 74.34% ‘ ; 442.711.912.90

 

 

 

278

FIAC Matrix of Lesson 3 - 2
Typical Lesson (3)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

10

 

TOT

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1 Z 3 1;? 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 TOT 2
1 . 1 2 0.25
1 1 2 0.25

1 15 1 37 1 55 7.01
1 1o 29 32 1 2 2 1 78 9.95
'30 2 517 1 2 '1 1 554 70.7

1 15 1 1 18 2.3
1 7 2 3 13 1.66

41 4 4 49 6.25

1 1 0.13

1 5 1 1' 3 1 12 1.53

2 2 55 78 554 ' 18 13 49 1 12 784 4100

0.25 0.25 7.01 9.95 70.7 2.3 1.66 6.25 0.13 1.53 100 I
\L 92.09 ~ ;<~ 6.38%—)1.53

 

279

n FIAC Matrix of Lesson 3 - 3

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

(The Lab)

1 2 3 L 4 5 6 - 7 8 9 1 O TOT I
1 4 1 4 5 0.60
2 J o o
3 - 14 .4 9 1 1 11 40 4.80
‘ 1o 2 ‘ 18 :1 3 34 4.07
5 ‘ 9 391 5 4 45 454 154.57
s 2 1 4 23 1 1 I 7 39 4.67
7 1 1 2 ' 4 0.48
9 18 1 1' I. 1 , 21 2.51
9 2 1 2 7 12 1.44
10 3 5 5 52 7 1 1 4 149 226 27.07
191 5 0 4o 34 454 l 39 4 21 12 226 835 100
1 0.60 o 4.80 4.07 54.37 4.67 0.48 2.51 1.44 27.07 100

2. 6 .98 _ egw .3.95-—; 27.07

 

 

 

FIAC Matrix of Lesson 3-6

280

Read Aloud from the Textbook

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

10

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1 2 3 'g 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 TOT 2
o 0.0
o 0.0
17 2 14 1 1 1 37. 5.15
1 1 1o 1 13 1.8
' 1 5 328 11 2 2 3 352 48.96
1 2 5 6 1 17 2 34 47.36
1 1 0.14
15- 2 5 9' 224 4 ggg__;gggua_
3 ' 1 3 7 1 15 2.09
5 2 1 _ 8 1.11
“N o o 37 13 352 ’34 1 259 15 8 719 1100.0
0.0 0.0 5.15 1.8 48.96 473 .10.14 36.02 2.09 1.111 100.0
é 60678]. -%€—38.H'(.—7‘ "‘5.

 

 

281

FIAC Matrix of Lesson 3-7

Review-Problem Solving (l)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

10

 

T01

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1 2 3 f: 4 5 6‘ 7 8 9 10 TOT 1
1 1 1 1 1 5 1.07
_o 0.0
2 18 1o 15 1 2 2 50, 10.73.
28 3 2 3 '30 2 68 14.60
19 171 3 2 13 208 44.69
1 2 4 4 1 3 4 19 4.08
2 1 7 1 2 13 2.79
26 2 3 1’ 12 2 46 9.87
5 2 4 7 18 3.86
1 3 12 2 2 5 14 39 8.37
5 o 50 68 208 I 19 13 46 18 39 466 : 100.0
1.07 0.0 10.73 14 60 44.64 4.08 2.79 9.87 3.86 8.37 100.0
l<~ 77.90% ——-* 94>lé-13.73-—2I 8.37

 

APPENDIX H

THE GARBAGE COLLECTOR ANALOGY

THE GARBAGE COLLECTOR ANALOGY"

A new tenant is told by his neighbor that the garbage collector comes
every Thursday, early in the morning. later, in answer to a question from his
wife about the same matter, the tenant says, "I have been told there is a garbage
collector and that he comes early Thursday morning. We shall see if this is
true." The tenant, a scientist, accepts the statement of the neighbor (who has
had opportunity to make observations on the subject). However, he accepts it
tentatively until he himself knows the evidence for the conclusion.

ter a few weeks, the new tenant has made a number of observations
consistent with the existence of a Thursday garbage collector. Most important,
the garbage does disappear every Thursday morning. Second, he receives a bill
from the city once a month for municipal services. And there are several
supplementary observations that are consistent-moften he is awakened at 5:00 am
on Thrusdays by a loud banging and sounds of a truck. Occasionally, the banging
is accompanied by a gay whistling, sometimes by a dog's bark.

The tenant now has many reasons to believe in the existence of the garbage
collector. Yet he has never seen him. Being a curious man and a scientist, he
sets him alarm clock one Wednesday night to ring at 5:00 am. Looking out the
window Thursday morning, his first observation is that it is surprisingly dark out
and things are difficult to see. Nevertheless, he discerns a shadowy form pass
by, a form that looks like a man carrying a large object.

Seeing is believing! But which of these pieces of evidence really
constitutes "seeing" the garbage collector? Which piece of evidence is the basis
for "believing" there is a garbage collector? The answer is, all of the evidence
taken together constitutes "seeing." And all of the evidence taken together
furnishes the basis for accepting the "gaFEage collector theory of garbage
disappearance." The direct vision of a shadowy form at 5:00 am would not
constitute "seeing a garbage collector" if the garbage didn't disappear at that
time. (The form might have been a paper boy or the milkman.) Neither would
the garbage disappearance alone consist of "seeing" the garbage collector.
(Perhaps a dog comes by every Thursday and eats the garbage. Remember, a
dog's bark was heard!) No, the tenant is convinced there is a garbage collector
because the assumption is consistent with so many observations, and it is
inconsistent with none. Other possible explanations fit the observations too, but
not as well (the tenant has never heard a dog whistle daily). The garbage
collector theory passes the test of a good theory--it is useful in explaining a
large number of experiemntal observations. This was true even before the
tenant set eyes on the shadowy form at 5:00 am.

Yet we must agree, there are advantages to the "direct vision" type of
experiment. Often more detailed information can be obtained this way. Is the
garbage collector tall? Does he have a mustache? Could the garbage collector
be a woman? This type of information is less easily obtained from other methods
of observation. It is worthwhile setting the alarm clock, even after we have
become convinced there is a garbage collector.

 

*CHEM-Study: Chemistry: An Experimental Science (student textbook),
1965.

282

283

At the beginning of this course, you were a new tenant. You were told that
chemists believe in atoms and you were asked to accept this proposal tentatively
until you yourself knew the evidence for it. Sicne that time, we have used the
atomic theory continuously in our discussions of chemical phenomena. The
atomic theory passes the test of a good theory: it is useful in explaining a large
number of experimental observations. We have become convinced there are
atoms.

APPENDIX I

A QUESTIONNAIRE FOR SCIENCE SUPERVISORS

A QUESTIONNAIRE FOR SCIENCE SUPERVISORS

In the name of God, most gracious, most merciful
Dear science supervisor at ,
Peace and blessings be upon you
In order to prepare for a study about science teaching and learning in Jordan, I
would like you kindly to answer the following questions. Thank you for your

cooperation.

Sincerely yours,

Fathi Malkawi

 

 

I. Name three major problems relevant to teaching and learning natural
science program for students of the tenth grade.

2. Name three topics you feel teachers of this program find difficulty in
teaching them.

3. Choose the best six teachers (three males and three females) of this
program in your district and provide the following information:

Teachers' names Schools' names Reasons for choosing
and addresses and addresses teacher among the best

284

APPENDIX J

A QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TEACHERS WHO ARE CANDIDATES
TO PARTICIPATE IN THE STUDY

A QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TEACHERS WHO ARE CANDIDATES
TO PARTICIPATE IN THE STUDY

In the name of God, most gracious, most merciful

Dear science teacher of natural science program at

 

Peace and blessings be upon you

I have the pleasure to inform you that you have been selected to be among the
best teachers of the natural science program for students of the tenth grade.
You are now a candidate to participate in a study about teaching and learning
science in Jordan. To prepare for this study, please answer the following
questions. Thank you for your cooperation.

Sincerely yours,

Fathi Malkawi

 

 

1. Your name and address

2. Your educational qualifications

3. Years of service in teaching

4. Years of teaching the natural science program for tenth grade

5. Training courses you attended relevant to this program, including course
name, place, date, authority who organized the course, and duration of
course.

6. Name three problems you face in teaching the natural science course.

285

10.

II.

286

Name three topics you found most difficult to teach.

Do you use other references besides the textbook? If so, name them.

Do you use the teachers‘ guide for this program? (Circle YES or NO.) If
yes, aspects of the teachers' guide you found useful.

Aspects of the teachers' guide you found not useful.

Your suggestions to improve the teachers' guide.

Do you use a special notebook plan prepared for teaching the natural
science program? If yes, what are the elements of your planning? If no,
why not?

Would you like to participate in a study aobut teaching and learning science
in Jordan? If yes, why? If no, why not?

APPENDIX K

PAGE 36 OF THE NSC TEXTBOOK

APPENDIX
PAGE 36 OF THE NSC TEXTBOOK

 

...”...“

*[ 2:3:1 Behavior of the solutio'nud‘uringTeatingj

 

 

Heat a solution of sugar in water until it boils. Condense the vapor which
is formed,\§¢ng distillation apparatus as in Figure 2.3.

a: thermometer

b: solution of
sugar in water

c: condenser

d: cold water
inlet

e: water outlet

f: pure water

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 2.3. Simple distillation apparatus.

Notice the behavior of the solution during boiling.

* Does the solution boil at the same temperature as the boiling point of pure
water?

* Does the temperature stay constant during boiling as it does during boiling
pure water? Or does the temperature continue to rise?

Compare the behavior of pure water and that of the solution as represented in

figure 2.4. Try to recognize the nature of the pointsreferred to by arrows.

pure water

---- solution

 

 

Figure 2.4. Behavior on boiling.

* printed in blue

288

289

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APPENDIX L

PLAN FOR LESSON 3.2

COURSE: NCS CLASSROOM: lst Sec (1) DAY: Tuesday

TOPIC: Expanding the PERIOD: 2nd DATE: March 2nd
atomic model

 

GENERAL GOAL OF THE COURSE: To acquire fundamental information which
is required to understand and interpret natural phenomena, to understand the
nature of science, to develop scientific attitudes and mental and sensory skills.

 

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES OF THE LESSON: (1) student should know that matter
has an electrical nature, and know the relationship between matter and
electricity: (2) to understand experiments of electrolysis (Faraday's laws); (3)

 

ACTIVITIES, AIDS, AND TECHNIQUES:
1. Conduct some simple experiments which form static electricity.
2. Demonstrate an electrical battery and recognize its components.
3. Explain Faraday's two laws and illustrate them.

4. Conduct the experiment of electrolysis, if possible.

 

EVALUATION: If 96500 coulum have been able to precipitate the garamic
atomic weight of silver 108 gm, then what is the charge of one particle?

 

COMMENTS: Repeat the same lesson for section 1.2

We were not able to finish Faraday's second law.

 

 

290

291

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........ 9.0),”) 9...:ng ..me \. W41}-.. Lots-U U W) :M‘Urwl. 1.3.131
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19:35 .....1 .55).. .19 ....d 34.29....— ........ -..-.e! ................................. . .........................

 

 

 

 

 

 

_ .. ..., . ........... ... ............. .............. ................. ... .....,...........,.................... ..............-.............
,, ,. ... ..... .............,..... .. .. . ... . . .
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. . .. . . ... .... ”...””... ...“-nus... - .... ... 1... -. .. ..."... . . , , . . _ _
H... . ... ......o... . .

 

 

 

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.......

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.....................

 

  

 

 

e.) >1 ,4) CJ‘ (3)») pin-M 5.2/151411..» A

 

APPENDIX M

PLAN FOR LESSON 3.6

COURSE: NCS CLASSROOM: lst Sec (1) DAY: Tuesday

TOPIC: Expanding the PERIOD: 2nd DATE: March 9th
atomic model

 

GENERAL GOAL OF THE COURSE:

 

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES OF THE LESSON: (1) to understand and be able to
explain electrification and electrical conductivity and (2) the student should
know Van Der Waal forces.

 

ACTIVITIES, AIDS, AND TECHNIQUES:

 

1. Student will read aloud, then comments on some points will be
provided.
EVALUATION:

 

COMMENTS: Wednesday, March 10, is the school activities day.

 

 

292

293

 

 

 

 

 

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....................................................

 

 

........

 

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.....................................................................

 

 

APPENDIX N

MISS TALIB'S RESPONSE TO
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TEACHERS WHO ARE CANDIDATES
TO PARTICIPATE IN THE STUDY

Dear science teacher of natural science program at

A QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TEACHERS WHO ARE CANDIDATES
TO PARTICIPATE IN THE STUDY

In the name of God, most gracious, most merciful

 

Peace and blessings be upon you

I have the pleasure to inform you that you have been selected to be among the
best teachers of the natural science program for students of the tenth grade.
You are now a candidate to participate in a study about teaching and learning
science in Jordan. To prepare for this study, please answer the following
questions. Thank you for your cooperation.

Sincerely yours,

Fathi Malkawi

 

 

Your name and address
Your educational qualifications
B.Sc. (Chemistry) + Diploma (Ed.)

Years of service in teaching
Three years

Years of teaching the natural science program for tenth grade
The second year

Training courses you attended relevant to this program, including course

name, place, date, authority who organized the course, and duration of
course.

Name three problems you face in teaching the natural science course.
Large number of students in each classroom

The lack of prior experiences for some students
The large size of the required subject matter

294

10.

11.

295

Name three topics you found most difficult to teach.

I have not faced any problem in teaching the subject matter of natural
science course so far.

Do you use other references besides the textbook? If so, name them.

No

Do you use the teachers' guide for this program? (Circle YES or NO.) If
yes, aspects of the teachers' guide you found useful.

No

Aspects of the teachers' guide you found not useful.

Your suggestions to improve the teachers' guide.

Do you use a special notebook plan prepared for teaching the natural
science program? If yes, what are the elements of your planning? If no,
why not?

Yes. Elements of lesson plan:
objectives
activities, techniques and aids
evaluation

Would you like to participate in a study aobut teaching and learning science
in Jordan? If yes, why? If no, why not?

Yes. To make use of the experiences of others and to deveIOp my
abilities and skills in teaching.

296
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V’

APPENDIX 0

A DIAGRAM TAKEN FROM THE
NSF-SPONSORED PHYSICS PROJECT (PSSC)

 

 

 

 

\fl

 

 

 

29-20. When a conductor is connegted to a battery, there is an

electric field inside the wire that runs from the positive to the
negative battery terminci.

298

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