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ABSTRACT

MARITAL AGREEMENT ON CONCEPTIONS OF PARENTHOOD
AND KNOWLEDGE OF PLAY AS PREDICTORS OF
ATTITUDES TOWARD PLAY
By
Joan Hoffman Smith

Parental attitudes and knowledge about children's play
have a major role in shaping the young child's physical and
emotional environment; therefore, the need to investigate
parental attitudes toward play and knowledge of how play
contributes to the overall development of the child is a
critical one. The information that has been collected on
parental attitudes toward play has focused only on families
in urban populations; therefore, in this study, the in-
vestigator focused on a rural population in the thumb area
of Michigan.

The purpose of this study is to find out if marital
agreement about knowledge of children's play concepts,
developmental/traditional conceptions of childhood and
parenthood, and child's play activities are predictive of
marital agreement on attitudes toward play. Another purpose

is to answer questions regarding the predictive value of the

Joan Hoffman Smith
independent variables — knowledge of children's play con-
cepts, developmental/traditional conceptions of childhood
and parenthood, child's play activities, and home play
materials to the dependent variable, parental attitudes
toward play. Another intent is to investigate the
relationship of the attitudes of mothers and fathers
toward play and levels of marital agreement to the sex of
children, age of youngest child, age of oldest child, number
of children, years married, location of residence, money
spent on toys and social position.

Thirty-two couples from Pigeon, Michigan, and vicinity
constituted the sample for this study. Selection criteria
included intact families, presence in the home of children
5 years 11 months or younger, and agreement of husbands and
wives to participate in the study.

Regression analysis results indicated marital agreement
on child's play activities was a significant predictor of
marital agreement on attitudes toward play. The independent
variables of marital agreement on knowledge of play concepts
and developmental/traditional conceptions of childhood and
parenthood were not predictors of marital agreement on
attitudes toward play. The amount of money spent on home
play materials was a predictor of marital agreement on
attitudes toward play. Results indicated that as the amount

of money couples spent on home play materials increased the

Joan Hoffman Smith
likelihood that the couples would agree on their attitudes
toward play decreased.

A general comparison between mothers' and fathers'
attitudes toward play indicated that fathers' attitudes
tended to be more predictable than mothers' attitudes.
Regression analysis results indicated that fathers
classified as developmental were more likely to report
attitudes toward play that suggest flexibility, spontaneity,
exploration and autonomy than were fathers classified as
traditional. Fathers who lived on working farms had
significantly less positive attitudes toward play than
fathers who did not live on working farms.

Regression analysis results indicated that as the
number of children increased, the fathers' attitudes toward
play became less positive. The amount of money spent on home
play materials was predictive of both mothers' and fathers'
attitudes toward play. As the amount of money mothers and
fathers spent on home play materials increased, the mothers'

and fathers' attitudes toward play became less positive.

MARITAL AGREEMENT ON CONCEPTIONS OF PARENTHOOD
AND KNOWLEDGE OF PLAY AS PREDICTORS OF
ATTITUDES TOWARD PLAY

By

Joan Hoffman Smith

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to

Michigan State University

in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Family and Child Sciences

1975

To Michael
who rejoices in the completion
of this study and whose encouragement and

understanding helped make it possible.

ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This dissertation was carried out under the supervision
of Dr. Eileen Earhart, chairman of the Department of Family
and Child Sciences. Throughout my doctoral program, Dr.
Earhart provided intellectual challenge and valuable guidance
by demonstration as well as expectation. I am especially
grateful for her constructive criticism and extensive support
during the design and execution of this research. As a
humanistic educator, she has served as a model of excellence
and a supportive friend.

I wish to express my appreciation to Dr. Donald Melcer
for his advice and direction. In addition, I am grateful to
the other members of my committee, Dr. Beatrice Paolucci, Dr.
Gershen Kaufman, and Dr. David Imig, who have given their
encouragement and suggestions.

The completion of this study was facilitated by the
flexibility and hospitality of Roberta Richmond, the Pigeon
librarian.

The support of my professional collegue and friend, Alice
Whiren, was a valuable source of encouragement from the in-
ception of this study to its completion.

A special debt of gratitude belongs to Bobbie Erb and
Mary Lou Bullock not only for their expert typing skills but

also for their diligence and cheerfulness.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER
I. INTRODUCTION .
Statement of the Problem .
Objectives .
Assumptions.
Hypotheses
Theoretical Definitions of Terms
Operational Definitions.
Conceptual Orientation .
Overview of the Study.
II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Effects of Early Family Environment
on Child Development
Theories of Play .
Classical Theories of Play .
Surplus Energy Theory.
Instinct Theory.
Preparation Theory .
Recapitulation Theory.
Relaxation Theory.
Recent Theories of Play.

Generalization Theory.

iv

PAGE

10
12
14
15
16
18

18
24
26
27
28
28
29
3O
31
32

CHAPTER
Compensation Theory.
Cathartic Theories
Psychoanalytic Theory.
Developmental Theory .
Learning Theory.
Modern Theories.
Arousal-Seeking Theory .
Competence/Effectance Theory .
The Functions of Play.
Play Stages and Child Development.
Parental Attitudes and Influences.
Mothers' and Fathers' Attitudes.
III. RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES.
Sample Selection .
Description of Sample.
Measurement.
Attitudes toward Play.
Knowledge of Play.
Developmental/Traditional Conceptions
of Childhood and Parenthood.
Children's Home Play Activities.
Home Play Materials.
Marital Agreement on Attitudes toward
Play .
Socioeconomic Class Status

Limitation of Instrumentation.

V

PAGE
32
34
36
37
4O
44
45
49
50
53
56
61
68
70
71
75
76
77

78
78
79

81
81
82

CHAPTER PAGE

Data Collection Procedures . . . . . . . . 83
Data Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Predicting Attitudes toward Play . . . . 87

Predicting Husband-Wife Attitude
Agreement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Maternal and Paternal Attitudes. . . . . 88

Location of Residence and Sex of

Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
IV. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Summary of Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . 125
V. CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Summary of Results . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Limitations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Suggestions for Further Research . . . . . 139
APPENDICES
Appendix A: General Information . . . . . . 142

Appendix B: Opinion Survey on Children's

Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Appendix C: Preschool Children's Play . . . 149
Appendix D: Beliefs about Childhood and

Parenthood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Appendix E: Questionnaire about Child's

Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

Appendix F: Toy and Equipment Inventory . . 159
vi

CHAPTER PAGE

Appendix G: Letter to Parents . . . . . . . 162
Appendix H: Telephone Contact . . . . . . . 164
Appendix I: Postcard to Parents . . . . . . 165
Appendix J: Child Development Profile . . . 166
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

vii

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE PAGE
3.1 Ages of Husbands and Wives ...................... 72
3.2 Number of Years Married ......................... 73
3.3 Educational Levels of Husbands and Wives ........ 73
3.4 Social Class of Families ........................ 74
3.5 Money Spent on Home Play Materials .............. 75
3.6 Hollingshead's Social Position Categories ....... 82
4.1 Means and Standard Deviations:

Developmental Conceptions of Parenthood ....... 91
4.2 Results of Regression Analyses Predicting

Parental Attitudes toward Play from

Developmental Conceptions of Parenthood

and Childhood ................................. 93
4.3 Means and Standard Deviations:

Parental Knowledge about Children's Play ...... 94
4.4 Results of Regression Analyses Predicting

Parental Attitudes toward Play from

Knowledge about Children's Play ............... 95
4.5 Mban and Standard Deviation:

Number of Home Play Materials ................. 96

viii

TABLE
4.6

Results of Regression Analyses

Predicting Parental Attitudes toward

Play from.Number of Home Play Materials .......

Means and Standard Deviations:

Categories of Home Play Materials .............

Results of the Multiple and Individual
Regression Analyses Predicting Mothers'

Attitudes toward Play from Categories

of Home Play Materials ........................

Results of the Multiple and Individual
Regression Analyses Predicting Fathers'

Attitudes toward Play from Categories

of Home Play Materials ........................

Means and Standard Deviations:

Demographic Characteristics ...................

Analysis of Variance:
Dependent Variable - Parental Attitudes

toward Play

Independent Variable - Sex of Children ........

Means and Standard Deviations:

Location Groups ...............................

Analysis of Variance:
Dependent Variable - Mothers' Attitudes

toward Play

Independent Variable - Location of Residence..

ix

PAGE

. 98

. 99

.102

.103

.104

.105

.106

.106

TABLE
4.14

Results of Multiple and Individual
Regression Analyses Predicting Mothers'

Attitudes toward Play from Demographic

Characteristics .............................

Results of Multiple and Individual
Regression Analyses Predicting Fathers'

Attitudes toward Play from Demographic

Characteristics .............................

Mean and Standard Deviation:

Marital Agreement on Knowledge

about Children's Play .......................

Results of Regression Analysis
Predicting Marital Agreement on Attitudes

toward Play from Marital Agreement

on Knowledge about Play .....................

Mean and Standard Deviation:

Marital Agreement on Child's Play ...........

Results of Regression Analysis
Predicting Marital Agreement on Attitudes

toward Play from Marital Agreement

on Child's Play Activities ..................

Mean and Standard Deviation:

Marital Agreement on Conceptions of

Parenthood and Childhood ....................

PAGE

...109

...110

...111

...112

...113

...114

...115

TABLE
4.21

4.22

4.23

4.24

4.25

4.26

4.27

PAGE

Results of Regression Analysis

Predicting Marital Agreement on

Attitudes toward Play from Marital

Agreement on Conceptions of Parenthood ......... 115
Analysis of Variance:

Dependent Variable - Marital Agreement on

Attitudes toward Play

Independent Variable - Sex of Children ......... 117
Analysis of Variance:

Dependent Variable - Marital Agreement on

Attitudes toward Play

Independent Variable - Location of Residence...118
Results of Multiple and Individual

Regression Analyses Predicting Marital

Agreement on Attitudes toward Play from

Demographic Characteristics .................... 119
Results of Multiple Regression Analysis

Predicting Fathers' Attitudes toward Play

from Combined Variables ........................ 121
Results of Multiple Regression Analysis

Predicting Mothers' Attitudes toward Play

from Combined Variables ........................ 123
Mean and Standard Deviation:

Parental Attitudes toward Play ................. 124

xi

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

We do not know when man begins to play.
Play may start before birth, with the
kicks and turns of the fetus; it certainly
is present in the infant; and it continues
throughout our lives.

When play is suppressed, both the individ-
ual and society suffer. When play is
encouraged, both benefit. The reasons

for this are not clear, but somehow play
is essential for man and many other social
animals.

Unlike most behavior, play has not been
exhaustively studied. Scientists have
difficulty taking it seriously. They
argue about what play is. Some have narrow
definitions; others would agree with Tom
Sawyer that ”work consists of whatever a
body is 'obliged' to do...P1ay consists of
whatever a body is not obliged to do"
(Norbeck, 1971).
Statement of the Problem
A major function of the family system is the socializa-
tion of its members. Of the various socializing agents, the
family system is the most influential in shaping the neonate
into a socialized human being. Parental knowledge about
the physical, emotional and intellectual needs of children

is essential for the successful, optimal integration of

the young members into society. The ways in which the young
child's basic physiological and psychological needs are

or are not met, together with the parents' general atti-
tudes, influence his overall life adjustment. Accumulation
of data stressing the importance of the first three years
of life for the development of the child and the concept

of critical periods in early childhood make it imperative
that attention be focused on the experiences and environ-
ments of children during their crucial formative years
(Caldwe11,1967; watts,1973; White,l973). The primary
learning environment of the majority of preschoolers is

the nuclear family, and it is the atmosphere within this
system that helps to shape their characters. The 1970

White House Conference on Children focused on the young

child's need for interaction in its "Report to the President :

A child learns, he becomes human, primarily
through participation in a challenging
activity with those he loves and admires.

It is the example, challenge, and rein-
forcement provided by the people who care
that enable a child to develop both his
ability and his identity...It is in work

and play with children, in games, in
projects, in shared responsibilities with
parents, adults, and older children that

the child develops the skills, motives,

and qualities of character that enable

him to live a life that is gratifying both
to himself and those around him....chil-
dren need people in order to become human....
through exposure and interaction with adults
and children...a child...1earns the meaning
of tolerance, cooperation, and compassion
(pp. 241-242).

In the socialization of the individual, spontaneous
play serves an important function in intellectual, social
and emotional development. Play and games are intrinsic
parts of normal development and are essential to the enjoyment
of life. The most important contribution playfulness makes
to life is to make it worth living (Herron & Sutton-Smith,
1971).

Traditionally in our work-oriented society, play has
been viewed as an insignificant diversion comprising all the
trivial things children do with little attention given to
the importance of play in a child's development. Our homes
and schools have been infiltrated by the work or success
ethic inherited from Puritanism which discounts play.
America's immense industrial complex was produced by a
society which valued hard work and held the attitude that
children's play was trivial and unimportant. Many parents
continue to view play and learning as the antithesis of one
another with the result being that they are primarily con-
cerned with cognitive development. These parents are
reassured by their child's knowledge of concrete facts and
encourage rote learning of the alphabet and numbers
(Curry and Arnaud, 1971).

Using play as a medium to enhance cognitive development
is an unfamiliar concept for many parents, but one fully
expounded upon by Frank and Theresa Caplan (1974). They
take the position that it is because of man's playfulness

rather than in spite of it that he has survived and surpassed

other creatures:

...the wheel, the sail, and the brick were
probably invented in the course of play...
Thus play has been man's most useful pre-
occupation. Man as an artist is infinitely
more ancient than man as worker. Man has
made his greatest progress when not grub-
bing for necessities, when nature was so
bountiful that he had the leisure to play
and the inclination to tinker. It is the
child in man that is the source of his
creativeness(p. xx).

Despite strong adherence to the doctrine that one must
work rather than play to get ahead, there is a growing inter—
est by persons concerned with the family system in the rewards
of playfulness - imagination, flexibility, competence, joyous-
ness. By facilitating play and fostering playfulness in the
family environment, parents have a strong influence on the
development of these characteristics. Whether they are cog-
nizant of this role or not, parents continually function via
their daily interactions with their children as models and
teachers (Bloom, 1964); and parents directly influence their
child's play skills development (Smilansky, 1968). Ellis
(1973) noted that a reexamination of the tendency to regard
play as acceptable and enjoyable only when there is nothing
more important to do is taking place:

The Puritan ethic that claims we live to
work is beginning to be turned around so
that we can agree that our political,
judicial, and industrial systems exist to
improve the quality of our lives; that we
work to live. While hedonism is not in
full flood, play and leisure are seen as
the major resources for our achievement
of individuality and they are beginning

to receive the attention they have always
desired. Thus, the play of adults and

children will become an increasingly
critical area of concern and study as
time passes(p. xii).

Play is a powerful medium through which a child learns
about himself and his environment. In play, the child
explores, creates, imitates, controls and pretends in a world
in which the conditions provide safety for risk-taking.
Traditionally justified in terms of its tangential payoffs -
play builds body control, provides a base for speech acquisi-
tion, and promotes the emotional and social functions, play
is increasingly being recognized for the importance of its
intrinsic function which involves the satisfaction resulting
from responding uniquely to an experience (Herron and Sutton-
Smith, 1971).

Scientific interest in the area of play over the last
40 years has been limited, and even less evidence exists to
indicate interest in the area of parental knowledge and atti-
tudes involving play. Parental attitudes and knowledge about
play have a major role in shaping the young child's physical
and emotional environment. These attitudes have a strong
influence on the play modes a child uses. Young children
seldom decide for themselves where, when, what, how or with
whom they will play. Parents usually make these decisions
for the child based upon their own values, beliefs and atti-
tudes. In most cases, these decisions involve fundamental
assumptions about child rearing in general and about sex

roles and morals in particular; thereby, making the need to

investigate parental attitudes toward play and knowledge of
how play contributes to the overall development of the child
a critical one (Bishop and Chace, 1971).

If home play situations are to be provided which will
allow children to develop their potential, an attitude toward
play which promotes a playful atmosphere in the home becomes
a prerequisite. To date the scientific literature about
parental knowledge of play or parental attitudes toward play
and the implications of these attitudes for the young child's
development has been sparse. Most of the information that
has been collected on parental attitudes toward play has
focused on families in urban populations. Little attention
has been given to the attitudes of rural families; therefore,
in this study, the investigator chose to focus on a rural
population in the thumb area of Michigan.

Despite the nationwide increase in total number of
organized day care programs for preschoolers, the develop-
mental environment for the majority of preschool rural chil-
dren is the institution of the family. Most rural families
have limited community resources for their young children
because they reside too far away from the larger communities
which offer a variety of programs. Within the home environ-
ment, parents generally attempt, as best they can, to provide
their children with a variety of materials and experiences
as a means of ensuring their optimal development during the

first years of maximum receptivity. Parents rate the preschool

period during which the child is so responsive to additional
attention as a difficult one with which to cope (Allen, 1973).
As a result, parents encounter more disadvantages and problems
‘with children from 2-5 years old than with children from 6-11
years old (Pohlman, 1967; Muralidharan, 1973).

Many rural families desire and need assistance with
providing social and intellectual stimulation for their pre-
school children. Often these families do not meet the guide-
lines for Head Start, and very few programs exist which are
geared to preschool children; consequently, they have few
opportunities outside the home to experience a stimulating
environment in which they can gain in social, emotional and
intellectual skill development.

Before the optimum conditions which will encourage and
develop play abilities in preschool children can be known,
the attitudes and behaviors or rural husbands and wives must
first be systematically researched. Most studies concerned
with parental attitudes have neglected and ignored the father
and focused only on the mother (Eron, et a1., 1961). For too
long the mother has been regarded as the only key person in
a child's life. The consequence of this attitude in family
research has been the disregard of the father as a socializ-
ing influence and as an informant. If the fathers' opinions
were sought, this was usually obtained second-hand through
the mothers' reports of how they perceived the fathers would

respond. This method presents methodological biases and

generalization problems. In documenting the neglect of the
father in research, Weiss (1970) reports:
Checking the number of articles in Ps cho-
logical Abstracts...in 1958 there were 20
entries for all categories concerning
mothers, while fathers accounted for only
2 studies. For 1968 the corresponding
entries were 144 and 29, respectively.
While the number of studies involving
fathers increased during the decade,
it was still out of proportion to the...
penchant for studying mothers(p. 6).

Information on the level of marital agreement about
attitudes toward play, knowledge and conditions of play, and
conceptions of parenthood is scarce, both as a result of
little scientific investigation into these areas and the lack

of data involving fathers.

Objectives

The purpose of this study is to find out if marital
agreement about knowledge of children's play concepts, develop-
mental/traditional conceptions of childhood and parenthood,
and child's play activities are predictive of marital agree-
ment on attitudes toward play. Another purpose is to answer
questions regarding the predictive value of the independent
variables - knowledge of children's play concepts, developmen-
tal/traditional conceptions of childhood and parenthood,
child's play activities, and home play materials to the
dependent variable, parental attitudes toward play. Another
intent is to investigate the relationship of the attitudes

of mothers and fathers toward play and levels of marital

agreement to the sex of children, age of youngest child,
age of oldest child, number of children, years married,
location of residence, money spent on toys and social position.

Answers to the following questions are sought:

1. Do knowledge about children's play, developmental
conceptions of childhood and parenthood, and the number and
categories of home play materials predict the attitudes of
mothers and fathers toward play?

2. Does marital agreement on knowledge of children's
play concepts, child's play activities, and developmental/
traditional conceptions of childhood and parenthood predict
agreement on parental attitudes toward play?

3. Is there a significant difference between maternal
and paternal attitudes toward play?

4. Do any of the following characteristics predict the
attitudes of mothers and fathers toward play: sex of children,
age of youngest child, age of oldest child, number of children,
years married, location of residence, money spent on toys, and

social position determined from the Hollingshead Two Factor

 

Index of Social Position (1957).

Assumptions

 

The following assumptions underlie this study:

1. Play is sufficiently important to warrant explaining
and managing.

2. Parental attitudes are reflected in behavior via

parental decisions about play activities, settings and

10

procedures.

3. Preschool years are critical to the optimal develop-
ment of a child's language skills, intellectual abilities and
conceptual skills.

4. The preschool child's parents are his most influential
socializing agents. Through parent/child interactions and
modeling, the young child learns general behavior patterns,
attitudes and specific ways of relating to his environment.

5. The family is a system. As such, attitudes and
behaviors of one member of the system affect attitudes and
behaviors of other members. The family as a system is

more than the sum of its parts.

Hypotheses

 

H1 Developmental conceptions of childhood and parent-
hood predict the attitudes of mothers and fathers toward play.

H2 Knowledge about children's play predicts the atti-
tudes of mothers and fathers toward play.

H3 The number of home play materials predicts the atti-
tudes of mothers and fathers toward play.

H4 The categories of home play materials predict the
attitudes of mothers and fathers toward play.

H5 The following characteristics do not predict the
attitudes of mothers and fathers toward play: sex of children,
age of youngest child, age of oldest child, number of children,
years married, location of residence, money spent on toys,

and social position determined from the Hollingshead Two

11

Factor Index of Social Position (1957).

H6 Marital agreement on knowledge of play concepts
predicts marital agreement on attitudes toward play.

H7 Marital agreement on child's play activities
predicts marital agreement on attitudes toward play.

H8 Marital agreement on developmental/traditional
conceptions of parenthood and childhood predicts marital
agreement on attitudes toward play.

H9 The following characteristics do not predict marital
agreement on attitudes toward play: sex of children, age of
youngest child, age of oldest child, number of children, years
married, location of residence, money spent on toys, and social
position.

H10 The following combination of variables predicts
fathers' attitudes toward play: fathers' developmental con-
ceptions of parenthood, fathers' knowledge of play, mothers'
attitudes toward play, mothers' knowledge of play, and mothers'
developmental conceptions of parenthood.

H11 The following combination of variables predicts
mothers' attitudes toward play: fathers' knowledge of play,
fathers' conceptions of parenthood, fathers' attitudes toward
play, mothers' conceptions of parenthood, and mothers' know-
ledge of play.

H12 There is no significant difference between maternal

and paternal attitudes toward play.

12

Theoretical Definitions of Terms
Play Ellis (1973) defines play as "...that behavior that
is motivated by the need to elevate the level of arousal
towards the optimal” (p. 110). Since the assumption that
attitudes have a causal relationship with practiced behavior
underlies this study, Spitler's and Neumann's definitions of
play are also relevant. Spitler (1971) defines play as an
attitude that pervades all activities which are performed
as ends in themselves rather than for ulterior purposes.
According to Neumann (1971), any behavior which is intrin-
sically motivated and which is governed by internal locus
of control is play. Extrinsically motivated behaviors that

are governed by external constraints are not play.

Attitude Shaw and wright (1967) review various definitions
of the term "attitude", but conclude that all of the existing
definitions agree that attitudes are predispositions to respond
to social objects. In interaction with situational and other
dispositional variables, attitudes guide and direct the overt
behavior of the individual. Attitudes are construed as vary-
ing in quality and intensity on a continuum from positive

through neutral to negative.

Home Play Environment and Materials Bishop and Chace (1971)

 

define the home play environment as those conditions of play
provided by parents for children in their homes. Conditions
of play include all home play materials such as toys (store-

bought or home-made), books, records, equipment, and other

13

age-appropriate resources.

Developmental-Traditional Conceptions of Parenthood Hill
(1970) defines a developmental conception of parenthood as one
which places emphasis on the importance of growth, develop-
ment and interaction of all family members throughout the
life cycle. He defines the traditional conception as one
which:

...emphasize(s) the conception of the

child as obedient, respectful of adults,

honest, polite, respectful of property,

dependable - a "little adult"; the

conception of the mother is that of a

good housekeeper, cleanliness oriented

and focused on habit training; the father

is conceived as a breadwinner, discipli-

narian, rule enforcer and source of gifts,

whose job is ”to bring home the bacon"

and keep things peaceful(p. 46).
Marital Communication and Agreement Watzlawich (1967)
defines communication as an interaction process based on
information exchange. Harries (1972) states that communica-
tion consists of information exchange (matter-energy in a
patterned flow) and shared experience. A state of agreement

is reached when a couple holds the same or a similar atti-

tude or opinion about a subject area.

Family Within the framework of General Systems Theory,
family is defined as an ongoing interactional system, char-
acterized by the properties of general systems: time as a
variable, system/subsystem relations, wholeness, feedback

and equifinality. The family system is enclosed in a common

14

space and shares some resources.

Operational Definitions

 

Attitudes Toward Play The scores husband and wives achieve

 

separately on the Opinion Survey on Children's Play is the

 

measure of parental attitudes toward play. This instrument
was adapted from an attitude scale developed by Bishop and

Chace (1971).

Knowledge of Children's Play The scores husbands and wives

 

achieve separately on the Preschool Children's Play (Whiren,

 

1976) instrument operationally constitute their knowledge in
this area. On this instrument, parents indicate the age at
which they think children perform various tasks. They are
also asked to agree or disagree with statements about pre-

school children's play behaviors.

Home Play Materials The Toy and Equipment Inventory is an

 

 

adaptation of an inventory developed and used by Watts (1973)
in her Harvard Preschool Project research. This inventory,
completed by the mothers in this study, is a checklist of

toys, equipment and other materials used by preschool children.

Conceptions of Childhood and Parenthood The Beliefs About

 

 

Childhood and Parenthood scale was developed by Blood (1952)

 

from the results of research conducted by Duvall (1946). The
respondents are required to make a forced-choice selection
from a mixed list of developmental and traditional children's

roles, husband's roles and wive's roles. Scores husbands and

15

wives achieve separately on this instrument operationally
define their individual positions on a developmental]

traditional continuum.

Marital Agreement on Attitudes Toward Play The degree of
agreement between couples on their attitudes toward play was
ascertained by computing weighted scores of agreement of their

responses for each item on the attitude scale and summing them.

Marital Agreement on Knowledge of Preschool Children's Play,
Conceptions of Childhood and Parenthood, and the Child's

Play Activities Questionnaire Marital agreement on these
variables was ascertained by computing, for each husband-wife
pair, the number of agreeing responses for each item of the
instruments and summing them. This procedure yields a marital
agreement score for each couple which designates operationally

their agreement on these variables.

Socioeconomic Class Status Using Hollingshead's (1957)

 

social position index, the social position of each household
was determined by utilizing two factors: occupation and
education. Each of these two factors is scaled to a classifi-

cation system devised by Hollingshead.

Conceptual Orientation

 

General Systems Theory (von Bertalanffy, 1968; Buckley,
1968) is the theoretical basis underlying this research.

Within this orientation, development is a function of a

l6

child's interaction with his human and non-human (physical)
environment.

Systems theory emerged in response to the need to modify
the tendency of single disciplines to isolate themselves and
study narrowly defined phenomena. The systems viewpoint
requires phenomena to be examined in terms of their wholeness
and emphasizes the relationships between the parts that make
up the whole. It provides a basis for looking at interdi-
mensional phenomena; therefore, it follows that the multiple
dimensions of play behaviors suggest the systems approach as
a useful theory for investigating the complex area of play.
Reilly (1974) summarized:

...traditional theory...fails to look at
play in the ways play needs to be explored.
For whatever explanation that is selected
must, above all, grasp the nettle of
explaining complexity because the essen-
tial nature of play is that it processes
complexity. This aspect of this behavior
must be confronted and not explained away
by a process of simplification. Play,
historical evidence clearly shows, is a
phenomenon stretching across a knowledge
spectrum which includes biology, psychol-
ogy, sociology and anthropology. Because
it is multidimensional it requires inter-
disciplinary explanation. This critical
specification precludes a traditional
theory and welcomes a systems theory
approach as a form of explanation(p. 118).

Overview of the Study

 

In the following chapters, a detailed description
of the design and findings of this study is presented. In

Chapter II, an overview of the role of play in past theories

17

and current theory and research concerning play are reviewed.
Relevant research pertaining to preschool environment and
experiences, parental attitudes, play stages and child
development is also presented. In Chapter III, the research
design is described. Methods of sample selection, instru-
mentation, statistical techniques and data collection are
specified. An analysis of the data is presented in Chapter IV.
In Chapter V, conclusions are delineated, and the implications
of this research and recommendations for future research are

discussed.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

In this chapter, literature pertinent to past and
current play theories is reviewed. Studies concerned with
the effects of early family environment on child develop-
ment, the functions of play, play stages, and parental
attitudes and influences are considered separately. The
results of the studies reviewed are discussed in relation

to the purposes of this research.

Effects of Early Family Environment on Child Development

 

The physiological and psychological growth that takes
place in the preschool years is prodigious according to the
research literature. Gesell (1940) estimates that the trans-
formations occuring in the first five years of life surpass
those of any other five year span.

Evidence of the potency of the early environment in
shaping later cognitive, physical, social and emotional
abilities has come largely from studies in two areas:

(1) studies of the effects of environmental deprivation in
childhood, and (2) studies of the development of twins and

siblings separated in infancy from their parents and

18

19

subsequently reared apart (Newman, Freeman, & Holzinger,
1937; Freeberg & Payne, 1967). The assumption that cogni-
tive, physical and social skills are developmental in nature
and can be modified by environmental variations is validated
by the research of Sears, Maccoby & Levin (1957), Bloom
(1964), White, Kaban, Marmor, Shapiro (1972), and watts,
Barnett, & Halfar (1973).

Bloom (1964) re-examined the data of more than one thou-
sand longitudinal studies conducted over a forty year period
in his analysis of the stability and change in certain human
characteristics from infancy to maturity. His investigation
supported his hypothesis of differential growth rate for
human intellectual ability, and he estimated that by the age
of four years, half of a child's intelligence is developed.
Bloom concluded that any given characteristic has greatest
potential for qualitative and quantitative development dur-
ing its most rapid period of growth. Accordingly, the rapid
growth of selected characteristics in the preschool years in
interaction with the environmental conditions affects a
child's development.

Although Bloom's feeling that he had underestimated the
rapidity of the early development of certain characteristics
was subsequently verified by the work of Burton White (1972),
Bloom's focus on environmental influences placed new respon-

sibilities on the early home environment. An attempt was

20

made in the present research to investigate the question
raised by Bloom as to hgw children develop intellectual and
social competence by investigating underlying parental atti-
tudes toward the young child's play and parental knowledge
of how play contributes to a child's overall development.

Burton White (1972) directed an observational study
to research the experiences and environments of young chil-
dren during their formative years. The goal of his project
was to learn how to structure the experiences of the first
six years of life to maximize optimal development of human
competence (p. 7).

White and his Preschool Project staff systematically
investigated the influence of experiences and environments
on the development of competence in three to six year olds.
Fifty—one preschool children were selected from an original
sample of 400. Half of the sample group was judged to be
of high competence (the "A" group); half was judged to be
of low competence (the "C" group). From weekly observations
of these children in their homes, White's staff compiled a
list of distinguishing abilities which characterized com-
petent preschool children. Although little difference in
motor and sensory capacities was found between children of
high and low competence, there were large differences in
intellectual and social competence.

A major conclusion of White's work was that those

qualities that distinguish outstanding six year olds were

21

already existent at age three. The observation of measur-
able differences in intellectual and social competence as
early as the age of two and three lead White to conclude
that the focus of future study should be the experiences
and environments of one to three year olds.

White (1972) conducted a follow-up observational study
of thirty-four children, ages one to three years, whom the
staff predicted, on the basis of older siblings' histories,
would develop either as A's or C's. From weekly observations
of the children in their home environments, White concluded
that A children were more socially competent than C children
by twenty-four to twenty-seven months of age. Significant
differences across groups in the nonsocial abilities of
language and intelligence were evident at the early age of
fifteen months.

White concluded that the ten to eighteen months age
range was significant for the development of general compe-
tence because of three phenomena which emerge during this
period: locomobility, language development, and negativis-
tic behavior. The reaction of the primary caretaker, in
most cases the mother, to the needs, curiosities and demands
of the toddler appeared to be the critical factor that made
the difference between a child developing as an A or as a C.

The A mother is described by White as a person who gains
pleasure from interacting with her one to three year old, is

a good listener, is imaginative, is aware that an infant and

22

a meticulous house are incompatible, is willing to allow her
child to take risks, and provides many objects and diverse
situations for her child's investigation.

The A mothers' interactions with their preschool chil-
dren are based upon their values and attitudes. The need to
further investigate the influence of parental attitudes on
the play modes and play environments of children is confirmed
by White's research.

White acknowledged that neglect of the fathers' atti-
tudes and influences was a limitation of the study. Family
researchers must attend to this major area of neglect and
incorporate it into the initial research design and method-
ology as the present research attempts to do.

Watts (1973), a co-researcher on White's Preschool
Project, attended to the whole family system by observing
the effects on the child of all primary persons interacting
with the child. watts found that A children experienced sig-
nificantly more interaction with other people than C children
did. Another finding was that interactors with A children
spent more time actively participating in intellectually
valuable activities with them and spent more time overtly
encouraging intellectual pursuits than the interactors with
C children. In contrast, interactors with C children par-
ticipated in and encouraged social-physical activities such
as roughhousing and playfighting. Such findings further

validate the conclusion that children's experiences do not

23

just happen haphazardly but are influenced and affected by
human and physical surroundings.

Baumrind (1967) conducted a study with a sample of 32
children and their parents to discover if the child-rearing
practices of parents whose children were assertive, self-
reliant and self-controlled differed from the child-rearing
practices of two other groups of parents: (1) parents whose
children were withdrawn, discontented and distrustful, and
(2) parents whose children had little self-control, self-
reliance and who retreated from new experiences. Parental
attitudes and behaviors were determined from.home visits,
observations and interviews. Baumrind found parents of the
assertive, competent children to be communicative, loving,
controlling and demanding. .Parents of the unhappy group of
children tended to be detached and relatively controlling,
while parents of the least competent children were noncon-
trolling, nondemanding and relatively warm.

In a follow-up study of 103 children and their parents,
Baumrind and Black (1967) correlated parental behaviors
and attitudes with child behaviors. Their findings were
consistent with the earlier study - the parents of the highly
competent children were respectful of the child's indepen-
dence but were firm about maintaining their own positions
once they had been established.

A strong case has been made in the research literature

for the potency of the child's human and physical environment

24

during the first years of life. The present research
attempts to collect additional data on the attitudes and
behaviors of mothers and fathers during the preschool peri-
od. Before examining the functions of a child's play in
the early home setting, a broader base from which to view
the area can be gained from a review of the various play
theories. Many of the answers to the question "Why do
people play?" found in these play theories continue to

influence our present attitudes and behaviors toward play.

Theories Of Play

 

Because of the complexity and multi-dimensionality of
the phenomenon of play, many theories of play have been
postulated. Most of these theories have been advanced by
the single disciplines of evolution, anthropology, psychol-
ogy and sociology. Little integration of the various theories
has been attempted. According to Ellis (1973), some of the
theories define play in terms of its motive, some its con-
tent, while others define it in terms of its playfulness
(p. 22).

The Greeks used the word SCHOLE to describe their play
or leisure activities. Defined as "devoted to learning",
schole included games, music, mathematics and other cultural
activities of politics, debate, art, philosophy and athletic
contests. Among the free Greek man, there was no resistance
to leisure activities as there is in today's production-
oriented society because the free Greek was bred to leisure

in a society which rested on slave labor.

25

In the later Roman society, the word LICERE, meaning
"to be lawful" defined leisure activities in which children
and adults were permitted to engage. The view of play as
relaxation from work was not set forth until the Middle Ages.

The American industrial age was based on the labor of
the free man and thereby supported the separation of work
and leisure. Since play was viewed as a nonproductive func-
tion, children were encouraged to spend their time doing
chores or reading the Bible.

Our post-industrial society rests upon automation as
opposed to either free or slave labor, and presently the
age of the player seems to be the criterion which determines
what label to put on playful activities. As Reilly (1974)
observed, the word play is reserved for children; this shifts
to recreation for adults and leisure for retired adults.

The many theories advanced to explain the phenomenon
of play have been categorized differently by various theo-
rists. Lowenfeld (1967) defines six categories of play
theory: (1) play as bodily activity, (2) play as repetition
of experiences, (3) play as the demonstration of fantasy,
(4) play as realization of environment, (5) play as prepara-
tion for life, and (6) group games. Curry (1972) classifies
them as Pre-Twentieth Century theories and Twentieth Century
theories. Gilmore (1966) and Ellis (1973) categorize the

theories into (1) classical, (2) recent and (3) contemporary.

26

Although referred to as theories, Spitler (1971) notes
that many of the explanations focus on only one aspect of the
role of play in human development (p. 44). Using Kerlinger's
(1967) definition of a theory as a set of interrelated
constructs, definitions, and propositions that present a
systematic view of the phenomena by specifying relations
among variables with the purpose of explaining or predicting,
the existing theories can't be properly classified as such
since they are really only explanatory ideas that do not
fulfill the prerequisites of explaining and predicting
events (p. 11).

A review of the major explanations of play as classi-
fied by Ellis (1973) will be presented because they have
been accepted by people concerned with play and, therefore,
influence our present attitudes and behaviors concerning
play. Ellis delineates five classical theories, six recent

theories, and two modern theories of play.

Classical Theories Of Play

 

Ellis (1973) delineates five classical theories of play
which were advanced before the turn of the Century. Generally
these theories did not take into account individual differ-
ences, and they came about as spinoffs of attempts to explain
other aspects of behavior. The classical theories of play
are concerned with the purposes play serves, and, according

to Ellis, ”it was sufficient that the organism was behaving

27

but not working" (p. 24).

Surplus Energy Theory The surplus energy theory of play
is one of the oldest explanations of play activities. It was
originally presented in the early 1800's by Friedrick von
Schiller (1875), an 18th Century poet and philosopher, and
it was elaborated upon by English philosopher Herbert
Spencer (1855).

According to this theory, play is the result of the
existence of surplus energy. The motive for play is the
mandatory release of surplus energy which accumulates when
the organism does not have to expend it on the work of sur-
vival. This theory postulates that the organism generates
a finite level of energy that E§§.t° be expended. When
survival needs are met efficiently, the excess energy which
results leads to playful behaviors.

Another surplus energy view focuses on an organism's
heightened tendency to respond after a period of deprivation.
This theory holds that an organism will show an increased
tendency to react to whatever stimulus is available after
a period of quiescence.

This theory is not able to account for the fact that
children and animals contiunue to play when they are exhausted,
tired and sick. Another criticism of the surplus energy
theory is that the decision as to whether or not energy is
surplus depends upon the subjective interpretation of a

behavior as playful or serious.

28

Instinct Theory McDougall (1923) is a major advocate of

 

the theory that play is caused by an instinctive need to play.
He supported the existence of surplus energy:

surplus energy——-——> purposeless responses called
forth by instincts.

By definition, instincts are innate, pre-existent tend-
encies to emit certain behaviors. Instinct theory ignores
all potential environmental influences on behavior. Several
instinctive theories of play evolved and held major positions
in the early 1900's, but each was based upon a general cir-
cular reasoning pattern cited by Spitler (1971);

Question: Why do children play?

Answer: Because they have a play instinct.

Question: What is a play instinct?

Answer: It's the reason children play (p. 49).
Preparation Theory Karl Groos, a professor of philosophy

 

at Basel, expressed his theory that play is instinctive
behavior in which the organism engages as a means of preparing
for later life. Groos first advanced this preparation or

preexercise theory in The Play of Animals (1898) and The

 

Play of Man (1901). This view is based upon the need of the

 

young of a species to practice and perfect their instinctive
hereditary skills through play so that when these skills are
needed in adulthood, they will be deve10ped. In summarizing
his theory, Groos (1898) stated:

...in estimating the biological signifi-

cance of play at its true worth, the

thought was suggested that perhaps the

very existence of youth is largely for
the sake of play. Animals do not play

29

because they are young but they have
their youth because they must play

(p. 76).

This view that animals instinctively train themselves in
infancy for their adult roles can be refuted by the fact
that, in most cases, there is no pre-existing knowledge about
which responses will be needed in the future. Also the
facts that children play at being younger and that adults
play even when they are supposedly "prepared" tend to under-

mine this position.

Recapitulation Theory The theory that individual develop-

 

ment (ontogeny) repeats that of the race (phylogeny) was the
basis of G. Stanley Hall's (1916) recapitulation theory. An
American professor of psychology and pedagogy at Clark Uni-
versity, Hall advocated the theory that a child relives in
play the history of the race. Reflecting Darwin's conception
of evolution, this view assumes that the skills and experi-
ences of one generation can be inherited by the next genera-
tion.

According to Reilly (1974), recapitulation theory would
associate water play with ancestral joy of the sea, climbing
trees with the lives and activities of early monkeys, fish-
ing and hunting of preteenagers with the survival hunting of
early man (p. 63). The recapitulation theory was undermined
by increasing knowledge about the functions of genes, heredity

and experiences. Spitler (1971) refuted the recapitulation

30

theory:
. riding a bicycle, using a cash

register, or gyroscope, or playing astro-

naut as modern children do, do not seem

to fit the notion of a rehearsal of

ancient experience of the human race.

Rather, these play behaviors are related

to what the child has encountered

directly or vicariously in his environ-

ment and are dependent upon his level

of neuromuscular development (p. 53).
Relaxation Theory The surplus energy theories were
opposed by Moritz Lazarus' recreation theory in the late
1800's. It was based on the principle of restoration for
the mind and body of exhausted powers through play. Lazarus
held this View broadly and contended that any activity with
characteristics contracting to those of a person's work was
suitable for restoration.

Extending Lazarus' idea, G. T. W. Patrick (1916), a
University of Iowa professor of philosophy, argued that an
organism's need for relaxation leads to play. According to
Patrick's relaxation theory, the purpose of play is recupera-
tion from work. Play is defined by opposing it to work,
thereby making an artificial dichotomization in which it is
difficult to operate since some behaviors can be both work
and play. The relaxation-recreation theories neglect to
explain the enjoyment found in play that demands mental skill

and problem solving. Also the relaxation theories do not

account for children playing until they are exhausted.

31

The classical theories were deve10ped and advocated
during the era of the instinct. The emergence in the 1940's
of the psychological learning theories emphasizing the
psychology of need reduction led to the waning of the
instinctive, classical theories. In summarizing the con-
tributions of the classical theories as a whole, Ellis
(1973) comments:

To the extent that each theory either
explained puzzling aspects of behavior,
or removed any responsibility for think-
ing about or planning for play behavior,
thereby rendering the holder of the
theory conceptually more comfortable,

so they have survived. To the extent
the various play theories explain the
enigma of play, and prove useful in
letting those whose interest lie in
planning for play to make better pre-
dictions, they can compete actively,

and eventually supplant the less useful
theories of play. However, this process
can only take place if those basing
their work on the tenants of a par-
ticular theory are critical of its
assumptions on the one hand and its
capacity to predict events in the real
world on the other. The classical
theories are not a very promising group
of theories (p. 48).

Recent Theories Of Play

Ellis (1973) classified the following six recent
theories of play: generalization, compensation, catharsis,
psychoanalytic, developmental and learning theories. Con-
cerned with the actual forms of play behavior, these theories

were all developed after the turn of the 20th Century. Unlike

the classical theories, the recent theories are concerned

32

with an individual's experiences rather than his inheritance.
These six theories attempt to link antecedent events and sub-

sequent behaviors.

Generalization Theory Task generalization theory suggests
that the nature of a person's work is the determinant of his
play activities. In other words, a person will select play
activities that have characteristics similar to the satisfy-
ing activities found in their work. It rests on the assump-
tion that individuals will choose work and play activities
that satisfy their needs. According to Ellis (1973), an
ignored alternative to this view would be that an individual
selects a work environment that has characteristics similar
to enjoyable leisure activities (p. 50).

The fact that many people find work experiences to be
only mildly rewarding weakens this position. The fact that
preschool children have no work per say and yet spend a great
deal of time playing also undermines the generalization

theory.

Compensation Theory Compatible with generalization theory

 

is task compensation theory which holds the same view that
the nature of a person's work determines his play activities.
Compensation theory suggests that if a person's needs are
not met by work experiences, leisure activities will be
chosen to fulfill these unmet needs. For example, a worker

constantly surrounded by other people may choose solitary

33

leisure activities. The assumption that an individual's
needs can be defined and identified underlies the generaliza-
tion and compensation theories. To be applicable, an
individual's specific work and leisure activities would have
to be analyzed in terms of his needs. As with the generaliza—
tion theory, compensation theory does not account for the
play of small children.

A ten month study by Hagedorn and Labowitz (1968)
tested both a generalization and compensation hypothesis
predicting workers' leisure-time participation in community
groups. Predicting that different kinds of workers would
participate in community groups in different capacities, the
researchers found that the highest predictors of community
participation were occupational leadership role and education.
In testing the compensation hypothesis that those working in
isolation would join and participate in more community groups,
the researchers found this hypothesis was supported.

Another study undertaken by Witt and Bishop (1970)
looked at the effects of immediate antecedent experiences on
leisure activity choices. Junior college students were asked
to describe what type of leisure activity they would want to
engage in if they had certain experiences. The different
experiences were based on the need for relaxation, catharsis,
compensation, generalization and expenditure of surplus
energy. Neither the concepts of compensation or task general-

ization were supported. Leisure activity choices chosen

34

after antecedent experiences suggesting catharsis, expendi-
ture of surplus energy and the need for relaxation were
supported.

The inconsistent findings of these two studies may be
accounted for in the possible explanation that acute needs
are not resolved by generalization and compensation while

chronic needs that build over time are.

Cathartic Theories The cathartic theories of play are

 

based on the principle that the release of built-up emotions
'will avoid certain dangers which might have resulted if the
emotions further accumulated. During the time of Aristotle,
the ancient tragedies served a cathartic function as it was
believed that they purged the emotions of the audience. At
that time, catharsis was a general term referring to all
feelings and emotions, but it has since been used to refer to
aggressive behavior.

The theorists who view play as cathartic behavior see
play as an attempt to master frightening, overwhelming, or
difficult to handle situations. Ellis (1973) identified a
‘major weakness of this position to be the unjustified assump-
tion that socially acceptable behavior can be substituted
for an original socially unacceptable intention (p. 55).

Several studies testing the hypothesis that the expres-
sion of sanctioned aggression in a play situation would

reduce the aggression in young children have concluded that

35

the cathartic theory was not valid. Kenny (1953) divided
children into two groups based upon their aggressive responses
to a story completion task. The children then played either
in a setting with neutral toys or in a setting with toys
designed to release aggression, i.e., guns, swords. A story
completion posttest was administered to determine residual
levels of aggression with the results being the opposite of
what was predicted. The control group with the neutral toys
showed diminished aggressiveness while the group with aggres-
sion-releasing toys ramainded unchanged.

Another study conducted by Feshbach (1954) found that
some boys who were not aggressive before play with aggression-
releasing toys showed increased aggression in the classroom
after the play. Both of these studies question the view that
if aggression is expressed in socially approved ways the
result will be a reduction in the amount of socially disap-
proved aggressive behavior. Ellis (1973) summarized the
results of aggression research:

The aggression research clearly questions
whether substitute acts do reduce tension.
It shows that anger must be present if
the aggression is to reduce emotional

and physiological tension. Further, the
sanctioning of aggressive acts, be they
verbal or a substitute, is likely to
increase the level of aggression in
children....Catharsis as a process has
probably always been a speculative
notion growing from the need to control
violent and disorganizing emotions. It
has been convenient to assume that a

hydraulic model can be extended to pro-
vide a safety valve of substitute action

(p. 57).

36

Psychoanalytic Theory The psychoanalytic theory was

 

first introduced by Freud. Using data of clinically abnor-
mal behavior and unpleasant experiences, Freud built a con-
ceptualization about the unconscious sphere of behavior in
normal development. His conceptual system was based on ten-
sion reduction and the pleasure principle. Freud's psycho-
analytic theory was concerned with unpleasant experiences

and how one comes to terms with or assimilates the unpleasant-
ness of the residual negative effect. According to psycho-
analytic theory, a child assimilates unpleasant emotions by
repeating them in non-serious settings.

In Freudian theory, the ego balances the extreme demands
of the id (the process which represents all primitive pres-
sures of our inheritance upon our behavior) and the superego
(the process which represents our conscience). During the
process of ego development, mechanisms for balancing the id
and superego are acquired partially during play. Freud
viewed the majority of children's play behaviors as attempts
to satisfy drives or resolve conflicts in the absence of a
realistic opportunity to do so. Children frequently encounter
unpleasant experiences that they cannot control. Consequently,
Freud (1955) saw play as having an autotherapeutic effect:

It is clear that in their play children
repeat everything that has made a great
impression on them in real life, and that
in doing so they abreact the strength of
the impression and...make themselves mas-
ter of the situation. But on the other

hand it is obvious that all their play
is influenced by a wish that dominates

37

them the whole time - the wish to be
grown up and do what grown up people

do. It also can be observed that the
unpleasurable nature of an experience
does not always unsuit it for play.

If the doctor looks down a child's
throat or carries out some small opera—
tion on him, we may be quite sure that
these frightening experiences will be
the subject of the next game; but we
must not in that connection overlook

the fact that there is a yield of pleas-
ure from another source. As the child
passes over from the passivity of the
experience to the activity of the game,
he hands on the disagreeable experience
to one of his playmates and in this way
revenges himself on a substitute (p. 16).

Erikson's (1963) work supported and contributed to
Freud's psychoanalytic theory of play. Erikson saw child's
play as the analogue of adult learning. According to Erik-
son, playfulness continues into adult life in the form of
games and hobbies, and the dramatic play of childhood takes
the form of adult day dreams. Erikson was instrumen-
tal in advancing the position that resolution of developmental
conflicts at one stage influences the resolution of subsequent
developmental conflicts.

There have been few attempts to test empirically the
postulates of psychoanalytic theory, but its influences on

attitudes and behaviors continue to be strong.

Developmental Theory The developmental theory of play,

 

advanced by Jean Piaget (1962), views play as the inevitable
result of a child's cognitive structure. Within this frame-

work, all behavior, including play, depends on one's cognitive

38
structure. Children develop and move through identifiable,
predictable stages of thinking, and their play is seen as
a product of this cognitive process in which a child develops
from an egocentric, phenomenalistic stage to the objective,
rational phase of adulthood. Advancement from one stage
to the next is the result of successfully experiencing
the content of the preceding one.

According to Piaget, cognitive development is a form
of adaptation which involves two processes: assimilation
and accommodation. Assimilation involves a person abstract-
ing and categorizing information from the outside world and
fitting or bending that information into the existing schemata
representing what the person already knows. In the process
of accommodation, according to Spodek (1974), an individual
changes or modifies existing schemata when they are not con-
sistent with developing knowledge (p. 18). These two proc-
esses take place continually although at any one point in
time, one process can predominate over the other. A child's
cognitive structure increases in complexity through the inter-
action of these two processes.

According to developmental theory, play occurs when the
process of assimilation, of bending reality to fit what one
knows, predominates over accommodation. Since assimilation
is an aspect of all behavior, every behavior has at least

some play-like characteristics according to Herron and

39

Sutton—Smith (1971):
One can't speak of play versus non-play
in the Piagetian schema of things;
behaviors are only less or more playful
insofar as they do or do not make same
attempt to cope with reality (p. 317).

Piaget classifies play activities into three broad
groups to match them to developmental levels. The first
category of practice or functional play, from birth to eight-
een months, includes the young child's sensory-motor explora-
tions in which any mastered abilities are performed over and
over again. Symbolic play occurs when a child substitutes a
symbolic object for the real thing. Symbolic play first
appears around eighteen to twenty-four months and continues
until seven or eight years of age. Games-with-rules comprise
the third category of play and occur around eight years of
age. Based on reality rather than fantasy, games-with-rules
develop when the child develops a more objective, rational
outlook of adulthood.

Accordingly, play increases in complexity as the result
of the child's increased cognitive complexity. The underlying
assumption is that play activities will remain stimulating
only if the play is made complex by rules and competition.
Eifermann (1971) conducted a large observational study on
play with a sample of Israeli school children, and his
results did not support the assumption. In observing the

games and play patterns of small groups of children, Eifer-

mann found that rule-governed competitive games increased in

4O
popularity to a peak point at 4th grade. After that point,
participation in these games dropped and participation in
non-rule oriented activities increased.

A major limitation of Piaget's theory is the claim that
an instinct produces the interaction of assimilation and
accommodation. This claim of an instinctive mechanism is
open to the criticisms and limitations of the early instinct
theories. Sutton-Smith raised objections to Piaget's theory
on the grounds that play remains important, playful and
symbolic in adulthood and does not become more realistic as
intelligence develops. Sutton-Smith's position is elaborated

in the next section.

Learning Theory Play as learned behavior is based on the
assumption that play can be explained in terms of stimulus-
response sequences. Within this theory, all behaviors are
motivated. Play behaviors are motivated by stimuli that call
forth responses that are not critical for survival. Posi-
tive reinforcers increase the probability that a specific
response will reoccur, while negative reinforcers decrease
the likelihood of a response reoccuring. Individual differ-
ences and experiences are thereby taken into account.
According to learning theory, children are surrounded
by a complex group of secondary reinforcers (parents, other
adults, peers), who influence their behaviors. By a smile

or threat, parents selectively reinforce certain of their

41

children's behaviors thus having extensive influence upon
the children's day to day activities. Children will behave
in ways that will maximize the probability of positive
rewards and minimize the probability of punishment.

A limitation of this view is its inability to explain
behaviors that do not seem to have payoffs. Stimulus-
response theory says all behaviors are motivated, and this
view can be upheld as long as a primary or secondary rein-
forcer can be identified. A problem arises in defining play
as learned behavior because many playful acts appear to be
unmotivated. Stimulus-response theory holds that playful
behaviors which seem unmotivated are motivated, but the
motive is hidden.

Brian Sutton-Smith (1974) elaborated the concept of play
as learned behavior to take into account processes of
response generalization, compensation, and catharsis. Sutton-
Smith advanced his conflict-enculturation hypothesis in which
the motive for playing games is the interaction between an
individual and the culture's child rearing practices. He
hypothesized that cultural differences would result in dif-
ferent game preferences. Compensating for stresses created
by cultural child rearing practices, children would play
games which would not only relieve the stress but also aid
the society's goal of enculturating the children.

Testing this conflict-enculturation hypothesis, Roberts

and Sutton-Smith (1963) studied the differences in child

42

rearing practices and children's games in three societies.
They found an association between a predominance of one type
of game and a particular emphasis in child rearing. Child
rearing patterns emphasizing responsibility had a predomi-
nance of games of luck. There was little room for individu-
ality in the atmosphere of fatalism. Children did as they
were told, and there was no feeling of control over one's
life. Child rearing practices stressing achievement had an
abundance of games of skill emphasizing performance. The
child rearing patterns stressing obedience resulted in a
predomination of games of strategy. In games of strategy,
children force obedience on others, thereby reducing the
aggressive feelings resulting from the child rearing atti-
tudes which call for negative consequences if the child does
not obey his parents.

Eifermann (1971) further tested the conflict-
enculturation hypothesis in a comparison of urban and rural
play activities in Arab and Israeli settings. She found
competitiveness and emphasis on success to be predominant
in urban settings. Socialization for adulthood in these set-
tings, therefore, required situations where acculturation to
competition could take place. In play activities with peers,
children have the best chance of achieving success thereby
giving support to her finding that urban children played in
homogeneous age groups significantly more than rural children.

In rural settings homogeneity of age play groups decreased by

43

the seventh grade perhaps because there is a smoother tran-
sition into adulthood in rural societies (p. 295).

Sutton-Smith defined four basic modes of knowing in
which specific kinds of play emerge. Mode 1 involves explor—
ation, analysis and examination of the environment. Testing,
"1 can do it" play, results in the ability to predict and
learn from consequences and is the basis of mode 2 play.

Mode 3 is "copying the world", imitative play. Mbde 4
includes model construction in which the child synthesizes
the various elements of his world. Neumann (1971) elaborates
on the basic modes by noting that:

Each (mode) represents a specific means

of understanding the self and the environ-

ment, namely causal-analytic, prediction,

correspondence, and coherence, respec-

tively. These modes of knowing are

established through play in early child-

hood and are developed throughout future

years: they are a foundation for the

understanding of experiences at more

complex levels of development (p. 75).

Sutton-Smith defines play as playfulness. He views play
as a behavior that continues throughout adulthood in contrast
to those who believe it is only a childhood characteristic.
Within this framework the emphasis of playful behavior is on
novelty of response and approach.

As a category, the recent theories focused on the individ-
ual and his behavior in an attempt to explain why certain

playful responses were emitted. The recent theories were

concerned with individual play differences. The experiences

44

an individual had were seen as antecedent events affecting

the emitted play behaviors.

Mbdern Theories

 

Within the last ten to fifteen years there has been a
renewed interest in the scientific investigation of chil-
dren's play. Arnaud (1974) identified four independent trends
which stimulated the interest. The first influence is the
work of ethologists which showed that the more complex a
species' nervous system, the more playful are their young.

A second factor is the disenchantment among educators with

the cognitive curriculum designed to produce reading and
number mastery in three and four year olds. Arnaud credits
Piaget with indirectly influencing the renewed interest.

From his work, Piaget found that children learn through inter-
actions with their own environments, and that they interact
with the environment differently at different ages. He con-
cluded that these stages can be enriched but not forced or
accelerated. Finally Arnaud attributed the waning of the
puritan work ethic that frowns on playful activities as influ-
encing new research on play.

In the early 1970's the Arsenal Family and Children's
Center at the University of Pittsburgh responded to this
growing awareness of the importance of play in human develop-
ment by holding a conference on play. The issues and implica-

tions of this conference are discussed in full by Curry (1972).

45

The two modern theories of play presented explain play
behaviors in terms of a drive to maintain optimal arousal.

This drive leads to stimulus-seeking behaviors.

Arousal-Seekinngheory The arousal-seeking or stimulus-
seeking theory (Ellis, 1973) explains that play is seen as
motivated by the need for stimulation:

The organism has a need for stimulus-

seeking behavior that is only interrupted

by the need to eliminate fatigue by sleep

and to satisfy prepotent primary drives.

The normal state of the organism reflects

the state of its nervous system which is

in a state of constant activity. The

normal organism needs to be in constant

receipt of the sensory input from the

environment that satisfies its need for

stimulation (p. 81).
The arousal-seeking theory was advanced by the results of
research concerned with (l) vigilance of human operators,
(2) manipulatory, exploratory behavior in animals and
(3) effects of sensory and perceptual deprivation on man and
animals (p. 85).

The focus of vigilence research is the attentiveness of
the subject and his capacity for detecting changes in stimu-
lus events over relatively long periods. Vigilance research
was first conducted for the pragmatic reason of attempting
to maintain the performance of human operators during sus-
tained, boring vigils.

Frankman and Adams (1962) conducted a study on the vigi-

lance of human operators. They instructed their subjects to

46

detect minute changes in radar and sonar signals during
their regular jobs. They found a decrease in the operator's
detection rates over a watch of several hours as the oper-
ators became progressively less alert. The operators'
performance could be restored by a simple telephone call to
ask if everything was all right. They did not find detec-
tion rates to diminish in highly complex settings as they
did in the simple ones. They concluded that arousal is main-
tained by the introduction of novel, surprising or complex
stimuli or some form of self-stimulation such as day-dreaming.

Another area of research providing insights into
behaviors which do not seem to fit into the need-reduction
motivation theories is that investigating manipulative and
exploratory behaviors of primates. Harlow et a1. (1950)
noted that monkeys and rats behaved in ways which were not
associated with extrinsic rewards. Monkeys spent consider-
able time manipulating toy-like gadgets which brought no
rewards. Rats explored novel settings which were also inde-
pendent of extrinsic rewards. Harlow postulated that some
intrinsic reward must be involved in manipulative and
exploratory behaviors. He concluded that these behaviors
were motivated by a new drive - a drive for manipulation
and exploration.

The third area of research lending support to arousal-
seeking theory was concerned with the effects of sensory

and perceptual deprivation on man and animals. In testing

47

the hypothesis that the natural state of the nervous system
is one of constant activity, Hebb (1966) deprived his sub-
jects of sensory input and observed the subsequent effects
on physiological functioning, performance, attitude and
behavior changes, and self-reports. Hebb concluded that the
elimination of patterns in the stimuli lead to perceptual
deprivation, and that the existence of stimuli themselves
was not enough to reduce the deprivation effects.

Ellis (1973) is the major advocate of the arousal-
seeking theory, and within this framework he defines play
as "...that behavior that is motivated by the need to ele-
vate the level of arousal towards the optimal” (p. 110).
In other words, children play for the stimulation they
receive. Behaviors which reduce the level of stimulation
would be categorized as work although both types of activ-
ities are fundamental and necessary to the development of
the organism and therefore should be included in the same
category:

Since both activities are necessary to
the health of the organism, both could
be considered work....When playful
behaviors are accorded the status of
necessary activities, then play becomes
work and the meaning in this play/work
dichotomy drops out.

If play is stimulus-seeking behavior
and if work is life-supporting behavior,
many, many activities are both at the
same time. Frequently, the life-
supporting activities are sufficiently
interesting to allow the worker to main-

tain his arousal level while earning
the monetary rewards necessary for

48

existence....We can insist on forcing
(play) to become a conceptual opposite
of work, or we can face the complexity
of the problem. A behavior may have
many motives that are not mutually
exclusive and an adequate explanation
must recognize this....P1ay and work
lie on a continuum (p. 110).

Ellis was not the first to introduce the idea of play
as stimulus-seeking. After observing mammals in exploratory
activities, McDougall (1923) advanced the position that there
was an instinct of curiosity, and that an organism's attend-
ing to an activity or object was based upon selective atten-
tion. Berlyne (1960) identified the same need for complex
organisms to maintain optimal arousal by attending to novel
or uncertain events, but he discovered an uncertainty in
predicting the outcome to selective attention. He found
that an increase in performance resulted from general arousal
of an animal up to an optimal point. Further arousal
reduced the animal's performance, led to disorganization,
and caused him to behave in ways which reflected his efforts
to diminish the arousal level.

Arousal-seeking theory holds that playful or nonutili-
tarian activities are maintained by the drive for novel
stimuli, but another point of view, the competence/effectance
theory, contends that these behaviors are maintained by the

need to produce effects on the environment to demonstrate

competence.

49

Competence/Effectance Theory White's (1959) theory of
competence motivation was advanced to explain repetitious
behaviors which continue after the novelty has long worn off.
He says that repetitive, manipulative behaviors with objects
that are not novel is an attempt to produce effects on the
environment. According to White, these behaviors result from
a competence/effectance motivation which has as its goal con-
trol or mastery of the environment.

Because of its complexity, play has yet to be opera-
tionalized in a way that satisfies all the disciplines
concerned with the phenomenon; although an integration of
the theories of arousal-seeking, learning and developmental
offers potential:

This integration uses interrelationships
between the motive for play, the con-
straints placed on expression of playful
responses by the environment, and the
effects they work on the complexity of
children to explain play behavior....
The arousal-seeking model explains the
mechanism driving the individual into
engagement with the environment in ways
surplus to the need of immediate survi-
val. The consequences of such behavior
comes, via learning, to condition the
content of the behavior so motivated.
The accumulative effect of such learning
interacts with the arousal-seeking motive
to produce an upward spiral in the com-
plexity of the interactions. Similari-
ties in that developmental path have led
to the separation of the continuous
process of growth into developmental
stages where growing individuals are
seen to move through similar phases at
approximately the same time (pp. 118-
119).

50

The Functions Of Play

In the overall development of children, play serves
multiple functions, and one playful activity may serve
several functions simultaneously. In play children test
ideas, abstract information and operate on this information
in some way. At this point, agreement among researchers
concerned with the functional significance of play ends.

According to Neumann (1971), the functions of play
can generally be classified as emotional-social, cognitive
or creative (p. 80). The psychoanalytic theorists saw the
function of play as mastery in emotional-social development.
According to Freud, play's function was the resolution of
conflicts between the id and the superego resulting in a
strong ego. Erikson broadened this by contending that social
mastery was a function of play as well as emotional mastery.

Play as a cognitive function has been advanced by Piaget
(1952) and Ellis (1973). According to this point of view,
there is a specific relationship between play and cognitive
development. Sutton-Smith (1970) and Almy (1967) are
examples of those who advocate the position of play as a
creative function which results in novel events and ideas.
Several researchers have taken from, combined, and elaborated
upon these one-channel views to develop their own list of
play functions.

Sponseller (1974) identified three functions of play:

skills-enchantment, problem-solving, and development of

51

self-concept. Sponseller elaborated upon the play/work con-
tinuum which formed the basis of Ellis' theoretical framework.
The type of play engaged in determined the type of learning
most likely to result. For example, free play which is
characterized by little adult intervention and unstated goals
results in discovery learning; while work disguised as play
results in rote learning.
Sponseller's attention to the potentialities of spon-

taneous play is indicative of a revival of the recognition
of the benefits of self-directed play. Almy (1967), Murphy
(1972), Arnaud (1974), and Anker (1974) are among those that
advocate spontaneous, meaningful interactions between chil-
dren and their environment as a means of fostering autonomy,
exploration, experimentation and social interactions. Anker
(1974) notes:

Children who are permitted to engage in

activities of their own choice gain a

sense of autonomy and effectiveness;

become motivated to mastery; develop

such attributes as self-direction, trust

in themselves, self assurance, and a

feeling of self worth. When a child

sets himself a task it is, by and large,

developmentally appropriate. As opposed

to this, programmed curriculum super-

imposes a learning event without regard

for the great variation in individual

interest or readiness (pp. 203-204).

Lowenfeld (1967) saw play as an essential function of

the passage from emotional immaturity to maturity. Primarily

she saw play as an adaptive process in which the child con—

tinually strives to adapt to changing internal and external

52

environments. According to Lowenfeld, play serves four
functions: (1) it is the means through which a child makes
contact with his environment; (2) it is the bridge between
the child's consciousness and his emotional experiences
thereby fulfilling the needs that conversation, introspection
and religion do for the adult; (3) it represents to the

child the externalized expression of his emotions; and

(4) it serves as relaxation, amusement and fun (p. 7).

Arnaud (1974) took an even broader view in her answer
to the question "What functions does play serve?" She con-
cluded that there are nine functions of play: play is an
energizer of cognitive learning, helps children master
anxiety, lessens egocentrism, leads to abstract symbolism,
develops coordination skills, and encourages innovation,
problem-solving, individuality and integration of experiences.

Sutton-Smith is another theorist who combines the cog-
nitive and creative functions of play and broadly sees
playfulness as serving to develop information and skills
which form the basis of the development of greater adapta-
bility.

Parental involvement in a child's play can facilitate
and enrich the development of these functions. The impor-
tance of adult intervention is recognized by the work of
Smilansky (1968), Arnold (1968), Ellis (1973), Caplan and
Caplan (1974). In response to this recognition of the impor-

tance of parent-child playful interactions, numerous books

53

offering curriculum of playful behaviors have appeared on
the market (Gordon, 1970; Painter, 1971; Aston, 1971).

The various functions of play which can be actively
encouraged by parental involvement in the play process are

well summarized by Frank and Theresa Caplan in The Power

 

Of Play (1974):

Play is a voluntary activity which permits
freedom of action, diversion from routines,
and an imaginary world to master.

Play has unique power for building body
control and interpersonal relations.

Play provides a base for language learning
and investigation.

Play is the most dynamic childhood learn-
ing method (p. ix).

Play Stages And Child Development

The growth of modern cities, the develop-
ment of motor traffic with its speed and
danger...have taken from childhood its
birthright of space, safety and freedom
of mind and body to explore and enjoy,
within and without doors the ever new
excitement of "finding out" and playing
with what they find.

With relics of bombed and devastated
cities, homeless families and massed
children housed in slum buildings, the
opportunity for spontaneous play, with
other children or alone, becomes more

and more difficult to achieve. As this
opportunity diminishes or even disappears
the need that we should understand what
play is and why it is vital to our chil-
dren's lives becomes more and more urgent.

At a time when every child had room to
play, when toys were simple, and simply
beloved; when there were trees to climb
and seeds and plants and small living
creatures to tend and love and watch as

54
they grew, adults took little notice of
children as children or of what they did
and said. Apart from that of great and
original minds, interest in play is
relatively new. Realization of its cen-
tral importance, both to child and adults,
gathers only slowly as civilization
becomes more and more standardized and
opportunities for experiment and the
experience of spontaneous play decrease
(Lowenfeld, p. 3).

Since play is the primary activity of childhood, atten-
tion must be paid to the characteristics of the various ages
of the preschool child and the effects these characteristics
have on the type of play in which the child engages. Although
the assumption that play stages are universal is widely held
by many theorists including Piaget, Smilansky's (1968) cross-
cultural work invalidated this assumption by discovering the
variance in play sequences. When the stages and characteris-
tics of preschool development are outlined, they must, there-
fore, be regarded within an unrigid structure.

Smilansky observed the child rearing practices of fami—
lies from Middle Eastern, North African and European
countries. Observing children from different socioeconomic
backgrounds, she found measurable differences in their play
behaviors. She found children of low socioeconomic status
played little and did not participate in sociodramatic play.
Little sequence in activities was observed with the low socio-
economic group - the consequence being that they continually

engaged in the same repetitious activity or they jumped from

one activity to another. In studying the ways the different

55

groups of children used toys in their play activities,
Smilansky found that the higher socioeconomic child preferred
the nonstructured toy to the structured one. On the other
hand, the disadvantaged child seemed to need a structured

toy before he could take on a role.

Although Smilansky was able to delineate four general
stages of play development, she firmly concluded that some
of these stages overlay while others continue into adulthood.
The four stages were functional play, constructive play,
dramatic or symbolic play, and games with rules.

From her observations of these play stages, Smilansky
concluded, according to Curry and Arnaud (1971), that:

There are developmental sequences of play
which are probably biologically determined
but which must be nurtured, patterned and
elicited by the child's family and cul-
tural milieu in order to function. This
cultural patterning or modeling would

account for the presence or absence of
a certain developmental sequence of

play (p. 53).

Several theorists have attempted to outline the
developmental sequences of play through the early years
(Gesell, 1940; Caldwell and Drachman, 1964; Aston, 1971;
Zimmerman and Calovini, 1971; Knox, 1974; and Takata, 1974).
A child development profile was compiled using all of the
above authors with special emphasis on the profiles of
Zimmerman and Calovini (pp. 646-653). A copy of the pro—
file is included in Appendix J.

56

Parental Attitudes And Influences

The importance of parental involvement in a child's
learning process has been widely emphasized by preschool
educators who advance structured intervention programs
during the preschool years. Unfortunately the message
parents often receive is that their job is not to play with
their child, but to teach him. They hear that unstructured,
spontaneous play should be replaced with conscious efforts
to teach their preschooler educational concepts in a more
structured form. The emphasis on early academic objectives
in preschool programs is not responsive to the needs and
developmental level of the preschooler but rather to those
of the adult. If emphasis were removed from the structured
curriculum and placed on the parent-child interaction proc-
ess, a healthier perspective would be achieved. This
impact of parental attitudes and parental intervention in
child's play has been documented in the last decade by
several well designed research studies.

Smilansky (1968) stressed the role parents play in
their child's development of sociodramatic play skills. In
comparing the child-rearing practices and attitudes of one
hundred twenty families of low, middle and high socioeconomic
levels, she found variances in the parental role to influ-
ence and determine differences in the children's play
behaviors. Certain parental influences, such as the general

home atmosphere, affect play activities indirectly by

57

relating to the child's general emotional, social and
intellectual development. Other areas of parental influence,
such as the provision of home play materials and parental
participation in play activities, were identitied as having
direct influence on a child's developing sociodramatic
skills.

Smilansky divided her sample of children into two
groups: (1) the A's, children who demonstrated variety,
complexity, symbolic use of objects and verbalization in
their sociodramatic play, and (2) the D's, children who
did not demonstrate these skills and whose play was charac-
terized by repetitiveness and few sociodramatic skills.
Smilansky compared the child-rearing attitudes and prac-
tices of the parents of the A and D children and found
the A parents to be significantly different from the D
parents in many areas. The A parents enjoy interacting
and playing with their children, explain the reasons behind
behaviors, break complex tasks down into more simple ones,
have numerous toys, games and books in the home, and encour-
age their children's social relationships. D parents were
more concerned with having a neat home and keeping the
children quiet and clean. Force and withdrawal of love were
often used by D parents as disciplinary methods.

Smilansky's research is indicative of an increasing

body of literature dealing with the assessment of parental

58

attitudes and the relationship of these attitudes to child
behaviors and development. Several other studies which pro-
vide a basis for future research in the areas of parent-
child relationships, parental attitudes and child-rearing
expectations have been reported.

Sears, Maccoby and Levin (1957) conducted one of the
earliest investigations into maternal child-rearing patterns.
The resultant maternal characteristic having greatest impact
on a child's development was wanmth. Discipline in the form
of physical punishment was a socializing technique used often
by lower socioeconomic mothers but rarely used by middle
class ones. The idea that children develop more fully in
an environment of warmth and democracy was further supported
by the subsequent research of walters and Stinnett (1971),
Neumann (1971), and Baumrind (1966; 1967).

Credibility to the conclusion that lower socioeconomic
level parents use more physical punishment and little reason-
ing was added by Rosen's (1964) research. The accumulation
of data stressing the need for early cognitive intervention
in poverty areas and the importance of parent-child inter-
actions led Phyllis Levenstein (1970; 1971) to begin the
Mother-Child Home Program in 1965. The goal of Levenstein's
Program was to provide models of verbal interaction tech-
niques for low-income mothers so they could themselves become

agents of their two-year-olds intellectual development.

59

Trained women from both low and middle income levels acted
as "toy demonstrators" whose purpose it was to visit the
mother and two-year-old together in their home and show the
mother, through play with the child, how the mother could
increase interaction with her child. This was a demonstra-
tion rather than a didactic method and had the positive
aspect of drawing the mothers into the play sessions. The
toy demonstrator visited the home twice a week for 23 weeks
for two school year terms. Play sessions were developed
around toys and books brought by the demonstrator and left
in the home as gifts for the child. Since 1965, the chil-
dren enrolled in the Program have been tested in follow-up
studies. In the posttest situations, the experimental group
has made significantly higher cognitive gains than the control
group.

The physical punishment and authoritarianism character-
istic of the low socioeconomic level urban parents was found
to also be characteristic of young rural parents lacking
adequate income. DeLissovoy (1973) studied the expectations
and child-rearing attitudes of forty-eight married high
school couples over a three year period. From rural areas
in central Pennsylvania, these couples ranged in age from
fourteen to nineteen. Forty-six were pregnant at the time
of the marriage. Forty-one wives and thirty-five husbands

dropped out of school before graduation.

60

From his data, DeLissovoy found these young parents
to be:

...an intolerant group - impatient,
insensitive, irritable and prone to use
physical punishment with their children.
Only five mothers, for example, .
spontaneously cuddled or played with
them for the sheer joy of it....There
is little question that these young
parents were undergoing severe frus-
trations. Their lack of knowledge

and experience, their unrealistic
expectations of child development,
their general disappointment in their
lives and their lack of economic
resources served to raise their
irritability and lower their thresh-
old of tolerance (pp. 22-23).

In a test of knowledge of developmental norms, the
mothers as a group estimated babies should sit alone without
support at three months while fathers said babies should sit
alone at one and one-half months. The norm in months for
this area of development is seven months. Mothers esti-
mated children should be toilet trained (both bladder and
bowel) by six months; father estimated five and one-half
months! The expectations these parents held for their
children were so grossly inappropriate that frustration and
its result - abuse, were inevitable.

DeLissovoy's research consistently supports the impor-
tance of parental attitudes in determining the experiences
of the child in his day to day living and his development in
general. Unfortunately the majority of research in the area

of parental attitudes and parent—child relationships has only

61

reflected the mothers' points of view. An adequate research
design for the investigation of the relationship between
parental attitudes and behaviors and child behavior must
reflect both maternal and paternal positions (Schaefer,
1961). The present research has responded to the omission

by including fathers in the sample.

Mothers' And Fathers' Attitudes Despite the obvious
neglect of fathers by behavioral scientists, the trend con-
tinues. LeMasters (1974) documented this glaring omission:

Sears...in interviewing 379 "parents" did
not find it necessary to include one father.
Miller and Swanson had 582 mothers in
their sample but no fathers. Blood and
wolfe talked with 909 mothers but excluded
fathers from the sample. In a study of
divorced parents, Goode located 425
mothers but did not attempt to locate any
fathers....In a survey of family research,
Ruano and his associates found that 444
papers published from 1963 through 1968
only eleven utilized data from husbands
and/or fathers (p. 125).

The assumption that mothers can accurately report the
feelings, attitudes and thoughts of fathers is invalidated by
the research of McIntire, Nass and Battistone (1974), Eron,
Banta, walder and Laulicht (1961), Seeley (1956), Fanshel
(1966), O'Brien (1970) and Mueller (1970). All of these
investigators found that fathers gave significantly different
opinions than the mothers in areas of child-rearing, the

divorce process and the reconciliation process.

62

McIntire, Nass and Battistone (1974) interviewed sixty-
six randomly selected unmarried undergraduate male students
at the University of Connecticut about their attitudes,
beliefs and expectations about their role in early child
parenting. One hundred eight female unmarried students were
asked to answer the same questions as they thought unmarried
males in general would respond. The responses were then
compared. The results showed consistently that the women's
perceptions of the men's beliefs and attitudes toward early
child parenting differed from the men's actual responses.
Out of a total of fourteen items, nine items showed differ-
ences that were statistically significant. All differences
were in the direction of women attributing less interest and
involvement in early child parenting to their male peers
than the men expressed:

For example, a difference clearly illus-
trating females' lack of awareness of
males' expectations for parenting and
spousal responsibility occurred on the
item, "Besides being a provider, hus-
bands should help their wives with the
housework and child care." The men
strongly agreed (85.7%) whereas only
26.0% of women perceived men as agree-
ing. Similarly, on the item, "A wife
has a right to expect her husband to
help feed and diaper-change the baby,"
77.8% of the men agreed, while only
35.8% of the women perceived the men
as agreeing (p. 107).

McIntire, Nass and Battistone conclude that women are

imposing a double bind situation upon themselves which may

hamper the parenting process and lead to poor marital

63

adjustment:
If the misperception of men's sensitivity
to and interest in parenthood is as per-
vasive as our data suggest, it indicates
that women are placing themselves in a
double bind of magnificent proportions.
They incorrectly perceive males as want-
ing them to perform the traditional,
stereotyped, child-reared, homemaker,
subservient role. In so doing, they
cut off to a great extent an important
source for assistance and support in a
critical and difficult family cycle
stage (p. 110).

Another study concluding that mothers' and fathers'
responses cannot be substituted for one another was
directed by Eron et a1. (1961). Sixty third grade children
and their parents participated in this research which
attempted to compare data obtained on child-rearing prac-
tices from.mothers and fathers. Analysis of the data showed
that mothers and fathers did not agree in reporting their
perceptions of their own child's behavior. Mothers and
fathers reacted to children differently; therefore, the
observations of each must be taken into account to get a com-
plete picture of parental socialization influences on child
behavior (p. 465). Eron concluded that fathers gave more
consistent results than mothers did.

Another study designed to discover if differences
exist between mothers and fathers in their child-rearing
behaviors and attitudes was conducted by Emmerich (1962).
The purpose was to discover if variations in parent role

behavior are associated with the parent's sex, child's sex,

and child's age. Analysis of data indicated that parents

64

did not respond differentially toward daughters and sons on
the nurturance-restriction or power dimensions of the par-
ental role. Mothers were found to be more nurturant and less
restrictive than fathers. Mothers exerted more power toward
their daughters than sons, and fathers exerted more power
toward sons than daughters.

Rothbart and Maccoby (1966) studied parents' differen-
tial reactions to a child's voice as a function of sex of
parent and sex of child. After listening to a stimulus of
a child's voice which was ambiguous with respect to sex,
part of the sample of mothers and fathers was told the voice
was a girl's, the other part that it was a boy's. Results
indicated that fathers showed greater permissiveness toward
girls than boys for dependency and aggression. Mothers
showed greater permissiveness toward boys than girls.

Although these few studies designed to examine mother-
father differences can be criticized from methodological
standpoints (mailed questionnaire with inherent problems
of self-report techniques and no guarantee of independent
responses for spouses, and hypothetical as opposed to real-
life situations), they provide a basis for future research
on the impact of parental attitudes and behaviors on chil-
dren's behaviors in general and on children's play activities
in particular.

Concerned with parental attitudes and practices regarding

conditions in the home for play, Bishop and Chace (1971)

65

hypothesized that parental differences along a concreteness-
abstractness dimension of cognitive functioning would be
related to parental attitudes toward play, the home play
environment and the children's creativity.

One hundred nineteen parents whose three and four year
old children were enrolled in the University of Illinois'
nursery school program were the subjects. Parental con-
ceptual systems were measured by the "This-I-Believe" tech-
nique in which both parents of each family worked simultane-
ously but independently with an investigator by writing open-
ended replies to ten concept referents. From their responses,
parents were placed on a continuum.from concrete thinkers
characterized by the use of rules and principles at one end
to abstract, flexible thinkers on the other.

A questionnaire was developed and administered to par-
ents to measure parental attitudes toward play. Another
questionnaire elicited information on the conditions of the
home play environments by asking for factual descriptions of
the child's home play. The second questionnaire was given
only to mothers. It was hypothesized that the home play
environment would reflect the parental conceptual systems,
and that this environment would influence the behavior of
the children.

Analysis of data for fathers showed no significant
results. On the other hand, the results for mothers sup-

ported the hypothesis that conceptually abstract mothers are

66

more likely to report attitudes of flexibility, exploration
and novelty in the play environment. Children of conceptu-
ally abstract mothers who placed few constraints on their
children's play showed greater evidence of creativity than
did children of conceptually concrete mothers. These
results were unrelated to parental differences in age,
income, education or occupation.

Banks (1973) extended this work by looking at the
interactive effects of conceptual development of parents
and teachers on children's creativity and conditions of
home play. He found that when parents manifest similar
conceptual levels, they seem to enhance creative behavior
in children more than when parents differ on their concep-
tual level.

After reviewing the literature related to preschool
children's play, Bishop and Chace's study is the only one
which specifically investigated the attitudes of mothers and
fathers toward play and the home play environment; therefore,
their ideas and suggestions for further research have served
as a basis for the present research. Bishop and Chace
indicated a need for additional research in the specifics
of early play milieus, equipment and parental characteris-
tics. Bishop and Chace were not entirely clear why their
data for fathers showed no significant results and suggested

the need to further investigate fathers' attitudes toward

play.

67

The present research has attempted to respond to these
recommendations by looking not only at mothers' and fathers'
attitudes toward play but also at the level of agreement
between mothers' and fathers' attitudes in relation to know—
ledge of play, conceptions of childhood and parenthood, and

various demographic characteristics.

CHAPTER III

I

RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES

This research was conducted in Pigeon, Michigan.

Pigeon is populated by approximately 1200 people and is
located in Huron County. This area is predominately rural.

Under the auspices of a grant from the Michigan Agri-
cultural Experiment Station, Dr. Eileen Earhart (1973)
developed guidelines for the creation of preschool resource
centers from which parents could borrow toys and books for
their preschool children's use. In the tri-county Michigan
area of Sanilac, Tuscola and Huron Counties, there are
approximately 11,000 preschool children. Only 200 of these
children are served by Head Start programs. Approximately
60% of the families in this tri-county area (about 17,500
families) have incomes considered "marginal existence"
level.

One library in each of these three counties was chosen
to receive preschool toys and books. The Pigeon Library was
selected to receive the resource materials because it met the
criteria for selection: interest of the librarian in adding
toys and books for the preschool child, availability of ade-

quate space, and involvement of the Library Board and the

68

69
Board of Commissioners.

With the goal of providing these rural preschool children
with supplemental materials to foster their intellectual skill
development, toys and books were placed in the Pigeon Library
on May 1, 1974. The materials selected were chosen for
infants, toddlers and preschool children up to and including
five years of age. Durability, suitability for home use, and
learning potential in all developmental areas were the
criteria used in the selection of these resource materials.

Suggestions as to how each toy might be used in
parent-child play were compiled. These suggestions were
printed on 4 x 6 index cards, and the appropriate cards were
given to the parents when their children checked materials
out of the center for the tw0dweek lending period. These
cards were given to the parents to keep.

During the first months of operation before systematic
research to investigate the center's effectiveness was under-
way, the librarian reported the following observations:

1. Many of the families borrowing toys were
families who had not previously used the library facility.

2. Two-thirds to three-fourths of the toys were
out on loan most of the time.

3. There was a need for duplicates of some of the
most popular toys and books.

In addition to the direct benefits that could accrue

from the resource centers for the child's skill and knowledge

70

development, the opportunity exists for several major side
benefits. One of these is the opportunity for the center
staff to refer parents with problems and concerns to other
supportive services. A second is the chance for local
community groups to assume responsibility for replacement
of broken toys and addition of new toys. A third is the
opportunity for parents to model some aspects of the center's
environment and make changes in their home environment which
would promote their children's playfulness and inquisitiveness.

With the first steps of planning, preparation and
implementation completed, this study was conducted to
investigate parental attitudes and behaviors concerning
play, beliefs about childhood and parenthood, and home play
materials. Identifying and understanding parental attitudes
toward those behaviors which occupy the majority of a child's
time is a step toward seeking ways of intervening and
influencing the dominant forces which effect a child's
development within an ecological framework.

The procedures involved in sample selection, measure-
ment, data collection and analysis are described in the

following sections.

Sample Selection

 

Thirty-two couples from Pigeon, Michigan, and vicinity
constituted the sample for this study. These couples were
identified through the library's card catalogue system which

lists basic demographic information on patrons such as name,

71
address, children's names and ages. Twenty-eight of the
couples in the study had preschool children who had borrowed
materials from the Pigeon Library at least one time; five
couples had preschool children who had never borrowed
materials.

Eligibility for inclusion in this study was determined
on the basis of the following criteria:

1. Both mother and father were living in the
home with their child or children.
2. Complete data were available from both
mother and father. Both had to be willing to take part in
the study and complete all of the instruments independently.
3. There was at least one child in the home at
the time of accessment between the ages of 1 month and
5 years 11 months.

The universal sample of parents with preschool age
children recorded in the library's filing system consisted
of 90 couples. Of these 90 couples, 15 had moved or were
unknown, 26 had children who were preschool age at the time
of initial registry but were now school age, 8 were single
parent homes through divorce or death, and 9 couples were
unwilling to participate. The remaining 32 couples composed

the sample group.

Description of Sample
The subjects included in this study were assumed to

be representative of the population of interest, i.e. rural,

72

Anglo-American families with preschool children. By design
of the research, single parent families were excluded.
Descriptions of other characteristics of the sample families
are summarized as follows:

(1) The average age of the mothers was 28.2 years.
The range for mothers' age was 21-41 years. The average age
of the fathers was 31.0 years. The range for fathers' age was

21-51 years. The distribution of age ranges is shown in

 

 

 

Table 3.1.
TABLE 3.1
Ages of Husbands and Wives
Age Number Number
In Years Of Wives Of Husbands
20-25 9 4
26-30 14 14
31-35 5 8
36-40 1 2
41-45 1 1
46-50 0 1
51-55 0 1
Totals 30 31

 

(2) The average number of years married was 7.7
years with the range from 2-22 years. The distribution of
ranges of years married is shown in Table 3.2.

(3) Twenty of the wives completed 9-12 years of

73

formal education. Ten wives completed 13-16 years of
education. Two wives completed 17-20 years of education.
One husband completed only 1-8 years of formal education.
Eighteen husbands completed 9-12 years. Nine husbands

completed 13-16 years, and three completed 17-20 years.

One

husband gave no response to this question. The distribution

of educational levels of parents is shown on Table 3.3

TABLE 3.2

Number of Years Married

 

 

 

 

Number Of Number Of Percent

Years Married Families Of Total
1-5 9 28%
6-10 18 56%
11-15 4 13%
16—20 _ 0 0%
21-25 1 '3%
Total 32 100%

TABLE 3.3

Educational Levels of Husbands and Wives

 

 

Years of Formal Number Number
Education Of Wives Of Husbands
1-8 0 1
9-12 20 18
13-16 10 9
17-20 2 3

 

Totals 32 31

 

74

(4) The social position of the families in this
sample was calculated by the Two Factor Index of Social Position
developed by Hollingshead (1957). Social position scores can
be divided into five groups and assigned a social class position
from I to V, high to low, respectively. In terms of this Index
which uses occupation and education as class criteria, none of
the families can be considered to be in Class I. One family
is in Class II, seven families in Class III, 22 families in
Class IV, and two families in Class V. By far the largest
percentage (69%) are found in Social Class IV. A breakdown

of families found in each social class is shown in Table 3.4.

TABLE 3.4

Social Class of Families

 

 

 

Social Range Of Number Of Percent
Class Computed Scores Families Of Total
I 11-14 0 0%
II 15-27 1 3%
III 28-43 7 22%
IV 44-60 22 69%
V 61-70 2 6%
Totals 32 100%

 

(5) The average number of children in the families
represented in this sample was 2.4 with the range frum l-6.

The average number of preschool children ages birth through

75

five years in these families was 1.3 with the range from 1-2.

(6) The average age of the oldest child in these
sampled families was 6.0 years with the range from l-20 years.
The average age of the youngest child was 2.5 years.

(7) The average amount of money spent by these
families on home play materials per year was $96.00 with the
range from $30.00 - $200.00. The distribution of money spent

by the sample families is shown in Table 3.5.

TABLE 3.5

Money Spent on Home Play Materials

 

 

 

 

Amount of Number of Percent of
Money Spent Families Families
$1-$50 4 13%

$50-$100 17 55%
$101-$150 4 13%
$15I-szoo 6 19%

Total 31 100%
Measurement

 

Five instruments were used in this research to collect
data about parental attitudes toward play, knowledge of play,
developmental/traditional conceptions of childhood and
parenthood, children's home play activities, and play

materials in the home environment.

76

Attitudes Toward Play The Opinion Survey on Children's

 

 

Pley, an adaptation of an instrument developed by Bishop and
Chace (1971), was used to determine parental attitudes toward
play. On this questionnaire, parental attitudes regarding
various play situations, types of toys, rights of children in
play, and the relations among parents and children in play

were sought. A copy of the Opinion Survey on Children's Play

 

is found in Appendix B.

Bishop and Chace's original instrument, Opinion Survey on

 

Children's Home Activities, contained sixteen forced-choice
items. The number of responses for the items ranged from two
to six. Adaptation of Bishop and Chace's instrument for use
in this study consisted of adding five new items to the
existing sixteen for a total of twenty-one forced-choice items.
Adaptation also included standardization of the number of
responses for each item.

The responses were designed so that one alternative
represented an attitude that was assumed to enhance play-
fulness while other alternatives represented varying degrees
of inhibition of playfulness. Each of the twenty-one
questions had four alternatives from.which to choose. These
alternative responses were weighted from 1 to 4 with a value
of 4 being given the most positive response and 1 being given
the least positive response. The weighted responses were
added for a total attitude toward play score.

Content validity was established by Bishop and Chace

(1971) for this instrument. Several of the items had a

77

specific theoretical basis and were based on previous author's
suggestions as to what inhibits or enhances playfulness. The
remaining items were based on Bishop and Chace's judgments as to
what inhibits or enhances playfulness. There was no normative

data available on Bishop and Chace's original instrument.

Knowledge of Play The Preschool Children's Play scale

 

developed by Whiren (1975) was selected as a measure of
knowledge of play concepts. On the Preschool Children's
Pley instrument, parental knowledge regarding developmentally
appropriate play behaviors for preschool age children, basic
play concepts, and ages when young children perform various
activities was sought.

Eighty-three forced-choice items made up the instrument.
Parents were asked to check the age level at which they thought
children could perform various tasks. Parents were also asked
to agree or disagree with statements about preschool children's
play behaviors. Responses were scored as either correct or
incorrect. The total number of correct responses defined a
subject's knowledge of children's play.

Content validity was established for the Preschool

 

Children's Play instrument by documenting each of the

 

eighty-three items from the literature on play. For example,
Whiren stated that for the item, "Children who are truly
creative will act just like other children the same age in
similar situations", the resource base is Anker (1974). A

copy of the Preschool Children's Play instrument is found

 

78

in Appendix C.

Develgpmental/Traditional Conceptions of Childhood and

Parenthood Parental positions along a developmental/

 

tradition continuum were determined by Blood's (1952) Beliefs

about Childhood and Parenthood instrument. The instrument was

 

based upon Duvall's (1946) typologies of childhood and parent-
hood ideologies. Respondents were required to select fifteen
statements with which they agreed out of a total of thirty
items evenly divided between developmental and traditional
statements. Ten characteristics describe the ideal father,
ten the ideal mother, and ten the ideal child.

Although the instrument has been used widely (Hill,
1970), there was no normative data available; nevertheless,
its use was judged valuable because of conciseness, clarity,
and classification of parental conceptual systems. A copy of

the Beliefs about Childhood and Parenthood instrument is

 

found in Appendix D.

Children's Home Play Activities An adaptation of an

 

instrument developed by Bishop and Chace (1971), Qeestionnaire

 

about Child's Play, was selected as a measure of children's
home play activities. In the Bishop and Chace research, the
questionnaire consisted of twenty-one forced-choice items.
The number of responses for the items ranged from two to
five. Adaptation of the original instrument for use in this
study consisted of using eleven of the original questions

and adding four new ones for a total of fiteen forced-choice

79

items. Adaptation also included addition and deletion of
some response alternatives. The number of responses for
items on the adapted instrument ranged from two to four. An
example of a question follows:

Where in the home is your child allowed to play?

a. anywhere at any time throughout the house

b. in his or her own room

c anywhere throughout the house if he/she is

within seeing or hearing distance
d. In certain rooms of the house and not in
other rooms
Only the mothers were asked to complete this questionnaire

in the Bishop and Chace research since it was assumed that
the mothers could give the most reliable information because
they were in the closest contact with the children. That
assumption was not made in this research; therefore, both
parents' responses were obtained. For each husband-wife pair,
the number of agreeing responses for each of the fifteen items
was computed and summed. This procedure yields a marital

agreement score operationally defining marital agreement on

children's play activities. A copy of the Questionnaire about

 

Children's Play is found in Appendix E.

 

Home PlayeMaterials The approximate number and types of
resource play materials each family had at home were obtained

through the Toy and Equipment Inventory. An adaptation of an

 

instrument developed by Watts (1973), the inventory consisted
of a checklist of toys, equipment, and other materials
appropriate for use by preschool children.

Adaptation of the original inventory for use in this

80
study was minor. The original eight categories of resource
materials were used. Two additional categories of books and
records were added. The adapted inventory was set up in such
a way as to distinguish ten resource categories: fine motor,
didactic games, early dramatic play, later dramatic play,
expressive, gross motor, equipment, scientific, books and
records. Within each category, specific toys and materials
were listed. Mothers were asked to check the materials their
children owned and regularly used. They were also asked to
indicate which were favorite toys. Deletion from the original
inventory of the question asking how the materials were played
with was made.

From the inventory, assessment was made of the approximate
total number of resources the child had in the home environment.
Only the mothers were asked to complete the factual checklist
since the instrument was not used in any way to compare
husband-wife responses.

4 Content validity was established for this inventory by
Watts (1973). A panel of experts from the Department of Family
and Child Sciences at Michigan State University in the field
of child development reviewed the inventory after additions and
deletions were made to ensure content validity. The panel
consisted of the following: Dr. Eileen Earhart, Chairman;
Alice Whiren, instructor; Jeanne Brown, child development
specialist and instructor; Betty Garlick, instructor; and

Elaine Williams, instructor and former coordinator of preschool

81

day care programs. A copy of the Toy and Equipment Inventory

is found in Appendix F.

Marital Agreement on Attitudes Toward Play, The degree of
agreement between couples on their attitudes toward play was
ascertained by computing weighted scores of agreement of
their responses for each item on the attitude scale and
summing them. Perfect response agreement between a husband
and wife was given a score of 2. A one-step difference
received a score of 1. A 2 or 3 step response difference
received a score of 0. A perfect agreement score was calcu-
lated by summing the total number of perfect agreements (highest
possible=21 since there are 21 items). In addition, the
total number of perfect agreement plus one-step differences
was calculated. This was calculated by summing the total
number of perfect agreements plqe the total number of

one-step difference responses for each husband-wife pair.

Socioeconomic Class Status Using Hollingshead's (1957)

 

Two Factor Index of Social Position, the social position of

 

each household was determined by utilizing two factors:
occupation and education. Each of these two factors was
scaled to a classification system devised by Hollingshead.
There are seven levels in the occupational scale with the
first representing higher executives and the seventh repre-
senting unskilled employees. There are seven levels in the

educational scale with the first representing graduate

82

professional training and the seventh position representing
less than seven years of school.

The factors of occupation and education are combined
by weighing the individual scores obtained from the scale
positions and adding them. The weight for the occupational
factor is 7; the weight for the education factor is 4.
These weights were determined by multiple correlation
techniques.

The social position score is the summation of the
factor scores times the factor weights. The scores range
on a continuum from 11 to 77. Hollingshead's categories for
predicting the social position of a family are shown in

TABLE 3.6.

TABLE 3.6

Hollingshead's Social Position Categories

 

 

 

Social Class Range of Computed Scores
I 11-14
II 15-27
III 28-43
IV 44-60
V 61-77
Limitation of Instrumentation Some limitations of the

 

instruments used are recognized by the researcher. Due to
inadequate standardization of the measures, validity and
reliability have not been firmly established. Another

limitation of self-report measures is the disadvantage of

83
never being sure of the degree to which the subjects'
responses reflect true attitudes and knowledge; however,
these instruments offer previously unavailable techniques
for beginning the overdue investigation into the area of
parental attitudes and knowledge involving children's
play. The instruments were, therefore, chosen and deemed
worthwhile to use, but it is recognized and suggested that
further validity and reliability checks be made on the

measures .

Data Collection Procedures
Data collection was conducted as part of a session
designed to share ideas for making toys and to get feed-
back from families about the toy lending program in the
Pigeon Library. Before the dates and times of the sessions
were selected, the Pigeon librarian was consulted to ensure
that there were no schedule conflicts. Every effort was
made to minimize the additional demands made on the
librarian's time and energy. Four session times were selected
‘with families having the choice to attend the one which was
Imost convenient for them. The session dates and times were:
Friday, February 14, 1:00 p.m.
Friday, February 14, 7:00 p.m.
Saturday, February 15, 10:00 a.m.
Saturday, February 15, 1:00 p.m.
Since individual measures were to be obtained from both

husband and wife, it was deemed advantageous to provide

84

supervised activities for all the children so that problems
of babysitting would not keep some of the mothers or fathers
home. Since two of the sessions fell on Valentine's Day,
parties were planned around that theme. Story hour, films,
games and refreshments were included for the children.

On January 28, 1975, a letter was sent to the 90 families.
The letter explained the purpose of the requested meeting, gave
details about inclusion of the children, and attached a
check-off sheet for one of the four sessions. The check-off
sheet was to be returned in an enclosed self-addressed, stamped
envelope. A copy of the letter to the parents is found in
Appendix G. Information about the names and ages of children
who would be attending was sought on the check-off sheet so
that programs and refreshments could be planned appropriately.

The Toy and Equipment Inventory was included with the

 

letter. It was requested that the Inventory be completed and
returned in the envelope with the check-off sheet. The
purpose of including the Inventory and having it completed in
the home was to ensure a more accurate and factual list of
play materials than might have been obtained from recall.
During the week of February 10, 1975, telephone calls
were made to the families who had not returned their check-off
sheets by that time. A local homemaker referred by the county
home extension agent was the telephone contact. The extension
home economist visited the homemaker in her home, explained

the purpose of the sessions, gave her a copy of the letter

85

the parents had received, and answered her questions about
the project. The researcher communicated frequently with
the homemaker by telephone to answer further questions and
to ensure adequate understanding of the program.

A basic script provided by the researcher served as
the homemaker's guidelines for her conversations with the
families. She encouraged the families to attend, answered
questions and tried to find out which session they might
attend. A copy of the telephone script is found in
Appendix H.

Final reminder postcards were mailed to the families
so that they would receive them the day before the first
session. This was a brief "Won't you remember to join
us?" card (see Appendix I).

Three assistants in addition to the librarian
supervised the children's party. Prior to the sessions,
one of the assistants, a child development specialist and
Michigan State University instructor, familiarized the
other two assistants (child development graduate students)
with techniques involved in planning and executing story hour
and other activities for a multiaged group of children. These
activities were conducted in a separate section of the library
while the researcher met with the parents in another large
meeting area.

The battery of tests administered to the husbands and

wives at each of these four sessions included a general

86

information sheet, the Opinion Survey on Chlldren's Pley,

Preschool Children's Play, Beliefs about Childhood and

 

 

Parenthood, and the Questionnaire about Child's Play

 

 

Activities. Administered to the sample groups by the

 

researcher, each of these measures was completed independently
by the subjects. During the four sessions, data were
collected on all but ten of the thirty-two sample couples.
Data on these remaining ten couples were collected in their
respective homes. A local homemaker, trained by the
researcher, set up home appointments with these ten couples.
During these appointments, the couples independently com-
pleted these measures in the presence of the administrator.
The main purposes of the administrator were to answer
questions and discourage collaboration since all of the
instruments had self-explanatory directions.

All data were collected by the middle of March 1975.

Data Analysis

 

Research protocols were coded by research assistants
from the Department of Family and Child Sciences at Michigan
State University. One-fifth of the data items were randomly
quality checked by the researcher to increase scoring
accuracy. No errors were found.

In predictive research problems where there are one or
two dependent variables and a large number of independent
variables, the multiple regression-correlation procedure is

used to assess the simultaneous effects of the independent

87
variables. The predictive value of the individual variables
is first determined by computing their regression coefficients
and significance levels; thus, the specific contribution each
of the independent variables makes to the variance of the
dependent variable is identified. Those variables which
contribute significantly to the dependent variable are then
submitted to the multiple regression equation. The multiple
regression equation combines the predictive value of the
several measures into a simple formula in order to make an
improved prediction. In the multiple regression equation,
each variable is weighted in terms of its importance in
contributing to the desired prediction. This is the beta
weight for each independent variable. The total amount of
variance accounted for by all of the independent variables

is represented in the statistic R2.

Predicting Attitudes Toward Play The hypotheses that
parental attitudes toward play were predicted from individual
independent variables as well as from a combination of
variables were tested by the following procedure.

Product moment correlation coefficients and significance
levels were computed for the various independent variables.
Multiple correlation coefficients were computed using the
multiple regression equation. The multiple regression
equation was established by submitting the most promising
variables to a stepwise deletion procedure. Variables

were deleted one at a time until all remaining variables

88

were significant contributors to the prediction equation at
the .05 level; however, levels of .06-.08 are discussed as

indicating potential relationships.

PredictingHusband-Wife Attitude Agreement Predicting

 

agreement on attitudes toward play by various independent
variables was tested by computing product moment correlation
coefficients and submitting the promising variables to the
multiple regression procedure. Variables were then deleted

one at a time until all remaining variables were significant
contributors to the prediction equation at the .05 level;
however, levels of .06-.08 are discussed as indicating potential

relationships.

Maternal and Paternal Attitudes A dependent sample t test
was used to determine whether there was a significant difference
between mothers' and fathers' attitudes toward play. The means
and standard deviations were computed for each group on the
attitude toward play variable. The dependent t test for
difference between means was used because both sets of scores
were obtained from individuals in the same family and thus

were considered dependent. The .05 level of significance was
accepted as the basis of rejecting or not rejecting the null

hypothesis.

Location of Residence and Sex of Children The hypotheses

 

that location of residence and sex of children were predictive

of parental attitudes toward play were tested by the one way

89

analysis of variance procedure. One way analysis of variance,
a statistical approach to compare more than two means, was used
to determine if there was a difference among groups of parents
according to location of residence or sex of children. An
F-ratio was computed to determine if any groups differed
significantly from any other groups. The .05 level of
significance was accepted as the basis of rejecting or not

rejecting the null hypothesis.

CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

The data collected and analyzed by the procedures
described in Chapter III are presented in this chapter.

Each hypothesis is stated along with the presentation of
data analysis.

Results of the hypotheses tested follow:

1. Null hypothesis: Developmental conceptions of
childhood and parenthood do not predict the attitudes of
mothers and fathers toward play.

Alternative hypothesis: Developmental conceptions of
childhood and parenthood do predict the attitudes of mothers
and fathers toward play.

[The means and standard deviations for the independent
variable, developmental conceptions of parenthood and child-
hood, were computed for mothers and fathers. The data are

shown in Table 4.1.

90

91

TABLE 4.1
Means and Standard Deviations:

Developmental Conceptions of Parenthood

 

Variable Mean Standard
Deviation

 

Mothers' developmental
conceptions of childhood
and parenthood 9.78 2.14

Fathers' developmental
conceptions of childhood
and parenthood 8.50 2.23

 

A regression analysis using the variable developmental
conceptions of parenthood and childhood with the criterion
attitudes toward play was computed for mother as a group and
for fathers as a group. The decision rule was to reject
Ho if the regression equation was significant at the .05
level.

A regression coefficient of .2536 was found for the
mothers. This was not significant at the .05 level; there-
fore, the null hypothesis was not rejected.

For the fathers, a regression coefficient of .3642
was calculated. This was significant at the .05 level;
therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected. The positive

relationship which existed between developmental conceptions

of parenthood and childhood as measured by the Beliefs about

 

92

Childhood and Parenthood scale and fathers' attitudes toward

 

play as measured by the Opinion Survey on Children's Play

 

indicated the independent variable, developmental concep-
tions of parenthood, was predictive of fathers' attitudes
toward play in this study. The regression coefficients (R)
and significance levels are recorded in Table 4.2. Also
recorded in Table 4.2 are the coefficients of determination
(R2) which indicate the proportion of the total variance in
the dependent variable which can be predicted from the

independent variable.

2. Null hypothesis: Knowledge about children's play
does not predict the attitudes of mothers and fathers toward
play.

Alternative hypothesis: Knowledge about children's
play does predict the attitudes of mothers and fathers
toward play.

The means and standard deviations for the independent
variable, knowledge about children's play, were computed
for mothers as a group and fathers as a group. The data are

shown in Table 4.3.

93

Hm>ma mo. um unmoHMchHms
cm a H "fiowoouh mo mmmuwmm

 

 

emcee. somm.q some. oaqm. omma. Neom. mumnume
mama. omoo.m one. mmao. memo. emmm. mumnuoz
mumm Am mHaHuHszv
mo Honum ucowofiwmooo
huwawnmnOHm owummum ohvaMDm wumm NM cOfimmoummm

 

voonwawao paw oooauaoumm mo mGOHumoocoo Housmamoam>oo
Eoum hmam wnm3ou woonuwuu< Hmucoumm wcwuofipoum

momhama< Coammmuwmm mo muadmom

N.¢ m4m<fi

94

TABLE 4.3
Means and Standard Deviations:

Parental Knowledge about Children's Play

 

Variable Mean Standard
Deviation

 

Mothers' knowledge
about children's play 56.13 4.73

Fathers' knowledge
about children's play 52.72 5.44

 

A regression analysis using the variable knowledge
of children's play with the criterion attitudes toward play
was computed for mothers as a group and fathers as a group.
A regression coefficient of .1773 was found for the mothers.
This was not significant at the .05 level; therefore, the
null hypothesis was not rejected.

For the fathers, a regression coefficient of .3157
was significant at the .08 level. Since the decision rule
was to reject the null hypothesis only if the significance
level was .05, the null hypothesis was not rejected. The
regression coefficients and significance levels are recorded

in Table 4.4.

95

om @ a ”aopooam mo moonwom

 

 

mmmo. momm.m mmma. memm. some. amam. mamaumm
mamm. memo. mmma. mmma. mamo. mama. mumauoz
mumm Am mamauaszv
mo Houum udmaoawmoou
huaawnmnoam oaumuum pudendum muom mm aowmmohwmm

 

hmam m.coapaa£o usonm owvoa3oam
aoum hmam pam3ou mooduauu< amuamumm waauoaomum

momhamc< Goammmawmm mo muafimom

d.¢ mqm<H

96

3. Null hypothesis: The number of home play materials
does not predict the attitudes of mothers and fathers toward
play.

Alternative hypothesis: The number of home play
materials does predict the attitudes of mothers and fathers
toward play.

The mean and standard deviation for the independent
variable, number of toys, were computed for all of the

families as a group. The data are shown in Table 4.5.

TABLE 4.5
Mean and Standard Deviation:

Number of Home Play Materials

 

Variable Mean Standard
Deviation

 

Number of Home Play
Materials 32.34 7.98

 

A regression analysis using the variable number of
toys with the criterion attitudes toward play was computed
for mothers as a group and fathers as a group. A regression
coefficient of .2221 was found for the mothers. This was
not significant at the .05 level; therefore, the null

hypothesis was not rejected. The relationship between the

97

number of home play materials and mothers' attitudes toward
play was in the negative direction.

For the fathers, a regression coefficient of .2545 was
calculated. This was not significant at the .05 level;
therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. The
relationship between number of home play materials and
fathers' attitudes toward play was in the negative direction.
The results of the regression analysis are reported in
Table 4.6.

4. Null hypothesis: The categories of home play
materials do not predict the attitudes of mothers and fathers
toward play.

Alternative hypothesis: The categories of home play
materials do predict the attitudes of mothers and fathers
toward play.

The means and standard deviations for the independent
variables, toy categories, were computed for all of the

families as a group. The data are shown in Table 4.7.

98

on a a ”Eooooum mo momuwma

 

mama. NNNO.N «NNH. hmmH.I wdoo. m¢mN. mumfiumm
wfiNN. momm.H ¢©HH. mm¢H.: mm¢o. HNNN. mumfiuoz
comm Am mamauanzv
mo Houam acmaoammooo
huaaanmnoum oaumunm pudendum muom mm moawmoawom

 

mammaoumz hoam oaom mo Honanz
anm hmam onm3ou mooSuHuu< amunoumm wnwuoavmam

mamhama< scammmuwom mo muadmom

o.¢ mqm<H

99

TABLE 4.7
Means and Standard Deviations:

Categories of Home Play Materials

 

Variable Mean Standard
Deviation

 

Toy Category 1: fine motor 4.5 1.78
Toy Category 2: didactic

games 1.1 .88
Toy Category 3: Early dra-

matic play 5.9 .98
Toy Category 4: Later dra-

matic play 4.3 1.75
Toy Category 5: Expressive 6.6 2.28
Toy Category 6: Gross Motor 3.7 1.00
Toy Category 7: Equipment 4.0 1.75
Toy Category 8: Scientific .6 .87

 

The regression coefficients of each of the eight
categories of toys with the criterion attitudes toward play
were computed for mothers as a group and fathers as a group.
For the mothers, all of the beta weights except category #7,
equipment, were negative indicating the direction of relation-
ships. Only toy category #5, expressive, was significant
at the .05 level. The relationship which existed between

the independent variable, expressive home play materials, as

100

measured by the Toy and Equipment Inventory and mothers'

 

attitudes toward play as measured by the Opinion Survey on

 

Children's Play indicated the category expressive toys

 

was predictive of mothers' attitudes toward play. The
relationship was in the negative direction.

For the fathers, all relationships were in the
negative direction except for category #3, early dramatic
play materials. Only category #2, didactic games, was
signigicant at the .05 level. The relationship which
existed between the independent variable, didactic games,

as measured by the Toy and Equipment Inventory and the

 

dependent variable, fathers' attitudes toward play as

measured by the Opinion Survey on Children's Play indicated

 

the category didactic games was predictive of fathers'
attitudes toward play. The relationship was in the negative
direction.

The multiple regression analysis of the eight toy
categories as a group with the criterion attitudes toward
play was computed for mothers and fathers. The multiple
regression equation combines the predictive value of the
eight independent variables into a formula in order to
detect the combined contribution of the independent
variables to the dependent variable.

For the mothers, the multiple regression coefficient
between the combination of variables and the criterion

attitudes toward play was .5160. Twenty-seven percent of

101

of the variation in maternal attitudes toward play was
accounted for by the combined categories of home play

materials. The analysis for overall regression showed an

F-ratio of 1.0434 which is not significant at the .05
level. The results of the multiple and individual
regression analyses for mothers are shown in Table 4.8.

For the fathers, the multiple regression coefficient
was .6618. The overall regression equation showed an F-
ratio of 2.2406 which, at the .06 level, approached
significance as defined in this study. The results of the
multiple and individual regression analyses for fathers
are shown in Table 4.9.

5. Null hypothesis: The following characteristics
do not predict the attitudes of mothers and fathers toward
play: sex of children, location of residence, age of youngest
child, age of oldest child, number of children, years mar-
ried, money spent on toys, and social position.

Alternative hypothesis: The following characteristics
do predict the attitudes of mothers and fathers toward play:
sex of children, location of residence, age of youngest
child, age of oldest child, number of children, years married,
money spent on toys, and social position.

The means and standard deviations for the continuous
independent variables were computed for all of the families

as a group. The data are shown in Table 4.10.

102

mamhamcm coammmuwon amsva>aona mo muaSmom*¥
mamhamam Goammmuwmu oma3mmum mo muafimomx

 

 

memm. mesa. mmmo.a mm-.- maoo. ammo. m muommumum4
mane. memo. mmsm. mmma. mmoo. mmmo. a suommumums
aamm. maoo. mmsm. osmo.- oooo. mmoo. m euommumuss
ammo. mmmm.m ammm. mama.- omaa. amsm. m suommumoss
mmom. ammm. easm. mmmm.- omoo. ammo. 4 muommumo«*
amma. meaa. mmmm. momm.- mmoo. mamo. m muommumoms
mmea. msmm.m maso.a omam.a- mono. asmm. m muommumumm
mmaa. mamm.m seam. mmmm.- ammo. mama. a spammumoms
mumm am mamauaszv
mo wouum unmaoammmou
%uwaanmnoum oaumnum oumpcmum oumm mm Goammmuwom mammaum>

 

mmmq. u huwaanmnoam «mqo.

a u oaumu-e mm a m u as mmmm.

mamahmumz moan oaom mo moauowmumu

Eoum kmam oHMBou mooauauu< .muofluoz wnauoaomum

mm omam. u m mamauaszy

momkamc<

coammonwom amowa>aocH was mamauaoz mnu mo muaomom

m.¢ mqm<H

103

mamhamcm coammouwou amsoa>aoca mo muadmmd¥¥
mamkaocm noammmuwou mma3mmum mo muadmomr

 

 

 

«mam. msaa. smma.a aoom.- mmoo. omao. m anommumosm
aame. aaqm. mmmm. mmmq.- aaao. amma. a auommumuam
amem. amaa. aeeo.a msme.- aaoo. eemo. m auommumumm
aaea. scam.a moms. oamm.- meeo. moaa. m anommumuam
moem. aaaa. ammm. aama.- saoo. mmmo. s anommumosm
mama. aooo. mmao.a mmao. oooo. maoo. m anommumomm
aooo. ammm.ea ammm. amma.m- asam. mmmm. a auommumoms
mmma. ammm.a mmam. mmam.- amqo. maoa. a anommumomm
mumm am mamauaszv
mo Hounm ucmaoammmoo
huaaanmnoum oaumaum vumocmum oumm mm coammoawom manmahm>
mamo. u auaaaamaoua moea.a n oaumu-a ma m m n as omme. "aw mamm. u m mamauaszm

maMaHmumz hmam oEom mo moauowoumo

Boum mmam ouw309 menopauu< .muonumm mcauoapoum mommamc<

aoammoamom Hmsoa>aoaH paw mamauadz onu mo muafimom

m.¢ m4m<H

104

TABLE 4.10
Means and Standard Deviations:

Demographic Characteristics

 

Variable Mean Standard
Deviation

 

Age of youngest child 2.47 1.32
Age of oldest child 5.97 3.97
Number of children 2.38 1.26
Years married 7.72 3.91
Money spent on toys 93.00 54.43
Social position 5.97 3.97

 

An analysis of variance using the independent variable
sex of children with the criterion attitudes toward play
was computed for mothers and fathers. Results indicated
there was no significant difference across the three sex
groups, (all girls, all boys, mixed), for mothers' or
fathers' attitudes toward play. Analysis of variance

:results are included in Table 4.11.

105

TABLE 4.11
Analysis of Variance:
Dependent Variable - Parental Attitudes toward Play

Independent Variable - Sex of Children

 

 

Mean F-ratio Probability
Square
Mothers 33.5889 1.2525 .3008
Fathers 23.4389 .6917 .5088

 

Degrees of Freedom: 2 & 29

An analysis of variance using the independent variable
location of residence with the criterion attitudes toward
play was computed for mothers and fathers. Four groups
were identified for location of residence: (1) working farm,
(2) rural area, nonfarm, (3) village under 1,000, and
(4) town of 1000-5000. The means and standard deviations
for the four location of residence groups were computed and
are recorded in Table 4.12.

Results of the analysis of variance indicated there
‘were no significant differences across the groups for
1mothers' attitudes. For fathers' attitudes, there was a
significant difference across the four location groups.
4A post hoc analysis was done to find out which group was
Significantly different from the other groups. Post hoc

Enlalysis showed that the first group, working farm, was

 

106

significantly different from all the other groups. Results

are recorded in Table 4.13.

TABLE 4.12
Means and Standard Deviations:

Location Groups

 

 

 

Groups Means Standard
Deviations
(1) Working Farm 63.50 6.17
(2) Rural area, nonfarm 69.80 3.35
(3) Village under 1000 70.00 3.56
(4) Town of 1000-5000 68.22 4.94
TABLE 4.13

Analysis of Variance:
Dependent Variable - Mothers' Attitudes toward Play

Independent Variable - Location of Residence

 

 

Mean F-ratio Probability
Square
Mothers 6.7374 .2288 .8756
Fathers 85.2148 3.0833 .0435*

 

Degrees of Freedom: 3 & 28
*Significant at the .04 level

107

Regression coefficients for each of the remaining six
variables (age of youngest child, age of oldest child, num-
ber of children, years married, money spent on toys, and
social position) with the criterion attitudes toward play
were computed for mothers as a group and fathers as a group.

For the mothers, all of the relationships were in the
negative direction except for the variable social position.
Only the variable money spent on toys was significant at
the .005 level. A relationship existed between the amount
of money spent on toys and mothers' attitudes toward play

as measured by the Opinion Survey on Children's Pley,

 

indicating that money spent on toys is predictive of mothers'
attitudes toward play in this study. The relationship
between money spent on toys and mothers' attitudes toward
play was in the negative direction.

For the fathers, all relationships were in the negative
direction except for the variable age of youngest child.
The variable number of children was significant at the .02
level. A relationship existed between the number of chil-
dren and fathers' attitudes toward play as measured by the
Opinion Survey on Children's Pley, indicating that number
of children was predictive of fathers' attitudes in this
study. The relationship between number of children and
fathers' attitudes toward play was in the negative direction.

The variable money spent on toys was significant for

the fathers' at the .05 level. A relationship existed

108

between the amount of money spent on toys and fathers' atti-
tudes toward play as measured by the Opinion Survey on

Children's Play, indicating that money spent on toys was

 

predictive of fathers' attitudes toward play in this study.
The relationship between the amount of money spent on toys
and fathers' attitudes toward play was in the negative
direction.

The multiple regression analysis of the six demographic
variables with the criterion attitudes toward play was com-
puted for the mothers and fathers. The multiple regression
equation combines the predictive value of the independent
variables into a formula in order to detect the combined
contribution of the independent variables to the dependent
variable. The multiple regression coefficient between the
combination of variables and mothers' attitudes toward play
was .5206. The square of the multiple R was .27. The
analysis of overall regression showed an F-ratio of 1.5493
which is not significant at the .05 level.

For the fathers, the multiple regression coefficient
was .6420. The square of the multiple R was .41. The over-
all regression equation showed an F-ratio of 2.9213 which is
significant at the .02 level. The results of the multiple
and individual regression analyses for mothers and fathers

are shown in Table 4.14.

109

om w a "momhamom Goammmummh amnoa>awca Mom Eovomam mo momuwon
momkamam coammouwmu Hmfiow>apca mo muaomomrx
mamhamam coammouwoh omasmoum mo muasmmmm

 

mmmo. ammm. comm. omaa.n @500. came. vaano
umooao mo mw<xx
wmmm. ommm. «qu. Hmma.u wmoo. ommo. vmanuma mamowrs

mumw. ammo. mmnm. coma.n aaoo. ommo. nmhoaaso
mo Hmnapzrx

moaa. name. aqaa. comm.u ammo. noma. waano umo
:quOh mo ow<¥k

name. mmoa. sumo. ammo. mmoo. came. coauamom
Hmaoomxr

mqoo. wqw¢.m mmao. omqo.u Noam. Homd. whoa Co

ucomm zmaozsa

 

mumm am mamauanzv
mo Hounm ufimaoamwmoo
huaaanmnoam oaumuum pudendum doom mm Goammmawom manwaum>

 

mmom. u huaaanmnoam mmqm.H u oaumhnm mm a o u mo HHNN.

am moam. u m maaauanz«

moaumaumuowumno oasmmawoaoo Boum moan vum3ou moonuwuu< .mnoauoz waauoapoum

momhamc< coammouwom amnpa>aocH paw mamauanz mo muaamom

¢H.q mam<H

110

om w a ”momaawmm coammmhwou Hoopa>aoam Mom Eooooam mo momnmmn
mommamaw noammouwoa stoa>apaa mo muadm¢M¥¥
mamhamam Gowmmmnwou omHBQoum mo muaumomr

 

woaN. mamm.a «moa. omma.n qomo. msmu. coauamom
amaoomsm

qsww. Homo. moms. mmna. aaoo. woqo. paano umo
:mcflom mo mw¢¥x

moan. mmmw. mmom. aaqm.n memo. mmoa. wmauama
w Hmmwynur

maqm. oaaq.a mwmm. mmom.u mqqo. maam. paaSo
umooao mo mwmrx

mamo. mnmw.m mama. quw.au mqoa. mmoq. nonpaafiu
mo Honaozsm

aqmo. ammo.q Nwao. demo.n Nwaa. wmqm. whom no

uaomm hoaozsx

 

muom Am mamauaozv
mo Houum ucomoammoou
muaaanmnoum oaumaum wnmocwum muom NM coammouwmm manmwum>

 

mmao. u auaaaamaoua maam.a n oaumu-m ma m m u we aaaq. u am oaem. u m maaauaszs

moaumaaouomumso oazmmamosma Eoum mmam UHmBOH monSuHuu< .maosumm wawuoavmum
momhama< soammmuwom amava>avaH pom mamauasz mo muadmom

nH.¢ mam<H

111

6. Null hypotheses: Marital agreement on knowledge
about children's play does not predict marital agreement on
attitudes toward play.

Alternative hypothesis: Marital agreement on knowledge
about children's play does predict marital agreement on
attitudes toward play.

The mean and standard deviation for the independent
variable, marital agreement on knowledge about play, were
computed for the thirty-two couples. The data are shown in

Table 4.16.

TABLE 4.16
Mean and Standard Deviation:

Marital agreement on Knowledge about Children's Play

 

Variable Mean Standard
Deviation

 

‘Marital agreement on

Knowledge about children's
Play 53.41 6.08

 

A regression analysis using the variable marital agree-
lnent on knowledge of play with the criterion marital agree-
Inent on attitudes toward play was computed for the thirty-
‘two couples. The regression coefficient of .1782 was not
significant at the .05 level; therefore, the null hypothesis

vmas not rejected. The results of the regression analysis

112

are reported in Table 4.17.

TABLE 4.17
Results of Regression Analysis
Predicting Marital Agreement on Attitudes toward Play

from Marital Agreement on Knowledge about Play

 

 

Regression R2 Beta Standard F-ratio Probability
Coefficient Error of
(Multiple R) Beta

.1782 .0317 .0936 .0944 .9834 .3293

 

Degrees of Freedom: 1 & 3O

7. Null hypothesis: Marital agreement on child's
play activities does not predict marital agreement on
attitudes toward play.

Alternative hypothesis: Marital agreement on child's
play activities does predict marital agreement on attitudes
toward play.

The mean and standard deviation for the independent
'variable, marital agreement on child's play activities,
were computed for the thirty-two couples. The data are

shown in Table 4.18.

113

TABLE 4.18
Mean and Standard Deviation:

Marital Agreement on Child's Play

 

Variable Mean Standard
Deviation

 

Marital agreement on
child's play 12.66 2.36

 

A regression analysis using the variable marital agree-
ment on child's play with the criterion marital agreement on
attitudes toward play was computed for the thirty-two couples.
The regression coefficient of .3967 was significant at the
.02 level; therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected.

The relationship which existed between marital agreement on
child's play as measured by the Questionnaire about Child's
Play_and marital agreement on attitudes toward play as
measured by the Opinion Survey on Children's Pley indicated
the independent variable, marital agreement on child's play,
was predictive of marital agreement on attitudes toward
play in this study. The results of the regression analysis

are reports in Table 4.19.

114

TABLE 4.19
Results of Regression Analysis
Predicting Marital Agreement on Attitudes toward Play

from Marital Agreement on Child's Play Activities

 

 

Regression R2 Beta Standard F-ratio Probability
Coefficient Error of
(Multiple R) Beta

.3967 .1574 .5365 .2267 5.6025 .0246*

 

Degrees of Freedom: 1 & 30
*Significant at the .02 level

8. Null hypothesis: Marital agreement on developmental/
traditional conceptions of childhood and parenthood does not
predict marital agreement on attitudes toward play.

Alternative hypothesis: Marital agreement on develop-
mental/traditional conceptions of childhood and parenthood
does predict marital agreement on attitudes toward play.

The mean and standard deviation for the independent
variable, conceptions of childhood and parenthood, were
computed for the thirty-two couples. The data are shown in

Table 4.20.

115

TABLE 4.20
Mean and Standard Deviation:

Marital Agreement on Conceptions of Parenthood and Childhood

 

Variable Mean Standard
Deviation

 

Marital agreement on
conceptions of parent-
hood and childhood 18.72 4.01

 

A regression analysis using the variable marital agree-
ment on conceptions of childhood and parenthood with the
criterion marital agreement on attitudes toward play was
computed for the thirty-two couples. The regression
coefficient of .0838 was not significant at the .05 level;
therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. The results

of the regression analysis are reported in Table 4.21.

TABLE 4.21
Results of Regression Analysis Predicting
Marital Agreement on Attitudes toward Play from

Marital Agreement on Conceptions of Parenthood

 

 

IRegression R2 Beta Standard F-ratio Probability
Coefficient Error of
(bhiltiple R) Beta

.0838 .0070 .0668 .1451 .2123 .6484

 

Degrees of Freedom: 1 6: 30

116

9. Null hypothesis: The following characteristics
do not predict marital agreement on attitudes toward play:
sex of children, location of residence, age of youngest
child, age of oldest child, number of children, years
married, money spent on toys, and social position.

Alternative hypothesis: The following characteristics
do predict marital agreement on attitudes toward play:
sex of children, location of residence, age of youngest
child, age of oldest child, number of children, years
married, money spent on toys, and social position.

The means and standard deviations for the independent
variables were computed for mothers and fathers and are
reported in Table 4.9.

An analysis of variance using the independent variable
sex of children with the criterion marital agreement on
attitudes toward play was computed. Results of the analysis
of variance indicated an F-ratio of .4584 which is not sig-
nificant at the .05 level; therefore, no difference exists
across the sex groups for marital agreement on attitudes
toward play. Results are included in Table 4.22.

An analysis of variance using the independent variable
location of residence with the criterion marital agreement
on attitudes toward play was computed. Results of the
analysis indicated there was no significant difference
between the four location groups for marital agreement on

attitudes toward play. Results are included in Table 4.23.

117

TABLE 4.22
Analysis of Variance:
Dependent Variable - Marital Agreement on Attitudes toward Play

Independent Variable - Sex of Children

 

Mean Square F-ratio Probability

 

4.8556 .4584 .6368

 

Degrees of Freedom: 2 & 29

TABLE 4.23
Analysis of Variance:
Dependent Variable - Marital Agreement on Attitudes toward Play

Independent Variable - Location of residence

 

Mean Square F-ratio Probability

 

11.5819 1.1494 .3465

 

Degrees of Freedom: 3 & 28

118

Regression coefficients for the continuous variables
(age of youngest child, age of oldest child, number of
children, years married, money spent on toys, and social
position) with the criterion marital agreement on attitudes
toward play were computed.

Only the variable money spent on toys was significant
at the .001 level. A relationship exists between the amount
of money spent on toys and marital agreement on attitudes
toward play as measured by the Opinion Survey on Children's
Pley. The relationship between money spent on toys and
marital agreement on attitudes toward play was in the
negative direction.

The multiple regression analysis of the demographic
variables with the criterion marital agreement on attitudes
toward play was computed. The multiple regression coeffi-
cient was .2702. The square of the multiple R was .07.

The analysis of overall regression showed an F-ratio of
.3282 which is not significant at the .05 level. The
results of the multiple and individual regression analyses

are shown in Table 4.24.

119

om a a "mommamsm noammouwou Hmnna>anaa How Eonooum mo moouwmn
mommamam Goammouwma Hmona>anca mo muasmmmss
mamhamcm coammoamma omaBQmum mo muanmoms

 

 

«mom. mnqa. ammo. omNo.u mqoo. oono. noauamom
amaoomss
Naom. ammo. owed. maoa. omoo. aqqo. naaso umm
uwcfio% mo mw<¥¥
amam. momo.a mesa. moma. ammo. mmma. ooauama
mamowsa
Nome. mmom. mesa. ammo. mooo. ammo. UHHSU
amonao mo ow<¥¥
maww. Nomo. mama. ammo. nooo. ammo. aoaoaaso
mo Monaszas
oooo. oomm.qa oqoo. maao.n wmmm. moan. whoa no
woman hoaoz¥s
muom Am mamauanzv
mo Honum uaoaoawmmoo
muaaaamaoam oaumaum namnamum muom mm Goammoawom oanmaam>

 

mmam. u auaaaamaoaa amam. u oaumu-a ma m m u as omao.

am aoaa. u m maaauapz*

moauwaaouomumno oaammnwoamm
Eonw %mHm pum3ou monSHHuu¢ no ucmfimouw< asuanmz wcwuoanoam
mommamc< coammmummm Hmsna>awca paw oamwuasz mo muafimom

qw.¢ MAm<H

120

10. Null hypothesis: The following combination of
variables does not predict fathers' attitudes toward play:
fathers' developmentalltraditional conceptions of childhood
and parenthood, fathers' knowledge of play, mothers'
attitudes toward play, mothers' knowledge of play, and
mothers' developmental/traditional conceptions of child-
hood and parenthood.

Alternative hypothesis: The following combination
of variables does predict fathers' attitudes toward play:
fathers' developmental/traditional conceptions of child-
hood and parenthood, fathers' knowledge of play, mothers'
attitudes toward play, mothers' knowledge of play, and
mothers' developmental/traditional conceptions of child-
hood and parenthood.

A multiple regression analysis of the five independent
variables with the criterion fathers' attitudes toward play
was computed. The multiple regression equation combines
the predictive value of the five independent variables
into a formula in order to detect the combined contribution
of the independent variables to the dependent variable.

The multiple regression coefficient between the
combination of variables and the criterion fathers' atti-
tudes toward play was .6462. The analysis of overall
regression showed an F-ratio of 3.7282 which is significant
at the .01 level. The results of the multiple regression

analysis are shown in Table 4.25.

121

 

Acoammouwou mmaBmmum m CH nmhmuco moanmaam>v

 

 

ammm.a mama. mama.a amaa mo
mmsmaaoca .mumEuoz amv

aoas.e aaaa. aamm.a amaa mo
wwmeBOSx .muonumm Adv

mmam.n mmwo. Nwmo.m noonoaano

w noonucmumm mo
maoaumoocoo .maonuoz Amv

mmma.sa mmao. aoaa.m a3a mango“
monauauum .maosuoz va

«aoN.ma noqo. nomn.¢ noonpaafio

a nooSDGonm mo
mcoaummoaoo .maonumm Aav

am m>auaem< auaaaamaoum oaumu-m mammaum>
Naao. u muaaanmnoam Nwmn.m u omumaum cm a m n mo oaaq. H mm Noam. n m mamauanz

moanmaum> nocanaou

anm hmam numBou mooduauu< .maonumm wcauoawoum

mamhama< Goammmawmm oamauaaz mo muafimom

mN.¢ mqm<H

122

ll. Null hypothesis: The following combination of
variables does not predict mothers' attitudes toward play:
fathers' knowledge of play, fathers' developmentall
traditional conceptions of childhood and parenthood, fathers'
attitudes toward play, mothers' developmentalltraditional
conceptions of childhood and parenthood, and mothers'
knowledge of play.

Alternative hypothesis: The following combination of
variables does predict mothers' attitudes toward play:
fathers' knowledge of play, fathers' developmentall
traditional conceptions of childhood and parenthood,
fathers' attitudes toward play, mothers' developmentall
traditional conceptions of childhood and parenthood, and
mothers' knowledge of play.

A multiple regression analysis of the five independent
variables with the criterion mothers' attitudes toward
play was computed. The multiple regression equation
combines the predictive value of the five independent
variables into a formula in order to detect the combined
contribution of the independent variables to the dependent
variable.

The multiple regression coefficient between the com-
bination of variables and the criterion mothers' attitudes
toward play was .4442. The analysis of overall regression
showed an F-ratio of 1.2784 which is not significant at
the .05 level. The results of the multiple regression

analysis are shown in Table 4.26.

123

 

Acoammouwmu mmflsmoum m Ca nonouao moanmaum>v

 

 

mmmo.a Nana. enmm. noonoaaao

a noozuamamm mo
maoaummocoo .muonumm Amv

mmom.m mmma. oama.a amaa mo
mmmmasoaa .mumsuma asv

mmmm. mmoo. mama. ooonnaano

w nOOSunmumm mo
mcomumooaoo .wumsuoz Amv

amam. mmmm. mmmo. amaa mo
ownoHSOGx .mumauoz Amv

omom.ma mmmo. osmm.q amaa masses
mandamuum .maonumm Aav

am m>auaum< auaaammmoam oaumu-m mammaum>
amom. u auaaaamaoaa emaa.a u oaumu-m ma m m u mm mama. u am aess. u a maaauasz

moanmahm> nocanaoo

80am hmam namBou moofluauu< .maosuoz waauoanoam

mammamc< coammouwom oamauanz mo muadmmm

0N.¢ mgm<H

 

be“

enc

13101

The

124

12. Null hypothesis: There is no significant difference
between maternal and paternal attitudes toward play.

Alternative hypothesis: There is a significant differ-
ence between maternal and paternal attitudes toward play.

The means and standard deviations were computed for
mothers and fathers on the attitude toward play variable.

The data are shown in Table 4.27.

Table 4.27
Mean and Standard Deviation:

Parental Attitudes toward Play

 

Variable Mean Standard
Deviation

 

Mothers' attitudes
toward play 67.81 5.22

Fathers' attitudes
toward play 66.63 5.76

 

The dependent t test for difference between means was
used because the data were considered dependent since the
data were obtained from persons in the same family. The
t value of 1.78 was not significant at the .05 level; there-
fore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. No difference

existed between discrepancy score from 0.

125

Summary of Analyses

 

A summary of the formal hypotheses tested indicating
the significance level and whether the hypothesis was
rejected or not rejected follows:

Null Hypotheses Tested Significance Hypotheses

Level Rejected or
Not Rejected

 

1. Developmental conceptions H 1 .16 Not Rejected

of parenthood and child- 0

hood do not predict the

attitudes of mothers

and fathers toward play H02 .04 Not Rejected
2. Knowledge about chil- H 1 .33 Not Rejected

dren's play does not 0

predict the attitudes

of mothers and fathers

toward play H02 .08 Not Rejected
3. The number of home play H 1 .22 Not Rejected

materials (toys) does not 0

predict the attitudes of

mothers and fathers

toward play H02 .16 Not Rejected
4. The eight categories of H la .12 Not Rejected

home play materials do 0

not predict, either H lb .25 Not Rejected

individually or in com- o

bination, the attitudes H 23 .14 Not Rejected

of mothers and fathers 0

toward play. H .001 Rejected

02b
(a = mothers' results) HO3a .74 Not Rejected
(b = fathers' results) H03b .99 Not Rejected
Ho4a .61 Not Rejected
Ho4b .64 Not Rejected

126

HoSa .06 Not Rejected
HOSb .25 Not Rejected
Ho6a .97 Not Rejected
Ho6b .65 Not Rejected
Ho7a .77 Not Rejected
Ho7b .47 Not Rejected
H08a .83 Not Rejected
Multiple Regressions: mothers HoBb .68 Not Rejected
Multiple Regression: fathers Ho9a .43 Not Rejected

The attitudes of mothers Hola .30 Not Rejected

and fathers cannot be pre-

dicted from the following Holb .51 Not Rejected

characteristics: sex of

children, residence, age of HoZa .88 Not Rejected

youngest child, age of

oldest child, number of HoZb .04 Rejected

children, years married,

money spent on toys, HoBa .41 Not Rejected

social position.
110313.82 Not Rejected

(a = mothers' results) H043 .63 Not Rejected

(b = fathers' results) Ho4b .24 Not Rejected
HoSa .86 Not Rejected
HoSb .02 Not Rejected
Ho6a .59 Not Rejected
Ho6b .37 Not Rejected
Ho7a .005 Rejected
Ho7b .05 Rejected
Ho8a .69 Not Rejected
H081) . 22 Not Rejected

127

Multiple Regression: mothers Ho9a .20 Not Rejected
Multiple Regression: fathers H09b .03 Rejected
6. Marital agreement on
knowledge of play does
not predict marital agree-
ment on attitudes toward
play. .33 Not Rejected
7. Marital agreement on
child's play activities
does not predict marital
agreement on attitudes
toward play. .02 Rejected
8. Marital agreement on
conceptions of parent-
hood and childhood does
not predict marital agree-
ment on attitudes toward
play. .65 Not Rejected
9. Marital agreement on H01 .64 Not Rejected
attitudes toward play cannot
be predicted from each of H02 .35 Not Rejected
the eight demographic
characteristics. H03 .001 Rejected
H04 .89 Not Rejected
H05 .65 Not Rejected
H06 .31 Not Rejected
H07 .81 Not Rejected

H08 .70 Not Rejected

128

10. Predictions from a
combination of variables
do not predict fathers'
attitudes toward play. .01 Rejected

11. Predictions from a
combination of variables
do not predict mothers'
attitudes toward play. .30 Not Rejected

12. No significant difference
exists between maternal
and paternal attitudes
toward play. .29 Not Rejected

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

In this chapter, the results of the study are summarized
and discussed. The limitations of the study, the implica-
tions of the findings and suggestions for future research

are included.

Summary of Results

 

Investigation of the difference between maternal and
paternal attitudes toward play indicated that there was no
overall significant difference between the attitudes of
mothers and fathers toward play. Marital agreement on
child's play activities was a significant predictor of
marital agreement on attitudes toward play. The independent
variables of marital agreement on knowledge of play concepts
and developmentalltraditional conceptions of childhood and
parenthood were not predictors of marital agreement on
attitudes toward play. The amount of money spent on home
play materials was a predictor of marital agreement on
attitudes toward play. Results indicated that as the amount

of money couples spent on home play materials increased the

129

 

130

likelihood that the couples would agree on their attitudes
toward play decreased.

A number of individual variables reflected predictive
value for the play attitudes of mothers as a group and
fathers as a group. Developmental conceptions of childhood
and parenthood were predictive of fathers' attitudes toward
play. Location of residence was predictive of fathers'
attitudes toward play. More specifically, fathers who lived
on working farms differed significantly in their attitudes
toward play from fathers who lived in rural, nonfarm areas.
WOrking farm fathers had significantly less positive atti-
tudes toward play than fathers in the other groups.

Knowledge about play concepts approached significance
at the .08 level and was, therefore, in the direction of
prediction of fathers' attitudes toward play. The number
of children was predictive of fathers' attitudes toward play.
Results indicated that as the number of children increased,
the fathers' attitudes toward play became less positive.

The amount of money spent on home play materials was pre-
dictive of both mothers' and fathers' attitudes toward play.
As the amount of money mothers and fathers spent on home
play materials increased, the mothers' and fathers' attitudes
toward play became less positive.

Of the eight categories of home play materials, only
the expressive category was predictive at the .06 signifi-

cance level of mothers' attitudes toward play. As the

131

number of expressive materials in the home increased,
mothers' attitudes toward play became less positive.

The multiple regression equation predicted fathers' atti-
tudes toward play from the combination of the eight catego-
ries of home play materials at the .06 significance level.

The multiple regression equation was successfully
used to predict the attitudes of fathers toward play from
the following combined variables: money spent on toys,
number of children, age of oldest child, years married, age
of youngest child, and social position.

The multiple regression equation was successfully
used to predict the attitudes of fathers toward play from
the combination of the following variables: fathers' con-
ceptions of childhood and parenthood, mothers' attitudes
toward play, mothers' conceptions of childhood and parent-

hood, fathers' knowledge of play, and mothers' knowledge of

play.

Discussion

 

A general comparison between mothers' and fathers'
attitudes toward play indicated that fathers' attitudes
tended to be more predictable than mothers' attitudes. The
results indicate that fathers classified as developmental
by Blood's (1952) criteria were more likely to report
attitudes toward play that suggest flexibility, spontaneity,

exploration and autonomy than were fathers classified as

132

traditional. The researcher is not entirely clear why
similar results were not found for mothers' developmental
conceptions of childhood and parenthood. One explanation
might be that the sample size was too small to detect sig-
nificance. Another possibility might be that rural mothers
have maintained traditional beliefs about the roles of
family members. The deluge of recent mass media reports on
women's liberation may reflect changes in the urban women's
roles and expectations but not in the roles and expectations
of rural women. Many of the rural women in this study lived
on farms where the husbands worked in the fields all day.
Division of labor along traditional lines is a viable and
functional alternative in their family systems.

Results of the regression analysis predicting parental
attitudes toward play from knowledge of children's play
indicate that fathers who have a better knowledge of chil-
dren's play concepts are more likely to report positive
attitudes toward play (significant at the .08 level).
Although this analysis was not significant at the .05 level,
it is important to note this result since this is explora-
tory research in the area of fathers' attitudes and know-
ledge. Similar results were not found for mothers' know-
ledge of play again possibly due to small sample size.

The number of home play materials was not predictive

for either mothers' or fathers' attitudes toward play. One

133

explanation might be that all of the families had a generous
number of toys in the home. The relationship between number
of toys and parental attitudes toward play was in the nega-
tive direction indicating that as the number of home play
materials increases, the attitudes toward play become less
positive. One explanation might be that parents buy toys

for their children to substitute for actual time spent in
parent-child interaction. Substitution of a new toy for
parental attention is a pattern frequently observed in parent-
child research.

The didactic games category was predictive of fathers'
attitudes toward play. The relationship was in the negative
direction indicating that as the number of didactic games
in the home increases, the less positive the fathers' atti-
tudes toward children's play become. A possible explanation
may be that the purpose of didactic games is to teach chil-
dren certain skills, and rural fathers who hold the view
that play is an insignificant diversion believe that didac-
tic games which teach skills are more worthwhile than free
play activities.

The category of expressive play materials was predic-
tive of mothers' attitudes toward play at the .06 signifi-
cance level. The results indicate that as the number of
expressive materials in the home increases the less positive

the mothers' attitudes toward play become. One explanation

134

may be that one purpose of expressive, art materials is to
promote creativity and spontaneity, and mothers may be
buying expressive materials for their children to substitute
for actual time spent in mother-child creative, spontaneous
play interaction.

An analysis of variance showed that the attitudes of
fathers who lived on working farms differed significantly
from the attitudes of fathers who lived in nonfarm, rural
areas, in villages with a population under 1000 and 5000.
The fathers who lived on working farms had an average score
on the attitude toward play scale of 63.50 which was signifi-
cantly lower than the average scores of the other groups.
One explanation may be that the fathers on working farms
are less concerned that play is important and more concerned
with each family member putting time and energies into his
allocated chores. Successful functioning of a working farm
often requires each member of the system, including the young
ones, to assume responsibilities and carry them out consist-
ently and conscienciously. The puritan work ethic may
continue to be a strong influence in the rural, working farm
families, thereby, creating a home atmosphere which does not
promote playfulness.

The number of children in a family was predictive of
fathers' attitudes toward play in this study. The relation-
ship was in a negative direction indicating that as the

number of children increases, fathers' attitudes toward play

135

become less positive. One explanation may be that with the
addition of each new child fathers feel increased financial
responsibilities and more demands for their time and atten-
tion. After working all day, there may be no energy left
over for more than coping with the primary tasks of living.
Less quantitative time exists for interaction with spouses
which can lead to increased frustration and dysfunctional
communication.

For both mothers and fathers, the amount of money spent
on home play materials was predictive of attitudes toward
play. The amount of money spent on toys was also predictive
of marital agreement on attitudes toward play. The relation-
ships were in the negative direction indicating that the
more money parents spent on toys, the less positive were
their attitudes toward children's play. One explanation
might be that parents who do not hold an attitude toward play
which promotes playfulness, flexibility, spontaneity and
creativity may be spending more on home play materials to
compensate for the lack of time spent in direct play inter-
action with their children.

One problem recognized in this study regarding the
money spent on home play materials is that parents were
asked to recall what they spent on play materials over a
period of a year. The accuracy of the recall in the area

of money spent on play materials over a twelve month period

136

is questionable. The parents reported spending an average
of $96.00. It has been reported that the average amount of
money spent on play materials for children under the age of
fifteen in the United States was $76.00 in 1973. Inflation
may be a factor which accounts for the discrepancy in paren-
tal reports on the amount of money spent on play materials
during the intervening two years.

Parents who agreed on their preschool child's home play
activities had similar attitudes toward play. The researcher
is not entirely clear why similar results were not found
for agreement on knowledge of play concepts and conceptions
of childhood and parenthood. The small sample size might
be one explanation. Another explanation might be that
attitudes are not predicted by knowledge. Perhaps attitudes,
or predispositions to behave, are based on variables other
than or in addition to those investigated in this study.

Fathers' attitudes toward play were successfully pre-
dicted by combining fathers' conceptions of childhood and
parenthood, mothers' attitudes toward play, mothers' con-
ceptions of childhood and parenthood, fathers' knowledge of
play, and mothers' knowledge of play. The variable mothers'
attitudes toward play contributed significantly to the
multiple regression equation indictating that the spouses'
attitudes toward play, knowledge of play, and conceptions
of childhood and parenthood may be predictive variables

which could be further investigated.

137

No significant difference exists between the attitudes
of the mothers and the attitudes of the fathers. This
result is in contradiction to the results reported in
Chapter II from previous research which concluded there
were significant differences between the attitudes and
opinions of mothers and fathers (McIntire, Nass, and
Battistone, 1974; Eron, Banta, walder, and Laulicht, 1961;
Seeley, 1956; Fanshel, 1966; O'Brien, 1970; and Mueller,
1970). An explanation may be that the sample size was too
small and too homogeneous to detect differences in this

study.

Limitations

 

In interpreting the results of this study, the follow-
ing limitations should be considered:

1. The subjects were not randomly selected from the
general population. The sample size was small, and the sub-
jects were relatively homogeneous.

2. The instruments were self-report measures. The
degree to which the subjects' responses reflect true atti-
tudes and knowledge is, therefore, uncertain.

3. Due to inadequate standardization of the measures
used, validity and reliability have not been firmly estab-
lished.

4. Observational measures of parental behaviors to

validate the assumption that parental attitudes are reflected

138

in behavior via decisions about play activities, settings
and procedures were not used.

5. Attitudes and knowledge of the parents were
investigated; therefore, only one aspect of the parent—
child relationship, a reciprocal process, was examined.

6. Variables other than those or in combination with
those used in this study may be critical for consideration
in the prediction of parental attitudes toward play.

7. Parental attitudes are subject to change and

difficult to isolate and identify.

Implications

 

The primary importance of this study lies in the
basis it provides for further research of fathers' attitudes
and behaviors and for further investigation into the area
of marital agreement and the resultant implications for the
child's socialization within the family system.

Intervention programs designed to assist families in
the development of effective interaction skills are surfac-
ing throughout the States. Some are initiated through
family and child scientists and educators, some through
church leaders, some throngh the local YMCA's and YWCA's,
and some through university extension programs. These pro-
grams often involve only one parent and focus on changing
attitudes and behaviors through education. The results of

this research which indicate that knowledge is not predictive

139

of attitudes for rural parents raises a basic question about
the proposal that educating parents will lead to attitude
changes and subsequent behavior changes. Further research

in the area of educational, intervention approaches with a
focus on behavior changes over time could help to clarify the
proposition.

The results of this study suggest the importance of
including the fathers in the research design since in this
study it was the fathers' scores that were discriminating.
Although the conclusions of this research can be applied
only to rural, mid-western families on working farms and in
towns with populations under 5000, it is important to add
these results to those of previous research studies which
represented only rural populations. Investigation of a
sample representative of other populations or the total

population is a next needed step.

Suggestions For Further Research

Based on the findings of this study, a number of areas
for investigation in future research are suggested. The
following recommendations should be considered:

1. The present study could be replicated with a
larger, statistically representative sample of rural parents.

2. The present study could be replicated with a
larger, statistically representative sample of the total

population.

140

3. Further validity and reliability checks could be
made on the measures used in this research.

4. An observational study conducted in the home environ-
ment focusing on the actual play behaviors of mothers and
fathers in connection with their children's home play
activities could be implemented.

5. Further research to discover if a spouse's knowledge
of play concepts, developmentalltraditional conceptions of
childhood and parenthood are predictive of the other spouse's
attitudes toward children's play is needed.

6. The reciprocal influences of the parents and child
in play interactions could be investigated.

7. Further research to discover the optimum home con-
ditions which will encourage play abilities in preschool
children is needed.

8. Parental awareness of the degree of marital agree-
ment on attitudes toward play could be investigated.

9. In behavioral terms, low marital agreement on play
attitudes, knowledge of play concepts, and developmental]
traditional conceptions of childhood and parenthood results
in inconsistent messages for the child. Further research
to discover how preschool children cope with the inconsist-
encies and how they act in play situations with each parent

is needed.

141

10. Longitudinal data concerning the actual amount of
money parents spend on toys at different ages could be
gathered.

11. Marital agreement on other issues central to family
life (money management, extended family relations) could be

studied in relation to parental attitudes about children's

play.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

\IU'ILJOH

10.
11.
12.

13.

14.

15.

l6.

l7.

18.

APPENDIX A

GENERAL INFORMATION

 

 

 

Name: 2. Sex: M F
Age: 4. Address:
Telephone number: 6. Years Married:

 

Draw a circle around the highest year of schooling com-

pleted;
l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 l 2 3 4 l 2 3 4 l 2 3 4
Grade School High School College Post Graduate

Number of children:

 

a. Ages of boys: ; ; ; ;

 

b. Ages of girls: ; ; ; ;

 

 

Husband's occupation

 

Wife's occupation

 

Wife's occupation before marriage

 

Do you live in an apartment , a house , other

(specify)

 

Do you live on a working farm
in a rural area, nonfarm
in a village under 1,000
in a town of 1,000 to 5,000

 

 

Does your child go to any organized programs outside of
the home? Yes No

 

Approximately how much money do you spend on toys a
month? a year?

When do you purchase toys for your child?

 

 

Do you feel you have enough room in your home for your
family's everyday activities? Yes No

 

Do you feel your child has enough room to play inside
your home? Yes No

 

142

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

143

Do you feel your child has enough room to play safely
outside your home? Yes No

 

What do you think the purpose of a child's play is?

 

 

How many times has your child borrowed toys from the
library?

 

Do you and your child play together with the borrowed
toys? Yes No

 

Have you used the direction sheets for the toys? Yes
No

 

If no, why not?

 

If yes, have you found them helpful? Yes No

If yes, in what ways?

 

How do you feel about having toys for your child to borrow
from the library?

 

 

 

 

APPENDIX B

APPENDIX B

OPINION SURVEY ON CHILDREN'S PLAY

Please give your opinion, as a parent, about each of the
following statements about families with preschool children.
Do this by circling the letter of the answer that comes closest
to your own feeling. Please choose only the one opinion that
best describes how you feel in each case about families with
preschool children.

Remember, what is wanted is your Opinion about each state-
ment. Whether or not these statements are actually true of
your household is not important here. As With other information
you give us, your opinions will be held in the strictest con-
fidence and will be used only for statistical summaries about
all the parents that we interview. You as an individual parent
will not be identified. Therefore, we hope that you will give
your opinions as honestly as you can, without worrying about
whether someone would think they are good or bad. None of the
possible opinions in this questionnaire are necessarily "good"
or "bad" nor "right" or "wrong". It is only how you feel that
is important. Thank you for your cooperation.

Person answering questionnaire

a. Father
b. Mother

1. When should children be allowed to take their toys apart?

Only when the toy is inexpensive

Never

Only when the toy is meant to be taken apart
Whenever the child wants to

CLO 0‘03

2. When should a child watch television?

a.‘ When he needs something to keep him occupied
b. Whenever he wants to

c When the parent approves of the program

d Never

3. Children should obey the old rule, "to be seen and not
heard."

a. Never

b. Always (Children should speak only when spoken to)

c. Whenever what is said by the child could be embarrass-
ing or disrespectful

d. When adults are visiting together in the home and
wish not to be interrupted.

144

145

Boys should be discouraged from playing with girls'
toys and games.

a.
b.
c.
d.

Only when the child is playing with other boys
Only when the child seems to play with girls' toys
to excess or more than he plays with boys' toys
Always

Never

Girls should be discouraged from playing with boys'
toys and games.

0‘93

>- cno

Q0 0“”

Only when the child is playing with other girls
Only when the child seems to play with boys' toys
and games to an excess or more than she plays with
girls' toys and games

Never

Always

child should share his or her toys with other children.

When parents can supervise the sharing

When the child's friends also share their toys
Always, whether he wants to or not

Whenever he wants to inside or outside of the home

Adults should play with their children.

a.

b.

Whenever the parent has time to play with the child
or just feels like it

Except for some obvious exceptions, such as inter-
fering with work, the parent should play whenever
asked by the child

Whenever the conditions of play and the time are
equally convenient and agreeable to both the parent
and the child

Whenever the parent and child set aside a time to
play when they can be assured of not being interrupted.

Parents should buy their child a new toy.

a.

9:0

Whenever the child has earned a toy through good
deeds or behavior

Mainly on special occasions such as Christmas or
birthdays

Whenever the parent feels in a mood to buy one
Whenever the child expresses a sincere desire for a
specific toy

10.

ll.

12.

13.

146

wrestling or "rough housing" should be done:

a. Only outdoors

b. Anywhere in the house or outside under parental
supervision

Only in designated areas in the house

Whenever and wherever the child wants as long as
it is done in moderation

CLO

Given a situation in which a child receives a new toy
which he does not know how to use but seems to gain
enjoyment by using in the wrong way, how should parents
react to this?

a. Show the child the correct way to use the toy

b. Let the child play with the new toy any way he wants
as long as he is having fun

c. Put the toy away and bring it out at another time

d. Make the child stop playing with it

Children should check with their parents before trading
or giving away any of their play things.

Completely agree

Agree but with some exceptions or reservations
Disagree, but with some exceptions or reservations
Completely disagree

Dan 0‘03

Children should be allowed to play anywhere they want
in or around the house, as long as it does not endanger
their safety or health.

Completely agree

Agree, but with some exceptions or reservations
Disagree, but with some exceptions or reservations
Completely disagree

CLO 0‘93

Parents should welcome their children's chosen friends,
whoever they are, in their home.

Completely agree

Agree, but with some exceptions or reservations
Disagree, but with some exceptions or reservations
Completely disagree

QaOO‘DJ

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

147

The things that children do in their play should mainly
be things that teach them useful skills. ‘

Completely agree

Agree, but with some exceptions or reservations
Disagree, but with some exceptions or reservations
Completely disagree

0.0 0“”

The main purpose of a child's play should be to have fun.

Completely agree

Agree, but with some exceptions or reservations
Disagree, but with some exceptions or reservations
Completely disagree

Duo 0‘93

Boys should be discouraged from playing with dolls or other
female toys.

a Completely agree .

b. Agree, but with some exceptions or reservations

c. Disagree, but with some exceptions or reservations
d. Completely disagree

Given a situation in which a preschool child has toys all
over his or her room but does not seem interested in
putting them away, how should parents react?

a. Tell the child to put the toys away before he or she
will be able to do something enjoyable (example: hav-
ing a snack, watching television, reading a book before
bedtime, etc.)

b. Parents should pick up the toys and put them away.

c Parents should begin to pick up the toys and encourage
the child to join in.

d. Leave the toys where they are.

When should a child be allowed to play in water?

a. Outside when he is dressed properly.

b. Whenever he wants to.

c. Only in the bathtub.

d. When the child wants to, and you are able to be nearby.
When should a child be allowed to play with his or her
brother's or sister's toys?

Whenever the child wants to.

Whenever the brother or sister lets him.
Never

Whenever the parents say it is alright.

D-OU‘D

20.

21.

148

How should parents react when they see their preschool
child tearing a book?

a.
b.
c.

d.

Spank the child

Say nothing to the child and either repair or throw
away the book

Repair the book with the child's help and explain
that books are for reading not tearing

Scold the child and take the book away.

Where should children be allowed to play alone outside?

an 0‘03

only in the yard

within certain areas in the neighborhood

anyplace he wants to as long as he is home on time
they should not play outside alone

APPENDIX C

APPENDIX C

PRESCHOOL CHILDREN'S PLAY
PART I — Please mark (x) the age at which you think children

begin to do these activities.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

_Age in Mo. 912-24 25-36 37-48’49-60'61-84

The child begins: Age in Yrs. 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5-7

1. Pretending to eat or sleep
while playing alone

2. Building a house with
blocks

3. Hopping on one foot

4. To be able to keep play going
with another child the same age

5. Including or excluding others
from his play

6. Carrying out a whole series of
pretend events such as feeding
baby, bathing baby and putting
baby to bed

7. Matching and sorting toys

8. Asking many "why" questions

9. Catching a large ball with arms
outstretched

10. Taking turns

11. Playing house or store with
another child the same age

12. Acting out more than one part
while playing alone

13. Playing hide and seek

14. Becoming an imaginary character

15. Skipping

16. Running smoothly & well

 

 

 

 

 

 

149

 

PART II - Directions:

l7.

l8.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.
29.

30.

31.

150

Please mark (x) those statements about

families and children ages 2-5 with which you agree

or disagree.

Blocks and puppets are intended for play at
specific age levels.

Children often try to complete puzzles or
build buildings which are too difficult for
them.

The use of the body is essential to children's
learning and memory.

If a toy is labeled educational, children who
have it will learn the educational goals that
are stated on the box.

Playful people are more versatile and creative.

The child learns to play just as he learns to
dress himself.

New toys should be played with by a parent to
stimulate child interest.

Children tend to copy their parents' imaginative
behavior. -

Babies under a year old do not need a variety of
toys.

The child learns to give and take in playing
games with his parents at about the same time

give and take occurs in play with other children.

Repeating new skills such as jumping is fun for
the child.

Children learn order and rules by playing games.

Children usually react to danger sometime later
by revising the situation and becoming the thing
that frightens them.

Adults encourage play with toys such as stoves
and trucks because the adult world is too
dangerous and too complex for the child.

Children show what they think and feel about
their family when they play house.

Agree

Disa-
gree

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

151

Directions: Please mark (x) those statements about

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.
38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

43.

44.

45.

46.

47.

families and children ages 2-5 with which
you agree or disagree.

Agree
Little children should throw small balls and
catch big ones to develop skill.

Disa-
gree

 

Stringing beads and reading have nothing in
common.

 

Many children spend most of their free time
watching others.

 

When 2 or more children play together, deciding
what to play and how to play takes longer than
the actual play time.

 

 

Boys tend to be more agressive than girls in play.

Imaginative play is a waste of time.

 

Basic ideas of measurement are developed by
playing with sand and water.

 

Watching television helps children develop
play skills.

 

”I am a house cleaner" works better than can
I play?" when a child wants to join another
child playing house.

 

Children learn to do things well by doing them
over and over again.

 

Children try out play ideas by themselves before

 

trying it out with other children.

After the child masters a skill he combines it
with other skills.

 

Make-believe play does not help the child to
solve ordinary family problems such as spilling
food or milk at dinner.

 

It's not too much to ask that children take care
of their toys and play with them appropriately.

 

Busy parents cannot teach the child a large
number of ideas because they have other things
to do like cleaning or cooking.

 

Children who are truly creative will act just
like other children the same age in similar
situations.

 

 

152

Directions: Please mark (x) those statements about

48.

49.

50.

51.

52.

53.

54.

55.

56.

57.

58.

59.

60.

61.

62.

63.

families and children ages 2-5 with which
you agree or disagree.

 

Agree
Children under 5 are too immature to help make
cookies.

Disa-
gree

 

The parent who organizes and uses as play
materials whatever is on hand is teaching his
child as much as the parent who buys many toys.

 

Teasing is the same as play.

 

Parents can help children overcome fears by
pretending to be afraid in a safe and playful
situation.

 

Parents can help their children learn how to
play with others by joining in the play.

 

Parents should kneel or sit at the child's
level while talking and playing with the child.

 

Children learn to play house or store by
themselves.

 

One way to teach make believe is to act out
playing with the doll.

 

Children cannot learn to control themselves
by playing together freely in a group.

 

The number of toys available to the child
does not affect his play behavior.

 

New toys should be given to the child on
Christmas and birthdays rather than
throughout the year.

 

Most children learn to play by watching
others.

 

Parents play with their children differently
at different ages.

 

The parent directs the play when playing
blocks with the child.

 

Children should be allowed to make mistakes
in play.

 

Children may resent continuous guidance beyond
the initial steps.

 

 

153

Directions: Please mark (x) those statements about

64.

65.
66.
67.
68.

69.

70.
71.

72.

73.
74.

75.

76.

77.

families and children ages 2-5 with which
you agree or disagree.

 

Agree
American children are as physically fit as
European children.

Disa—
gree

 

Comparing preschool children's drawings to
older children's work will increase their
effort.

 

Children play more creatively when their
efforts are appreciated.

 

Once the child learns that he can depend

on a regular playtime with a parent, he will
make fewer demands for attention at other
times.

 

Parents should leave the decision of what to
play up to the child.

 

If parents do quiet relaxing activities,
children will learn to enjoy quiet times
too .

 

In imitating his mother's work, a child feels
himself included in her life.

 

If a child becomes restless, a parent
should simply tell him to "go play".

 

Preschool children should be encouraged
to draw pictures of real things, like
houses or animals.

 

Planning is not a part of children's play.

 

Putting some toys away for awhile and
bringing them out again later only
confuses the child.

 

It is easier for a child to show what he
thinks through play than to explain it
with'words.

 

Children should play after their chores
are finished.

 

Children develop the necessary skills
of using their hands for writing in
kindergarten.

 

 

154

Directions: Please mark (x) those statements about

78.

79.

80.

81.

82.

83.

84.

families and children ages 2-5 with which

 

you agree or disagree.

Agree
Skill in striking with a bat and throwing
a ball occur at about the same time.

Disa-
gree

 

Children to whom parents read can tell
stories by themselves.

 

Lotto games are inappropriate for young
children.

 

Puzzles provide practice in problem
solving.

 

The needs for props in dramatic play
increases with the child's age.

 

Toy chests for storage encourage the best
use of toys.

 

Preschool children are too young to use
hammers, nails or saws.

 

 

APPENDIX D

APPENDIX D

BELIEFS ABOUT CHILDHOOD AND PARENTHOOD

A number of statements are listed below about what fathers,
mothers, and children ought to be today. Choose in each
set the five you most agree with.

A.

10.

H

'—|

Choose and circle the appropriate numbers for the five
most desirable characteristics of a father:

\OCDVOU'I-DUONH

Seeks to understand his children.

Works hard to support his family.

Answers his children's questions frankly.

Joins his children in their play.

Develops habits of obedience in his children.
Encourages his children to grow up in their own ways.
Decides what is best for his children.

Disciplines his children.

Works with his family on household tasks.

Buys nice things for his children.

Choose and circle the appropriate numbers for the five
most desirable characteristics of a mother:

00 (DVO‘U'IDDJ NH

Helps her children learn how to get along with others.
Has her children engage in character-building
activities.

Keeps her children clean and well-dressed.
Stimulates her children's mental growth.
Understands her children's feelings.

Makes her children mind.

Is affectionate toward her children.

Trains her children to regular habits (eating,
sleeping, etc.)

Promotes her children's emotional well being.
Is a good housekeeper.

Choose and circle the appropriate numbers for the five
most desirable characteristics of a child:

OOmNO‘U'IDUJNH

Is courteous and respectful to adults.
Confides in his parents.

Likes to play with other children.

Respects property, takes care of his things.
Is curious, eager to learn.

Keeps clean and neat.

Enjoys growing up.

Does his chores and assignments thoroughly.
Is honest and truthful.

Is happy and contented.

155

APPENDIX E

APPENDIX E

QUESTIONNAIRE ABOUT CHILD'S PLAY

For the following questions, please circle the letter
of the answer that best describes your preschool child's
actual play situations or experiences. If you have more
than one preschool child, please think of the child closest
to 4 years of age when you answer these questions. One
answer is not better than another, so we hope you will feel
free to choose the one that best fits for your child.

1. Where in the home is your child allowed to play?

a. anywhere at any time throughout the house
b. in his or her own room
c. anywhere throughout the house if he/she is within
seeing or hearing distance
d. in certain rooms of the house and not in other rooms
2. Under which one of the following conditions does your

child get a new toy most often?

a. as a reward for good behavior or doing a good deed

b. on special occasions such as birthdays, Christmas,
etc.

c. on some regular basis (such as once a week, once a
month, etc.)
for no specific reason, just whenever the parents
feel like buying one

3. What is your child's reaction to a new toy?

a. Plays with the new toy along with other toys and,
even when it is no longer new, will often dig it
out to play with.

b. Plays with the new toy constantly for a period of
time, then leaves the toy, never to use it again.

c. Likes to play with new toy for a while, then will
often trade it for other children's toys.

d. Quickly gets bored with a new toy.

When your child is in a situation where he/she does not

have toys to play with does he/she

00"!”

sit quietly and watch other people or things?
complain about nothing to do?

use other materials (sticks, leaves, newspapers)
to play with?

use no other materials but play by pretending?

156

10.

157

When given a chance to play with another child, what
does your child usually do?

a. plays alone with toys and ignores other child

b. plays alone with toys but watches other child nearby

c. plays alone with toys while talking to other child
nearby

d. plays with other child and shares toys and play
space

Approximately how many hours a day does your child
watch TV?

 

Is your child allowed to use any items which are used
by parents in the home? (Examples: books adult cards
or games, pots and pans, tape recorders, etc.)

a. Yes
b. No

How often does your child use things in play which are
not store bought toys? (Examples: cardboard, rope,
cans, boards, rocks, etc.)

Hardly ever
Occasionally
Frequently

00“”

How often is any play object for your child's use made
in the home? (Examples: wooden toys, stuffed animals,
homemade play dough, etc.)

a. Hardly ever

b. Occasionally

c. Frequently

Do you play with your child?

a. Yes
b. No

If yes, how often?
a. Several times during the day

b. Once a day
c. Once or several times a week

ll.

12.

13.

14.

15.

158

Does your spouse play with your child?

a. Yes
b. No

If yes, how often?

a. Several times during the day
b. Once a day

c. Once or several times a week

Do you read or tell stories or poems to your child?

a. Yes
b. No

If yes, how often?

a. Several times during the day
b. Once a day
c. Once or several times a week

Does your spouse read or tell stories or poems to your
child?

a. Yes
b. No

If yes, how often?

a. Several times during the day
b. Once a day
c. Once or several times a week

How often does your child tell or repeat stories, poems,
or rhymes?

a. Hardly ever
b. Occasionally
c. Frequently

Does your child dance or sing along with any music he
or she hears?

a. Yes
b. No

APPENDIX F

APPENDIX F

TOY & EQUIPMENT INVENTORY

The categories below list most of the types of toys which
are produced for young children.

Please check the appropriate

blanks for the toys which your children now have in your home.
This information will help us select toys for lending which
your children do not already have.

REGULARLY A FAVORITE

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TOYS OWNED USED TOY?
Category I
l. Puzzles
2. Tinker toys
3. Blocks
4. Lego, Lincoln Logs,
other construction
toys
5. Beads for stringing
6. 'Peg board
7} Snapping, zipping,
buttoning toys
8. Nesting, stacking
toys
9) Pounding bench
lUi Flashlight
11. Others:

 

category 11
l.

2:
3:

43

Lotto

Number games
Alphabet, letter
and‘wordggames
Other games:

 

Category III

as flaflss NH

Cars, trucks
Stuffed animals

& toys

Dolls

Pull toy

Music box
Recordgplayer

Toy musical instru-
ments

Toy clock, watch
Other toys with moving
parts:

159

160

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

REGULARLY A FAVORITE
TOYS OWNED USED TOY?
Category IV
1. Telephone
21 Dress-up clothes, hats
3T Puppets
41 Doctor/nurse kit
5} Filling station, barn
toys with small figures
6. Tea set
7. Guns or shootingptoys
Bi Other toys used as
imaginative props:
doll house, miniature
people
Category V
l. Crayons
24 Paints & brushes
3. Clay, play dough
4. Colored paper
5: Coloring books
6. ChildrenTs scissors
7: Chalk
Bi Blackboard
9. Easel
101 Flannel board & felt
cutouts
11. Others:
Category VI
1. Pedal or push cart
2. Wagon
3. Skates
4} Bipycle
51 Balls
6. Others:
CategoryVII
l.p§lay house
2. Slide
3._§and box
44 Rocking horse
5: Athld-size table
6. Child-size chairs
7l Swing or swing set

 

161

REGULARLY A FAVORITE
TOYS OWNED USED TOY?

Category VIII
1. Magnifying glass
2} Magnet
3. Scales or balance

 

Books, approximate number
titles of a few favorites

 

 

 

 

Records, approximate number
titles of a few favorites

 

 

 

 

APPENDIX G

APPENDIX G

LETTER TO PARENTS
January 28, 1975

To the Parents of

 

As you know, toys for lending to children from birth through five
years of age have been placed in the Pigeon Library through the
cooperation of the Human Development Commission in Caro and the

Family & Child Sciences Department of Michigan State University.
Because of the enthusiasm of your librarian, Roberta Richmond, and

the Library Board members, and the community support for new materials
and resources (so strongly reflected in your new library and community
center), Pigeon was chosen as one of the locations to receive the
largest number and widest variety of toys and materials.

Because the library is so well organized and because of your interest,
the Pigeon toy lending program has become a model for the State

of Michigan. The Family & Child Sciences Department has received
‘many calls and letters from persons in other communities who are
interested in starting a toy lending program like yours. Before

'we can help these communities and answer their questions, we need

to get some important information from you about what you - the
parents, and your children think about having toys to borrow in

your library. ‘We want to help other Michigan towns to do what Pigeon
has done, and we need to know what suggestions and ideas you have

as mothers and fathers of the preschoolers already using such a
program.

Under the direction of Dr. Eileen Earhart, Chairman of the Family
& Child Sciences Department, I would like to meet with both of you
for about an hour for this purpose of getting your answers to some
of our questions. All the information on the questionnaires you
'will be asked to fill out will be held in the strictest confidence.
You as an individual parent will not be identified so your answers
‘will be strictly anonymous. Your opinions will only be used for
'making changes in the library program and in summaries about how
all the parents in your community feel.

I am also interested in meeting with you to share some ideas we

have for toys you can easily make for your young children. Although
children may enjoy borrowing toys, they of course need their own
toys to keep at home. ‘With the price of everything going up, you
'may be interested in some toys you and your family could make.

162

163

Our ideas and suggestions have been put together into a booklet,
and we would like each of you to have one to take home. Even if
you do not have the time or interest to make anything now, it may
come in handy sometime in the future. we will have completed toys
that we have made on hand for you to see and examine.

Since I hope you will be able to meet me at the library around Valentine's
Day, I am planning a story hour and some fun activities plus refresh-
ments for all the children of your family while we are meeting.

These special activities will be for all of your children (not just

the preschoolers) so I hope this will make it easier for both of

you to come.

We know how difficult it often is for fathers to arrange their work
so that they can take part in outside family activities, so we have
tried to give you a large choice of times. Since it is the father
and the mother who have the greatest effect on a young child, we
need to know what both of you think.

Please return the attached sheet and the toy list (in the enclosed
self—addressed, stamped envelope) by February 8 so that we can work
with your librarian in planning the programs and refreshments.
Thank you for your cooperation.

Sincerely,

Joan Hoffman Smith
Project Assistant

Name Telephone No.

 

Address

 

Children attending:
Name Age ; Name Age

 

Name Age ; Name Age

 

Please check the day and time both Mother and Father will be able
to come:

Friday, February 14, 1:00 p.m._____
Friday, February 14, 7:00 p.m._____
Saturday, February 15, 10:00 a.m._____
Saturday, February 15, 1:00 p.m.______

‘We would be willing to come, but the above dates are not convenient.

If so, at what other times could you come?

 

APPENDIX H

APPENDIX H

TELEPHONE CONTACT

Hello, is this Mrs. (Mr.) ?

My name is , and I'm calling for Joan
Smith at Michigan State University. She has been working with Roberta
Richmond, our Pigeon librarian, for the past year in getting the toy
lending program together, and I'm.calling to see if you received

her letter about the meeting at the library for parents of all pre-

schoolers in the area.

I'd like to encourage you and your husband (wife) to try to attend -
it doesn't matter if your child hasn't borrowed any toys from the
library yet. There's going to be a Valentine's party and story hour
for all the children which will be fun for them, and this will give
you a chance to look at some of the toys you can make at home for
your children, get your booklet explaining how to make many of the
toys, and give Mrs. Smith some information needed to keep the program

growing.

Our community has been very strong in supporting programs to help
our children so we're hoping we can count on you to come. I think
you'll enjoy the experience and only about an hour of your time is
involved. Would it be possible for you to give me an idea which of

the four times would be the best for you and your husband (wife)?

Thank you for your time this morning (afternoon, evening); I know
Mrs. Smith is looking forward to meeting you. Good-bye.
164

APPENDIX I

APPENDIX I

POSTCARD TO PARENTS

Michigan State University
Dept. of Family & Child Sciences
E. Lansing, Michigan 48823

The booklets and toys are ready, the refreshments made,

and the children's party favors waiting -- all we need

is your family! Won't you please join us at the Pigeon
Library at one of the following times?

Friday, Feb. 14, 1:00 p.m. Saturday, Feb. 15, 10:00 a.m.

Friday, Feb. 14, 7:00 p.m. Saturday, Feb. 15, 1:00 p.m.

165

APPENDIX J

1 month

2 months

3 months

4 months

5 months

6-9 months

10-12 months

Characteristics:

166
APPENDIX J

CHILD DEVELOPMENT PROFILE
0-1 Years

 

Sucks, listens to sounds, stares at light,

briefly follows moving stimulus, lifts head
slightly when prone, quieted when held and

rocked.

Focuses and follows moving person, holds
head erect when held in a sitting position,
smiles, listens to musical sounds, bats at
nearby objects.

Eyes follow moving objects, lifts head and
chest when in prone position, grasps crudely,
vigorously moves arms and legs.

Grasps things and then lets go (finger,
pencil, etc.), laughs, kicks, rolls from
side to side.

Sits with support, shakes, feels and bangs
things, tries to reach objects, rolls over.

Recognizes familiar faces, cries if strangers
pay attention to him/her, sits alone, uses
fingers and thumb for grasping, throws and
bangs toys together, creeps, says "Mama"

and "Dada", pulls up into upright position.

Fills and empties containers, stands with
support, takes steps when supported, crawls,
drinks from a cup, imitates sounds, says a
few new words.

1—2 Years

 

Begins to walk and gain in body control; climbs on furniture.
Creeps up and down stairs; may begin to walk up stairs with

help.

Still senses and absorbs his environment.
Enjoys pushing and pulling toys.

Stacks 2 or 3 blocks; also lines up blocks.
Pokes fingers into holes.

Turns pages; enjoys tearing papers.

Points to eyes, nose, ears, mouth.

167
(l-2 Years Cont'd.)

Recognizes pictures of cars, dogs, etc.

Waves bye bye; talks in jargon and uses gestures.

Is imitative.

Responds to music.

Holds a cup and eats with a spoon.

Enjoys self absorbed play; self engrossed; still exploring.
Is a nonconformist; negative-resistive to change.

Enjoys water and sand play.

Understands simple directions.

Begins to take apart; take some clothing off.

Senses and Absorbs Environment Through:

 

Exploration
Tasting
Smelling
Hearing
Moving
Seeing
Feeling

2-3 Years

 

Characteristics:

 

Runs and enjoys motor activities - rough and tumble play.

Jumps with a one foot lead.

"Marks time" on steps - two feet on each step.

Attaches meaning to previous sensory experiences.

Kicks and throws a ball.

Still pokes fingers in holes.

Turns pages with precision.

Turns doorknobs - rotation in wrist.

Builds tower of 6 or 7 blocks.

Scribbles - horizontally and vertically.

Holds cup and glass easily and eats with a spoon well.

Identifies pictures.

Senses "oneness."

Uses 3 to 4 word sentences.

Begins to enjoy Mother Goose rhymes.

Displays emotions - claps hands, squeals, laughs.

Says "No" - negativistic; exercises his powers.

Dawdles.

Establishes a sense of self.

Enjoys solitary play, following his own devices, as well as
parallel play with other children.

Shows restraint with strangers.

Helps undress and dress.

Enjoys praise.

168
(2-3 Years Cont'd.)

Is intrigued with water.

Pinches, pushes, kicks, and bites.
Large muscle development.

Eye-hand coordination skills developed.
Developes listening skills.

Refined visual awareness.

Begins imaginative play.

3-4 Years

 

Characteristics:

 

Increases body image concepts.

Runs easily, jumps; tries anything.

Rides a tricycle.

Stands on one foot momentarily.

Dresses self fairly well; no trying ability.

Feeds self with spoon or fork.

Takes care of toilet needs with less thought.

Begins to perceive - attaches meaning to objectives (A
prerequisite to formal learning).

Begins to do puzzles - 3 to 8 pieces.

Scribbles become circular.

Ideas are bigger than vocabulary.

Loves to play with sounds - giggles over nonsense sounds.

Begins to see differences in ways men and women act.

Is good company, interested in things outside of himself.

Begins group play; needs company.

Increases imaginative play.

Knows right from.wrong.

Begins to acquire fears - dogs, etc.

Understands hazards.

Knows difference between boys and girls.

Refined gross motor development.

Refined fine motor development.

Refined form perception.

Refined language.

Enjoys imaginative play.

4-5 Years

 

Characteristics:

Runs, hops, climbs easily; rides tricycles well; nimble;
stops, starts, turns corners; able to balance on
one foot 2 to 5 seconds.

Likes boisterous, unhampered play; needs large muscle
activity.

169
(4-5 Years Cont'd)

On the go - far ranging.

Holds pencil, crayons, paint brushes in adult manner;
enjoys painting.

Usually knows primary colors.

Has imaginary playmates; likes pretend play - fireman,
cowboy, etc.

Likes crayons, chalk, paint, sand, water, mud; enjoys their
feel.

Dresses self well; laces shoes — no tying ability but can
button.

Can usually count fingers - may count higher.

Acquires new fears; great development of imagination.

Talks incessantly - running coversations; runs topics into
ground.

Asks endless questions - "Why?" and "How?"

Plays with other children - prefers his own sex; likes
cooperative affairs.

Likes dramatic play - imitates adult life; likes hand
puppets; acts out frustrations and angers.

Imitates.

Is able to leave mother and extend life into neighborhood.

Has some difficulty in separating fact from fancy; a great
fabricator.

Can cut on a line, throw a ball overhand, etc.; does not stay
in lines coloring.

Is boastful, dogmatic, bossy; feels his independence and
asserts self.

Begins deductive thinking.

Often swears and uses silly words.

Has total confidence in his own ability to do anything.

Likes to be read to and enjoys nursery rhymes.

Begins conscience development; moralistic judgments beginning.

Begins to have sense of time - day, night, getting up, eating
lunch, etc.

Defies parents at times, but quotes them as authorities.

Begins to conceptualize and generalize; perceives analogies.

Likes cozy places - secret places.

Shows love for parent of opposite sex.

Refined gross and fine motor activities.

Strengthened command of language.

Enjoys uninterrupted time.

Strengthened social awareness.

Conforms to acceptable behavior.

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